Datasets:

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StivenLancheros

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all_datasets_wikis

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Code syntax.", "Character encoding.", "Human readability.", "Common uses and interoperability.", "Objects.", "Pictures.", "Fonts.", "Annotations.", "Drawing objects.", "Security concerns.", "Implementations.", "Libraries and converters.", "Criticism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Richard Brodie, Charles Simonyi, and David Luebbert, members of the Microsoft Word development team, developed the original RTF in the middle to late 1980s. Its syntax was influenced by the TeX typesetting language. The first RTF reader and writer shipped in 1987 as part of Microsoft Word 3.0 for Macintosh, which implemented the RTF version 1.0 specification. All subsequent releases of Microsoft Word for the Macintosh and all versions for Windows can read and write files in RTF format. Microsoft maintains the format. The final version was 1.9.1 in 2008, implementing features of Office 2007. Microsoft has discontinued enhancements to the RTF specification. New features in Word 2010 and later versions will not save properly to the RTF format. Microsoft anticipates no further updates to RTF, but has stated willingness to consider editorial and other non-substantive modifications of the RTF Specification during an associated ISO/IEC 29500 balloting period. For some time, RTF files were used to produce Windows.HLP help files, though this use has been superseded by Microsoft Compiled HTML Help files.", "RTF is programmed by using groups, a backslash, a control word and a delimiter. Groups are contained within braces ({}), with the opening brace and closing brace indicating the start of the group and end of the group respectively. Groups are used to indicate what type of attributes to apply to certain text. The backslash (\\) indicates that a control word is going to be used. Control words are specifically programmed commands for RTF. They can have certain states in which they're active. Their state is represented by a number. For example, A delimiter is one of three things: As an example, the following RTF code: is a document which would be rendered like this when read by a program that supports RTF: This is some bold text.", "A standard RTF file can consist of only 7-bit ASCII characters, but can encode characters beyond ASCII by escape sequences. The character escapes are of two types: code page escapes and, starting with RTF 1.5, Unicode escapes. In a code page escape, two hexadecimal digits following a backslash and typewriter apostrophe are used for denoting a character taken from a Windows code page. For example, if the code page is set to Windows-1256, the sequence codice_1 will encode the Arabic letter bāʼ (ب). Alternatively, it is possible to specify a \"Character Set\" in the preamble of the RTF document and associate it with a header. If the preamble has the text codice_2, then in the body of the document, the text codice_3 will represent the code point codice_4 from the Character Set 128 (which corresponds to the Shift-JIS code page): which encodes \"金\". For a Unicode escape the control word codice_5 is used, followed by a 16-bit signed decimal integer giving the Unicode UTF-16 code unit number. For the benefit of programs without Unicode support, this must be followed by the nearest representation of this character in the specified code page. For example, codice_6 would give the Arabic letter \"bāʼ\" ب, specifying that older programs which do not have Unicode support should render it as a question mark instead. The control word codice_7 can be used to indicate that subsequent Unicode escape sequences within the current group do not specify the substitution character. Until RTF specification version 1.5 release in 1997, RTF has only handled 7-bit characters directly and 8-bit characters encoded as hexadecimal (using codice_8). RTF control words (since RTF 1.5) generally accept signed 16-bit numbers as arguments. Unicode values greater than 32767 must be expressed as negative numbers. If a Unicode character is outside BMP, it is encoded with a surrogate pair. Support for Unicode was made due to text handling changes in Microsoft Word – Microsoft Word 97 is a partially Unicode-enabled application and it handles text using the 16-bit Unicode character encoding scheme. Microsoft Word 2000 and later versions are Unicode-enabled applications that handle text using the 16-bit Unicode character encoding scheme. RTF files are usually 7-bit ASCII plain text. RTF consists of control words, control symbols, and groups. RTF files can be easily transmitted between PC based operating systems because they are encoded as a text file with 7-bit graphic ASCII characters. Converters that communicate with Microsoft Word for MS Windows or Macintosh should expect data transfer as 8-bit characters and binary data can contain any 8-bit values.", "RTF is a data format for saving and sharing documents, not a markup language; it is not intended for intuitive and easy typing by a human. Nonetheless, unlike many word processing formats, RTF code can be human-readable: when an RTF file containing mostly latin characters without diacritics is viewed as a plain text file, the underlying ASCII text is readable, provided that the author has kept formatting concise – otherwise, the formatting code can impede readability. When RTF was released, most word processors used binary file formats (Microsoft Word used the.doc file format); RTF was unique in its simple formatting control which allows for a non-RTF aware program (e.g. Notepad) to open and provide a readable file. Today, the majority of these programs have changed to a XML-based file format (Word has switched to the.docx file format). Regardless, these files contain large amounts of formatting code. As such, they are ten or more times larger than the corresponding plain text. To be standard-compliant RTF, non-ASCII characters must be escaped. Thus, even with concise formatting, text that uses certain dashes and quotation marks is less legible. Latin languages that make heavy use of characters with diacritics, such as \\'f1 for ñ and \\'e9 for é are particularly difficult to read in RTF. Non-Latin scripts, consisting of characters such as \\u21563 for 吻, are illegible in RTF. In addition, from its beginnings, RTF has supported Microsoft OLE embedded objects and Macintosh Edition Manager subscriber objects, which are not human-readable.", "Most word processing software supports RTF format importing and exporting (following some version of RTF specification), and/or direct editing, often making it a \"common\" format between otherwise incompatible word processing software and operating systems. These factors contribute to its interoperability, but it will depend on what version of RTF is being used. There are several consciously designed or accidentally born RTF dialects. Most applications that read RTF files silently ignore unknown RTF control words. RTF is the internal markup language used by Microsoft Word. Overall, since 1987, RTF files may be transferred back and forth between many old and new computer systems (and now over the Internet) despite differences between operating systems and their versions. (But there are incompatibilities, e.g. between RTF 1.0 1987 and later specifications, or between RTF 1.0-1.4 and RTF 1.5+ in use of Unicode characters.) This makes it a useful format for basic formatted text documents such as instruction manuals, résumés, letters, and modest information documents. These documents at minimum support bold, italic, and underline text formatting. Also typically supported are left-, center-, and right-aligned text, font specification and document margins. Font and margin defaults, as well as style presets and other functions vary according to program defaults. There may also be subtle differences perhaps between different versions of the RTF specification implemented in differing programs and program versions. Nevertheless, the RTF format is consistent enough from computer to computer to be considered highly portable and acceptable for cross-platform use. The format supports metadata such as title, author, etc. but not all implementations support this.", "Use of Microsoft Object Linking and Embedding (OLE) objects or Macintosh Edition Manager subscriber objects limits the interoperability, because these objects are not widely supported in programs for viewing or editing RTF files (e.g. embedding of other files inside the RTF, such as tables or charts from spreadsheet application). If a software that understands an OLE object is not available, the object is usually replaced by a picture (bitmap representation of the object) or not displayed at all.", "RTF supports inclusion of JPEG, Portable Network Graphics (PNG), Enhanced Metafile (EMF), Windows Metafile (WMF), Apple PICT, Windows Device-dependent bitmap, Windows Device Independent bitmap and OS/2 Metafile picture types in hexadecimal (the default) or binary format in a RTF file. Not all of these picture types are supported in all RTF readers. When a RTF document is opened in software that does not support the picture type of an inserted picture, such picture is not displayed at all. RTF writers usually convert inserted pictures from an unsupported picture types (e.g. BMP, TIFF, GIF, etc.) to one of supported picture types (PNG, WMF) or they do not include pictures at all. For better compatibility with Microsoft products, some RTF writers include the same picture in two different picture types in one RTF file: This method increases the RTF file size rapidly. The RTF specification does not require this method and there are various implementations that include pictures without the WMF copy (e.g. Abiword or Ted). For Microsoft Word it is also possible to set a specific registry value (\"ExportPictureWithMetafile=0\") in order to prevent Word from saving the WMF copy (see link \"Document file size increases with EMF, PNG, GIF, or JPEG graphics in Word\" at the beginning).", "RTF supports embedding of fonts used in the document, but this feature is not widely supported in software implementations. RTF also supports generic font family names used for font substitution: \"roman\" (serif), \"swiss\" (sans-serif), \"modern\" (monospace), \"script\", \"decorative\", \"technical\". This feature is not widely supported for font substitution, e.g. in OpenOffice.org or Abiword.", "RTF specification supports annotations (comments in documents) since version 1.0. RTF 1.7 specification defined some new features for annotations: date stamp (there was previously only \"time stamp\") and parents of annotations. When a RTF document with annotations is opened in an application that does not support RTF annotations, they are not displayed at all. Similarly, when a document with annotations is saved as RTF in an application that does not support RTF annotations, annotations are not preserved in the RTF file. Some implementations may hide annotations by default or require some user action to display them – e.g. in Abiword since version 2.8 or in IBM Lotus Symphony (up to version 1.3). Microsoft products do not support comments within footers, footnotes or headers. Inserting a comment within headers, footers, or footnotes may result in a corrupted RTF document. The RTF specification also supports footnotes (not to be confused with annotations), which are widely supported in RTF implementations (e.g. in OpenOffice.org, Abiword, KWord, Ted, but not in Wordpad). Endnotes are implemented as a variation on footnotes such that applications that support footnotes and not endnotes will render endnotes in an RTF document as footnotes. Similar to annotations, due to Microsoft products not supporting footnotes in headers, footers, or comments, including footnotes within those contexts in an RTF document may result in a corrupted document.", "RTF 1.2 specification defined use of drawing objects such as rectangles, ellipses, lines, arrows, polygons and various other shapes. RTF 1.5 specification introduced many new control words for drawing objects. RTF drawing objects are also called \"shapes\" since RTF 1.5. However, RTF drawing objects are not supported in many RTF implementations, such as Apache OpenOffice (though they are supported in LibreOffice 4.0 on) or Abiword. When an RTF document with drawing objects is opened in an application that does not support RTF drawing objects, they are not displayed at all. Some implementations will also not display any text inside drawing objects. Similarly, when a document with drawing objects is saved as RTF in an application that does not support RTF drawing objects, these are not preserved in the RTF file.", "Unlike Microsoft Word's DOC format, as well as the newer Office Open XML and OpenDocument formats, RTF does not support macros. For this reason, RTF was often recommended over those formats when the spread of computer viruses through macros was a concern. However, having the.RTF extension does not guarantee that a file is safe, since Microsoft Word will open standard DOC files renamed with an RTF extension and run any contained macros as usual. Manual examination of a file in a plain text editor such as Notepad, or use of the codice_9 command in UNIX-like systems, is required to determine whether or not a suspect file is really RTF. Enabling Word's \"Confirm file format conversion on open\" option (not enabled by default in any version of Word) can also assist by warning a document being opened is in a format that does not match the format implied by the file's extension, and giving the option to abort opening that file. RTF files can carry malware; sometimes malicious files in RTF format are renamed with the.DOC extension. One exploit attacking a vulnerability was patched in Microsoft Word in April 2015. Since 2014 there have been malware RTF files embedding OpenXML exploits (.DOCX file with ZIP header, renamed with RTF extension) \"to create a multi-exploit master key to cover a number of recent patched exploits in one RTF with low AV detection\".", "Each RTF implementation usually implements only some versions or subsets of the RTF specification. Many of the available RTF converters cannot understand all new features in the latest RTF specifications. The WordPad editor in Microsoft Windows creates RTF files by default. It once defaulted to the Microsoft Word 6.0 file format, but write support for Word documents (.doc) was dropped in a security update. Read support was also dropped in Windows 7. WordPad does not support some RTF features, such as headers and footers. However, WordPad can read and save many RTF features that it cannot create such as: tables, strikeout, superscript, subscript, \"extra\" colors, text background colors, numbered lists, right or left indent, quasi-hypertext and URL linking, and various line spacings. RTF is also the data format for \"rich text controls\" in MS Windows APIs. The default text editor for Mac OS X, TextEdit, can also view, edit and save RTF files as well as RTFD files. TextEdit currently (as of July 2009) has limited ability to edit RTF document margins. Much older Mac word processing application programs such as MacWrite and WriteNow were able to view, edit, and save RTF files as well. The free and open-source word processors AbiWord, Apache OpenOffice, Bean, Calligra, KWord, LibreOffice and NeoOffice can view, edit and save RTF files. RTF format is also used in the Ted word processor. Scrivener uses individual RTF files for all the text files that make up a given \"project\". SIL International’s Toolbox freeware application for developing and publishing dictionaries uses RTF as its most common form of document output. RTF files produced by Toolbox are designed to be used in Microsoft Word, but can also be used by other RTF-aware word processors. RTF can be used on some ebook readers because of its interoperability, simplicity, and low CPU processing requirements.", "The open-source script rtf2xml can partially convert RTF to XML. GNU UnRTF is an open-source program to convert RTF into HTML, LaTeX, troff macros and other formats. pyth is a Python library to create and convert documents in RTF, XHTML and PDF format. Ruby RTF is a project to create Rich Text content via Ruby. RaTFink is a library of Tcl routines, free software, to generate RTF output, and a Cost script to convert SGML to RTF. RTF::Writer is a Perl module for generating RTF documents. PHPRtfLite is an API enabling developers to create RTF documents with PHP. Pandoc is an open source document converter with multiple output formats, including RTF. RTFGen is a project to create RTF documents via pure PHP. rtf.js is a JavaScript based library to render RTF documents in HTML. The Mac OS X command line tool textutil enables files to be converted between rtf, rtfd, text, doc, docx, wordml, odt, and webarchive.", "The Rich Text Format was the standard file format for text-based documents in applications developed for Microsoft Windows. Microsoft did not initially make the RTF specification publicly available, making it difficult for competitors to develop document conversion features in their applications. Because Microsoft's developers had access to the specification, Microsoft's applications had better compatibility with the format. Also, every time Microsoft changed the RTF specification, Microsoft's own applications had a lead in time-to-market, because competitors had to redevelop their applications after studying the newer version of the format. Novell alleged that Microsoft's practices were anticompetitive in its 2004 antitrust complaint against Microsoft. According to blogger Hannes Schmidt, the RTF specifications lack some of the semantic definitions necessary to read, write, and modify documents." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Youth.", "Political career.", "Controversies.", "Statements.", "Nováky Power Plant incident.", "Court cases.", "Tabloid claims." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Slota had emigrated to Austria in 1971, however, he returned to Slovakia after several days.", "Slota became involved in politics after 1989 when the Communist party fell from power in Czechoslovakia in the Velvet Revolution. In 1990 he co-founded the SNS and was elected as a member of the Federal Assembly. Later, he was elected into the National Council of the Slovak Republic. From 1994 to 1999 he served as the leader of the SNS. After an internal crisis in the SNS in 2001, he left the party and set up his own party, the Genuine Slovak National Party. As a result of this split, none of the nationalist parties received the required 5% minimum of votes in the 2002 election. In 2003, the nationalist parties merged again, after heavy quarrels, with Slota as chairman. Slota served as the mayor of Žilina between 1990 and 2006. He was reelected in 1994, 1998 and 2002. He was succeeded by Ivan Harman in 2006. In the 2006 parliamentary election, Slota became an MP and his SNS joined the ruling coalition with Robert Fico's Direction - Social Democracy party and Vladimír Mečiar ́s People's Party - Movement for a Democratic Slovakia. After the unsuccessful 2012 parliamentary election, he resigned as the Chairman of the party and became Honorary Chairman. He was dismissed from the party in April 2013, due to the \"inefficient management of the property of the party\".", "", "Slota is known for his controversial statements, which have been described as \"racist\" and \"extreme\". According to \"The Slovak Spectator\", some of Slota's statements cross \"the line not just of political but also human decency.\" Slota says he is protecting Slovaks, especially those living in southern Slovakia. He remarked at a rally that \"we will get into our tanks and level Budapest, if [the Hungarian minority] attempt to teach us the Lord's Prayer in Hungarian ever again.\" After this statement, a map was published on the official SNS webpage showing Hungary as a part of Slovakia. He also said about Hungarians that \"Even in 1248 a Frankish bishop was amazed after visiting the Carpathian Basin that God could have given such a beautiful country to such ugly people. He was referring to the old Hungarians, who were Mongoloid types with crooked legs and even more disgusting horses. Somehow these people have vanished. Who civilized them? Probably us, the Slovaks\". He believes 200 members of the Hungarian intelligence are spying in Slovakia. Slota said that \"Hungarians are a tumor on the Slovak nation that needs to be immediately removed\". Slota called the fascist leader Jozef Tiso \"one of the greatest sons of the Slovak nation\" and on February 17, 2000, 40 of the 41 city council members in Žilina, where Slota was mayor, voted to dedicate a plaque honoring Tiso. After World War II, Tiso was sentenced to death for his role in the murder of tens of thousands of Slovak Jews during the Holocaust. Slota told the Czech newspaper \"Lidové noviny\" that he \"envies\" the Czech people for their expulsion of Germans after World War II, implying that the same should have been done to the Hungarian minority in Slovakia. Fico refused to condemn these comments, and as a result his party, Smer-SD, was expelled from the Party of European Socialists. Slota asserts that the best policy for dealing with the Roma is \"a long whip in a small yard\" and that \"70 percent of the Roma are criminals\". He has also questioned whether homosexuals are normal people, and associated them with pedophiles. In 2006, some of Slota's controversial comments were reportedly circulated to Members of the European Parliament in a mass e-mail and were published, and criticized, by international media.", "In 1982 Slota worked in the Nováky Power Plant, where during the demolition of a wooden cooling tower he gave the order to burn it down. The flames reached 70 meters and the wind blew the cinders as far away as 500 meters. Slota was convicted of threatening public safety and sentenced to one year conditionally.", "Documents detailing Slota's alleged criminal past were published by Markíza, the leading private television station in Slovakia, which resulted in a court case \"Markíza v Slota\". Slota has been involved in another court case regarding his alleged criminal past with the newspaper SME. He lost the case with Markíza TV, however, he won the case involving SME. During the court proceedings Slota said he was proud of assaulting and beating a Hungarian saying \"I am proud of giving that Hungarian a black eye\" ()", "Slota supposedly reported a total yearly income of 311 400 SKK (about €10,000 or US$14,000) in his 2006 annual tax return, however he himself supposedly confirmed that he had bought a Bentley Continental GT for 2.6 million SKK in that year. In his ATR he also supposedly confessed that he has a luxury villa on the Croatian riviera as well as a Porsche Cayenne Turbo S \"lent to him by one of his friends for his personal use\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Availability.", "Technical specifications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Socket 939 processors and motherboards became available in June 2004, and were superseded by Socket AM2 in May 2006. AMD has ceased the production of this socket to focus on current and future platforms. However, at least one new Socket 939 motherboard has been produced utilizing a modern AMD chipset since AMD transitioned to Socket AM2. In 2009 motherboard maker ASRock released a new Socket 939 motherboard. The motherboard utilizes the AMD 785G IGP chipset and a SB710 southbridge. Both single and dual-core processors were manufactured for this socket under the Athlon 64, Athlon 64 FX, Athlon 64 X2, Sempron and Opteron names. The Opteron 190, featuring a 2.8 GHz clock speed and 1 MB of Level 2 cache per core, was the fastest dual-core processor manufactured for this socket, however the availability of this processor was limited. The Opteron 185 (locked multiplier) and Athlon 64 FX-60 (unlocked multiplier), with a slightly slower clock speed of 2.6 GHz, were the fastest widely available dual-core processors for the socket. The Opteron 156 ran slightly faster at 3 GHz, making it the fastest single core processor supporting the socket 939 interface.", "Socket 939 supports dual channel DDR SDRAM memory, with 6.4 GB/s memory bandwidth. Processors for this socket support 3DNow!, SSE2, and SSE3 (revision E or later) instruction sets. It features one 16 bit HyperTransport link running up to 1000 MT/s. In regards to video expansion slots, Socket 939 systems can be found with both AGP slots and PCI-E slots. Processors using this socket have 64KB each Level 1 instruction and data caches, and either 256KB, 512KB or 1 MB Level 2 cache." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Ingredients.", "Flavours.", "Discontinued.", "Health effects.", "Caffeine content.", "Market approval and legal status.", "Litigation.", "Advertising.", "Red Bull House of Art.", "Endorsements." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "In 1976, Chaleo Yoovidhya introduced a drink called Krating Daeng in Thailand, which means \"red gaur\" in English. It was popular among Thai truck drivers and labourers. While working for German manufacturer Blendax (later acquired by Procter & Gamble) in 1982, Dietrich Mateschitz travelled to Thailand and met Chaleo, owner of T.C. Pharmaceutical. During his visit, Mateschitz discovered that Krating Daeng helped cure his jet lag. In 1984, Mateschitz co-founded Red Bull GmbH with Yoovidhya and turned it into an international brand. Each partner invested US$500,000 of savings to found the company. Yoovidhya and Mateschitz each held a 49 percent share of the new company. They gave the remaining two percent to Yoovidhya's son, Chalerm, but it was agreed that Mateschitz would run the company. The product was launched in Austria in 1987. In Thailand, energy drinks are most popular with blue-collar workers. Red Bull re-positioned the drink as a trendy, upscale drink, first introducing it at Austrian ski resorts. Pricing was a key differentiator, with Red Bull positioned as a premium drink and Krating Daeng as a lower cost item. In many countries, both drinks are available, dominating both ends of the price spectrum. In 1992, the product expanded to Hungary and Slovenia. It entered Germany and the UK in 1994, the United States (via California) in 1997 and the Middle East in 2000. In 2008, \"Forbes\" magazine listed both Chaleo and Mateschitz as the 250th richest people in the world with an estimated net worth of US$4 billion. Red Bull GmbH is headquartered in Fuschl am See, an Austrian village of about 1,500 inhabitants near Salzburg. The company is 51 percent controlled by the Yoovidhya family who, for technical reasons, own the trademark in Europe and the US. In 1995, Krating Daeng authorized its drink, labelled as Red Bull, to be sold in China. Since 2014, the Austrian Red Bull (carbonated) has also been exported to China. This has created confusion since both drinks use the same brand name, in both English and Chinese. Similarly, in Southeast Asia, Red Bull and Krating Daeng are often confused as both use the Red Bull name in their packaging, although they are two separate products aimed at different markets. The main difference is that Red Bull comes in a tall blue and silver can while the Thailand Red Bull, or Krating Daeng, is in a smaller gold can. The two drinks also differ in terms of taste—Red Bull has less sugar and is carbonated. The flavouring used for Red Bull is still produced in Bangkok and exported worldwide.", "Depending on the country, Red Bull contains different amounts of caffeine, taurine, B vitamins (B3, B5, B6, B12) and simple sugars (sucrose and glucose) in a buffer solution of carbonated water, baking soda and magnesium carbonate. To produce Red Bull Sugarfree, sugars sucrose and glucose have been replaced by the sweeteners acesulfame K and aspartame/sucralose. Previous formulations of Red Bull contained 0.24% glucuronolactone (600 mg of glucuronolactone in a 250 ml can), but this ingredient was removed.", "Red Bull identifies its flavours as \"editions\".", "Several of these flavors have been rebranded for special events (the special grapefruit flavor, for example, has been branded as the \"Bull\" Edition, the \"Red Italian\" Edition, and the \"F1 Edition\").", "Claims about the drink's effects and performance have been challenged on various occasions, with the UK's Advertising Standards Authority imposing advertising restrictions in 2001 in response to complaints recorded as early as 1997. Energy drinks have the effects that caffeine and sugar provide, but experts still argue about the possible effects of the other ingredients. Most of the effects of energy drinks on cognitive performance, such as increased attention and reaction speed, are primarily due to the presence of caffeine. There is evidence that energy drinks can increase mental and athletic performance. Performance during prolonged driving is increased after consumption of Red Bull. Other tests for physical performance showed results such as increased endurance and power. Red Bull energy drink increased upper body muscle endurance during repeated Wingate tests in young healthy adults. Excessive or repeated consumption of energy drinks can lead to cardiac and psychiatric conditions. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) concluded that exposure to taurine and glucuronolactone at the levels presently used in energy drinks is not a safety concern. In a separate analysis, they also concluded that there is insufficient evidence to support a number of commercial health claims about taurine. A review published in 2008 found no documented reports of negative or positive health effects associated with the amount of taurine used in energy drinks, including Red Bull. The review also states that though the caffeine and sugar levels in the energy drink are comparable to those present in coffee and fruit juice respectively, these levels have been shown to cause adverse health effects. In its scientific opinion on the safety of caffeine of 2015, the EFSA concluded that \"consumption of other constituents of energy drinks at concentrations commonly present in such beverages would not affect the safety of single doses of caffeine up to 200 mg.\" Also, the consumption of alcohol, leading to a blood alcohol content of about 0.08%, would, according to the EFSA, not affect the safety of single doses of caffeine up to 200 mg. Up to these levels of intake, caffeine is unlikely to mask the subjective perception of alcohol intoxication. Habitual use of caffeine up to 400 mg per day does not. According to SAMHSA, \"the number of emergency department (ED) visits\" among people over age 12 related to energy drinks doubled between 2007 and 2011 in the US (from 10,068 to 20,783).", "The caffeine content of a single can of Red Bull is approximately 80–40 mg250 mL (32–15 mg100 mL). This is about the same as one i.e. half a cup of coffee, or slightly less or more depending on the brewing method and country of production. The caffeine level in Red Bull varies depending on country, as some countries have legal restrictions on how much caffeine is allowed in drinks. As is the case with other caffeinated beverages, Red Bull drinkers may experience adverse effects as a result of overuse. Excessive consumption may induce mild to moderate euphoria primarily caused by stimulant properties of caffeine and may also induce agitation, anxiety, irritability and insomnia. The general population of healthy adults is not at risk for potential adverse effects from caffeine if they limit their consumption to 400 mg per day, which is the equivalent of 5 standard cans, with one can being 250ml in volume. Consumption of a single energy drink will not lead to excessive caffeine intake. Adverse effects associated with caffeine consumption in amounts greater than 400 mg include nervousness, irritability, sleeplessness, increased urination, abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmia), and dyspepsia. Consumption also has been known to cause pupil dilation when taken with certain antidepressants or SSRIs. Caffeine dosage is not required to be on the product label for food in the United States, unlike drugs, but some advocates are urging the FDA to change this practice. (Red Bull voluntarily lists the caffeine content in each can along with the ingredient list.)", "Authorities in France, Denmark, and Norway initially kept Red Bull from being sold domestically. However,, it is on sale in all 28 member states of the European Union and in more than 167 countries around the world. The French food safety agency was concerned about taurine. A Red Bull drink that did not contain taurine was introduced. The French refusal of market approval was challenged by the European Commission, and partially upheld by the European Court of Justice in 2004. The French food safety agency relented in 2008, because it was unable to prove a definite health risk, taurine-related or not. In 2012, the Kuwaiti Ministry of Commerce banned Red Bull for people under 16 after it had allegedly caused heart attacks for a 16-year-old and a 21-year-old national squash team player.", "In 2013, Red Bull told the Redwell Brewery, a Norfolk micro brewery, to change its name or face legal action, because it sounded too similar to Red Bull. The eight-man brewery in Norwich was told its name could \"confuse\" customers and \"tarnish\" its trademark. The two companies reached a settlement permitting Redwell to continue using its name. In 2014, Red Bull faced a US$13 million settlement addressing two consumer class action lawsuits in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. The listed plaintiffs were Benjamin Careathers, David Wolf, and Miguel Almarez who sued the company for Red Bull's marketing and labeling, claiming that the company violated \"express warranty and unjust enrichment\" since their products were first launched by claiming performance-enhancing benefits from the drink's ingredients which were not substantiated by scientific studies. The court hearing took place the morning of 1 May 2015 in an attempt to determine approval for the settlement. Customers that submitted claims then have the opportunity to receive a US$10 cash reimbursement or product option of US$15 in Red Bull products within 150 days of the approved appeals. Contrary to false reports from some news outlets, the lawsuit was not about the drink failing to give the consumer actual wings.", "Since 1997, Red Bull has been making commercials bearing its slogan \"Red Bull gives you wings,\" sometimes substituted with \"No Red Bull, no wings\". Commercials usually were animated and featured characters with constant squints. Red Bull's international marketing campaign targets young men mostly with extreme sports. These range from mountain biking, BMX, motocross, windsurfing, snowboarding, skateboarding, kayaking, rowing, wakeboarding, cliff-diving, parkour, surfing, skating, freestyle motocross, rallycross, Formula 1 racing, NASCAR racing, to breakdancing. Red Bull uses music and videogames, and has enlisted celebrities, such as Eminem (sponsoring the Red Bull \"EmSee Battle Rap championships\"). It hosts events like art shows and the \"Red Bull Flugtag\" (German for \"flight day\" or \"flying day\"). Red Bull owns football teams, with clubs in Austria, Germany, the United States, and Brazil featuring the Red Bull trademark in their names. By associating the drink's image with these activities, the company seeks to promote a \"cool\" public image and raise brand power. The energy drink has created a market for over 150 related types of products. In the PlayStation 3's social gaming platform, PlayStation Home, Red Bull developed its own in-game island, specifically advertising its energy drink and the Red Bull Air Race event (for which the space is named) released in January 2009. In late November 2009, Red Bull produced two new spaces, the Red Bull Illume space, and the Red Bull Beach space featuring the Red Bull Flugtag, both released on the same day. In January 2012, Red Bull released its first personal space called the \"Red Bull House of Skate\" featuring an indoor skate park. On the Apple App store Red Bull also has a few apps which include: RedBull.com, Red Bull TV, The Red Bulletin, RBMA Radio, Red Bull iFunk, Wings For Life- Selfie Run. As well as some games on the app store which are: Bike Unchained, Red Bull Kart Fighter 3, Red Bull Air Race The Game, Red Bull Racers. In 2010, the company enlisted Adrian Newey to design a prototype racing car, the Red Bull X2010, for the videogame \"Gran Turismo 5\".", "The Red Bull House of Art is an art fellowship program that was launched by Red Bull. The program is held in multiple cities, most notably the Red Bull House of Art programs in Detroit, Michigan and São Paulo, Brazil, and the program typically consists of a three-month period during which time six to eight participants will create new artwork with the intent to display it in a final exhibition. During the fellowship the artists receive unlimited access to the galleries and a stipend for art supplies. The program has received criticism as being an \"elaborate advertising scheme\", as some of the artwork has been used in Red Bull advertising campaigns.", "In 2009, Red Bull added mainstream sport athletes to its roster of endorsements, which also includes persons involved in non-sporting activities." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Recording.", "Side one.", "Side two.", "Artwork.", "Release and reception.", "Live performances.", "Legacy.", "Personnel.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Pink Floyd started work on the album after completing their contributions to the soundtrack for the film \"Zabriskie Point\" in Rome, which had ended somewhat acrimoniously. They headed back to London in early 1970 for rehearsals. A number of out-takes from the Rome sessions were used to assemble new material during these rehearsals, though some of it, such as \"The Violent Sequence\", later to become \"Us and Them\", would not be used for some time.", "The title track to \"Atom Heart Mother\" resulted from a number of instrumental figures the band had composed during these rehearsals, including the chord progression of the main theme, which guitarist David Gilmour had called \"Theme from an Imaginary Western\", and the earliest documented live performance was on 17 January 1970 at Hull University. The band felt that the live performances developed the piece into a manageable shape. Recording of the track commenced at Abbey Road Studios in London, and was somewhat cumbersome, as it was the first recording to use a new eight-track one-inch tape and EMI TG12345 transistorised mixing console (8-track, 20-microphone inputs) in the studio, and, as a result, EMI insisted the band were not allowed to do any splicing of the tape to edit pieces together. Consequently, band members Roger Waters and Nick Mason had little choice but to play the bass and drums, respectively, for the entire 23-minute piece in one sitting. The other instruments the band played were overdubbed later. Mason recalled the final backing track's lack of precise timekeeping would cause problems later on. By March, they had finished recording the track, but felt that it was rather unfocused and needed something else. The band had been introduced to Ron Geesin via the Rolling Stones tour manager, Sam Cutler, and were impressed with his composition and tape-editing capabilities, particularly Waters and Mason. Geesin was handed the completed backing tracks the band had recorded, and asked to compose an orchestral arrangement over the top of it while the band went on tour to the US. Geesin described the composing and arranging as \"a hell of a lot of work. Nobody knew what was wanted, they couldn't read music...\" According to him, Gilmour came up with some of the melodic lines, while the pair of them along with keyboardist Richard Wright worked on the middle section with the choir. When it came to recording his work in June with the EMI Pops Orchestra, the session musicians present were unimpressed with his tendency to favour avant garde music over established classical works, and, combined with the relative difficulty of some of the parts, harassed him during recording. John Alldis, whose choir were also to perform on the track, had experience in dealing with orchestral musicians, and managed to conduct the recorded performance in place of Geesin. The track was originally called \"The Amazing Pudding\", though Geesin's original score referred to it as \"Untitled Epic\". A refined and improved version (with Geesin's written parts) was played at Bath Festival of Blues and Progressive Music on 27 June. Its name was changed after the band were due to play an \"in concert\" broadcast for BBC Radio 1 on 16 July 1970, and had needed a title for John Peel to announce it. Geesin pointed to a copy of the \"Evening Standard\", and suggested to Waters that he would find a title in there. The headline was: \"\"ATOM HEART MOTHER NAMED\"\", a story about a woman being fitted with a nuclear-powered pacemaker. The piece as presented on the completed album is a progression from Pink Floyd's earlier instrumental pieces such as \"A Saucerful of Secrets\" and even earlier, \"Interstellar Overdrive\". The \"Atom Heart Mother\" suite takes up all of side one, and is split into six parts, individually named. Geesin chose the opening section name, \"Father's Shout\" after Earl \"Fatha\" Hines, while other names such as \"Breast Milky\" and \"Funky Dung\" were inspired by the album cover artwork. The orchestral arrangements feature a full brass section, a cello and the 16-piece John Alldis choir, which take most of the lead melody lines, while Pink Floyd mainly provide the backing tracks; a reverse of the 1960s pop music practice of using orchestration as the background, and putting the rock band in front.", "The album's concept is similar to their previous \"Ummagumma\" album, in that it features the full band in the first half, and focuses on individual members in the second half. Side two opens with three five-minute songs: one by each of the band's three resident songwriters, and closes with a suite with sound effects primarily conceived by Mason, but credited to the whole group. Waters contributes a folk ballad called \"If\", playing acoustic guitar. Pink Floyd rarely played the song live, but Waters often performed it at solo shows in support of his \"Radio K.A.O.S.\" album, more than a decade later. This is followed by Wright's \"Summer '68\", which also features prominent use of brass in places. It was issued as a Japanese single in 1971, and was the only track on the album never to be played live in concert. The song was reportedly about Wright and a groupie on tour, and had the working title of \"One Night Stand\". According to Mason, Gilmour, having had little songwriting experience at that point, was ordered to remain in Abbey Road until he had composed a song suitable for inclusion on the album. He came up with a folk-influenced tune, \"Fat Old Sun\", which he still cites as a personal favourite. The song was a regular part of the band's live repertoire in 1970–71, and became a staple of Gilmour's solo set in 2006. The final track, \"Alan's Psychedelic Breakfast\", is divided into three segments, each with its own descriptive title, joined by dialogue and sound effects of then-roadie Alan Styles preparing, discussing, and eating breakfast. The idea for the piece came about by Waters experimenting with the rhythm of a dripping tap, which combined sound effects and dialogue recorded by Mason in his kitchen with musical pieces recorded at Abbey Road. A slightly re-worked version was performed on stage on 22 December 1970 at Sheffield City Hall, Sheffield, England with the band members pausing between pieces to eat and drink their breakfast. The original LP ends with the sound of the tap which continues into the inner groove, and thus plays on indefinitely. Original Floyd frontman Syd Barrett recorded his album \"Barrett\" around the same time as \"Atom Heart Mother\", with assistance from Gilmour and Wright. He occasionally visited his old band's sessions to see what they were doing.", "The original album cover, designed by art collective Hipgnosis, shows a Holstein-Friesian cow standing in a pasture with no text nor any other clue as to what might be on the record. Some later editions have the title and artist name added to the cover. This concept was the group's reaction to the psychedelic space rock imagery associated with Pink Floyd at the time of the album's release; the band wanted to explore all sorts of music without being limited to a particular image or style of performance. They thus requested that their new album had \"something plain\" on the cover, which ended up being the image of a cow. Storm Thorgerson, inspired by Andy Warhol's famous \"cow wallpaper\", has said that he simply drove out into a rural area near Potters Bar and photographed the first cow he saw. The cow's owner identified her name as \"Lulubelle III\". More cows appear on the back cover, again with no text or titles, and on the inside gatefold. Also, a pink balloon shaped like a cow udder accompanied the album as part of Capitol's marketing strategy campaign to \"break\" the band in the US. The liner notes in later CD editions give a recipe for Traditional Bedouin Wedding Feast on a card labelled \"Breakfast Tips\". Looking back on the artwork, Thorgerson remembered: \"I think the cow represents, in terms of the Pink Floyd, part of their humour, which I think is often underestimated or just unwritten about.\" In the mid-1970s, a bootleg containing rare singles and B-sides entitled \"The Dark Side of the Moo\" appeared, with a similar cover. Like \"Atom Heart Mother\", the cover had no writing on it, although in this case it was to protect the bootlegger's anonymity rather than any artistic statement. The album cover for the KLF's concept album \"Chill Out\" was also inspired by \"Atom Heart Mother\".", "\"Atom Heart Mother\" was released on 2 October 1970 in the UK and 10 October in the US. It reached number 1 and number 55, respectively in those countries' charts. It was released in the quadraphonic format in the UK, Germany and Australia. A remastered CD was released in 1994 in the UK and the US. Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab released a 24KT gold CD in the US in 1994, while a LP version was released in the US in the same year. As part of the \"Why Pink Floyd...?\" campaign, a remaster was released in 2011. Then the album was re-issued again in 2016 on the band's own Pink Floyd Records label. Critical reaction to the suite has always been mixed, and all band members have expressed negativity toward it in recent times. Gilmour has said the album was \"a load of rubbish. We were at a real down point... I think we were scraping the barrel a bit at that period\" and \"a good idea but it was dreadful... \"Atom Heart Mother\" sounds like we didn't have any idea between us, but we became much more prolific after it.\" Similarly, in a 1984 interview on BBC Radio 1, Waters said \"If somebody said to me now – right – here's a million pounds, go out and play \"Atom Heart Mother\", I'd say you must be fucking joking.\" In a 1970 review, Alec Dubro of \"Rolling Stone\" appraised \"Atom Heart Mother\" negatively, stating \"if Pink Floyd is looking for some new dimensions, they haven't found them here.\" In \"\" (1981), Robert Christgau said the suite was easier to digest than the second side of songs: \"Yeah, they do leave the singing to an anonymous semi-classical chorus, and yeah, they probably did get the horns for the fanfares at the same hiring hall. But at least the suite provides a few of the hypnotic melodies that made \"Ummagumma\" such an admirable record to fall asleep to.\" The album is ranked number 990 in \"All-Time Top 1000 Albums\".", "The band were initially enthusiastic about performing the suite. An early performance was taped for the San Francisco television station KQED, featuring just the band, on 28 April 1970. Two major performances were at the Bath Festival of Blues and Progressive Music on 27 June and the \"Blackhills Garden Party\" in Hyde Park, London on 18 July. On both occasions the band were accompanied by the John Alldis Choir and the Philip Jones Brass Ensemble. Later, the band took a full brass section and choir on tour just for the purpose of performing this piece. However, this caused the tour to lose money, and the band found problems with the hired musicians, which changed from gig to gig as they simply took who was available, which, combined with lack of rehearsal and problems miking up the whole ensemble, made a full live performance more problematic. Reflecting on this, Gilmour said \"some of the brass players have been really hopeless\". According to Mason, the band arrived at one gig in Aachen, Germany, only to discover they had left the sheet music behind, forcing tour manager Tony Howard to go back to London and get it. A later arrangement without brass or choir, and pared down from 25 minutes to fifteen by omitting the \"collage\" sections and closing reprise of the main theme, remained in their live repertoire into 1972. The first live performance of \"The Dark Side of the Moon\" suite in Brighton was abandoned partway through; after a break, the band played \"Atom Heart Mother\" instead. Pink Floyd's last live performance of the suite took place on 22 May 1972 at the Olympisch Stadion, Amsterdam, Netherlands.", "Stanley Kubrick wanted to use the album's title track in \"A Clockwork Orange\". The group refused permission, primarily because Kubrick was unsure of exactly which pieces of music he wanted and what he wished to do with them. In retrospect, Waters said \"maybe it's just as well it wasn't used after all\". Nevertheless, the album is visible behind the counter in the record store scene of the film. On 14 and 15 June 2008, Geesin performed \"Atom Heart Mother\" with Italian tribute band Mun Floyd over two nights as part of the Chelsea Festival. Geesin introduced it with a history and slide show. The performances featured the chamber choir Canticum, brass and cellist Caroline Dale, who has worked with Gilmour. The second night saw Gilmour join Geesin on stage for the performance, which was extended to 30 minutes. In 2013, Geesin produced a book, \"The Flaming Cow\", which documented his experience with working with Pink Floyd, including the making of this album from his point of view.", "Taken from sleeve notes Pink Floyd Additional musicians Production", "Footnotes Citations Sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Family.", "Mythology.", "Minos and Theseus.", "Naxos.", "As a goddess.", "In Etruscan culture.", "Reference in post-classical culture.", "Non-musical works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Greek lexicographers in the Hellenistic period claimed that \"Ariadne\" is derived from the Cretan dialectical elements \"ari\" (ἀρι-) which is an intensive prefix, and \"adnós\" (ἀδνός) \"holy\". Conversely, Stylianos Alexiou has argued that despite the belief being that Ariadne's name is of Indo-European origin, it's actually pre-Greek. Linguist Robert S. P. Beekes has also supported Ariadne having a pre-Greek origin; specifically being Minoan from Crete. This being due to her name containing the sequence \"dn\" (δν), which is rare in Indo-European languages, indicating that it's a Minoan loanword.", "Ariadne was the daughter of Minos, the King of Crete and son of Zeus, and of Pasiphaë, Minos' queen and daughter of Helios. Others denominated her mother \"Crete\", daughter of Asterius, the husband and King of Europa. Ariadne was the sister of Acacallis, Androgeus, Deucalion, Phaedra, Glaucus, Xenodice, and Catreus. Through her mother, Pasiphaë, she was also the half-sister of the Minotaur. Ariadne married Dionysus and became the mother of Oenopion, the personification of wine, Staphylus, who was associated with grapes, Thoas, Peparethus, Phanus, Eurymedon, Phliasus, Enyeus, Ceramus, Maron, Euanthes, Latramys, and Tauropolis.", "Minos put Ariadne in charge of the labyrinth where sacrifices were made as part of reparations either to Poseidon or Athena, depending on the version of the myth; later, she helped Theseus conquer the Minotaur and save the victims from sacrifice. In other narrations she was the bride of Dionysus, her status as mortal or divine varying in those accounts.", "Because ancient Greek myths were orally transmitted, like other myths, that of Ariadne has many variations. According to an Athenian version, Minos attacked Athens after his son was killed there. The Athenians asked for terms and were required to sacrifice 7 young men and 7 maidens to the Minotaur every 7 or 9 years. One year, the sacrificial party included Theseus, the son of King Aegeus, who volunteered to kill the Minotaur. Ariadne fell in love with him at first sight and provided him a sword and ball of thread (ο Μίτος της Αριάδνης, \"Ariadne's string\") so that he could retrace his way out of the labyrinth of the Minotaur. Ariadne betrayed her father and her country for her lover Theseus. She eloped with Theseus after he killed the Minotaur, yet according to Homer in the Odyssey \"he had no joy of her, for ere that, Artemis slew her in seagirt Dia because of the witness of Dionysus\" Most accounts claim that Theseus abandoned Ariadne, and in some versions Perseus mortally wounds her. According to some, Dionysus claimed Ariadne as wife, therefore causing Theseus to abandon her. Homer does not elaborate on the nature of Dionysus' accusation, yet the \"Oxford Classical Dictionary\" speculated that she was already married to him when she eloped with Theseus.", "In Hesiod and most other versions, Theseus abandoned Ariadne sleeping on Naxos, and Dionysus rediscovered and wedded her. In a few versions of the myth, Dionysus appeared to Theseus as they sailed from Crete, saying that he had chosen Ariadne as his wife and demanding that Theseus leave her on Naxos for him; this had the effect of absolving the Athenian cultural hero of desertion. The vase painters of Athens often depicted Athena leading Theseus from the sleeping Ariadne to his ship. She bore Dionysus famous children including Oenopion, Staphylus, and Thoas. Her wedding diadem was set in the heavens as the constellation Corona Borealis. Ariadne was faithful to Dionysus. Perseus killed her at Argos. In the Odyssey is told that Artemis killed her. In other myths she hanged herself from a tree, like Erigone and the hanging Artemis, a Mesopotamian theme. Some scholars have posited, because of her associations with thread spinning and winding, that she was a weaving goddess, like Arachne, and support this theory with the mytheme of the Hanged Nymph (see weaving in mythology). Dionysus descended into Hades and returned with her and his mother, Semele. They then joined the gods on Mount Olympus.", "Karl Kerenyi and Robert Graves theorized that Ariadne, whose name they thought derived from Hesychius' enumeration of \"Άδνον\", a Cretan-Greek form of \"\"arihagne\"\" (\"utterly pure\"), was a Great Goddess of Crete, \"the first divine personage of Greek mythology to be immediately recognized in Crete\", once archaeological investigation began. Kerenyi observed that her name was merely an epithet and claimed that she was originally the \"Mistress of the Labyrinth\", both a winding dancing ground and, in the Greek opinion, a prison with the dreaded Minotaur in its centre. Kerenyi explained that a Linear B inscription from Knossos \"to all the gods, honey... [,] to the mistress of the labyrinth honey\" in equal amounts, implied to him that the Mistress of the Labyrinth was a Great Goddess in her own right. Professor Barry Powell suggested that she was the Snake Goddess of Minoan Crete. Plutarch, in his \"vita\" of Theseus, which treats him as a historical person, reported that in contemporary Naxos was an earthly Ariadne, who was distinct from a divine one: Some of the Naxians also have a story of their own, that there were two Minoses and two Ariadnes, one of whom, they say, was married to Dionysos in Naxos and bore him Staphylos and his brother, and the other, of a later time, having been carried off by Theseus and then abandoned by him, came to Naxos, accompanied by a nurse named Korkyne, whose tomb they show; and that this Ariadne also died there. In a kylix by the painter Aison (circa 425 to circa 410 BCE) Theseus drags the Minotaur from a temple-like labyrinth, yet the goddess who attends him in this Attic representation is Athena. An ancient cult of Aphrodite-Ariadne was observed at Amathus, Cyprus, according to the obscure Hellenistic mythographer Paeon of Amathus; his works are lost, but his narrative is among the sources that Plutarch cited in his \"vita\" of Theseus (20.3-5). According to the myth that was current at Amathus, the second most important Cypriote cult centre of Aphrodite, Theseus' ship was swept off course and the pregnant and suffering Ariadne put ashore in the storm. Theseus, attempting to secure the ship, was inadvertently swept out to sea, thus being absolved of abandoning Ariadne. The Cypriote women cared for Ariadne, who died in childbirth and was memorialized in a shrine. Theseus, overcome with grief upon his return, left money for sacrifices to Ariadne and ordered two cult images, one of silver and one of bronze, erected. At the observation in her honour on the second day of the month Gorpiaeus, a young man lay on the ground and vicariously experienced the throes of labour. The sacred grove in which the shrine was located was denominated the \"Grove of Aphrodite-Ariadne\". According to Cypriote legend, Ariadne's tomb was located within the \"temenos\" of the sanctuary of Aphrodite-Ariadne. The primitive nature of the cult at Amathus in this narrative appears to be much older than the Athenian sanctioned shrine of Aphrodite, who at Amathus received \"Ariadne\" (derived from \"\"hagne\"\", \"sacred\") as an epithet.", "Ariadne, in Etruscan \"Areatha\", is paired with Dionysus, in Etruscan \"Fufluns\", on Etruscan engraved bronze mirror backs, where the Athenian cultural hero Theseus is absent, and Semele, in Etruscan \"Semla\", as mother of Dionysus, may accompany the pair, lending an especially Etruscan air of familial authority.", "", "Source:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Mythology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Androgeos was a son of Minos and Pasiphaë or Crete. He was the brother of Acacallis, Ariadne, Deucalion, Phaedra, Glaucus, Catreus and Xenodice. Androgeus' sons were Sthenelus and Alcaeus, who later became companions of Heracles.", "Androgeus was murdered in Athens. Sources vary as to the exact circumstances of his death. Some stated that Androgeos participated in the Panathenaic Games and took all the prizes, whereupon he directed to Thebes to take part in another contest in honor of Laius, but was ambushed and killed by his envious would-be competitors. Servius suggests that Androgeos was murdered upon his triumph by the Athenians themselves and the Megarians. Plutarch writes that Androgeos \"was thought to have been treacherously killed\", without clarifying whether this was supposed to be the truth or not. In another version, Aegeus, King of Athens, sent him against the Marathonian Bull which resulted in Androgeos' death. In Pausanias' interpretation, Androgeos being killed by the bull is presented as more of an accident, which, however, Minos is remarked to not have believed. According to Diodorus Siculus, Aegeus killed Androgeos out of fear that the latter would support the sons of Pallas against him. In yet another version, Androgeos was killed in a battle between the Athenians and the Cretans. The Athenians eventually established a hero cult of Androgeos: there was an altar dedicated to him at Phaleron. The consequences of Androgeos' death are described in the \"Bibliotheca\" as follows. Minos received the news of his son's death when he was performing a sacrificial rite in honor of the Charites at Paros. Overcome by grief, he threw off his garland and ordered for the music to stop, but did complete the sacrifice, from which circumstance the festivals in honor of the Charites at Paros involved no music or flowers from then on. Minos led a war against Athens to avenge the death of his son, but failed to sack the city and prayed to Zeus that the Athenians may be punished. The city was struck with famine and pestilence. The Athenians consulted an oracle as to how to avert the calamity, and were instructed to sacrifice the daughters of Hyacinthus the Lacedaemonian, but this did not help. The citizens consulted the oracle once again and were told to give Minos whatever he might ask in retribution. The king obliged the Athenians to send several youths every seven or nine years to be devoured by the Minotaur. This continued until the Minotaur was killed by Theseus. Propertius in one of his elegies refers to a version in which Androgeos was brought back to life by Asclepius." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Basics.", "Language concepts.", "Document structure.", "Capabilities of XSL-FO v1.0.", "Multiple columns.", "Lists.", "Pagination controls.", "Footnotes.", "Tables.", "Text orientation controls.", "Capabilities of XSL-FO v1.1.", "Multiple flows and flow mapping.", "Bookmarks.", "Indexing.", "Last page citation.", "Table markers.", "Inside/outside floats.", "Refined graphic sizing.", "Drawbacks.", "Replacement." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Unlike the combination of HTML and CSS, XSL-FO is a unified presentational language. It has no semantic markup as this term is used in HTML. And, unlike CSS which modifies the default presentation of an external XML or HTML document, it stores all of the document's data within itself. The general idea behind XSL-FO's use is that the user writes a document, not in FO, but in an XML language. XHTML, DocBook, and TEI are all possible examples. Then, the user obtains an XSLT transform, either by writing one themselves or by finding one for the document type in question. This XSLT transform converts the XML into XSL-FO. Once the XSL-FO document is generated, it is then passed to an application called an FO processor. FO processors convert the XSL-FO document into something that is readable, printable or both. The most common output of XSL-FO is a PDF file or as PostScript, but some FO processors can output to other formats like RTF files or even just a window in the user's GUI displaying the sequence of pages and their contents. The XSLT language itself was originally conceived only for this purpose; it is now in widespread use for more general XML transformations. This transformation step is taken so much for granted in XSL-FO that it is not uncommon for people to call the XSLT that turns XML into XSL-FO the actual XSL-FO document itself. Even tutorials on XSL-FO tend to be written with XSLT commands around the FO processing instructions. The XSLT transformation step is exceptionally powerful. It allows for the automatic generation of a table of contents, linked references, an index, and various other possibilities. An XSL-FO document is not like a PDF or a PostScript document. It does not definitively describe the layout of the text on various pages. Instead, it describes what the pages look like and where the various contents go. From there, an FO processor determines how to position the text within the boundaries described by the FO document. The XSL-FO specification even allows different FO processors to have varying responses with regard to the resultant generated pages. For example, some FO processors can hyphenate words to minimize space when breaking a line, while others choose not to. Different processors may even use different hyphenation algorithms, ranging from very simple to more complex hyphenation algorithms that take into account whether the previous or next line also is hyphenated. These will change, in some borderline cases quite substantially, the layout of the various pages. There are other cases where the XSL-FO specification explicitly allows FO processors some degree of choice with regard to layout. This differentiation between FO processors, creating inconsistent results between processors is often not a concern. This is because the general purpose behind XSL-FO is to generate paged, printed media. XSL-FO documents themselves are usually used as intermediaries, mostly to generate either PDF files or a printed document as the final form to be distributed. This is as opposed to how HTML is generated and distributed as a final form directly to the user. Distributing the final PDF rather than the formatting language input (whether HTML/CSS or XSL-FO) means on the one hand that recipients aren't affected by the unpredictability resulting from differences among formatting language interpreters, while on the other hand means that the document cannot easily adapt to different recipient needs, such as different page size or preferred font size, or tailoring for on-screen versus on-paper versus audio presentation.", "The XSL-FO language was designed for paged media; as such, the concept of pages is an integral part of XSL-FO's structure. FO works best for what could be called \"content-driven\" design. This is the standard method of layout for books, articles, legal documents, and so forth. It involves a single flowing span of fairly contiguous text, with various repeating information built into the margins of a page. This is as opposed to \"layout-driven\" design, which is used in newspapers or magazines. If content in those documents does not fit in the required space, some of it is trimmed away until it does fit. XSL-FO does not easily handle the tight restrictions of magazine layout; indeed, in many cases, it lacks the ability to express some forms of said layout. Despite the basic nature of the language's design, it is capable of a great deal of expressiveness. Tables, lists, side floats, and a variety of other features are available. These features are comparable to CSS's layout features, though some of those features are expected to be built by the XSLT.", "XSL-FO documents are XML documents, but they do not have to conform to any DTD or schema. Instead, they conform to a syntax defined in the XSL-FO specification. XSL-FO documents contain two required sections. The first section details a list of named page layouts. The second section is a list of document data, with markup, that uses the various page layouts to determine how the content fills the various pages. Page layouts define the properties of the page. They can define the directions for the flow of text, so as to match the conventions for the language in question. They define the size of a page as well as the margins of that page. More importantly, they can define sequences of pages that allow for effects where the odd and even pages look different. For example, one can define a page layout sequence that gives extra space to the inner margins for printing purposes; this allows more space to be given to the margin where the book will be bound. The document data portion is broken up into a sequence of flows, where each flow is attached to a page layout. The flows contain a list of blocks which, in turn, each contain a list of text data, inline markup elements, or a combination of the two. Content may also be added to the margins of the document, for page numbers, chapter headings and the like. Blocks and inline elements function in much the same way as for CSS, though some of the rules for padding and margins differ between FO and CSS. The direction, relative to the page orientation, for the progression of blocks and inlines can be fully specified, thus allowing FO documents to function under languages that are read different from English. The language of the FO specification, unlike that of CSS 2.1, uses direction-neutral terms like start and end rather than left and right when describing these directions. XSL-FO's basic content markup is derived from CSS and its cascading rules. As such, many attributes in XSL-FO propagate into the child elements unless explicitly overridden.", "XSL-FO is capable of a great deal of textual layout functionality. In addition to the information as specified above, XSL-FO's language allows for the specification of the following.", "A page can be defined to have multiple columns. When this is the case, blocks flow from one column into the next by default. Individual blocks can be set to span all columns, creating a textual break in the page. The columns above this break will flow into each other, as will the columns below the break. But no text is allowed to flow from the above section to the below section. Because of the nature of XSL-FO's page specification, multiple pages may actually have different numbers and widths of columns. As such, text can flow from a 3 column page to a 5 column page to a 1 column page quite easily. All FO features work within the restrictions of a multi-column page. We can span multiple columns by specifying two attributes i.e.. span, padding-after.", "An XSL-FO list is, essentially, two sets of blocks stacked side by side. An entry consists of a block on the \"left\", or start inline direction, and a block sequence on the \"right\", or end inline direction. The block on the left is conceptually what would be the number or bullet in a list. However, it could just as easily be a string of text, as one might see in a glossary entry. The block on the right works as expected. Both of these blocks can be block containers, or have multiple blocks in a single list entry. Numbering of XSL-FO lists, when they are numbered, is expected to be done by the XSLT, or whatever other process, that generated the XSL-FO document. As such, number lists are to be explicitly numbered in XSL-FO.", "The user can specify Widow and Orphan for blocks or for the flow itself, and allow the attributes to cascade into child blocks. Additionally, blocks can be specified to be kept together on a single page. For example, an image block and the description of that image can be set to never be separated. The FO processor will do its best to adhere to these commands, even if it requires creating a great deal of empty space on a page.", "The user can create footnotes that appear at the bottom of a page. The footnote is written, in the FO document, in the regular flow of text at the point where it is referenced. The reference is represented as an inline definition, though it is not required. The body is one or more blocks that are placed by the FO processor to the bottom of the page. The FO processor guarantees that wherever the reference is, the footnote cited by that reference will begin on the same page. This will be so even if it means creating extra empty space on a page.", "An FO table functions much like an HTML/CSS table. The user specifies rows of data for each individual cell. The user can, also, specify some styling information for each column, such as background color. Additionally, the user can specify the first row as a table header row, with its own separate styling information. The FO processor can be told exactly how much space to give each column, or it can be told to auto-fit the text in the table.", "FO has extensive controls for orienting blocks of text. One can, in the middle of a page, designate a block of text to be oriented in a different orientation. These oriented blocks can be used for languages in a different orientation from the rest of the document, or simply if one needs to orient the text for layout purposes. These blocks can contain virtually any kind of content, from tables to lists or even other blocks of reoriented text.", "Version 1.1 of XSL-FO adds a number of new features to version 1.0.", "XSL-FO 1.0 was fairly restrictive about what text was allowed to go in what areas of a page. Version 1.1 loosens these restrictions significantly, allowing flowing text to be mapped into multiple explicit regions on a page. This allows for more newspaper-like typesetting.", "Many output formats for XSL-FO processors, specifically PDF, have bookmarking features. These allow the format to specify a string of text in a separate window that can be selected by the user. When selected, the document window scrolls immediately to a specific region of the document. XSL-FO v1.1 now provides the ability to create named bookmarks in XSL-FO, thus allowing the processor to pass this on to an output format that supports it.", "XSL-FO 1.1 has features that support the generation of an index that might be found at the back of a book. This is done through referencing of properly marked-up elements in the FO document.", "The last page can be generated without providing an explicit in-document reference to a specific anchor in the FO document. The definition of \"last page\" can be restricted to within a specific set of pages or to cover the entire document. This allows the user to specify something like, \"Page 2 out of 15\", where page 15 is the page number of a last page definition.", "Table markers allow the user to create dynamic content within table headers and footers, such as running totals at the bottom of each page of a table or \"table continued\" indicators.", "XSL-FO 1.1 adds the keywords \"inside\" and \"outside\" for side floats, which makes it possible to achieve page layouts with marginalia positioned on the outside or inside edges of pages. Inside refers to the side of the page towards the book binding, and outside refers to the side of a page away from the book binding.", "XSL-FO 1.1 refines the functionality for sizing of graphics to fit, with the ability to shrink to fit (but not grow to fit), as well as the ability to define specific scaling steps. In addition, the resulting scaling factor can be referenced for display (for example, to say in a figure caption, \"image shown is 50% actual size\").", "When trying to decide whether or not XSL-FO will work for a given document, the following typographic and layout requirements usually indicate that XSL-FO will not work (although some of these may be satisfied by proprietary extensions):", "XML and HTML standards, with the CSS standard, since CSS2 (paged media module) starts to supply basic features to printed media. With the CSS Paged Media Module Level 3, W3C is completing the formulation of an integrated standard for document formatting and to generate PDFs. So, since 2013, CSS3-paged is a W3C proposal for an XSL-FO replacement. Software products like Prince and Antenna House Formatter have demonstrated comparable quality of XSL-FO (but using CSS) in the PDF production. Design notes for a Version 2.0 of XSL Formatting Objects were first published in 2009 and last updated in 2012." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Series overview.", "Season 1.", "Season 2.", "Season 3.", "Season 4.", "Cast and characters.", "Production.", "Conception.", "Casting.", "Writing and format.", "Filming.", "Music.", "Cancellation, film and revival.", "Cancellation.", "Potential film progress.", "Kickstarter project.", "Revival series.", "Other media.", "Novels.", "Web spin-off.", "Reception.", "Ratings.", "Critical reception.", "Fandom.", "Distribution.", "International.", "Home media.", "Syndication." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Season 1 revolves around Veronica Mars, a high school student and private investigator in the fictional Southern California seaside town of Neptune. As the daughter of well-respected County Sheriff Keith Mars, Veronica's biggest life problem was getting dumped by her boyfriend, Duncan Kane, until the murder of her best friend Lilly Kane. After Lilly's murder, Veronica's life falls apart. Keith mistakenly accused Lilly's father, popular software billionaire Jake Kane, of involvement. When Mr. Kane is proven to be innocent, he has Keith ousted as sheriff in a recall election, who is then replaced by the corrupt Don Lamb. Veronica's mother, Lianne, develops a drinking problem and leaves town, never to return. Veronica's \"09er\" friends—wealthy students from the fictional 90909 ZIP Code—demand that she choose between them and her father; Veronica chooses her father.", "The second season begins with the introduction of two new cases: a bus accident that kills several of Veronica's classmates, and the death of PCH gang member Felix Toombs. A school bus carrying six Neptune High students and a teacher plunges off a cliff, killing all but one passenger. Veronica, who was supposed to be on the bus, makes it her mission to discover why the bus crashed and who is responsible. Logan picks a fight with Weevil and the PCHers and ends up accused of killing Felix (a charge he denies). Partway through the season, Weevil becomes convinced of Logan's innocence and they team up to find the real killer. This season shows Veronica's life returning to much the way it had been before Lilly's", "In the third season, Veronica, Logan, Wallace, Mac and Dick are freshmen at Neptune's Hearst College. Two new regular main characters are introduced: Stosh \"Piz\" Piznarski and Parker Lee, who are the respective roommates of Wallace and Mac. The first mystery is established when Parker becomes a victim of the Hearst serial rapist, a storyline carried over from the second", "The fourth season opens in 2019, fourteen years after the series finale and five following the film. Veronica is living with", "The first season had seven regular characters. Kristen Bell portrayed the title character Veronica Mars, a high school junior and skilled private detective. Teddy Dunn played Duncan Kane, Veronica's ex-boyfriend and Lilly's brother. Jason Dohring played Logan Echolls, the \"bad-boy\" 09er, the son of an A-list actor. Percy Daggs III portrayed Wallace Fennel, Veronica's best friend and frequent partner in solving mysteries. Francis Capra portrayed Eli \"Weevil\" Navarro, the leader of the PCH Biker gang and Veronica's friend. Enrico Colantoni played Veronica's father Keith Mars, a private investigator and former Balboa County Sheriff. Sydney Tamiia Poitier played Mallory Dent, Veronica's journalism teacher at Neptune High. Although she was given series regular billing, Poitier appeared in only four episodes, but was given credit for seven. Poitier's removal from the series was rumored to be due to budget issues. Thomas, who said he \"conceive[d] the show as a one-year mystery\", decided that he needed to introduce and eliminate several characters to be able to create an \"equally fascinating mystery\" for the series' second season. Thomas felt that he could not bring back the Kanes and the", "", "Rob Thomas originally wrote \"Veronica Mars\" as a young adult novel for publishing company Simon & Schuster. Prior to his first television job on \"Dawson's Creek\", Thomas sold two novel ideas. One of these was provisionally titled \"Untitled Rob Thomas Teen Detective Novel\", which formed the basis for the series. The novel had many elements similar to \"Veronica Mars\", though the protagonist was male. Thomas's father was a vice-principal at Westlake High School near Austin, Texas, and the main character attended a \"thinly disguised version\" of the school. As Thomas had begun writing for film and television, he did not resume his teen detective idea for", "Kristen Bell was chosen to play Veronica Mars from more than 500 women who auditioned for the role. Bell felt that it was \"just luck\" that Rob Thomas saw that \"I have some sass to me, and that's exactly what he wanted\". Bell thought that it was her cheerleader looks and an outsider's attitude that set her apart from the other women who auditioned. Jason Dohring, who played Logan, originally auditioned for the role of Duncan. Teddy Dunn originally auditioned for Logan, but ended up portraying Duncan. Dohring felt that his audition for Duncan \"was a little dark\", and he was told by the producers that it was \"not really right\". The producers asked Dohring to read for the role of Logan. Dohring acted one scene from the pilot, in which he shattered the headlights of a car with a crowbar. During the final auditions, Dohring read twice with Bell and met with the studio and the network. When reading with Bell, Dohring", "Episodes have a distinct structure: Veronica investigates a different \"case of the week\" while trying to solve a larger mystery that spans several episodes or a whole season. The first two seasons of \"Veronica Mars\" have a season-long mystery arc, which is introduced in the first episode of the season and solved in the finale. The third season takes on a different format, focusing on two smaller mystery arcs that last the course of nine and six episodes respectively. The final five episodes of the season feature stand-alone mysteries. During the first season, Thomas was unsure if the success of the series was attributed to the \"case of the week\" each episode, or the overarching story. He realized that fans were cool with the \"case of the week\", but came back for the ongoing mystery. Thomas felt that Bell had been overworked in the first season, and the mystery involving Logan and Weevil in the second season was an attempt to give her some time off. He said that the mystery arcs of the second season had \"way too many suspects, way too", "The original pilot was darker in tone than the one aired. Thomas intended to take the script to FX, HBO or Showtime, but gave UPN \"credit\" as they only wanted it a bit lighter to match their standards and practices. A lengthy debate considered whether Veronica could be a rape victim; UPN eventually consented. In the aired pilot, Lilly was found by the pool in the same spot where she was murdered. However, Thomas stated that Lilly's body was originally going to be found in the ocean, and he had a plan for events that led there. Thomas pitched the idea to UPN, but the network felt that it was \"too dark and creepy\" for Jake to dispose of his daughter's body to protect his son, and the idea was changed. Many of the series' scenes were filmed at", "\"We Used to Be Friends\" by The Dandy Warhols was used as the series' theme song. Composer Josh Kramon was originally going to produce a noir version of a 1980s song for the theme. However, Rob Thomas was \"pretty much set on finding a song\", and \"We Used to Be Friends\" was chosen right from the beginning. TV critic Samantha Holloway considered this theme to be one of \"the five most recognizable, sing-along-able, memorable and best theme songs\". In the third season, the theme song was remixed in a softer piano style with dark and vibrant electronic beats to reflect the more noir-influenced opening credits. Kramon wrote the original background music to convey the film noir themes. For the pilot, Thomas wanted \"a really atmospheric, kind of modern noir type of vibe\", and Kramon used sounds similar to that", "", "In January 2007, Dawn Ostroff announced that while she was pleased with the gradual ratings improvement of \"Veronica Mars\", the series would be put on hiatus after the February sweeps to air a new reality series, \"\". When the hiatus ended, the series returned for the last five episodes of the season. At the 2007 CW Upfront, Ostroff announced that \"Veronica Mars\" was not", "Thomas stated that he was interested in writing a feature film based on the series, in the interest of providing closure to the story lines and character arcs. In September 2008, Michael Ausiello, writing for \"Entertainment Weekly\", reported that Thomas had met with Bell to discuss the plot, which would likely involve Veronica solving crime in college rather than as an FBI agent. Thomas felt that the \"FBI scenario was more of a 'What if...?'\", aimed at getting a fourth season, and that he \"would want to bring back our key players, and it would be tough to believe that the FBI stationed Veronica in Neptune.\" Ausiello later reported that Enrico Colantoni would be involved in the project. Colantoni said that he was fully aware of the talks taking place, adding, \"cult shows have translated well into the film arena. Nothing's official, but they're talking about it.\" In addition to the feature-film possibility, Thomas had a meeting with DC Comics to talk about a \"Veronica Mars\" comic book series. In September 2008, Thomas told \"Entertainment Weekly\" that \"I thought I had the idea broken, but I've hit", "On March 13, 2013, Rob Thomas and Kristen Bell launched a Kickstarter fundraiser in an attempt to get the film made, with the help of fans to reach the goal of $2 million. The campaign offered various incentives to those who donated more than $10. Thomas and Bell stated that they approached Warner Bros. with the idea and they approved and will be distributing the finished title. Bell, Thomas, Enrico Colantoni, Ryan Hansen, and Jason Dohring appeared in a video promoting the campaign that was shot in February 2012. The goal was met within 10 hours of the start of the campaign. The project broke several Kickstarter records, becoming the site's largest successful film project. The campaign ended on", "In September 2018, Hulu officially confirmed the revival of \"Veronica Mars\", and announced it would consist of eight episodes, and that series creator Rob Thomas and Kristen Bell were confirmed to return. The plot revolves around a serial killer murdering spring breakers. Other returning cast members include", "", "A series of novels, written by series creator Rob Thomas and Jennifer Graham, continue the story after the events of the \"Veronica Mars\" film and also feature Logan, Mac, Wallace, and Dick. The first novel, \"Veronica Mars: The Thousand Dollar Tan Line\", was released by Random House", "In January 2014, it was announced that a digital spin-off of \"Veronica Mars\" was in development with creator Rob Thomas. The metafictional concept features Ryan Hansen portraying himself in an attempt to make a spin-off based on his character Dick Casablancas. On August 13, 2014, it was", "", "Below, \"rank\" refers to how well \"Veronica Mars\" rated compared to other television series which aired during primetime hours of the corresponding television season. The television season tends to begin in September, of any given year, and end during the May of the following year. \"Viewers\" refers", "Although not a ratings success, the series was a critical success from its first season. Robert Abele of \"LA Weekly\" said \"in this smart, engaging series about a former popular girl turned crime-solving high school outcast, the hard-boiled dialogue comes from its teen protagonist's mouth in a way that stabs any potential cutesiness in the heart with an ice pick.\" In her review, Paige Wiser of the \"Chicago Sun Times\" said that \"on \"Veronica Mars\", wholesome is out; gritty reality is in. The show never soft-pedals the timeless, fundamental truth that high school is hell.\" Joyce Millman of \"The Phoenix\" felt that the series was \"a character study masquerading as a high-school drama\". Joy Press of \"The Village Voice\" saw the series as \"a sharp teen noir in the making. Tinged with class resentment and nostalgia for Veronica's lost innocence, this series pulses with promise.\" Michael Abernethy of PopMatters said that \"intrigue, drama, and humor, \"Veronica Mars\" is also a lesson book for the disenfranchised. Few TV series aim so high; even fewer succeed so", "\"Veronica Mars\" has attracted a loyal and dedicated fan base. A group of fans calling themselves the \"Cloud Watchers\" organized several campaigns to bring more viewers to the series to ensure its continuation. The group hired a plane to fly over the CW offices, carrying a banner reading \"Renew \"Veronica Mars\"\". The group hired street teams in New York, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and Chicago to distribute 30,000 fliers advertising the series' return after its midseason hiatus in the third season. The \"Cloud Watchers\" raised $50,000 in donations and through the sale of \"Veronica Mars\" clothing and tchotchkes. Upon the cancellation of the series, fans", "", "The CTV Television Network began airing \"Veronica Mars\" in Canada as a mid-season replacement on May 30, 2005. CTV decided not to pick up the second season, which began broadcast by Sun TV on July 18, 2006. The third season was initially only available through American border stations. The fourth season premiered in Canada on the Crave streaming service (owned by the same company as CTV) within a few hours of its U.S. release on Hulu on July 19, 2019. Subscription channel Living", "The first season of \"Veronica Mars\" was released in region 1 as a widescreen six-disc DVD box set on October 11, 2005. In addition to all the episodes that had been aired, DVD extras included an extended \"Pilot\" episode (through the inclusion of an unaired opening sequence) and over 20 minutes of unaired scenes. The same set was released on May 16, 2008 in Region 2, and on June 4, 2008 in Region 4. The second season was released in region 1 as a widescreen six-disc DVD box set on August 22, 2006, Region 2 on August 15, 2008, and Region 4 on September 8, 2008. In addition to all the aired episodes, DVD extras included two featurettes: \"A", "In July and August 2005, four episodes of the first season aired on CBS, UPN's sibling network," ] }

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{ "title": [ "Synopsis." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "A young girl named Christina washes up on the shore near Point Pleasant Beach, New Jersey during a violent storm. After being resuscitated by lifeguard Jesse Parker, the girl is taken in by the family of a local doctor, the Kramers, and quickly befriends their teenage daughter, Judy. The show follows Christina's attempts to discover who she really is, and to learn what happened to her mother, who disappeared shortly after Christina was born. It soon becomes apparent that Christina's presence has a strange, profound effect on the people around her. Emotions are heightened, repressed feelings and secret desires awakened, and inhibitions weakened, turning what once were friendly competitions into bitter rivalries, romantic rivals into violent enemies, and so on. Freak \"accidents\" have a way of befalling those with whom Christina becomes angry. Sinister forces have their eye on Christina, believing it is the girl's destiny, as the \"child of darkness\", to \"bring [the world] to its knees\". Christina is the Antichrist, the child of Satan. The resulting tension between the good and evil aspects of the girl's nature provides the basis for much of the show's conflict and suspense. Christina is plagued by terrifying visions of death and destruction, glimpses of the dark future she seems destined to help bring about. A handsome, charming stranger named Lucas Boyd arrives in town, determined to help guide Christina toward her destiny, and Jesse Parker, who has become romantically involved with Christina, discovers that he may be the only one who can prevent the girl from ushering in Armageddon. Ultimately, Jesse is able to choose between accepting Christina, which will cause her good side to prevail, or rejecting her, which will cause her evil side to prevail. He rejects her and the series ends on something of a cliffhanger with Christina leaving Point Pleasant as it is engulfed in an apocalyptic holocaust." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Ancient Egypt.", "Greco-Roman antiquity.", "Platonic virtue.", "Aristotelian virtue.", "Epicurean virtue.", "Pyrrhonist virtue.", "Prudence and virtue.", "Roman virtues.", "The Seven Heavenly Virtues.", "Chivalric virtues in medieval Europe.", "Religious traditions.", "Bahá'í faith.", "Buddhism.", "Christianity.", "Daoism.", "Hinduism.", "Islam.", "Jainism.", "Judaism.", "Samurai virtue.", "Philosophers' views.", "Valluvar.", "René Descartes.", "Immanuel Kant.", "Friedrich Nietzsche.", "Benjamin Franklin.", "Contemporary views.", "Virtues as emotions.", "In Objectivism.", "In modern psychology.", "Vice as opposite.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The ancient Romans used the Latin word \"virtus\" (derived from \"vir\", their word for \"man\") to refer to all of the \"excellent qualities of men, including physical strength, valorous conduct, and moral rectitude.\" The French words \"vertu\" and \"virtu\" came from this Latin root. In the 13th century, the word \"virtue\" was \"borrowed into English\".", "During Egyptian civilization, Maat or Ma'at (thought to have been pronounced *[muʔ.ʕat]), also spelled māt or mayet, was the ancient Egyptian concept of truth, balance, order, law, morality, and justice. Maat was also personified as a goddess regulating the stars, seasons, and the actions of both mortals and the deities. The deities set the order of the universe from chaos at the moment of creation. Her (ideological) counterpart was Isfet, who symbolized chaos, lies, and injustice.", "", "The four classic cardinal virtues are: This enumeration is traced to Greek philosophy and was listed by Plato in addition to piety: (hosiotēs), with the exception that wisdom replaced prudence as virtue. Some scholars consider either of the above four virtue combinations as mutually reducible and therefore not cardinal. It is unclear whether multiple virtues were of later construct, and whether Plato subscribed to a unified view of virtues. In \"Protagoras\" and \"Meno\", for example, he states that the separate virtues cannot exist independently and offers as evidence the contradictions of acting with wisdom, yet in an unjust way; or acting with bravery (fortitude), yet without wisdom.", "In his work \"Nicomachean Ethics\", Aristotle defined a virtue as a point between a deficiency and an excess of a trait. The point of greatest virtue lies not in the exact middle, but at a golden mean sometimes closer to one extreme than the other. However, the virtuous action is not simply the \"mean\" (mathematically speaking) between two opposite extremes. As Aristotle says in the Nicomachean Ethics: \"at the right times, about the right things, towards the right people, for the right end, and in the right way, is the intermediate and best condition, and this is proper to virtue.\" This is not simply splitting the difference between two extremes. For example, generosity is a virtue between the two extremes of miserliness and being profligate. Further examples include: courage between cowardice and foolhardiness, and confidence between self-deprecation and vanity. In Aristotle's sense, virtue is excellence at being human.", "Epicurean ethics call for a rational pursuit of pleasure with the aid of the virtues. The Epicureans teach that the emotions, dispositions and habits related to virtue (and vice) have a cognitive component and are based on true (or false) beliefs. By making sure that his beliefs are aligned with nature and by getting rid of empty opinions, the Epicurean develops a virtuous character in accordance with nature, and this helps him to live pleasantly.", "The Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus described Pyrrhonism as \"a way of life that, in accordance with appearances, follows a certain rationale, where that rationale shows how it is possible to seem to live rightly (\"rightly\" being taken, not as referring only to virtue, but in a more ordinary sense) and tends to produce the disposition to suspend judgment...\" In other words, by eschewing beliefs (i.e., dogmas) one would live in accordance with virtue.", "Seneca, the Roman Stoic, said that perfect prudence is indistinguishable from perfect virtue. Thus, in considering all consequences, a prudent person would act in the same way as a virtuous person. The same rationale was expressed by Plato in \"Protagoras\", when he wrote that people only act in ways that they perceive will bring them maximum good. It is the lack of wisdom that results in the making of a bad choice instead of a prudent one. In this way, wisdom is the central part of virtue. Plato realized that because virtue was synonymous with wisdom it could be taught, a possibility he had earlier discounted. He then added \"correct belief\" as an alternative to knowledge, proposing that knowledge is merely correct belief that has been thought through and \"tethered\".", "The term \"virtue\" itself is derived from the Latin \"virtus\" (the personification of which was the deity Virtus), and had connotations of \"manliness\", \"honour\", worthiness of deferential respect, and civic duty as both citizen and soldier. This virtue was but one of many virtues which Romans of good character were expected to exemplify and pass on through the generations, as part of the Mos Maiorum; ancestral traditions which defined \"Roman-ness\". Romans distinguished between the spheres of private and public life, and thus, virtues were also divided between those considered to be in the realm of private family life (as lived and taught by the paterfamilias), and those expected of an upstanding Roman citizen. Most Roman concepts of virtue were also personified as a numinous deity. The primary Roman virtues, both public and private, were:", "In 410 CE, Aurelius Prudentius Clemens listed seven \"heavenly virtues\" in his book Psychomachia (Battle of Souls) which is an allegorical story of conflict between vices and virtues. The virtues depicted were:", "In the 8th Century, upon the occasion of his coronation as Holy Roman Emperor, Charlemagne published a list of knightly virtues:", "", "In the Bahá'í Faith, virtues are direct spiritual qualities that the human soul possesses, inherited from the world of God. The development and manifestation of these virtues is the theme of the \"Hidden Words\" of Bahá'u'lláh and are discussed in great detail as the underpinnings of a divinely-inspired society by `Abdu'l-Bahá in such texts as \"The Secret of Divine Civilization\".", "Buddhist practice as outlined in the Noble Eightfold Path can be regarded as a progressive list of virtues. Buddhism's four \"brahmavihara\" (\"Divine States\") can be more properly regarded as virtues in the European sense. They are: There are also the Paramitas (\"perfections\"), which are the culmination of having acquired certain virtues. In Theravada Buddhism's canonical Buddhavamsa there are Ten Perfections (\"dasa pāramiyo\"). In Mahayana Buddhism, the Lotus Sutra (\"Saddharmapundarika\"), there are Six Perfections; while in the Ten Stages (\"Dasabhumika\") Sutra, four more \"Paramitas\" are listed.", "In Christianity, the three theological virtues are faith, hope and love, a list which comes from 1 Corinthians 13:13 ( \"pistis\" (faith), \"elpis\" (hope), \"agape\" (love), ). The same chapter describes love as the greatest of the three, and further defines love as \"patient, kind, not envious, boastful, arrogant, or rude.\" (The Christian virtue of love is sometimes called charity and at other times a Greek word agape is used to contrast the love of God and the love of humankind from other types of love such as friendship or physical affection.) Christian scholars frequently add the four Greek cardinal virtues (prudence, justice, temperance, and courage) to the theological virtues to give the seven virtues; for example, these seven are the ones described in the \"Catechism of the Catholic Church\", sections 1803–1829. The Bible mentions additional virtues, such as in the \"Fruit of the Holy Spirit,\" found in Galatians 5:22-23: \"By contrast, the fruit of the Spirit it is benevolent-love: joy, peace, longsuffering, kindness, benevolence, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control. There is absolutely no law against such a thing.\" The medieval and renaissance periods saw a number of models of sin listing the seven deadly sins and the virtues opposed to each.", "\"Virtue\", translated from Chinese \"de\" (), is also an important concept in Chinese philosophy, particularly Daoism. \"De\" () originally meant normative \"virtue\" in the sense of \"personal character; inner strength; integrity\", but semantically changed to moral \"virtue; kindness; morality\". Note the semantic parallel for English \"\", with an archaic meaning of \"inner potency; divine power\" (as in \"by virtue of\") and a modern one of \"moral excellence; goodness\". In early periods of Confucianism, moral manifestations of \"virtue\" include \"ren\" (\"humanity\"), \"xiao\" (\"filial piety\"), and \"li\" (\"proper behavior, performance of rituals\"). The notion of ren - according to Simon Leys - means \"humanity\" and \"goodness\". Ren originally had the archaic meaning in the Confucian Book of Poems of \"virility\", but progressively took on shades of ethical meaning. Some scholars consider the virtues identified in early Confucianism as non-theistic philosophy. The Daoist concept of \"De\", compared to Confucianism, is more subtle, pertaining to the \"virtue\" or ability that an individual realizes by following the Dao (\"the Way\"). One important normative value in much of Chinese thinking is that one's social status should result from the amount of virtue that one demonstrates, rather than from one's birth. In the \"Analects\", Confucius explains \"de\" as follows: \"He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it.\" In later periods, particularly from the Tang dynasty period, Confucianism as practiced, absorbed and melded its own concepts of virtues with those from Daoism and Buddhism.", "Virtue is a much debated and an evolving concept in ancient scriptures of Hinduism. The essence, need and value of virtue is explained in Hindu philosophy as something that cannot be imposed, but something that is realized and voluntarily lived up to by each individual. For example, Apastamba explained it thus: \"virtue and vice do not go about saying - here we are!; neither the Gods, Gandharvas, nor ancestors can convince us - this is right, this is wrong; virtue is an elusive concept, it demands careful and sustained reflection by every man and woman before it can become part of one's life. Virtues lead to \"punya\" (Sanskrit: पुण्य, holy living) in Hindu literature; while vices lead to \"pap\" (Sanskrit: पाप, sin). Sometimes, the word \"punya\" is used interchangeably with virtue. The virtues that constitute a dharmic life - that is a moral, ethical, virtuous life - evolve in vedas and upanishads. Over time, new virtues were conceptualized and added by ancient Hindu scholars, some replaced, others merged. For example, Manusamhita initially listed ten virtues necessary for a human being to live a \"dharmic\" life: \"Dhriti\" (courage), \"Kshama\" (forgiveness), \"Dama\" (temperance), \"Asteya\" (Non-covetousness/Non-stealing), \"Saucha\" (inner purity), \"Indriyani-graha\" (control of senses), \"dhi\" (reflective prudence), \"vidya\" (wisdom), \"satyam\" (truthfulness), \"akrodha\" (freedom from anger). In later verses, this list was reduced to five virtues by the same scholar, by merging and creating a more broader concept. The shorter list of virtues became: \"Ahimsa\" (Non-violence), \"Dama\" (self restraint), \"Asteya\" (Non-covetousness/Non-stealing), \"Saucha\" (inner purity), \"Satyam\" (truthfulness). The Bhagavad Gita - considered one of the epitomes of historic Hindu discussion of virtues and an allegorical debate on what is right and what is wrong - argues some virtues are not necessarily always absolute, but sometimes relational; for example, it explains a virtue such as Ahimsa must be re-examined when one is faced with war or violence from the aggressiveness, immaturity or ignorance of others.", "In Islam, the Quran is believed to be the literal word of God, and the definitive description of virtue while Muhammad is considered an ideal example of virtue in human form. The foundation of Islamic understanding of virtue was the understanding and interpretation of the Quran and the practices of Muhammad. Its meaning has always been in context of active submission to God performed by the community in unison. The motive force is the notion that believers are to \"enjoin that which is virtuous and forbid that which is vicious\" (\"al-amr bi-l-maʿrūf wa-n-nahy ʿani-l-munkar\") in all spheres of life (). Another key factor is the belief that mankind has been granted the faculty to discern God's will and to abide by it. This faculty most crucially involves reflecting over the meaning of existence. Therefore, regardless of their environment, humans are believed to have a moral responsibility to submit to God's will. Muhammad's preaching produced a \"radical change in moral values based on the sanctions of the new religion and the present religion, and fear of God and of the Last Judgment\". Later Muslim scholars expanded the religious ethics of the scriptures in immense detail. In the Hadith (Islamic traditions), it is reported by An-Nawwas bin Sam'an: Wabisah bin Ma’bad reported: Virtue, as seen in opposition to sin, is termed \"thawāb\" (spiritual merit or reward) but there are other Islamic terms to describe virtue such as \"faḍl\" (\"bounty\"), \"taqwa\" (\"piety\") and \"ṣalāḥ\" (\"righteousness\"). For Muslims fulfilling the rights of others are valued as an important building block of Islam. According to Muslim beliefs, God will forgive individual sins but the bad treatment of people and injustice with others will only be pardoned by them and not by God.", "In Jainism, attainment of enlightenment is possible only if the seeker possesses certain virtues. All Jains are supposed to take up the five vows of ahimsa (non violence), satya (truthfulness), asteya (non stealing), aparigraha (non attachment) and brahmacharya (celibacy) before becoming a monk. These vows are laid down by the Tirthankaras. Other virtues which are supposed to be followed by both monks as well as laypersons include forgiveness, humility, self-restraint and straightforwardness. These vows assists the seeker to escape from the karmic bondages thereby escaping the cycle of birth and death to attain liberation.", "Loving God and obeying his laws, in particular the Ten Commandments, are central to Jewish conceptions of virtue. Wisdom is personified in the first eight chapters of the Book of Proverbs and is not only the source of virtue but is depicted as the first and best creation of God (Proverbs 8:12-31). A classic articulation of the Golden Rule came from the first century Rabbi Hillel the Elder. Renowned in the Jewish tradition as a sage and a scholar, he is associated with the development of the Mishnah and the Talmud and, as such, one of the most important figures in Jewish history. Asked for a summary of the Jewish religion in the most concise terms, Hillel replied (reputedly while standing on one leg): \"That which is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow. That is the whole Torah. The rest is commentary; go and learn.\"", "In Hagakure, Yamamoto Tsunetomo encapsulates his views on 'virtue' in the four vows he makes daily: Yamamoto goes on to say: If one dedicates these four vows to the gods and Buddhas every morning, he will have the strength of two men and never slip backward. One must edge forward like the inchworm, bit by bit. The gods and Buddhas, too, first started with a vow. The Bushidō code is typified by seven virtues: Others that are sometimes added to these:", "", "While religious scriptures generally consider \"dharma\" or \"aṟam\" (the Tamil term for virtue) as a divine virtue, Valluvar describes it as a way of life rather than any spiritual observance, a way of harmonious living that leads to universal happiness. For this reason, Valluvar keeps \"aṟam\" as the cornerstone throughout the writing of the Kural literature. Valluvar considered justice as a facet or product of \"aram.\" While ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, and their descendants opined that justice cannot be defined and that it was a divine mystery, Valluvar positively suggested that a divine origin is not required to define the concept of justice. In the words of V. R. Nedunchezhiyan, justice according to Valluvar \"dwells in the minds of those who have knowledge of the standard of right and wrong; so too deceit dwells in the minds which breed fraud.\"", "For the Rationalist philosopher René Descartes, virtue consists in the correct reasoning that should guide our actions. Men should seek the sovereign good that Descartes, following Zeno, identifies with virtue, as this produces a solid blessedness or pleasure. For Epicurus the sovereign good was pleasure, and Descartes says that in fact this is not in contradiction with Zeno's teaching, because virtue produces a spiritual pleasure, that is better than bodily pleasure. Regarding Aristotle's opinion that happiness depends on the goods of fortune, Descartes does not deny that these goods contribute to happiness, but remarks that they are in great proportion outside one's own control, whereas one's mind is under one's complete control.", "Immanuel Kant, in his \"Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime\", expresses true virtue as different from what commonly is known about this moral trait. In Kant's view, to be goodhearted, benevolent and sympathetic is not regarded as true virtue. The only aspect that makes a human truly virtuous is to behave in accordance with moral principles. Kant presents an example for more clarification; suppose that you come across a needy person in the street; if your sympathy leads you to help that person, your response does not illustrate your virtue. In this example, since you do not afford helping all needy ones, you have behaved unjustly, and it is out of the domain of principles and true virtue. Kant applies the approach of four temperaments to distinguish truly virtuous people. According to Kant, among all people with diverse temperaments, a person with melancholy frame of mind is the most virtuous whose thoughts, words and deeds are one of principles.", "Friedrich Nietzsche's view of virtue is based on the idea of an order of rank among people. For Nietzsche, the virtues of the strong are seen as vices by the weak and slavish, thus Nietzsche's virtue ethics is based on his distinction between master morality and slave morality. Nietzsche promotes the virtues of those he calls \"higher men\", people like Goethe and Beethoven. The virtues he praises in them are their creative powers (“the men of great creativity” - “the really great men according to my understanding” (WP 957)). According to Nietzsche these higher types are solitary, pursue a \"unifying project\", revere themselves and are healthy and life-affirming. Because mixing with the herd makes one base, the higher type “strives instinctively for a citadel and a secrecy where he is saved from the crowd, the many, the great majority...” (BGE 26). The 'Higher type' also \"instinctively seeks heavy responsibilities\" (WP 944) in the form of an \"organizing idea\" for their life, which drives them to artistic and creative work and gives them psychological health and strength. The fact that the higher types are \"healthy\" for Nietzsche does not refer to physical health as much as a psychological resilience and fortitude. Finally, a Higher type affirms life because he is willing to accept the eternal return of his life and affirm this forever and unconditionally. In the last section of \"Beyond Good and Evil\", Nietzsche outlines his thoughts on the noble virtues and places solitude as one of the highest virtues: And to keep control over your four virtues: courage, insight, sympathy, solitude. Because solitude is a virtue for us, since it is a sublime inclination and impulse to cleanliness which shows that contact between people (“society”) inevitably makes things unclean. Somewhere, sometime, every community makes people – “base.” (BGE §284) Nietzsche also sees truthfulness as a virtue: Genuine honesty, assuming that this is our virtue and we cannot get rid of it, we free spirits – well then, we will want to work on it with all the love and malice at our disposal and not get tired of ‘perfecting’ ourselves in our virtue, the only one we have left: may its glory come to rest like a gilded, blue evening glow of mockery over this aging culture and its dull and dismal seriousness! (Beyond Good and Evil, §227)", "These are the virtues that Benjamin Franklin used to develop what he called'moral perfection'. He had a checklist in a notebook to measure each day how he lived up to his virtues. They became known through Benjamin Franklin's autobiography.", "", "Marc Jackson in his book \"Emotion and Psyche\" puts forward a new development of the virtues. He identifies the virtues as what he calls the good emotions \"The first group consisting of love, kindness, joy, faith, awe and pity is good\" These virtues differ from older accounts of the virtues because they are not character traits expressed by action, but emotions that are to be felt and developed by feeling not acting.", "Ayn Rand held that her morality, the, contained a single axiom: existence exists, and a single choice: to live. All values and virtues proceed from these. To live, man must hold three fundamental values that one develops and achieves in life: Reason, Purpose, and Self-Esteem. A value is \"that which one acts to gain and/or keep... and the virtue[s] [are] the act[ions] by which one gains and/or keeps it.\" The primary virtue in Objectivist ethics is rationality, which as Rand meant it is \"the recognition and acceptance of reason as one's only source of knowledge, one's only judge of values and one's only guide to action.\" These values are achieved by passionate and consistent action and the virtues are the policies for achieving those fundamental values. Ayn Rand describes seven virtues: rationality, productiveness, pride, independence, integrity, honesty and justice. The first three represent the three primary virtues that correspond to the three fundamental values, whereas the final four are derived from the virtue of rationality. She claims that virtue is not an end in itself, that virtue is not its own reward nor sacrificial fodder for the reward of evil, that life is the reward of virtue and happiness is the goal and the reward of life. Man has a single basic choice: to think or not, and that is the gauge of his virtue. Moral perfection is an unbreached rationality, not the degree of your intelligence but the full and relentless use of your mind, not the extent of your knowledge but the acceptance of reason as an absolute.", "Christopher Peterson and Martin Seligman, two leading researchers in positive psychology, recognizing the deficiency inherent in psychology's tendency to focus on dysfunction rather than on what makes a healthy and stable personality, set out to develop a list of \"Character Strengths and Virtues\". After three years of study, 24 traits (classified into six broad areas of virtue) were identified, having \"a surprising amount of similarity across cultures and strongly indicat[ing] a historical and cross-cultural convergence.\" These six categories of virtue are courage, justice, humanity, temperance, transcendence, and wisdom. Some psychologists suggest that these virtues are adequately grouped into fewer categories; for example, the same 24 traits have been grouped into simply: Cognitive Strengths, Temperance Strengths, and Social Strengths.", "The opposite of a virtue is a vice. Vice is a habitual, repeated practice of wrongdoing. One way of organizing the vices is as the corruption of the virtues. As Aristotle noted, however, the virtues can have several opposites. Virtues can be considered the mean between two extremes, as the Latin maxim dictates \"in medio stat virtus\" - in the centre lies virtue. For instance, both cowardice and rashness are opposites of courage; contrary to prudence are both over-caution and insufficient caution; the opposites of pride (a virtue) are undue humility and excessive vanity. A more \"modern\" virtue, tolerance, can be considered the mean between the two extremes of narrow-mindedness on the one hand and over-acceptance on the other. Vices can therefore be identified as the opposites of virtues - but with the caveat that each virtue could have many different opposites, all distinct from each other.", "[[Category:Virtue| ]] [[Category:Aristotelianism]] [[Category:Concepts in ethics]] [[Category:Ethics]] [[Category:Morality]] [[Category:Personality traits]] [[Category:Philosophy]] [[Category:Pyrrhonism]] [[Category:Reasoning]] [[Category:Thought]] [[Category:Virtue ethics]]" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Physiological response.", "Other notable users." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Cocaine acts as a stimulant, whereas heroin/morphine acts as a depressant. Co-administration is meant to provide an intense rush of euphoria with a high that is supposed to combine the effects of both drugs, while hoping to reduce the negative effects, such as anxiety, hypertension, palpitations and other common side effects of stimulants and sedation/drowsiness from the depressant. While this is somewhat effective, as one drug (the CNS stimulant) triggers the sympathetic nervous system and the other (the CNS depressant) triggers the parasympathetic nervous system, the two systems that regulate the fight-or-flight and rest-and-digest responses, respectively, and simultaneous activity of the two pathways is what normally keeps one's body in natural homeostasis, there is an imperfect overlap in the effects of stimulants and depressants. Additionally, by suppressing the typical negative side-effects of the two drugs, the user may falsely believe they have a higher tolerance, or that they are less intoxicated than they actually are. This can cause users to misjudge the intake of one or both of the drugs, sometimes fatally. Because the stimulant effects of cocaine wear off far more quickly than the depressant effects of heroin or morphine, fatal respiratory depression often occurs when the full effects of a heroin or morphine overdosage are felt in isolation. Due to the countering effect of the cocaine, a fatally high opioid dose can be unwittingly administered without immediate incapacitation, thus providing a false sense of tolerance until it is too late. This form of delayed opioid overdose is believed to be the most common mechanism of death in speedball overdoses.", "Other notable users of the speedball drug combination have included:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Commemoration.", "History.", "Activities.", "International celebrations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Canada Day is often informally referred to as \"Canada's birthday\", particularly in the popular press. However, the term \"birthday\" can be seen as an oversimplification, as Canada Day is the anniversary of only one important national milestone on the way to the country's full independence, namely the joining on July 1, 1867, of the colonies of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick into a wider British federation of four provinces (the colony of Canada being divided into the provinces of Ontario and Quebec upon Confederation). Canada became a \"kingdom in its own right\" within the British Empire commonly known as the \"Dominion of Canada\". Although still a British colony, Canada gained an increased level of political control and governance over its own affairs, the British parliament and Cabinet maintaining political control over certain areas, such as foreign affairs, national defence, and constitutional changes. Canada gradually gained increasing independence over the years, notably with the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931, until finally becoming completely independent with the passing of the \"Constitution Act, 1982\" which served to fully patriate the Canadian constitution. Under the federal \"Holidays Act\", Canada Day is observed on July 1, unless that date falls on a Sunday, in which case July 2 is the statutory holiday. Celebratory events will generally still take place on July 1, even though it is not the legal holiday. If it falls on a weekend, businesses normally closed that day usually dedicate the following Monday as a day off.", "The enactment of the \"British North America Act, 1867\" (today called the \"Constitution Act, 1867\"), which confederated Canada, was celebrated on July 1, 1867, with the ringing of the bells at the Cathedral Church of St. James in Toronto and \"bonfires, fireworks and illuminations, excursions, military displays and musical and other entertainments\", as described in contemporary accounts. On June 20 of the following year, Governor General the Viscount Monck issued a royal proclamation asking for Canadians to celebrate the anniversary of Confederation, However, the holiday was not established statutorily until May 15, 1879, when it was designated as \"Dominion Day\", alluding to the reference in the \"British North America Act\" to the country as a dominion. The holiday was initially not dominant in the national calendar; any celebrations were mounted by local communities and the governor general hosted a party at Rideau Hall. No larger celebrations were held until 1917 and then none again for a further decade—the gold and diamond anniversaries of Confederation, respectively. In 1946, Philéas Côté, a Quebec member of the House of Commons, introduced a private member's bill to rename Dominion Day as \"Canada Day\". The bill was passed quickly by the lower chamber but was stalled by the Senate, which returned it to the Commons with the recommendation that the holiday be renamed \"The National Holiday of Canada\", an amendment that effectively killed the bill. Beginning in 1958, the Canadian government began to orchestrate Dominion Day celebrations. That year, then Prime Minister John Diefenbaker requested that Secretary of State Ellen Fairclough put together appropriate events, with a budget of $14,000. Parliament was traditionally in session on July 1, but Fairclough persuaded Diefenbaker and the rest of the federal Cabinet to attend. Official celebrations thereafter consisted usually of Trooping the Colour ceremonies on Parliament Hill in the afternoon and evening, followed by a mass band concert and fireworks display. Fairclough, who became Minister of Citizenship and Immigration, later expanded the bills to include performing folk and ethnic groups. The day also became more casual and family oriented. Canada's centennial in 1967 is often seen as an important milestone in the history of Canadian nationalism and in Canada's maturing as a distinct, independent country, after which Dominion Day became more popular with average Canadians. Into the late 1960s, nationally televised, multi-cultural concerts held in Ottawa were added and the fête became known as \"Festival Canada\". After 1980, the Canadian government began to promote celebrating Dominion Day beyond the national capital, giving grants and aid to cities across the country to help fund local activities. Some Canadians were, by the early 1980s, informally referring to the holiday as \"Canada Day\", a practice that caused some controversy: Proponents argued that the name \"Dominion Day\" was a holdover from the colonial era, an argument given some impetus by the patriation of the Canadian constitution in 1982, and others asserted that an alternative was needed as the term does not translate well into French. Conversely, numerous politicians, journalists, and authors, such as Robertson Davies, decried the change at the time and some continue to maintain that it was illegitimate and an unnecessary break with tradition. Others claimed \"Dominion\" was widely misunderstood and conservatively inclined commenters saw the change as part of a much larger attempt by Liberals to \"re-brand\" or re-define Canadian history. Columnist Andrew Cohen called \"Canada Day\" a term of \"crushing banality\" and criticized it as \"a renunciation of the past [and] a misreading of history, laden with political correctness and historical ignorance\". The holiday was officially renamed as a result of a private member's bill that was passed through the House of Commons on July 9, 1982, two years after its first reading. Only 12 Members of Parliament were present when the bill was taken up again, eight fewer than the necessary quorum; however, according to parliamentary rules, the quorum is enforceable only at the start of a sitting or when a member calls attention to it. The group passed the bill in five minutes, without debate, inspiring \"grumblings about the underhandedness of the process\". It met with stronger resistance in the Senate. Ernest Manning argued that the rationale for the change was based on a misperception of the name and George McIlraith did not agree with the manner in which the bill was passed, urging the government to proceed in a more \"dignified way\". However, the Senate did eventually pass the bill, regardless. With the granting of Royal Assent, the holiday's name was officially changed to Canada Day on October 27, 1982. As the anniversary of Confederation, Dominion Day, and later Canada Day, was the date set for a number of important events, such as the first national radio network hookup by the Canadian National Railway (1927); the inauguration of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's cross-country television broadcast, with Governor General Vincent Massey's Dominion Day speech from Parliament Hill (1958); the flooding of the Saint Lawrence Seaway (1958); the first colour television transmission in Canada (1966); the inauguration of the Order of Canada (1967); and the establishment of \"O Canada\" as the country's national anthem (1980). During the 150th anniversary of Canada in 2017, the Bank of Canada released a commemorative $10 banknote for Canada's sesquicentennial, which was expected to be broadly available by Canada Day. Other events fell on the same day coincidentally, such as the first day of the Battle of the Somme in 1916—shortly after which Newfoundland recognized July 1 as Memorial Day to commemorate the Newfoundland Regiment's heavy losses during the battle—and the enactment of the \"Chinese Immigration Act\" in 1923—leading Chinese-Canadians to refer to July 1 as \"Humiliation Day\" and boycott Dominion Day celebrations until the act was repealed in 1947.", "Most communities across the country will host organized celebrations for Canada Day, typically outdoor public events, such as parades, carnivals, festivals, barbecues, air and maritime shows, fireworks, and free musical concerts, as well as citizenship ceremonies. There is no standard mode of celebration for Canada Day; Jennifer Welsh, a professor of International Relations at the University of Oxford, said about this: \"Canada Day, like the country, is endlessly decentralized. There doesn't seem to be a central recipe for how to celebrate it—chalk it up to the nature of the federation.\" However, the locus of the celebrations is the national capital, Ottawa, Ontario, where large concerts and cultural displays are held on Parliament Hill in an event largely referred to as the \"Noon Show\". Typically with the governor general and prime minister officiates, though the monarch or another member of the Royal Family may also attend or take the governor general's place. Smaller events are mounted in other parks around the city and in neighbouring Gatineau, Quebec. Given the federal nature of the anniversary, celebrating Canada Day can be a cause of friction in the province of Quebec, where the holiday is overshadowed by Quebec's National Holiday, on June 24. For example, the federal government funds Canada Day events at the Old Port of Montreal—an area run by a federal Crown corporation—while the National Holiday parade is a grassroots effort that has been met with pressure to cease, even from federal officials. The nature of the event has also been met with criticism outside of Quebec, such as that given by \"Ottawa Citizen\" columnist David Warren, who said in 2007: \"The Canada of the government-funded paper flag-waving and painted faces—the 'new' Canada that is celebrated each year on what is now called 'Canada Day'—has nothing controversially Canadian about it. You could wave a different flag, and choose another face paint, and nothing would be lost.\" Canada Day also coincides with Quebec's Moving Day, when many fixed-lease apartment rental terms expire. The bill changing the province's moving day from May 1 to July 1 was introduced by a federalist member of the Quebec National Assembly, Jérôme Choquette, in 1973, in order not to affect children still in school in the month of May.", "Canadian expatriates will often organize Canada Day activities in their local area on or near the date of the holiday. Examples include \"Canada D'eh\", an annual celebration that takes place on June 30 in Hong Kong, at \"Lan Kwai Fong\", where an estimated attendance of 12,000 was reported in 2008; Canadian Forces' events on bases in Afghanistan; at Trafalgar Square outside Canada House in London, England; in Mexico, at the Royal Canadian Legion in Chapala, and at the Canadian Club in Ajijic. In China, Canada Day celebrations are held at the Bund Beach by the Canadian Chamber of Commerce in Shanghai and at Canadian International School in Beijing by Canada China Business Council." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Early life in vaudeville.", "Film.", "Silent film era.", "Sound era.", "Educational Pictures.", "Gag writer.", "Columbia Pictures.", "1940s and feature films.", "Television and rediscovery.", "Silent films revived.", "Style and themes.", "Use of parody.", "Body language.", "Personal life.", "Death.", "Influence and legacy.", "Pork pie hats." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Keaton was born into a vaudeville family in Piqua, Kansas, the small town where his mother, Myra Keaton (née Cutler), was when she went into labor. He was named \"Joseph\" to continue a tradition on his father's side (he was sixth in a line bearing the name Joseph Keaton) and \"Frank\" for his maternal grandfather, who disapproved of his parents' union. Later, Keaton changed his middle name to \"Francis\". His father was Joseph Hallie \"Joe\" Keaton, who owned a traveling show with Harry Houdini called the Mohawk Indian Medicine Company or the Keaton Houdini Medicine Show Company, which performed on stage and sold patent medicine on the side. According to a", "", "In February 1917, Keaton met Roscoe \"Fatty\" Arbuckle at the Talmadge Studios in New York City, where Arbuckle was under contract to Joseph M. Schenck. Joe Keaton disapproved of films, and Buster also had reservations about the medium. During his first meeting with Arbuckle, he was asked to jump in and start acting. Buster was such a natural when making his first film \"The Butcher Boy\" he was hired on the spot. At the end of the day's work he asked to borrow one of the cameras to get a feel for how it worked. He took the camera back to his hotel room where he dismantled and reassembled it by morning. Keaton later claimed that he was", "Keaton signed with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in 1928, a business decision that he would later call the worst of his life. He realized too late that the studio system MGM represented would severely limit his creative input. For instance, the studio refused his request to make his early project, \"Spite Marriage\", as a sound film and after the studio converted, he was obliged to adhere to dialogue-laden scripts. However, MGM did allow Keaton some creative participation on his last originally developed/written silent film \"The Cameraman\", 1928, which was his first project under contract with them, but hired Edward Sedgwick as the official director. Keaton was forced to use a stunt double during some of the more dangerous scenes, something he had never done in his heyday, as MGM wanted badly to protect its investment. \"Stuntmen don't get laughs,\" Keaton had said. Some of his most financially successful films", "Upon Keaton's return to Hollywood in 1934, he made a screen comeback in two-reel comedies for Educational Pictures. Most of these 16 films are simple visual comedies, with", "When the Educational series lapsed in 1937, Keaton returned to MGM as a gag writer, supplying material for the final three Marx", "In 1939, Columbia Pictures hired Keaton to star in 10 two-reel comedies; the series ran for two years, and comprise his last series as a starring comedian. The director was usually Jules White, whose emphasis on slapstick and farce made most of these films resemble White's famous Three Stooges shorts. Keaton's personal favorite was the series's debut, \"Pest from the West\", a shorter, tighter remake of", "Keaton's personal life had stabilized with his 1940 marriage to MGM dancer Eleanor Norris, and now he was taking life a little easier, abandoning Columbia for the less strenuous field of feature films. Resuming his daily job as an MGM gag writer, he provided material for Red Skelton and gave help and advice to Lucille Ball. Keaton accepted various character roles in both \"A\" and \"B\" features. He made his last starring feature \"El Moderno Barba Azul\" (1946) in Mexico; the film was a low-budget production, and it may not have been seen in the United States until its release on VHS in", "In 1949, comedian Ed Wynn invited Keaton to appear on his CBS Television comedy-variety show, \"The Ed Wynn Show\", which was televised live on the West Coast. Kinescopes were made for distribution of the programs to other parts of the country, since there was no transcontinental coaxial cable until September 1951. Reaction was strong enough for a local Los Angeles station to offer Keaton his own show, also broadcast live, in 1950. \"Life with Buster Keaton\" (1951) was an attempt to recreate the first series on film, allowing the program to be broadcast nationwide. The series benefited from a company of veteran actors, including Marcia Mae Jones as the ingenue, Iris Adrian, Dick Wessel, Fuzzy Knight, Dub Taylor, Philip Van Zandt, and his silent-era contemporaries Harold Goodwin, Hank Mann, and stuntman Harvey Parry. Buster Keaton's wife Eleanor also was", "In 1954, Buster and Eleanor Keaton met film programmer Raymond Rohauer, with whom they developed a business partnership to re-release his films. Actor James Mason had bought the Keatons' house and found numerous cans of films, among which was Keaton's long-lost classic \"The Boat\". Keaton had prints of the features \"Three Ages\", \"Sherlock Jr.\", \"Steamboat Bill, Jr.\", and \"College\" (missing one reel), and the shorts \"The Boat\" and \"My Wife's Relations\", which Keaton and Rohauer then transferred to Cellulose acetate film from deteriorating nitrate film stock. On April 3, 1957, Keaton was surprised by Ralph Edwards for the weekly NBC program \"This Is Your Life\". The", "", "Keaton started experimenting with parody during his vaudeville years, where most frequently his performances involved impressions and burlesques of other performers' acts. Most of these parodies targeted acts with which Keaton had shared the bill. When Keaton transposed his experience in vaudeville to film, in many works he parodied melodramas. Other favorite targets were cinematic plots, structures and devices. One of his most biting parodies is \"The Frozen North\" (1922), a satirical take on William S. Hart's Western melodramas, like \"Hell's Hinges\" (1916) and \"The Narrow Trail\" (1917). Keaton parodied the tired formula of the melodramatic transformation from bad guy to good guy, through which went Hart's character, known as \"the good badman\". He wears a small version of Hart's campaign hat from the", "Film critic David Thomson later described Keaton's style of comedy: \"Buster plainly is a man inclined towards a belief in nothing but mathematics and absurdity... like a number that has always been searching for the right equation. Look at his face—as beautiful but as inhuman as a butterfly—and you see that utter failure to identify sentiment.\" Gilberto Perez commented on \"Keaton's genius as an actor to keep a face so nearly deadpan and yet render it, by subtle inflections, so vividly expressive of inner life. His large, deep eyes are the most eloquent feature; with merely a stare, he can convey a wide range of emotions, from longing to mistrust, from puzzlement to sorrow.\" Critic Anthony Lane also noted Keaton's body language: The traditional Buster stance requires that he remain upstanding, full of backbone, looking ahead... [in \"The", "On May 31, 1921, Keaton married Natalie Talmadge, sister of actresses Norma Talmadge and Constance Talmadge. She co-starred with him in \"Our Hospitality\". The couple had sons Joseph, called James (June 2, 1922 – February 14, 2007), and Robert (February 3, 1924 – July 19, 2009), both of whom later took the surname Talmadge. After the birth of Robert, the relationship began to suffer. Talmadge decided not to have more children, and this led to the couple staying in separate bedrooms. Her financial extravagance was another factor in the breakdown of the marriage, as she would spend up to a third of his salary on clothes. Keaton dated actress Dorothy Sebastian beginning in the 1920s and Kathleen Key in the early 1930s. After attempts at reconciliation, Talmadge divorced him in 1932, taking his entire fortune and refusing to allow any contact between him and his sons. Keaton was reunited with them about a decade later when his older son turned 18.", "Keaton died of lung cancer on February 1, 1966, aged 70, in Woodland Hills, California. Despite being diagnosed with cancer in January 1966, he was never told he was terminally ill. Keaton thought that he was recovering from a severe case of bronchitis. Confined to a hospital", "Keaton was presented with a 1959 Academy Honorary Award at the 32nd Academy Awards, held in April 1960. Keaton has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame: 6619 Hollywood Boulevard (for motion pictures); and 6225 Hollywood Boulevard (for television). A 1957 film biography, \"The Buster Keaton Story\", starring Donald O'Connor as Keaton was released. The screenplay, by Sidney Sheldon, who also directed the film, was loosely based on Keaton's life but contained many factual errors and merged his three wives into one character. A 1987 documentary, \"Buster Keaton: A Hard Act to Follow\", directed by Kevin Brownlow and David Gill, won two Emmy Awards. The International Buster Keaton Society was founded on October 4, 1992: Keaton's birthday. Dedicated to bringing greater public attention to Keaton's life and work, the membership includes many individuals from the television and film industry: actors, producers, authors, artists, graphic novelists, musicians, and designers, as well as those who simply admire the magic of Buster Keaton. The Society's nickname, the \"Damfinos,\" draws its name from a boat in Keaton's 1921 comedy, \"The Boat\". In 1994, caricaturist Al Hirschfeld penned a series of silent film stars for the United States Post Office, including Rudolph Valentino and Keaton. Hirschfeld said that modern film stars were more difficult to depict, that silent film comedians such as Laurel and Hardy and Keaton \"looked like their caricatures\". In his essay \"Film-arte, film-antiartístico\", artist Salvador Dalí declared the works of Keaton to be prime examples of \"anti-artistic\" filmmaking, calling them \"pure poetry\". In 1925, Dalí produced a collage titled \"The Marriage of Buster Keaton\" featuring an image of the comedian in a seated pose, staring straight ahead with his trademark boater hat resting in his lap. Film critic Roger Ebert stated, \"The greatest of the silent clowns is Buster Keaton, not only because of what he did, but because of how he did it. Harold Lloyd made us laugh as much, Charlie Chaplin moved us more deeply, but no one had more courage than Buster.\" In his presentation for \"The General\", filmmaker Orson Welles hailed Buster Keaton as \"the greatest of all the clowns in the history of the cinema... a supreme artist, and I think one of the most beautiful people who was ever photographed\". Filmmaker Mel Brooks has credited Buster Keaton as a major influence, saying: \"I owe (Buster) a lot on two levels: One for being such a great teacher for me as a filmmaker myself, and the other just as a human being watching this gifted person doing these amazing things. He made me believe in make-believe.\" He also admitted to borrowing the idea of the changing room scene in \"The Cameraman\" for his own film \"Silent Movie\". Actor and stunt performer Johnny Knoxville cites Keaton as an inspiration when coming up with ideas for \"Jackass\" projects. He re-enacted a famous Keaton stunt for the finale of \"Jackass Number Two\". Comedian Richard Lewis stated that Keaton was his prime inspiration, and spoke of having a close friendship with Keaton's widow Eleanor. Lewis was particularly moved by the fact that Eleanor said his eyes looked like Keaton's. In 2012, Kino Lorber released \"The Ultimate Buster Keaton Collection\", a 14-disc Blu-ray box set of Keaton's work, including 11 of his feature films. On June 16, 2018, the International Buster Keaton Society laid a four-foot plaque in honor of both Keaton and Charles Chaplin on the corner of the shared block (1021 Lillian Ave) where each had made many of their silent comedies in Hollywood. In the honor of the event, the City of Los Angeles declared the date \"Buster Keaton Day.\" In 2018 filmmaker Peter Bogdanovich released \"The Great Buster\", a documentary about Keaton's life, career, and legacy.", "Keaton designed and modified his own pork pie hats during his career. In 1964, he told an interviewer that in making \"this particular pork pie\", he \"started with a good Stetson and cut it down\", stiffening the brim with sugar water. The hats were often destroyed during Keaton's wild film antics; some" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Medieval coats of arms.", "Peculiarities.", "Shield.", "Tinctures.", "Further reading." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Unlike Western Europe, in Poland, the did not emerge exclusively from the feudal class of knights but stemmed in great part from earlier Slavic local rulers and free warriors and mercenaries. Rulers often hired these free warriors and mercenaries to form military units () and eventually, in the 11th century during the time of Casimir I the Restorer with the development of feudalism, armies paid by the Prince were replaced by knights that were paid in land. Much written evidence from the Middle Ages demonstrates how some elements of the Polish nobility did emerge from former Slavic rulers that were included in the ranks of the knightly class under the terms of the chivalric law () and. Because Polish clans () have different origins, only part of the s\"zlachta\" can be traced all the way back to the traditional old clan system based on kinship. The clans that could show kinship belonged to a House (), such as the House of Odrowąż. Later, when different Houses created different surnames for each property, the House turned into the Clan Odrowąż. Other szlachta were not related and their unions were mostly voluntary and based on fellowship and brotherhood rather than kinship, still being full members of the Clan, creating Clan politics like in Clan Ostoja or Clan Abdank, but forming a heraldic clan. Near the end of the history of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, due to adoptions and other circumstances, all Clans in Poland turned into Heraldic Clans. In the year 1244, Bolesław, Duke of Masovia, identified members of the knights' clan as members of a \"genealogia:\" \"I received my good servitors [Raciborz and Albert] from the land of [Great] Poland, and from the clan [\"genealogia\"] called Jelito, with my well-disposed knowledge [i.e., consent and encouragement] and the cry [\"vocitatio\"], [that is], the \"godło,\" [by the name of] \"Nagody,\" and I established them in the said land of mine, Masovia, [on the military tenure described elsewhere in the charter].\" The documentation regarding Raciborz and Albert's tenure is the earliest surviving of the use of the clan name and cry defining the honorable status of Polish knights. The names of knightly \"genealogiae\" only came to be associated with heraldic devices later in the Middle Ages and in the early modern period. The Polish clan name and cry ritualized the \"ius militare,\" i.e., the power to command an army; and they had been used sometime before 1244 to define knightly status. According to Polish historian Tadeusz Manteuffel, a Polish clan (\"ród\") consisted of people related by blood and descending from a common ancestor, giving the ród/clan a highly developed sense of solidarity (see \"gens\"). The \"starosta\" (or starszyna) had judicial and military power over the ród/clan, although this power was often exercised with an assembly of elders. Strongholds called \"\" were built where a unifying religious cult was powerful, where trials were conducted, and where clans gathered in the face of danger. The \"\" was the territory occupied by a single tribe. Such clans often used signs (proto-Coat of Arms) that later, during 13th century become Coat of Arms of the House or the Clan. The origin of those proto-CoAs is controversial. Some, like Sulimirski, claim Sarmatian origin and some like Piekosiński claim that those signs are Runes of dynastic tribal rulers. Heraldic symbols began to be used in Poland in the 13th century. The generic Polish term for a coat of arms, \"herb\", was used for the first time in the year 1415 at the Royal Office with text \"et quatuor herbis\", originating as a borrowing of the Czech \"erb\", which in turn came from the German \"Erbe\" – \"heritage\". During the Union of Horodło (1413), 47 Prince and Boyar families of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were adopted into 47 Polish noble clans and began to use Polish coats of arms.", "Since there was no heraldic authority in Poland or in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, many old Polish coats of arms were changed over time by different publications, losing their original appearance. The was registered on 20 January 2010. Although many medieval Polish coats of arms were presented in Western European rolls of arms, there were no publications that presented original coats of arms in Poland until the 20th century, when began recovering old Polish coats of arms. His work was continued by Professor, who finally published an armorial of original Polish coats of arms. The ancient Pałuki family coat of arms was visually close to the Topór coat of arms, and in time a similar coat was assumed by Clan Topór. As the Ostoja coat of arms evolved, the dragon was replaced by feathers and the cross by the sword, followed by other changes between ancient and modern versions. Many Polish coats of arms feature so-called variations, which are particular to Polish heraldry. In many cases, variations are simple errors, sometimes the family wished to make a distinction within the clan and in other cases coats have been called variations of a particular family's coat just because they look similar, which all together create a unique heraldic clan organisation in Poland. This is presented in the second part of the gallery, which shows many different variations of the Ostoja coat of arms. None of the variations above have anything in common with Ostoja, they just look similar. Starting with proto-arms and families like Odrowąż being the House of Odrowąż, Polish family names were appended in many cases with -\"cki\" or -\"ski\" in reference to the name of their properties; for example, if a person named Chełmski acquired the town of Poniec, he would change his surname to Poniecki. Furthermore, a Jerzykowski (de Jerzykowo) that owned the property of Baranowo changed his surname to Baranowski (de Baranowo) and a Baranowski that owned the property of Chrzastowo change the surname to Chrzastowski (de Chrzastowo). A family became a clan or \"heraldic family\" using the same coat of arms. Later, when clans adopted several families, they formed heraldic clans, families using the same arms, in many cases defending clan politics but not necessarily blood related to each other.", "Although the Polish heraldic system evolved under the influence of French and German heraldry, there are many notable differences. The most striking peculiarity of the system is that a coat of arms does not belong to a single family. A number of unrelated families (sometimes hundreds of them), usually with a number of different family names, may use the same, undifferenced coat of arms, and each coat of arms has its own name. The total number of coats of arms in this system was relatively low – ca. 160 (Piekosiński) in the late Middle Ages. The same can be also seen in Western Europe when families of different surnames but sharing clan origin would use similar coats-of-arms, the fleur-de-lis of the many Capetian families being perhaps the best-known example. One side-effect of this unique arrangement was that it became customary to refer to noblemen by both their family name and their coat of arms name (or \"clan name\"). For example, Jan Zamoyski \"herbu\" Jelita means \"Jan Zamoyski of the Jelita coat of arms\" (though it is often translated as \"of the clan Jelita\" or \"herbu\" is Latinized \"de armis\"). From the 15th to 17th centuries, the formula seems to have been to copy the ancient Roman naming convention: \"praenomen\" (or given name), \"nomen gentile\" (or Gens/Clan name) and \"cognomen\" (surname), following the Renaissance fashion. So we have \"Jan Jelita Zamoyski\", forming a double-barrelled name (\"nazwisko złożone\", literally \"compound name\"). Later, the double-barrelled name began to be joined with a hyphen: \"Jan Jelita-Zamoyski\". (See Polish names). The Polish émigrés of the 19th century sometimes used adaptations of their names according to the Western European (mainly French) style, becoming e.g. Balthasar Klossowski de Rola (Balthus), Jean de Bloch (Jan Gotlib Bloch), or Tamara de Lempicka. Some would also keep the Latin forms of their surnames, as Latin was the official language of the Kingdom of Poland, hence the popularity of Late-Medieval or Early-Modern forms such as \"de Zamosc Zamoyski\". A single coat of arms could appear in slightly different versions, typically in different colours, depending on the custom of the family using it. Such variations (\"odmiany\") are still considered as representing the same coat of arms. One of the most visually striking characteristics of Polish heraldry is the abundance of gules (red) fields. Among the oldest coats of arms in Poland, nearly half use a red background, with blue (azure) coming in a distant second. Nowhere else in Europe is there seen such a strong bias towards a particular colour scheme. It follows, however, the well-known heraldic custom of all Europe, of the vassals following the colour-scheme of their overlord, which found practical use on the battlefield. Other typical features used in Polish heraldry include horseshoes, arrows, Maltese crosses, scythes, stars, and crescents. There are also many purely geometrical shapes for which a separate set of heraldic terms was invented. It has been suggested that originally all Polish coats of arms were based on such abstract geometrical shapes, but most were gradually \"rationalized\" into horseshoes, arrows and so on. If this hypothesis is correct, it suggests in turn that Polish heraldry, also unlike western European heraldry, may be at least partly derived from the \"Tamgas\", marks used by Eurasian nomads such as the Sarmatians, Avars and Mongols, to mark property. Evidence of the origins of the system was considered scanty, and the hypothesis has been criticized as being part of \"Sarmatism\" (the Polish tradition of romanticizing their supposed Sarmatian ancestry). However, recent DNA projects that concern Polish Nobility proved that at least part of Polish Nobility is of Sarmatian origin. A Polish coat of arms consists of shield, crest, helm, and crown. Mantling became fashionable during the 18th and 19th centuries. Supporters, mottos, and compartments normally do not appear, although certain individuals used them, especially in the final stages of the system's development, partly in response to French and German influence. Preserved medieval evidence shows Polish coats-of-arms with mantling and supporters.", "Polish coats of arms are divided in the same way as their western counterparts. However, since coats of arms were originally granted to clans rather than to separate families, there was no need to join coats of arms into one when a new branch of a family was formed. Thus Polish escutcheons are rarely parted. There are however a lot of preserved quartered coats-of-arms. These would most often show the arms of the four grandparents of the bearer. Or also the paternal-paternal great-grandmother in the 5th field if the male-line coat-of-arms goes in the heart field. The tradition of differentiating between the coat of arms proper and a lozenge granted to women did not develop in Poland. By the 17th century, usually, men and women inherited a coat of arms from their father or mother or even both (or a member of a clan who had adopted them). But also men or women could permanently adopt the arms of their wives or husbands and transmit them to their children, even after remarriages. The brisure was rarely used. All children would inherit the coat(s) of arms of their parent(s) and transmit them to their children. This partly accounts for the relatively large proportion of Polish families who had adopted a coat of arms by the 18th century. Another factor was the trend of the nobly titled marrying \"commoners\" and passing on their title to their spouse and children, forbidden in the Middle Ages. An illegitimate child could adopt her/his noble mother's surname and title with the consent of the mother's father but was often adopted and raised by the natural father's family, thereby acquiring the father's surname and title. Heart-shaped shields were mostly used in representations of the coats of arms of royalty. Following the union between Poland and Lithuania, and the creation of the elective monarchy, it became customary to place the coats of Poland and Lithuania diagonally, with the coat of arms of the specific monarch placed centrally on top. Research continues to find out what a \"heart-shaped\" shield is. Most likely, the coat of Poland was placed on the left-right diagonal (I & IV) and Lithuania on the right-left diagonal (II & III) as evidenced in the shield at the top of this page. The specific monarch crest then being placed in the \"heart\" position.", "In addition to these seven basic tinctures, which were standard in English heraldry and elsewhere in western Europe, many more tinctures were used in Poland and (after the union with Poland) Lithuania, including grey, steel, brunatre, weasel and carnation.", "Traditionally coats of arms were published in various listings of szlachta and in armorials, known in Polish as \"herbarz\". Such publications, akin to \"Almanach de Gotha\" or \"Gelre Armorial\" and descended from the tradition of rolls of arms, appeared in Poland regularly from the 15th century onwards. The first such armorial was \"Insignia seu clenodia incliti Regni Poloniae\" by Jan Długosz. In recent years growing interest in family histories has led to publication of numerous newly compiled listings of coats of arms and families. Some of the most notable among such publications are:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "In Asia.", "Mongols.", "China.", "Hong Kong and Macau.", "Japan.", "Korea.", "Vikings.", "Ancient Egypt.", "Greco-Roman Antiquity.", "Ancient Greece.", "Ancient Rome.", "In Abrahamic religions.", "In Judaism.", "In ancient Judaism.", "In modern Judaism.", "In Islam and the Arab world.", "Pre-modern times.", "Modern times.", "In the United States.", "Plaçage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Concubinage was highly popular before the early 20th century all over East Asia. The main function of concubinage was producing additional heirs, as well as bringing males pleasure. Children of concubines had lower rights in account to inheritance, which was regulated by the Dishu system.", "Polygyny and concubinage were very common in Mongol society especially for powerful Mongol men. Genghis Khan, Ögedei Khan, Jochi, Tolui, and Kublai Khan (among others) all had many wives and concubines. Genghis Khan frequently acquired wives and concubines from empires and societies that he had conquered, these women were often princesses or queens that were taken captive or gifted to him. Genghis Khan's most famous concubine was Möge Khatun, according to the Persian historian Ata-Malik Juvayni she was \"given to Chinggis Khan by a chief of the Bakrin tribe, and he loved her very much.\" After Genghis Khan died, Möge Khatun became a wife of Ögedei Khan. Ögedei also favored her as a wife, and she frequently accompanied him on his hunting expeditions.", "In China, successful men often had concubines until the practice was outlawed when the Communist Party of China came to power in 1949. The standard Chinese term translated as \"concubine\" was \"qiè\", a term that has been used since ancient times, which means \"concubine; I, your servant (deprecating self reference)\". Concubinage resembled marriage in that concubines were recognized sexual partners of a man and were expected to bear children for him. Unofficial concubines () were of lower status, and their children were considered illegitimate. The English term concubine is also used for what the Chinese refer to as \"pínfēi\" (), or \"consorts of emperors\", an official position often carrying a very high rank. In premodern China it was illegal and socially disreputable for a man to have more than one wife at a time, but it was acceptable to have concubines. In the earliest records a man could have as many concubines as he could afford. From the Eastern Han period (AD 25–220) onward, the number of concubines a man could have was limited by law. The higher rank and the more noble identity a man possessed, the more concubines he was permitted to have. A concubine's treatment and situation was variable and was influenced by the social status of the male to whom she was attached, as well as the attitude of his wife. In the \"Book of Rites\" chapter on \"The Pattern of the Family\" () it says, “If there were betrothal rites, she became a wife; and if she went without these, a concubine.” Wives brought a dowry to a relationship, but concubines did not. A concubinage relationship could be entered into without the ceremonies used in marriages, and neither remarriage nor a return to her natal home in widowhood were allowed to a concubine. The position of the concubine was generally inferior to that of the wife. Although a concubine could produce heirs, her children would be inferior in social status to a wife's children, although they were of higher status than illegitimate children. The child of a concubine had to show filial duty to two women, their biological mother and their legal mother—the wife of their father. After the death of a concubine, her sons would make an offering to her, but these offerings were not continued by the concubine's grandsons, who only made offerings to their grandfather's wife. There are early records of concubines allegedly being buried alive with their masters to \"keep them company in the afterlife\". Until the Song dynasty (960–1276), it was considered a serious breach of social ethics to promote a concubine to a wife. During the Qing dynasty (1644–1911), the status of concubines improved. It became permissible to promote a concubine to wife, if the original wife had died and the concubine was the mother of the only surviving sons. Moreover, the prohibition against forcing a widow to remarry was extended to widowed concubines. During this period tablets for concubine-mothers seem to have been more commonly placed in family ancestral altars, and genealogies of some lineages listed concubine-mothers. Imperial concubines, kept by emperors in the Forbidden City, had different ranks and were traditionally guarded by eunuchs to ensure that they could not be impregnated by anyone but the emperor. In Ming China (1368–1644) there was an official system to select concubines for the emperor. The age of the candidates ranged mainly from 14 to 16. Virtues, behavior, character, appearance and body condition were the selection criteria. Despite the limitations imposed on Chinese concubines, there are several examples in history and literature of concubines who achieved great power and influence. Lady Yehenara, otherwise known as Empress Dowager Cixi, was arguably one of the most successful concubines in Chinese history. Cixi first entered the court as a concubine to Xianfeng Emperor and gave birth to his only surviving son, who later became Tongzhi Emperor. She eventually became the \"de facto\" ruler of Qing China for 47 years after her husband's death. An examination of concubinage features in one of the Four Great Classical Novels, \"Dream of the Red Chamber\" (believed to be a semi-autobiographical account of author Cao Xueqin's family life). Three generations of the Jia family are supported by one notable concubine of the emperor, Jia Yuanchun, the full elder sister of the male protagonist Jia Baoyu. In contrast, their younger half-siblings by concubine Zhao, Jia Tanchun and Jia Huan, develop distorted personalities because they are the children of a concubine. Emperors' concubines and harems are emphasized in 21st-century romantic novels written for female readers and set in ancient times. As a plot element, the children of concubines are depicted with a status much inferior to that in actual history. The zhai dou (,residential intrigue) and gong dou(,harem intrigue) genres show concubines and wives, as well as their children, scheming secretly to gain power. Empresses in the Palace, a \"gong dou\" type novel and TV drama, has had great success in 21st-century China.", "Hong Kong officially abolished the Great Qing Legal Code in 1971, thereby making concubinage illegal. Casino magnate Stanley Ho of Macau took his \"second wife\" as his official concubine in 1957, while his \"third and fourth wives\" retain no official status.", "Before monogamy was legally imposed in the Meiji period, concubinage was common among the nobility. Its purpose was to ensure male heirs. For example, the son of an Imperial concubine often had a chance of becoming emperor. Yanagihara Naruko, a high-ranking concubine of Emperor Meiji, gave birth to Emperor Taishō, who was later legally adopted by Empress Haruko, Emperor Meiji's formal wife. Even among merchant families, concubinage was occasionally used to ensure heirs. Asako Hirooka, an entrepreneur who was the daughter of a concubine, worked hard to help her husband's family survive after the Meiji Restoration. She lost her fertility giving birth to her only daughter, Kameko; so her husband—with whom she got along well—took Asako's maid-servant as a concubine and fathered three daughters and a son with her. Kameko, as the child of the formal wife, married a noble man and matrilineally carried on the family name. A Samurai could take concubines but their backgrounds were checked by higher-ranked samurai. In many cases, taking a concubine was akin to a marriage. Kidnapping a concubine, although common in fiction, would have been shameful, if not criminal. If the concubine was a commoner, a messenger was sent with betrothal money or a note for exemption of tax to ask for her parents' acceptance. Even though the woman would not be a legal wife, a situation normally considered a demotion, many wealthy merchants believed that being the concubine of a samurai was superior to being the legal wife of a commoner. When a merchant's daughter married a samurai, her family's money erased the samurai's debts, and the samurai's social status improved the standing of the merchant family. If a samurai's commoner concubine gave birth to a son, the son could inherit his father's social status. Concubines sometimes wielded significant influence. Nene, wife of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, was known to overrule her husband's decisions at times and Yodo-dono, his concubine, became the \"de facto\" master of Osaka castle and the Toyotomi clan after Hideyoshi's death.", "Joseon monarchs had a harem which contained concubines of different ranks. Empress Myeongseong managed to have sons, preventing sons of concubines getting power. Children of concubines often had lower value in account of marriage. A daughter of concubine could not marry a wife-born son of the same class. For example, Jang Nok-su was a concubine-born daughter of a mayor, who was initially married to a slave-servant, and later became a high-ranking concubine of Yeonsangun.", "Polygyny was common among Vikings, rich and powerful Viking men tended to have many wives and concubines. Viking men would often buy or capture women and make them into their wives or concubines. Researchers have suggested that Vikings may have originally started sailing and raiding due to a need to seek out women from foreign lands. Polygynous relationships in Viking society may have led to a shortage of eligible women for the average male, this is because polygyny increases male-male competition in society because it creates a pool of unmarried men who are willing to engage in risky status-elevating and sex seeking behaviors. Due to this, the average Viking man could have been forced to perform riskier actions to gain wealth and power to be able to find suitable women. The concept was expressed in the 11th century by historian Dudo of Saint-Quentin in his semi imaginary \"History of The Normans\". The Annals of Ulster depicts raptio and states that in 821 the Vikings plundered an Irish village and \"carried off a great number of women into captivity\".", "While most Ancient Egyptians were monogamous, a male pharaoh would have had other, lesser wives and concubines in addition to the Great Royal Wife. This arrangement would allow the pharaoh to enter into diplomatic marriages with the daughters of allies, as was the custom of ancient kings. Concubinage was a common occupation for women in ancient Egypt, especially for talented women. A request for forty concubines by Amenhotep III (c. 1386-1353 BCE) to a man named Milkilu, Prince of Gezer states:\"Behold, I have sent you Hanya, the commissioner of the archers, with merchandise in order to have beautiful concubines, i.e. weavers. Silver, gold, garments, all sort of precious stones, chairs of ebony, as well as all good things, worth 160 deben. In total: forty concubines - the price of every concubine is forty of silver. Therefore, send very beautiful concubines without blemish.\" - \"(Lewis, 146)\"Concubines would be kept in the pharaoh's harem. Amenhotep III kept his concubines in his palace at Malkata, which was one of the most opulent in the history of Egypt. The king was considered to be deserving of many women as long as he cared for his Great Royal Wife as well.", "", "In Ancient Greece the practice of keeping a concubine ( \"pallakís\") was common among the upper classes, and they were for the most part women who were slaves or foreigners, but occasional free born based on family arrangements (typically from poor families). Children produced by slaves remained slaves and those by non-slave concubines varied over time; sometimes they had the possibility of citizenship. The law prescribed that a man could kill another man caught attempting a relationship with his concubine. By the mid 4th century concubines could inherit property, but, like wives, they were treated as sexual property. While references to the sexual exploitation of maidservants appear in literature, it was considered disgraceful for a man to keep such women under the same roof as his wife. Apollodorus of Acharnae said that \"hetaera\" were concubines when they had a permanent relationship with a single man, but nonetheless used the two terms interchangably.", "Concubinage was an institution practiced in ancient Rome that allowed a man to enter into an informal but recognized relationship with a woman (\"concubina\", plural \"concubinae\") who was not his wife, most often a woman whose lower social status was an obstacle to marriage. Concubinage was \"tolerated to the degree that it did not threaten the religious and legal integrity of the family\". It was not considered derogatory to be called a \"concubina\", as the title was often inscribed on tombstones.", "", "In Judaism, a concubine is a marital companion of inferior status to a wife. Among the Israelites, men commonly acknowledged their concubines, and such women enjoyed the same rights in the house as legitimate wives.", "The term concubine did not necessarily refer to women after the first wife. A man could have many wives and concubines. Legally, any children born to a concubine were considered to be the children of the wife she was under. Sarah had to get Ishmael out of her house because legally Ishmael would always be the first born son even though Isaac was her natural child. The concubine may not have commanded the exact amount of respect as the wife. In the Levitical rules on sexual relations, the Hebrew word that is commonly translated as \"wife\" is distinct from the Hebrew word that means \"concubine\". However, on at least one other occasion the term is used to refer to a woman who is not a wife specifically, the handmaiden of Jacob's wife. In the Levitical code, sexual intercourse between a man and a wife of a different man was forbidden and punishable by death for both persons involved. Since it was regarded as the highest blessing to have many children, wives often gave their maids to their husbands if they were barren, as in the cases of Sarah and Hagar, and Rachel and Bilhah. The children of the concubine often had equal rights with those of the wife; for example, King Abimelech was the son of Gideon and his concubine. Later biblical figures such as Gideon, and Solomon had concubines in addition to many childbearing wives. For example, the Books of Kings say that Solomon had 700 wives and 300 concubines. The account of the unnamed Levite in Judges 19–20 shows that the taking of concubines was not the exclusive preserve of kings or patriarchs in Israel during the time of the Judges, and that the rape of a concubine was completely unacceptable to the Israelite nation and led to a civil war. In the story, the Levite appears to be an ordinary member of the tribe, whose concubine was a woman from Bethlehem in Judah. This woman was unfaithful, and eventually abandoned him to return to her paternal household. However, after four months, the Levite, referred to as her husband, decided to travel to her father's house to persuade his concubine to return. She is amenable to returning with him, and the father-in-law is very welcoming. The father-in-law convinces the Levite to remain several additional days, until the party leaves behind schedule in the late evening. The group pass up a nearby non-Israelite town to arrive very late in the city of Gibeah, which is in the land of the Benjaminites. The group sit around the town square, waiting for a local to invite them in for the evening, as was the custom for travelers. A local old man invites them to stay in his home, offering them guest right by washing their feet and offering them food. A band of wicked townsmen attack the house and demand the host send out the Levite man so they can have sex with him. The host offers to send out his virgin daughter as well as the Levite's concubine for them to rape, to avoid breaking guest right towards the Levite. Eventually, to ensure his own safety and that of his host, the Levite gives the men his concubine, who is raped and abused through the night, until she is left collapsed against the front door at dawn. In the morning, the Levite finds her when he tries to leave. When she fails to respond to her husband's order to get up, most likely because she is dead, the Levite places her on his donkey and continues home. Once home, he dismembers her body and distributes the 12 parts throughout the nation of Israel. The Israelites gather to learn why they were sent such grisly gifts, and are told of the sadistic rape of his concubine by the Levite. The crime is considered outrageous by the Israelite tribesmen, who then wreak total retribution on the men of Gibeah, as well as the surrounding tribe of Benjamin when they support the Gibeans, killing them without mercy and burning all their towns. The inhabitants of (the town of) Jabesh Gilead are then slaughtered as a punishment for not joining the eleven tribes in their war against the Benjaminites, and their four hundred unmarried daughters given in forced marriage to the six hundred Benjamite survivors. Finally, the two hundred Benjaminite survivors who still have no wives are granted a mass marriage by abduction by the other tribes.", "In Judaism, concubines are referred to by the Hebrew term pilegesh (). The term is a loanword from Ancient Greek, meaning \"a mistress staying in house\". According to the Babylonian Talmud, the difference between a concubine and a legitimate wife was that the latter received a ketubah and her marriage (\"nissu'in\") was preceded by an erusin (\"formal betrothal\"), which was not the case for a concubine. One opinion in the Jerusalem Talmud argues that the concubine should also receive a \"marriage contract\", but without a clause specifying a divorce settlement. According to Rashi, \"wives with kiddushin and ketubbah, concubines with kiddushin but without ketubbah\"; this reading is from the Jerusalem Talmud, Certain Jewish thinkers, such as Maimonides, believed that concubines were strictly reserved for royal leadership and thus that a commoner may not have a concubine. Indeed, such thinkers argued that commoners may not engage in any type of sexual relations outside of a marriage. Maimonides was not the first Jewish thinker to criticise concubinage. For example, Leviticus Rabbah severely condemns the custom. Other Jewish thinkers, such as Nahmanides, Samuel ben Uri Shraga Phoebus, and Jacob Emden, strongly objected to the idea that concubines should be forbidden. In the Hebrew of the contemporary State of Israel, \"pilegesh\" is often used as the equivalent of the English word \"mistress\"—i.e., the female partner in extramarital relations—regardless of legal recognition. Attempts have been initiated to popularise \"pilegesh\" as a form of premarital, non-marital or extramarital relationship (which, according to the perspective of the enacting person(s), is permitted by Jewish law).", "Concubinage according to Islamic sexual jurisprudence is not permitted because any sex before marriage is prohibited. Muslim scholars vehemently reject concubinage all along, which was not considered prostitution, and was very common during the Arab slave trade throughout the Middle Ages and early modern period, when women and girls from the Caucasus, Africa, Central Asia and Europe were captured and served as concubines in the harems of the Arab World. Ibn Battuta tells us several times that he was given or purchased female slaves. Concubinage is permitted and regulated in Islam. Al-Muminun 6 and Al-Maarij 30 both, in identical wording, draw a distinction between spouses and \"those whom one's right hands possess\" (concubines), saying \" أَزْوَاجِهِمْ أَوْ مَا مَلَكَتْ أَيْمَانُهُمْ\" (literally, \"their spouses or what their right hands possess\"), while clarifying that sexual intercourse with either is permissible. However both these surahs literal wording do not specifically use the term wife but instead the more general & both-gender including term \"spouse\" in the grammatically masculine plural (azwajihim), thus Mohammad Asad in his commentary to both these Surahs rules out concubinage due to the fact that \"\"since the term azwaj (\"spouses\"), too, denotes both the male and the female partners in marriage, there is no reason for attributing to the phrase aw ma malakat aymanuhum the meaning of \"their female slaves\"; and since, on the other hand, it is out of the question that female and male slaves could have been referred to here, it is obvious that this phrase does not relate to slaves at all, but has the same meaning as in 4:24 namely, \"those whom they rightfully possess through wedlock\" with the significant difference that in the present context this expression relates to both husbands and wives, who \"rightfully possess\" one another by virtue of marriage\".\" Following this approach, Mohammad Asads translation of the mentioned verses denotes a different picture, which is as follows: \"with any but their spouses - that is, those whom they rightfully possess [through wedlock]\". Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi explains that \"two categories of women have been excluded from the general command of guarding the private parts: (a) wives, (b) women who are legally in one's possession\". \"Concubine\" (\"surriyya\") refers to the female slave (\"jāriya\"), whether Muslim or non-Muslim, with whom her master engages in sexual intercourse. The word \"\"surriyya\"\" is not mentioned in the Qur'an. However, the expression \"Ma malakat aymanukum\" (that which your right hands own), which occurs fifteen times in the sacred book, refers to slaves and therefore, though not necessarily, to concubines. Concubinage was a pre-Islamic custom that was allowed to be practiced under Islam with Jews and non-Muslim people to marry concubine after teaching her and instructing her well and then giving them freedom. Rationale given for recognition of concubinage in Islam is that \"it satisfied the sexual desire of the female slaves and thereby prevented the spread of immorality in the Muslim community.\" Most schools restrict concubinage to a relationship where the female slave is required to be monogamous to her master (though the master's monogamy to her is not required), but according to Sikainga, \"in reality, however, female slaves in many Muslim societies were prey for [male] members of their owners' household, their [owner's male] neighbors, and their [owner's male] guests.\" Concubines were common in pre-Islamic Arabia and when Islam arrived, it had a society with concubines. Islam introduced legal restrictions to the concubinage and encouraged manumission. Islam furthermore endorsed educating, freeing and marrying female slaves. In verse 23:6 in the Quran it is allowed to have sexual intercourse with concubines after marrying them, as Islam forbids sexual intercourse outside of marriage. Children of former concubines were generally declared as legitimate with or without wedlock, and the mother of a free child was considered free upon the death of the male partner. According to Shia Muslims, Muhammad sanctioned Nikah mut‘ah (fixed-term marriage, called muta'a in Iraq and sigheh in Iran) which has instead been used as a legitimizing cover for sex workers, in a culture where prostitution is otherwise forbidden. Some Western writers have argued that mut'ah approximates prostitution. Julie Parshall writes that mut'ah is legalised prostitution which has been sanctioned by the Twelver Shia authorities. She quotes the Oxford encyclopedia of modern Islamic world to differentiate between marriage (nikah) and Mut'ah, and states that while nikah is for procreation, mut'ah is just for sexual gratification. According to Zeyno Baran, this kind of temporary marriage provides Shi'ite men with a religiously sanctioned equivalent to prostitution. According to Elena Andreeva's observation published in 2007, Russian travellers to Iran consider mut'ah to be \"legalized profligacy\" which is indistinguishable from prostitution. Religious supporters of mut'ah argue that temporary marriage is different from prostitution for a couple of reasons, including the necessity of iddah in case the couple have sexual intercourse. It means that if a woman marries a man in this way and has sex, she has to wait for a number of months before marrying again and therefore, a woman cannot marry more than 3 or 4 times in a year.", "In ancient times, two sources for concubines were permitted under an Islamic regime. Primarily, non-Muslim women taken as prisoners of war were made concubines as happened after the Battle of the Trench, or in numerous later Caliphates. It was encouraged to manumit slave women who rejected their initial faith and embraced Islam, or to bring them into formal marriage.", "According to the rules of Islamic Fiqh, what is \"halal\" (permitted) by Allah in the Quran cannot be altered by any authority or individual. It is further clarified that all domestic and organizational female employees are not concubines in this era and hence sex is forbidden with them unless Nikah, Nikah mut‘ah or Nikah Misyar is committed through the proper channels.", "When slavery became institutionalized in the North American colonies, white men, whether or not they were married, sometimes took enslaved women as concubines, children of such unions remained slaves. Marriage between the races was prohibited by law in the colonies and the later United States. Many colonies and states also had laws against miscegenation, or any interracial relations. From 1662 the Colony of Virginia, followed by others, incorporated into law the principle that children took their mother's status, i.e., the principle of \"partus sequitur ventrem\". This led to generations of multiracial slaves, some of whom were otherwise considered legally white (one-eighth or less African, equivalent to a great-grandparent) before the American Civil War. In some cases, men had long-term relationships with enslaved women, giving them and their mixed-race children freedom and providing their children with apprenticeships, education and transfer of capital. A relationship between Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings is an example of this. Such arrangements were more prevalent in the Southern states during the antebellum years.", "In Louisiana and former French territories, a formalized system of concubinage called \"plaçage\" developed. European men took enslaved or free women of color as mistresses after making arrangements to give them a dowry, house or other transfer of property, and sometimes, if they were enslaved, offering freedom and education for their children. A third class of free people of color developed, especially in New Orleans. Many became educated, artisans and property owners. French-speaking and practicing Catholicism, these women combined French and African-American culture and created an elite between those of European descent and the slaves. Today, descendants of the free people of color are generally called Louisiana Creole people." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Responsibilities.", "History.", "Discrepancies with definition.", "Recent growth of dramaturgies." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "One of the dramaturge's contributions is to categorize and discuss the various types of plays or operas, their interconnectedness and their styles. The responsibilities of a dramaturge vary from one theatre or opera company to the next. They might include the hiring of actors, the development of a season of plays or operas with a sense of coherence among them, assistance with and editing of new plays or operas by resident or guest playwrights or composers/librettists, the creation of programmes or accompanying educational services, helping the director with rehearsals, and serving as elucidator of history or spokesperson for deceased or otherwise absent playwrights or composers. At larger theatres or opera houses, the dramaturge works on the historical and cultural research into the play or opera and its setting. In theatre companies, a dramaturge will create a workbook for the director and actors (usually these are different) and work extensively with the director prior to the first rehearsal.", "Gotthold Ephraim Lessing was hired by the Hamburg National Theatre in 1767, to serve as the theatre's critic of plays and acting, a position which would later be named dramaturge. This position grew over time to what it is today, encompassing the wide variety of tasks seen by modern dramaturgies.", "The modern definition of \"dramaturge\" is often debated as to what specific tasks this job does, with some defining it as the bridge between the director and the actors, others defining it as one who determines the meaning of plays and shows for the actors, and others claiming that even they don't quite have a complete definition for their job. This discrepancy between dramaturgies is likely due to the lack of an official historical definition, and the wide variety of tasks that dramaturgies could be asked to work on, depending on the theatre, director, the show being produced, and the actors. Since Gotthold Ephraim Lessing didn't create an official definition for his own position at the Hamburg National Theatre, modern dramaturgies have to infer their tasks based on what Lessing did during his career, and adapt to the current needs of modern theatre.", "Since the year 2000, the number of dramaturgies working around the world has increased, albeit it still remains a fairly rare job to have. In 2000, 400 dramaturgies were recorded to be active in the United States, with that number growing. There are various possibilities for what is causing this growth, but some dramaturgies attribute the growth to the fact that dramaturgy combines two popular studies for young students: the liberal arts and theatre. Some dramaturgies are worried, however, that this growth may slow down, due to a decrease in the number of modern plays being written." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Proof.", "History.", "Prerequisites." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The following proof is attributed to Julius König. Assume without loss of generality that \"A\" and \"B\" are disjoint. For any \"a\" in \"A\" or \"b\" in \"B\" we can form a unique two-sided sequence of elements that are alternately in \"A\" and \"B\", by repeatedly applying formula_1 and formula_2 to go from \"A\" to \"B\" and formula_3 and formula_4 to go from \"B\" to \"A\" (where defined). For any particular \"a\", this sequence may terminate to the left or not, at a point where formula_4 or formula_2 is not defined. By the fact that formula_1 and formula_3 are injective functions, each \"a\" in \"A\" and \"b\" in \"B\" is in exactly one such sequence to within identity: if an element occurs in two sequences, all elements to the left and to the right must be the same in both, by the definition of the sequences. Therefore, the sequences form a partition of the (disjoint) union of \"A\" and \"B\". Hence it suffices to produce a bijection between the elements of \"A\" and \"B\" in each of the sequences separately, as follows: Call a sequence an \"A-stopper\" if it stops at an element of \"A\", or a \"B-stopper\" if it stops at an element of \"B\". Otherwise, call it \"doubly infinite\" if all the elements are distinct or \"cyclic\" if it repeats. See the picture for examples.", "The traditional name \"Schröder–Bernstein\" is based on two proofs published independently in 1898. Cantor is often added because he first stated the theorem in 1887, while Schröder's name is often omitted because his proof turned out to be flawed while the name of Richard Dedekind, who first proved it, is not connected with the theorem. According to Bernstein, Cantor had suggested the name \"equivalence theorem\" (Äquivalenzsatz). Both proofs of Dedekind are based on his famous 1888 memoir \"Was sind und was sollen die Zahlen?\" and derive it as a corollary of a proposition equivalent to statement C in Cantor's paper, which reads \"A\" ⊆ \"B\" ⊆ \"C\" and |\"A\"| = |\"C\"| implies |\"A\"| = |\"B\"| = |\"C\"|. Cantor observed this property as early as 1882/83 during his studies in set theory and transfinite numbers and was therefore (implicitly) relying on the Axiom of Choice.", "The 1895 proof by Cantor relied, in effect, on the axiom of choice by inferring the result as a corollary of the well-ordering theorem. However, König's proof given above shows that the result can also be proved without using the axiom of choice. On the other hand, König's proof uses the principle of excluded middle, to do the analysis into cases, so this proof does not work in constructive set theory. Even more, no proof at all can exist from constructive set theory alone (i.e. dispensing with the principle of excluded middle), since the Schröder–Bernstein theorem implies the principle of excluded middle. Therefore, intuitionists do not accept the theorem. There is also a proof which uses Tarski's fixed point theorem." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Technical information.", "Physical layer function.", "Connecting multiple hubs.", "Additional functions.", "Fast Ethernet classes.", "Dual-speed hub.", "Gigabit Ethernet hub.", "Uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "A network hub is an unsophisticated device in comparison with a switch. As a \"multiport repeater\" it works by repeating transmissions received from one of its ports to all other ports. It is aware of physical layer packets, that is it can detect their start (preamble), an idle line (interpacket gap) and sense a collision which it also propagates by sending a jam signal. A hub cannot further examine or manage any of the traffic that comes through it. A hub has no memory to store data and can handle only one transmission at a time. Therefore, hubs can only run in half duplex mode. Due to a larger collision domain, packet collisions are more likely in networks connected using hubs than in networks connected using more sophisticated devices.", "The need for hosts to be able to detect collisions limits the number of hubs and the total size of a network built using hubs (a network built using switches does not have these limitations). For 10 Mbit/s networks built using repeater hubs, the 5-4-3 rule must be followed: up to five segments (four hubs) are allowed between any two end stations. For 10BASE-T networks, up to five segments and four repeaters are allowed between any two hosts. For 100 Mbit/s networks, the limit is reduced to 3 segments (2 Class II hubs) between any two end stations, and even that is only allowed if the hubs are of Class II. Some hubs have manufacturer-specific stack ports allowing them to be combined in a way that allows more hubs than simple chaining through Ethernet cables, but even so, a large Fast Ethernet network is likely to require switches to avoid the chaining limits of hubs.", "Most hubs detect typical problems, such as excessive collisions and jabbering on individual ports, and \"partition\" the port, disconnecting it from the shared medium. Thus, hub-based twisted-pair Ethernet is generally more robust than coaxial cable-based Ethernet (e.g. 10BASE2), where a misbehaving device can adversely affect the entire collision domain. Even if not partitioned automatically, a hub simplifies troubleshooting because hubs remove the need to troubleshoot faults on a long cable with multiple taps; status lights on the hub can indicate the possible problem source or, as a last resort, devices can be disconnected from a hub one at a time much more easily than from a coaxial cable. To pass data through the repeater in a usable fashion from one segment to the next, the framing and data rate must be the same on each segment. This means that a repeater cannot connect an 802.3 segment (Ethernet) and an 802.5 segment (Token Ring) or a 10 Mbit/s segment to 100 Mbit/s Ethernet.", "100 Mbit/s hubs and repeaters come in two different speed grades: Class I delay the signal for a maximum of 140 bit times (enabling translation/recoding between 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-FX and 100BASE-T4) and Class II hubs delay the signal for a maximum of 92 bit times (enabling installation of two hubs in a single collision domain).", "In the early days of Fast Ethernet, Ethernet switches were relatively expensive devices. Hubs suffered from the problem that if there were any 10BASE-T devices connected then the whole network needed to run at 10 Mbit/s. Therefore, a compromise between a hub and a switch was developed, known as a dual-speed hub. These devices make use of an internal two-port switch, bridging the 10 Mbit/s and 100 Mbit/s segments. When a network device becomes active on any of the physical ports, the device attaches it to either the 10 Mbit/s segment or the 100 Mbit/s segment, as appropriate. This obviated the need for an all-or-nothing migration to Fast Ethernet networks. These devices are considered hubs because the traffic between devices connected at the same speed is not switched.", "Repeater hubs have been defined for Gigabit Ethernet but commercial products have failed to appear due to the industry's transition to switching.", "Historically, the main reason for purchasing hubs rather than switches was their price. This motivator has largely been eliminated by reductions in the price of switches, but hubs can still be useful in special circumstances:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Release.", "Contents.", "Cover and machine.", "Track listing.", "Side two." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The release of \"Relics\" occurred because the band's record company, EMI, were concerned that they had gone into the studio to record what would become \"Meddle\" without any songs or ideas, effectively starting from scratch. This, combined with their ever-increasing touring schedule, made EMI realise that no new product would be released for some time, possibly not until well over a year after completing their previous album, \"Atom Heart Mother\". In order to issue some more \"product\" for fans, they decided to release a budget priced LP on their Starline label, combining early singles, B-sides, album tracks and one unreleased number, \"Biding My Time\". The compilation contains material from the first three albums, \"The Piper at the Gates of Dawn\", \"A Saucerful of Secrets\" and \"More\". \"Relics\" has been re-released on numerous occasions, and at times without the proper authority. One such incident involved EMI Australia releasing the album without the band's consent. This led to the LP being withdrawn and, as a result, the album became a rarity. \"Relics\" was made readily available again when it was officially issued on CD in 1996. \"Relics\" was reissued again on CD on 17 June 2016, featuring the original sketch artwork cover and containing the same mastering as the 1996 edition.", "\"Relics\" was most noted for its inclusion of the band's first two Syd Barrett-era hit singles, \"Arnold Layne\" and \"See Emily Play\". Due to the lack of available stereo masters, both tracks were reprocessed into Duophonic stereo for the album's original release (the 1996 CD release reverts to the original mono mixes). Also included were the B-sides of the three follow-up singles, with the tracks \"Paintbox\", \"Julia Dream\" and \"Careful with That Axe, Eugene\" appearing in true stereo. \"Relics\" has the only CD release of \"Paintbox\" that has the same length (3:33) that the original single version had; on the albums \"The Early Singles\" (1992, part of \"Shine On\"), \"\" (1997), and the 40th anniversary edition of \"The Piper at the Gates of Dawn\" (2007), it fades out about 13 seconds later. The album also includes a previously unreleased studio recording of a Roger Waters composition, \"Biding My Time\", which had otherwise only been heard by live audiences as part of the \"Man and the Journey\" concert sequence. The album was not a definitive collection of non-album material, as several single A-sides were omitted (\"Apples and Oranges,\" \"It Would Be So Nice\" and \"Point Me at the Sky\"), as well as one B-side (\"Candy and a Currant Bun\"). Until this was rectified with the release of \"The Early Singles\" (1992), it was left to bootlegs such as \"The Dark Side of the Moo\" to plug the gap.", "The album cover was designed by drummer Nick Mason, and was inspired by his time studying architecture at the Regent Street Polytechnic. In 2008, Mason sold a limited edition of 195 signed prints of this cover. In addition to variations on the original design, the album was released in several countries with different artwork. The four-eyed face on the original US album cover was an antique bottle opener. When the album was released on CD, former Hipgnosis partner Storm Thorgerson had a real-life version of the contraption on the cover made and presented it to Mason. It is still in Mason's office. Both Thorgerson and his assistant, Peter Curzon, came up with the idea after viewing the head sculpture which appeared on the album sleeve of \"The Division Bell\", constructed by John Robertson. While the 2016 CD reissue by Pink Floyd Records reverted to the original sketch cover, it also contains photographs of the three-dimensional object inside the booklet. In May 2019, for the 48th anniversary of the album's release, Nick Mason's official Twitter account, as well as the official Pink Floyd Facebook page, posted a fan made animation of the original cover art. This animated tribute was made by Scandinavian artist Alex Teglbj. ærg.", "", "The Capitol reissue of the cassette (4N-16234) is in original order." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Recording.", "Composition.", "Packaging.", "Release.", "Critical reception.", "Personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Returning from a series of tours across America and England in support of \"Atom Heart Mother\", at the start of 1971 Pink Floyd commenced work on new material at Abbey Road Studios in London. At the time, Abbey Road was equipped only with eight-track multitrack recording facilities, which the band found insufficient for the increasing technical demands of their project. They transferred their best efforts, including the opening of what became \"Echoes\", to 16-track tape at smaller studios in London (namely AIR, and Morgan in West Hampstead) and resumed work with the advantage of more flexible recording equipment. Engineers John Leckie and Peter Bown recorded the main Abbey Road and AIR sessions, while for minor work at Morgan, Rob Black and Roger Quested handled the engineering duties. Lacking a central theme for the project, the band used several experimental methods in an attempt to spur the creative process. One exercise involved each member playing on a separate track, with no reference to what the other members were doing. The tempo was entirely random while the band played around an agreed chord structure, and moods such as \"first two minutes romantic, next two up tempo\". Each recorded section was named, but the process was largely unproductive; after several weeks, no complete songs had been created. Leckie had worked on albums such as George Harrison's \"All Things Must Pass\" and Ringo Starr's \"Sentimental Journey\", and was employed as a tape-operator on \"Meddle\", partly for his proclivity for working into the early hours of the morning. He has said that Pink Floyd's sessions would often begin in the afternoon, and end early the next morning, \"during which time nothing would get done. There was no record company contact whatsoever, except when their label manager would show up now and again with a couple of bottles of wine and a couple of joints.\" The band would apparently spend long periods of time working on simple sounds, or a particular guitar riff. They also spent several days at AIR attempting to create music using a variety of household objects, a project which would be revisited between their next albums, \"The Dark Side of the Moon\" and \"Wish You Were Here\". Following these early experiments – called \"Nothings\" – the band developed \"Son of Nothings\", which was followed by \"Return of the Son of Nothings\" as the working title of the new album. One of these early works involved the use of Richard Wright's piano. Wright had fed a single note through a Leslie speaker, producing a submarine-like ping. The band tried repeatedly to recreate this sound in the studio but were unsuccessful, and so the demo version was used on what would later become \"Echoes\", mixed almost exclusively at AIR Studios. Combined with David Gilmour's guitar, the band were able to develop the track further, experimenting with accidental sound effects (such as Gilmour's guitar being plugged into a wah-wah pedal back to front, an effect they used live from 1970 for the central section of “Embryo”). Unlike with \"Atom Heart Mother\", the new multi-track capabilities of the studio enabled them to create the track in stages, rather than performing it in a single take. The final, 23-minute piece would eventually take up the entire second side of the album. \"One of These Days\" was developed around an ostinato bassline created by Roger Waters, by feeding the output through a Binson Echorec. The bassline was performed by Waters and Gilmour using two bass guitars, one on old strings. Drummer Nick Mason's abstruse \"One of these days I'm going to cut you into little pieces\" vocal line was recorded at double speed using a falsetto voice, and replayed at normal speed. \"Meddle\" was recorded between the band's various concert commitments, and therefore its production was spread over a considerable period of time. The band recorded in the first half of April 1971, but in the latter half played at Doncaster and Norwich before returning to record at the end of the month. In May they split their time between sessions at Abbey Road, and rehearsals and concerts in London, Lancaster, Stirling, Edinburgh, Glasgow and Nottingham. June and July were spent mainly performing at venues across Europe. August was spent in the far east and Australia, September in Europe, and October to November in the US. In the same period, the group also produced \"Relics\", a compilation album of some of Pink Floyd's earlier works. A quadraphonic mix of the album was prepared at Command Studios on 21 and 26 September, but remains unreleased. New 2016 stereo and 5.1 mixes of the album were inadvertently released as hidden tracks on the Reverberation Blu-ray disc in The Early Years box set.", "Although the tracks possess a variety of moods, \"Meddle\" is generally considered more cohesive than its 1970 predecessor, \"Atom Heart Mother\". The largely instrumental \"One of These Days\" is followed by \"A Pillow of Winds\", which is distinguished by being one of the few quiet, acoustic love songs in the Pink Floyd catalogue. These two songs segue into each other across windy sound effects, anticipating the technique that would later be used on \"Wish You Were Here\". The title of \"A Pillow of Winds\" was inspired by the games of Mahjong that Waters, Mason, and their wives played while in the south of France. The song \"Fearless\" includes field recordings of the Liverpool F.C. Kop singing \"You'll Never Walk Alone\", their anthem, which brings the song to an end in a heavily reverberated fade-out. \"San Tropez\", by contrast, is a jazz-inflected pop song with a shuffle tempo, composed by Waters in his increasingly deployed style of breezy, off-the-cuff songwriting. The song was inspired by the band's trip to the south of France in 1970. Pink Floyd uncharacteristically displayed their sense of humour with \"Seamus\", a pseudo-blues novelty track featuring Steve Marriott's dog (which Gilmour was looking after) howling along to the music. Although \"Seamus\" often tops polls of the worst songs Pink Floyd ever created, the band would use animal sounds again on \"Animals\". The final song on the album is the 23-minute \"Echoes\". First performed as \"Return of the Son of Nothing\" on 22 April 1971 in Norwich, the band spent about six months on the track in three studios (Morgan, AIR and Abbey Road). The track opens with Wright's \"ping\". \"Echoes\" was recorded almost entirely at AIR Studios, and completed in July 1971. In the background of the track a Shepard tone can be heard. \"Echoes\" also gave its name to the compilation album \"\", on which a much-edited version of the title track was included. On the compilation, multiple edits throughout the entire song cut the running length of the piece down by some seven minutes. Some of the material composed during the creation of \"Meddle\" was not used; however, one song would eventually become \"Brain Damage\", on \"The Dark Side of the Moon\".", "The album's title \"Meddle\" is a play on words: a medal, and to interfere. Storm Thorgerson of the art-design group Hipgnosis originally suggested a close-up shot of a baboon's anus for the album cover photograph. He was overruled by the band, who informed him via an intercontinental telephone call while on tour in Japan that they would rather have \"an ear underwater\". The cover image was photographed by Bob Dowling. The image represents an ear, underwater, collecting waves of sound (represented by ripples in the water). Thorgerson later expressed dissatisfaction with the cover, claiming it to be his least favourite Pink Floyd album sleeve: \"I think \"Meddle\" is a much better album than its cover\". Thorgerson's colleague Aubrey Powell shared his sentiments, saying: \"\"Meddle\" was a mess. I hated that cover. I don't think we did them justice with that at all; it's half-hearted.\" The gatefold contains a group photograph of the band (Floyd's last until 1987's \"A Momentary Lapse of Reason\").", "\"Meddle\" was released on 31 October 1971 in the US, and 13 November in the UK. \"Meddle\" was later released as a remastered LP by Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab, and in April 1989 on their \"Ultradisc\" gold CD format. The album was included as part of the box set \"Shine On\" on 2 November 1992. Although in the UK it reached number three, lacklustre publicity on the part of Capitol Records led to weak sales in the US, and a chart position of number 70. \"Pink Floyd had a strong following in the UK and other parts of Europe,\" recalled Rupert Perry, then head of A&R at Capitol. \"But they needed to be bigger in the United States, where they were only doing 200,000 units. They were very much an album act – no singles – which was bad news for us. They had a high credibility factor without the sales.\" On 29 November 1971, \"One of These Days\" was released as a 7-inch single in the US, with \"Fearless\" on the B-side. \"One of These Days\" and \"Echoes\" were performed during \"Live At Pompeii\" (the latter in two parts) and also on the BBC's 1971 \"In Concert\". \"Meddle\" was later certified gold by the RIAA on 29 October 1973 and then double platinum on 11 March 1994, following the added attention garnered by the band's later successes in the United States.", "On release, \"Meddle\" received generally positive reviews from music critics. \"Rolling Stone\"s Jean-Charles Costa wrote: \"\"Meddle\" not only confirms lead guitarist David Gilmour's emergence as a real shaping force with the group, it states forcefully and accurately that the group is well into the growth track again\", and the \"NME\" called it \"an exceptionally good album\". Steve Peterson of \"Hit Parader\" cited \"Fearless\" as its best song and said of the album, \"This has got to be their best ever.\" Ed Kelleher of \"Circus\" called it \"another masterpiece by a masterful group\", noting \"Fearless\" as \"fascinating\" and praising \"Echoes\" as \"a tone poem that allows all four group members much time to stretch their muscles\". However, \"Melody Maker\" was more reserved, describing it as \"a soundtrack to a non-existent movie\". In \"\" (1981), Robert Christgau said \"Meddle\" was a fairly good progression over the group's previous work and featured folk songs highlighted by unique melodies, although he lamented the lyrics to \"A Pillow of Winds\": \"The word 'behold' should never cross their filters again\". In his critique of \"Echoes\", he believed the lyrics imitate \"Across the Universe\" by the Beatles but over 23 minutes of music that flows with a \"timeless calm\" similar to \"Interstellar Overdrive\". Daryl Easlea of BBC felt it was a similar, but more consistent and tuneful version of \"Atom Heart Mother\" highlighted by \"Echoes\", which he said \"dominates the entire work\" and is \"everything right about progressive rock; engaging, intelligent and compelling\". In \"The New Rolling Stone Album Guide\" (2004), Rob Sheffield said \"Echoes\" showed Pink Floyd to be a more developed group than before, \"coloring the slow guitar ripples with deep-in-the-studio sonic details that only the truly baked would notice, much less appreciate.\" Writing for AllMusic, editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine called \"Meddle\" the best album from their transitional years leading up to \"The Dark Side of the Moon\", as it \"spends most of its time with sonic textures and elongated compositions, most notably on its epic closer, 'Echoes'\". He noted a \"uniform tone\", but not song structure, and wrote of the album's significance in the group's catalogue: \"Pink Floyd were nothing if not masters of texture, and \"Meddle\" is one of their greatest excursions into little details, pointing the way to the measured brilliance of \"Dark Side of the Moon\" and the entire Roger Waters era.\" It was voted number 255 in the third edition of Colin Larkin's \"All Time Top 1000 Albums\" (2000).", "Credits adapted from sleeve notes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Encryption details.", "Authentication.", "Weak security.", "Remedies.", "802.11i (WPA and WPA2).", "Implemented non-standard fixes.", "WEP2.", "WEPplus.", "Dynamic WEP." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "WEP was ratified as a Wi-Fi security standard in 1999. The first versions of WEP were not particularly strong, even for the time they were released, because U.S. restrictions on the export of various cryptographic technology led to manufacturers restricting their devices to only 64-bit encryption. When the restrictions were lifted, it was increased to 128-bit. Despite the introduction of 256-bit WEP, 128-bit remains one of the most common implementations.", "WEP was included as the privacy component of the original IEEE 802.11 standard ratified in 1997. WEP uses the stream cipher RC4 for confidentiality, and the CRC-32 checksum for integrity. It was deprecated in 2004 and is documented in the current standard. Standard 64-bit WEP uses a 40 bit key (also known as WEP-40), which is concatenated with a 24-bit initialization vector (IV) to form the RC4 key. At the time that the original WEP standard was drafted, the U.S. Government's export restrictions on cryptographic technology limited the key size. Once the restrictions were lifted, manufacturers of access points implemented an extended 128-bit WEP protocol using a 104-bit key size (WEP-104). A 64-bit WEP key is usually entered as a string of 10 hexadecimal (base 16) characters (0–9 and A–F). Each character represents 4 bits, 10 digits of 4 bits each gives 40 bits; adding the 24-bit IV produces the complete 64-bit WEP key (4 bits × 10 + 24 bits IV = 64 bits of WEP key). Most devices also allow the user to enter the key as 5 ASCII characters (0–9, a–z, A–Z), each of which is turned into 8 bits using the character's byte value in ASCII (8 bits × 5 + 24 bits IV = 64 bits of WEP key); however, this restricts each byte to be a printable ASCII character, which is only a small fraction of possible byte values, greatly reducing the space of possible keys. A 128-bit WEP key is usually entered as a string of 26 hexadecimal characters. 26 digits of 4 bits each gives 104 bits; adding the 24-bit IV produces the complete 128-bit WEP key (4 bits × 26 + 24 bits IV = 128 bits of WEP key). Most devices also allow the user to enter it as 13 ASCII characters (8 bits × 13 + 24 bits IV = 128 bits of WEP key). A 152-bit and a 256-bit WEP systems are available from some vendors. As with the other WEP variants, 24 bits of that is for the IV, leaving 128 or 232 bits for actual protection. These 128 or 232 bits are typically entered as 32 or 58 hexadecimal characters (4 bits × 32 + 24 bits IV = 152 bits of WEP key, 4 bits × 58 + 24 bits IV = 256 bits of WEP key). Most devices also allow the user to enter it as 16 or 29 ASCII characters (8 bits × 16 + 24 bits IV = 152 bits of WEP key, 8 bits × 29 + 24 bits IV = 256 bits of WEP key).", "Two methods of authentication can be used with WEP: Open System authentication and Shared Key authentication. In Open System authentication, the WLAN client does not provide its credentials to the Access Point during authentication. Any client can authenticate with the Access Point and then attempt to associate. In effect, no authentication occurs. Subsequently, WEP keys can be used for encrypting data frames. At this point, the client must have the correct keys. In Shared Key authentication, the WEP key is used for authentication in a four-step challenge-response handshake: After the authentication and association, the pre-shared WEP key is also used for encrypting the data frames using RC4. At first glance, it might seem as though Shared Key authentication is more secure than Open System authentication, since the latter offers no real authentication. However, it is quite the reverse. It is possible to derive the keystream used for the handshake by capturing the challenge frames in Shared Key authentication. Therefore, data can be more easily intercepted and decrypted with Shared Key authentication than with Open System authentication. If privacy is a primary concern, it is more advisable to use Open System authentication for WEP authentication, rather than Shared Key authentication; however, this also means that any WLAN client can connect to the AP. (Both authentication mechanisms are weak; Shared Key WEP is deprecated in favor of WPA/WPA2.)", "Because RC4 is a stream cipher, the same traffic key must never be used twice. The purpose of an IV, which is transmitted as plain text, is to prevent any repetition, but a 24-bit IV is not long enough to ensure this on a busy network. The way the IV was used also opened WEP to a related key attack. For a 24-bit IV, there is a 50% probability the same IV will repeat after 5,000 packets. In August 2001, Scott Fluhrer, Itsik Mantin, and Adi Shamir published a cryptanalysis of WEP that exploits the way the RC4 ciphers and IV are used in WEP, resulting in a passive attack that can recover the RC4 key after eavesdropping on the network. Depending on the amount of network traffic, and thus the number of packets available for inspection, a successful key recovery could take as little as one minute. If an insufficient number of packets are being sent, there are ways for an attacker to send packets on the network and thereby stimulate reply packets which can then be inspected to find the key. The attack was soon implemented, and automated tools have since been released. It is possible to perform the attack with a personal computer, off-the-shelf hardware and freely available software such as aircrack-ng to crack \"any\" WEP key in minutes. Cam-Winget et al. surveyed a variety of shortcomings in WEP. They write \"\"Experiments in the field show that, with proper equipment, it is practical to eavesdrop on WEP-protected networks from distances of a mile or more from the target.\"\" They also reported two generic weaknesses: In 2005, a group from the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation gave a demonstration where they cracked a WEP-protected network in three minutes using publicly available tools. Andreas Klein presented another analysis of the RC4 stream cipher. Klein showed that there are more correlations between the RC4 keystream and the key than the ones found by Fluhrer, Mantin and Shamir which can additionally be used to break WEP in WEP-like usage modes. In 2006, Bittau, Handley, and Lackey showed that the 802.11 protocol itself can be used against WEP to enable earlier attacks that were previously thought impractical. After eavesdropping a single packet, an attacker can rapidly bootstrap to be able to transmit arbitrary data. The eavesdropped packet can then be decrypted one byte at a time (by transmitting about 128 packets per byte to decrypt) to discover the local network IP addresses. Finally, if the 802.11 network is connected to the Internet, the attacker can use 802.11 fragmentation to replay eavesdropped packets while crafting a new IP header onto them. The access point can then be used to decrypt these packets and relay them on to a buddy on the Internet, allowing real-time decryption of WEP traffic within a minute of eavesdropping the first packet. In 2007, Erik Tews, Andrei Pychkine, and Ralf-Philipp Weinmann were able to extend Klein's 2005 attack and optimize it for usage against WEP. With the new attack it is possible to recover a 104-bit WEP key with probability 50% using only 40,000 captured packets. For 60,000 available data packets, the success probability is about 80% and for 85,000 data packets about 95%. Using active techniques like deauth and ARP re-injection, 40,000 packets can be captured in less than one minute under good conditions. The actual computation takes about 3 seconds and 3 MB of main memory on a Pentium-M 1.7 GHz and can additionally be optimized for devices with slower CPUs. The same attack can be used for 40-bit keys with an even higher success probability. In 2008 the Payment Card Industry (PCI) Security Standards Council updated the Data Security Standard (DSS) to prohibit use of WEP as part of any credit-card processing after 30 June 2010, and prohibit any new system from being installed that uses WEP after 31 March 2009. The use of WEP contributed to the TJ Maxx parent company network invasion.", "Use of encrypted tunneling protocols (e.g. IPSec, Secure Shell) can provide secure data transmission over an insecure network. However, replacements for WEP have been developed with the goal of restoring security to the wireless network itself.", "The recommended solution to WEP security problems is to switch to WPA2. WPA was an intermediate solution for hardware that could not support WPA2. Both WPA and WPA2 are much more secure than WEP. To add support for WPA or WPA2, some old Wi-Fi access points might need to be replaced or have their firmware upgraded. WPA was designed as an interim software-implementable solution for WEP that could forestall immediate deployment of new hardware. However, TKIP (the basis of WPA) has reached the end of its designed lifetime, has been partially broken, and had been officially deprecated with the release of the 802.11-2012 standard.", "", "This stopgap enhancement to WEP was present in some of the early 802.11i drafts. It was implementable on \"some\" (not all) hardware not able to handle WPA or WPA2, and extended both the IV and the key values to 128 bits. It was hoped to eliminate the duplicate IV deficiency as well as stop brute force key attacks. After it became clear that the overall WEP algorithm was deficient (and not just the IV and key sizes) and would require even more fixes, both the WEP2 name and original algorithm were dropped. The two extended key lengths remained in what eventually became WPA's TKIP.", "WEPplus, also known as WEP+, is a proprietary enhancement to WEP by Agere Systems (formerly a subsidiary of Lucent Technologies) that enhances WEP security by avoiding \"weak IVs\". It is only completely effective when WEPplus is used at \"both ends\" of the wireless connection. As this cannot easily be enforced, it remains a serious limitation. It also does not necessarily prevent replay attacks, and is ineffective against later statistical attacks that do not rely on weak IVs.", "Dynamic WEP refers to the combination of 802.1x technology and the Extensible Authentication Protocol. Dynamic WEP changes WEP keys dynamically. It is a vendor-specific feature provided by several vendors such as 3Com. The dynamic change idea made it into 802.11i as part of TKIP, but not for the actual WEP algorithm." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Concept.", "Recording.", "Instrumentation.", "Voices.", "Completion.", "Packaging.", "Release.", "Label.", "Sales.", "Re-issues and remastering.", "Legacy.", "Personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Following \"Meddle\" in 1971, Pink Floyd assembled for a tour of Britain, Japan and the United States in December of that year. In a band meeting at drummer Nick Mason's home in Camden, bassist Roger Waters proposed that a new album could form part of the tour. Waters' idea was for an album that dealt with things that \"make people mad\", focusing on the pressures faced by the band during their arduous lifestyle, and dealing with the apparent mental problems suffered by former band member Syd Barrett. The band had explored a similar idea with 1969's \"The Man\" and \"The Journey\". In an interview for \"Rolling Stone\", guitarist David Gilmour said: \"I think we all thought – and Roger definitely thought – that a lot of the lyrics that we had been using were a little too indirect. There was definitely a feeling that the words were going to be very clear and specific.\" Generally, all four members agreed that Waters' album concept unified by a single theme was a good idea. Waters, Gilmour, Mason and keyboardist Richard Wright participated in the writing and production of the new material, and Waters created the early demo tracks at his Islington home in a small studio built in his garden shed. Parts of the new album were taken from previously unused material; the opening line of \"Breathe\" came from an earlier work by Waters and Ron Geesin, written for the soundtrack of \"The Body\", and the basic structure of \"Us and Them\" borrowed from an original composition by Wright for \"Zabriskie Point\". The band rehearsed at a warehouse in London owned by the Rolling Stones, and", "\"The Dark Side of the Moon\" built upon experiments Pink Floyd had attempted in their previous live shows and recordings, but lacks the extended instrumental excursions which, according to critic David Fricke, had become characteristic of the band after founding member Syd Barrett left in 1968. Gilmour, Barrett's replacement, later referred to those instrumentals as \"that psychedelic noodling stuff\", and with Waters cited 1971's \"Meddle\" as a turning-point towards what would be realised on the album. \"The Dark Side of the Moon\"s lyrical themes include conflict, greed, the passage of time, death, and insanity, the latter inspired in part by Barrett's deteriorating mental state. The album contains musique concrète on several tracks. Each side of the album is a continuous piece of music. The five tracks on each side reflect various stages of human life, beginning and ending with a heartbeat, exploring the nature of the human experience, and (according to Waters) \"empathy\". \"Speak to Me\" and \"Breathe\" together stress the mundane and futile elements of life that accompany the", "The album was recorded at Abbey Road Studios, in two sessions, between May 1972 and January 1973. The band were assigned staff engineer Alan Parsons, who had worked as assistant tape operator on their album \"Atom Heart Mother\" and gained experience as a recording engineer on the Beatles' \"Abbey Road\" and \"Let It Be\". The recording sessions made use of advanced studio techniques; the studio was capable of 16-track mixes, which offered a greater degree of flexibility than the eight- or four-track mixes Pink Floyd had previously used, although they often used so many tracks that to make more space available second-generation copies were made. The first track recorded, on 1 June, was \"Us and Them\", followed six days later by \"Money\". Waters had created effects loops from recordings of various money-related objects, including coins thrown into a mixing bowl taken from his wife's pottery studio; these were rerecorded to take advantage of the band's decision to record a quadraphonic mix of the album (Parsons has since expressed dissatisfaction with the result of this mix, attributed to a lack of time and the paucity of available multi-track tape recorders). \"Time\" and \"The Great Gig in the Sky\" were recorded next, followed by a two-month break, during which the band spent time with their families and prepared for an upcoming tour of the US. The recording sessions suffered regular interruptions; Waters, a supporter of Arsenal F.C., would often break to see his team compete, and the band would occasionally stop work to watch \"Monty Python's Flying Circus\" on the television, leaving Parsons to work on material recorded up to that point. Gilmour has, however, disputed this claim; in an interview in 2003 he said: \"We would sometimes watch them but when we were on a roll, we would get on.\" Returning from the US in January 1973, they recorded \"Brain Damage\", \"Eclipse\", \"Any Colour You Like\" and \"On the Run\", while fine-tuning the work they had already laid down in the previous sessions. A foursome of female vocalists was assembled to sing on \"Brain Damage\", \"Eclipse\" and \"Time\", and saxophonist Dick Parry was booked to play on \"Us and Them\" and \"Money\". With director Adrian Maben, the band also filmed studio footage for \"\". Once the recording sessions were complete, the band began a tour of Europe.", "The album features metronomic sound effects during \"Speak to Me\", and tape loops opening \"Money\". Mason created a rough version of \"Speak to Me\" at his home, before completing it in the studio. The track serves as an overture and contains cross-fades of elements from other pieces on the album. A piano chord, replayed backwards, serves to augment the build-up of effects, which are immediately followed by the opening of \"Breathe\". Mason received a rare solo composing credit for \"Speak to Me\". The sound effects on \"Money\" were created by splicing together Waters' recordings of clinking coins, tearing paper, a ringing cash register, and a clicking adding machine, which were used to create a 7-beat effects loop (later adapted to four tracks in order to create a \"walk around the room\" effect in quadraphonic presentations of the album). At times the", "Several tracks, including \"Us and Them\" and \"Time\", demonstrated Richard Wright's and David Gilmour's ability to harmonise their voices. In the 2003 Classic Albums documentary \"The Making of The Dark Side of the Moon\", Waters attributed this to the fact that their voices sounded extremely similar. To take advantage of this, Parsons utilised studio techniques such as the double tracking of vocals and guitars, which allowed Gilmour to harmonise with himself. The engineer also made prominent use of flanging and phase shifting effects on vocals and instruments, odd trickery with reverb, and the panning of sounds between channels (most notable in the quadraphonic mix of \"On the Run\", when the sound of the Hammond B3 organ played through a", "Following the completion of the dialogue sessions, producer Chris Thomas was hired to provide \"a fresh pair of ears\". Thomas's background was in music, rather than engineering. He had worked with Beatles producer George Martin, and was acquainted with Pink Floyd's manager Steve O'Rourke. All four members of the band were engaged in a disagreement over the style of the mix, with Waters and Mason preferring a \"dry\" and \"clean\" mix which made more use of the non-musical elements, and Gilmour and Wright preferring a subtler and more \"echoey\" mix. Thomas", "The album was originally released in a gatefold LP sleeve designed by Hipgnosis and George Hardie. Hipgnosis had designed several of the band's previous albums, with controversial results; EMI had reacted with confusion when faced with the cover designs for \"Atom Heart Mother\" and \"Obscured by Clouds\", as they had expected to see traditional designs which included lettering and words. Designers Storm Thorgerson and Aubrey Powell were able to ignore such criticism as they were employed by the band. For \"The Dark Side of the Moon\", Richard Wright instructed them to come up with something \"smarter, neater – more classy\". The design was inspired by a photograph of a prism with a colour beam projected through it that Thorgerson had found in a photography book. The artwork was created by their associate, George Hardie. Hipgnosis offered the band a choice", "As the quadraphonic mix of the album was not then complete, the band (with the exception of Wright) boycotted the press reception held at the London Planetarium on 27 February. The guests were, instead, presented with a quartet of life-sized cardboard cut-outs of the band, and the stereo mix of the album was presented through a poor-quality public address system. Generally, however, the press were enthusiastic; \"Melody Maker\"s Roy Hollingworth described side one as \"so utterly confused with itself it was difficult to follow\", but praised side two, writing: \"The songs, the sounds, the rhythms were solid and sound, Saxophone hit the air, the band rocked and rolled, and then gushed and tripped away into the night.\" Steve Peacock of \"Sounds\" wrote: \"I don't care if you've never heard a note of the Pink Floyd's music in your life, I'd unreservedly recommend everyone to \"The Dark Side of the Moon\"\". In his 1973 review for \"Rolling Stone\" magazine, Loyd Grossman declared \"Dark Side\" \"a fine album with a textural and conceptual richness that not only invites, but demands involvement\". In \"\" (1981), Robert Christgau found its lyrical ideas clichéd and its music pretentious, but called it a \"kitsch masterpiece\" that can be charming with highlights such as taped speech fragments, Parry's saxophone, and studio effects which enhance Gilmour's guitar solos. \"The Dark Side of the Moon\" was released first in the US on 1 March 1973, and then in the UK on 16 March. It became an instant chart success in Britain and throughout Western Europe; by the following month, it had gained a gold certification in the US. Throughout March 1973 the band played the album as part of their US tour, including a midnight performance at Radio City Music Hall in New York City on 17 March before an audience of 6,000. The album reached the \"Billboard\" Top LPs & Tape chart's number one spot on 28 April 1973, and was so successful that the band returned two months later for another tour.", "Much of the album's early American success is attributed to the efforts of Pink Floyd's US record company, Capitol Records. Newly appointed chairman Bhaskar Menon set about trying to reverse the relatively poor sales of the band's 1971 studio album \"Meddle\". Meanwhile, disenchanted with Capitol, the band and manager O'Rourke had been quietly negotiating a new contract with CBS president Clive Davis, on Columbia Records. \"The Dark Side of the Moon\" was the last album that Pink Floyd were obliged to release before formally signing a new contract. Menon's enthusiasm for the new album was such that he began a huge promotional advertising campaign, which included radio-friendly truncated versions of \"Us and Them\" and \"Time\". In some countries – notably the", "\"The Dark Side of the Moon\" became one of the best-selling albums of all time and is in the top 25 of a list of best-selling albums in the United States. Although it held the number one spot in the US for only a week, it remained in the \"Billboard\" album chart for 741 weeks from 1973 to 1988. The album re-appeared on the \"Billboard\" charts with the introduction of the Top Pop Catalog Albums chart in May 1991, and has been", "In 1979, \"The Dark Side of the Moon\" was released as a remastered LP by Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab, and in April 1988 on their \"Ultradisc\" gold CD format. The album was released by EMI and Harvest on the then-new compact disc format in Japan in June 1983, in the US and Europe in August 1984, and in 1992 it was re-released as a remastered CD in the box set \"Shine On\". This version was re-released as a 20th anniversary box set edition with postcards the following year. The cover design was again by Storm Thorgerson, the designer of the original 1973 cover. On some pressings, a faintly audible orchestral version of the Beatles' \"Ticket to Ride\" can be heard after \"Eclipse\" over the album's closing heartbeats. The original quadraphonic mix, created by Alan Parsons, was commissioned by EMI but never endorsed by Pink Floyd, as Parsons was disappointed with his mix. To celebrate the album's 30th anniversary, an updated surround version was released in 2003. The band elected not to use Parsons' quadraphonic mix (done shortly after the original release), and instead had engineer James Guthrie create a new 5.1 channel surround sound mix on", "The success of the album brought wealth to all four members of the band; Richard Wright and Roger Waters bought large country houses, and Nick Mason became a collector of upmarket cars. Some of the profits were invested in the production of \"Monty Python and the Holy Grail\". Engineer Alan Parsons received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Engineered Recording, Non-Classical for \"The Dark Side of the Moon\", and he went on to have a successful career as a recording artist with the Alan Parsons Project. Although Waters and Gilmour have on occasion downplayed his contribution to the success of the album, Mason has praised his role. In 2003, Parsons reflected: \"I think they all felt that I managed to hang the rest of my career on \"Dark Side of the Moon\", which has an element of truth to it. But I still wake up occasionally, frustrated about the fact that they made untold millions and a lot of the people involved in the record didn't.\" Part of the legacy of \"The Dark Side of the Moon\" is in its influence on modern music, in the musicians who have performed cover versions of its songs, and in a modern urban myth, the Dark Side of the Rainbow. Its release is often seen as a pivotal point in the history of rock music, and comparisons are sometimes made with Radiohead's 1997 album \"OK Computer\", including a premise explored by Ben Schleifer in \"'Speak to Me': The Legacy of Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon\" (2006) that the two albums share a theme that \"the creative individual loses the ability to function in the [modern] world\". In a 2018 book about classic rock, Steven Hyden recalls concluding, in his teens, that \"The Dark Side of the Moon\" and \"Led Zeppelin IV\" were the two greatest albums of the genre, vision quests \"encompass[ing] the twin poles of teenage desire\". They had similarities, in that both album's cover and internal artwork eschew pictures of the bands in favor of \"inscrutable iconography without any tangible meaning (which always seemed to give the music packaged inside \"more\" meaning)\". But whereas Led Zeppelin had looked outward, toward \"conquering the world\" and was known at the time for its outrageous sexual antics while on tour, Pink Floyd looked inward, toward \"overcoming your own hang-ups\" and seemed so sedate and boring that, Hyden commented, the scene in \"Live at Pompeii\" where they take a lunch break at the studio might well have been the most interesting part of recording \"The Dark Side of the Moon\". In 2013, \"The Dark Side of the Moon\" was selected for preservation in the United States National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress for being deemed \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\".", "Pink Floyd Additional musicians Production Design" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Songs.", "Cover.", "Release and reception.", "Personnel.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "By 1972, Pink Floyd had recorded the soundtracks to the films \"The Committee\" (1968) and \"More\" (1969), and part of \"Zabriskie Point\" (1970). On the back of \"More\"s success, its director Barbet Schroeder asked the band to record the soundtrack of his next major project as and when it arrived. The new film, \"La Vallée\", featured two travellers on a spiritual quest in New Guinea, and Schroeder thought Pink Floyd would be suitable to provide the music. The group had already started working on another album, \"The Dark Side of the Moon\", including some basic recording and live performances, but took two breaks to Strawberry Studios, Château d'Hérouville, France, either side of a Japanese tour, to write and record music for the film. The album was then mixed from 4–6 April at Morgan Sound Studios in London. As they had done on \"More\", the band saw a rough cut of the film and noted certain timings for cues with a stopwatch. From this, they created a number of pieces that they felt could be cross-faded at various points in the final cut of the film. They were not worried about creating complete songs, feeling that any musical piece would be workable without the need for any solos, but nevertheless, under pressure to produce enough material, they managed to create a whole series of well-structured songs. Drummer Nick Mason recalls that the sessions were very hurried, and the band spent most of the time in Paris locked away in the studio. During the first recording session in February 1972, the French television station ORTF filmed a short segment of the band recording the album, including interviews with bassist Roger Waters and guitarist David Gilmour. In a snippet of interview footage at Abbey Road Studios that appeared in the 1974 theatrical version (later released on VHS and Laserdisc and subsequent \"Director's Cut\" DVD) of \"\", Waters said that early UK pressings of the album contained excessive sibilance. After recording had finished, the band fell out with the film company, prompting them to release the soundtrack album as \"Obscured by Clouds\", rather than \"La Vallée\". In response, the film was retitled \"La Vallée (Obscured by Clouds)\" on its release.", "The songs on \"Obscured by Clouds\" are all short and economical, in contrast to the lengthy instrumentals found on other Floyd albums. A strong country music influence was present on several tracks, with prominent use of acoustic guitar. The album also featured the VCS 3 synthesiser, which Wright had purchased from the BBC Radiophonic Workshop. The title track made prominent use of the VCS 3, and featured Mason playing electronic drums. The following track, \"When You're In\" is similar in style; its title came from a phrase said by roadie Chris Adamson. The two pieces were played back-to-back live in late 1972 and on the 1973 tours. They were also part of the set used for the group's collaboration with Roland Petit and the Ballet National de Marseille at the Palais de Sports, Paris, in early 1973. \"Burning Bridges\" was one of two songwriting collaborations on the album between keyboardist Richard Wright (who wrote the music) and Waters (who wrote the lyrics). \"Wot's... Uh the Deal?\" was a straightforward acoustic piece. It was never performed live by Pink Floyd, but Gilmour resurrected the piece for his solo tour in 2006. One of these performances features on Gilmour's 2007 DVD \"Remember That Night\" and also the vinyl version of his 2008 live album, \"Live in Gdańsk\". \"Childhood's End\" was the last song Pink Floyd released to have lyrics written by Gilmour until the release of \"A Momentary Lapse of Reason\" in 1987. The title may have been derived from the Arthur C. Clarke novel of the same name. It was performed live at a few gigs in late 1972 and early the following year; the drum pattern opening the track was recycled for \"Time\" on \"The Dark Side of the Moon\". \"Free Four\" was the first Pink Floyd song since \"See Emily Play\" to attract significant airplay in the US, and the second (after \"Corporal Clegg\" from \"A Saucerful of Secrets\") to deal with the death of Waters' father during World War II. The title is derived from the count-in \"One, two, 'free, four!\", spoken in a Cockney accent. The track was released as a single in the US, as the band felt it was suitable for AM radio. \"Stay\" was written and sung by Wright, with lyrics by Waters. It is superficially a love song, except the protagonist cannot remember the girl's name, suggesting she might have been a groupie. \"Absolutely Curtains\", the closing instrumental on the album, ends with a recording of the Mapuga tribe, as seen in the film.", "The album's cover was, like several other Pink Floyd albums, designed by Storm Thorgerson and Aubrey Powell of Hipgnosis. It consists of a photograph of a man sitting in a tree which has been taken out of focus to the point of complete distortion. Hipgnosis viewed a number of stills from the film on a 35mm projector, and liked the visual effect when the slide jammed. Schroeder later said the band did not want to make the cover particularly good as \"The Dark Side of the Moon\" would have to compete with it, but Thorgerson insisted it was given proper consideration like any other Floyd album.", "\"Obscured by Clouds\" was released in the UK on 2 June 1972 and then in the United States on 15 June 1972, both on Harvest. The album reached number one in France, number six on the UK Albums Chart, and number 46 on the US albums chart (where it was certified Gold by the RIAA in 1997). In 1986, the album was released on CD. A digitally remastered CD was released in March 1996 in the UK and August 1996 in the US. It was remixed in 2016 for the \"Early Years\" box set, and released individually the following year. The album has been overlooked by casual fans, though Mason has said it is one of his favourite Floyd albums. Retrospective critical reception has been mixed; \"The Daily Telegraph\" said \"its elegant instrumentals point the way to \"Dark Side\"\", while \"Rolling Stone\" said it was a \"dull film soundtrack\".", "All personnel are uncredited on the original sleeve. Pink Floyd Additional personnel", "Citations Sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Playing career.", "Early years.", "Ajax.", "A.C. Milan.", "International career.", "After retirement.", "Player profile.", "Style of play.", "Reception and legacy.", "Media and sponsorship.", "Managing career.", "Ajax B.", "Netherlands.", "Return to Ajax.", "Heerenveen.", "AZ.", "FIFA technical director.", "Controversy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Marco van Basten was born on 31 October 1964 in Utrecht and grew up in the \"Oog In Al\" neighborhood. He began playing for a local team, EDO, when he was six years old. A year later, he moved to UVV Utrecht. After nine years there, he briefly played for another club from Utrecht, Elinkwijk.", "Ajax signed 16-year-old Van Basten for the 1981–82 season after his 20-year-old brother Stanley was rejected. He played his first match for Ajax on 3 April 1982, coming on as a substitute for Johan Cruyff, and scoring a debut goal in the team's 5–0 victory over NEC. In the 1982–83 season, he competed with the European top scorer and first choice Holland international Wim Kieft for the position of centre forward, and scored nine goals in 20 league matches. After Kieft left for Italian Serie A club Pisa the following season, the 18 year old Van Basten solidified his position as his team's main attacker. He was the top scorer in the league for four consecutive seasons, from 1983–84 to 1986–87, scoring 118 goals in 112 matches. In the 1985–86 season, he scored 37 goals in 26 league matches, including six goals against Sparta Rotterdam and five against Heracles Almelo, and won the European Golden Boot. He also scored the winning goal in the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup final against Lokomotive Leipzig in 1987. In total he scored 128 goals in 133 league matches for Ajax. On November 1986 he scored his most famous goal in an Ajax jersey, a spectacular overhead kick against FC Den Bosch.", "In 1987, A.C. Milan president Silvio Berlusconi signed Van Basten, with fellow countrymen Ruud Gullit and Frank Rijkaard joining the club in 1988. In his first season, Milan won their first \"Scudetto\" in eight years, but Van Basten played only 11 matches and was constantly troubled by an ankle injury. In 1988–89, Van Basten won the Ballon d'Or as Europe's top footballer. He scored 19 goals in Serie A and 32 goals in all competitions that year, including two goals in the final of the European Cup, as Milan triumphed against Steaua București. In 1989–90, he became \"Capocannoniere\" again (Serie A's leading goal scorer); Milan also successfully defended the European Cup after beating Benfica 1–0 in the final match, during which Van Basten provided the assist for Rijkaard's match-winning goal. Milan struggled in the 1990–91 season, as Sampdoria won the \"Scudetto\". After Van Basten fell out with Arrigo Sacchi, Berlusconi sacked the manager. Fabio Capello took over the following season, and Milan went undefeated in the league to win another \"Scudetto\". Van Basten scored 25 league goals, and became \"Capocannoniere\" again; his tally from the 1991–92 season was the highest number of goals that a player had scored in a single Serie A season since Luís Vinício achieved the same tally during the 1965–66 season. In November 1992, he became the first player to score four goals in a Champions League match, against IFK Göteborg, including a picture perfect bicycle kick. In December 1992, Van Basten was named FIFA World Player of the Year. Milan stretched their unbeaten run into the 1992–93 season, going 58 matches over two seasons before they lost a match. Van Basten was exceptional in the early part of the season. He was again voted the European player of the year, becoming the third player after Johan Cruyff and Michel Platini to win the award three times. His troublesome ankle injury recurred in a game against Ancona, forcing him to endure another six-month layoff, and undergo a series of surgeries. He returned for the last few matches in the season, before Milan lost 1–0 to Marseille in the Champions League final. The match was Van Basten's final match for the Italian club. He came off in the 86th minute for Stefano Eranio, after a hard tackle behind from Basile Boli condemned Van Basten to the third ankle surgery of his career. Van Basten had been hopeful of playing for his country at the 1994 World Cup as well as for his club in the 1994–95 season after spending the whole 1993–94 season out of action (missing Milan's victory in the European Cup as well as their Serie A title glory), but his club ordered him not to take part in the World Cup amid fear of ruining his rehabilitation. He finally conceded defeat in his battle to recover on 17 August 1995, when he announced his retirement as a player after two whole years on sidelines. Van Basten made a farewell appearance to thank the Milan fans before a home game at the San Siro, with an emotional Milan coach Fabio Capello breaking down in tears.", "Van Basten's talent was already noticed at a young age and he was called up for the 1983 FIFA World Youth Championship. He made his senior debut for the Netherlands national team that same year. At UEFA Euro 1988, Van Basten played a pivotal role in the Dutch team's victorious campaign. He scored a total of five goals, including a hat trick against England in the first round, the winning goal in the semi-final against West Germany, and a spectacular volley from an acute angle in the 2–0 final against the Soviet Union, during which he also provided the assist for Gullit's opening goal. He finished the competition as the top scorer and was named player of the tournament. In a 2002 UK poll Van Basten's volley against the Soviet Union was ranked #21 in the list of the 100 Greatest Sporting Moments. The Dutch national team exited the 1990 World Cup early, losing to West Germany in the second round. Van Basten never scored in the World Cup finals. At UEFA Euro 1992, the Netherlands defeated reigning World Champions Germany 3–1 in the first round to top their group and reach the semi-finals, where they shockingly lost to the eventual champions Denmark in a penalty shootout, with Peter Schmeichel saving a penalty shot from Van Basten. Van Basten was named to the European Championship team of the tournament for a second time in 1992.", "Van Basten played in the Demetrio Albertini testimonial match at the San Siro in March 2006, and headed in a goal before being substituted early in the first half. On 22 July 2006, he also returned for the testimonial match to celebrate the 11-year Arsenal career of Dennis Bergkamp, in what was the first match played at the new Emirates Stadium. He played in the second half for the Ajax legends team. He entered the match as part of a double substitution that also introduced Johan Cruyff. He took part in Tyskie's (a Polish beer company) advertising campaign with Luís Figo and Zbigniew Boniek.", "", "Regarded as one of the greatest and most complete strikers and players in the history of the sport, due to his prolific goalscoring and great skill set, Van Basten was dubbed the \"Swan Of Utrecht\" for his elegance and intelligent attacking play, and was known for his penchant for scoring acrobatic goals. His height and strength allowed him to excel in the air, and his technical ability and agility saw him execute spectacular strikes throughout his career, such as volleys and bicycle kicks. A fast and opportunistic striker with quick reactions and excellent movement, he often took advantage of loose balls in the penalty area due to his ability to anticipate defenders, and was capable of both controlling fast and difficult balls well with one touch, or even shooting first time. Possessing a powerful and accurate shot, and clinical, varied finishing from anywhere along the pitch, he was capable of scoring goals with either foot from inside or outside the penalty area, as well as with his head; he was also an accurate penalty kick and free-kick taker. Throughout his career, Van Basten converted 51 penalties out of the 54 he took, with a 94.44% success rate, the third highest in history, behind only Matthew Le Tissier and Cuauhtémoc Blanco. Before taking penalties, Van Basten often used to perform a characteristic hop. Although he was mainly known as a traditional attacker who operated in the penalty area as a centre-forward throughout his career, Van Basten also possessed excellent vision and distribution, in addition to his goalscoring ability, which enabled him to play in deeper, more creative positions, as a second striker, for example, and which allowed him to participate in the build-up of attacking plays and provide assists to his teammates in addition to scoring goals himself; one of his most notable assists was the one he provided to Frank Rijkaard for Milan's winning goal in the 1990 European Cup final against Benfica. Despite his large stature, Van Basten possessed excellent technical skills and ball control, as well as good balance and a notable elegance on the ball, which inspired his nickname. As such, his strong physique, combined with his close control, also enabled him to hold up the ball for teammates when playing with his back to goal. Despite his ability, Van Basten's career was severely affected by many grave injuries, which eventually forced him to retire from football prematurely at the age of 28. Lack of protection from referees and inadequate football rules against rugged defending and tackles from behind were identified as the source of the injuries which ultimately led to his career's demise; consequently, Van Basten's early retirement due to his injuries led to widespread debate in the football world over whether rash challenges from behind should be rendered illegal in football, in order to protect talented players more effectively. During the 1994 World Cup, an automatic red was also shown for tackles from behind or with studs showing. In 1998, prior to the World Cup that year, FIFA completely outlawed the tackle from behind; this ruling came to be known colloquially as the \"Van Basten law\" in the media. Although Van Basten was known for often being on the receiving end of hard challenges from his opponents throughout his career, former referee Daniele Tombolini described Van Basten as a player who was known for his physical play himself, and who utilised his strength and committed a lot of fouls during matches.", "Considered by pundits to be one of the greatest and most complete players of all time, in 1998, Van Basten was ranked sixth in the FIFA Player of the Century internet poll, tenth in the European player of the Century election held by the IFFHS, and 12th in the IFFHS' World Player of the Century election. He was also ranked eighth in a poll to determine \"France Football\"'s \"Football Player of the Century.\" In 1999, Van Basten was named the ninth greatest player of the twentieth Century by \"World Soccer\" magazine. In 2004, he was named by Pelé in the FIFA 100, his list of the world's 125 greatest living players, and also placed fourth in the UEFA Golden Jubilee Poll, celebrating the best European footballers of the past fifty years. He was also ranked 25th in a poll for the 100 greatest Dutch people. In 2007, \"Sky Sports\" ranked Van Basten first on its list of great athletes who had their careers cut short. In 2016 Van Basten was included in UEFA's All-time Euro XI, while in 2017, he was named the 13th greatest player of all time by \"FourFourTwo\" magazine. Numerous players, managers, and other footballing figures have also lauded Van Basten as one of the greatest players of all time. In 1994, defender Pietro Vierchowod described Van Basten as \"the absolute number one\" and as a \"superstar,\" also adding that \"he is strong with his head, good with either foot, capable of changing the face of a game with a single play or, [even] when he is not at his best, of becoming the best assist-provider for his teammates.\" Former defender Jürgen Kohler, who often faced Van Basten throughout his career, described him as \"a player with exceptional abilities. He was a big personality not only as a sportsman, but also as a private person;\" he later also added: \"Marco van Basten was very important in my career. I benefited from him. It is as simple as this. He was a big milestone in my career and for me he is one of the players who are the most outstanding personalities of the last century. Not only in sports, also as a human being.\" When asked of their duels, he commented: \"the duels between us were simply tough with everything football offers. He stood and I delivered and then I stood and he delivered.\" Former defender Tony Adams described Van Basten as the toughest and most difficult opponent he had ever faced in 2006, stating: \"He’s the quickest 6 ft 3 in centre-forward I’ve ever seen! Just awesome. He was as quick as Ian Wright, as good in the air as Joe Jordan and he held the ball up better than Alan Smith. I put him in front of Maradona. Technically, Maradona was brilliant and he had amazing feet, but Van Basten could head, volley – he had power and strength.\" Fellow former defender Giuseppe Bergomi also described Van Basten as the strongest player he ever faced in 2018, commenting: \"The best player of all time for me [...] is Maradona, but the strongest player I ever faced was Van Basten because at least I could beat Maradona to the ball with my head.\" In 2019, Van Basten's former Milan coach Fabio Capello described Van Basten and Ronaldo as the best players he ever coached. His predecessor at Milan, Arrigo Sacchi, described Van Basten as the best striker of all time in 2014, commenting: \"Marco van Basten remains for me the best striker of all time. No other forward has worked as hard for the team as Marco did at Milan. I above all remember him for his elegance, his grace and his incredible quality. I remember well when he first arrived at Milan: he was very young with great talent. It was a big change for him and Ruud Gullit to come to Italy from Holland. Marco was very enthusiastic, but unfortunately played very little in the first season due to an ankle injury. In successive years he won the Ballon d’Or three times [sic] and I am still so proud of him for that. Van Basten had a big influence on my first Milan adventure thanks to his goals.\" When Hernán Crespo was asked in 2015 who was the greatest centre-forward of all time, he echoed Sacchi's views, responding: \"Marco van Basten. He did everything: dribbling, shooting, headers, acrobatics. And he played with his team and for his team.\" In 2019, Antonio Cassano described Van Basten and Ronaldo as the best forwards in the history of the game. In 2017, two of Van Basten's former Milan teammates, Demetrio Albertini and Marco Simone, labelled the Dutchman as the best player they had ever played with, with the former describing him using the following words \"The best player I have ever played with is Van Basten, the best overall. He had elegance and strength. He stopped playing at only 28 years of age, which is truly young.\" That same year, another one of his fellow former Milan teammates, Paolo Maldini, labelled Van Basten as the most complete player with whom he had ever played. Another former Milan teammate of Van Basten, Giovanni Cornacchini, described the Dutch striker as the greatest player of all time in 2019. Former Milan Vice-Chairman and CEO Adriano Galliani instead described Van Basten as Milan's greatest player ever in 2018. In 2017, Roberto Baggio named Van Basten as the player with whom he would have most liked to have played, commenting: \"I'd have liked to play with him. He's the player that I exchanged shirts with most willingly.\"", "Van Basten features in EA Sports' \"FIFA\" video game series, and was named in the Ultimate Team Legends in \"FIFA 14\". Throughout his playing career, Van Basten was sponsored by Italian sportswear company Diadora. One of the most marketable players in the world, in the late 1980s Diadora launched his own personalized football boots, the San Siro Van Basten, earning him two million dollars over 5 years.", "", "Van Basten officially left Milan in 1995 and retired from football, stating he would never try management. However, he changed his mind and took a course with the Royal Dutch Football Association (KNVB). His first stint as a manager was as an assistant to his former teammate John van 't Schip with the second team of Ajax in 2003–04.", "On 29 July 2004, Van Basten was named the new manager of the Netherlands national team, with Van 't Schip as his assistant. Van Basten’s appointment as manager of the Netherlands sparked a little controversy at the time, since he only just started his managerial career and the media argued that he did not have a lot of experience yet. As a manager, he soon established himself as a man of strong principles. Van Basten famously dropped regulars like Clarence Seedorf, Patrick Kluivert, Edgar Davids and Roy Makaay and benched Mark van Bommel, because he believed that they were either past their prime or constantly underachieving. There were also calls for Van Basten to call up Dennis Bergkamp, who had retired from the national team six years earlier, for a final \"hurrah,\" as he was retiring that season. Van Basten then revealed to the media that he never intended to do so, despite Bergkamp's own willingness. For probably the first time in decades, none of the \"Big Three\" Clubs (Ajax, PSV and Feyenoord) provided the backbone for the national team. Instead, newcomer AZ led the way with players such as Denny Landzaat, Barry Opdam, Barry van Galen, Ron Vlaar, Jan Kromkamp and Joris Mathijsen. AZ, at the time a local small football club for Dutch standards, proved to be successful in the Dutch league and in the UEFA Cup. Other unheralded choices were Khalid Boulahrouz, Hedwiges Maduro, Ryan Babel and Romeo Castelen. Van Basten had also wanted to include Ivorian forward Salomon Kalou, but was thwarted when Kalou was denied Dutch citizenship by the immigration authorities headed by Dutch Minister of Integration Rita Verdonk. Kalou eventually accepted a call-up to play for Ivory Coast. Under his guidance, the team were unbeaten in their World Cup qualification group and made it through the group stages at the 2006 World Cup, but were eliminated in a frenzied 1–0 loss to Portugal in the Round of 16. Van Basten was heavily criticised for dropping Ruud van Nistelrooy before this match, in favour of Dirk Kuyt, who did not score throughout the entire tournament. In November 2006, Van Basten recalled exiled Milan midfielder Clarence Seedorf for a friendly against England at the Amsterdam Arena. In May 2007, Van Basten announced the end of his long-running dispute with Ruud van Nistelrooy, who had previously declared never to play for a Dutch national squad with Van Basten as its manager. Other players, such as Roy Makaay, Mark van Bommel, Boudewijn Zenden and Edgar Davids, however, remained out of favour. Van Basten had a contract with the KNVB for managing the Dutch national side until 2008. The KNVB had expressed its wishes to extend his contract to include the World Cup qualification route to 2010 World Cup in South Africa. On 22 February 2008, Van Basten signed a four-year contract with Ajax, starting from 1 July. His last tournament thus was the UEFA Euro 2008, where the Netherlands surprised with a strong first round performance. They beat world champions Italy 3–0 in their first match, followed by a 4–1 win over World Cup runners-up France. In their third match, having already qualified for the next round, Van Basten selected non-regulars such as Maarten Stekelenburg, Wilfred Bouma and Ibrahim Afellay for the starting lineup against Romania, a match the \"Oranje\" won 2–0. In the quarter-finals, Van Basten faced fellow Dutchman Guus Hiddink's Russia. With the score at 1–1 after 90 minutes, Hiddink and Russia went on to win the match 3–1 in extra-time. He finished his reign with a record of 35 wins, 11 draws and six losses in 52 matches.", "Van Basten became manager of Ajax after Euro 2008 but resigned on 6 May 2009 after his team failed to qualify for the Champions League. Van Basten started the season well, having spent millions on players such as Miralem Sulejmani, Ismaïl Aissati, Darío Cvitanich, Evander Sno, Eyong Enoh and Oleguer. However, in the second half of the season, striker Klaas-Jan Huntelaar left for Real Madrid, and Van Basten started switching around his lineups. When Ajax lost 11 points in four matches, the Eredivisie title was out of sight. However, Ajax still had the chance to finish in second place, which would have ensured a place in the third qualifying round of the Champions League. Two important losses against PSV (6–2) and Sparta Rotterdam (4–0), however, ensured that Van Basten's Ajax could only finish third in the league. Van Basten decided to resign as Ajax manager at the end of the 2008–09 season. Van Basten subsequently became a pundit for Sport1, but was still planning to return as a manager. He finished his reign with a record of 26 wins, 8 draws and 11 losses in 45 matches.", "On 13 February 2012, it was announced that Van Basten would become the manager of Eredivisie club Heerenveen in the 2012–13 season. Van Basten led Heerenveen to an eighth-place finish in the 2012–13 year campaign. He then led them to a fifth-place finish the following season, during the 2013–14 campaign. He finished his reign with a record of 27 wins, 18 draws and 27 losses in 72 matches.", "AZ Alkmaar announced on 18 April 2014 that Van Basten would replace Dick Advocaat at the start of the 2014–15 season. On 28 August 2014, Van Basten took a leave of absence for the following match against Dordrecht, with multiple Dutch news outlets reporting he was suffering of stress-related heart palpitations, and was replaced by assistant coaches Alex Pastoor and Dennis Haar. Later, on 3 September, AZ confirmed that Van Basten was given an extended leave of absence until 14 September. On 16 September 2014, parties agreed Van Basten would relinquish his role as manager in order to sign a new contract as assistant coach until 2016; this was motivated by Van Basten himself, who stated the stress caused by his full-time role as head coach was causing him physical and mental issues. He finished his stint with two wins and three losses in five matches.", "After a year at AZ, Van Basten decided to take up the vacant post of assistant coach under the new head coach of the Netherlands national team, Danny Blind. Van Basten would work together with fellow assistant coach Ruud van Nistelrooy, whom Van Basten had initially sent away when he was head coach of the Netherlands. In August 2016, Van Basten announced he would be leaving the role to take up a position at FIFA as technical director. In March 2018 Van Basten travelled to Iran with FIFA President Gianni Infantino to mark 100 years of the Iran Football Federation. After meeting Iranian President Hassan Rouhani they were welcomed by the president of Iranian Football Federation Mehdi Taj at the Tehran Olympic Hotel. Attending the Tehran derby, Van Basten called for the ban on women entering sports venues to be lifted.", "On 23 November 2019, while Van Basten was working as an analyst for the Dutch edition of the Fox Sports network, he was heard saying \"Sieg Heil\" (literally \"Hail victory!\" in German) on a live television broadcast, a verbal salute which the Nazis used to signal allegiance to dictator Adolf Hitler. Van Basten reportedly stated that he thought his microphone was off when he uttered those words, after his colleague Hans Kraay had interviewed Heracles's German manager, Frank Wormuth, following the team's 4–1 loss to Ajax. Van Basten later apologised, stating: \"It wasn't my intention to shock people, I apologise. I just wanted to make a comment about Hans' German. It was an ill-placed joke.\" Van Basten's use of the salute attracted further controversy as it occurred on a weekend during which Dutch football clubs were attempting to emphasise the importance of fighting racism by observing a minute of silence prior to matches. Following the incident, the network described Van Basten's comment as \"stupid and inappropriate,\" and suspended him until 7 December." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Effects.", "Harmattan haze.", "Health." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "This season differs from winter, because it is characterized by cold, dry, dust-laden wind, and also wide fluctuations in the ambient temperatures of the day and night. Temperatures can easily be as low as all day, but sometimes in the afternoon the temperature can also soar to as high as, while the relative humidity drops under 5%. The air is particularly dry and desiccating when the Harmattan blows over the region. The Harmattan brings desert-like weather conditions: it lowers the humidity, dissipates cloud cover, prevents rainfall formation and sometimes creates big clouds of dust which can result in dust storms or sandstorms. The wind can increase fire risk and cause severe crop damage. The interaction of the Harmattan with monsoon winds can cause tornadoes.", "In some countries in West Africa, the heavy amount of dust in the air can severely limit visibility and block the sun for several days, comparable to a heavy fog. This effect is known as the Harmattan haze. It costs airlines millions of dollars in cancelled and diverted flights each year. When the haze is weak, the skies are clear. The extreme dryness of the air may cause branches of trees to die.", "Humidity drops to as low as 15%, which can result in spontaneous nosebleeds for some people. Other health effects on humans may include conditions of the skin (dryness of the skin), dried or chapped lips, eyes, and respiratory system, including aggravation of asthma." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Constructions.", "Relationship with ordinal subscripts.", "The notion of inaccessibility and large cardinals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "One way to construct limit cardinals is via the union operation: formula_2 is a weak limit cardinal, defined as the union of all the alephs before it; and in general formula_3 for any limit ordinal \"λ\" is a weak limit cardinal. The ב operation can be used to obtain strong limit cardinals. This operation is a map from ordinals to cardinals defined as The cardinal is a strong limit cardinal of cofinality ω. More generally, given any ordinal \"α\", the cardinal is a strong limit cardinal. Thus there are arbitrarily large strong limit cardinals.", "If the axiom of choice holds, every cardinal number has an initial ordinal. If that initial ordinal is formula_9 then the cardinal number is of the form formula_10 for the same ordinal subscript \"λ\". The ordinal \"λ\" determines whether formula_10 is a weak limit cardinal. Because formula_12 if \"λ\" is a successor ordinal then formula_10 is not a weak limit. Conversely, if a cardinal \"κ\" is a successor cardinal, say formula_14 then formula_15 Thus, in general, formula_10 is a weak limit cardinal if and only if \"λ\" is zero or a limit ordinal. Although the ordinal subscript tells us whether a cardinal is a weak limit, it does not tell us whether a cardinal is a strong limit. For example, ZFC proves that formula_17 is a weak limit cardinal, but neither proves nor disproves that formula_17 is a strong limit cardinal (Hrbacek and Jech 1999:168). The generalized continuum hypothesis states that formula_19 for every infinite cardinal \"κ\". Under this hypothesis, the notions of weak and strong limit cardinals coincide.", "The preceding defines a notion of \"inaccessibility\": we are dealing with cases where it is no longer enough to do finitely many iterations of the successor and powerset operations; hence the phrase \"cannot be reached\" in both of the intuitive definitions above. But the \"union operation\" always provides another way of \"accessing\" these cardinals (and indeed, such is the case of limit ordinals as well). Stronger notions of inaccessibility can be defined using cofinality. For a weak (respectively strong) limit cardinal \"κ\" the requirement is that cf(\"κ\") = \"κ\" (i.e. \"κ\" be regular) so that \"κ\" cannot be expressed as a sum (union) of fewer than \"κ\" smaller cardinals. Such a cardinal is called a weakly (respectively strongly) inaccessible cardinal. The preceding examples both are singular cardinals of cofinality ω and hence they are not inaccessible. formula_1 would be an inaccessible cardinal of both \"strengths\" except that the definition of inaccessible requires that they be uncountable. Standard Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of choice (ZFC) cannot even prove the consistency of the existence of an inaccessible cardinal of either kind above formula_1, due to Gödel's incompleteness theorem. More specifically, if formula_22 is weakly inaccessible then formula_23. These form the first in a hierarchy of large cardinals." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Background.", "Site selection and development proposals.", "Finance and naming.", "Construction and opening.", "Loan repayments.", "Arsenalisation.", "Structure and facilities.", "Future.", "Other uses.", "International football matches.", "Records.", "Transport and access.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Spectator safety at football grounds was a major concern during the 1980s, following incidents of hooliganism, and disasters such as the Bradford City stadium fire and the Heysel Stadium disaster in 1985, and the Hillsborough disaster in 1989. The Taylor Report into the Hillsborough tragedy was finalised in January 1990 and recommended the removal of terraces (standing areas) in favour of seating. Under the amended Football Spectators Act 1989, it became compulsory for first and second tier English clubs to have their stadia all-seated in time for the 1994–95 season. Arsenal, like many other clubs, experienced difficulty raising income for converted terraced areas. At the end of the 1990–91 season, the club introduced a bond scheme which offered supporters the right to purchase a season ticket at its renovated North Bank stand of Highbury. The board felt this was the only viable option after considering other proposals; they did not want to compromise on traditions nor curb manager George Graham's transfer dealings. At a price of between £1,000 to £1,500, the 150-year bond was criticised by supporters, who argued it potentially blocked the participation of those less well-off from supporting Arsenal. A campaign directed by the Independent Arsenal Supporters' Association brought relative success as only a third of all bonds were sold. The North Bank was the final stand to be refurbished. It opened in August 1993 at a cost of £20 million. The rework significantly reduced the stadium's capacity, from 57,000 at the beginning of the decade to under 40,000. High ticket prices to serve the club's existing debts and low attendance figures forced Arsenal to explore the possibility of building a larger stadium in 1997. The club wanted to attract an evergrowing fanbase and financially compete with the biggest clubs in England. By comparison, Manchester United enjoyed a rise in gate receipts; the club went from £43.9 million in 1994 to £87.9 million in 1997 because of Old Trafford's expansion. Arsenal's initial proposal to rebuild Highbury was met with disapproval from local residents, as it required the demolition of 25 neighbouring houses. It later became problematic once the East Stand of the stadium was granted Grade II listing in July 1997. After much consultation, the club abandoned its plan, deciding a capacity of 48,000 was not large enough. Arsenal then investigated the possibility of relocating to Wembley Stadium and in March 1998 made an official bid to purchase the ground. The Football Association (FA) and the English National Stadium Trust opposed Arsenal's offer, claiming it harmed England's bid for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, which FIFA itself denied. In April 1998, Arsenal withdrew its bid and Wembley was purchased by the English National Stadium Trust. The club however was given permission to host its UEFA Champions League home ties at Wembley for the 1998–99 and 1999–2000 seasons. Although Arsenal's time in the competition was brief, twice exiting the group stages, the club set its record home attendance (73,707 against Lens) and earned record gate income in the 1998–99 season, highlighting potential profitability.", "In November 1999, Arsenal examined the feasibility of building a new stadium in Ashburton Grove. Anthony Spencer, estate agent and club property adviser, recommended the area to director Danny Fiszman and vice-chairman David Dein having scoured over North London for potential areas. The land, from Highbury was composed of a rubbish processing plant and industrial estate, 80% owned to varying levels by Islington Council, Railtrack and Sainsbury's. After passing the first significant milestone at Islington Council's planning committee, Arsenal submitted a planning application for a new-build 60,000 seater stadium in November 2000. This included a redevelopment project at Drayton Park, converting the existing ground Highbury to flats and building a new waste station in Lough Road. As part of the scheme, Arsenal intended to create 1,800 new jobs for the community and 2,300 new homes. Improvements to three railway stations, Holloway Road, Drayton Park and Finsbury Park, were included to cope with the increased capacity requirements from matchday crowds. Islington Stadium Communities Alliance (ISCA) – an alliance of 16 groups representing local residents and businesses, was set up in January 2000 as a body against the redevelopment. Alison Carmichael, a spokeswoman for the group, said of the move, \"It may look like Arsenal are doing great things for the area, but in its detail the plan is awful. We blame the council; the football club just wants to expand to make more money.\" Tom Lamb, an ISCA member, was concerned about as air pollution and growing traffic, adding \"that is a consequence which most Arsenal fans would never see, because they are in Islington only for about thirty days a year.\" Seven months after the planning application was submitted, a poll showed that 75% of respondents (2,133 residents) were against the scheme. By October 2001, the club asserted that a poll of Islington residents found that 70% were in favour, and received the backing from the then Mayor of London, Ken Livingstone. The club launched a campaign to aid the project in the run up to Christmas and planted the slogan \"Let Arsenal support Islington\" on advertising hoardings and in the backdrop of manager Arsène Wenger's press conferences. Islington Council approved Arsenal's planning application on 10 December 2001, voting in favour of the Ashburton Grove development. The council also consented to the transfer of the existing waste recycling plant in Ashburton Grove to Lough Road. Livingstone approved of the plans a month later, and it was then motioned to then-Transport Secretary Stephen Byers, who initially delayed making a final decision. He had considered whether to refer the scheme to a public inquiry, but eventually decided not to. Planning permission was granted by Islington Council in May 2002, but local residents and ISCA launched a late challenge to the High Court, citing the plans were against the law. Duncan Ouseley dismissed the case in July 2002, paving the way for Arsenal to start work. The club succeeded in a further legal challenge bought by small firms in January 2005 as the High Court upheld a decision by then-Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott to grant a compulsory purchase order in support of the scheme. The stadium later became issue in the local elections in May 2006. The Metropolitan Police restricted supporters' coaches to being parked in the nearby Sobel Sports Centre rather than in the underground stadium car park, and restricted access to 14 streets on match days. These police restrictions were conditions of the stadiums' health and safety certificate which the stadium requires to operate and open. The road closures were passed at a council meeting in July 2005.", "Securing finance for the stadium project proved a challenge as Arsenal received no public subsidy from the government. Whereas Wenger claimed French clubs \"pay nothing at all for their stadium, nothing at all for their maintenance,\" and \"Bayern Munich paid one euro for their ground,\" Arsenal were required to buy the site outright in one of London's most expensive areas. The club therefore sought other ways of generating income, such as making a profit on player trading. Arsenal recouped over £50 million from transfers involving Nicolas Anelka to Real Madrid, and Marc Overmars and Emmanuel Petit to Barcelona. The transfer of Anelka partly funded the club's new training ground, in London Colney, which opened in October 1999. The club also agreed new sponsorship deals. In September 2000, Granada Media Group purchased a 5% stake in Arsenal for £47 million. As part of the acquisition, Granada became the premier media agent for Arsenal, handling advertising, sponsorship, merchandising, publishing and licensing agreements. The club's managing director Keith Edelman confirmed in a statement that the investment would be used directly to fund for the new stadium. The collapse of ITV Digital (part-owned by Granada) in April 2002 coincided with news that the company was tied in to pay £30 million once arrangements for the new stadium were finalised. In September 2002, Arsenal formulated plans to reduce its players' wage bill after making a pre-tax loss of £22.3 million for the 2001–02 financial year. The club appointed N M Rothschild & Sons to examine its financial situation and advise whether it was feasible for construction to press ahead at the end of March 2003. Although Arsenal secured a £260 million loan from a group of banks led by the Royal Bank of Scotland, the club suspended work on Ashburton Grove in April 2003, saying, \"We have experienced a number of delays in arrangements for our new stadium project in recent months across a range of issues. The impact of these delays is that we will now be unable to deliver a stadium opening for the start of the 2005–06 season.\" The cost of building the stadium, forecasted at £400 million, had risen by £100 million during that period. Throughout the summer of 2003, Arsenal gave fans the opportunity to register their interest in a relaunched bond scheme. The club planned to issue 3,000 bonds for between £3,500 and £5,000 each for a season ticket at Highbury, then at Ashburton Grove. Supporters reacted negatively to the news; AISA chairman Steven Powell said in a statement: \"We are disappointed that the club has not consulted supporters before announcing a new bond scheme.\" Though Arsenal never stated how many bonds were sold, they did raise several million pounds through the scheme. The club also extended its contract with sportswear provider Nike, in a deal worth £55 million over seven years. Nike paid a minimum of £1 million each year as a royalty payment, contingent on sales. Funding for the stadium was secured in February 2004. Later in the year Emirates bought naming rights for the stadium, in a 15-year deal estimated at £100 million that also included a 7-year shirt sponsorship, starting in the 2006–07 season. The stadium name is colloquially shortened from \"Emirates Stadium\" to \"The Emirates\", although some supporters continue to use the former name \"Ashburton Grove\" or even \"The Grove\", particularly those who object to the concept of corporate sponsorship of stadium names. Due to UEFA regulations on stadium sponsors, the ground is referred to as Arsenal Stadium for European matches, which was the official name of Highbury. Emirates and Arsenal agreed to a new deal worth £150 million in November 2012, and shirt-sponsorship was extended to five years while naming rights were extended to 2028.", "Actual construction of the stadium began once Arsenal secured funding. The club appointed Sir Robert McAlpine in January 2002 to carry out building work and the stadium was designed by Populous, who were the architects for Stadium Australia (home of the 2000 Olympics and the South Sydney Rabbitohs NRL club) and the redevelopment of Ascot Racecourse. Construction consultants Arcadis and engineering firm Buro Happold were also involved in the process. The first phase of demolition was completed in March 2004, and two months later, stand piling on the West, East and North stands had been concluded. Two bridges over the Northern City railway line connecting the stadium to Drayton Park were also built; these were completed in August 2004. The stadium topped out in August 2005 and external glazing, power and water tank installation was completed by December 2005. The first seat in the new stadium was ceremonially installed on 13 March 2006 by Arsenal midfielder Abou Diaby. DD GrassMaster was selected as the pitch installer and Hewitt Sportsturf was contracted to design and construct the playing field. Floodlights were successfully tested for the first time on 25 June 2006, and a day later, the goalposts were erected. In order to obtain the licences needed to open, the Emirates Stadium hosted three non-full capacity events. The first \"ramp-up\" event was a shareholder open day on 18 July 2006, the second an open training session for 20,000 selected club members held two days later. The third event was Dennis Bergkamp's testimonial match against Ajax on 22 July 2006. The Emirates Stadium was officially opened by Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh on 26 October 2006; his wife Queen Elizabeth II had suffered a back injury and was unable to carry out her duty. Prince Philip quipped to the crowd, \"Well, you may not have my wife, but you've got the \"second\"-most experienced plaque unveiler in the world.\" The royal visit echoed the attendance of the Queen's uncle, the Prince of Wales (later King Edward VIII) at the official opening of Highbury's West Stand in 1932. As a result of the change of plan, the Queen extended to the club the honour of inviting the chairman, manager and first team to join her for afternoon tea at Buckingham Palace. Held on 15 February 2007, the engagement marked the first time a football club had been invited to the palace for such an event.", "Interest on the £260 million debt was set at a commercial fixed rate over a 14-year period. To refinance the cost, Arsenal planned to convert the money into a 30-year bond financed by banks. The proposed bond issue went ahead in July 2006. Arsenal issued £210 million worth of 13.5-year bonds with a spread of 52 basis points over government bonds and £50 million of 7.1-year bonds with a spread of 22 basis points over LIBOR. It was the first publicly marketed, asset-backed bond issue by a European football club. The effective interest rate on these bonds is 5.14% and 5.97%, respectively, and are due to be paid back over a 25-year period; the move to bonds has reduced the club's annual debt service cost to approximately £20 million a year. In September 2010, Arsenal announced that the Highbury Square development – one of the main sources of income to reduce the stadium debt – was now debt free and making revenue. When Arsenal moved to the Emirates Stadium, the club prioritised repaying the loans over strengthening the playing squad. Arsenal's self-sustaining model relied heavily on qualifying for the UEFA Champions League; as Wenger recalled in 2016: \"We had to be three years in the Champions League out of five and have an average of 54,000 people, and we didn’t know we would be capable of that.\" The club sold several experienced players throughout the late 2000s and early 2010s and raised ticket prices, upsetting supporters who have called for change. Wenger took umbrage over criticism and revealed the bank loans were contingent on his commitment to the club: \"The banks wanted the technical consistency to guarantee that we have a chance to pay [them] back. I did commit and I stayed and under very difficult circumstances. So for me to come back and on top of that [critics] reproach me for not having won the championship during that period it is a bit overboard.\" Wenger later described the stadium move as the toughest period of his life because of the restricted finances in place.", "In August 2009, Arsenal began a programme of \"Arsenalisation\" of the Emirates Stadium after listening to feedback from supporters in a forum. The intention was to turn the stadium into a \"visible stronghold of all things Arsenal through a variety of artistic and creative means\", led by Arsenal chief executive Ivan Gazidis. Among the first changes were white seats installed in the pattern of the club's trademark cannon, located in the lower level stands opposite the entrance tunnel. \"The Spirit of Highbury\", a shrine depicting every player to have played for Arsenal during its 93-year residence, was erected in late 2009 outside the stadium at the south end. Eight large murals on the exterior of the stadium were installed, each depicting four Arsenal legends linking arms, such that the effect of the completed design is 32 legends in a huddle embracing the stadium: Around the lower concourse of the stadium are additional murals depicting 12 \"greatest moments\" in Arsenal history, voted for by a poll on the club's website. Prior to the start of the 2010–11 season, Arsenal renamed the coloured seating quadrants of the ground as the East Stand, West Stand, North Bank, and Clock End. Akin to Highbury, this involved the installation of a clock above the newly renamed Clock End which was unveiled in a league match against Blackpool. In April 2011, Arsenal renamed two bridges near the stadium in honour of club directors Ken Friar and Danny Fiszman. As part of the club's 125 anniversary celebrations in December 2011, Arsenal unveiled three statues of former captain Tony Adams, record goalscorer Thierry Henry and manager Herbert Chapman outside of the stadium. Before Arsenal's match against Sunderland in February 2014, the club unveiled a statue of former striker Dennis Bergkamp, outside the west stand of Emirates Stadium. Banners and flags, often designed by supporters group REDaction, are hung around the ground. A large \"49\" flag, representing the record run of 49 unbeaten league games, is passed around the lower tier before kick off.", "Described as \"beautiful\" and \"intimidating\" by architect Christopher Lee of Populous, the Emirates Stadium is a four-tiered bowl with translucent polycarbonate roofing over the stands, but not over the pitch. The underside is clad with metallic panels and the roof is supported by four triangular trusses, made of welded tubular steel. Two trusses span in a north–south direction while a further two span an east–west direction. The trusses are supported by the stadium's vertical concrete cores, eight of which connected to them by steel tripods. They in turn each house four stairways, a passenger lift as well as service access. Façades are either glazed or woven between the cores which allows visitors on the podium to see inside the stadium. The glass and steel construction was devised by Populous to give an impression that the stadium sparkles in sunlight and glows in the night. The upper and lower parts of the stadium feature standard seating. The stadium has two levels below ground that house its support facilities such as commercial kitchens, changing rooms and press and education centres. The main middle tier, known as the \"Club Level\", is premium priced and also includes the director's box. There are 7,139 seats at this level, which are sold on licences lasting from one to four years. Immediately above the club tier there is a small circle consisting of 150 boxes of 10, 12 and 15 seats. The total number of spectators at this level is 2,222. The high demand for tickets, as well as the relative wealth of their London fans, means revenue from premium seating and corporate boxes is nearly as high as the revenue from the entire stadium at Highbury. The upper tier is contoured to leave open space in the corners of the ground, and the roof is significantly canted inwards. Both of these features are meant to provide as much airflow and sunlight to the pitch as possible. Supporters in the upper tier on one side of the ground are unable to see supporters in the upper tier opposite. As part of a deal with Sony, the stadium was the first in the world to incorporate HDTV streaming. In the north-west and south-east corners of the stadium are two giant screens suspended from the roof. The pitch is in size and the total grass area at Emirates is. Like Highbury, it runs north–south, with the players' tunnel and the dugouts on the west side of the pitch underneath the main TV camera. The away fans are found in the south-east corner of the lower tier. The away supporter configuration can be expanded from 1,500 seats to 4,500 seats behind the south goal in the lower tier, and a further 4,500 seats can be made available also in the upper tier, bringing the total to 9,000 supporters (the regulation 15% required for domestic cup competitions such as the FA Cup and EFL Cup). The stadium additionally has facilities for fans with disabilities including a Guide Dog Toilet facility, a Disabled Supporters Match Day Lounge, Changing Places Toilet facilities which includes a hoist and changing table. In September 2017, Arsenal opened a sensory room at the stadium for the fans. There is 241 wheelchair accessible seats within the Emirates Stadium. The Emirates Stadium pays tribute to Arsenal's former home, Highbury. The club's offices are officially called Highbury House, located north-east of Emirates Stadium, and house the bust of Herbert Chapman that used to reside at Highbury. Three other busts that used to reside at Highbury of Claude Ferrier (architect of Highbury's East stand), Denis Hill-Wood (former Arsenal chairman) and manager Arsène Wenger have also been moved to Emirates Stadium and are in display in the entrance of the Diamond Club. Additionally, the clock that gave its name to the old Clock End has been resited on the new clock end which features a newer, larger replica of the clock. The Arsenal club museum, which was formerly held in the North Bank Stand, opened in October 2006 and is located to the north of the stadium, within the Northern Triangle building. It houses the marble statues that were once held in the marble halls of Highbury.", "As of 2008, Arsenal's season ticket waiting list stood at 40,000 people. There has also been discussion on the implementation of safe standing.", "Aside from sporting uses, the Emirates Stadium operates as a conference centre. On 27 March 2008, it played host to a summit between British Prime Minister Gordon Brown and French President Nicolas Sarkozy, in part because the stadium was regarded as \"a shining example of Anglo–French co-operation\". The stadium has been used as a location for the audition stage of reality shows \"The X Factor\", \"Britain's Got Talent\" and \"Big Brother.\" In 2016, the Emirates was a venue for \"Celebrity Masterchef\", where contestants prepare meals for club staff members. Aside from sporting uses, the Emirates has been used as a music venue which increases the maximum capacity to 72,000. Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band became the first band to play a concert at the stadium on 30 May 2008. They played a second gig the following night. British band Coldplay played three concerts at the Emirates in the June 2012, having sold out the first two dates within 30 minutes of going on sale. They were the first band to sell out the stadium for music purposes. Green Day set a gig attendance record when performing at the Emirates in June 2013.", "The stadium has also been used for a number of international friendly matches all of which have featured the Brazil national football team. The first match was against Argentina on 3 September 2006 which ended in a 3–0 victory for Brazil.", "It is difficult to get accurate attendance figures as Arsenal do not release these, but choose to use tickets sold. The average attendance for competitive first-team fixtures in the stadium's first season, 2006–07, was 59,837, with a Premier League average attendance of 60,045. By the 2016–17 season, the reported average home league attendance was 59,957. The attendances that Arsenal reported to the Metropolitan Police for the 2015–16 season show an average home match attendance of 54,918, ranging from a high of 60,007 against Aston Villa to a low of 44,878 against West Bromwich Albion. The highest attendance for an Arsenal match at the Emirates Stadium as of June 2017 is 60,161, for a Premier League match against Manchester United on 3 November 2007. The lowest attendance at the ground is believed to be 25,909 for a match against FC BATE Borisov in the UEFA Europa League on 7 December 2017, however the official attendance for the game is recorded as 54,648. The first player to score at the Emirates in a competitive fixture was Aston Villa defender Olof Mellberg after 53 minutes. In the same match Gilberto Silva scored Arsenal's first competitive goal at the ground. Jay Simpson was the first Arsenal player to score a hat trick at the Emirates Stadium against Cardiff City in February 2007, while Emmanuel Adebayor recorded Arsenal's 100th goal at the ground in January 2008 against Newcastle United. Arsenal's biggest margin of victory at the Emirates Stadium was by seven goals, achieved with a 7–0 win over Slavia Prague in the group stages of the UEFA Champions League on 23 October 2007. Their biggest margin of defeat at the ground was by four goals, when they were beaten 5–1 by Bayern Munich in the Champions League round of 16, second leg on 7 March 2017. Robin van Persie has scored the most goals at the Emirates Stadium with 64.", "The Emirates Stadium is served by a number of London Underground stations and bus routes. Arsenal station is the closest for the northern portion of the stadium accessed via the Ken Friar bridge, with Highbury & Islington station servicing the southern end. While Holloway Road station is the closest to the southern portion, it is entry-only before matches and exit-only afterwards to prevent overcrowding. Drayton Park station, adjacent to the Danny fiszman Bridge is shut on matchdays as the rail services to this station do not operate at weekends nor after 10 pm. £7.6 million was set aside in the planning permission for upgrading Drayton Park and Holloway Road; however Transport for London decided not to upgrade either station, in favour of improvement works at the interchanges at Highbury & Islington and Finsbury Park stations, both of which are served by Underground and National Rail services and are approximately a ten-minute walk away. The Emirates Stadium is the only football stadium that stands beside the East Coast Main Line between London and Edinburgh and is just over 2 miles from London King's Cross. Driving to the Emirates Stadium is strongly discouraged as there are strict matchday parking restrictions in operation around the stadium. An hour before kick-off to one hour after the final whistle there is a complete ban on vehicle movement on a number of the surrounding roads, except for Islington residents and businesses with a road closure access permit. The parking restrictions mean that the stadium is highly dependent on the Underground service, particularly when there is no overground service in operation. Industrial action forced Arsenal to reschedule the match for the following month. The stadium opens to ticket holders two hours before kick-off. The main club shop, named 'The Armoury', and ticket offices are located near the West Stand, with other an additional store at the base of the North Bank Bridge, named 'All Arsenal' and the 'Arsenal Store' next to Finsbury Park station. Arsenal operates an electronic ticketing system where members of 'The Arsenal' (the club's fan membership scheme) use their membership cards to enter the stadium, thus removing the need for turnstile operators. Non-members are issued with one-off paper tickets embedded with an RFID tag allowing them to enter the stadium.", "General Specific" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Ideas.", "\"The Conservative Mind\".", "Principles.", "Kirk and libertarianism.", "Kirk and South Africa.", "Kirk and neoconservatism.", "Kirk and the Gulf War.", "Man of letters.", "Fiction." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Russell Kirk was born in Plymouth, Michigan. He was the son of Russell Andrew Kirk, a railroad engineer, and Marjorie Pierce Kirk. Kirk obtained his B.A. at Michigan State University and a M.A. at Duke University. During World War II, he served in the American armed forces and corresponded with a libertarian writer, Isabel Paterson, who helped to shape his early political thought. After reading Albert Jay Nock's book, Our Enemy, the State, he engaged in a similar correspondence with him. After the war, he attended the University of St. Andrews in Scotland. In 1953, he became the only American to be awarded the degree of Doctor of Letters by that university. Kirk \"laid out a post-World War II program for conservatives by warning them, 'A handful of individuals, some of them quite unused to moral responsibilities on such a scale, made it their business to extirpate the populations of Nagasaki and Hiroshima; we must make it our business to curtail the possibility of such snap decisions.'\" Upon completing his studies, Kirk took up an academic position at his alma mater, Michigan State. He resigned in 1959, after having become disenchanted with the rapid growth in student number and emphasis on intercollegiate athletics and technical training at the expense of the traditional liberal arts. Thereafter he referred to Michigan State as \"Cow College\" or \"Behemoth University.\" He later wrote that academic political scientists and sociologists were \"as a breed—dull dogs\". Late in life, he taught one semester a year at Hillsdale College, where he was Distinguished Visiting Professor of Humanities. Kirk frequently published in two American conservative journals he helped found, \"National Review\" in 1955 and \"Modern Age\" in 1957. He was the founding editor of the latter, 1957–59. Later he was made a Distinguished Fellow of the Heritage Foundation, where he gave a number of lectures. After leaving Michigan State, Kirk returned to his ancestral home in Mecosta, Michigan, where he wrote the many books, academic articles, lectures, and the syndicated newspaper column (which ran for 13 years) by which he exerted his influence on American politics and intellectual life. In 1963, Kirk converted to Catholicism and married Annette Courtemanche, now named Annette Kirk; they had four daughters. She and Kirk became known for their hospitality, welcoming many political, philosophical, and literary figures in their Mecosta house (known as \"Piety Hill\"), and giving shelter to political refugees, hoboes, and others. Their home became the site of a sort of seminar on conservative thought for university students. Piety Hill now houses the Russell Kirk Center for Cultural Renewal. After his conversion to Catholicism Kirk was a founding board member of Una Voce America. Kirk declined to drive, calling cars \"mechanical Jacobins\", and Kirk did not always maintain a stereotypically \"conservative\" voting record. \"Faced with the non-choice between Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Thomas Dewey in 1944, Kirk said no to empire and voted for Norman Thomas, the Socialist Party candidate.\" In the 1976 presidential election, he voted for Eugene McCarthy. In 1992 he supported Pat Buchanan's primary challenge to incumbent George H. W. Bush, serving as state chair of the Buchanan campaign in Michigan. Kirk was a contributor to \"Chronicles\". In 1989, he was presented with the Presidential Citizens Medal by President Ronald Reagan.", "", "\"The Conservative Mind: From Burke to Santayana\", the published version of Kirk's doctoral dissertation, contributed materially to the 20th century Burke revival. It also drew attention to: \"The Portable Conservative Reader\" (1982), which Kirk edited, contains sample writings by most of the above. Biographer Bradley J. Birzer argues that for all his importance in inspiring the modern conservative movement, not many of his followers agreed with his unusual approach to the history of conservatism. As summarized by reviewer Drew Maciag: Harry Jaffa (a student of Leo Strauss) wrote: \"Kirk was a poor Burke scholar. Burke's attack on metaphysical reasoning related only to modern philosophy's attempt to eliminate skeptical doubt from its premises and hence from its conclusions.\" Russello (2004) argues that Kirk adapted what 19th-century American Catholic thinker Orestes Brownson called \"territorial democracy\" to articulate a version of federalism that was based on premises that differ in part from those of the Founders and other conservatives. Kirk further believed that territorial democracy could reconcile the tension between treating the states as mere provinces of the central government, and as autonomous political units independent of Washington. Finally, territorial democracy allowed Kirk to set out a theory of individual rights grounded in the particular historical circumstances of the United States, while rejecting a universal conception of such rights. In addition to bringing public attention to Anglo-American conservative principles, Kirk described his perception of liberal ideals in the first chapter. Kirk identified these ideals as the perfectibility of man, hostility towards tradition, rapid change in economic and political systems, and the secularization of government.", "Kirk developed six \"canons\" of conservatism, which Russello (2004) described as follows: Kirk said that Christianity and Western Civilization are \"unimaginable apart from one another\" and that \"all culture arises out of religion. When religious faith decays, culture must decline, though often seeming to flourish for a space after the religion which has nourished it has sunk into disbelief.\"", "Kirk grounded his Burkean conservatism in tradition, political philosophy, \"belles lettres\", and the strong religious faith of his later years, rather than libertarianism and free market economic reasoning. \"The Conservative Mind\" hardly mentions economics at all. In a polemic, Kirk, quoting T. S. Eliot's expression, called libertarians \"chirping sectaries,\" adding that conservatives and libertarians share opposition to \"collectivism,\" \"the totalist state,\" and \"bureaucracy,\" but otherwise have \"nothing\" in common. He called the libertarian movement \"an ideological clique forever splitting into sects still smaller and odder, but rarely conjugating.\" He said a line of division exists between believers in \"some sort of transcendent moral order\" and \"utilitarians admitting no transcendent sanctions for conduct.\" He included libertarians in the latter category. Kirk, therefore, questioned the \"fusionism\" between libertarians and traditional conservatives that marked much of post-World War II conservatism in the United States. However, Kirk's view of classical liberals is positive. He agrees with them on \"ordered liberty\" as they make \"common cause with regular conservatives against the menace of democratic despotism and economic collectivism.\" Tibor R. Machan defended libertarianism in response to Kirk's original Heritage Lecture. Machan argued that the right of individual sovereignty is perhaps most worthy of conserving from the American political heritage, and that when conservatives themselves talk about preserving some tradition, they cannot at the same time claim a disrespectful distrust of the individual human mind, of rationalism itself. Jacob G. Hornberger of the Future of Freedom Foundation also responded to Kirk.", "In a column in \"The National Review\" on 9 March 1965 entitled \"'One Man, One Vote' in South Africa,\" Kirk wrote that the U.S. Supreme Court's jurisprudence on voting \"will work mischief—much injuring, rather than fulfilling, the responsible democracy for which Tocqueville hoped,\" but in the case of South Africa \"this degradation of the democratic dogma, if applied, would bring anarchy and the collapse of civilization.\" Kirk wrote that \"the 'European' element [makes] South Africa the only'modern' and prosperous African country.\" He added that \"Bantu political domination [of South Africa] would be domination by witch doctors (still numerous and powerful) and reckless demagogues\" and that \"Bantu and Coloreds and Indians must feel that they have some political voice in the South African commonwealth.\"", "Late in life, Kirk grew disenchanted with American neoconservatives as well. As \"Chronicles\" editor Scott Richert describes it: [One line] helped define the emerging struggle between neoconservatives and paleoconservatives. \"Not seldom has it seemed,\" Kirk declared, \"as if some eminent Neoconservatives mistook Tel Aviv for the capital of the United States.\" A few years later, in another Heritage Foundation speech, Kirk repeated that line verbatim. In the wake of the Gulf War, which he had opposed, he clearly understood that those words carried even greater meaning. He also commented the neoconservatives were \"often clever, never wise.\" Midge Decter, Jewish director of the Committee for the Free World, called Kirk's remark \"a bloody outrage, a piece of anti-Semitism by Kirk that impugns the loyalty of neoconservatives.\" She told The New Republic, \"It's this notion of a Christian civilization. You have to be part of it or you're not really fit to conserve anything. That's an old line and it's very ignorant.\" Samuel T. Francis called Kirk's \"Tel Aviv\" remark \"a wisecrack about the slavishly pro-Israel sympathies among neoconservatives.\" He described Decter's response as untrue, \"reckless\" and \"vitriolic.\" Furthermore, he argued that such a denunciation \"always plays into the hands of the left, which is then able to repeat the charges and claim conservative endorsement of them.", "Toward the end of his life, Russell Kirk was highly critical of Republican militarism. President Bush, Kirk said, had embarked upon \"a radical course of intervention in the region of the Persian Gulf\". Excerpts from Russell Kirk's lectures at the Heritage Foundation (1992):", "Kirk's other important books include \"Eliot and his Age: T. S. Eliot's Moral Imagination in the Twentieth Century\" (1972), \"The Roots of American Order\" (1974), and the autobiographical \"Sword of the Imagination: Memoirs of a Half Century of Literary Conflict\" (1995). As was the case with his hero Edmund Burke, Kirk became renowned for the prose style of his intellectual and polemical writings.", "Beyond his scholarly achievements, Kirk was talented both as an oral storyteller and as an author of genre fiction, most notably in his telling of consummate ghost stories in the classic tradition of Sheridan Le Fanu, M. R. James, Oliver Onions, and H. Russell Wakefield. He also wrote other admired and much-anthologized works that are variously classified as horror, fantasy, science fiction, and political satire. These earned him plaudits from fellow creative writers as varied and distinguished as T. S. Eliot, Robert Aickman, Madeleine L'Engle, and Ray Bradbury. Though modest in quantity—it encompasses three novels and 22 short stories—Kirk's body of fiction was written amid a busy career as prolific nonfiction writer, editor, and speaker. As with such other speculative fiction authors as G. K. Chesterton, C. S. Lewis, and J. R. R. Tolkien (all of whom likewise wrote only nonfiction for their \"day jobs\"), there are conservative undercurrents—social, cultural, religious, and political—to Kirk's fiction. Kirk stated in 1984 that the purpose of his stories as: \"The political ferocity of our age is sufficiently dismaying: men of letters need not conjure up horrors worse than those suffered during the past decade by the Cambodians and Ugandans, Afghans and Ethiopians. What I have attempted, rather, are experiments in the moral imagination. Readers will encounter elements of parable and fable...some clear premise is about the character of human existence...a healthy concept of the character of evil...\" His first novel, \"Old House of Fear\" (1961, 1965), as with so many of his short stories, was written in a self-consciously Gothic vein. Here the plot is concerned with an American assigned by his employer to a bleak locale in rural Scotland—the same country where Kirk had attended graduate school. This was Kirk's most commercially successful and critically acclaimed fictional work, doing much to sustain him financially in subsequent years. \"Old House of Fear\" was inspired by the novels of John Buchan and Kirk's own Scottish heritage. The story of \"Old House of Fear\" concerns an young American, Hugh Logan, a World War II veteran who is both brave and sensitive, sent to buy Carnglass, a remote island in the Hebrides. Upon reaching the island, he discovers that the island's owner, Lady MacAskival and her beautiful adopted daughter Mary are being held hostage by foreign spies, who are presumably working for the Soviet Union, out to sabotage a nearby NATO base. The leader of the spies is Dr. Jackman, an evil genius and nihilist intent upon wrecking destruction upon a world that failed to acknowledged his greatness and whom reviewers noted was a much more vividly drawn character than the hero Logan. Dr. Jackman appears to be a prototype of Kirk's best known character, Mandred Arcane, with the only difference being the former has no values while the latter does. Later novels were \"A Creature of the Twilight\" (1966), a dark comedy satirizing postcolonial African politics; and \"Lord of the Hollow Dark\" (1979, 1989), set in Scotland, which explores the great evil inhabiting a haunted house. \"A Creature of the Twilight\" concerns the adventures in Africa of a reactionary, romantic mercenary Mandred Arcane, a self-proclaimed mixture of Machiavelli and Sir Lancelot, who is an anachronistic survival of the Victorian Age who does not belong in the modern world and yet defiantly still exists, making him the \"creature of the twilight\". Kirk has Arcane write his pseudo-memoir in a consciously Victorian style to underline that he does not belong in the 1960s. Arcane is both a dapper intellectual and a hardened man of action, an elderly man full of an unnatural vigor, who is hired by the son of the assassinated Sultan to put down a Communist rebellion in the fictional African nation of Hamnegri, which he does despite overwhelming odds. In 1967, Kirk published a short story \"Belgrummo's Hell\" about a clever art thief who unwisely tries to rob the estate of the ancient Scottish warlock, Lord Belgrummo, who is later revealed to be Arcane's father. In another short story published in the same collection, \"The Peculiar Demesne of Archvicar Gerontion\" concerned a wizard, Archvicar Gerontion, who tries to kill Arcane by casting deadly spells. The \"Lord of the Hollow Dark\" is set at the same Belgrummo estate first encountered in \"Belgrummo's Hell\" where an evil cult led by the Aleister Crowley-like character Apollinax have assembled to secure for themselves the \"Timeless Moment\" of eternal sexual pleasure by sacrificing two innocents, an young woman named Marina and her infant daughter in an ancient warren called the Weem under the Belgrummo Estate. Assisting Apollinax is Archvicar Gerontion, who is really Arcane in disguise. Inspired by the novels of H.P. Lovecraft, Kirk in the \"Lord of the Hollow Dark\" has Arcane survive a \"horrid chthonian pilgrimage\" as he faces dark supernatural forces, confront his own family's history of evil, and refuse the appeal of a \"seductive, hubristic immorality\". The novel concludes with Arcane's own definition of a true \"Timeless Moment\" which he states: \"it comes from faith, from hope, from charity; from having your work in the world; from the happiness of the people you love; or simply as a gift of grace\". During his lifetime, Kirk also oversaw the publication of three collections which together encompassed all his short stories. (Three more such collections have been published posthumously, but those only reprint stories found in the earlier volumes.) Many of Kirk's short stories, especially the ghost stories, were set in either Scotland or in the rural parts of his home state of Michigan. Among his novels and stories, certain characters tend to recur, enriching the already considerable unity and resonance of his fictional canon. Though—through their themes and prose-style—Kirk's fiction and nonfiction works are complementary, many readers of the one have not known of his work in the other. Having begun to write fiction fairly early in his career, Kirk appears to have stopped after the early 1980s, while continuing his nonfiction writing and research through his last year of life. For a comprehensive bibliography of his fiction, see the fiction section of his bibliography." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Internet bots.", "Quality.", "Article depth.", "Bytes per article.", "Topics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Dutch Wikipedia was started on 19 June 2001, and reached 100,000 articles on 14 October 2005. It briefly surpassed the Polish Wikipedia as the sixth-largest edition of Wikipedia, but then fell back to the eighth position. On 1 March 2006, it overtook the Swedish and Italian editions in one day to rise back to the sixth position. The edition's 500,000th article was created on 30 November 2008. In a 2006 \"Multiscope\" research study, the Dutch Wikipedia was rated the third-best Dutch-language website, after Google and Gmail, with a score of 8.1. The Dutch language Wikipedia has the largest ratio of Wikipedia pages per native speaker of all of the top 10 largest Wikipedia editions. Its rate of daily article creations spiked in March 2006, rapidly growing to an average of 1,000 a day in early May 2006. After this number was reached, growth dropped to an average of only about 250 a day, comparable to the averages around December 2005. Since then, there have been more article-creation surges, one of the largest peaking at 2,000 new articles per day in September 2007, but the growth rate has always returned to the lowest average of around 250. In 2008, Dutch businessman Bob Sijthoff attempted to sue \"the Vereniging Wikimedia Nederland\" and \"the Stichting Wikimedia Nederland\" to force the removal of his Dutch Wikipedia article, which he stated contained \"false and abusive\" information. On 10 December 2008, the court rejected his request. The judge ruled that he had sued the wrong entity and that legal responsibility for the content of the articles would not lie in the Netherlands, but with the American Wikimedia Foundation.", "The majority of articles in Dutch Wikipedia (59%) were created by internet bots. In October 2011, several bots created 80,000 articles (then equivalent to 10% of the entire edition's article count) in only 11 days. The Dutch Wikipedia's one-millionth article was created in December 2011, after another surge of bot activity saw 100,000 added articles in only 10 days. In late March 2013, the Dutch Wikipedia surpassed the French Wikipedia to become the third-largest edition of Wikipedia. In June 2013, it overtook the German Wikipedia to become the second-largest Wikipedia edition.", "", "The \"depth\" or \"editing depth\" of Wikipedia is a rough indicator of the encyclopedia's collaborative quality, showing how frequently its articles are updated. The depth is measured by taking the average number of edits per article multiplied by the extent in which articles are supported by discussion (among other things, talk pages). Among the nine language editions with one million articles, the Dutch, Swedish, and Polish Wikipedias in that order have much lower than the other six., for the English version the article depth is 666, for the German 88, for the French 153, for the Spanish 160, for the Dutch only 18.", "Compared to most other Wikipedia editions with a similar number of articles, articles on the Dutch Wikipedia have less content with an average of 1,598 bytes per article (). This is roughly 40% of that of the French, German, Italian, Russian, and Spanish editions (3,986–4,277 bytes/article ).", "In 2019 the Dutch Wikipedia has 115 thousand unique categories. The average article in this language version has 5 categories, while number of unique categories per articles ratio is 0.059. The largest number of articles has Geography (30%) and Science (19%) category. In Dutch Wikipedia articles related to Events and Sports has the highest average quality. Content about Philosophy is read more often and articles in Education category have the highest authors' interest on average." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Statistics.", "Local community." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "As of August 2012, The Estonian Wikipedia has the 3rd greatest number of articles per speaker among Wikipedias with over 100,000 articles, and ranks 10th overall. These figures were based on Ethnologue's estimate of 1,048,660 Estonian speakers. The Estonian Wikipedia is the 41st edition to reach the milestone of 100,000 articles and the third edition in a Uralic language to do so, after the Finnish and Hungarian Wikipedias. As of August 2012, the Estonian Wikipedia's number of articles accounts for approximately 23% of all the articles written in a Finno-Permic language, making it the second largest edition in the family after Finnish, which accounts for 70% of Finno-Permic articles. The Estonian Wikipedia has a relatively high percentage of administrators per regular active users (over 9%) compared to the Finnish Wikipedia, where only 2.5% of active users are administrators. As of, the edition has active contributors and administrators. The overwhelming majority of its edits originate from Estonia, while a minority of contributions come from neighboring Northern European countries, which account for most of the remaining share of editors. In 2019 the Estonian Wikipedia has 30 thousand unique categories and 1.48% of them do not have appropriate page in the category. The average article in this language version has 3 categories, while number of unique categories per articles ratio is 0.158. The largest number of articles has Geography (18%) and Society (11%) category. In Estonian Wikipedia articles related to Crime and History has the highest average quality. Content about Food and drink is read more often and articles in Crime category have the highest authors' interest on average.", "The first meeting for local Wikipedians was held in 2007. The Estonian Wikimedia chapter named Wikimedia Eesti was founded in 2010 to support Estonian Wikipedia." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early years.", "Duos, trios, and quartets.", "Ill health and later years.", "Personal life.", "Composer and teacher.", "Peterson and Tatum.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Peterson was born in Montreal, Quebec, to immigrants from the West Indies; his father worked as a porter for Canadian Pacific Railway. Peterson grew up in the neighbourhood of Little Burgundy in Montreal. It was in this predominantly black neighborhood that he encountered the jazz culture. At the age of five, Peterson began honing his skills on trumpet and piano, but a bout of tuberculosis when he was seven prevented him from playing the trumpet again, so he directed all his attention to the piano. His father, Daniel Peterson, an amateur trumpeter and pianist, was one of his first music teachers, and his sister Daisy taught him classical piano. Peterson was persistent at practising scales and classical études. As a child, Peterson studied with Hungarian-born pianist Paul de Marky, a student of István Thomán, who was himself a pupil of Franz Liszt, so his early training was predominantly based on classical piano. But he was captivated by traditional jazz and boogie-woogie and learned several ragtime pieces. He was called \"the Brown Bomber of the Boogie-Woogie\". At the age of nine Peterson played piano with a degree of control that impressed professional musicians. For many years his piano studies included four to six hours of daily practice. Only in his later years did he decrease his practice to one or two hours daily. In 1940, at fourteen years of age, he won the national music competition organized by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. After that victory, he dropped out of the High School of Montreal, where he played in a band with Maynard Ferguson. He became a professional pianist, starring in a weekly radio show and playing at hotels and music halls. In his teens he was a member of the Johnny Holmes Orchestra. From 1945 to 1949 he worked in a trio and recorded for Victor Records. He gravitated toward boogie-woogie and swing with a particular fondness for Nat King Cole and Teddy Wilson. By the time he was in his 20s, he had developed a reputation as a technically brilliant and melodically inventive pianist.", "In a cab on the way to the Montreal airport, Norman Granz heard a radio program broadcasting from a local club. He was so impressed that he told the driver to take him to the club so he could meet the pianist. In 1949 he introduced Peterson in New York City at a Jazz at the Philharmonic concert at Carnegie Hall. He remained Peterson's manager for most of his career. This was more than a managerial relationship; Peterson praised Granz for standing up for him and other black jazz musicians in the segregationist south of the 1950s and 1960s. In the documentary video \"Music in the Key of Oscar\", Peterson tells how Granz stood up to a gun-toting southern policeman who wanted to stop the trio from using \"whites-only\" taxis. In 1950 Peterson worked in a duo with double bassist Ray Brown. Two years later they added guitarist Barney Kessel. Then Herb Ellis stepped in after Kessel grew weary of touring. The trio remained together from 1953 to 1958, often touring with Jazz at the Philharmonic. Peterson also worked in a duo with Sam Jones, Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen, Joe Pass, Irving Ashby, Count Basie, and Herbie Hancock. He considered the trio with Brown and Ellis \"the most stimulating\" and productive setting for public performances and studio recordings. In the early 1950s, he began performing with Brown and drummer Charlie Smith as the Oscar Peterson Trio. Shortly afterward Smith was replaced by guitarist Irving Ashby, who had been a member of the Nat King Cole Trio. Ashby, who was a swing guitarist, was soon replaced by Kessel. Their last recording, \"On the Town with the Oscar Peterson Trio\", recorded live at the Town Tavern in Toronto, captured a remarkable degree of emotional as well as musical understanding between three players. When Ellis departed in 1958, they hired drummer Ed Thigpen because they felt no guitarist could compare to Ellis. Brown and Thigpen worked with Peterson on his albums \"Night Train\" and \"Canadiana Suite\". Both left in 1965 and were replaced by bassist Sam Jones and drummer Louis Hayes (and later, drummer Bobby Durham). The trio performed together until 1970. In 1969 Peterson recorded \"Motions and Emotions\" with orchestral arrangements of \"Yesterday\" and \"Eleanor Rigby\" by The Beatles. In the fall of 1970, Peterson's trio released the album \"Tristeza on Piano\". Jones and Durham left in 1970. In the 1970s Peterson formed a trio with guitarist Joe Pass and bassist Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen. This trio emulated the success of the 1950s trio with Brown and Ellis and gave acclaimed performances at festivals. Their album \"The Trio\" won the 1974 Grammy Award for Best Jazz Performance by a Group. On April 22, 1978, Peterson performed in the interval act for the Eurovision Song Contest 1978 that was broadcast live from the Palais des congrès de Paris. In 1974 he added British drummer Martin Drew. This quartet toured and recorded extensively worldwide. Pass said in a 1976 interview, \"The only guys I've heard who come close to total mastery of their instruments are Art Tatum and Peterson\". Peterson was open to experimental collaborations with jazz musicians such as saxophonist Ben Webster, trumpeter Clark Terry, and vibraphonist Milt Jackson. In 1961, the Peterson trio with Jackson recorded the album \"Very Tall\". His solo recordings were rare until \"Exclusively for My Friends\" (MPS), a series of albums that were his response to pianists such as Bill Evans and McCoy Tyner. He recorded for Pablo, led by Norman Granz, after the label was founded in 1973. In the 1980s he played in a duo with pianist Herbie Hancock. In the late 1980s and 1990s, after a stroke, he made performances and recordings with his protégé Benny Green. In the 1990s and 2000s he recorded several albums accompanied by a combo for Telarc.", "Peterson had arthritis since his youth, and in later years he had trouble buttoning his shirt. Never slender, his weight increased to, hindering his mobility. He had hip replacement surgery in the early 1990s. Although the surgery was successful, his mobility was still inhibited. In 1993 a stroke weakened his left side and removed him from work for two years. During the same year incoming prime minister Jean Chrétien, his friend and fan, offered him the position of Lieutenant-Governor of Ontario. According to Chrétien, Peterson declined the job due to ill health related to the stroke. Although he recovered some dexterity in his left hand, his piano playing was diminished, and his style had relied principally on his right hand. In 1995 he returned to occasional public performances and recorded for Telarc. In 1997 he received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award and an International Jazz Hall of Fame Award. His friend, Canadian politician and amateur pianist Bob Rae, said, \"a one-handed Oscar was better than just about anyone with two hands.\" In 2003, Peterson recorded the DVD \"A Night in Vienna\" for Verve with Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen, Ulf Wakenius, and Martin Drew. He continued to tour the U.S. and Europe, though at most one month a year, with rest between concerts. In 2007 his health declined. He canceled his plans to perform at the Toronto Jazz Festival and a Carnegie Hall all-star concert that was to be given in his honour. Peterson died on December 23, 2007 of kidney failure at his home in Mississauga, Ontario.", "Peterson was married four times. He smoked cigarettes and a pipe and often tried to break the habit, but every time he stopped he gained weight. He loved to cook and remained large throughout his life.", "Peterson taught piano and improvisation in Canada, mainly in Toronto. With associates, he started and headed the Advanced School of Contemporary Music in Toronto for five years during the 1960s, but it closed because touring called him and his associates away, and it did not have government funding. Later, he mentored the York University jazz program and was the Chancellor of the university for several years in the early 1990s. He published jazz piano etudes for practice. He asked his students to study the music of Johann Sebastian Bach, especially \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\", the \"Goldberg Variations\", and \"The Art of Fugue\", considering these piano pieces essential for every serious pianist. Among his students were pianists Benny Green and Oliver Jones.", "He was influenced by Teddy Wilson, Nat King Cole, James P. Johnson, and Art Tatum, to whom many compared Peterson in later years. After his father played a record of Tatum's \"Tiger Rag\", he was intimidated and disillusioned, quitting the piano for several weeks. \"Tatum scared me to death,\" he said, and was \"never cocky again\" about his ability at the piano. Tatum was a model for Peterson's musicianship during the 1940s and 1950s. Tatum and Peterson became good friends, although Peterson was always shy about being compared with Tatum and rarely played the piano in Tatum's presence. Peterson also credited his sister—a piano teacher in Montreal who also taught several other Canadian jazz musicians—with being an important teacher and influence on his career. Under his sister's tutelage, Peterson expanded into classical piano training and broadened his range while mastering the core classical pianism from scales to preludes and fugues by Johann Sebastian Bach. Building on Tatum's pianism and aesthetics, Peterson also absorbed Tatum's musical influences, notably from piano concertos by Sergei Rachmaninoff. Rachmaninoff's harmonizations, as well as direct quotations from his 2nd Piano Concerto, are scattered throughout many recordings by Peterson, including his work with the most familiar formulation of the Oscar Peterson Trio, with bassist Ray Brown and guitarist Herb Ellis. During the 1960s and 1970s Peterson made numerous trio recordings highlighting his piano performances; they reveal more of his eclectic style, absorbing influences from various genres of jazz, popular, and classical music. According to pianist and educator Mark Eisenman, some of Peterson's best playing was as an understated accompanist to singer Ella Fitzgerald and trumpeter Roy Eldridge.", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Examples.", "Sock-picking.", "Hand-shaking.", "Hair-counting.", "The birthday problem.", "Team tournament.", "Subset sum.", "Uses and applications.", "Alternative formulations.", "Strong form.", "Generalizations of the pigeonhole principle.", "Infinite sets.", "Quantum mechanics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Dirichlet published his works in both French and German, using either the German \"Schubfach\" (he wrote about distributing pearls), or the French \"tiroir\". The strict original meaning of both corresponds to the English \"drawer\", an \"open-topped box that can be slid in and out of the cabinet that contains it\". These terms were morphed to the word \"pigeonhole\", standing for a \"small open space in a desk, cabinet, or wall for keeping letters or papers\", metaphorically rooted in the structures that house pigeons. Since Dirichlet's father was a postmaster, and furniture with pigeonholes is commonly used for storing or sorting things into many categories (like letters in a post office or room keys in a hotel), the translation \"pigeonhole\" may be a perfect rendering of Dirichlet's metaphor. That understanding of the word, referring to some furniture features, is fading —especially among those who do not speak English natively but as a lingua franca in the scientific world— in favour of the more pictorial interpretation, literally involving pigeons and holes. The suggestive, though not misleading interpretation of \"pigeonhole\" as \"dovecote\" has lately found its way back to a German back-translation of the \"pigeonhole\"-principle as the \"Taubenschlag\"-principle. Besides the original terms \"Schubfach-Prinzip\" in German and \"Principe des tiroirs\" in French, other literal translations are still in use in Bulgarian (\"принцип на чекмеджетата\"), Chinese (\"抽屉原理\"), Danish (\"Skuffeprincippet\"), Dutch (\"ladenprincipe \"), Hungarian (\"skatulyaelv\"), Italian (\"principio dei cassetti\"), Japanese (\"引き出し論法\"), Persian (\"اصل لانه کبوتری\"), Polish (\"zasada szufladkowa\"), Swedish (\"Lådprincipen\"), and Turkish (\"çekmece ilkesi\").", "", "Assume a drawer contains a mixture of black socks and blue socks, each of which can be worn on either foot, and that you are pulling a number of socks from the drawer without looking. What is the minimum number of pulled socks required to guarantee a pair of the same color? Using the pigeonhole principle, to have at least one pair of the same color holes, one per color) using one pigeonhole per color, you need to pull only three socks from the drawer items). Either you have \"three\" of one color, or you have \"two\" of one color and \"one\" of the other.", "If there are people who can shake hands with one another (where ), the pigeonhole principle shows that there is always a pair of people who will shake hands with the same number of people. In this application of the principle, the 'hole' to which a person is assigned is the number of hands shaken by that person. Since each person shakes hands with some number of people from 0 to, there are possible holes. On the other hand, either the '0' hole or the hole or both must be empty, for it is impossible (if ) for some person to shake hands with everybody else while some person shakes hands with nobody. This leaves people to be placed into at most non-empty holes, so that the principle applies.", "We can demonstrate there must be at least two people in London with the same number of hairs on their heads as follows. Since a typical human head has an average of around 150,000 hairs, it is reasonable to assume (as an upper bound) that no one has more than 1,000,000 hairs on their head holes). There are more than 1,000,000 people in London ( is bigger than 1 million items). Assigning a pigeonhole to each number of hairs on a person's head, and assign people to pigeonholes according to the number of hairs on their head, there must be at least two people assigned to the same pigeonhole by the 1,000,001st assignment (because they have the same number of hairs on their heads) (or, ). For the average case () with the constraint: fewest overlaps, there will be at most one person assigned to every pigeonhole and the 150,001st person assigned to the same pigeonhole as someone else. In the absence of this constraint, there may be empty pigeonholes because the \"collision\" happens before we get to the 150,001st person. The principle just proves the existence of an overlap; it says nothing of the number of overlaps (which falls under the subject of probability distribution). There is a passing, satirical, allusion in English to this version of the principle in \"A History of the Athenian Society\", prefixed to \"A Supplement to the Athenian Oracle: Being a Collection of the Remaining Questions and Answers in the Old Athenian Mercuries\", (Printed for Andrew Bell, London, 1710). It seems that the question \"whether there were any two persons in the World that have an equal number of hairs on their head?\" had been raised in \"The Athenian Mercury\" before 1704. Perhaps the first written reference to the pigeonhole principle appears in 1622 in a short sentence of the Latin work \"Selectæ Propositiones\", by the French Jesuit Jean Leurechon, where he wrote \"It is necessary that two men have the same number of hairs, écus, or other things, as each other.\" The full principle was spelled out two years later, with additional examples, in another book that has often been attributed to Leurechon, but may have been written by one of his students.", "The birthday problem asks, for a set of randomly chosen people, what is the probability that some pair of them will have the same birthday? By the pigeonhole principle, if there are 367 people in the room, we know that there is at least one pair who share the same birthday, as there are only 366 possible birthdays to choose from (including February 29, if present). The birthday \"paradox\" refers to the result that even if the group is as small as 23 individuals, the probability that there is a pair of people with the same birthday is still above 50%. While at first glance this may seem surprising, it intuitively makes sense when considering that a comparison will actually be made between every possible pair of people rather than fixing one individual and comparing them solely to the rest of the group.", "Imagine seven people who want to play in a tournament of teams items), with a limitation of only four teams holes) to choose from. The pigeonhole principle tells us that they cannot all play for different teams; there must be at least one team featuring at least two of the seven players:", "Any subset of size six from the set = {1,2,3...,9} must contain two elements whose sum is 10. The pigeonholes will be labelled by the two element subsets {1,9}, {2,8}, {3,7}, {4,6} and the singleton {5}, five pigeonholes in all. When the six \"pigeons\" (elements of the size six subset) are placed into these pigeonholes, each pigeon going into the pigeonhole that has it contained in its label, at least one of the pigeonholes labelled with a two element subset will have two pigeons in it.", "The principle can be used to prove that any lossless compression algorithm, provided it makes some inputs smaller (as the name compression suggests), will also make some other inputs larger. Otherwise, the set of all input sequences up to a given length could be mapped to the (much) smaller set of all sequences of length less than without collisions (because the compression is lossless), a possibility which the pigeonhole principle excludes. A notable problem in mathematical analysis is, for a fixed irrational number, to show that the set {[ is an integer} of fractional parts is dense in [0, 1]. One finds that it is not easy to explicitly find integers such that, where is a small positive number and is some arbitrary irrational number. But if one takes such that, by the pigeonhole principle there must be } such that and are in the same integer subdivision of size (there are only such subdivisions between consecutive integers). In particular, we can find such that is in, and is in, for some integers and in }. We can then easily verify that is in. This implies that, where or. This shows that 0 is a limit point of {[]}. We can then use this fact to prove the case for in : find such that ; then if ], we are done. Otherwise ], and by setting }, one obtains. Variants occurring in well known proofs: In the proof of the pumping lemma for regular languages, a version that mixes finite and infinite sets is used: If infinitely many objects are placed into finitely many boxes, then there exist two objects that share a box. In Fisk's solution of the Art gallery problem a sort of converse is used: If \"n\" objects are placed into \"k\" boxes, then there is a box containing at most \"n\"/\"k\" objects.", "The following are alternative formulations of the pigeonhole principle.", "Let be positive integers. If objects are distributed into boxes, then either the first box contains at least objects, or the second box contains at least objects,..., or the th box contains at least objects. The simple form is obtained from this by taking, which gives objects. Taking gives the more quantified version of the principle, namely: Let and be positive integers. If objects are distributed into boxes, then at least one of the boxes contains or more of the objects. This can also be stated as, if discrete objects are to be allocated to containers, then at least one container must hold at least formula_16 objects, where formula_17 is the ceiling function, denoting the smallest integer larger than or equal to. Similarly, at least one container must hold no more than formula_18 objects, where formula_19 is the floor function, denoting the largest integer smaller than or equal to.", "A probabilistic generalization of the pigeonhole principle states that if pigeons are randomly put into pigeonholes with uniform probability, then at least one pigeonhole will hold more than one pigeon with probability where is the falling factorial. For and for (and ), that probability is zero; in other words, if there is just one pigeon, there cannot be a conflict. For (more pigeons than pigeonholes) it is one, in which case it coincides with the ordinary pigeonhole principle. But even if the number of pigeons does not exceed the number of pigeonholes (), due to the random nature of the assignment of pigeons to pigeonholes there is often a substantial chance that clashes will occur. For example, if 2 pigeons are randomly assigned to 4 pigeonholes, there is a 25% chance that at least one pigeonhole will hold more than one pigeon; for 5 pigeons and 10 holes, that probability is 69.76%; and for 10 pigeons and 20 holes it is about 93.45%. If the number of holes stays fixed, there is always a greater probability of a pair when you add more pigeons. This problem is treated at much greater length in the birthday paradox. A further probabilistic generalization is that when a real-valued random variable has a finite mean, then the probability is nonzero that is greater than or equal to, and similarly the probability is nonzero that is less than or equal to. To see that this implies the standard pigeonhole principle, take any fixed arrangement of pigeons into holes and let be the number of pigeons in a hole chosen uniformly at random. The mean of is, so if there are more pigeons than holes the mean is greater than one. Therefore, is sometimes at least 2.", "The pigeonhole principle can be extended to infinite sets by phrasing it in terms of cardinal numbers: if the cardinality of set is greater than the cardinality of set, then there is no injection from to. However, in this form the principle is tautological, since the meaning of the statement that the cardinality of set is greater than the cardinality of set is exactly that there is no injective map from to. However, adding at least one element to a finite set is sufficient to ensure that the cardinality increases. Another way to phrase the pigeonhole principle for finite sets is similar to the principle that finite sets are Dedekind finite: Let and be finite sets. If there is a surjection from to that is not injective, then no surjection from to is injective. In fact no function of any kind from to is injective. This is not true for infinite sets: Consider the function on the natural numbers that sends 1 and 2 to 1, 3 and 4 to 2, 5 and 6 to 3, and so on. There is a similar principle for infinite sets: If uncountably many pigeons are stuffed into countably many pigeonholes, there will exist at least one pigeonhole having uncountably many pigeons stuffed into it. This principle is not a generalization of the pigeonhole principle for finite sets however: It is in general false for finite sets. In technical terms it says that if and are finite sets such that any surjective function from to is not injective, then there exists an element of of such that there exists a bijection between the preimage of and. This is a quite different statement, and is absurd for large finite cardinalities.", "Yakir Aharonov et al. have presented arguments that the pigeonhole principle may be violated in quantum mechanics, and proposed interferometric experiments to test the pigeonhole principle in quantum mechanics. However, later research has called this conclusion into question. In a January 2015 arXiv preprint, researchers Alastair Rae and Ted Forgan at the University of Birmingham performed a theoretical wave function analysis, employing the standard pigeonhole principle, on the flight of electrons at various energies through an interferometer. If the electrons had no interaction strength at all, they would each produce a single, perfectly circular peak. At high interaction strength, each electron produces four distinct peaks for a total of 12 peaks on the detector; these peaks are the result of the four possible interactions each electron could experience (alone, together with the first other particle only, together with the second other particle only, or all three together). If the interaction strength was fairly low, as would be the case in many real experiments, the deviation from a zero-interaction pattern would be nearly indiscernible, much smaller than the lattice spacing of atoms in solids, such as the detectors used for observing these patterns. This would make it very difficult or even impossible to distinguish a weak-but-nonzero interaction strength from no interaction whatsoever, and thus give an illusion of three electrons that did not interact despite all three passing through two paths." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Work." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "He graduated in Czech, Russian and Slavic comparative linguistics at the Masaryk University in Brno. His teachers included prominent Paleo-Slavists such as Josef Kurz, Bohemists such as František Trávníček and Adolf Kellner, Indo-Europeanist Václav Machek and the founder of the Czech School in Comparative Literature Frank Wollman. Already during the studies he began his educational work as an assistant (1950–1952), and after graduation he remained working at the faculty (1952–1955 as a scientific intern; 1955–1964 as an Assistant Professor, 1964–1990 as an Associate Professor, 1994–present as a full Professor of Slavic Linguistics and Literary Studies, now professor emeritus). In 1952 he received his doctorate of philosophy, from 1957 he was a candidate of philological sciences (Ph.D.), and since 1988 Doctor of Philological Sciences (DrSc.). In the period of 1967–1968 he was an associate dean at the Faculty of Philosophy in Brno, in 1990–1991 the head of Department of Czech Language at Masaryk University, in 1990–1997 Member of the Scientific Board of the Faculty. As a visiting professor he lectured at the universities of Erlangen, Munster, Regensburg, Heidelberg, Freiburg im Breisgau, Sofia, Veliko Tarnovo, Budapest, Szeged and Vienna.", "His lifelong research focus is primarily on Paleoslavic studies (with a special emphasis on syntax and lexicography), on Old Church Slavonic in the larger context of cultural, historical and literary domain, as well as the comparative Slavic etymology and history. In addition to his extensive teaching, research, publishing, and editorial work he is a longtime member of the Scientific Council of the Slavic Institute at the Czech Academy of Sciencies, Czechoslovak and later Czech Committee of Slavicists and the Commission for the Old Slavic Church Slavonic Lexicology and Lexicography at the International Committee of Slavicists. He was co-organizer of international symposia on issues of Slavic syntax at the Faculty of Philosophy in the years 1961–1976, and has contributed on most of the Slavic international congresses held after the World War II. He is the author and co-author of several books and more than 300 papers, articles, studies, reports, reviews, obituaries, textbooks, biographical-bibliographical portraits and jubilee materials, published in Czech and foreign periodicals. Since 1982 he is a contributor to the project \"Slovník jazyka staroslověnského = Lexicon linguae paleoslovenicae\" (\"Dictionary of the Old Church Slavonic\"), and since 1990 also to the \"Etymologický slovník jazyka staroslověnského\" (\"Etymological Dictionary Old Church Slavonic\")" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Club career.", "Controversy.", "International career.", "Coaching career.", "Honours.", "Club." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "After making his professional debut with AC Sparta Prague, Prague-born Horváth moved to lowly FK Jablonec in search of more opportunities, which led to a return to the capital with SK Slavia, scoring 27 goals in the league alone in four seasons, although the club only managed to win two national cups during that timeframe. Horváth's exploits with Slavia earned him a transfer to Sporting Clube de Portugal, but he failed to win a place in the starting XI. Sold in January 2002 to Galatasaray S.K. alongside teammate Mbo Mpenza, he also appeared very rarely, which prompted a return home before 2001–02 was over, with FK Teplice, where he conquered the domestic cup in his first full campaign. After three years in Japan Horváth moved back to Sparta for two more seasons, where he won the national championship for the first time in 2007, adding the 2007 and 2008 Czech Cups. Subsequently, aged 33, he signed for FC Viktoria Plzeň, netting eight times during the 2008–09 season as the club finished in eighth place. Horváth won the domestic cup for the sixth time with his fourth different team, as he captained Viktoria to its first title in the competition in 2010. He was also named the \"Personality of the League\" at the Czech Footballer of the Year awards in that year. Thirty-five-year-old Horváth continued to produce in the 2010–11 season, scoring eight goals in 26 games as Plzeň was crowned league champion the first time in its history.", "In September 2007, Horváth was fined 200,000 Czech koruna for apparently performing the Nazi salute during Sparta's league match against FK Viktoria Žižkov. He apologized for the incident, and said that his gesture was misinterpreted, claiming he was only trying to calm down his team's rowdies.", "Horváth made his debut for the Czech Republic on 9 February 1999 in a 1–0 friendly win in Belgium, going on to amass 19 caps in three years and being selected for UEFA Euro 2000, where he did not play. His international career was vastly barred by the talent of fellow midfielders Patrik Berger, Pavel Nedvěd and Vladimír Šmicer.", "Horváth became the manager of FC Viktoria Plzeň's U21 squad in October 2016 simultaneously with his assistant manager role for the first team of the club. After one year as the manager of FK Baník Sokolov, Horváth returned to Viktoria Plzeň and was hired as the U21 manager again. This was announced on 4 January 2019. On 11 March 2020 Horváth became manager of Czech First League club Příbram.", "", "Slavia Prague Sporting Teplice Sparta Prague Viktoria Plzeň" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Riffs and grooves.", "Instruments.", "Classical music.", "Popular music.", "Walking bass.", "Examples.", "Bass run.", "Electric bass.", "Double bass.", "Wind bass." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Basslines in popular music often use \"riffs\" or \"grooves\", which are usually simple, appealing musical motifs or phrases that are repeated, with variation, throughout the song. \"The bass differs from other voices because of the particular role it plays in supporting and defining harmonic motion. It does so at levels ranging from immediate, chord-by-chord events to the larger harmonic organization of entire work.\" Bassline riffs usually (but not always) emphasize the chord tones of each chord (usually the root note, the third note, or the fifth note), which helps to define a song's key. Basslines align with the drums. Other rhythm instruments join in to create a more interesting rhythmic variations. The type of rhythmic pulse used in basslines varies widely in different types of music. In swing jazz and jump blues, basslines are often created from a continuous sequence of quarter notes in a mostly scalar, stepwise or arpeggio-based part called a \"walking bass line\". In Latin, salsa music, jazz fusion, reggae, electronica, and some types of rock and metal, basslines may be very rhythmically complex and syncopated. In bluegrass and traditional country music, basslines often emphasize the root and fifth of each chord. Though basslines may be played by many different types of instruments and in a broad musical range, they are generally played on bass instruments and in the range roughly at least an octave and a half below middle C (roughly the range of the bass clef). In classical music such as string quartets and symphonies, basslines play the same harmonic and rhythmic role; however, they are usually referred to as the \"bass voice\" or the \"bass part\".", "Most popular musical ensembles include an instrument capable of playing bass notes. In the 1890s, a tuba was often used. From the 1920s to the 1940s, most popular music groups used the double bass as the bass instrument. Starting in the 1950s, the bass guitar began to replace the double bass in most types of popular music, such as rock and roll, blues, and folk. The bass guitar was easier to transport and, given that it uses magnetic pickups, easier to amplify to loud stage volumes without the risk of audio feedback, a common problem with the amplified double bass. By the 1970s and 1980s, the electric bass was used in most rock bands and jazz fusion groups. The double bass was still used in some types of popular music that recreated styles from the 1940s and 1950s such as jazz (especially swing and bebop), traditional 1950s blues, jump blues, country, and rockabilly. In some popular music bands, keyboard instruments are used to play the bass line. In organ trios, for example, a Hammond organ player performs the basslines using the organ's pedal keyboard. In some types of popular music, such as hip-hop or house music, the bass lines are played using bass synthesizers, sequencers, or electro-acoustically modeled samples of basslines. Basslines are important in many forms of dance and electronic music, such as electro, drum and bass, dubstep, and most forms of house and trance. In these genres, basslines are almost always performed on synthesizers, either physical, such as the Minimoog and the Roland TB-303, or virtual, such as Sytrus and ZynAddSubFX. In hip hop, producer Rick Rubin popularized the technique of creating basslines by lengthening the bass drum decay of the TR-808 drum machine and tuning it to different pitches. Chinese orchestras use the zhōng ruǎn (中阮) and dà ruǎn (大阮) for creating basslines. Other, less common bass instruments are the lā ruǎn (拉阮), dī yīn gé hú (低音革胡), and da dī hú (大低胡) developed during the 1930s. Russian balalaika orchestra use bass balalaika and contrabass balalaika. Australia's indigenous music and some World music that is influenced by Australian music uses didjeridus for basslines.", "In classical music, the bassline is always written out for the performers in musical notation. In orchestral repertoire, the basslines are played by the double basses and cellos in the string section, by bassoons, contrabassoons, and bass clarinets in the woodwinds and by bass trombones, tubas and a variety of other low brass instruments. In symphonies from the Classical period, a single bassline was often written for the cellos and basses; however, since the bass is a transposing instrument, and it is notated an octave higher than it sounds, when cellos and basses play the same bassline, the line is performed in octaves, with the basses an octave below the cellos. By the end of the Classical period, with Beethoven's symphonies, cellos and double basses were often given separate parts. In general, the more complex passages and rapid note sequences are given to the cellos, while the basses play a simpler bassline. The timpani (or kettledrums) also play a role in orchestral basslines, albeit confined in 17th and early 18th century works to a few notes, often the tonic and the dominant below it. In a small number of symphonies, the pipe organ is used to play basslines. In chamber music, the bassline is played by the cello in string quartets and the bassoon in wind chamber music. In some larger chamber music works, both a cello and a double bass are used to play the bassline. In a Baroque era (ca. 1600-1750) piece accompanied by basso continuo, the accompanying musicians would include a chordal instrument (e.g., harpsichord, pipe organ or lute) and a number of bass instruments might perform the same bassline, such as the cello, viol, double bass, theorbo, serpent (an early wind instrument), and, if an organist was present, the lower manual of the organ and the low-pitched pedal keyboard. In 2000s-era performances of Baroque music, the basso continuo is typically performed by just two instruments: a chordal instrument and one bass instrument (often harpsichord and cello).", "In many genres of modern traditional music (ranging from folk rock to blues) and popular music (ranging from rock and pop to reggae to funk), the bassline is generally played by an electric bass player. In rockabilly, psychobilly, traditional blues and bluegrass music, the bassline is played by a double bass player. The bassline uses low notes that provide a rhythm while simultaneously setting out the foundation of the chord progression. The bassline bridges the gap between the rhythmic part played by the drummer and the melodic lines played by the lead guitarist and the chordal parts played by the rhythm guitarist and/or keyboard player. In most traditional and popular music styles, the bass player is expected to be able to improvise a bassline which they base in the chord progression of a song. When a bassist is playing a cover song, they may play the bassline that was originally used on the recording. A session bassist playing in a music studio is expected to be able to read a bassline written in musical notation. Bass players also perform fills in between the phrases of the vocal melody, and they may also perform bass runs or bass breaks, which are short solo sections. Rhythmic variations by the bass, such as the introduction of a syncopated figure can dramatically change the feel of a song, even for a simple groove. \"In any style, the bass's role in the groove is the same: to keep time and to outline the tonality. When developing bass lines, these two things should always be your goal\"", "A walking bass is a style of bass accompaniment or line, common in Baroque music (1600–1750) and 20th century jazz, blues and rockabilly, which creates a feeling of regular quarter note movement, akin to the regular alternation of feet while walking. Thus walking basslines generally consist of unsyncopated notes of equal value, usually quarter notes (known in jazz as a \"four feel\"). Walking basslines use a mixture of scale tones, arpeggios, chromatic runs, and passing tones to outline the chord progression of a song or tune, often with a melodic shape that alternately rises and falls in pitch over several bars. To add variety to a walking bassline, bassists periodically interpolate various fills, such as playing scale or arpeggio fragments in swung eighth notes, plucking muted percussive grace notes (either one grace note or a \"raked\" sequence of two or three grace notes), or holding notes for two, three, or four beats. Some songs lend themselves to another type of variation: the pedal point, in which the bassist holds or repeats a single note (often the tonic or the dominant) under the chord changes. Walking basslines are usually performed on the double bass or the electric bass, but they can also be performed using the low register of a piano, Hammond organ, tuba or other instruments. They can also be sung, as is done by some a capella vocal groups. While walking bass lines are most commonly associated with jazz and blues, they are also used in rock, rockabilly, ska, R&B, gospel, Latin, country, and many other genres.", "Walking bass in the pedal keyboard part of Baroque organ music (J.S. Bach's \"Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland\", BWV 659, from the Great Eighteen Chorale Preludes): Other walking bass lines can be heard in the opening movements of Joseph Haydn's Symphony No. 22 (nicknamed \"The Philosopher\"), Anton Bruckner's Symphony No. 5 and Edward Elgar's Symphony No. 1. Walking bass often alternates quarter notes: <score>\\relative c' \\repeat volta 2{ c g c g c g b a g d' g, d' g, d' e d}</score> giving rise to the term. Many boogie-woogie basslines are walking bass lines: Walking bass often moves in stepwise (scalar) motion to successive chord roots, such as often in country music: In this example, the last two quarter notes of the second measure, D and E, \"walk\" up from the first quarter note in that measure, C, to the first note of the third measure, F (C and F are the roots of the chords in the first through second and third through fourth measures, respectively). In both cases, \"walking\" refers both to the steady duple rhythm (one step after the other) and to the strong directional motion created; in the examples above, from C to F and back in the second, and from root to seventh and back in the first. In bebop jazz, the walking bass has a stabilising effect, offsetting and providing a foil to the complexity of the improvised melodic lines, for example in Sonny Rollins’ “Blue Seven”.", "A bass run (or \"bass break\") is a short instrumental break or fill in which the bass instrument (such as an electric bass or a double bass) or instruments (in the case of a marching band) and the bassline are given the forefront. The bass part for a bass run often differs from the usual bass accompaniment style, in terms of the register, timbre, or melodic style that is used, or the number of notes per beat which are played. A bass run may be composed by the performer or by an arranger prior to a performance, or it may be improvised onstage by the performer using scales, arpeggios, and standard licks and riffs. In some cases, a bass run may incorporate a display of virtuoso techniques such as rapid passages or high notes. During a bass run, the main vocal or melody line usually stops, and in some cases, the percussion or drums may also stop. The technique originated in the marches of the \"Sousa school\", though its resemblance to call and response techniques familiar to African American musicians indicates an earlier origin.", "In a rock song in which the bassline consists of low-pitched quarter notes played on the electric bass, a bass run may consist of a rapid sequence of sixteenth notes in a higher register, or of a melodic riff played in a higher register. In some cases, the bassist will select a \"brighter\"-sounding pickup or increase the treble response of the instrument for a bass run, so that it will be easier to hear. In a heavy metal song where the bassist was ordinarily playing low notes without overdrive to accompany, for a solo, he or she may turn on a fuzz bass pedal and use a wah pedal to create a more pronounced tone (an approach used by Cliff Burton), and then play an upper register riff or scale run. Some shred guitar-style bassists may do two-handed tapping during a bass solo (e.g., Billy Sheehan). In a pop song in which the bassline consists of notes plucked on the electric bass, a bass run may consist of several bars of percussive slapping and popping. Bass solos and guitar solos are rare in pop. In the rare cases that instrumental solos occur in pop, they are often played by synthesizer or, in some bands, by saxophone. In a funk song in which the bassline already consists of percussive slapping and popping, a bass run may consist of a virtuostic display of rapid slapping and popping techniques combined with techniques such as glissando, note-bending, and harmonics.", "In a jump blues tune in which the bassline consists of low-pitched quarter notes played on the double bass in a scalar walking bass style, a bass run may consist of a bar of swung eighth notes played using a percussive slap bass style, in which the right hand strikes the strings against the fingerboard. In a swing tune in which the bassline consists of low-pitched quarter notes played on the double bass in a scalar walking bass style, a bass run may consist of a descending chromatic scale played in a higher register. In a bluegrass tune in which the bassline consists of low-pitched quarter notes played on the double bass on the root and fifth of each chord on beats one and three (of a 4/4 tune), a bass run may consist of a walking bass line played for several bars. In a psychobilly band, a bass solo will often consist of a virtuostic display of triple and quadruple slaps, creating a percussive, drum solo-like sound.", "In a marching band context, a bass run may consist of a several bar unaccompanied passage composed for the tubas and sousaphones which displays either rapid passages of notes or higher-register techniques. In New Orleans jazz, the tuba may provide a walking bass line similar to that of the double bass." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Microsoft Internet Start.", "MSN.com.", "Rebranding of services.", "Subsequent redesign.", "Apps.", "News.", "Weather.", "Sports.", "Money.", "Discontinued apps.", "Food & Drink.", "Health & Fitness.", "Travel.", "Older mobile apps.", "International." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "From 1995 to 1998, the MSN.com domain was used by Microsoft primarily to promote MSN as an online service and Internet service provider. At the time, MSN.com also offered a custom start page and an Internet tutorial, but Microsoft's major web portal was known as 'Microsoft Internet Start,' located at home.microsoft.com. Internet Start served as the default home page for Internet Explorer and offered basic information such as news, weather, sports, stocks, entertainment reports, links to other websites on the Internet, articles by Microsoft staff members, and software updates for Windows. Microsoft's original news website, (now NBCNews.com), which launched in 1996, was also tied closely to the Internet Start portal.", "In 1998, the largely underutilized 'MSN.com' domain name was combined with Microsoft Internet Start and reinvented as both a web portal and as the brand for a family of sites produced inside Microsoft's Interactive Media Group. The new website put MSN in direct competition with sites such as Yahoo!, Excite and Go Network. Because the new format opened up MSN's content to the world for free, the Internet service provider and subscription service was renamed MSN Internet Access at that time. (That service eventually became known as MSN Dial-up.) The relaunched MSN.com contained a whole family of sites, including original content, channels that were carried over from 'web shows' that were part of Microsoft's MSN 2.0 experiment with its Internet service provider in 1996–97, and new features that were rapidly added. MSN.com became the successor to the default Internet Explorer start page, as all of the previous 'Microsoft Internet Start' website was merged with MSN.com. Some of the original websites that Microsoft launched during that era remain active in some form today. Microsoft Investor, a business news and investments service that was once produced in conjunction with CNBC, is now MSN Money; CarPoint, an automobile comparison and shopping service, is now MSN Autos; and the Internet Gaming Zone, a website offering online casual games, is now MSN Games. Other websites since divested by Microsoft include the travel website Expedia, the online magazine Slate, and the local event and city search website Sidewalk.com. In the late 1990s, Microsoft collaborated with many other service providers, as well as other Microsoft departments, to expand the range of MSN's services. Some examples include MSN adCenter, MSN Shopping (affiliated with eBay, PriceGrabber and Shopping.com), and the Encarta encyclopedia with various levels of access to information. Since then, MSN.com has remained a popular destination, launching many new services and content sites. MSN's Hotmail and Messenger services were promoted from the MSN.com portal, which provided a central place for all of MSN's content. MSN Search (now Bing), a dedicated search engine, launched in 1999. The single sign-in service for Microsoft's online services, Microsoft Passport (now Microsoft account), also launched across all MSN services in 1999. The MSN.com portal and related group of services under the 'MSN' umbrella remained largely the same in the early 2000s. The sports section of the MSN portal was ESPN.com from 2001 to 2004, and FoxSports.com from 2004 to 2014. MSN had an exclusive partnership with for news content from 1996 until 2012, when Microsoft sold its remaining stake in msnbc.com to NBCUniversal and the website was renamed NBCNews.com. Since then, MSN has launched 'MSN News', an in-house news operation. As of May 2005, MSN.com was the second most visited portal websites in the United States with a share of 23.2 percent, behind Yahoo! which held a majority. MSN released a preview of an updated home page and logo on November 3, 2009. It was originally expected to be widely available to over 100 million U.S. customers by early 2010. MSN rolled out the newer logo, together with a redesign of the overall website, on December 25, 2009. In 2012, MSN announced on its blog that it would be unveiling a new version of the MSN.com home page on October 26, exclusively for Windows 8, saying that the new version would be \"clean, simple, and built for touch.\" Microsoft said it would be more app-like due to the speed of Internet Explorer 10. More new features included 'Flip Ahead', which allowed users to swipe from one article to the next. MSN for Windows 8 also had new deals with the AP and Reuters.", "Many of MSN's services were reorganized in 2005 and 2006 under a new brand name that Microsoft championed at the time, Windows Live. This move was part of Microsoft's strategy to improve its online offerings using the Windows brand name. The company also overhauled its online software and services due to increasing competition from rivals such as Yahoo! and Google. The new name was introduced one service at a time. The group of Windows Live services used Web 2.0 technology to offer features and functionality through a web browser that were traditionally only available through dedicated software programs. Some of the MSN services affected by the rebranding included MSN Hotmail, which became Windows Live Hotmail (now Outlook.com); MSN Messenger, which became Windows Live Messenger (now integrated into Skype); MSN Search, which became Live Search (now known as Bing); MSN Virtual Earth, which became Live Search Maps (now Bing Maps); MSN Spaces, which became Windows Live Spaces; MSN Alerts, which became Windows Live Alerts; and MSN Groups, which became Windows Live Groups. Some other services, such as MSN Direct, remained a part of the MSN family without transitioning to Windows Live. Following the launch of Windows Live, the MSN brand took on a different focus. MSN became primarily an online content provider of news, entertainment, and common interest topics through its web portal, MSN.com, while Windows Live provided most of Microsoft's online software and services. In 2012, Microsoft began to phase out the Windows Live brand, referring to each service separately by its individual brand name without any 'Windows' prefix or association.", "Microsoft launched a completely rewritten and redesigned MSN website, making use of the company's modern design language, on September 30, 2014. The new MSN portal features a new version of the logo that follows a style similar to other current Microsoft products. The website no longer offers original content, instead employing editors to repurpose existing content from partners at popular and trusted organizations. Much of the existing content on MSN was eliminated as the website was simplified into a new home page and categories, some of which have corresponding apps: The top of the home page provides access to Microsoft services Bing, Outlook.com, Skype, Office Online, OneNote, OneDrive, Bing Maps, and Groove Music, as well as popular social media services Facebook and Twitter. Signing into MSN with a Microsoft account allows for personalized content to appear and to be synchronized across devices on the website and in the corresponding apps. The redesign of the website led to the closure of MSN's longtime personalized home page service 'My MSN', which was made up of customized RSS feeds, as the new website no longer supports user-specified RSS content. However, it added some customizability, allowing each category on the home page to be reordered or hidden. With the 2014 relaunch, MSN now supports responsive design and eliminates the need for a separate mobile website. The redesign of MSN proved positive and helped increase traffic with an additional 10 million daily visitors after two months.", "The MSN web-based apps provide users information from sources that publish to MSN. Microsoft launched these apps along with the 2014 redesign of the MSN web portal, rebranding many of the Bing apps that originally shipped with Windows and Windows Phone. News, Weather, Sports, Money, and Travel first shipped with Windows 8, while Health & Fitness and Food & Drink first appeared in Windows 8.1. In December 2014, the apps became available across all the other major mobile device platforms as well: iOS, Android, and Fire OS. The apps allow users some, but not total, control of which sources provide information. Each app has its own color code that is used on the live tile and internally. Originally, each app brought a unified experience with the MSN website and synchronized preferences across devices; for example, setting a list of stocks to watch on MSN.com would show the same data on the MSN Money app on all devices where the user was signed in with a Microsoft account. The synchronization was dropped when the apps were rebuilt for Windows 10. There are currently four apps in the suite: News, Weather, Sports, and Money. In July 2015, Microsoft announced the discontinuation of the Food & Drink, Health & Fitness, and Travel apps on all platforms, and that they will not be bundled with Windows 10; those three apps are no longer offered. After Microsoft's acquisition of Nokia's mobile phone division, Microsoft also started bundling MSN services with its Nokia-branded feature phones, though the only supported model was the Nokia 215. In addition to these apps, Microsoft developed a separate set of mobile apps specifically for MSN China.", "Microsoft News (previously named MSN News and Bing News) is a news aggregator and service that features news headlines and articles chosen by editors. The app includes sections for top stories, U.S., world, politics, money, technology, entertainment, opinion, sports, and crime, along with other miscellaneous stories. It allows users to set their own favorite topics and sources, receive notifications of breaking news though alerts, filter preferred news sources, and alter font sizes to make articles easier to read. Originally, News included an RSS feed, but that capability was removed; Microsoft currently only allows users to subscribe to specified news sources. News uses the chaseable live tile feature introduced in the Windows 10 Anniversary Update. If a user clicks on the News Start menu tile when a particular story is shown, the user will see a link to that story at the top of the app when it launches.", "MSN Weather (originally named Bing Weather) shows weather from a user's current location or any other location worldwide, and it allows users to define their favorite places, which will synchronize back to the web portal and across devices. Users can pin Weather tiles to the Start menu to see local weather conditions from multiple locations at a glance. It also offers satellite maps and has information regarding ski resorts. The app receives its weather conditions and forecasts from a variety of sources internationally. Weather uses weather conditions as the background, making it the only app that does not have a light/dark switch in Windows 10. Weather is not available for iOS; however, it comes preinstalled on the Nokia 215 phone from Microsoft Mobile that runs Series 30+; it is currently the only feature phone to have the app built-in.", "MSN Sports (originally named Bing Sports) displays various sports scores and standings from hundreds of leagues around the world, as well as aggregating sports-related articles and news headlines. Sports also allows the user to view slideshows and photo galleries, look up information about individual players and fantasy leagues, and set and track their favorite teams by selecting various topics from the hamburger menu. It also powers various predictive features within Microsoft's Cortana virtual assistant.", "MSN Money (originally named Bing Finance) allows users to set up lists of stocks to watch, follow certain corporations and receive stock updates, get the latest headlines regarding stock markets, view real-time trading figures with a 30-minute delay, track their own personal finances, calculate mortgages, get information on commodities and bonds, and convert currency.", "", "MSN Food & Drink (originally named Bing Food & Drink) is a discontinued recipe app that offers news related to food and drink, a personal shopping list that synchronizes across devices and the web, and a wine encyclopedia that contains information on over 1.5million bottles of wine, over 3.3million tasting notes, and hundreds of cocktail recipes. Users can control the app hands-free, add their own recipes from physical cookbooks or personal recipes by snapping a photo, add notes to recipes, and sort the recipes into collections. The app also collects information from famous chefs and lists them according to their style of cuisine.", "MSN Health & Fitness (originally named Bing Health & Fitness) allowed users to track their intake of calories, look up nutritional information for hundreds of thousands of different foods, use a built-in GPS tracker, view step-by-step workouts and exercises with images and videos, check symptoms for various health conditions, and synchronize their health data to third-party devices such as activity trackers. MSN Health & Fitness formerly connected data with the Microsoft HealthVault, but it started using a Microsoft account with MSN's own cloud service to synchronize data when it was rebranded from Bing to MSN. The app is not related in any way to Microsoft's Xbox Fitness or Microsoft Health (the companion app for the Microsoft Band), despite being similar in function.", "MSN Travel (originally named Bing Travel) was a travel search engine that allows users to book hotels and flights, aggregates travel-related headlines, and offers detailed information about thousands of travel destinations. Data in the app is powered by various travel websites, including Expedia, formerly owned by Microsoft. Other features include finding information on local restaurants, viewing pictures (including panoramas) and historical data about destinations, and reading reviews by previous travelers. If the user is signed in, Cortana can track flights and get hotel information through the app. MSN Travel was the only app in the suite that was exclusive to Windows. The app was discontinued in September 2015 but can still be accessed via the web. Previously, Microsoft had acquired \"Farecast\" in 2008, a website in the computer reservations system industry that offered predictions regarding the best time to purchase airline tickets. Farecast was founded in 2003 and collected over 175 billion airfare observations by 2007. Farecast's team of data miners used these airfare observations to build algorithms to predict future airfare price movements. Microsoft integrated it as part of its Live Search group of tools in May 2008 as \"Live Search Farecast\"; Microsoft rebranded it as \"Bing Travel\" on June 3, 2009, as part of its efforts to create a new search identity. In 2009, there were allegations that Bing Travel had copied its layouts from Kayak.com; Microsoft denied the allegations. By January 2013, Bing Travel results were powered by Kayak.com. As of January 2014, the fare prediction feature had been removed. As of May 2015, Microsoft rebranded the service to \"MSN Travel\". In August 2015, MSN Travel flight search pages changed from being powered by Kayak.com to its competitor Skyscanner.", "Microsoft first offered content from its MSN web portal on mobile devices in the early 2000s, through a service it called \"Pocket MSN\" (in line with its Pocket PC products of the era) and later renamed \"MSN Mobile\". The original MSN Mobile software was preloaded on many cell phones and PDAs, and usually provided access to legacy MSN services like blogs (MSN Spaces), email (Hotmail), instant messaging (MSN Messenger), and web search (now called Bing). Some wireless carriers charged a premium to access it. As many former MSN properties were spun off to Bing, Windows Live, and other successors in late 2000s, the Microsoft Mobile Services division took over the development of mobile apps related to those services. In the meantime, Microsoft's MSN apps took on a more content-related focus, as did the web portal itself. Previous versions of MSN apps that were bundled with Windows Mobile and early versions of Windows Phone, as well as MSN apps for Android and iOS devices in the early 2010s, were primarily repositories for news articles found on MSN.com. Other earlier MSN mobile apps included versions of MSN Weather and MSN Money for Windows Mobile 6.5, and 'MSN Money Stocks' and a men's magazine called 'MSN OnIt' for Windows Phone 7.", "Microsoft's world headquarters is in the United States, so the main MSN website is based there. However, MSN has offered various international versions of its portal since its inception in 1995 for dozens of countries around the world. A list of international MSN affiliates is available at MSN Worldwide. Following the redesign and relaunch of the MSN web portal in 2014, most international MSN websites share the same layout as the U.S. website and are largely indistinguishable from it, aside from their content. There were two exceptions: ninemsn, a longtime partnership between Microsoft and the Nine Network in Australia that launched in 1997 (Microsoft sold its stake in the venture and 2013 and ended its co-branding with Nine in 2016); and MSN China, an entirely customized version of MSN for China (Microsoft discontinued the portal in 2016, replacing it with a page that links to a number of other Chinese websites)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Production.", "Development and writing.", "Filming and production.", "Music.", "Soundtrack.", "Release.", "Box office.", "Critical reception.", "Awards and honors.", "Home media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1951, the 4077th Mobile Army Surgical Hospital in South Korea is assigned two new surgeons, \"Hawkeye\" Pierce and \"Duke\" Forrest, who arrive in a stolen Army Jeep. They are insubordinate, womanizing, mischievous rule-breakers, but they soon prove to be excellent combat surgeons. Other characters already stationed at the camp include bumbling commanding officer Henry Blake, his hyper-competent chief clerk Radar O'Reilly, dentist Walter \"Painless Pole\" Waldowski, the incompetent and pompous surgeon Frank Burns, and the contemplative Chaplain Father Mulcahy. The main characters in the camp divide into two factions. Irritated by Burns' religious fervor, Hawkeye and Duke get Blake to move him to another tent so newly arrived chest surgeon Trapper John McIntyre can move in. The three doctors (the \"Swampmen\", after the nickname for their tent) have little respect for military protocol, having been drafted into the Army, and are prone to pranks, womanizing, and heavy drinking. Burns is a straitlaced military officer who wants everything done efficiently and by the book, as is Margaret Houlihan, who has been assigned to the 4077th as head nurse. The two bond over their respect for regulations and start a secret romance. With help from Radar, the Swampmen sneak a microphone into a tent where the couple are making love and broadcast their passion over the camp's PA system, embarrassing them badly. The next morning, Hawkeye goads Burns into assaulting him, resulting in Burns' removal from the camp for psychiatric evaluation. Later, the Swampmen humiliate Houlihan again by pulling up the walls of the shower tent while she is inside, exposing her naked body for all to see. Painless, described variously as \"the best-equipped dentist in the Army\" and \"the dental Don Juan of Detroit\", becomes depressed over an incident of impotence and announces his intent to commit suicide, believing that he has turned homosexual. The Swampmen agree to help him carry out the deed, staging a feast reminiscent of the Last Supper, arranging for Father Mulcahy to give Painless the last rites, and providing him with a \"black capsule\" (actually a sleeping pill) to speed him on his way. Hawkeye persuades the gorgeous Lieutenant \"Dish\" Schneider, who is being transferred back to the United States for discharge, to spend the night with Painless to allay his concern over his sexual preference. The next morning, Painless is his usual cheerful self, and a smiling Dish leaves camp in a helicopter to start her journey home. Trapper and Hawkeye are sent to Japan on temporary duty to operate on a Congressman's son. When they later perform an unauthorized operation on a local infant, they face disciplinary action from the hospital commander for misusing Army resources. Using staged photographs of him in bed with a prostitute, they blackmail him into keeping his mouth shut. Following their return to camp, Blake and General Hammond organize a game of football between the 4077th and the 325th Evac Hospital and wager several thousand dollars on its outcome. At Hawkeye's suggestion, Blake applies to have a specific neurosurgeon – Dr. Oliver Harmon \"Spearchucker\" Jones, a former professional football player for the San Francisco 49ers – transferred to the 4077th as a ringer. Blake bets half his money up front, keeping Jones out of the first half of the game. The 325th scores repeatedly and easily, even after the 4077th drugs one of their star players to incapacitate him, and Hammond confidently offers high odds against which Blake bets the rest of his money. Jones enters the second half, which quickly devolves into a free-for-all, and the 4077th gets the 325th's second ringer thrown out of the game and wins with a final trick play. Not long after the football game, Hawkeye and Duke get their discharge orders and begin their journey home – taking the same stolen Jeep in which they arrived.", "", "The screenplay, by Ring Lardner, Jr., is different from Hooker's original novel. In the DVD audio commentary, Altman describes the novel as \"pretty terrible\" and somewhat \"racist\" (the only major black character has the nickname \"Spearchucker\"). He claims that the screenplay was used only as a springboard. Despite this assertion by Altman, however, while some improvisation occurs in the film and Altman changed the order of major sequence, most sequences are in the novel. The main deletion is a subplot of Ho-Jon's return to the 4077th as a casualty (when Radar steals blood from Henry, it is for Ho-Jon's operation under Trapper and Hawkeye's scalpels; when the surgeons are playing poker after the football game, they are resolutely ignoring Ho-Jon's corpse being driven away). The main deviation from the script is the trimming of much of the dialogue. In his director's commentary, Altman says that \"M*A*S*H\" was the first major studio film to use the word \"fuck\" in its dialogue. The word is spoken during the football game near the end of the film by Walt \"Painless Pole\" Kosciuszko when he says to an opposing football player, \"All right, Bud, your fucking head is coming right off!\" The actor, John Schuck, said in an interview that Andy Sidaris, who was handling the football sequences, encouraged Schuck to \"say something that'll annoy him.\" Schuck did so, and that particular statement made it into the film without a second thought. Other sources, however, attribute the first audible use of the word \"fuck\" as part of the dialogue in the 1967 movie \"Ulysses\". A number of sources state that Lardner was very upset with the liberties taken with his script, although Lardner denied this in his autobiography. (Lardner eventually was given the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay for his work on the film.)", "Altman, relatively new to the filmmaking establishment at that time, lacked the credentials to justify his unorthodox filmmaking process and had a history of turning down work rather than creating a poor-quality product. Altman: \"I had practice working for people who don't care about quality, and I learned how to sneak it in.\" “Twentieth Century Fox had two other wars going on, ‘Patton’ and ‘Tora! Tora! Tora!’” Altman remembered. “Those were big-budget pictures, and we were cheap. I knew that if I stayed under budget and didn’t cause too much trouble, we could sneak through.” The filming process was difficult because of tensions between the director and his cast. During principal photography, Sutherland and Gould allegedly spent a third of their time trying to get Altman fired, although this has been disputed. Altman later commented that if he had known about Gould and Sutherland's protests, he would have resigned. Gould later sent a letter of apology, and Altman used him in a number of his later works — including \"The Long Goodbye\", \"California Split\", \"Nashville\", and \"The Player\" — but Altman never worked with Sutherland again. Because of the context of the film being made — during the height of America's involvement in the Vietnam War — 20th Century Fox was concerned that audiences would not understand that it was ostensibly taking place during the Korean War. At the request of the studio, a caption that mentions the Korean setting was added to the beginning of the film, and PA announcements throughout the film served the same purpose. Only a few loudspeaker announcements were used in the original cut. When Altman realized he needed more structure to his largely episodic film, editor Danford Greene suggested using more loudspeaker announcements to frame different episodes of the story. Greene took a second-unit crew and filmed additional shots of the speakers. On the same night these scenes were shot, American astronauts landed on the moon. The Korean War is explicitly referenced in announcements on the camp public address system and during a radio announcement that plays while Hawkeye and Trapper are putting in Col. Merrill's office, which also cites the film as taking place in 1951.", "", "Johnny Mandel composed incidental music used throughout the film. Also heard on the soundtrack are Japanese vocal renditions of such songs as \"Tokyo Shoe Shine Boy\", \"My Blue Heaven\", \"Happy Days Are Here Again\", \"Chattanooga Choo Choo\", and \"Hi-Lili, Hi-Lo\"; impromptu performances of \"Onward, Christian Soldiers\", \"When the Lights Go On Again\", and \"Hail to the Chief\" by cast members; and the instrumental \"Washington Post March\" during the climactic football game. \"M*A*S*H\" features the song \"Suicide Is Painless\", with music by Mandel and lyrics by Mike Altman, the director's then 14-year-old son. The version heard under the opening credits was sung by uncredited session vocalists John Bahler, Tom Bahler, Ron Hicklin, and Ian Freebairn-Smith (on the single release, the song is attributed to \"The Mash\"); the song is reprised later in the film by Pvt. Seidman (played by Ken Prymus) in the scene in which Painless attempts to commit suicide. Altman has noted in interviews that his son made quite a bit more money off publishing royalties for the song than the $70,000 or so he was paid to direct the film. Columbia Records issued a soundtrack album for the film in 1970 (all songs by Johnny Mandel unless otherwise noted):", "", "\"M*A*S*H\" was a box-office hit; it was the third highest-grossing film released in 1970 (behind \"Love Story\" and \"Airport\"). According to 20th Century Fox records the film required $6,550,000 in rentals to break even, and by 11 December 1970 had made $31,225,000, thus making a profit for the studio. Ultimately, the film made $81.6 million against a budget of $3.025 million. It was the sixth most popular film at the French box office in 1970. The film was re-released to theaters in North America in late 1973. To attract audiences to the \"M*A*S*H\" television series, which had struggled in the ratings in its first season, 20th Century Fox reissued the film in a version running 112 minutes and bearing a PG rating. Some of the more explicit content from the original R-rated cut was edited out, including segments of graphic surgical operations, Hot Lips' shower scene, and the use of the word \"fuck\" during the football game. According to film critic and historian Leonard Maltin, the film's main theme song, \"Suicide is Painless,\" was replaced with music by Ahmad Jamal. The re-release earned an estimated $3.5 million at the box office.", "\"M*A*S*H\" received mostly positive reviews from critics. The film holds an 86% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 50 reviews, with an average rating of 8.4/10. The website's consensus states, \"Bold, timely, subversive, and above all, funny, \"M*A*S*H\" remains a high point in Robert Altman's distinguished filmography.\" The film also holds a score of 80 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 8 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews.\" In a rave review, John Mahoney of \"The Hollywood Reporter\" called the film \"the finest American comedy since \"Some Like It Hot\",\" and \"the \"Mister Roberts\" of the Korean War,\" as well as \"\"The Graduate\" of 1970.\" \"Time\" magazine, in a review titled \"Catch-22 Caliber,\" wrote of the film, \"though it wears a dozen manic, libidinous masks, none quite covers the face of dread.... \"M.A.S.H.\", one of America's funniest bloody films, is also one of its bloodiest funny films.\" \"The New Yorker\" critic Pauline Kael wrote of the film, \"I don’t know when I’ve had such a good time at a movie. Many of the best recent American movies leave you feeling that there’s nothing to do but get stoned and die, that that’s your proper fate as an American. This movie heals a breach.\" Roger Ebert, in the \"Chicago Sun-Times\", gave the film four (out of four) stars, writing, In contrast, Roger Greenspun of \"The New York Times\" wrote of \"M*A*S*H\", \"To my knowledge [it] is the first major American movie openly to ridicule belief in God — not phony belief; real belief. It is also one of the few (though by no means the first) American screen comedies openly to admit the cruelty of its humor. And it is at pains to blend that humor with more operating room gore than I have ever seen in any movie from any place.... Although it is impudent, bold, and often very funny, it lacks the sense of order (even in the midst of disorder) that seems the special province of successful comedy.\" In a retrospective review for the \"Chicago Reader\", Jonathan Rosenbaum noted that \"the film... helped launch the careers of Elliott Gould, Donald Sutherland, Sally Kellerman, Robert Duvall, and subsequent Altman regulars Rene Auberjonois and John Schuck, and won screenwriter Ring Lardner Jr. an Oscar.\" Rosenbaum characterized the film as \"a somewhat adolescent if stylish antiauthoritarian romp.... But the misogyny and cruelty behind many of the gags are as striking as the black comedy and the original use of overlapping dialogue. This is still watchable for the verve of the ensemble acting and dovetailing direction, but some of the crassness leaves a sour aftertaste.\" Writing in \"The Guardian\" for the film's 50th anniversary, Noah Gittell also charged it with bearing \"a deep and unexamined misogyny\", noting that the treatment of the Houlihan character in particular anticipated such later teen sex comedies as \"Animal House\", \"Porky's\", and \"Revenge of the Nerds\".", "\"M*A*S*H\" won the Palme d'Or at the 1970 Cannes Film Festival. It was nominated for five Academy Awards, including Best Picture (lost to \"Patton\"), Best Director (lost to \"Patton\"), Best Supporting Actress for Sally Kellerman (lost to Helen Hayes for \"Airport\"), and Best Film Editing (lost to \"Patton\"), and won for Best Adapted Screenplay. The film also won the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture (Musical or Comedy) in 1971. In 1996, \"M*A*S*H\" was deemed \"culturally significant\" by the Library of Congress and was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry. The film is number 17 on Bravo's \"100 Funniest Movies\" and number 54 on \"AFI\" list of the top 100 American movies of all time. The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:", "\"M*A*S*H\" received its first home video release in 1977 on both VHS and Betamax. This 1977 release of the film was the original, unedited version and was one of the first 50 titles released to home video by Magnetic Video Corporation (\"M*A*S*H\" was number #38). In the 1990s, Fox Video re-released a VHS version of the film under their \"Selections\" banner which ran 116 minutes and was rated PG. However, this is not the alternate PG version which was released in 1973. It has the same run-time as the theatrical release; none of the aforementioned scenes or theme music was removed. The actual 1973 PG-edited version has never been issued on home video in the United States. It was released on DVD on January 8, 2002." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "The legend.", "Classical literature.", "Medieval, Renaissance, and Modern literature.", "Interpretation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Greek is more directly transliterated into English as. In Latin, the name becomes (); by convention it is the Latin name that is most often used in English. The Greek name is thought to have come from an earlier (); this would be reflected in Icarus' Etruscan name,.", "Icarus's father Daedalus, a very talented and remarkable Athenian craftsman, built the Labyrinth for King Minos of Crete near his palace at Knossos to imprison the Minotaur, a half-man, half-bull monster born of his wife and the Cretan bull. Minos imprisoned Daedalus himself in the labyrinth because he gave Minos's daughter, Ariadne, a clew (or ball of string) in order to help Theseus, the enemy of Minos, to survive the Labyrinth and defeat the Minotaur. Daedalus fashioned two pairs of wings out of wax and feathers for himself and his son. Daedalus tried his wings first, but before trying to escape the island, he warned his son not to fly too close to the sun, nor too close to the sea, but to follow his path of flight. Overcome by the giddiness that flying lent him, Icarus soared into the sky, but in the process, he came too close to the sun, which due to the heat melted the wax. Icarus kept flapping his wings but soon realized that he had no feathers left and that he was only flapping his bare arms, and so Icarus fell into the sea and drowned in the area which today bears his name, the Icarian Sea near Icaria, an island southwest of Samos. Hellenistic writers give euhemerising variants in which the escape from Crete was actually by boat, provided by Pasiphaë], for which Daedalus invented the first sails, to outstrip Minos' pursuing galleys, and that Icarus fell overboard en route to Sicily and drowned. Heracles erected a tomb for him.", "Icarus' flight was often alluded to by Greek poets in passing, but the story was told briefly in Pseudo-Apollodorus. In the literature of ancient Rome, the myth was of interest to Augustan writers. Hyginus narrates it in \"Fabula\" 40, beginning with the bovine love affair of Pasiphaë, daughter of the Sun, resulting in the birth of the Minotaur. Ovid narrates the story of Icarus at some length in the \"Metamorphoses\" (viii.183–235), and refers to it elsewhere.", "Ovid's treatment of the Icarus myth and its connection with that of Phaethon influenced the mythological tradition in English literature as received and interpreted by major writers including Chaucer, Marlowe, Shakespeare, Milton, and Joyce. In Renaissance iconography, the significance of Icarus depends on context: in the Orion Fountain at Messina, he is one of many figures associated with water; but he is also shown on the Bankruptcy Court of the Amsterdam Town Hall – where he symbolizes high-flying ambition. The 16th-century painting \"Landscape with the Fall of Icarus\", traditionally but perhaps erroneously attributed to Pieter Bruegel the Elder, was the inspiration for two of the 20th century's most notable ecphrastic English-language poems, \"Musée des Beaux Arts\" by W. H. Auden and \"Landscape with the Fall of Icarus\" by William Carlos Williams. Other English-language poems referencing the Icarus myth are \"To a Friend Whose Work Has Come to Triumph\" by Anne Sexton, \"Icarus Again\" by Alan Devenish, \"Mrs Icarus\" by Carol Ann Duffy, \"Failing and Flying\" by Jack Gilbert, and \"Icarus Burning\" and \"Icarus Redux\" in Hiromi Yoshida's \"Icarus Burning\" chapbook (Finishing Line Press, 2020). The Norwegian Axel Jensen used Icarus as a metaphor for troubled modern young men, in the 1957 novel \"Icarus: A Young Man in Sahara\".", "Literary interpretation has found in the myth the structure and consequence of personal over-ambition. An Icarus-related study of the Daedalus myth was published by the French hellenist. In psychology there have been synthetic studies of the \"Icarus complex\" with respect to the alleged relationship between fascination for fire, enuresis, high ambition, and ascensionism. In the psychiatric mind features of disease were perceived in the shape of the pendulous emotional ecstatic-\"high\" and depressive-\"low\" of bipolar disorder. Henry Murray having proposed the term \"Icarus complex\", apparently found symptoms particularly in mania where a person is fond of heights, fascinated by both fire and water, \"narcissistic\" and observed with fantastical or \"far-fetched imaginary\" cognition. Seth Godin's 2012 \"The Icarus Deception\" points to the historical change in how Western culture both propagated and interpreted the Icarus myth arguing that \"we tend to forget that Icarus was also warned not to fly too low, because seawater would ruin the lift in his wings. Flying too low is even more dangerous than flying too high, because it feels deceptively safe.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mission highlights.", "Flight Day 1: Launch." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The main purpose of STS-110 was to attach the stainless steel S0 Truss segment to the International Space Station (ISS) to the Destiny Laboratory Module. It forms the backbone of the station to which the S1 and P1 truss segments were attached (on the following missions STS-112 and STS-113, respectively). STS-110 also delivered the Mobile Transporter (MT), which is an (1,950 lb) assembly that glides down rails on the station integrated trusses. The MT was designed and manufactured by Astro Aerospace in Carpinteria, CA. During the next shuttle mission, STS-111, the Mobile Base System (MBS) was mounted to the MT. This Mobile Servicing System (MSS) allows the Canadarm2 to travel down the length of the installed truss structure.", "After a launch scrub on 4 April 2002 due to a hydrogen leak, Space Shuttle \"Atlantis\" successfully launched on 8 April 2002, from Launch Complex 39B. The countdown on 8 April encountered an unscheduled hold at the T-5 minute mark due to data dropouts in a backup Launch Processing System. The Launch Processing System team reloaded the required data and the countdown resumed. Liftoff occurred with 11 seconds remaining in the launch window. STS-110 was the first shuttle mission to feature the upgrade Block II main engines, which featured an \"improved fuel pump...a stronger integral shaft/disk, and more robust bearings\". The intent of the upgrade was to increase the flight capacity of the engines, while increasing reliability and safety. With the launch of Atlantis, mission specialist Jerry Ross became the first human to have traveled to space seven times." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mission payload.", "Starboard 1 (S1) truss segment.", "Crew Equipment Translation Aid.", "Mission experiments.", "Shuttle processing.", "Mission timeline.", "7 October (Flight Day 1 – Launch).", "8 October (Flight Day 2 – Rendezvous and docking preparations).", "9 October (Flight Day 3 – Docking).", "10 October (Flight Day 4 – EVA 1).", "11 October (Flight Day 5 – Off duty and transfers).", "Shuttlecam.", "Wake-up calls." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The S1 truss segment, which provides structural support for the Space Station radiators was the main payload of STS-112 mission. The Boeing Company (along with Lockheed Martin) started manufacturing the truss in May 1998 at Michoud. The work was completed in March 1999. The S1 was shipped by aircraft to the KSC Operations and Checkout Building in October 1999 for flight processing. In June 2002, the truss was handed over to NASA for final preparations and pre-flight checks at the Space Station Processing Facility.", "\"Atlantis\" also delivered the Crew Equipment Translation Aid (CETA) Cart to the Space Station. The CETA cart was attached to the Mobile Transporter (launched on STS-110) to be used by assembly crews on later missions.", "STS-112 carried several science experiments to the space station including the Plant Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus (PGBA), Commercial Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus (CGBA), the Protein Crystal Growth Single-locker Thermal Enclosure System housing the Protein Crystallization Apparatus for Microgravity (PCG-STES-PCAM) and samples for the Zeolite Crystal Growth Furnace (ZCG) experiment.", "Launch preparations for STS-112 mission were sightly delayed due to tiny cracks found within the plumbing of \"Atlantis\"' propulsion system on 17 June 2002 by an inspector. The cracks were in metal flow liners inside the main liquid hydrogen fuel lines that feed the shuttle's three main engines. Although there were no cracks in the actual fuel pipes themselves, the concern was that metal pieces from the flow liners might break off and fly into the engines. In such a worst-case scenario, the debris can potentially trigger a catastrophic engine shutdown, which in turn could lead to the loss of the crew and the shuttle.", "", "Space Shuttle \"Atlantis\" lifted off from Launch Pad 39B of the Kennedy Space Center at 19:45:51 GMT through mostly clear blue skies. There were no problems reported during the countdown, and the ascent conformed to the standard timeline (see Space Shuttle – Mission Profile – Launch). For the first time in Space Shuttle history, a \"rocketcam\" video camera mounted to the upper part of \"Atlantis\"' external tank returned live video of the flight to NASA flight controllers. The video was near perfect until the two solid rocket boosters were jettisoned. At that point, the exhaust from the separation motors fogged the camera lens and made the rest of the video difficult to see. Later, NASA announced that it was looking into a problem with explosive bolts that failed to fire properly during the launch. Immediately before the twin solid rocket boosters fired into life, only one set of pyrotechnics in ten explosive bolts exploded when commanded to do so. All 10 nuts exploded as planned, but NASA was interested in finding out an explanation for the unexpected anomaly. Arguably the most significant event from this launch was the ET bipod ramp shedding a chunk of foam, estimated to be ~4\"x5\"x12\", that broke away and hit the lower left SRB-ET Attach Ring near the Integrated Electronics Assembly (IEA) box causing a dent ~4\" wide and 3\" deep into the solid metal. Prior to approval for the next mission, the situation was analyzed and NASA decided to press ahead under the justification that \"The ET is safe to fly with no new concerns (and no added risk)\" of further foam strikes. This fateful decision set the stage for the STS-107 tragedy just two launches later. The CAIB report did not highlight the significance of video data from this being the first flight with the ET Camera.", "On Flight Day 2, the STS-112 crew settled into preparations for the next day's rendezvous and docking with the International Space Station. After the wake up call went at 4:46 am CDT, the crew began its first full day on orbit. Pilot Pamela Melroy assisted Mission Specialists David Wolf and Piers Sellers in a checkout of spacewalk suits and equipment. Commander Jeff Ashby worked with the prime robotic arm operator, Mission Specialist Sandy Magnus, to verify the arm's readiness. Ashby and Magnus powered up the arm for a video survey of Atlantis' payload bay. The crew also completed the setting up of the orbiter docking system's centerline camera, extended the orbiter's spring-loaded ring that will make first contact, and checked out rendezvous tools. During the day, the STS-112 crew successfully completed three Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) burns to boost the shuttle into the station's orbit and refine its approach path to the station. Astronaut Wolf also checked-out the Spatial Heterodyne Imager for Mesospheric Radicals or the SHIMMER experiment sponsored by the Naval Research Lab. The SHIMMER experiment uses an ultraviolet sensing camera to observe the Earth's atmosphere at 40–90 kilometers looking for possible ozone loss. The experiment proved balky, but with help from Mission Control the crew worked out steps to ready the gear for observations during the mission.", "Space Shuttle \"Atlantis\" docked to the Space Station at 15:17 GMT to begin a week of joint operations for the STS-112 and Expedition 5 crews. With commander Jeffrey Ashby at the controls, \"Atlantis\"' docking system engaged the Pressurized Mating Adapter-2 (Destiny Laboratory's forward docking port) in the front of the space station as the two spacecraft sailed 245 miles above central Asia at five miles per second. Crew members of \"Atlantis\" were the first visitors for the Expedition 5 station crew who arrived at the outpost the first week of June 2002. Following pressure checks, station science officer Peggy Whitson asked Commander Ashby if he had brought the salsa that she had asked for. When Ashby replied that he had, Whitson said \"OK, we'll let you in\". The hatches between \"Atlantis\" and the Space Station were opened at 16:51 GMT and astronaut Ashby floated into the Destiny Module and immediately embraced Whitson. Mission Specialist Sandra Magnus followed next, followed by the rest of \"Atlantis\"' STS-112 crew members. They were greeted by the three member station crew. After a safety briefing from station commander Valery Korzun, the combined crews split up and began preparing for a busy day of work. Astronaut Pamela Melroy, cosmonaut Korzun, and Mission Specialists Dave Wolf, Piers Sellers, and Fyodor Yurchikhin configured the spacesuits for EVA 1. Magnus and Whitson reviewed robotic arm operations for moving the new truss segment into place.", "The workday began at 3 am CDT with a musical wakeup call to \"Atlantis\" crew from Mission Control, Houston. Earlier on Flight Day 4 astronauts Whitson and Magnus used the station's Canadarm2 robotic arm to grapple the S1 truss structure, remove it from \"Atlantis\"' payload bay, and move it to the starboard end the S0 section. Four remotely operated motorized bolts locked the two truss segments together at 8:36 am CDT. Simultaneously, Astronauts Dave Wolf and Piers Sellers prepared for the mission's first spacewalk. EVA 1 was the 44th spacewalk staged to support the space station assembly and maintenance. The two astronauts exited the Quest Airlock at about 11:21 am EDT. Wolf's spacesuit had solid red stripes for identification, while Sellers donned an all white spacesuit. As Wolf worked to accomplish to connect power, data and fluid lines between the S0 and the S1 trusses, Sellers, on his first spacewalk, released the locks on three folded-up radiators mounted to the S1, allowing S1's radiators to be oriented for optimal cooling. The spacewalking astronauts worked for seven hours and one minute outside the space station, 31 minutes longer than expected due to a problem with the Canadarm2. The glitch forced Wolf to complete installation of a television camera system on the far end of the truss without the assistance of the robot arm. The only other problem of EVA 1 came near the end of the spacewalk when Wolf reported his helmet earphones appeared to be losing power. Throughout the spacewalk, astronaut Melroy offered guidance and advice to the spacewalkers and keeping them on schedule. Shuttle Commander Jeff Ashby operated the shuttle robotic arm, providing camera views for documentation. Following a tool inventory check and cleanup activities, Wolf and Sellers re-entered Quest. The Airlock was re-pressurized at 5:22 pm CDT to end EVA 1.", "On Flight Day 5, the combined shuttle and space station crew took several hours of off-duty time. Then they began transfer operations between the vehicles and prepared for mission's second spacewalk. The crew moved a number of scientific experiments back and forth between the shuttle and the ISS to return completed experiments to Earth and deploy new experiments at the ISS. Transfer items included a set of liver cell tissue samples from an experiment studying the function of human liver cells in microgravity, moved from the station onto the shuttle for return to Earth. Payload experiments such as Marshall Space Flight Center's protein crystal growth thermal enclosures for growing high-quality protein crystals in micro-gravity experiments were moved to and from the station. Seven water containers were transferred to the station. Commander Jeff Ashby initiated a Nitrogen transfer process that moved about 15 pounds of the gas from \"Atlantis\" to the station by the end of the day. STS-112 spacewalkers David Wolf and Piers Sellers, assisted by Pilot Pamela Melroy, readied the EVA equipment They recharged water on the extravehicular mobility unit (EMU), configured their tools and prepared the Quest airlock. The crew also participated in several live media interviews. Astronauts Magnus, Wolf and Sellers discussed about EVA 1 and the first-time experiences in space with CBS Radio Network and Cable News Network (CNN). Speaking to CBS News, Wolf told that manual work Piers and himself did at the end of EVA 1 to install the S1's outboard nadir external camera got their heart rates up to over 170 per minute. The spacewalkers were not able to use the Station's Canadarm 2 as a result of a software glitch. Russian cosmonauts Valery Korzun, Sergei Treschev and Fyodor Yurchikhin participated in several interviews with the Russian press. Shortly before sleep, the crew reviewed procedures for EVA 2.", "A camera mounted to the shuttle's external tank captured \"Atlantis\"' ascent to orbit. This was the first time such footage was recorded. However, after solid rocket booster separation, the camera was fogged with the propellant, and was rendered unusable. The camera was moved downward after STS-112. In the response to the Space Shuttle \"Columbia\" disaster (STS-107), the camera was also used on all subsequent missions to capture images of the falling debris from the external tank.", "NASA began a tradition of playing music to astronauts during the Gemini program, which was first used to wake up a flight crew during Apollo 15. Each track is specially chosen, often by their families, and usually has a special meaning to an individual member of the crew, or is applicable to their daily activities." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Code.", "History.", "In sport.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Oxford English Dictionary traces the word to the Spanish word, meaning \"manliness\", modified after the Sicilian word \"omu\" \"man\". According to a different theory, the word comes from Latin (humility), which became \"umirtà\" and then finally \"omertà\" in some southern Italian dialects. The first Antimafia Commission of the Italian parliament in the 1970s accepted the origin based on \"omu\" on the authority of Antonio Cutrera, with no reference to Spanish. The basic principle of \"omertà\" is that it is not \"manly\" to seek aid from legally constituted authorities to settle personal grievances. The suspicion of being a (an informant) constitutes the blackest mark against manhood, according to Cutrera. An individual who has been wronged is obligated to look out for his own interests by avenging that wrong himself or finding a patron but not the state to do the job. Omertà implies \"the categorical prohibition of cooperation with state authorities or reliance on its services, even when one has been victim of a crime.\" A person should absolutely avoid interfering in the business of others and should not inform the authorities of a crime under any circumstances, but if it is justified, he may personally avenge a physical attack on himself or on his family by vendetta, literally a taking of revenge, a feud. Even if somebody is convicted of a crime that he has not committed, he is supposed to serve the sentence without giving the police any information about the real criminal, even if the criminal has nothing to do with the Mafia. Within Mafia culture, breaking \"omertà\" is punishable by death. \"Omertà\" is an extreme form of loyalty and solidarity in the face of authority. One of its absolute tenets is that it is deeply demeaning and shameful to betray even one's deadliest enemy to the authorities. For that reason, many Mafia-related crimes go unsolved. Observers of the Mafia debate whether omertà should best be understood as an expression of social consensus for the Mafia or whether it is instead a pragmatic response based primarily on fear, as implied by a popular Sicilian proverb \"Cu è surdu, orbu e taci, campa cent'anni'mpaci\" (\"He who is deaf, blind and silent will live a hundred years in peace\"). It has also been described as follows: \"Whoever appeals to the law against his fellow man is either a fool or a coward. Whoever cannot take care of himself without police protection is both. It is as cowardly to betray an offender to justice, even though his offences be against yourself, as it is not to avenge an injury by violence. It is dastardly and contemptible in a wounded man to betray the name of his assailant, because if he recovers, he must naturally expect to take vengeance himself.\"", "Omertà is a code of silence, according to one of the first Mafia researchers Antonio Cutrera, a former officer of public security. It seals lips of men even in their own defense and even when the accused is innocent of charged crimes. Cutrera quoted a native saying which was first uttered (as goes the legend) by a wounded man to his assailant: \"If I live, I'll kill you. If I die, I forgive you.\" Sicilians adopted the code long before the emergence of Cosa Nostra, and it may have been heavily influenced by centuries of state oppression and foreign colonisation. It has been observed at least as far back as the 16th century as a way of opposing Spanish rule. The Italian-American mafioso Joe Valachi famously broke the \"omertà\" code in 1963, when he publicly spoke out about the existence of the Mafia and testified before a US Senate committee. He became the first in the modern history of the Italian-American Mafia to break his blood oath. In Sicily, the phenomenon of pentito (Italian \"he who has repented\") broke omertà. Among the most famous Mafia \"pentiti\" is Tommaso Buscetta, the first important witness in Italy, who both helped prosecutor Giovanni Falcone to understand the inner workings of Cosa Nostra and described the Sicilian Mafia Commission or \"Cupola\", the leadership of the Sicilian Mafia. A predecessor, Leonardo Vitale, who gave himself up to the police in 1973, was judged mentally ill and so his testimony led to the conviction of only himself and his uncle.", "Omertà is widely reported in sport in relation to use of prohibited substances by athletes. The Cycling Independent Reform Commission report of 2015 contains the word \"omerta\" no fewer than 17 times, and stated:", "Mario Puzo wrote novels based on the principles of Omertà and the Cosa Nostra. His best known works in that vein are the trilogy \"The Godfather\", \"The Sicilian\", and \"Omertà\". The final book of the series, \"Omertà\", was finished before his death but published posthumously in 2000 from his manuscript." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History and etymology.", "Most recent election." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Saeima traces its origins to the Sejm of the Kingdom of Poland, which led to the creation of the Sejm (Seimas) of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and later to the creation of the Sejm of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Latvia, a part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, was exposed to the Polish mode of administration and introduced to the Sejm-system. Most of Latvia, incorporated into 3 voivodeships: the Dorpat Voivodeship, the Parnawa Voivodeship and the Wenden Voivodeship, in total sent 6 senators to the Sejm of the Poland. However, the rest of Latvia belonged to the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, which as a direct fief of the Commonwealth (therefore not a member of the Union with equal rights) was governed by the Sejm, but could not send its own senators to it. Local councils called \"sejmik\" (little Sejm) stretched across all of Latvia. The word \"sejm\" derives from the verb \"sjąć się\" meaning \"to get together\", with similar words in some other Slavic languages, of proto-Slavic origin *sъjęti < *sъjemti Sejm, then, as a noun meant \"a gathering, a meeting, a council.” In the 19th century, as the concept of nations began to emerge, Juris Alunāns, a member of a Latvian nationalist group called the Young Latvians, claimed ownership to the word \"Saeima\". Despite exactly the same sound, same semantic structure and clear historical connotations, he claimed that it was a purely Latvian word that he had invented. As mentioned earlier, the word bears the same meaning: \"a gathering, a meeting, a council\". Juris Alunāns claimed that he “constructed“ it completely independently of the historical context spanning centuries and independently of the contemporarily functioning sejms in the Duchy of Warsaw, Congress Poland, Grand Duchy of Poznan and Galicia. He claimed that the word he constructed stemmed from the archaic Latvian word \"eima\" instead, meaning \"to go\" (derived from the PIE \"*ei\" \"to go\" and also a cognate with the Ancient Greek \"eimi\", Gaulish \"\", among others). He could not explain, however, how the s- prefix got added to the word, and what sense this addition made within the limits of the Latvian language. Nevertheless, according to Juris, the word is purely Latvian and completely independent of the aforementioned historical context. In the pre-war Latvia, the Saeima was elected for three-year terms. The 1st Saeima met from 7 November 1922 to 2 November 1925, the 2nd from 3 November 1925 to 5 November 1928, the 3rd from 6 November 1928 to 2 November 1931, and the 4th from 3 November 1931 to 15 May 1934 (date of the Latvian coup d'état).", "Summary of the 6 October 2018 Latvian Saeima election results" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Microarchitecture.", "Processor cores.", "Willamette.", "Northwood.", "Pentium 4-M.", "Mobile Pentium 4.", "Gallatin (Extreme Edition).", "Prescott.", "Prescott 2M (Extreme Edition).", "Cedar Mill.", "Successor." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In benchmark evaluations, the advantages of the NetBurst microarchitecture were unclear. With carefully optimized application code, the first Pentium 4s outperformed Intel's fastest Pentium III (clocked at 1.13 GHz at the time), as expected. But in legacy applications with many branching or x87 floating-point instructions, the Pentium 4 would merely match or run slower than its predecessor. Its main downfall was a shared unidirectional bus. The NetBurst microarchitecture consumed more power and emitted more heat than any previous Intel or AMD microarchitectures. As a result, the Pentium 4's introduction was met with mixed reviews: Developers disliked the Pentium 4, as it posed a new set of code optimization rules. For example, in mathematical applications, AMD's lower-clocked Athlon (the fastest-clocked model was clocked at 1.2 GHz at the time) easily outperformed the Pentium 4, which would only catch up if software was re-compiled with SSE2 support. Tom Yager of \"Infoworld\" magazine called it \"the fastest CPU - for programs that fit entirely in cache\". Computer-savvy buyers avoided Pentium 4 PCs due to their price premium, questionable benefit, and initial restriction to Rambus RAM. In terms of product marketing, the Pentium 4's singular emphasis on clock frequency (above all else) made it a marketer's dream. The result of this was that the NetBurst micro architecture was often referred to as a marchitecture by various computing websites and publications during the life of the Pentium 4. It was also called \"NetBust,\" a term popular with reviewers who reflected negatively upon the processor's performance. The two classical metrics of CPU performance are IPC (instructions per cycle) and clock speed. While IPC is difficult to quantify due to dependence on the benchmark application's instruction mix, clock speed is a simple measurement yielding a single absolute number. Unsophisticated buyers would simply consider the processor with the highest clock speed to be the best product, and the Pentium 4 had the fastest clock speed. Because AMD's processors had slower clock speeds, it countered Intel's marketing advantage with the \"megahertz myth\" campaign. AMD product marketing used a \"PR-rating\" system, which assigned a merit value based on relative performance to a baseline machine. At the launch of the Pentium 4, Intel stated that NetBurst-based processors were expected to scale to 10 GHz after several fabrication process generations. However, the clock speed of processors using the NetBurst micro architecture reached a maximum of 3.8 GHz. Intel had not anticipated a rapid upward scaling of transistor power leakage that began to occur as the die reached the 90 nm lithography and smaller. This new power leakage phenomenon, along with the standard thermal output, created cooling and clock scaling problems as clock speeds increased. Reacting to these unexpected obstacles, Intel attempted several core redesigns (\"Prescott\" most notably) and explored new manufacturing technologies, such as using multiple cores, increasing FSB speeds, increasing the cache size, and using a longer instruction pipeline along with higher clock speeds. These solutions failed, and from 2003 to 2005, Intel shifted development away from NetBurst to focus on the cooler-running Pentium M microarchitecture. On January 5, 2006, Intel launched the Core processors, which put greater emphasis on energy efficiency and performance per clock cycle. The final NetBurst-derived products were released in 2007, with all subsequent product families switching exclusively to the Core microarchitecture.", "Pentium 4 processors have an integrated heat spreader (IHS) that prevents the die from accidentally being damaged when mounting and unmounting cooling solutions. Prior to the IHS, a CPU shim was sometimes used by people worried about damaging the core. Overclockers sometimes removed the IHS from Socket 423 and Socket 478 chips to allow for more direct heat transfer. On Socket 478 Prescott processors and processors using the Socket LGA 775 (Socket T) interface, the IHS is directly soldered to the die or dies, making it difficult to remove.", "Willamette, the project codename for the first NetBurst microarchitecture implementation, experienced long delays in the completion of its design process. The project was started in 1998, when Intel saw the Pentium II as their permanent line. At that time, the Willamette core was expected to operate at frequencies up to about 1 GHz. However, the Pentium III was released while Willamette was still being finished. Due to the radical differences between the P6 and NetBurst microarchitectures, Intel could not market Willamette as a Pentium III, so it was marketed as the Pentium 4. On November 20, 2000, Intel released the Willamette-based Pentium 4 clocked at 1.4 and 1.5 GHz. Most industry experts regarded the initial release as a stopgap product, introduced before it was truly ready. According to these experts, the Pentium 4 was released because the competing Thunderbird-based AMD Athlon was outperforming the aging Pentium III, and further improvements to the Pentium III were not yet possible. This Pentium 4 was produced using a 180 nm process and initially used Socket 423 (also called socket W, for \"Willamette\"), with later revisions moving to Socket 478 (socket N, for \"Northwood\"). These variants were identified by the Intel product codes 80528 and 80531 respectively. On the test bench, the Willamette was somewhat disappointing to analysts in that not only was it unable to outperform the Athlon and the highest-clocked Pentium IIIs in all testing situations, but it was not superior to the budget segment's AMD Duron. Although introduced at prices of $644 (1.4 GHz) and $819 (1.5 GHz) for 1000 quantities to OEM PC manufacturers (prices for models for the consumer market varied by retailer), it sold at a modest but respectable rate, handicapped somewhat by the requirement for relatively fast yet expensive Rambus Dynamic RAM (RDRAM). The Pentium III remained Intel's top selling processor line, with the Athlon also selling slightly better than the Pentium 4. While Intel bundled two RDRAM modules with each boxed Pentium 4, it did not facilitate Pentium 4 sales and was not considered a true solution by many. In January 2001, a still slower 1.3 GHz model was added to the range, but over the next twelve months, Intel gradually started reducing AMD's leadership in performance. In April 2001 a 1.7 GHz Pentium 4 was launched, the first model to provide performance clearly superior to the old Pentium III. July saw 1.6 and 1.8 GHz models and in August 2001, Intel released 1.9 and 2 GHz Pentium 4s. In the same month, they released the 845 chipset that supported much cheaper PC133 SDRAM instead of RDRAM. The fact that SDRAM was so much cheaper caused the Pentium 4's sales to grow considerably. The new chipset allowed the Pentium 4 to quickly replace the Pentium III, becoming the top-selling mainstream processor on the market. The Willamette code name is derived from the Willamette Valley region of Oregon, where a large number of Intel's manufacturing facilities are located.", "In January 2002, Intel released Pentium 4s with a new core code named \"Northwood\" at speeds of 1.6 GHz, 1.8 GHz, 2 GHz and 2.2 GHz. \"Northwood\" (product code 80532) combined an increase in the L2 cache size from 256 KB to 512 KB (increasing the transistor count from 42 million to 55 million) with a transition to a new 130 nm fabrication process. Making the processor out of smaller transistors means that it can run at higher clock speeds and produce less heat. In the same month boards utilizing the 845 chipset were released with enabled support for DDR SDRAM which provided double the bandwidth of PC133 SDRAM, and alleviated the associated high costs of using Rambus RDRAM for maximal performance with Pentium 4. A 2.4 GHz Pentium 4 was released on April 2, 2002, and the bus speed increased from 400 MT/s to 533 MT/s (133 MHz physical clock) for the 2.26 GHz, 2.4 GHz, and 2.53 GHz models in May, 2.66 GHz and 2.8 GHz models in August, and 3.06 GHz model in November. With Northwood, the Pentium 4 came of age. The battle for performance leadership remained competitive (as AMD introduced faster versions of the Athlon XP) but most observers agreed that the fastest-clocked Northwood-based Pentium 4 was usually ahead of its rival. This was particularly so in mid-2002, when AMD's changeover to its 130 nm production process did not help the initial \"Thoroughbred A\" revision Athlon XP CPUs to clock high enough to overcome the advantages of Northwood in the 2.4 to 2.8 GHz range. The 3.06 GHz Pentium 4 enabled Hyper-Threading Technology that was first supported in Foster-based Xeons. This began the convention of virtual processors (or virtual cores) under x86 by enabling multiple threads to be run at the same time on the same physical processor. By shuffling two (ideally differing) program instructions to simultaneously execute through a single physical processor core, the goal is to best utilize processor resources that would have otherwise been unused from the traditional approach of having these single instructions wait for each other to execute singularly through the core. This initial 3.06 GHz 533FSB Pentium 4 Hyper-Threading enabled processor was known as Pentium 4 HT and was introduced to mass market by Gateway in November 2002. On April 14, 2003, Intel officially launched the new Pentium 4 HT processor. This processor used an 800 MT/s FSB (200 MHz physical clock), was clocked at 3 GHz, and had Hyper-Threading technology.. This was meant to help the Pentium 4 better compete with AMD's Opteron line of processors. The server-oriented Opteron initially did not share a common socket with AMD's desktop processor line (Socket A). Because of this, motherboard manufacturers did not initially build motherboards with AGP for Opterons. As AGP was the primary graphics expansion port for desktop use, this oversight prevented the Opteron from encroaching from the server market and threatening the Pentium 4 desktop market. Meanwhile, with the launch of the Athlon XP 3200+ in AMD's desktop line, AMD increased the Athlon XP's FSB speed from 333 MT/s to 400 MT/s, but it was not enough to hold off the new 3 GHz Pentium 4 HT. The Pentium 4 HT's increase to a 200 MHz quad-pumped bus (200x4=800Mhz effective) greatly helped to satisfy the bandwidth requirements the Netburst architecture desired for reaching optimal performance. While the Athlon XP architecture was less dependent on bandwidth, the bandwidth numbers reached by Intel were well out of range for the Athlon's EV6 bus. Hypothetically, EV6 could have achieved the same bandwidth numbers, but only at speeds unreachable at the time. Intel's higher bandwidth proved useful in benchmarks for streaming operations, and Intel marketing wisely capitalized on this as a tangible improvement over AMD's desktop processors. Northwood 2.4 GHz, 2.6 GHz and 2.8 GHz variants were released on May 21, 2003. A 3.2 GHz variant was launched on June 23, 2003 and the final 3.4 GHz version arrived on February 2, 2004. Overclocking early stepping Northwood cores yielded a startling phenomenon. While core voltage approaching 1.7 V and above would often allow substantial additional gains in overclocking headroom, the processor would slowly (over several months or even weeks) become more unstable over time with a degradation in maximum stable clock speed before dying and becoming totally unusable. This became known as \"Sudden Northwood Death Syndrome\" (SNDS), which was caused by electromigration.", "Also based on the Northwood core, the \"Mobile Intel Pentium 4 Processor - M\" was released on April 23, 2002 and included Intel's SpeedStep and Deeper Sleep technologies. Intel's naming conventions made it difficult at the time of the processor's release to identify the processor model. There was the Pentium III mobile chip, the Mobile Pentium 4-M, the Mobile Pentium 4, and then just the Pentium M which itself was based on the Pentium III and significantly faster than the former three. Its TDP is about 35 watts in most applications. This lowered power consumption was due to lowered core voltage, and other features mentioned previously. Unlike the desktop Pentium 4, the Pentium 4-M did not feature an integrated heat spreader (IHS), and it operates at a lower voltage. The lower voltage means lower power consumption, and in turn less heat. However, according to Intel specifications, the Pentium 4-M had a maximum thermal junction temperature rating of 100 degrees C, approximately 40 degrees higher than the desktop Pentium 4.", "The \"Mobile Intel Pentium 4 Processor\" was released to address the problem of putting a full desktop Pentium 4 processor into a laptop, which some manufacturers were doing. The Mobile Pentium 4 used a 533 MT/s FSB, following the desktop Pentium 4's evolution. Oddly, increasing the bus speed by 133 MT/s (33 MHz) caused a massive increase in TDPs, as mobile Pentium 4 processors emitted 59.8–70 W of heat, with the Hyper-Threading variants emitting 66.1–88 W. This allowed the mobile Pentium 4 to bridge the gap between the desktop Pentium 4 (up to 115 W TDP), and the Pentium 4-M (up to 35 W TDP).", "In September 2003, at the Intel Developer Forum, the Pentium 4 Extreme Edition (P4EE) was announced, just over a week before the launch of Athlon 64 and Athlon 64 FX. The design was mostly identical to Pentium 4 (to the extent that it would run in the same motherboards), but differed by an added 2 MB of level 3 cache. It shared the same Gallatin core as the Xeon MP, though in a Socket 478 form factor (as opposed to Socket 603 for the Xeon MP) and with an 800 MT/s bus, twice as fast as that of the Xeon MP. While Intel maintained that the Extreme Edition was aimed at gamers, critics viewed it as an attempt to steal the Athlon 64's launch thunder, nicknaming it the \"Emergency Edition\". With a price tag of $999, it was also referred to as the \"Expensive Edition\" or \"Extremely Expensive\". The added cache generally resulted in a noticeable performance increase in most processor intensive applications. Multimedia encoding and certain games benefited the most, with the Extreme Edition outperforming the Pentium 4, and even the two Athlon 64 variants, although the lower price and more balanced performance of the Athlon 64 (particularly the non-FX version) led to it usually being seen as the better value proposition. Nonetheless, the Extreme Edition did achieve Intel's apparent aim, which was to prevent AMD from being the performance champion with the new Athlon 64, which was winning every single major benchmark over the existing Pentium 4s. In January 2004 a 3.4 GHz version was released for Socket 478, and in Summer 2004 the CPU was released using the new Socket 775. A slight performance increase was achieved in late 2004 by increasing the bus speed from 800 MT/s to 1066 MT/s, resulting in a 3.46 GHz Pentium 4 Extreme Edition. By most metrics, this was on a per-clock basis the fastest single-core NetBurst processor that was ever produced, even outperforming many of its successor chips (not counting the dual-core Pentium D). Afterwards, the Pentium 4 Extreme Edition was migrated to the Prescott core. The new 3.73 GHz Extreme Edition had the same features as a 6x0-sequence Prescott 2M, but with a 1066 MT/s bus. In practice however, the 3.73 GHz Pentium 4 Extreme Edition almost always proved to be slower than the 3.46 GHz Pentium 4 Extreme Edition, which is most likely due to the lack of an L3 cache and the longer instruction pipeline. The only advantage the 3.73 GHz Pentium 4 Extreme Edition had over the 3.46 GHz Pentium 4 Extreme Edition was the ability to run 64-bit applications since all Gallatin-based Pentium 4 Extreme Edition processors lacked the Intel 64 instruction set. Although never a particularly good seller, especially since it was released in a time when AMD was asserting near total dominance in the processor performance race, the Pentium 4 Extreme Edition established a new position within Intel's product line, that of an enthusiast oriented chip with the highest-end specifications offered by Intel chips, along with unlocked multipliers to allow for easier overclocking. In this role it has since been succeeded by the Pentium Extreme Edition (The Extreme version of the dual-core Pentium D), the Core 2 Extreme, the Core i7 and most recently, the Core i9.", "On February 1, 2004, Intel introduced a new core codenamed \"Prescott\". The core used the 90 nm process for the first time, which one analyst described as \"a major reworking of the Pentium 4's microarchitecture.\" Despite this overhaul, the performance gains were inconsistent. Some programs benefited from Prescott's doubled cache and SSE3 instructions, whereas others were harmed by its longer pipeline. The Prescott's microarchitecture allowed slightly higher clock speeds, but not nearly as high as Intel had anticipated. The fastest mass-produced Prescott-based Pentium 4s were clocked at 3.8 GHz. While Northwood ultimately achieved clock speeds 70% higher than Willamette, Prescott only scaled 12% beyond Northwood. Prescott's inability to achieve greater clock speeds was attributed to the very high power consumption and heat output of the processor. This led to the processor receiving the nickname \"PresHot\" on forums. In fact, Prescott's power and heat characteristics were only slightly higher than those of Northwood of the same speed and nearly equal to the Gallatin-based Extreme Editions, but since those processors had already been operating near the limits of what was considered thermally acceptable, this still posed a major issue. The \"Prescott\" Pentium 4 contains 125 million transistors and has a die area of 112 mm. It was fabricated in a 90 nm process with seven levels of copper interconnect. The process has features such as strained silicon transistors and Low-κ carbon-doped silicon oxide (CDO) dielectric, which is also known as organosilicate glass (OSG). The Prescott was first fabricated at the D1C development fab and was later moved to F11X production fab. Originally, Intel released two Prescott lines: the E-series, with an 800 MT/s FSB and Hyper-Threading support, and the low-end A-series, with a 533 MT/s FSB and Hyper-Threading disabled. Intel eventually added XD bit (eXecute Disable) and Intel 64 functionality to Prescott. LGA 775 Prescott uses a rating system, labeling them as the 5xx series (Celeron Ds are the 3xx series, while Pentium Ms are the 7xx series). The LGA 775 version of the E-series uses model numbers 5x0 (520–560), and the LGA 775 version of the A-series uses model numbers 5x5 and 5x9 (505–519). The fastest, the 570J and 571, is clocked at 3.8 GHz. Plans to mass-produce a 4 GHz Pentium 4 were cancelled by Intel in favor of dual core processors, although some European retailers claimed to be selling a Pentium 4 580, clocked at 4 GHz. The 5x0J series (and its low-end equivalent, the 5x5J and 5x9J series) introduced the XD bit a.k.a. eXecute Disabled bit to Intel's line of processors. This technology, introduced to the x86 line by AMD and called NX (No eXecute), can help prevent certain types of malicious code from exploiting a buffer overflow to get executed. Intel also released a series of Prescott supporting Intel 64, Intel's implementation of the AMD-developed x86-64 64-bit extensions to the x86 architecture. These were originally released as the F-series, and only sold to OEMs, but they were later renamed to the 5x1 series and sold to the general public. Two low-end Intel 64-enabled Prescotts, based on the 5x5/5x9 series, were also released with model numbers 506 and 516. 5x0, 5x0J, and 5x1 series Prescott incorporates Hyper-Threading in order to speed up some processes that use multithreaded software, such as video editing. The 5x1 series also supports 64 bit computing.", "Intel, by the first quarter of 2005, released a new Prescott core with 6x0 numbering, codenamed \"\"Prescott 2M\"\". \"Prescott 2M\" is also sometimes known by the name of its Xeon derivative, \"\"Irwindale\"\". It features Intel 64, the XD bit, EIST (Enhanced Intel SpeedStep Technology), Tm2 (for processors at 3.6 GHz and above), and 2 MB of L2 cache. However, higher cache latency and the double word size, if using Intel 64 mode, negated any advantage that added cache introduced. Rather than being a targeted speed boost the double size cache was intended to provide the same space and hence performance for 64-bit mode operations. 6xx series Prescott 2Ms have incorporated Hyper-Threading in order to speed up some processes that use multithreaded software, such as video editing. On November 14, 2005, Intel released Prescott 2M processors with VT (Virtualization Technology, codenamed \"Vanderpool\") enabled. Intel only released two models of this Prescott 2M category: 662 and 672, running at 3.6 GHz and 3.8 GHz, respectively.", "The final revision of the Pentium 4 was \"Cedar Mill\", released on January 5, 2006. This was a die shrink of the Prescott-based 600 series core to 65 nm, with no real feature additions but significantly reduced power consumption. Cedar Mill had a lower heat output than Prescott, with a TDP of 86 W. The Core Stepping of D0 in late 2006 reduced this to 65 watts. It has a 65 nm core and features the same 31-stage pipeline as Prescott, 800 MT/s FSB, Intel 64, Hyper-Threading, but no Virtualization Technology. As with Prescott 2M, Cedar Mill also has a 2 MB L2 cache. It was released as Pentium 6x1 and 6x3 (product code 80552) at frequencies from 3 GHz up to 3.6 GHz. Overclockers managed to exceed 8 GHz with these processors using liquid nitrogen cooling. To distinguish Cedar Mill cores from Prescott cores with the same features, Intel added 1 to their model numbers. Thus, Pentium 4 631, 641, 651 and 661 are 65 nm Cedar Mill microprocessors, while Pentium 630, 640, 650 and 660 respectively are their 90 nm Prescott equivalents. The name \"Cedar Mill\" refers to Cedar Mill, Oregon, an unincorporated community near Intel's Hillsboro, Oregon facilities.", "The original successor to the Pentium 4 was (codenamed) Tejas, which was scheduled for an early-mid-2005 release. However, it was cancelled a few months after the release of Prescott due to extremely high TDPs (a 2.8 GHz Tejas emitted 150 W of heat, compared to around 80 W for a Northwood of the same speed, and 100 W for a comparably clocked Prescott) and development on the NetBurst microarchitecture as a whole ceased, with the exception of the dual-core Pentium D and Pentium Extreme Edition and the Cedar Mill-based Pentium 4 HT. Since May 2005, Intel has released dual-core processors under the Pentium D and Pentium Extreme Edition brands. These came under the code names Smithfield and Presler for the 90 nm and 65 nm parts respectively. The actual successor to the Pentium 4 brand is the Intel Core 2 brand, released on July 27, 2006. The underlying microarchitecture is the Core microarchitecture, and the first chips implementing it (in 65 nm) are called \"Conroe\". Intel Core 2 processors have been released as single, dual and quad core processors. Processors implementing the Core microarchitecture were marketed under the \"Core 2\"-brand, because processors based on the Yonah-microarchitecture had already been marketed under the Core-brand." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Production.", "Mechanical properties.", "Similar products." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The material is made in three stages: First, material is laid up in its intended final shape, with carbon filament and/or cloth surrounded by an organic binder such as plastic or pitch. Often, coke or some other fine carbon aggregate is added to the binder mixture. Second, the lay-up is heated, so that pyrolysis transforms the binder to relatively pure carbon. The binder loses volume in the process, causing voids to form; the addition of aggregate reduces this problem, but does not eliminate it. Third, the voids are gradually filled by forcing a carbon-forming gas such as acetylene through the material at a high temperature, over the course of several days. This long heat treatment process also allows the carbon to form into larger graphite crystals, and is the major reason for the material's high cost. The gray \"Reinforced Carbon–Carbon (RCC)\" panels on the space shuttle's wing leading edges and nose cone cost NASA $100,000/sq ft to produce, although much of this cost was a result of the advanced geometry and research costs associated with the panels. This stage can also include manufacturing of the finished product. C/C is a hard material that can be made highly resistant to thermal expansion, temperature gradients, and thermal cycling, depending on how the fibre scaffold is laid up and the quality/density of the matrix filler.", "The strength of carbon–carbon with unidirectional reinforcement fibres is up to 700 MPa. Carbon–carbon materials retain their properties above 2000 °C. This temperature may be exceeded with the help of protective coatings to prevent oxidation. The material has a density between 1.6–1.98 g/cm.", "Carbon fibre-reinforced silicon carbide (C/SiC) is a development of pure carbon–carbon, and can be used in automotive applications, such as components of brake systems on high performance road cars, namely the brake disc and brake pads. C/SiC utilises silicon carbide with carbon fibre, and this compound is thought to be more durable than pure carbon-carbon. However, it is heavier and hence not used in Formula 1 racing. Applications initially included the Mercedes-Benz C215 Coupe F1 edition, and are standard fitment on the Bugatti Veyron and certain current Bentleys, Ferraris, Porsches, Corvette ZR1, ZO6 and Lamborghinis. They are also offered as an \"optional upgrade\" on certain high performance Audi cars, including the D3 S8, B7 RS4, C6 S6 and RS6, and the R8. Carbon brakes became widely available for commercial airplanes in the 1980s having been first used on the Concorde supersonic transport. A related non-ceramic carbon composite with uses in high tech racing automotives is the carbotanium carbon–titanium composite used in the Zonda R and Huayra supercars made by the Italian motorcar company Pagani." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Performance.", "Compatibility.", "Revisions.", "Enthusiasts.", "See also." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The original Duron processors were derived from AMD's mainstream \"Athlon\" Thunderbird processors, the primary difference being a reduction in L2 cache size to 64 KB from the Athlon's 256 KB. This was a relatively severe reduction, making it even smaller than the 128 KB L2 available on Intel's competing budget Celeron line. However, the originating Thunderbird architecture already featured one of the largest L1 caches at 128 KB (which was not reduced in the Duron) and also introduced AMD's switch to an exclusive cache design which effectively unified the L1 and L2 caches. Because of this, the Duron behaved as if it had a high speed 128 KB cache combined with a somewhat slower 64 KB segment giving an effective 192 KB cache, versus the traditional inclusive cache design where the L2 cache had to store a duplicate of the data stored in the L1 cache. As a comparison the inclusive design of the Celeron effectively reduced the available size of the Level 2 cache by the size of the Level 1, which resulted in an effective size of 96 KB (128-32) in contrast to the Duron's exclusive design (128+64=192). Consequently, the Duron inherited the Thunderbird's reduction in sensitivity to L2 cache size, allowing AMD to make their L2 cache higher latency and lower bandwidth to lessen processor complexity and allow better manufacturing yields without incurring a significant performance loss. The net result was that the budget Duron \"Spitfire\" CPU was roughly only 10% slower than an equivalently clocked (and significantly more expensive) Athlon \"Thunderbird\".", "The Duron line was pin-compatible and operated on the same motherboards as the Athlon line, requiring only a BIOS update in most cases. The original Duron was introduced with a 100 MHz (effectively 200 MHz) front-side bus - the same as the then current Socket A Athlons. Later with the introduction of motherboard chipsets offering higher FSB speeds of 133 MHz (FSB 266) and AMD's matching introduction of Athlon \"C\" processors supporting this speed, the Duron initially retained the 100 MHz FSB for purposes of market segmentation. Later Durons were given official support for 133 MHz bus operation only after the Athlon XP was used to introduce 166/200 MHz FSB (FSB 333/400) speeds.", "The original Duron, using the \"Spitfire\" core, was manufactured in 2000 and 2001 at speeds ranging from 600 to 950 MHz. It was based on the 180 nm \"Thunderbird\" Athlon core. The second-generation Duron, the \"Morgan\" core, was sold in speed grades between 900 and 1300 MHz, and was based on the 180 nm \"Palomino\" Athlon XP core. As a result, it featured a few important enhancements, namely full Intel SSE support, enlarged TLBs, hardware data prefetch, and an integrated thermal diode. Like the \"Palomino\" core, \"Morgan\" was also expected to reduce heat dissipation; however in \"Morgan\"'s case this did not happen due to its increased core voltage. The final generation Duron was called \"Applebred\", sometimes called \"Appalbred\", and was based on the \"Appaloosa\" Duron along with the 130 nm \"Thoroughbred\" Athlon XP. \"Appaloosa\" was never officially announced but it did see very limited circulation.", "Duron was often a favorite of computer builders looking for performance while on a tight budget. In 2003, the \"Applebred\" Duron was available in 1.4 GHz, 1.6 GHz and 1.8 GHz forms, all on a 133 MHz (FSB 266) bus by default. Enthusiast groups quickly discovered these Durons to be rebadged \"Thoroughbred\" A/B cores with some cache disabled (and perhaps defective). With a basic chip configuration modification, it was found that \"Applebred\" Durons could be turned into \"Thoroughbred B\" Athlon XPs, with full 256KB cache, with a very high success rate. However, this was only possible for a period of approximately 4 weeks, as shortly after \"Applebred\" was released, AMD changed the chip configuration method to one that was not changeable.", "List of AMD Duron microprocessors" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin and properties.", "Occurrence.", "Prehistoric and historical use.", "Europe.", "Middle East.", "Americas.", "Oceania.", "Current use.", "Literary references." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The translation into English of \"Natural History\" by Pliny the Elder of Rome includes a few sentences about a volcanic glass called obsidian (\"lapis obsidianus\"), discovered in Ethiopia by Obsidius, a Roman explorer. Obsidian is formed from quickly cooled lava, which is the parent material. Extrusive formation of obsidian may occur when felsic lava cools rapidly at the edges of a felsic lava flow or volcanic dome, or when lava cools during sudden contact with water or air. Intrusive formation of obsidian may occur when felsic lava cools along the edges of a dike. Tektites were once thought by many to be obsidian produced by lunar volcanic eruptions, though few scientists now adhere to this hypothesis. Obsidian is mineral-like, but not a true mineral because as a glass it is not crystalline; in addition, its composition is too variable to be classified as a mineral. It is sometimes classified as a mineraloid. Though obsidian is usually dark in color, similar to mafic rocks such as basalt, obsidian's composition is extremely felsic. Obsidian consists mainly of SiO (silicon dioxide), usually 70% or more. Crystalline rocks with a similar composition include granite and rhyolite. Because obsidian is metastable at the Earth's surface (over time the glass becomes fine-grained mineral crystals), no obsidian has been found that is older than the Cretaceous period. This transformation of obsidian is accelerated by the presence of water. Although newly-formed obsidian has a low water content, typically less than 1% water by weight, it becomes progressively hydrated when exposed to groundwater, forming perlite. Pure obsidian is usually dark in appearance, though the color varies depending on the impurities present. Iron and other transition elements may give the obsidian a dark brown to black color. Most black obsidians contain nanoinclusions of magnetite, an iron oxide. Very few samples of obsidian are nearly colorless. In some stones, the inclusion of small, white, radially clustered crystals (spherulites) of the mineral cristobalite in the black glass produce a blotchy or snowflake pattern (\"snowflake obsidian\"). Obsidian may contain patterns of gas bubbles remaining from the lava flow, aligned along layers created as the molten rock was flowing before being cooled. These bubbles can produce interesting effects such as a golden sheen (\"sheen obsidian\"). An iridescent, rainbow-like sheen (\"fire obsidian\") is caused by inclusions of magnetite nanoparticles creating thin-film interference. Colorful, striped obsidian (\"rainbow obsidian\") from Mexico contains oriented nanorods of hedenbergite, which cause the rainbow striping effects by thin-film interference.", "Obsidian is found in locations which have undergone rhyolitic eruptions. It can be found in Argentina, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Australia, Canada, Chile, Georgia, El Salvador, Greece, Guatemala, Iceland, Italy, Japan, Kenya, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Scotland, The Canary Islands, Turkey and the United States. Obsidian flows which may be hiked on are found within the calderas of Newberry Volcano and Medicine Lake Volcano in the Cascade Range of western North America, and at Inyo Craters east of the Sierra Nevada in California. Yellowstone National Park has a mountainside containing obsidian located between Mammoth Hot Springs and the Norris Geyser Basin, and deposits can be found in many other western U.S. states including Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, Utah, and Washington, Oregon and Idaho. Obsidian can also be found in the eastern U.S. states of Virginia, Pennsylvania and North Carolina. There are only four major deposit areas in the central Mediterranean: Lipari, Pantelleria, Palmarola and Monte Arci. Ancient sources in the Aegean were Milos and Gyali. Acıgöl town and the Göllü Dağ volcano were the most important sources in central Anatolia, one of the more important source areas in the prehistoric Near East.", "The first known archaeological evidence of usage was in Kariandusi (Kenya) and other sites of the Acheulian age (beginning 1.5 million years BP) dated 700,000 BC, although only very few objects have been found at these sites relative to the Neolithic. Use of obsidian in pottery of the Neolithic in the area around Lipari was found to be significantly less at a distance representing two weeks journeying. Anatolian sources of obsidian are known to have been the material used in the Levant and modern-day Iraqi Kurdistan from a time beginning sometime about 12,500 BC. The first attested civilized use is dated to the late fifth millennium BC, known from excavations at Tell Brak. Obsidian was valued in Stone Age cultures because, like flint, it could be fractured to produce sharp blades or arrowheads. Like all glass and some other naturally occurring rocks, obsidian breaks with a characteristic conchoidal fracture. It was also polished to create early mirrors. Modern archaeologists have developed a relative dating system, obsidian hydration dating, to calculate the age of obsidian artifacts.", "Obsidian artifacts first appeared in the European continent in Central Europe in the Middle Paleolithic and had become common by the Upper Paleolithic, although there are exceptions to this. Obsidian played an important role in the transmission of Neolithic knowledge and experiences. The material was mainly used for production of chipped tools which were very sharp due to its nature. Artifacts made of obsidian can be found in many Neolithic cultures across Europe. The source of obsidian for cultures inhabiting the territory of and around Greece was the island of Melos; the Starčevo–Körös–Criş culture obtained obsidian from sources in Hungary and Slovakia, while the Cardium-Impresso cultural complex acquired obsidian from the island outcrops of the central Mediterranean. Through trade, these artifacts ended up in lands thousands of kilometres away from the original source; this indicates that they were a highly valued commodity. John Dee had a mirror, made of obsidian, which was brought from Mexico to Europe between 1527 and 1530 after Hernando Cortés’s conquest of the region.", "In the Ubaid in the 5th millennium BC, blades were manufactured from obsidian extracted from outcrops located in modern-day Turkey. Ancient Egyptians used obsidian imported from the eastern Mediterranean and southern Red Sea regions. Obsidian was also used in ritual circumcisions because of its deftness and sharpness. In the eastern Mediterranean area the material was used to make tools, mirrors and decorative objects. Obsidian has also been found in Gilat, a site in the western Negev in Israel. Eight obsidian artifacts dating to the Chalcolithic Age found at this site were traced to obsidian sources in Anatolia. Neutron activation analysis (NAA) on the obsidian found at this site helped to reveal trade routes and exchange networks previously unknown.", "Lithic analysis helps to understand prehispanic groups in Mesoamerica. A careful analysis of obsidian in a culture or place can be of considerable use to reconstruct commerce, production, and distribution, and thereby understand economic, social and political aspects of a civilization. This is the case in Yaxchilán, a Maya city where even warfare implications have been studied linked with obsidian use and its debris. Another example is the archeological recovery at coastal Chumash sites in California, indicating considerable trade with the distant site of Casa Diablo, California in the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Pre-Columbian Mesoamericans' use of obsidian was extensive and sophisticated; including carved and worked obsidian for tools and decorative objects. Mesoamericans also made a type of sword with obsidian blades mounted in a wooden body. Called a \"macuahuitl\", the weapon could inflict terrible injuries, combining the sharp cutting edge of an obsidian blade with the ragged cut of a serrated weapon. The pole arm version of this weapon was called \"tepoztopilli\". Obsidian mirrors were used by some Aztec priests to conjure visions and make prophesies. They were connected with Tezcatlipoca, god of obsidian and sorcery, whose name can be translated from the Nahuatl language as 'Smoking Mirror’. Native American people traded obsidian throughout the Americas. Each volcano and in some cases each volcanic eruption produces a distinguishable type of obsidian, allowing archaeologists to trace the origins of a particular artifact. Similar tracing techniques have also allowed obsidian in Greece to be identified as coming from Milos, Nisyros or Gyali, islands in the Aegean Sea. Obsidian cores and blades were traded great distances inland from the coast. In Chile obsidian tools from Chaitén Volcano have been found as far away as in Chan-Chan north of the volcano, and also in sites 400 km south of it.", "The Lapita culture, active across a large area of the Pacific Ocean around 1000 BC, made widespread use of obsidian tools and engaged in long distance obsidian trading. The complexity of the production technique for these tools, and the care taken in their storage, may indicate that beyond their practical use they were associated with prestige or high status. Obsidian was also used on Rapa Nui (Easter Island) for edged tools such as \"Mataia\" and the pupils of the eyes of their Moai (statues), which were encircled by rings of bird bone. Obsidian was used to inscribe the Rongorongo glyphs.", "Obsidian can be used to make extremely sharp knives, and obsidian blades are a type of glass knife made using naturally occurring obsidian instead of manufactured glass. Obsidian is used by some surgeons for scalpel blades, although this is not approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use on humans. Well-crafted obsidian blades, like any glass knife, can have a cutting edge many times sharper than high-quality steel surgical scalpels: the cutting edge of the blade is only about 3 nanometers thick. Even the sharpest metal knife has a jagged, irregular blade when viewed under a strong enough microscope; even when examined under an electron microscope an obsidian blade is still smooth and even. One study found that obsidian incisions produced fewer inflammatory cells and less granulation tissue at seven days, in a group of rats, although no differences were found after 21 days. Don Crabtree produced obsidian blades for surgery and other purposes, and has written articles on the subject. Obsidian scalpels may currently be purchased for surgical use on research animals. Obsidian is also used for ornamental purposes and as a gemstone. It presents a different appearance depending on how it is cut: in one direction it is jet black, while in another it is glistening gray. \"Apache tears\" are small rounded obsidian nuggets often embedded within a grayish-white perlite matrix. Plinths for audio turntables have been made of obsidian since the 1970s: e.g. the grayish-black SH-10B3 plinth by Technics.", "In the fictional world of the \"A Song of Ice and Fire\" and \"Game of Thrones\" stories, obsidian is called \"dragonglass\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Mythology.", "Reign.", "Heirless King.", "Conflict with Crete.", "Theseus and the Minotaur.", "Legacy.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Aegeus was the son of Pandion II, king of Athens and Pylia, daughter of King Pylas of Megara and thus, brother to Pallas, Nysus and Lykos. But, in some accounts, he was regarded as the son of Scyrius or Phemius and was not of the stock of the Erechtheids, since he was only an adopted son of Pandion. Aegeus' first wife was Meta, daughter of Hoples and his second wife was Chalciope, daughter of Rhexenor, neither of whom bore him any children.", "", "Aegeus was born in Megara where his father Pandion had settled after being expelled from Athens by the sons of Metion who seized the throne. After the death of Pandion, now king of Megara, Aegeus in conjunction with his three brothers successfully attacked Athens, took control over the government and expelled the usurpers, the Metionids. Then, they divide the power among themselves but Aegeus obtained the sovereignty of Attica, succeeding Pandion to the throne. It has been said that Megara was at the time a part of Attica, and that Nisus received his part when he became king of that city. Lycus became king of Euboea whereas Pallas received the southern part of the territory. Aegeus, being the eldest of the brothers, received what they all regarded as the best part: Athens. The division of the land was explained further in the following text by the geographer Strabo: Later on, Lycus was driven from the territory by Aegeus himself, and had to seek refuge in Arene, Messenia. Pallas and his fifty sons revolted at a later time, being crushed by Aegeus' son Theseus.", "Still without a male heir with his previous marriages, Aegeus asked the oracle at Delphi for advice. According to Pausanias, Aegeus ascribed this misfortune to the anger of Aphrodite and in order to conciliate her introduced her worship as Aphrodite Urania (Heavenly) in Athens. The cryptic words of the oracle were \"\"Do not loosen the bulging mouth of the wineskin until you have reached the height of Athens, lest you die of grief.\"\" Aegeus did not understand the prophecy and was disappointed. This puzzling oracle forced Aegeus to visit Pittheus, king of Troezen, who was famous for his wisdom and skill at expounding oracles. Pittheus understood the prophecy and introduced Aegeus to his daughter, Aethra, when Aegeus was drunk. They lay with each other, and then in some versions, Aethra waded to the island of Sphairia (a.k.a. Calauria) and bedded Poseidon. When Aethra became pregnant, Aegeus decided to return to Athens. Before leaving, he buried his sandal, shield, and sword under a huge rock and told her that, when their son grew up, he should move the rock and bring the weapons to his father, who would acknowledge him. Upon his return to Athens, Aegeus married Medea, who had fled from Corinth and the wrath of Jason. Aegeus and Medea had one son named Medus. When Theseus grew up, he found his father's belongings left for him and went to Athens to claim his birthright. Aegeus recognized him as his son by his sword shield and sandals. Medea, Aegeus’ wife perceived Theseus to be a threat for her children's inheritance and first tried to discredit and then to poison Theseus. When Aegeus discovered these schemes, he drove Medea out of Athens.", "While visiting in Athens, King Minos' son, Androgeus managed to defeat Aegeus in every contest during the Panathenaic Games. Out of envy, Aegeus sent him to conquer the Marathonian Bull, which killed him. Minos was angry and declared war on Athens. He offered the Athenians peace, however, under the condition that Athens would send seven young men and seven young women every nine years to Crete to be fed to the Minotaur, a vicious monster. This continued until Theseus killed the Minotaur with the help of Ariadne, Minos' daughter. After his adventures in Crete, Theseus returned by ship to Athens. His father, Aegeus previously had asked him to hang a white sail as a sign that Theseus is alive, but Theseus neglected this request. When Aegeus saw Theseus’ ships without a white sail, he assumed the worst and threw himself in his grief into the sea, named after him the Aegean Sea.", "In Troezen, Theseus grew up and became a brave young man. He managed to move the rock and took his father's weapons. His mother then told him the identity of his father and that he should take the weapons back to him at Athens and be acknowledged. Theseus decided to go to Athens and had the choice of going by sea, which was the safe way, or by land, following a dangerous path with thieves and bandits all the way. Young, brave and ambitious, Theseus decided to go to Athens by land. When Theseus arrived, he did not reveal his true identity. He was welcomed by Aegeus, who was suspicious about the stranger who came to Athens. Medea tried to have Theseus killed by encouraging Aegeus to ask him to capture the Marathonian Bull, but Theseus succeeded. She tried to poison him, but at the last second, Aegeus recognized his son and knocked the poisoned cup out of Theseus' hand. Father and son were thus reunited, and Medea was sent away to Asia. Theseus departed for Crete. Upon his departure, Aegeus told him to put up white sails when returning if he was successful in killing the Minotaur. However, when Theseus returned, he forgot these instructions. When Aegeus saw the black sails coming into Athens, mistaken in his belief that his son had been slain, he killed himself by jumping from a height : according to some, from the Acropolis or another unnamed rock; according to some Latin authors, into the sea which was therefore known as the Aegean Sea. Sophocles' tragedy \"Aegeus\" has been lost, but Aegeus features in Euripides' \"Medea\".", "At Athens, the traveller Pausanias was informed in the second-century CE that the cult of Aphrodite Urania above the Kerameikos was so ancient that it had been established by Aegeus, whose sisters were barren, and he still childless himself.", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Hydrography.", "History.", "Economy.", "Demographics.", "Religion." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Ryazan Oblast borders Vladimir Oblast (N), Nizhny Novgorod Oblast (NE), the Republic of Mordovia (E), Penza Oblast (SE), Tambov Oblast (S), Lipetsk Oblast (SW), Tula Oblast (W), and Moscow Oblast (NW). In terms of physical geography, Ryazan Oblast lies in the central part of the Russian Plain between the Central Russian and Volga uplands. The terrain is flat, with a highest point of no more than 300 m above sea level. Soils are podzolic and boggy on the left bank of the Oka, changing southward to more fertile podzolic and leached black-earths (chernozyom).", "Most of the Ryazan Oblast lies within the Volga basin, with the Oka the principal river of the area.", "Human occupation of the area of the Ryazan Oblast dates from at least the Upper Paleolithic period. East Slavs, Volga Finnic, Tatar tribes inhabited the area and merged into an ethnos, a process virtually completed by the 13th century CE. In 830 the Ryazan area became part of Rus' Khaganate. Later the Ryazan area became part of the Kievan Rus' political system, and came under the domination of the Principality of Chernigov (founded in 988). The Principality of Ryazan operated as a separate entity from 1097 to 1521, when the area became part of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, though with the Qasim Khanate district retaining some autonomy until the 1550s. The Ryazan Governorate became separate from the Moscow Governorate in 1796. The present-day Ryazan Oblast, formed out of the Moscow and Voronezh oblasts, dates from 1937.", "Ryazan Oblast is a part of the Central economic region. The oblast is in an economically favorable geographical location owing to the water and land routes that pass through it and provide stable domestic and foreign economic ties. It is considered both an industrial and agrarian Oblast. The foundations of agriculture in the oblast are livestock farming and plant cultivation. Livestock farming specializes in raising and fattening cattle and breeding pigs, sheep, and poultry. Beekeeping is also well developed in the oblast.", "Population: Ethnic composition (2010):", "According to a 2012 survey 63% of the population of Ryazan Oblast adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 3% are unaffiliated generic Christians, 1% are Orthodox Christian believers without belonging to church or belonging to non-Russian Orthodox churches, 1% are Muslims, and 1% are adherents of the Rodnovery (Slavic native faith) movement. In addition, 15% of the population declares to be \"spiritual but not religious\", 9% is atheist, and 7% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question." ] }

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{ "title": [ "From the 1930s to the 1950s.", "The 1960s.", "Jean Jehan.", "The 1970s and the dismantling of the French Connection." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Illegal heroin labs were first discovered near Marseille, France, in 1937. These labs were run by Corsican gang leader Paul Carbone. For years, the Corsican underworld had been involved in the manufacturing and trafficking of heroin, primarily to the United States. It was this heroin network that eventually became known as \"the French Connection\". The Corsican Gang was protected by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the SDECE after World War II in exchange for working to prevent French Communists from bringing the Old Port of Marseille under their control. Historically, the raw material for most of the heroin consumed in the United States came from Indochina, then Turkey. Turkish farmers were licensed to grow opium poppies for sale to legal drug companies, but many sold their excess to the underworld market, where it was manufactured into heroin and transported to the United States. The morphine paste was refined in Corsican laboratories in Marseille, one of the busiest ports in the western Mediterranean Sea. The Marseille heroin was reputed for its quality. Marseille served as a perfect shipping point for all types of illegal goods, including the excess opium that Turkish farmers cultivated for profit. The convenience of the port at Marseille and the frequent arrival of ships from opium-producing countries made it easy to smuggle the morphine base to Marseille from the Far East or the Near East. The French underground would then ship large quantities of heroin from Marseille to New York City. The first significant post-World War II seizure was made in New York on February 5, 1947, when seven pounds (3 kg) of heroin were seized from a Corsican sailor disembarking from a vessel that had just arrived from France. It soon became clear that the French underground was increasing not only its participation in the illegal trade of opium, but also its expertise and efficiency in heroin trafficking. On March 17, 1947, 28 pounds (13 kg) of heroin were found on the French liner \"St. Tropez\". On January 7, 1949, more than 50 pounds (22.75 kg) of opium and heroin were seized on the French ship \"Batista\". After Paul Carbone's death, the Guérini clan was the ruling dynasty of the Unione Corse and had systematically organized the smuggling of opium from Turkey and other Middle Eastern countries. The Guérini clan was led by Marseilles mob boss Antoine Guérini and his brothers, Barthelemy, Francois and Pascal. In October 1957, a meeting between Sicilian Mafia and American Mafia members was held at the Grand Hotel et des Palmes in Palermo to discuss the international illegal heroin trade in the French Connection.", "The first major French Connection case occurred in 1960. In June, an informant told a drug agent in Lebanon that Mauricio Rosal, the Guatemalan Ambassador to Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg, was smuggling morphine base from Beirut, Lebanon to Marseille. Narcotics agents had been seizing about 200 pounds (90 kg) of heroin in a typical year, but intelligence showed that the Corsican traffickers were smuggling in 200 pounds (90 kg) every other week. Rosal alone, in one year, had used his diplomatic status to bring in about 440 pounds (200 kg). The Federal Bureau of Narcotics's 1960 annual report estimated that from 2,600 to 5,000 pounds (1,200 to 2,300 kg) of heroin were coming into the United States annually from France. The French traffickers continued to exploit the demand for their illegal product, and by 1969, they were supplying the United States with 80 percent of its heroin. Because of this increasing volume, heroin became readily available throughout the United States. In an effort to limit the source, US officials went to Turkey to negotiate the phasing out of opium production. Initially, the Turkish government agreed to limit their opium production starting with the 1968 crop. At the end of the 1960s, after Robert Blemant's assassination by Antoine Guerini, a gang war sparked in Marseille, caused by competition over casino revenues. Blemant's associate, Marcel Francisci, continued the war over the next years.", "Former New York City Police Department Narcotics Bureau detective Sonny Grosso has stated that the kingpin of the French Connection heroin ring during the 1950s into the 1960s was Corsican Jean Jehan. Although Jehan arranged the famous 1962 deal gone wrong of 64 pounds of \"pure\" heroin, he was never arrested for his involvement in international heroin smuggling. According to Grosso, all warrants for the arrest of Jehan were left open. For years thereafter, Jehan was reported to be seen arranging and operating drug activities at will throughout Europe. According to William Friedkin, director of the 1971 film \"The French Connection\", Jehan had been a member of the French Resistance to Nazi Occupation during World War II and, because of that, French law enforcement officials refused to arrest him. Friedkin was told that Jehan died peacefully of old age at his home in Corsica.", "Following five subsequent years of concessions, combined with international cooperation, the Turkish government finally agreed in 1971 to a complete ban on the growing of Turkish opium, effective June 29, 1971. During these protracted negotiations, law enforcement personnel went into action. One of the major roundups began on January 4, 1972, when agents from the U.S. Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs (BNDD) and French authorities seized 110 pounds (50 kg) of heroin at the Paris airport. Subsequently, traffickers Jean-Baptiste Croce and Joseph Mari were arrested in Marseille. One such French seizure from the French Connection in 1973 netted 210 pounds (95 kg) of heroin worth $38 million. In February 1972, French traffickers offered a United States Army sergeant $96,000 () to smuggle 240 pounds (109 kg) of heroin into the United States. He informed his superior who in turn notified the BNDD. As a result of this investigation, five men in New York and two in Paris were arrested with 264 pounds (120 kg) of heroin, which had a street value of $50 million. In a 14-month period, starting in February 1972, six major illicit heroin laboratories were seized and dismantled in the suburbs of Marseille by French national narcotics police in collaboration with U.S. drug agents. On February 29, 1972, French authorities seized the shrimp boat, \"Caprice des Temps\", as it put to sea near Marseille heading towards Miami. It was carrying 915 pounds (415 kg) of heroin. Drug arrests in France skyrocketed from 57 in 1970 to 3,016 in 1972. Also broken up as part of this investigation was the crew of Vincent Papa, whose members included Anthony Loria Sr. and Virgil Alessi. The well-organized gang was responsible for distributing close to a million dollars worth of heroin up and down the East Coast of the United States during the early 1970s, which in turn led to a major New York Police Department (NYPD) corruption scheme. The scope and depth of this scheme are still not known, but officials suspect it involved corrupt NYPD officers who allowed Papa, Alessi, and Loria access to the NYPD property/evidence storage room, where hundreds of kilograms of heroin lay seized from the now-infamous French Connection bust, and from which the men would help themselves and replace missing heroin with flour and cornstarch to avoid detection. The substitution was discovered only when officers noticed insects eating all the bags of \"heroin\". By that point an estimated street value of approximately $70 million worth of heroin had already been taken. The racket was brought to light and arrests were made. Certain plotters received jail sentences, including Papa, who was later murdered in federal prison in Atlanta, Georgia. Ultimately, the Guérini clan was exterminated during internecine wars within the French underworld. In 1971, Marcel Francisci was accused by police forces in the U.S. Bureau of Narcotics of being involved in the trafficking of heroin between Marseilles and New York City. On 16 January 1982, Marcel Francisci was shot to death as he was entering his car in the parking lot of the building where he lived in Paris, France." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name and origins.", "Early life.", "Sponsorship.", "Expeditions.", "First voyage.", "Second voyage.", "Final voyage.", "Additional English voyages.", "Family.", "Sebastian Cabot's voyages." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Cabot is known today as Giovanni Caboto in Italian, as Zuan Chabotto in Venetian, and as John Cabot in English. This was the result of a once ubiquitous European tradition of nativizing names in contemporary documents, something often adhered to by the actual persons themselves. In Venice Cabot signed his names as \"Zuan Chabotto\", \"Zuan\" being a form of \"John\" typical to Venice. He continued to use this form in England, at least among Italians. He was referred to by his Italian banker in London as 'Giovanni', in the only known contemporary document to use this version of his first name. Cabot was born in Italy, the son of Giulio Caboto and his wife; he had a brother Piero. Gaeta (in the Province of Latina) and Castiglione Chiavarese (in the Province of Genoa) have both been proposed as birthplaces. The main evidence for Gaeta are records of a Caboto family residing there until the mid-15th century, but ceasing to be traceable after 1443. Pedro de Ayala, the Spanish envoy and Cabot's contemporary in London, described him in a letter to the Spanish Crown in 1498 as \"another Genoese like Columbus\". John Cabot's son, Sebastian, said his father originally came from Genoa. In 1476 Cabot was made a citizen of the Republic of Venice, which required a minimum of fifteen years' residency in the city; thus he must have lived in Venice since at least 1461.", "Cabot may have been born slightly earlier than 1450, which is the approximate date most commonly given for his birth. In 1471 Caboto was accepted into the religious confraternity of St John the Evangelist. Since this was one of the city's prestigious confraternities, his acceptance suggests that he was already a respected member of the community. Following his gaining full Venetian citizenship in 1476, Caboto would have been eligible to engage in maritime trade, including the trade to the eastern Mediterranean that was the source of much of Venice's wealth. He presumably entered this trade shortly thereafter. A 1483 document refers to his selling a slave in Crete whom he had acquired while in the territories of the Sultan of Egypt, which then comprised most of what is now Israel, Syria and Lebanon. This is not sufficient to prove Cabot's later assertion that he had visited Mecca, which he said in 1497 to the Milanese ambassador in London. In this Mediterranean trade, he may have acquired better knowledge of the origins of the Eastern merchandise he would have been dealing in (such as spices and silks) than most Europeans at that time. \"Zuan Cabotto\" (i.e. John Cabot) is mentioned in a variety of Venetian records of the late 1480s. These indicate that by 1484 he was married to Mattea and already had at least two sons. Cabot's sons are Ludovico, Sebastian, and Sancto. The Venetian sources contain references to Cabot's being involved in house building in the city. He may have relied on this experience when seeking work later in Spain as a civil engineer. Cabot appears to have got into financial trouble in the late 1480s and left Venice as an insolvent debtor by 5 November 1488. He moved to Valencia, Spain, where his creditors attempted to have him arrested by sending a \"lettera di raccomandazione a giustizia\" (\"a letter of recommendation to justice\") to the authorities. While in Valencia, \"John Cabot Montecalunya\" (as he is referred to in local documents) proposed plans for improvements to the harbour. These proposals were rejected, however. Early in 1494 he moved on to Seville, where he proposed, was contracted to build and, for five months, worked on the construction of a stone bridge over the Guadalquivir river. This project was abandoned following a decision of the City Council on 24 December 1494. After this Cabot appears to have sought support in Seville and Lisbon for an Atlantic expedition, before moving to London to seek funding and political support. He probably reached England in mid-1495.", "Like other explorers at those times, including Christopher Columbus, Cabot led an expedition on commission, in his case, England. Cabot planned to depart to the west from a northerly latitude where the longitudes are much closer together, and where, as a result, the voyage would be much shorter. He still had an expectation of finding an alternative route to China. Historians had thought that, on arrival in England, Cabot went to Bristol, a major maritime centre, to seek financial backers. This was the only English city to have had a history of undertaking exploratory expeditions into the Atlantic. Cabot's royal patent, issued by the Crown in 1496, stated that all expeditions should be undertaken from Bristol, so his primary financial supporters were probably based in that city. In any case, it also stipulated that the commerce resulting from any discoveries must be conducted with England alone, with goods only being brought in through Bristol. This would have made Bristol into a monopoly port, with sole right to engage in colonial trade. In stating this, Henry VII of England was presumably influenced by Iberian practices: Portugal having made Lisbon into such a monopoly port, while Spain was in the process of doing the same thing with Seville. In the late 20th century, British historian Alwyn Ruddock found documentation that Cabot went first to London, where he received some financial backing from its Italian community. She suggested one patron was Father Giovanni Antonio de Carbonariis, an Augustinian friar who was also the deputy to Adriano Castellesi, the papal tax collector. Ruddock also suggested that Carbonariis accompanied Cabot's 1498 expedition. She further suggested that the friar, on good terms with the King, introduced the explorer to King Henry VII. Beyond this, Ruddock stated that Cabot received a loan from an Italian banking house in London. As Ruddock ordered the destruction of all her research notes on her death in 2005, scholars have had to duplicate her research and rediscover documents. The Cabot Project was formed at the University of Bristol in 2009 to research Cabot and the Bristol expeditions. Francesco Guidi Bruscoli, of the University of Florence, found some of Ruddock's documentation, confirming that Cabot received money in March 1496 from the Bardi family banking firm of Florence. The bankers located in London provided fifty \"nobles\" (£16 13s. 4d.) to support Cabot's expedition to \"go and find the new land\". This payment from the Florentine merchants would have represented a substantial contribution, although it was not enough to completely finance the expedition. On 5 March 1496 Henry VII gave Cabot and his three sons letters patent with the following charge for exploration:", "Cabot went to Bristol to arrange preparations for his voyage. Bristol was the second-largest seaport in England. From 1480 onward it had supplied several expeditions to look for Hy-Brazil. According to Celtic legend, this island lay somewhere in the Atlantic Ocean. There was widespread belief among merchants in the port that Bristol men had discovered the island at an earlier date but then lost track of it. Ruddock had contended in a private letter to a colleague, Quinn, that she had found evidence in Italian archives that Bristol men had discovered North America pre-1470. As the island was believed to be a source of brazilwood (from which a valuable red dye could be obtained), merchants had economic incentive to find it.", "Little was recorded of Cabot's first voyage. A letter from John Day, a Bristol merchant, sent during the winter of 1497-98 to an addressee believed to be Christopher Columbus, refers briefly to it, but writes mostly about the second, 1497 voyage. He notes, \"Since your Lordship wants information relating to the first voyage, here is what happened: he went with one ship, his crew confused him, he was short of supplies and ran into bad weather, and he decided to turn back.\" Since Cabot received his royal patent in March 1496, it is believed that he made his first voyage that summer.", "Information about the 1497 voyage comes mostly from four short letters and an entry in a 1565 chronicle of the city of Bristol. The chronicle entry for 1496–97 says in full: \"This year, on St. John the Baptist's Day [24 June 1497], the land of America was found by the Merchants of Bristow in a shippe of Bristowe, called the Mathew; the which said the ship departed from the port of Bristowe, the second day of May, and came home again the 6th of August next following.\" — G.E. Weare, \"Cabot's Discovery of North America,\" (London, 1897), p. 116 What is known as the \"John Day letter\" provides considerable information about Cabot's second voyage. It was written during the winter of 1497–98 by Bristol merchant John Day, alias Hugh Say of London, to a man who was likely Christopher Columbus. Day is believed to have been familiar with the key figures of the expedition and thus able to report on it. If the lands Cabot had discovered lay west of the meridian laid down in the Treaty of Tordesillas, or if he intended to sail further west, Columbus would probably have believed that these voyages challenged his monopoly rights for westward exploration. In addition to these letters, Alwyn Ruddock reported to have found another, written on 10 August 1497 by the London-based bankers of Fr. Giovanni Antonio de Carbonariis. This letter has yet to be found. From various written comments made by Ruddock, the letter did not appear to contain a detailed account of the voyage. Ruddock said the letter contained \"new evidence supporting the claim that seamen of Bristol had already discovered land across the ocean before John Cabot's arrival in England.\" She contended that Bristol seamen had reached North America two decades before Cabot's expedition. The known sources do not concur on all aspects of the events, and none can be assumed to be entirely reliable. Cabot was described as having one \"little ship\", of 50 tons burden, called \"Matthew of Bristol\" (according to the 1565 chronicle). It was said to be laden with sufficient supplies for \"seven or eight months\". The ship departed in May with a crew of 18 to 20 men. They included an unnamed Burgundian (modern-day Netherlands) and a Genoese barber, who presumably accompanied the expedition as the ship's surgeon. It is likely that two ranking Bristol merchants were part of the expedition. One was William Weston, who had not been identified as part of Cabot's expedition before the find of a new document in the late 20th century. His participation was confirmed by a document found in the early 21st century noting his reward from the King in January 1498 after the ship returned. More importantly, in 2009 historian Evan Jones confirmed that Weston had undertaken an independent voyage to the New Found Land in 1499, probably under Cabot's patent, as the first Englishman to lead an expedition to North America. In 2018 Condon and Jones published a further article that confirmed Weston's involvement with Cabot prior to the 1498 expedition. Leaving Bristol, the expedition sailed past Ireland and across the Atlantic, making landfall somewhere on the coast of North America on 24 June 1497. The exact location of the landfall has long been disputed, with different communities vying for the honor. Historians have proposed Cape Bonavista and St. John's, Newfoundland; Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia; as well as Labrador and Maine as possibilities. Since the discovery of the \"John Day letter\" in the 1950s, it seems most likely that the initial landfall was either on Newfoundland or Cape Breton Island. This is because Day's letter implies that the coastline explored in 1497 lay between the latitudes of Bordeaux, France and Dursey Head in southern Ireland. The initial landfall seems to have taken place close to the southern latitude, with the expedition returning home after reaching the northern one. For the 500th-anniversary celebrations, the governments of Canada and the United Kingdom designated Cape Bonavista in Newfoundland as the \"official\" landing place. Here in 1997 Queen Elizabeth II, along with members of the Italian and Canadian governments, greeted the replica \"Matthew\" of Bristol, following her celebratory crossing of the Atlantic. Cabot is reported to have landed only once during the expedition and did not advance \"beyond the shooting distance of a crossbow\". Pasqualigo and Day both state that the expedition made no contact with any native people; the crew found the remains of a fire, a human trail, nets and a wooden tool. The crew appeared to have remained on land just long enough to take on fresh water; they also raised the Venetian and Papal banners, claiming the land for the King of England and recognising the religious authority of the Roman Catholic Church. After this landing, Cabot spent some weeks \"discovering the coast,\" with most \"discovered after turning back.\"", "On return to Bristol, Cabot rode to London to report to the King. On 10 August 1497, he was given a reward of £10 – equivalent to about two years' pay for an ordinary labourer or craftsman. The explorer was feted; Soncino wrote on 23 August that, similar to Christopher Columbus, Cabot \"is called the Great Admiral, and vast honour is paid to him and he goes dressed in silk, and these English run after him like mad\". Such adulation was short-lived, for over the next few months the King's attention was occupied by the Second Cornish Uprising of 1497, led by Perkin Warbeck. Once Henry's throne was secure, he gave more thought to Cabot. On 26 September, just a few days after the collapse of the revolt, the King made an award of £2 to Cabot. On 13 December 1497 the explorer was awarded a pension (or salary) of £20 per year. This was to be payable from customs receipts collected in Bristol. The pension was backdated to March 1497, to make clear that Cabot was in the King's service at the time of his expedition. Despite the royal grant, Bristol's customs officers initially refused to pay Cabot his pension, forcing the explorer to obtain an additional warrant from the King. On February 3, 1498 Cabot was given new letters patent covering the voyage and to help him prepare a second expedition. In March and April, the King also advanced a number of loans to Lancelot Thirkill of London, Thomas Bradley and John Cair, who were to accompany Cabot's new expedition. The \"Great Chronicle of London\" (1189–1512) reports that Cabot departed with a fleet of five ships from Bristol at the beginning of May 1498, one of which had been prepared by the King. Some of the ships were said to be carrying merchandise, including cloth, caps, lace points and other \"trifles\". This suggests that Cabot intended to engage in trade on this expedition. The Spanish envoy in London reported in July that one of the ships had been caught in a storm and been forced to land in Ireland, but that Cabot and the other four ships had continued on. For centuries no other records were found (or at least published) that relate to this expedition; it was long believed that Cabot and his fleet were lost at sea. But at least one of the men scheduled to accompany the expedition, Lancelot Thirkill of London, is recorded as living in London in 1501. It is not known if Cabot died during the voyage, or returned safely and died shortly after. The historian Alwyn Ruddock worked on Cabot and his era for 35 years. She suggested that Cabot and his expedition successfully returned to England in the spring of 1500. She claimed their return followed an epic two-year exploration of the east coast of North America, south into the Chesapeake Bay area and perhaps as far as the Spanish territories in the Caribbean. Her evidence included the well-known world map of the Spanish cartographer Juan de la Cosa. His chart included the North American coast and seas 'discovered by the English' between 1497 and 1500. Ruddock suggested Fr. Giovanni Antonio de Carbonariis and the other friars who accompanied the 1498 expedition had stayed in Newfoundland and founded a mission. If Carbonariis founded a settlement in North America, it would have been the first Christian settlement on the continent, and may have included a church, the only medieval church to have been built there. The Cabot Project at the University of Bristol was organized in 2009 to search for the evidence on which Ruddock's claims rest, as well as to undertake related studies of Cabot and his expeditions. The lead researchers on the project, Evan Jones and Margaret Condon, claim to have found further evidence to support aspects of Ruddock's case, including some of the information she intended to use to argue for a successful return of the 1498 expedition to Bristol. These appear to place John Cabot in London by May 1500, albeit Jones and Condon have yet to publish their documentation. The Project is collaborating on an archaeological excavation at the community of Carbonear, Newfoundland, located at Conception Bay and believed the likely location for Carbonariis' mission settlement. The Archaeology of Historic Carbonear Project, carried out by Memorial University of Newfoundland, has conducted summer fieldwork each season since 2011. So far, it has found evidence of planter habitation since the late 17th century and of trade with Spain through Bilbao, including a Spanish coin minted in Peru.", "Ruddock claimed that William Weston of Bristol, a supporter of Cabot, undertook an independent expedition to North America in 1499, sailing north from Newfoundland up to the Hudson Strait. If correct, this was probably the first North West Passage expedition. In 2009, Jones confirmed that William Weston (who was not previously known to have been involved) led an expedition from Bristol [with royal support] to the \"new found land\" in 1499 or 1500, making him the first Englishman to lead exploration of North America. This find has changed the understanding of English roles in exploration of that continent. In 2018, Condon and Jones published a further article about William Weston. This revealed that Weston and Cabot had received rewards from King Henry VII in January 1498, following a royal audience, thereby confirming that the two explorers were involved by this stage. Condon and Jones also revealed that in 1500 the King rewarded Weston £30 for 'his expenses about the finding of the new land'. King Henry VII continued to support exploration from Bristol. The king granted Hugh Eliot, Robert Thorne and his son a bounty of £20 in January 1502 for purchasing the \"Gabriel\", a ship for an expedition voyage that summer. Later in 1502 or early 1503, he paid Eliot a reward of £100 for a voyage, or voyages, in \"2 ships to the Isle of new finding,\" as Newfoundland was called. This amount was larger than any previously accounted for in royal support of the explorations. Around this time the Bristol-based explorers established a formal company, backed by Letters Patent, called the Company Adventurers to the New Found Land. This conducted further expeditions in 1503 and 1504. In 1508–09, Sebastian Cabot undertook a final voyage to North America from Bristol. According to Peter Martyr's 1516 account this expedition explored a section of the coast from the Hudson Bay to about Chesapeake Bay. Following his return to England in 1509, Sebastian found that his sponsor, Henry VII, had died and that the new king, Henry VIII, had little interest in westward exploration.", "Cabot married Mattea around 1470, and had issue including three sons:", "Sebastian Cabot, one of John's sons, also became an explorer, later making at least one voyage to North America. In 1508 he was searching for the Northwest Passage. Nearly two decades later, he sailed to South America for Spain to repeat Ferdinand Magellan's voyage around the world. He became diverted by searching for silver along the Río de la Plata (1525–1528) in Argentina." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career.", "Activism.", "Wartime work.", "Nuclear activism.", "Political criticism.", "Vietnam war activism.", "Eugenics.", "Medical research and vitamin C advocacy.", "Personal life.", "Death and legacy.", "Commemorations.", "Honors and awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Linus Carl Pauling was born on February 28, 1901, in Portland, Oregon, the firstborn child of Herman Henry William Pauling (1876–1910) and Lucy Isabelle \"Belle\" Darling (1881–1926). He was named \"Linus Carl\", in honor of Lucy's father, Linus, and Herman's father, Carl. His father was German while his mother was English. In 1902, after his sister Pauline was born, Pauling's parents decided to move out of Portland, to find more affordable and spacious living quarters than their one-room apartment. Lucy stayed with her husband's parents in Lake Oswego until Herman brought the family to Salem, where he worked briefly as a traveling salesman for the Skidmore Drug Company. Within a year of Lucile's birth in 1904, Herman Pauling moved his family to Lake Oswego, where he opened his own drugstore. He moved his family to Condon, Oregon, in 1905. By 1906, Herman Pauling was suffering from recurrent abdominal pain. He died of a perforated ulcer on June 11, 1910, leaving Lucy to care for Linus, Lucile and Pauline. Pauling attributes his interest in becoming a chemist to being amazed by experiments conducted by a friend, Lloyd A. Jeffress, who had a small chemistry lab kit. He later wrote: \"I was simply entranced by chemical phenomena, by the reactions in which substances, often with strikingly different properties, appear; and I hoped to learn more and more about this aspect of the world.\" In high school, Pauling conducted chemistry experiments by scavenging equipment and material from an abandoned steel plant. With an older friend, Lloyd Simon, Pauling set up Palmon Laboratories in Simon's basement. They approached local dairies offering to perform butterfat samplings at cheap prices but dairymen were wary of trusting two boys with the task, and the business ended in failure. At age 15, the high school senior had enough credits to enter Oregon State University (OSU), known then as Oregon Agricultural College. Lacking two American history courses required for his high school diploma, Pauling asked the school principal if he could take the courses concurrently during the spring semester. Denied, he left Washington High School in June without a diploma. The school awarded him an honorary diploma 45 years later, after he was awarded two Nobel Prizes. Pauling held a number of jobs to earn money for his future college expenses, including working part-time at a grocery store for $8 per week (). His mother arranged an interview with the owner of a number of manufacturing plants in Portland, Mr. Schwietzerhoff, who hired him as an apprentice machinist at a salary of $40 per month (). This was soon raised to $50 per month. Pauling also set up a photography laboratory with two friends. In September 1917, Pauling was finally admitted by Oregon State University. He immediately resigned from the machinist's job and informed his mother, who saw no point in a university education, of his plans.", "In 1926, Pauling was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship to travel to Europe, to study under German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld in Munich, Danish physicist Niels Bohr in Copenhagen and Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger in Zürich. All three were experts in the new field of quantum mechanics and other branches of physics. Pauling became interested in how quantum mechanics might be applied in his chosen field of interest, the electronic structure of atoms and molecules. In Zürich, Pauling was also exposed to one of the first quantum mechanical analyses of bonding in the hydrogen molecule, done by Walter Heitler and Fritz London. Pauling devoted the two years of his European trip to this work and decided to make it the focus of his future research. He became one of the first scientists in the field of quantum chemistry and a pioneer in the application of quantum theory to the structure of molecules. In 1927, Pauling took a new position as an assistant professor at Caltech in theoretical chemistry. He launched his faculty career with a very productive five years, continuing with his X-ray crystal studies and also performing quantum mechanical calculations on atoms and molecules. He published approximately fifty papers in those five years, and created the five rules now known as Pauling's rules. By 1929, he was promoted to associate professor, and by 1930, to full professor. In 1931, the American Chemical Society awarded Pauling the Langmuir Prize for the most significant work in pure science by a person 30 years of age or younger. The following year, Pauling published what he regarded as his most important paper, in which he first laid out the concept of hybridization of atomic orbitals and analyzed the tetravalency of the carbon atom. At Caltech, Pauling struck up a close friendship with theoretical physicist Robert Oppenheimer, who spent part of his research and teaching schedule away from U.C. Berkeley at Caltech every year. Pauling was also affiliated to UC Berkeley as Visiting Lecturer in Physics and Chemistry from 1929 to 1934. Oppenheimer even gave Pauling a stunning personal collection of minerals. The two men planned to mount a joint attack on the nature of the chemical bond: apparently Oppenheimer would supply the mathematics and Pauling would interpret the results. Their relationship soured when Oppenheimer tried to pursue Pauling's wife, Ava Helen. When Pauling was at work, Oppenheimer came to their home and blurted out an invitation to Ava Helen to join him on a tryst in Mexico. She flatly refused, and reported the incident to Pauling. He immediately cut off his relationship with Oppenheimer. In the summer of 1930, Pauling made another European trip, during which he learned about gas-phase electron diffraction from Herman Francis Mark. After returning, he built an electron diffraction instrument at Caltech with a student of his, Lawrence Olin Brockway, and used it to study the molecular structure of a large number of chemical substances. Pauling introduced the concept of electronegativity in 1932. Using the various properties of molecules, such as the energy required to break bonds and the dipole moments of molecules, he established a scale and an associated numerical value for most of the elements – the Pauling Electronegativity Scale – which is useful in predicting the nature of bonds between atoms in molecules. In 1936, Pauling was promoted to Chairman of the Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering at Caltech, and to the position of Director of the Gates and Crellin laboratories of Chemistry. He would hold both positions until 1958. Pauling also spent a year in 1948 at the University of Oxford as George Eastman Visiting Professor and Fellow of Balliol.", "", "Pauling had been practically apolitical until World War II. At the beginning of the Manhattan Project, Robert Oppenheimer invited him to be in charge of the Chemistry division of the project. However, he declined, not wanting to uproot his family. Pauling did, however, work on research for the military. He was a principal investigator on 14 OSRD contracts. The National Defense Research Committee called a meeting on October 3, 1940, wanting an instrument that could reliably measure oxygen content in a mixture of gases, so that they could measure oxygen conditions in submarines and airplanes. In response Pauling", "The aftermath of the Manhattan Project and his wife Ava's pacifism changed Pauling's life profoundly, and he became a peace activist. In June 1945, a \"May-Johnson Bill\" began that would become the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (signed August 1, 1946). In November 1945, Pauling spoke to the Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts, Sciences and Professions (ICCASP) on atomic weapons; shortly after, wife Ava and he accepted membership. On January 21, 1946, the group met to discuss academic freedom, during which Pauling said, \"There is, of course, always a threat to academic freedom – as there is to the other aspects of the freedom and rights of the individual, in the continued attacks which are made", "Many of Pauling's critics, including scientists who appreciated the contributions that he had made in chemistry, disagreed with his political positions and saw him as a naïve spokesman for Soviet communism. In 1960, he was ordered to appear before the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee, which termed him \"the number one scientific name in virtually every major activity of the Communist peace offensive in this country.\" A headline in \"Life\" magazine characterized his 1962 Nobel Prize as \"A Weird Insult from Norway\". Pauling was a frequent target of the \"National Review\" magazine. In an article entitled \"The Collaborators\" in the magazine's July 17, 1962 issue, Pauling was referred to not only as", "During the 1960s, President Lyndon Johnson's policy of increasing America's involvement in the Vietnam War caused an anti-war movement that the Paulings joined with enthusiasm. Pauling denounced the war as unnecessary and unconstitutional. He made speeches, signed protest letters and communicated personally with the North Vietnamese leader, Ho Chi Minh, and gave the lengthy written response to President Johnson. His efforts were", "Pauling supported a limited form of eugenics by suggesting that human carriers of defective genes be given a compulsory visible", "In 1941, at age 40, Pauling was diagnosed with Bright's disease, a renal disease. Following the recommendations of Thomas Addis, who actively recruited Ava Helen Pauling as \"nutritionist, cook, and eventually as deputy 'doctor'\", Pauling was able to control the disease with Addis's then-unusual low-protein salt-free diet and vitamin supplements. Thus Pauling's initial – and intensely personal – exposure to the idea of treating disease with vitamin supplements was positive. In 1965, Pauling read \"Niacin Therapy in Psychiatry\" by Abram Hoffer and theorized vitamins might have important biochemical effects unrelated to their prevention of associated deficiency diseases. In 1968, Pauling published a brief paper in \"Science\" entitled \"Orthomolecular psychiatry\", giving a name to the popular but controversial megavitamin therapy movement of the 1970s, and advocating that \"orthomolecular therapy, the provision for the individual person of the optimum concentrations of important normal constituents of", "Pauling married Ava Helen Miller on June 17, 1923. The marriage lasted until Ava Pauling's death in 1981. They had four children. Linus Carl Jr. (born 1925) became a psychiatrist; (1931–2003) a crystallographer at University College London; Edward Crellin Pauling (1937–1997) a biologist; and Linda Helen (born 1932) married noted Caltech geologist and glaciologist Barclay Kamb. Pauling was raised as a member of the Lutheran Church, but later joined the Unitarian Universalist Church. Two years before his death, in a published dialogue with Buddhist philosopher Daisaku Ikeda, Pauling publicly declared his atheism. On January 30, 1960, Pauling and his wife were using a cabin about south of Monterey, California, and he decided to go for a walk on a coastal trail. He got lost and tried to climb the rocky cliff, but reached a large overhanging rock about above the ocean. He decided it was safest to stay there, and meanwhile he was reported missing. He spent a sleepless night on the cliff before being found after almost 24 hours.", "Pauling died of prostate cancer on August 19, 1994, at 19:20 at home in Big Sur, California. He was 93 years old. A grave marker for Pauling was placed in Oswego Pioneer Cemetery in Lake Oswego, Oregon by his sister Pauline, but Pauling's ashes, along with those of his wife, were not buried there until 2005. Pauling's discoveries led to decisive contributions in a diverse array of areas including around 350 publications in the fields of quantum mechanics, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, protein structure, molecular biology, and medicine. His work on chemical bonding marks him as one of the founders of modern quantum chemistry. \"The Nature of the Chemical Bond\" was the standard work for many years, and concepts like hybridization and electronegativity remain part of standard chemistry textbooks. While his Valence", "Oregon State University completed construction of the $77 million, Linus Pauling Science Center in the late 2000s, now housing a bulk of Oregon State's chemistry classrooms, labs, and instruments. On March 6, 2008, the United States Postal Service released a 41 cent stamp honoring Pauling designed by artist Victor Stabin. His description reads: \"A remarkably versatile scientist, structural chemist Linus Pauling (1901–1994) won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for determining the nature of the chemical bond linking atoms into molecules. His work in establishing the field of molecular biology; his studies of hemoglobin led to the classification of sickle cell anemia as a molecular disease.\" The other scientists on this sheet of stamps included Gerty Cori, biochemist, Edwin Hubble, astronomer, and John Bardeen, physicist. California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver announced on May 28, 2008 that Pauling would be inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts. The induction ceremony took place December 15, 2008. Pauling's son was asked to accept the honor in", "Pauling received numerous awards and honors during his career, including the following:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "Knee.", "Knee osteoarthritis.", "Meniscal tears.", "Hip.", "Shoulder.", "Wrist.", "Spine.", "Temporomandibular joint.", "History.", "Surgical training.", "Complications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Knee arthroscopy, or arthroscopic knee surgery, is a surgery that uses arthroscopic techniques. It has, in many cases, replaced the classic open surgery (arthrotomy) that was performed in the past. Arthroscopic knee surgery is one of the most common orthopaedic procedures, performed approximately 2 million times worldwide each year. The procedures are more commonly performed to treat meniscus injury and to perform anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. While knee arthroscopy is commonly used for partial meniscectomy (trimming a torn meniscus) on middle aged to older adults with knee pain, the claimed positive results seem to lack scientific evidence. During an average knee arthroscopy, a small fiberoptic camera (the arthroscope) is inserted into the joint through a small incision, about 4 mm (1/8 inch) width. More incisions might be performed in order to visually check other parts of the knee and to insert the miniature instruments that are used to perform surgical procedures.", "The BMJ Rapid Recommendations group makes a strong recommendation against arthroscopy for osteoarthritis on the basis that there is high quality evidence that there is no lasting benefit and less than 15% of people have a small short-term benefit. There are rare but serious adverse effects that can occur, including venous thromboembolism, infections, and nerve damage The BMJ Rapid Recommendation includes infographics and shared decision making tools to facilitate a conversation between doctors and patients about the risks and benefits of arthroscopic surgery. Two major trials of arthroscopic surgery for osteoarthritis of the knee found no benefit for these surgeries. Even though randomized control trials have demonstrated this to be a procedure which involves the risks of surgery with questionable or no demonstrable long-term benefit, insurance companies (government and private) world-wide have generally felt obliged to continue funding it. An exception is Germany, where funding has been removed for the indication of knee osteoarthritis. It is claimed that German surgeons have continued to perform knee arthroscopy and instead claim rebates on the basis of a sub-diagnosis, such as meniscal tear. A 2017 meta-analysis confirmed that there is only a very small and usually unimportant reduction in pain and improvement in function at 3 months (e.g. an average pain reduction of approximately 5 on a scale from 0 to 100). A separate review found that most people would consider a reduction in pain of approximately 12 on the same 0 to 100 scale important—suggesting that for most people, the pain reduction at 3 months is not important. Arthroscopy did not reduce pain or improve function or quality of life at one year. There are important adverse effects.", "One of the primary reasons for performing arthroscopies is to repair or trim a painful and torn or damaged meniscus. The technical terms for the surgery is arthroscopic partial meniscectomy (APM). Arthroscopic surgery, however, does not appear to result in benefits to adults when performed for knee pain in patients with osteoarthritis who have a meniscal tear. This may be due to the fact that a torn meniscus may often not cause pain and symptoms, which may be caused by the osteoarthritis alone. Some groups have made a strong recommendation against arthroscopic partial meniscectomy in nearly all patients, stating that the only group of patients who may - or may not - benefit are those with a true locked knee. Professional knee societies, however, highlight other symptoms and related factors they believe are important, and continue to support limited use of arthroscopic partial meniscectomy in carefully selected patients.", "Hip arthroscopy was initially used for the diagnosis of unexplained hip pain, but is now widely used in the treatment of conditions both in and outside the hip joint. The most common indication currently is for the treatment of femoroacetabular impingement (FAI) and its associated pathologies. Hip conditions that may be treated arthroscopically also includes labral tears, loose / foreign body removal, hip washout (for infection) or biopsy, chondral (cartilage) lesions, osteochondritis dissecans, ligamentum teres injuries (and reconstruction), Iliopsoas tendinopathy (or ‘snapping psoas’), trochanteric pain syndrome, snapping iliotibial band, osteoarthritis (controversial), sciatic nerve compression (piriformis syndrome), ischiofemoral impingement and direct assessment of hip replacement. Hip arthroscopy is a widely adopted treatment for a range of conditions, including labral tears, femoroacetabular impingement, osteochondritis dissecans.", "Arthroscopy is commonly used for treatment of diseases of the shoulder including subacromial impingement, acromioclavicular osteoarthritis, rotator cuff tears, frozen shoulder (adhesive capsulitis), chronic tendonitis, removal of loose bodies and partial tears of the long biceps tendon, SLAP lesions and shoulder instability. The most common indications include subacromial decompression, bankarts lesion repair and rotator cuff repair. All these procedures were done by opening the joint through big incisions before the advent of arthroscopy. Arthroscopic shoulder surgeries have gained momentum in the past decade. \"\"Keyhole surgery\"\" of the shoulder as it is popularly known has reduced inpatient time and rehabilitation requirements and is often a daycare procedure.", "Arthroscopy of the wrist is used to investigate and treat symptoms of repetitive strain injury, fractures of the wrist and torn or damaged ligaments. It can also be used to ascertain joint damage caused by wrist osteoarthritis.", "Many invasive spine procedures involve the removal of bone, muscle, and ligaments to access and treat problematic areas. In some cases, thoracic (mid-spine) conditions require a surgeon to access the problem area through the rib cage, dramatically lengthening recovery time. Arthroscopic procedures (also endoscopic spinal procedures) allow access to and treatment of spinal conditions with minimal damage to surrounding tissues. Recovery times are greatly reduced due to the relatively small size of incisions, and many patients are treated as outpatients. Recovery rates and times vary according to condition severity and the patient's overall health. Arthroscopic procedures treat", "Arthroscopy of the temporomandibular joint is sometimes used as either a diagnostic procedure for symptoms and signs related to these joints, or as a therapeutic measure in conditions like temporomandibular joint dysfunction. TMJ arthroscopy can be a purely diagnostic procedure, or it can have its own beneficial effects which may result from washing out of the joint during the procedure, thought to remove debris and inflammatory mediators, and may enable a displaced disc to return to its correct position. Arthroscopy is also used to visualize the inside of the joint during certain surgical procedures involving the articular disc or the articular surfaces, similar to laparoscopy.<nowiki> Examples include release of adhesions (e.g., by blunt dissection or with a laser) or release of the disc. Biopsies or disc reduction can also be carried out during arthroscopy.</nowiki> It is carried out under general anesthetic.", "Professor Kenji Takagi in Tokyo has traditionally been credited with performing the first arthroscopic examination of a knee joint, in 1919. He used a 7.3 mm cystoscope for his first arthroscopies. Recently it has been discovered that the Danish physician Severin Nordentoft reported on arthroscopies of the knee joint in 1912 at the Proceedings of the 41st Congress of the German Society of Surgeons at Berlin. He called the procedure (in Latin) \"arthroscopia genu\", and used sterile saline or boric acid solution as his optic media, and entering the joint by a portal on the outer border of the patella. It is not clear if these examinations were of deceased or of living patients. Pioneering work began as early as the 1920s with the work of Eugen Bircher. He published several papers in the 1920s about his use of arthroscopy of the knee for diagnostic purposes. After diagnosing torn tissue, he used open surgery to remove or repair the damaged tissue. Initially, he used an electric Jacobaeus thoracolaparoscope for his diagnostic procedures, which produced a dim view of the joint. Later, he developed a double-contrast approach to improve visibility. He gave up endoscopy in 1930, and his work was largely neglected for several decades. While he is often considered the inventor of arthroscopy of the knee, the Japanese surgeon Masaki Watanabe, MD, receives primary credit for using arthroscopy for interventional surgery. Watanabe was inspired by the work and teaching of Dr Richard O'Connor. Later, Dr. Heshmat Shahriaree began experimenting with ways to excise fragments of menisci. The first operating arthroscope was designed by them, and they worked together to produce the first high-quality color intraarticular photography. The field benefited significantly from technological advances, particularly advances in flexible fiber optics during the 1970s and 1980s. Canadian doctor Robert Jackson is credited with bringing the procedure to the Western world. In 1964, Jackson was in Tokyo completing a one year fellowship and serving as a physician for the Canadian Olympic team. While there, he spent time at the clinic of Dr. Watanabe learning the thirty year old procedure that had only been used to investigate arthritis in the elderly. Dr. Jackson returned to Toronto where he continued to practice the technique, eventually becoming \"the world's foremost expert on arthroscopy\". According to Sports Illustrated, \"Jackson's particular genius was to recognize a wider application for the procedure than Watanabe ever did.\" Dr. Jackson realized the technique could be used for young, athletic patients that had suffered injuries. Torn knee cartilage or ligaments previously would require an arthrotomy procedure and might mean a year or more of rehab or the end of a career. Dr. Jackson believed the less invasive procedure with its smaller incisions would be able to save the career of injured athletes. While many were skeptical at first, Dr. Jackson's efforts to develop, teach and popularize the procedure helped to prolong the careers of athletes such as Bobby Orr, Willis Reed, Joan Benoit and Mary Lou Retton. For this, Dr. Jackson was named one of Sports Illustrated's forty most impactful people in sport's history, coming in at #37, and the only doctor on the list.", "Arthroscopy surgical skills have been traditionally taught in cadaver labs, although the progression to in vivo operations varies from country to country. The International Society of Arthroscopy, Knee Surgery and Orthopaedic Sports Medicine (ISAKOS) holds a list of approved courses for gaining surgical skills. A new teaching technique uses medical simulation as an alternative to cadaver training. High fidelity simulators range from those that use real surgical tools and passive haptics, such as VirtaMed's ArthroSTM, to those that rely on active haptic feedback, such as the Arthro Mentor from Simbionix. When studied, passive haptics have shown \"high scores in terms of realism\" and the ability to differentiate between \"varying levels of arthroscopic experience\". Reference material, such as the application developed by Touch Surgery, also contains visualization of minimally invasive techniques.", "Arthroscopy is considered a low risk procedure with a very low rates of serious complications. Commonly, irrigation fluid may leak (extravasates) into the surrounding soft tissue, causing edema which is generally a temporary phenomenon, taking anywhere from 7–15 days to completely settle. Rarely, this fluid may be the cause of a serious complication, compartment syndrome. However, Postarthroscopic glenohumeral chondrolysis (PAGCL) is a rare complication of arthroscopic surgery and involves chondrolysis wherein the articular cartilage of the shoulder undergoes rapid, degenerative changes shortly after arthroscopic surgery." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History and features.", "Semprons without Cool'n'Quiet." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first Sempron CPUs were based on the Athlon XP architecture using the \"Thoroughbred\" or \"Thorton\" core. These models were equipped with the Socket A interface, 256 KiB L2 cache and 166 MHz Front side bus (FSB 333). Thoroughbred cores natively had 256 KiB L2 cache, but Thortons had 512 KiB L2 cache, half of which was disabled and could sometimes be reactivated with a slight physical modification to the chip. Later, AMD introduced the Sempron 3000+ CPU, based on the \"Barton\" core with 512 KiB L2 cache. From a hardware and user standpoint, the Socket A Sempron CPUs were essentially identical to Athlon XP desktop CPUs with a new brand name. AMD has ceased production of all Socket A Sempron CPUs. The second generation (\"Paris\"/\"Palermo\" core) was based on the architecture of the Socket 754 Athlon 64. Some differences from Athlon 64 processors include a reduced cache size (either 128 or 256 KiB L2), and the absence of AMD64 support in earlier models. Apart from these differences, the Socket 754 Sempron CPUs share most features with the more powerful Athlon 64, including an integrated (on-die) memory controller, the HyperTransport link, and AMD's \"NX bit\" feature. In the second half of 2005, AMD added 64-bit support (AMD64) to the Sempron line. Some journalists (but not AMD) often refer to this revision of chips as \"Sempron 64\" to distinguish it from the previous revision. AMD's intent in releasing 64-bit entry-level processors was to extend the market for 64-bit processors, which at the time of Sempron 64's first release, was a niche market. In 2006, AMD announced the Socket AM2 and Socket S1 line of Sempron processors. These are functionally equivalent to the previous generation, except they have a dual-channel DDR2 SDRAM memory controller which replaces the single-channel DDR SDRAM version. The TDP of the standard version remains at 62 W (watts), while the new \"Energy Efficient Small Form Factor\" version has a reduced 35 W TDP. The Socket AM2 version also does not require a minimum voltage of 1.1 volts to operate, whereas all socket 754 Semprons with Cool'n'Quiet did. In 2006, AMD was selling both Socket 754 and Socket AM2 Sempron CPUs concurrently. In the middle of 2007 AMD appears to have dropped the 754 line and is shipping AM2 and S1 Semprons.", "AMD has released some Sempron processors without Cool'n'Quiet support. The following table describes those processors lacking Cool'n'Quiet." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origins of the Band.", "The Beginning (1971–1973).", "The Era of Their Greatest Success (1973–1980).", "Dissolution.", "Personnel.", "Timeline.", "Discography.", "LPs in English (UK and US releases)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "In 1970 the Hungarian \"Youth Magazine\" had assembled a super group based on the results of a reader poll; creating a fan's dream team of Hungarian popular musicians. The members of this ensemble were: Béla Radics (guitar), Zorán Sztevanovity (rhythm guitar), Károly Frenreisz (bass), Gábor Presser (organ), József Laux (drums), Ervin Fülöp (wind instruments), László Benkő (wind instruments), and János Kóbor (vocals). This was known as Supergroup I, but this line-up actually never performed together; dissolving before any live performances came to fruition. However, Frenreisz, Presser, and Laux from the supergroup decided to work together, and they formed Locomotiv GT with Frenreisz taking on the role of vocalist, and with new guitarist Tamás Barta, who had been part of \"Youth Magazine's\" next supergroup, in Budapest on April 6, 1971. József Laux and Gábor Presser had been members of Omega (which also featured Benkő and Kóbor from the original supergroup) up until this point; and consequently left Omega in order to form Locomotiv GT. This ultimately split Omega's fan base; as Omega had been at the peak of their success, and in the forming of Locomotiv GT had now in effect became two distinct bands; with the ultimate consequence that personal relations between the members' of the two bands becoming strained. The lyrics of the LGT song \"Boldog vagyok\" (‘I’m Happy’) refers to this situation, to which Omega responded with the song \"Hűtlen Barátok\" (‘Disloyal Friends’). In addition to the connection with Omega, Frenreisz had built his reputation in the band Metró, and guitarist in the band Hungária.", "LGT’s first concert was held on the Park Stage in Buda in July 1971. In August, this was followed by their first single, with Frenreisz’s hit \"Boldog vagyok\" (‘I’m Happy’) on side A, and the Led Zeppelin –influenced Presser song \"Ha volna szíved\" (‘If You Had A Heart’) on side B. In October they performed together with the Tolcsvay Trió at the Horticultural College, in the opening of a club on the college premises. The song \"Ezüst nyár\" (‘Silver Summer’) gave them such popularity that they were invited to Japan, to perform at the World Popular Song Festival in Tokyo, where they performed one of Frenreisz’s songs, \"Érints meg\", in its English language version \"(Touch Me, Love Me, Rock Me)\", which was a huge success at the festival. They later re-recorded the original English version in Budapest for the A side of their second single under the title \"Érints meg\". In December 1971 they released their self-titled debut album \"Locomotiv GT\" but in the Hungarian music scene its style still counted as experimental, with influences from the British progressive rock scene, and with the abstract creations they didn’t have as much success at home as they did have abroad. In Western countries they were more popular, especially after an article that mentioned them in New Musical Express (“The new rock sensation could come from the East!”). What also contributed to their popularity abroad was the fact that Jack Bruce made an appearance on \"Locomotiv GT\", their first LP released in the UK and the US, playing harmonica. This LP was not the same as their eponymous LP in Hungary, but consisted of songs from all three Hungarian albums released up to that point. In May 1972 they were invited, as the only continental European band, to the Great Western Express Festival held near the ruins of Tupholme Abbey in Bardney, Lincolnshire, England, where they performed alongside bands and artists like Genesis, the Beach Boys, Joe Cocker and the Faces. In the autumn of 1972 they released their second album, \"Ringasd el magad\" (‘Rock Yourself’), arranged in Hungary and recorded in London. They also released a single, with Barta’s songs on both sides, \"Szeress nagyon\" (‘Love Me Much’) (with the B-side \"Csak egy szóra\" – ‘Just For A Word’). They also produced an album titled \"Álmodj velem\" (‘Dream with Me’) and three singles for the singer Sarolta Zalatnay, and four albums for Kati Kovács. In the meanwhile the idea came up that LGT, with their various experiences, could write the music for a musical based on Tibor Déry’s \"An Imaginary Report on an American Pop Festival.\" The band agreed to do this work, but Frenreisz, who didn’t want to work on the musical, left the group and founded his own band, Skorpió. He was replaced in LGT by Tamás Somló, who had graduated from a circus school, yet another former member of Omega as well as the band Non-Stop. The musical was a great success, and it was performed in five countries.", "The third album \"Bummm!\", was finished in 1973, its style being easier for the listeners to digest. With this album the band finally became a success in Hungary, too. The best known songs from the album are: \"Ringasd el magad\", \"Kék asszony\", \"Gyere, gyere ki a hegyoldalba\", \"Ő még csak most tizennégy\", \"Vallomás\", \"Miénk itt a tér\". In 1973 the band again travelled to Great Britain, where they were seen on the TV and played some concerts and recorded some songs. In 1974, \"Locomotiv GT (ABC-Dunhill Records 811)\" was released, with a three-month tour in the USA that year. Locomotiv GT was invited to play the Ozark Music Festival (Sedalia, MO) on July 19, 1974 in the place of a band that couldn't make the festival. Jimmy Miller, the Rolling Stones record producer, worked with them on this English language album. The album was completed, however it remained unreleased because the band returned to Hungary and the ABC label decided not to put it out. Most of the material was remixed later and released in Hungary exclusively in 1988. The band returned to Hungary minus Tamás Barta who remained in the USA after the band's tour there, as he had decided that he wanted to pursue his career abroad. As a replacement, János Karácsony was brought in from the band Generál, and with his cooperation the fourth album was released in 1975. This album was called \"Mindig magasabbra\" (‘Ever Higher’). Besides the title song, the best known songs from this album are: \"Szólj rám, ha hangosan énekelek\", \"Neked írom a dalt\", \"Álomarcú lány\", \"Egy elfelejtett szó\". Between 1973 and 1976 the band also performed as the backing band for Kati Kovács, and they released the following four albums together: \"\", \"Rock and roller\", \"Közel a Naphoz\", \"Kati\". The most successful songs from this collaboration were \"Rock and Roller\" and \"Szólj rám, ha hangosan énekelek\". They were so successful that Kovács now became one of the best liked singers in Hungary. They even had a TV show together. LGT also wrote three albums for Zorán during this period. In 1976 the band created their next album, \"Locomotiv GT V.\", a double album, which was again banned in Hungary. It contained hits like mint \"A Kicsi, a Nagy, az Arthur és az Indián\", \"Ha a csend beszélni tudna\", \"Fiú\" and \"Mindenki\". Laux had departed the band by this time so as to move to the USA in order to become a record producer and engineer there. For a tour of the DDR, he was replaced on the drums by Gábor Németh from Skorpió, and then for a successful tour of Transylvania by the drummer Gábor Szekeres from the band Atlasz, until finally the band found a permanent replacement in the young János Solti from the band Generál, and now the band would be in full bloom during the following years. In 1977 the album \"Zene – Mindenki másképp csinálja\" was again a great success. They recorded lots of popular songs for TV use with film director Sándor Pál. Some of these songs were \"A Rádió\", \"Mindenki másképp csinálja\", Somló Tamás’s song \"Boogie a zongorán\", and \"Jóbarátok vagyunk\", which was performed together with the singers Zorán and Ferenc Demjén, and the song \"Egy elkésett dal\", written in honour of the then recently deceased actor Rudolf Somogyvári. The same year Gábor Presser – as the first representative of rock music – was awarded the Erkel Ferenc Prize, and during this period Zorán’s brother Dusán Sztevanovity began to gain an increasing role in writing lyrics for LGT. But besides their success, the four musicians in LGT experienced some setbacks, e.g. after their second tour in Romania they were banned in that country, and in addition, the band members were banned as individuals, so they had no right to enter that country. Also they were forbidden to perform in their own country. In 1978 they put together a double album of their best works, \"Aranyalbum 1971–76\", and they also recorded the album \"Mindenki\", which became famous for such songs as \"Hirdetés\", \"Nem adom fel\", \"Nézd, az őrült\" and \"Mindenféle emberek\". In 1979 they were only able to release a double single, but all four songs on it became well known and very popular. These songs were: \"Annyi mindent nem szerettem\", \"Pokolba már a szép szavakkal\", \"Miénk ez a cirkusz\", \"Veled, csak veled\". In 1980 they again released a double album, which was called \"Loksi\" (which, incidentally, is the band’s nickname). This was the first album for which the band received royalties: when 25 000 copies had been sold, each member of the band would receive 0,70 forints for each additional album that was sold. In 1983, they toured the UK, supporting 10 CC.", "On July 19, 2016, bassist/vocalist Tamás Somló died, aged 68, of cancer, leaving the band's future in doubt; and the following month, on August 6, 2016, founding drummer József Laux also died, aged 73. Therefore, on the 4th of September the remaining members of the band announced the dissolution of LGT.", "", "<div style=\"float:left;\">", "", "None of Locomotiv GT's Western European or American releases charted." ] }

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{ "title": [ "What is.", "Additional facts about the sets.", "is a standard inner model of ZFC.", "is absolute and minimal.", "L and large cardinals.", "can be well-ordered.", "has a reflection principle.", "The generalized continuum hypothesis holds in.", "Constructible sets are definable from the ordinals.", "Relative constructibility." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "can be thought of as being built in \"stages\" resembling the von Neumann universe,. The stages are indexed by ordinals. In von Neumann's universe, at a successor stage, one takes to be the set of \"all\" subsets of the previous stage,. By contrast, in Gödel's constructible universe, one uses \"only\" those subsets of the previous stage that are: By limiting oneself to sets defined only in terms of what has already been constructed, one ensures that the resulting sets will be constructed in a way that is independent of the peculiarities of the surrounding model of set theory and contained in any such model. Define L is defined by transfinite recursion as follows: If is an element of, then = | ∈ and ∈ } ∈ Def () =. So is a subset of, which is a subset of the power set of. Consequently, this is a tower of nested transitive sets. But itself is a proper class. The elements of are called \"constructible\" sets; and itself is the \"constructible universe\". The \"axiom of constructibility\", aka \" = \", says that every set (of ) is constructible, i.e. in.", "An equivalent definition for is: For any finite ordinal, the sets and are the same (whether equals or not), and thus = : their elements are exactly the hereditarily finite sets. Equality beyond this point does not hold. Even in models of ZFC in which equals, is a proper subset of, and thereafter is a proper subset of the power set of for all >. On the other hand, = does imply that equals if =, for example if is inaccessible. More generally, = implies = for all infinite cardinals. If is an infinite ordinal then there is a bijection between and, and the bijection is constructible. So these sets are equinumerous in any model of set theory that includes them. As defined above, Def() is the set of subsets of defined by Δ formulas (that is, formulas of set theory containing only bounded quantifiers) that use as parameters only and its elements. Another definition, due to Gödel, characterizes each as the intersection of the power set of with the closure of formula_6 under a collection of nine explicit functions, similar to Gödel operations. This definition makes no reference to definability. All arithmetical subsets of and relations on belong to (because the arithmetic definition gives one in ). Conversely, any subset of belonging to is arithmetical (because elements of can be coded by natural numbers in such a way that ∈ is definable, i.e., arithmetic). On the other hand, already contains certain non-arithmetical subsets of, such as the set of (natural numbers coding) true arithmetical statements (this can be defined from so it is in ). All hyperarithmetical subsets of and relations on belong to formula_7 (where formula_8 stands for the Church–Kleene ordinal), and conversely any subset of that belongs to formula_7 is hyperarithmetical.", "is a standard model, i.e. it is a transitive class and it uses the real element relationship, so it is well-founded. is an inner model, i.e. it contains all the ordinal numbers of and it has no \"extra\" sets beyond those in, but it might be a proper subclass of. is a model of ZFC, which means that it satisfies the following axioms: Notice that the proof that is a model of ZFC only requires that be a model of ZF, i.e. we do \"not\" assume that the axiom of choice holds in.", "If is any standard model of ZF sharing the same ordinals as, then the defined in is the same as the defined in. In particular, is the same in and, for any ordinal. And the same formulas and parameters in Def () produce the same constructible sets in. Furthermore, since is a subclass of and, similarly, is a subclass of, is the smallest class containing all the ordinals that is a standard model of ZF. Indeed, is the intersection of all such classes. If there is a \"set\" in that is a standard model of ZF, and the ordinal is the set of ordinals that occur in, then is the of. If there is a set that is a standard model of ZF, then the smallest such set is such a. This set is called the minimal model of ZFC. Using the downward Löwenheim–Skolem theorem, one can show that the minimal model (if it exists) is a countable set. Of course, any consistent theory must have a model, so even within the minimal model of set theory there are sets that are models of ZF (assuming ZF is consistent). However, those set models are non-standard. In particular, they do not use the normal element relation and they are not well founded. Because both the of and the of are the real and both the of and the of are the real, we get that = is true in and in any that is a model of ZF. However, = does not hold in any other standard model of ZF.", "Since Ord ⊂ ⊆, properties of ordinals that depend on the absence of a function or other structure (i.e. Π formulas) are preserved when going down from to. Hence initial ordinals of cardinals remain initial in. Regular ordinals remain regular in. Weak limit cardinals become strong limit cardinals in because the generalized continuum hypothesis holds in. Weakly inaccessible cardinals become strongly inaccessible. Weakly Mahlo cardinals become strongly Mahlo. And more generally, any large cardinal property weaker than 0 (see the list of large cardinal properties) will be retained in. However, 0 is false in even if true in. So all the large cardinals whose existence implies 0 cease to have those large cardinal properties, but retain the properties weaker than 0 which they also possess. For example, measurable cardinals cease to be measurable but remain Mahlo in. If 0 holds in, then there is a closed unbounded class of ordinals that are indiscernible in. While some of these are not even initial ordinals in, they have all the large cardinal properties weaker than 0 in. Furthermore, any strictly increasing class function from the class of indiscernibles to itself can be extended in a unique way to an elementary embedding of into. This gives a nice structure of repeating segments.", "There are various ways of well-ordering. Some of these involve the \"fine structure\" of, which was first described by Ronald Bjorn Jensen in his 1972 paper entitled \"The fine structure of the constructible hierarchy\". Instead of explaining the fine structure, we will give an outline of how could be well-ordered using only the definition given above. Suppose and are two different sets in and we wish to determine whether < or >. If first appears in and first appears in and is different from, then let < if and only if <. Henceforth, we suppose that =. The stage = Def () uses formulas with parameters from to define the sets and. If one discounts (for the moment) the parameters, the formulas can be given a standard Gödel numbering by the natural numbers. If is the formula with the smallest Gödel number that can be used to define, and is the formula with the smallest Gödel number that can be used to define, and is different from, then let < if and only if < in the Gödel numbering. Henceforth, we suppose that =. Suppose that uses parameters from. Suppose..., is the sequence of parameters that can be used with to define, and..., does the same for. Then let < if and only if either < or ( = and < ) or (z=w and = and < ) etc. This is called the reverse lexicographic ordering; if there are multiple sequences of parameters that define one of the sets, we choose the least one under this ordering. It being understood that each parameter's possible values are ordered according to the restriction of the ordering of to, so this definition involves transfinite recursion on. The well-ordering of the values of single parameters is provided by the inductive hypothesis of the transfinite induction. The values of -tuples of parameters are well-ordered by the product ordering. The formulas with parameters are well-ordered by the ordered sum (by Gödel numbers) of well-orderings. And is well-ordered by the ordered sum (indexed by ) of the orderings on. Notice that this well-ordering can be defined within itself by a formula of set theory with no parameters, only the free-variables and. And this formula gives the same truth value regardless of whether it is evaluated in,, or (some other standard model of ZF with the same ordinals) and we will suppose that the formula is false if either or is not in. It is well known that the axiom of choice is equivalent to the ability to well-order every set. Being able to well-order the proper class (as we have done here with ) is equivalent to the axiom of global choice, which is more powerful than the ordinary axiom of choice because it also covers proper classes of non-empty sets.", "Proving that the axiom of separation, axiom of replacement, and axiom of choice hold in requires (at least as shown above) the use of a reflection principle for. Here we describe such a principle. By induction on <, we can use ZF in to prove that for any ordinal, there is an ordinal > such that for any sentence (...,) with..., in and containing fewer than symbols (counting a constant symbol for an element of as one symbol) we get that (...,) holds in if and only if it holds in.", "Let formula_11, and let be any constructible subset of. Then there is some with formula_12, so for some formula and some formula_13 drawn from formula_14. By the downward Löwenheim–Skolem theorem and Mostowski collapse, there must be some transitive set containing formula_15 and some formula_16, and having the same first-order theory as formula_14 with the formula_16 substituted for the formula_13; and this will have the same cardinal as formula_15. Since formula_21 is true in formula_14, it is also true in, so formula_23 for some having the same cardinal as. And formula_24 because formula_14 and formula_26 have the same theory. So is in fact in formula_27. So all the constructible subsets of an infinite set have ranks with (at most) the same cardinal as the rank of ; it follows that if is the initial ordinal for, then formula_28 serves as the \"power set\" of within. Thus this \"power set\" formula_29. And this in turn means that the \"power set\" of has cardinal at most ||||. Assuming itself has cardinal, the \"power set\" must then have cardinal exactly. But this is precisely the generalized continuum hypothesis relativized to.", "There is a formula of set theory that expresses the idea that =. It has only free variables for and. Using this we can expand the definition of each constructible set. If ∈, then = | ∈ and (...,) holds in (,∈)} for some formula and some..., in. This is equivalent to saying that: for all, ∈ if and only if [there exists such that = and ∈ and (,...,)] where (...) is the result of restricting each quantifier in (...) to. Notice that each ∈ for some <. Combine formulas for the's with the formula for and apply existential quantifiers over the's outside and one gets a formula that defines the constructible set using only the ordinals that appear in expressions like = as parameters. Example: The set {5,} is constructible. It is the unique set that satisfies the formula: where formula_30 is short for: Actually, even this complex formula has been simplified from what the instructions given in the first paragraph would yield. But the point remains, there is a formula of set theory that is true only for the desired constructible set and that contains parameters only for ordinals.", "Sometimes it is desirable to find a model of set theory that is narrow like, but that includes or is influenced by a set that is not constructible. This gives rise to the concept of relative constructibility, of which there are two flavors, denoted () and []. The class () for a non-constructible set is the intersection of all classes that are standard models of set theory and contain and all the ordinals. () is defined by transfinite recursion as follows: If () contains a well-ordering of the transitive closure of }, then this can be extended to a well-ordering of (). Otherwise, the axiom of choice will fail in (). A common example is formula_33, the smallest model that contains all the real numbers, which is used extensively in modern descriptive set theory. The class [] is the class of sets whose construction is influenced by, where may be a (presumably non-constructible) set or a proper class. The definition of this class uses Def (), which is the same as Def () except instead of evaluating the truth of formulas in the model (,∈), one uses the model (,∈,) where is a unary predicate. The intended interpretation of () is ∈. Then the definition of [] is exactly that of only with Def replaced by Def. [] is always a model of the axiom of choice. Even if is a set, is not necessarily itself a member of [], although it always is if is a set of ordinals. The sets in () or [] are usually not actually constructible, and the properties of these models may be quite different from the properties of itself." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and career.", "1943-1962: Early life.", "1962-1966: Early career.", "1966-1968: Cream.", "1970s: Post-Cream.", "1980s.", "1990s.", "2000s.", "2010s.", "Personal life.", "Death.", "Influence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Bruce was born on 14 May 1943 in Bishopbriggs, Lanarkshire, Scotland, to Betty (Asher) and Charlie Bruce, musical parents who moved frequently, resulting in the young Bruce attending 14 different schools, ending up at Bellahouston Academy. He began playing jazz bass in his teens and won a scholarship to study cello and musical composition at the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama while playing in Jim McHarg's Scotsville Jazzband to support himself.", "After leaving school he toured Italy, playing double bass with the Murray Campbell Big Band. In 1962 Bruce became a member of the London-based band Blues Incorporated, led by Alexis Korner, in which he played the upright bass. The band also included organist Graham Bond, saxophonist Dick Heckstall-Smith and drummer Ginger Baker. In 1963 the group broke up, and Bruce went on to form the Graham Bond Quartet with Bond, Baker and guitarist John McLaughlin. They played an eclectic range of music genres, including bebop, blues and rhythm and blues. As a result of session work, Bruce switched from the upright bass to the electric bass guitar. The move to electric bass happened as McLaughlin was dropped from the band; he was replaced by Heckstall-Smith on saxophone, and the band pursued a more concise R&B sound and changed their name to the Graham Bond Organisation. The group released two studio albums and several singles but were not commercially successful. During the time that Bruce and Baker played with the Graham Bond Organisation, they were known for their hostility towards each other. There were numerous stories of the two sabotaging each other's equipment and fighting on stage. Relations grew so bad between the two that Bruce left the group in August 1965. After leaving, Bruce recorded a solo single, \"I'm Gettin Tired\", for Polydor Records. He joined John Mayall and his Bluesbreakers group, which featured guitarist Eric Clapton. Bruce's stay was brief, and he did not contribute to any releases at the time, but recordings featuring him were later released, initially on \"Looking Back\" and \"Primal Solos\". After the Bluesbreakers, Bruce had his first commercial success as a member of Manfred Mann in 1966, including \"Pretty Flamingo\", which reached number one in the UK singles chart (one of two number one records of his career - the other being an uncredited bass part on The Scaffold's \"Lily the Pink\") as well as the freewheeling and groundbreaking jazz rock of \"Instrumental Asylum\". When interviewed on the edition of the VH1 show \"Classic Albums\" which featured \"Disraeli Gears\", Mayall said that Bruce had been lured away by the lucrative commercial success of Manfred Mann, while Mann himself recalled that Bruce played his first gig with the band without any rehearsal, playing the songs straight through without error, commenting that perhaps the chord changes seemed obvious to Bruce. While with Manfred Mann, Bruce again collaborated with Clapton as a member of Powerhouse, which also featured Spencer Davis Group vocalist Steve Winwood, credited as \"Steve Anglo\". Three tracks were featured on the Elektra sampler album \"What's Shakin'\". Two of the songs, \"Crossroads\" and \"Steppin' Out\", became staples in the live set of his next band, Cream.", "In July 1966 Bruce, Eric Clapton and Ginger Baker founded the power trio Cream, which gained international recognition playing blues-rock and jazz-inflected rock music. Bruce sang most of the lead vocals, with Clapton backing him up and eventually assuming some leads himself. With his Gibson EB-3 electric bass, Bruce became one of the most famous bassists in rock, winning musicians' polls and influencing the next generation of bassists such as Sting, Jim Shaw, Geddy Lee, Geezer Butler and Jeff Berlin. Bruce co-wrote most of Cream's single releases with lyricist Pete Brown, including the hits \"Sunshine of Your Love\", \"White Room\" and \"I Feel Free\". Cream broke up in 1968.", "Collaborative efforts with musicians, in many genres – hard rock, jazz, blues, R&B, fusion, avant-garde, world music, third stream classical – continued as a theme of Bruce's career. Alongside these he produced a long line of highly regarded solo albums. In contrast to his collaborative works, the solo albums usually maintain a common theme: melodic songs with a complex musical structure, songs with lyrics frequently penned by Pete Brown and a core band of world-class musicians. This structure was loosened on his live solo albums and DVDs, where extended improvisations similar to those employed by Cream in live performance were sometimes still used. In August 1968, before Cream officially disbanded, Bruce recorded a semi-acoustic free jazz album with John McLaughlin, Dick Heckstall-Smith and Jon Hiseman. This was issued in 1970 as Bruce's second solo album, \"Things We Like\". The album was a precursor to the jazz fusion boom in the early 1970s, and more recently has been sampled by hip hop artists including Artifacts and Smif-N-Wessun. Bruce's first solo release, \"Songs for a Tailor\", was issued in September 1969; it too featured Heckstall-Smith and Hiseman. It was a worldwide hit, but after a brief supporting tour backed by Larry Coryell and Mitch Mitchell, Bruce joined the jazz fusion group Lifetime, with drummer Tony Williams, guitarist McLaughlin, and organist Larry Young, for its second album, \"Turn It Over\" (1970). For the group's third album, \"Ego\" (1971), Ron Carter replaced Bruce on bass, but Bruce contributed a guest vocal. Bruce then recorded his third solo album \"Harmony Row\", but this was not as commercially successful as \"Songs for a Tailor\". The song \"The Consul at Sunset\" from \"Harmony Row\", which was inspired by the Malcolm Lowry novel \"Under the Volcano\", was released as a single in 1971 (Polydor 2058-153, b/w \"A Letter of Thanks\"), but did not chart. In 1972 Bruce formed a blues rock power trio, West, Bruce & Laing. Besides Bruce, the group included singer/guitarist Leslie West and drummer Corky Laing, both formerly of the Cream-influenced American band Mountain. West, Bruce & Laing produced two studio albums, \"Why Dontcha\" and \"Whatever Turns You On\", and one live album, \"Live 'n' Kickin'\". The band's breakup was announced shortly before \"Live 'n' Kickin\"s release in early 1974, and Bruce released his fourth solo album \"Out of the Storm\" later that year. Also in 1974 he featured on the title track of Frank Zappa's album \"Apostrophe (')\", recorded in November 1972. Bruce was credited with bass and co-authorship on the improvised track. When asked about Zappa in a 1992 interview, Bruce tried to change the subject and jokingly insisted that he had played only cello parts. Outtakes from the session were released on the archival release \"The Crux Of The Biscuit\" in 2016. In 1973 Bruce recorded bass guitar for Lou Reed's \"Berlin\" album, playing on all but two tracks. A 1975 tour was lined up to support the \"Out of the Storm\" album with a band featuring former Rolling Stones guitarist Mick Taylor and jazz keyboard player Carla Bley, with whom he had collaborated in 1971 on \"Escalator over the Hill\". The tour was belatedly documented on \"Live at Manchester Free Trade Hall '75\" (2003), but it ended with Taylor's departure, and sessions for a studio album were abandoned. During the next year, Bruce only resurfaced to play on Charlie Mariano's \"Helen 12 Trees\" album. In 1976, Bruce formed a new band (The Jack Bruce Band) with drummer Simon Phillips and keyboardist Tony Hymas. The group recorded an album, called \"How's Tricks\". A world tour followed, but the album was a commercial failure. The follow-up album, \"Jet Set Jewel\", was rejected at the time by Bruce's record label RSO as not being marketable, and RSO ultimately dropped Bruce from their roster. In 1979 he toured with members from the Mahavishnu Orchestra, reuniting him with John McLaughlin, and introducing him to drummer Billy Cobham. A 3-CD collection of his 1970s BBC recordings, entitled \"Spirit\", was released in 2008.", "By 1979, Bruce's drug habit had reached such a level that he had lost most of his money. Bruce contributed as a session musician to recordings by Cozy Powell, Gary Moore and Jon Anderson to raise money. By 1980 his career was back on track with his new band, Jack Bruce & Friends, consisting of drummer Billy Cobham, guitarist Clem Clempson and keyboardist/guitarist David Sancious. After releasing an album, \"I've Always Wanted to Do This\", at the end of 1980, they undertook a long tour to support the record, but it was not a commercial success and they disbanded. In the early 1980s, he also joined up to play with friends from his Alexis Korner days in Rocket 88, the back-to-the-roots band that Ian Stewart had arranged, and Bruce appears on the album of the same name, recorded live in Germany in 1980. They also recorded a \"live in the studio\" album called \"Blues & Boogie Explosion\" for the German audiophile record label Jeton. That year he also collaborated on the Soft Machine album \"Land of Cockayne\" (1981). In 1981, Bruce collaborated with guitarist Robin Trower and released two power trio albums, \"B.L.T.\" and \"Truce\", the first of which was a minor hit in the US. By 1983, Bruce was no longer contracted to a major record company and released his next solo album, \"Automatic\", on a minor German label, Intercord. A European tour followed to promote the album enlisting Bruce Gary from the Knack (who had also played in Bruce's 1975 band) on drums and Sancious from his 1980 band (Jack Bruce & Friends) on guitar and keyboards. In 1982, Bruce played with a short-lived ensemble \"A Gathering of Minds\", composed of Billy Cobham, Allan Holdsworth, Didier Lockwood and David Sancious at Montreux. In 1983, Bruce sang on tracks 5 and 6 of the Allan Holdsworth album \"Road Games\". In 1983, Bruce began working with the Latin/world music producer Kip Hanrahan, and released the collaborative albums \"Desire Develops an Edge\", \"Vertical's Currency\", \"A Few Short Notes from the End Run\", \"Exotica\" and \"All Roads Are Made of the Flesh\". They were all critically successful, and in 2001 he went on to form his own band using Hanrahan's famous Cuban rhythm section. Other than his partnership with lyricist Pete Brown, Bruce's musical relationship with Hanrahan was the most consistent and long-lasting of his career. In 1985, he sang lead and played blues harp on the song \"Silver Bullet\" with Anton Fier's Golden Palominos. It appears on the album \"Visions of Excess\". In 1986 he re-recorded the Cream song \"I Feel Free\" and released it as a single to support an advertising campaign for the Renault 21 motor car. In 1989, Bruce secured his first major record deal in a decade, with Epic, and recorded \"A Question of Time\". This included two tracks with Ginger Baker on drums, their first collaboration since Cream. Baker then joined Bruce's live band and toured the United States at the turn of the decade.", "Bruce played at the Montreux Jazz Festival in 1990, and was invited by the Irish blues rock performer Rory Gallagher (who had a long-standing relationship with Bruce, having supported Cream's farewell concert in the band Taste in 1968) to perform a couple of songs together on stage. In 1991 he was one of the supporting musicians for Vivian Stanshall's solo show \"Rawlinson Dog-ends\", but quit over a lack of adequate rehearsals. In 1993, a solo album, \"Somethin Els\", reunited him with Eric Clapton and brought belated, but widespread, critical acclaim. Later that year, Ginger Baker and a host of former Bruce band colleagues joined him for two special 50th birthdays concerts in Cologne, Germany, hosted by the TV show Rockpalast. Selections from these were released as the live double CD \"Cities of the Heart\", and much later as the DVD set \"Rockpalast: The 50th Birthdays Concerts\". One special guest was the Irish blues-rock guitarist Gary Moore, who joined Bruce and Baker for a set of Cream classics. Inspired by this performance, the three formed the power trio BBM and their subsequent (and only) album, \"Around the Next Dream\", was a top ten hit in the UK. However, the old arguments between Bruce and Baker arose again, and the subsequent tour was cut short and the band broke up. A low-key solo album, \"Monkjack\", followed in 1995, featuring Bruce on piano and vocals, accompanied only by the Funkadelic organist Bernie Worrell. Bruce then began work producing and arranging the soundtrack to the independently produced Scottish film \"The Slab Boys\", with; Lulu, Edwyn Collins, Eddi Reader and the Proclaimers. The soundtrack album appeared in 1997. In 1997 he returned to touring as a member of Ringo Starr's All-Starr Band, which also featured Peter Frampton on guitar. At the gig in Denver, Colorado, the band was joined onstage by Ginger Baker, and Bruce, Baker and Frampton played a short set of Cream classics. Bruce continued to tour with Starr through 2000.", "In 2001, Bruce reappeared with a band featuring Bernie Worrell, Vernon Reid of Living Colour on guitar and Kip Hanrahan's three-piece Latin rhythm section. Hanrahan also produced the accompanying album \"Shadows in the Air\", which included a reunion with Eric Clapton on a new version of \"Sunshine of Your Love\". The band released another Hanrahan produced studio album, \"More Jack than God\", in 2003, and a live DVD, \"Live at the Canterbury Fayre\". Bruce had suffered a period of declining health, after many years of addictions which he finally beat with clinical treatment, and in 2003 was diagnosed with liver cancer. In September 2003, he underwent a liver transplant, which was almost fatal, as his body initially rejected the new organ. He recovered, and in 2004 re-appeared to perform \"Sunshine of Your Love\" at a Rock Legends concert in Germany organised by the singer Mandoki. In May 2005, he reunited with former Cream bandmates Clapton and Baker for a series of well-received concerts at London's Royal Albert Hall, released as the album \"Royal Albert Hall London May 2-3-5-6, 2005\", and New York's Madison Square Garden. In between the UK and U.S. Cream dates, he also played live with Gary Moore and drummer Gary Husband at the Dick Heckstall-Smith tribute concert in London. Subsequent concert appearances by Bruce were sparse because of recovery after the transplant, but in 2006 he returned to the live arena with a show of Cream and solo classics performed with the German HR (Hessischer Rundfunk) Big Band. This was released on CD in Germany in 2007. In 2007, he made a brief concert appearance, opening a new rehearsal hall named in his honour at the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama, Glasgow with Clem Clempson, keyboard player Ronnie Leahy and Husband. In 2008, Bruce collaborated again with guitarist Robin Trower on the album \"Seven Moons\". It also featured Husband. In May 2008, Bruce was 65 years old and to commemorate this milestone two box sets of recordings were released. \"Spirit\" is a three-CD collection of Bruce's BBC recordings from the 1970s. \"Can You Follow?\" is a six-CD retrospective anthology released by the Esoteric label in the UK. This anthology is a wide-ranging collection covering his music from 1963 to 2003 and, aside from his work with Kip Hanrahan, is a comprehensive overview of his career. Improved health led to Bruce playing a series of live outdoor concerts across the US starting in July 2008 as part of the Hippiefest Tour. He was supported by members of the late Who bassist John Entwistle's the John Entwistle Band, and headlined at a tribute concert to the bassist. In November 2008, he recorded a concert in Birmingham, England for Radio Broadcast with the BBC Big Band, where he again played the Big Band arrangements of his classic songs. In December he was reunited with Ginger Baker at the drummer's Lifetime Achievement Award concert in London. They played jazz classics with saxophonist Courtney Pine and for the first time in 40 years played the Graham Bond–Cream classic \"Traintime\". The same month, Bruce, with guitarist Vernon Reid, drummer Cindy Blackman and organist John Medeski played a series of Blue Note Club tribute concerts to the Tony Williams Lifetime in Japan. These shows were broadcast in high definition on television in Japan. In 2009, Bruce performed in a series of concerts with Trower and Husband in Europe. Proposed dates in the U.S. in April were cancelled because of a further bout of ill health. Bruce recovered and the band played summer concerts in Italy, Norway and the UK during 2009. This promoted the release of the \"Seven Moons\" live CD and DVD, recorded in February during the European leg of the tour in Nijmegen, Netherlands. During the Scottish dates of the 2009 tour Bruce was presented with an Honorary Doctorate of Letters from Glasgow Caledonian University for services to the culture of Glasgow and music in general. In August 2009, the 1983 Bruce solo album \"Automatic\" was re-released, making his entire solo catalogue available on CD. In addition, all of the discs up to and including \"How's Tricks\" contain previously unreleased material. In October 2009, Bruce performed at the 50th anniversary of Ronnie Scott's Club with the Ronnie Scott's Blues Band.", "\"Jack Bruce - Composing Himself: The Authorized Biography\" by Harry Shapiro was released by Jawbone Press in February 2010. Shapiro had previously written biographies of Bruce collaborators Alexis Korner, Graham Bond and Eric Clapton. The book followed memoirs from his Cream bandmates Clapton (\"Clapton\", 2007) and Baker (\"Hellraiser\", 2009). His songwriting partner, Pete Brown's, biography \"White Rooms & Imaginary Westerns\" was published in September 2010. They each have differing recollections of forming Cream, playing and writing together. On 14 January, at the 2011 North American Music Merchants Show, Bruce became only the third recipient of the International Bassist Award, a lifetime achievement award for bassists, after Jaco Pastorius and Nathan Watts. His first independent CD release, \"Live at the Milky Way, Amsterdam 2001\", featuring The Cuicoland Express, his Latin-based band of the time, was issued in October 2010. The double album received an official worldwide release, distributed by EMI in February 2011. To support this release Bruce again played four dates in London at Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club with the Ronnie Scott's Blues Experience, followed by a further ten dates across the UK with the band. On 4 June 2011, Bruce played a special concert at the Royal Festival Hall in London, which was celebrating its 60th anniversary. The evening celebrated the 50th anniversary of the blues in Great Britain, and Bruce played with his Big Blues Band and special guest Joe Bonamassa. Bruce started 2012 playing the Gerry Rafferty tribute concert in Glasgow, followed by a date with the traditional Celtic band Lau. BBC Scotland recorded a one-hour special on Bruce, which also included a performance with Lau. The completed documentary \"Jack Bruce – The Man behind the Bass\" was transmitted in February 2012 by BBC Scotland. It featured new interviews with Bruce, Clapton, Baker and Brown. It was transmitted again on 9 November 2014 on BBC2 Scotland and on 17 November 2014 on BBC4 in the UK. February 2012 saw Bruce playing in Havana, Cuba, along with guitarist Phil Manzanera, supporting the mambo band of Augusto Enriquez. March saw another residency at Ronnie Scott's in London supported by his Big Blues Band, followed by a UK tour. The concert at the Stables, Milton Keynes on 18 March was due to be recorded as an Instant Live CD release, but technical issues prevented this. The following evenings' performance at the same location was recorded and a 2CD version issued by Instant Live. \"Spectrum Road\", a collaboration with Vernon Reid, Cindy Blackman and John Medeski in tribute to The Tony Williams Lifetime, was released in June 2012 by the US jazz record label Palmetto Records and was accompanied by a series of dates at large jazz festivals in North America and Europe throughout June and July. In March 2014, Bruce released \"Silver Rails\" on the Esoteric Antenna label, his first solo studio album in over a decade. \"Silver Rails\" was recorded at Abbey Road Studios in London, produced and mixed by Rob Cass and features contributions from Cream lyricist, Pete Brown, Kip Hanrahan and wife Margrit Seyffer as well as musicians Robin Trower, Cindy Blackman, Phil Manzanera, Uli Jon Roth, John Medeski and Bernie Marsden. The deluxe version of the album featured a behind the scenes documentary \"The Making of Silver Rails\" which was filmed on location at the studios and directed by Bruce's daughter Kyla Simone Bruce. Bruce's son Malcolm Bruce pre-produced the album and played guitar on several tracks, while Bruce's daughter Aruba Red was featured on \"Hidden Cities\" singing backing vocals.", "In 1964 Bruce married Janet Godfrey, who had been the secretary of the Graham Bond Organisation fan club and had collaborated with Bruce on two songs written for the group. The couple had two sons together, Jonas (Jo) Bruce, who grew up to play keyboards in his father's band and played with Afro Celt Sound System, and Malcolm Bruce, who grew up to play the guitar with his father and played with Ginger Baker's son, Kofi. Jonas died in 1997 from respiratory problems. In 1982 he married his second wife, Margrit Seyffer. With her he had two daughters, Natascha, known professionally as Aruba Red and Kyla, and a son Corin.", "Bruce died of liver disease on 25 October 2014, in Suffolk, England, aged 71. He was survived by his wife Margrit and four children. His funeral was held in London on 5 November 2014 and was attended by Clapton, Baker and noted musicians Phil Manzanera, Gary Brooker, Vernon Reid and Nitin Sawhney among others. Dozens assembled at the Golders Green Crematorium paying a last tribute singing \"Morning Has Broken\", \"Strawberry Fields Forever\" and \"Theme for an Imaginary Western\". Bruce's remains were later cremated and then buried at a private family ceremony on 31 December 2014 at the crematorium.", "Steve Anderson, writing in \"The Independent\" said: \"he became one of the most famous and influential bass players in rock.\" Eric Clapton posted on Facebook about Bruce \"He was a great musician and composer, and a tremendous inspiration to me\" and composed an acoustic song in his honour. Black Sabbath guitarist Tony Iommi said on Twitter that Bruce had been his favourite bass player, saying \"He was a hero to so many\" and Black Sabbath bassist Geezer Butler regarded him as his \"biggest influence and favourite bass player\". Rush bassist and singer Geddy Lee wrote: \"One of the greatest rock bassists to ever live and a true and profound inspiration to countless musicians. He was one of my first bass heroes and was a major influence on my playing and my music.\" Writing in \"The Sunday Times\" in 2008, Dan Cairns had suggested: \"many consider him to be one of the greatest bass players of all time.\" Writing in \"The Daily Telegraph\", Neil McCormick said, \"There was a time when Jack Bruce was synonymous with the bass guitar in rock history, when he was widely revered as the best there was on four strings.\" Roger Waters of Pink Floyd described Bruce as \"probably the most musically gifted bass player who's ever been.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Release history and track variations.", "Cover art.", "Track listing.", "\"A Saucerful of Secrets\".", "United States release." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "There are a few differences between the US and UK issues on the first disc of this compilation. In the US Harvest Records and its distributor Capitol Records reconstructed their edition from tapes that had been previously altered for the debut 1967 US album \"Pink Floyd\" (the original U.S. title for \"Piper\") and other recordings, which were cut from the UK version. As explained in a note on the back cover of the US edition of \"A Nice Pair\", songs dropped from the US 1967 \"Pink Floyd\" album, \"Flaming\", \"Astronomy Domine\" and \"Bike\", are restored for this re-issue. However, some of the restored songs appear in versions that are different from the UK \"Piper\" release: the eight-minute live \"Ummagumma\" recording of \"Astronomy Domine\" replaces the original four-minute studio recording; \"Interstellar Overdrive\" fades out slightly early (as it did on the US debut album) and adds a few seconds of silence before \"The Gnome\", rather than using a segue between these songs as found on the UK version; and \"Flaming\" is an alternate mix and edit which previously appeared on a US single, and the only track to appear on this album in mono. In later pressings, the correct stereo version of \"Flaming\" was restored, while the other songs continued to appear in the versions described here. The US version of this album was also released in Canada.", "The cover is by Hipgnosis, who designed many other Pink Floyd covers, and consists of four grids of nine small images including some proposed but previously unused album cover designs. Several images depict a well-known phrase or saying in the form of a visual pun; for instance, the centre right-hand panel on the front depicts \"a fork in the road\", while the bottom right represents \"a fine kettle of fish\". Another picture presents two puns on the album title: a nice pear, and an image of a woman's pair of breasts; the latter is censored with a black bar on some copies, while other US copies opted to cover it with a purple and white sticker over the shrink wrap. Initial copies had a picture of a Mr. W.R. Phang's dental surgery on the cover (a genuine business photographed in Hammersmith, west London), but Dr. Phang objected because NHS dentists were not permitted to advertise, and the picture was replaced with one of a gargling monk. US editions from the 1980s restored both the nudity and the W.R. Phang photo. The selection of band photos on the inside cover also varies, with some copies including a photo of a shirtless, disturbed-looking Syd Barrett from \"The Madcap Laughs\" cover photo session, while others replace it with a photo of a smiling Barrett sitting by a car. In South Africa, due to the apartheid regime, the cover art was also censored (i.e. monk photo instead of Dr. Phang photo), however the image of the breasts and the hand holding the pear was replaced with a completely different image of a young woman wearing a bra. The album was the band's next US release after \"The Dark Side of the Moon\", and introduced new fans to the earlier psychedelic sound of the Syd Barrett period of Pink Floyd, which contrasted greatly to the style of their more recent work. Following the worldwide re-issue of the original two albums on CD, including the original UK version of \"The Piper at the Gates of Dawn\", \"A Nice Pair\" is now out of print.", "All songs by Syd Barrett, except where noted.", "Cassette versions in the UK feature \"Piper\" on side one and \"Saucerful\" on side two. For the US versions, \"Bike\" was moved to the beginning of side two, due to the longer running length of \"Astronomy Domine\" on this version.<br>", "The US 8-track version alters the running order more radically." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins of Renaissance architecture.", "Birth of the Neo-Renaissance.", "Features of Renaissance Revival architecture.", "Combined historicism.", "Gothic influences on the Renaissance Revival.", "Baroque influences on the Renaissance Revival.", "Renaissance Revival interiors.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The origin of Renaissance architecture is generally accredited to Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446). Brunelleschi and his contemporaries wished to bring greater \"order\" to architecture, resulting in strong symmetry and careful proportion. The movement grew from scientific observations of nature, in particular human anatomy. Neo-Renaissance architecture is formed by not only the original Italian architecture but by the form in which Renaissance architecture developed in France during the 16th century. During the early years of the 16th century the French were involved in the Italian Wars, bringing back to France not just the Renaissance art treasures as their war booty, but also stylistic ideas. In the Loire valley a wave of chateau building was carried out using traditional French Gothic styles but with ornament in the forms of pediments, arcades, shallow pilasters and entablatures from the Italian Renaissance. In England, the Renaissance tended to manifest itself in large square tall houses such as Longleat House. Often these buildings had symmetrical towers which hint at the evolution from medieval fortified architecture. This is particularly evident at Hatfield House built between 1607 and 1611, where medieval towers jostle with a large Italian cupola. This is why so many buildings of the early English Neo-Renaissance style often have more of a \"castle air\" than their European contemporaries, which can add again to the confusion with the Gothic revival style.", "When the revival of Renaissance style architecture came \"en vogue\" in the mid 19th century, it often materialized not just in its original form first seen in Italy, but as a hybrid of all its forms according to the whims of architects and patrons, an approach typical of the mid and late 19th century. Modern scholarship defines the styles following the Renaissance as Mannerist and Baroque, two very different, even opposing styles of architecture, but the architects of the mid 19th century understood them as part of a continuum, often simply called 'Italian', and freely combined them all, as well as Renaissance as it was first practiced in other countries. Thus Italian, French and Flemish Renaissance coupled with the amount of borrowing from these later periods can cause great difficulty and argument in correctly identifying various forms of 19th-century architecture. Differentiating some forms of French Neo-Renaissance buildings from those of the Gothic revival can at times be especially tricky, as both styles were simultaneously popular during the 19th century. As a consequence, a self-consciously \"Neo-Renaissance\" manner first began to appear circa 1840. By 1890 this movement was already in decline. The Hague's Peace Palace completed in 1913, in a heavy French Neo-Renaissance manner was one of the last notable buildings in this style. Charles Barry introduced the Neo-Renaissance to England with his design of the Travellers Club, Pall Mall (1829–1832). Other early but typical, domestic examples of the Neo-Renaissance include Mentmore Towers and the Château de Ferrières, both designed in the 1850s by Joseph Paxton for members of the Rothschild banking family. The style is characterized by original Renaissance motifs, taken from such Quattrocento architects as Alberti. These motifs included rusticated masonry and quoins, windows framed by architraves and doors crowned by pediments and entablatures. If a building were of several floors, the uppermost floor usually had small square windows representing the minor mezzanine floor of the original Renaissance designs. However, the Neo-renaissance style later came to incorporate Romanesque and Baroque features not found in the original Renaissance architecture which was often more severe in its design. John Ruskin's panegyrics to architectural wonders of Venice and Florence in the 1850s contributed to shifting \"the attention of scholars and designers, with their awareness heightened by debate and restoration work\" from Late Neoclassicism and Gothic Revival to the Italian Renaissance. Like all architectural styles, the Neo-Renaissance did not appear overnight fully formed but evolved slowly. One of the very first signs of its emergence was the Würzburg Women's Prison, which was erected in 1809 designed by Peter Speeth. It included a heavily rusticated ground floor, alleviated by one semicircular arch, with a curious Egyptian style miniature portico above, high above this were a sequence of six tall arched windows and above these just beneath the slightly projecting roof were the small windows of the upper floor. This building foreshadows similar effects in the work of the American architect Henry Hobson Richardson whose work in the Neo-Renaissance style was popular in the USA during the 1880s. Richardson's style at the end or the revival era was a severe mix of both Romanesque and Renaissance features. This was exemplified by his \"Marshall Field Warehouse\" in Chicago (completed in 1887, now demolished). Neo-Renaissance was adopted early in Munich, often based directly on Italian Palazzi, first appearing in the Palais Leuchtenberg (1817–21), by Leo von Klenze, then adopted as a state style under the reign of Ludwig I of Bavaria for such landmarks as the Alte Pinakothek (1826–36), the Konigbau wing of the Munich Residenz (1825–35), and the Bavarian State Library (1831–43). While the beginning of Neo-Renaissance period can be defined by its simplicity and severity, what came later was far more ornate in its design. This period can be defined by some of the great opera houses of Europe, such as Gottfried Semper's Burgtheater in Vienna, and his Opera house in Dresden. This ornate form of the Neo-Renaissance, originating from France, is sometimes known as the \"Second Empire\" style, by now it also incorporated some Baroque elements. By 1875 it had become the accepted style in Europe for all public and bureaucratic buildings. In England, where Sir George Gilbert Scott designed the London Foreign Office in this style between 1860 and 1875, it also incorporated certain Palladian features. Starting with the orangery of Sanssouci (1851), \"the Neo-Renaissance became the obligatory style for university and public buildings, for banks and financial institutions, and for the urban villas\" in Germany. Among the most accomplished examples of the style were Villa Meyer in Dresden, Villa Haas in Hesse, Palais Borsig in Berlin, Villa Meissner in Leipzig; the German version of Neo-Renaissance culminated in such turgid projects as the Town Hall in Hamburg (1886–1897) and the Reichstag in Berlin (completed in 1894). In Austria, it was pioneered by such illustrious names as Rudolf Eitelberger, the founder of the Viennese College of Arts and Crafts (today the University of Applied Arts Vienna). The style found particular favour in Vienna, where whole streets and blocks were built in the so-called Neo-Renaissance style, in reality, a classicizing conglomeration of elements liberally borrowed from different historical periods. Neo-Renaissance was also the favourite style in Kingdom of Hungary in the 1870s and 1880s. In the fast-growing capital, Budapest many monumental public buildings were built in Neo-Renaissance style like Saint Stephen's Basilica and the Hungarian State Opera House. Andrássy Avenue is an outstanding ensemble of Neo-Renaissance townhouses from the last decades of the 19th century. The most famous Hungarian architect of the age, Miklós Ybl preferred Neo-Renaissance in his works. In Russia, the style was pioneered by Auguste de Montferrand in the (1835), the first in Saint Petersburg to take \"a story-by-story approach to façade ornamentation, in contrast to the classical method, where the façade was conceived as a unit\". Konstantin Thon, the most popular Russian architect of the time, used Italianate elements profusely for decorating some interiors of the Grand Kremlin Palace (1837–1851). Another fashionable architect, Andrei Stackenschneider, was responsible for Marie Palace (1839–1844), with \"the faceted rough-hewn stone of the first floor\" reminiscent of 16th-century Italian palazzi. The style was further elaborated by architects of the Vladimir Palace (1867–1872) and culminated in the Stieglitz Museum (1885–1896). In Moscow, the Neo-Renaissance was less prevalent than in the Northern capital, although interiors of the neo-Muscovite City Duma (1890–1892) were executed with emphasis on Florentine and Venetian décor. While the Neo-Renaissance is associated primarily with secular buildings, Princes Yusupov commissioned the interior of (1909–1916) near Moscow to be decorated in strict imitation of the 16th-century Venetian churches. The style spread to North America, where it became a favourite domestic architectural style of the wealthiest Americans. The Breakers in Newport, Rhode Island, was a residence of the Vanderbilt family designed by Richard Morris Hunt in 1892; it and contemporaneous Gilded Age mansions exemplify the ambitions of wealthy Americans in equaling and surpassing the ostentatious lifestyles of European aristocrats. During the latter half of the 19th century 5th Avenue in New York City was lined with \"Renaissance\" French chateaux and Italian palazzi, all designed in Neo-Renaissance styles. Most of these have since been demolished.", "One of the most widely copied features of Renaissance architecture were the great staircases from the chateaux of Blois and Chambord. Blois had been the favourite residence of the French Kings throughout the renaissance. The Francis I wing, completed in 1524, of which the staircase is an integral part was one of the earliest examples of French Renaissance. French renaissance architecture was a combination of the earlier Gothic style coupled with a strong Italian influence represented by arches, arcades, balustrading and, in general, a more flowing line of design than had been apparent in the earlier Gothic. The Chateau de Blois's triumphal staircase was imitated almost from the moment of its completion, and was certainly the predecessor of the \"double staircase\" (sometimes attributed to Leonardo da Vinci) at the Château de Chambord just a few years later. A Grand Staircase whether based on that of Blois, or the Villa Farnese was to become one of the features of Neo-Renaissance design. It became a common feature for the staircase to be not just a feature of the internal architecture but also the external. But whereas at Blois the stairs had been open to the elements in the 19th century new and innovative use of glass was able to give protection from the weather, giving the staircase the appearance of being in the true renaissance open style, when it was in fact a truly internal feature. Further and more adventurous use of glass also enabled the open and arcaded Renaissance courtyards to be reproduced as lofty halls with glazed roofs. This was a feature at Mentmore Towers and on a far larger scale at the Warsaw University of Technology, where the large glazed court contained a monumental staircase. The \"Warsaw University of Technology staircase\", though if Renaissance in spirit at all, is more in the lighter, more columned style of Ottaviano Nonni's (named il Mascherino) staircase designed for Pope Gregory XIII at Rome's Palazzo Quirinale in 1584, thus demonstrating that architects wherever their location were selecting their Neo-Renaissance styles regardless of geography", "", "Gothic influences on both period and revived Renaissance architecture are readily apparent, first as much building occurred during the period of transition from the Gothic to the Renaissance style; and also as Renaissance−era design took the form of the addition of Renaissance ornamentation to Gothic−era buildings thus creating an accretion of details from disparate sources. Architects who designed in the Renaissance Revival style usually avoided any references to Gothic Revival architecture, drawing instead on a variety of other classically based styles. However, there are exceptions and occasionally the two distinct styles are mixed. The sub-variety of Gothic design most frequently employed is floral Venetian Gothic, as seen in the Doge's Palace courtyard, built in the 1480s.", "A common Baroque feature introduced into the Renaissance Revival styles was the \"imperial staircase\" (a single straight flight dividing into two separate flights). The staircase at Mentmore Towers designed by Joseph Paxton, and the one at the Warsaw University of Technology designed by Bronisław Rogóyski and Stefan Szyller (late 19th century), both rise from pastiches of true Renaissance courtyards. Both staircases seem more akin to Balthasar Neumann's great Baroque staircase at the Würzburg Residenz than anything found in a true Renaissance Palazzo. The apparent Baroque style staircase at Mentmore is not without a Renaissance influence, its first flight is similar to \"The staircase of the Giants\" rises from the Doge's Palace Courtyard, designed when the Venetian Gothic was being uncomfortably merged with Renaissance style. Similarly to that at Mentmore, the Staircase of the Giant's terminates on to an arcaded loggia. Perhaps not ironically the Hall and Staircase at Mentmore were designed by Paxton to display furniture formerly housed in the Doge's Palace. Paris is home to many historicist buildings that partake equally from Renaissance and Baroque source material, such as the Opera Garnier. However, the Parisian Hôtel de Ville faithfully replicates the true French Renaissance style, complete with the steeply pitched roofs and towers, as it was a reconstruction, completed circa 1880, of the previous Hôtel de Ville. In the British Raj in 1880, the façades of the 1777 Writers' building in Kolkata were redesigned in the Renaissance Revival style then popular in colonial India, though this version was remarkable in its unique design. Loggias of Serlian arches deceptively form an almost Indian appearance, yet they sit beneath a mansard roof. In what at first glance appears an Indian building, on closer examination shows a Historicist example of Classical Palladianism combined with the French Renaissance, a uniquely distinctive interpretation of the Renaissance Revival style.", "As mentioned above, the Neo-Renaissance style was in reality an eclectic blending of past styles, which the architect selected on the whims of his patrons. In the true Renaissance era there was a division of labour between the architect, who designed the exterior highly visible shell, and others—the artisans—who decorated and arranged the interior. The original Italian mannerist house was a place for relaxation and entertaining, convenience and comfort of the interior being a priority; in the later Baroque designs, comfort and interior design were secondary to outward appearance. This was followed by the Neoclassical period, which gave importance to the proportions and dignity of interiors, but still lost the comfort and internal convenience of the mannerist period. It was during the Neo-Renaissance period of the 19th century that the mannerist comforts were re-discovered and taken a step further. Not only did the improved building techniques of the 1850s allow the glazing of formerly open loggias and arches with the newly invented sheets of plate glass, providing the first \"picture windows\", but also the blending of architectural styles allowed interiors and exteriors to be treated differently. It was at this time that the concept of \"furnishing styles\" manifested itself, allowing distinctions to be made between interior rooms and external appearances, and indeed between the various rooms themselves. Thus the modern concept of treating a room individually, and differently from its setting and neighbours, came into its infancy. Classic examples of this are the great Rothschild house in Buckinghamshire, hybrids of various Renaissance chateaux, and 16th century English country houses, all with interiors ranging from \"Versailles\" to \"Medici\", and in the case of Mentmore Towers a huge central hall, resembling the arcaded courtyard of a Renaissance villa, conveniently glazed over, furnished in Venetian style and heated by a fireplace designed by Rubens for his house in Antwerp", "By the beginning of the 20th century Neo-Renaissance was a commonplace sight on the main streets of thousands of towns, large and small around, the world. In southern Europe the Neo-Renaissance style began to fall from favour circa 1900. However, it was still extensively practiced in the 1910s in Saint Petersburg and Buenos Aires by such architects as Leon Benois, Marian Peretyatkovich, or Francisco Tamburini (). In England it was so common that today one finds \"Renaissance Italian Palazzi\" serving as banks or municipal buildings in the centres of even the smallest towns. It has been said \"\"It is a well-known fact that the nineteenth century had no art style of its own.\"\" While to an extent this may be true, the same could be said of most eras until the early 20th century, the Neo-Renaissance in the hands of provincial architects did develop into a style not always instantly recognisable as a derivative of the Renaissance. In this less obvious guise the Neo-Renaissance was to provide an important undercurrent in totalitarian architecture of various countries, notably in Stalinist architecture of the Soviet Union, as seen in some pavilions of the All-Soviet Exhibition Centre. Neo-Renaissance architecture, because of its diversity, is perhaps the only style of architecture to have existed in so many forms, yet still common to so many countries." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Processor cores.", "Katmai.", "Coppermine.", "Coppermine T.", "Tualatin.", "Pentium III's SSE implementation.", "Controversy about privacy issues.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Similarly to the Pentium II it superseded, the Pentium III was also accompanied by the Celeron brand for lower-end versions, and the Xeon for high-end (server and workstation) derivatives. The Pentium III was eventually superseded by the Pentium 4, but its Tualatin core also served as the basis for the Pentium M CPUs, which used many ideas from the P6 microarchitecture. Subsequently, it was the Pentium M microarchitecture of Pentium M branded CPUs, and not the NetBurst found in Pentium 4 processors, that formed the basis for Intel's energy-efficient Core microarchitecture of CPUs branded Core 2, Pentium Dual-Core, Celeron (Core), and Xeon.", "The first Pentium III variant was the \"Katmai\" (Intel product code 80525). It was a further development of the \"Deschutes\" Pentium II. The Pentium III saw an increase of 2 million transistors over the Pentium II. The differences were the addition of execution units and SSE instruction support, and an improved L1 cache controller (the L2 cache controller was left unchanged, as it would be completely redesigned for Coppermine anyway), which were responsible for the minor performance improvements over the \"Deschutes\" Pentium IIs. It was first released at speeds of 450 and 500 MHz in February 1999. Two more versions were released: 550 MHz on May 17, 1999 and 600 MHz on August 2, 1999. On September 27, 1999 Intel released the 533B and 600B running at 533 & 600 MHz respectively. The 'B' suffix indicated that it featured a 133 MHz FSB, instead of the 100 MHz FSB of previous models. The Katmai contains 9.5 million transistors, not including the 512 Kbytes L2 cache (which adds 25 million transistors), and has dimensions of 12.3 mm by 10.4 mm (128 mm). It is fabricated in Intel's P856.5 process, a 0.25 micrometre CMOS process with five levels of aluminum interconnect. The Katmai used the same slot-based design as the Pentium II but with the newer SECC2 cartridge that allowed direct CPU core contact with the heat sink. There have been some early models of the Pentium III with 450 and 500 MHz packaged in an older SECC cartridge intended for OEMs. A notable stepping for enthusiasts was SL35D. This version of Katmai was officially rated for 450 MHz, but often contained cache chips for the 600 MHz model and thus usually was capable of running at 600 MHz.", "The second version, codenamed Coppermine (Intel product code: 80526), was released on October 25, 1999, running at 500, 533, 550, 600, 650, 667, 700, and 733 MHz. From December 1999 to May 2000, Intel released Pentium IIIs running at speeds of 750, 800, 850, 866, 900, 933 and 1000 MHz (1 GHz). Both 100 MHz FSB and 133 MHz FSB models were made. For models that were already available with the same frequency, an \"E\" was appended to the model name to indicate cores using the new 0.18 μm fabrication process. An additional \"B\" was later appended to designate 133 MHz FSB models, resulting in an \"EB\" suffix. In terms of overall performance, the Coppermine held a slight advantage over the AMD Athlons it was released against, which was reversed when AMD applied their own die shrink and added an on-die L2 cache to the Athlon. Athlon held the advantage in floating-point intensive code, while the Coppermine could perform better when SSE optimizations were used, but in practical terms there was little difference in how the two chips performed, clock-for-clock. However, AMD were able to clock the Athlon higher, reaching speeds of 1.2 GHz before the launch of the Pentium 4. In terms of performance, Coppermine arguably marked a bigger step than Katmai by introducing an on-chip L2 cache (which Intel called \"Advanced Transfer Cache\", or \"ATC\"). The ATC operates at the core clock rate and has a capacity of 256 KB, twice that of the on-chip cache previously seen on Mendocino Celerons. It is eight-way set-associative and is accessed via a \"Double Quad Word Wide\" 256-bit bus, four times as wide as Katmai's. Furthermore, latency was dropped to a quarter compared to Katmai. Another marketing term by Intel was \"Advanced System Buffering\", which encompassed improvements to better take advantage of a 133 MHz system bus. These include 6 fill buffers (vs. 4 on Katmai), 8 bus queue entries (vs. 4 on Katmai) and 4 write-back buffers (vs. 1 on Katmai). Under competitive pressure from the AMD Athlon, Intel re-worked the internals, finally removing some well-known pipeline stalls. The result was that applications affected by these pipeline stalls ran faster on the Coppermine by up to 30%. The Coppermine contained 29 million transistors and was fabricated in a 0.18 μm process. Although its codename could give the impression that it used copper interconnects, its interconnects were in fact aluminium. The Coppermine was available in 370-pin FC-PGA or FC-PGA2 for use with Socket 370, or in SECC2 for Slot 1 (all speeds except 900 and 1100). FC-PGA and Slot 1 Coppermine CPUs have an exposed die, however most higher frequency SKUs starting with the 866 MHz model were also produced in FC-PGA2 variants that feature an integrated heat spreader (IHS). This in itself did not improve thermal conductivity, since it added another layer of metal and thermal paste between the die and the heatsink, but it greatly assisted in holding the heatsink flat against the die. Earlier Coppermines without the IHS made heatsink mounting challenging. If the heatsink was not situated flat against the die, heat transfer efficiency was greatly reduced. Some heatsink manufacturers began providing pads on their products, similar to what AMD did with the \"Thunderbird\" Athlon to ensure that the heatsink was mounted flatly. The enthusiast community went so far as to create shims to assist in maintaining a flat interface. A 1.13 GHz version (S-Spec SL4HH) was released in mid-2000 but famously recalled after a collaboration between HardOCP and Tom's Hardware discovered various instabilities with the operation of the new CPU speed grade. The Coppermine core was unable to reliably reach the 1.13 GHz speed without various tweaks to the processor's microcode, effective cooling, additional voltage (1.75 V vs. 1.65 V), and specifically validated platforms. Intel only officially supported the processor on its own VC820 i820-based motherboard, but even this motherboard displayed instability in the independent tests of the hardware review sites. In benchmarks that were stable, performance was shown to be sub-par, with the 1.13 GHz CPU equalling a 1.0 GHz model. Tom's Hardware attributed this performance deficit to relaxed tuning of the CPU and motherboard to improve stability. Intel needed at least six months to resolve the problems using a new cD0 stepping and re-released 1.1 GHz and 1.13 GHz versions in 2001. Microsoft's Xbox game console uses a variant of the Pentium III/Mobile Celeron family in a Micro-PGA2 form factor. The sSpec designator of the chips is SL5Sx, which makes it more similar to the Mobile Celeron Coppermine-128 processor. It shares with the Coppermine-128 Celeron its 128 KB L2 cache, and 180 nm process technology, but keeps the 8-way cache associativity from the Pentium III.", "This revision is an intermediate step between Coppermine and Tualatin, with support for lower-voltage system logic present on the latter but core power within previously defined voltage specs of the former so it could work in older system boards. Intel used the latest FC-PGA2 Coppermines with the cD0 stepping and modified them so that they worked with low voltage system bus operation at 1.25 V AGTL as well as normal 1.5 V AGTL+ signal levels, and would auto detect differential or single-ended clocking. This modification made them compatible to the latest generation Socket 370 boards supporting Tualatin CPUs while maintaining compatibility with older Socket 370 boards. The Coppermine-T also had two way symmetrical multiprocessing capabilities, but only in Tualatin boards. They can be distinguished from Tualatin processors by their part numbers, which include the digits \"80533\", e.g. the 1133 MHz SL5QK P/N is RK80533PZ006256, while the 1000 MHz SL5QJ P/N is RK80533PZ001256.", "The third revision, Tualatin (80530), was a trial for Intel's new 0.13 μm process. Tualatin-based Pentium IIIs were released during 2001 until early 2002 at speeds of 1.0, 1.13, 1.2, 1.26, 1.33 and 1.4 GHz. A basic shrink of Coppermine, no new features were added, except for added data prefetch logic similar to Pentium 4 and Athlon XP for potentially better use of the L2 cache, although its use compared to these newer CPUs is limited due to the relatively smaller FSB bandwidth (FSB was still kept at 133 MHz). Variants with 256 and 512 KB L2 cache were produced, the latter being dubbed Pentium III-S; this variant was mainly intended for low-power consumption servers and also exclusively featured SMP support within the Tualatin line. Although the Socket 370 designation was kept, the use of 1.25 AGTL signaling in place of 1.5V AGTL+ rendered previous motherboards incompatible. This confusion carried over to the chipset naming, where only the B-stepping of the i815 chipset was compatible with Tualatin processors. A new VRM guideline was also designed by Intel, version 8.5, which required finer voltage steps and debuted load line Vcore (in place of fixed voltage regardless of current on 8.4). Some motherboard manufacturers would mark the change with blue sockets (instead of white), and were often also backwards compatible with Coppermine CPUs. The Tualatin also formed the basis for the highly popular Pentium III-M mobile processor, which became Intel's front-line mobile chip (the Pentium 4 drew significantly more power, and so was not well-suited for this role) for the next two years. The chip offered a good balance between power consumption and performance, thus finding a place in both performance notebooks and the \"thin and light\" category. The Tualatin-based Pentium III performed well in some applications compared to the fastest Willamette-based Pentium 4, and even the Thunderbird-based Athlons. Despite this, its appeal was limited due to the aforementioned incompatibility with existing systems, and Intel's only officially supported chipset for Tualatins, the i815, could only handle 512 MB RAM and had slightly inferior performance because of a maximum in-order queue depth of 4, compared to 8 with the older, incompatible 440BX chipset. However, the enthusiast community found a way to run Tualatins on then-ubiquitous BX chipset based boards, although it was often a non-trivial task and required some degree of technical skills. Tualatin-based Pentium III CPUs can usually be visually distinguished from Coppermine-based processors by the metal integrated heat-spreader (IHS) fixed on top of the package. However, the very last models of Coppermine Pentium IIIs also featured the IHS — the integrated heat spreader is actually what distinguishes the FC-PGA2 package from the FC-PGA — both are for Socket 370 motherboards. Before the addition of the heat spreader, it was sometimes difficult to install a heatsink on a Pentium III. One had to be careful not to put force on the core at an angle because doing so would cause the edges and corners of the core to crack and could destroy the CPU. It was also sometimes difficult to achieve a flat mating of the CPU and heatsink surfaces, a factor of critical importance to good heat transfer. This became increasingly challenging with the Socket 370 CPUs, compared with their Slot 1 predecessors, because of the force required to mount a socket-based cooler and the narrower, 2-sided mounting mechanism (Slot 1 featured 4-point mounting). As such, and because the 0.13 μm Tualatin had an even smaller core surface area than the 0.18 μm Coppermine, Intel installed the metal heatspreader on Tualatin and all future desktop processors. The Tualatin core was named after the Tualatin Valley and Tualatin River in Oregon, where Intel has large manufacturing and design facilities.", "Since Katmai was built in the same 0.25 μm process as Pentium II \"Deschutes\", it had to implement SSE using as little silicon as possible. To achieve this goal, Intel implemented the 128-bit architecture by double-cycling the existing 64-bit data paths and by merging the SIMD-FP multiplier unit with the x87 scalar FPU multiplier into a single unit. To utilize the existing 64-bit data paths, Katmai issues each SIMD-FP instruction as two μops. To compensate partially for implementing only half of SSE's architectural width, Katmai implements the SIMD-FP adder as a separate unit on the second dispatch port. This organization allows one half of a SIMD multiply and one half of an independent SIMD add to be issued together bringing the peak throughput back to four floating point operations per cycle — at least for code with an even distribution of multiplies and adds. The issue was that Katmai's hardware-implementation contradicted the parallelism model implied by the SSE instruction-set. Programmers faced a code-scheduling dilemma: \"Should the SSE-code be tuned for Katmai's limited execution resources, or should it be tuned for a future processor with more resources?\" Katmai-specific SSE optimizations yielded the best possible performance from the Pentium III family but was suboptimal for Coppermine onwards as well as future Intel processors, such as the Pentium 4 and Core series.", "The Pentium III was the first x86 CPU to include a unique, retrievable, identification number, called PSN (Processor Serial Number). A Pentium III's PSN can be read by software through the CPUID instruction if this feature has not been disabled through the BIOS. On November 29, 1999, the Science and Technology Options Assessment (STOA) Panel of the European Parliament, following their report on electronic surveillance techniques asked parliamentary committee members to consider legal measures that would \"prevent these chips from being installed in the computers of European citizens.\" Intel eventually removed the PSN feature from Tualatin-based Pentium IIIs, and the feature was not present in Pentium 4 or Pentium M. A largely equivalent feature, the PPIN (Protected Processor Identification Number) was later added to x86 CPUs with little public notice, starting with Intel's Ivy Bridge architecture and compatible Zen 2 AMD CPUs. It is implemented as a set of model-specific registers and is useful for machine check exception handling.", "Intel datasheets" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Size and users.", "Usage in Spain.", "Evaluation and criticism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In February 2002, Larry Sanger wrote an e-mail stating that Bomis was considering selling advertisements. Edgar Enyedy, a user on the Spanish Wikipedia, criticized the proposal. Jimmy Wales and Sanger responded by saying that they did not immediately plan to implement advertisements, but Enyedy began establishing a fork. Enciclopedia Libre was established by February 26, 2002. Enyedy persuaded most of the Spanish Wikipedians into going to the fork. By the end of 2002 over 10,000 articles were posted on the new site, and the Spanish Wikipedia was inactive for the rest of the year. Andrew Lih wrote that \"for a long time it seemed that Spanish Wikipeda would be the unfortunate runt left from the Spanish fork.\" The general popularity of Wikipedia attracted new users to the Spanish Wikipedia who were unfamiliar with the fork and these users came by June 2003. By the end of that year the Wikipedia had over 10,000 articles. The size of the Spanish Wikipedia overtook that of the fork in the northern hemisphere fall of 2004. Lih stated in 2009 that the concepts of advertising and forking were still sensitive issues for the Wikipedia community because \"It took more than a year for the Spanish Wikipedia to get back on its feet again\" after the fork had been initiated. After the spin-off, the Spanish Wikipedia had very little activity until the upgrade to the Phase III of the software, later renamed MediaWiki, when the number of new users started to increase again. Both projects continue to co-exist, but the Spanish Wikipedia is by far the more active of the two.", "It has the second largest number of users, after the English Wikipedia. However, it is ranked eighth for number of articles, below other Wikipedias devoted to languages with smaller numbers of speakers, such as German, French, Cebuano, Dutch and Russian. In terms of quality, parameters such as article size (over 2 KB: 40%) show it as the second out of the ten largest Wikipedias after the German one. As of October 2012, Spanish Wikipedia is the fourth Wikipedia in terms of the number of edits, as well as the third Wikipedia by the number of page views. By country of origin, by September 2017, Spain was the main contributor to the Spanish Wikipedia (39.2% of edits). It is followed by Argentina (10.7%), Chile (8.8%), the Netherlands (8.4%), Mexico (7.0%), Venezuela (5.1%), Peru (3.5%), the United States (3.1%), Colombia (2.7%), Uruguay (1.3%) and Germany (1.1%). Note that a number of bots are hosted in the Netherlands. Among the countries where Spanish is an official language, Argentina, Chile, Mexico, Spain and Venezuela have established local chapters of the Wikimedia Foundation. In 2019 the Spanish Wikipedia has 400 thousand unique categories and 5.79% of them do not have appropriate page in the category. The average article in this language version has 6 categories, while number of unique categories per articles ratio is 0.263. The largest number of articles has People (16%) and Culture (12%) category. In Spanish Wikipedia articles related to Crime and Organizations has the highest average quality. Content about Philosophy is read more often and has the highest authors' interest on average. In March 2020 the Spanish Wikipedia contained 14.4 million references, wherein 0.95% of them had the DOI identifier and 4.53% of references contained the ISBN number. Total share of articles on the Spanish Wikipedia with at least one reference was 70.55%. At the time it had 15.29% and 3.6% of articles with at least 10 and 100 references respectively.", "Following a study by \"Netsuus\" (online market analysis enterprises) on the use of Wikipedia in Spain, it was revealed that most users consult Spanish Wikipedia (97%) compared to Wikipedias in other regional languages (2.17% for Wikipedia in Catalan, 0.64% in Galician and 0.26% in Basque).", "A comparative study by the \"\", made by Manuel Arias Maldonado (University of Malaga) and published in 2010, compared some articles with those of the English and German Wikipedias. It concluded that the Spanish version of Wikipedia was the least reliable of the three. It found it to be more cumbersome and imprecise than the German and English Wikipedias, stated that it often lacked reliable sources, including much unreferenced data, and found it to be too dependent on online references. During Wikimania 2009, free-software activist Richard Stallman criticized the Spanish Wikipedia for restricting links to the Rebelion.org left-wing web site and allegedly banning users who had complained about what had happened. Participants in the Spanish Wikipedia responded that Rebelion.org is primarily a news aggregator, that links to aggregators should be replaced with links to original publishers whenever possible, and that they considered the issue to be one of spam. According to a 2013 Oxford University study, five of the ten most disputed pages on the Spanish Wikipedia were football (soccer) clubs, including Club América, FC Barcelona, Athletic Bilbao, Alianza Lima, and Newell's Old Boys." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Origins and history.", "Styles of draping.", "Nivi style.", "Professional style of draping.", "Bangladesh.", "Sri Lanka.", "Nepal.", "Pakistan.", "Similarities with other Asian clothing.", "Ornamentation and decorative accessories.", "Sari outside the Indian subcontinent.", "Types.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The word \"sari\" described in Sanskrit शाटी which means'strip of cloth' and शाडी or साडी in Pali, and which evolved to in modern Indian languages. The word 'Sattika' is mentioned as describing women's attire in ancient India in Sanskrit literature and Buddhist literature called Jatakas. This could be equivalent to modern day 'Sari'. The term for female bodice, the \"choli\" evolved from ancient \"Stanapatta\". Rajatarangini (meaning the 'river of kings'), a tenth-century literary work by Kalhana, states that the \"choli\" from the Deccan was introduced under the royal order in Kashmir. The petticoat is called \"parkar\" (परकर) in Marathi, \"ulpavadai\" (உள்பாவாடை) in Tamil (\"pavada\" in other parts of South India:,, ) and \"shaya\" (সায়া) in Bengali and eastern India. Apart from the standard \"petticoat\", it may also be called \"inner skirt\" or an inskirt.", "History of sari-like drapery is traced back to the Indus Valley Civilisation, which flourished during 2800–1800 BCE around the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. Cotton was first cultivated and woven in Indian subcontinent around 5th millennium BCE. Dyes used during this period are still in use, particularly indigo, lac, red madder and turmeric. Silk was woven around 2450 BCE and 2000 BCE. The word'sari' evolved from'saatikaa' (sanskrit: शाटिका) mentioned in earliest Hindu literature as women's attire. The Sari or Sattika evolved from a \"three-piece\" ensemble comprising the \"Antriya\", the lower garment; the \"Uttariya\"; a veil worn over the shoulder or the head; and the \"Stanapatta\", a chestband. This ensemble is mentioned in Sanskrit literature and Buddhist Pali literature during the 6th century BCE. This complete three-piece dress was known as \"Poshak\", generic term for costume. Ancient Antriya closely resembled dothi wrap in the \"fishtail\" version which was passed through legs, covered the legs loosely and then flowed into a long, decorative pleats at front of the legs. It further evolved into \"Bhairnivasani\" skirt, today known as \"ghagri\" and \"lehenga\". Uttariya was a shawl-like veil worn over the shoulder or head, it evolved into what is known today known as dupatta and ghoonghat. Likewise, \"Stanapatta\" evolved into \"choli\" by 1st century CE. The ancient Sanskrit work, \"Kadambari\" by Banabhatta and ancient Tamil poetry, such as the \"Silappadhikaram\", describes women in exquisite drapery or sari. In ancient India, although women wore saris that bared the midriff, the Dharmasastra writers stated that women should be dressed such that the navel would never become visible. By which for some time the navel exposure became a taboo and the navel was concealed. In ancient Indian tradition and the Natya Shastra (an ancient Indian treatise describing ancient dance and costumes), the navel of the Supreme Being is considered to be the source of life and creativity, hence the midriff is to be left bare by the sari. It is generally accepted that wrapped sari-like garments for lower body and sometimes shawls or scarf like garment called 'uttariya' for upper body, have been worn by Indian women for a long time, and that they have been worn in their current form for hundreds of years. In ancient couture the lower garment was called 'nivi' or 'nivi bandha', while the upper body was mostly left bare. The works of Kalidasa mentions 'Kurpasika' a form of tight fitting breast band that simply covered the breasts. It was also sometimes referred to as 'Uttarasanga' or 'Stanapatta'. Poetic references from works like Silappadikaram indicate that during the Sangam period in ancient Tamil Nadu in southern India, a single piece of clothing served as both lower garment and head covering, leaving the midriff completely uncovered. Similar styles of the sari are recorded paintings by Raja Ravi Varma in Kerala. Numerous sources say that everyday costume in ancient India and till recent times in Kerala consisted of a pleated dhoti or (sarong) wrap, combined with a breast band called 'Kurpasika' or 'Stanapatta' and occasionally a wrap called 'Uttariya' that could at times be used to cover the upper body or head. The two-piece Kerala mundum neryathum (mundu, a dhoti or sarong, neryath, a shawl, in Malayalam) is a survival of ancient clothing styles. The one-piece sari in Kerala is derived from neighboring Tamil Nadu or Deccan during medieval period based on its appearance on various temple murals in medieval Kerala. Early Sanskrit literature has a wide vocabulary of terms for the veiling used by women, such as \"Avagunthana\" (oguntheti/oguṇthikā), meaning cloak-veil, \"Uttariya\" meaning shoulder-veil, \"Mukha-pata\" meaning face-veil and \"Sirovas-tra\" meaning head-veil. In the \"Pratimānātaka\", a play by Bhāsa describes in context of \"Avagunthana\" veil that \"\"ladies may be seen without any blame (for the parties concerned) in a religious session, in marriage festivities, during a calamity and in a forest\"\". The same sentiment is more generically expressed in later Sanskrit literature. Śūdraka, the author of Mṛcchakatika set in fifth century BCE says that the \"Avagaunthaha\" was not used by women everyday and at every time. He says that a married lady was expected to put on a veil while moving in the public. This may indicate that it was not necessary for unmarried females to put on a veil. This form of veiling by married women is still prevalent in Hindi-speaking areas, and is known as \"ghoonghat\" where the loose end of a sari is pulled over the head to act as a facial veil. Based on sculptures and paintings, tight bodices or \"cholis\" are believed have evolved between 2nd century BCE to 6th century CE in various regional styles. Early \"cholis\" were front covering tied at the back; this style was more common in parts of ancient northern India. This ancient form of bodice or choli are still common in the state of Rajasthan today. Varies styles of decorative traditional embroidery like gota patti, mochi, pakko, kharak, suf, kathi, phulkari and gamthi are done on \"cholis\". In Southern parts of India, choli is known as \"ravikie\" which is tied at the front instead of back, kasuti is traditional form of embroidery used for cholis in this region. In Nepal, choli is known as \"cholo\" or \"chaubandi cholo\" and is traditionally tied at the front. Red is most favored colour for wedding saris and are traditional garment choice for brides in Indian culture. Women traditionally wore various types of regional handloom saris made of silk, cotton, ikkat, block-print, embroidery and tie-dye textiles. Most sought after brocade silk saris are Banasari, Kanchipuram, Gadwal, Paithani, Mysore, Uppada, Bagalpuri, Balchuri, Maheshwari, Chanderi, Mekhela, Ghicha, Narayan pet and Eri etc. are traditionally worn for festive and formal occasions. Silk Ikat and cotton saris known as Patola, Pochampally, Bomkai, Khandua, Sambalpuri, Gadwal, Berhampuri, Bargarh, Jamdani, Tant, Mangalagiri, Guntur, Narayan pet, Chanderi, Maheshwari, Nuapatn, Tussar, Ilkal, Kotpad and Manipuri were worn for both festive and everyday attire. Tie-dyed and block-print saris known as Bandhani, Leheria/Leheriya, Bagru, Ajrakh, Sungudi, Kota Dabu/Dabu print, Bagh and Kalamkari were traditionally worn during monsoon season. Gota Patti is popular form of traditional embroidery used on saris for formal occasions, various other types of traditional folk embroidery such mochi, pakko, kharak, suf, kathi, phulkari and gamthi are also commonly used for both informal and formal occasion. Today, modern fabrics like polyester, georgette and charmeuse are also commonly used.", "There are more than 80 recorded ways to wear a sari. The most common style is for the sari to be wrapped around the waist, with the loose end of the drape to be worn over the shoulder, baring the midriff. However, the sari can be draped in several different styles, though some styles do require a sari of a particular length or form. Ṛta Kapur Chishti, a Sari historian and recognised textile scholar, has documented 108 ways of wearing a Sari in her book, ‘Saris: Tradition and Beyond’. The book documents the sari drapes across fourteen states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh. The French cultural anthropologist and sari researcher Chantal Boulanger categorised sari drapes in the following families:", "The Nivi drape was borne out of necessity to pander to Victorian sensibilities and is a vestige of the colonial past. Jnanadanandini Devi, sister-in-law of Rabindranath Tagore, crafted the Nivi drape and borrowed the blouse and petticoat as a means of fitting into a British dominated social structure while maintaining an Indian identity. The British attempted to formalize the complex Indian culture by fitting it into well-defined stereotypes. The sari did not fit into the ethos of the Victorian era, which prioritized modesty over freedom of movement. The British could not accept the fluidity of Indian culture and felt the need to impose their singular world-view through political and cultural hegemony. The nivi is today's most popular sari style from Deccan region. The increased interaction with the British saw most women from royal families come out of purdah in the 1900s. This necessitated a change of dress. Maharani Indira Devi of Cooch Behar popularised the chiffon sari. She was widowed early in life and followed the convention of abandoning her richly woven Baroda shalus in favour of the unadorned mourning white as per tradition. Characteristically, she transformed her \"mourning\" clothes into high fashion. She had saris woven in France to her personal specifications, in white chiffon, and introduced the silk chiffon sari to the royal fashion repertoire. The chiffon sari did what years of fashion interaction had not done in India. It homogenised fashion across this land. Its softness, lightness and beautiful, elegant, caressing drape was ideally suited to the Indian climate. Different courts adopted their own styles of draping and indigenising the sari. In most of the courts the sari was embellished with stitching hand-woven borders in gold from Varanasi, delicate zardozi work, gota, makaish and tilla work that embellished the plain fabric, simultaneously satisfying both traditional demands and ingrained love for ornamentation. Some images of maharanis in the Deccan show the women wearing a sleeveless, richly embellished waistcoat over their blouses. The Begum of Savanur remembers how sumptuous the chiffon sari became at their gatherings. At some courts, it was worn with jaali, or net kurtas and embossed silk waist length sadris or jackets. Some of them were so rich that the entire ground was embroidered over with pearls and zardozi. Nivi drape starts with one end of the sari tucked into the waistband of the petticoat, usually a plain skirt. The cloth is wrapped around the lower body once, then hand-gathered into even pleats below the navel. The pleats are tucked into the waistband of the petticoat. They create a graceful, decorative effect which poets have likened to the petals of a flower. After one more turn around the waist, the loose end is draped over the shoulder. The loose end is called the \"pallu\", \"pallav\", \"seragu\", or \"paita\" depending on the language. It is draped diagonally in front of the torso. It is worn across the right hip to over the left shoulder, partly baring the midriff. The navel can be revealed or concealed by the wearer by adjusting the \"pallu\", depending on the social setting. The long end of the \"pallu\" hanging from the back of the shoulder is often intricately decorated. The \"pallu\" may be hanging freely, tucked in at the waist, used to cover the head, or used to cover the neck, by draping it across the right shoulder as well. Some nivi styles are worn with the \"pallu\" draped from the back towards the front, coming from the back over the right shoulder with one corner tucked by the left hip, covering the torso/waist. The nivi sari was popularised through the paintings of Raja Ravi Varma. In one of his paintings, the Indian subcontinent was shown as a mother wearing a flowing nivi sari. The ornaments generally accepted by the Hindu culture that can be worn in the midriff region are the waist chains. They are considered to be a part of bridal jewellery.", "Because of the harsh extremes in temperature on the Indian Subcontinent, the sari fills a practical role as well as a decorative one. It is not only warming in winter and cooling in summer, but its loose-fitting tailoring is preferred by women who must be free to move as their duties require. For this reason, it is the Air India uniform for air hostesses. An air hostess style sari is draped in similar manner to a traditional sari, but most of the pleats are pinned to keep them in place. Saris are worn as uniforms by the female hotel staff of many five-star luxury hotels in India as the symbol of Indian culture. Similarly, the female politicians of India wear the sari in a professional manner. The women of Nehru–Gandhi family like Indira Gandhi and Sonia Gandhi wear the special blouse for the campaign trail which is longer than usual and is tucked in to prevent any midriff show while waving to the crowds. Stylist Prasad Bidapa has to say, \"I think Sonia Gandhi is the country's most stylish politician. But that's because she's inherited the best collection of saris from her mother-in-law. I'm also happy that she supports the Indian handloom industry with her selection.\" BJP politician Sushma Swaraj maintains her prim housewife look with a pinned-up \"pallu\" while general secretary of AIADMK Jayalalithaa wears her saris like a suit of armour.", "Shari () is the national wear of Bangladeshi women. Most women who are married wear sharee as their regular dress while young-unmarried girls wear sharee as an occasional dress. The \"shari\" is worn by women throughout Bangladesh. Sari is the most popular dress for women in Bangladesh, both for casual and formal occasion. Although Dhakai Jamdani (hand made shari) is worldwide known and most famous to all women who wear shari but there are also many variety of shari in Bangladesh. There are many regional variations of them in both silk and cotton. e.g.- Tanta/Tant cotton shari, Dhakai Banarasi sari, Rajshahi silk, Tangail Sari, Tant sari, Tassar silk shari, Manipuri shari and Katan shari are the most popular in Bangladesh. It is the uniform of the air hostesses of Biman Bangladesh Airlines.", "Sri Lankan women wear saris in many styles. Two ways of draping the sari are popular and tend to dominate: the Indian style (classic nivi drape) and the Kandyan style (or in Sinhala). The Kandyan style is generally more popular in the hill country region of Kandy from which the style gets its name. Though local preferences play a role, most women decide on style depending on personal preference or what is perceived to be most flattering for their figure. The traditional Kandyan (osaria) style consists of a full blouse which covers the midriff completely and is partially tucked in at the front. However, the modern intermingling of styles has led to most wearers baring the midriff. The final tail of the sari is neatly pleated rather than free-flowing. This is rather similar to the pleated rosette used in the Dravidian style noted earlier in the article. The Kandyan style is considered the national dress of Sinhalese women. It is the uniform of the air hostesses of SriLankan Airlines. During the 1960s, the mini sari known as 'hipster' sari created a wrinkle in Sri Lankan fashion, since it was worn below the navel and barely above the line of prosecution for indecent exposure. The conservative people described the 'hipster' as \"\"an absolute travesty of a beautiful costume almost a desecration\"\" and \"\"a hideous and purposeless garment\"\".", "The sari is the most commonly worn women's clothing in Nepal where a special style of sari draping is called \"haku patasihh\". The sari is draped around the waist and a shawl is worn covering the upper half of the sari, which is used in place of a \"pallu\".", "In Pakistan, the saris are still popular and worn on special occasions. The Shalwar kameez, however, is worn throughout the country on a daily basis. The sari nevertheless remains a popular garment among the middle and upper class for many formal functions. Saris can be seen worn commonly in metropolitan cities such as Karachi and Islamabad and are worn regularly for weddings and other business types of functions. Saris are also worn by many Muslim women in Sindh to show their status or to enhance their beauty.", "While the sari is typical to traditional wear for women in the Indian subcontinent, clothing worn by women in Southeast Asian countries like Myanmar, Malaysia, the Philippines, Cambodia, Thailand and Laos resemble it, where a long rectangular piece of cloth is draped around the body. These are different from the sari as they are wrapped around the lower-half of body as a skirt, worn with a shirt/blouse and resemble a sarong, as seen in the Burmese Longyi, Filipino Malong and Tapis, Laotian Xout lao and Suea pat, Thai Sbai and Sinh, Cambodian Sampot and Timorese Tais. Saris, worn predominantly in the Indian subcontinent are usually draped with one end of the cloth fastened around the waist, and the other end placed over the shoulder baring the midriff.", "Saris are woven with one plain end (the end that is concealed inside the wrap), two long decorative borders running the length of the sari, and a one to three-foot section at the other end which continues and elaborates the length-wise decoration. This end is called the \"pallu\"; it is the part thrown over the shoulder in the nivi style of draping. In past times, saris were woven of silk or cotton. The rich could afford finely woven, diaphanous silk saris that, according to folklore, could be passed through a finger ring. The poor wore coarsely woven cotton saris. All saris were handwoven and represented a considerable investment of time or money. Simple hand-woven villagers' saris are often decorated with checks or stripes woven into the cloth. Inexpensive saris were also decorated with block printing using carved wooden blocks and vegetable dyes, or tie-dyeing, known in India as \"bhandani\" work. More expensive saris had elaborate geometric, floral, or figurative ornaments or brocades created on the loom, as part of the fabric. Sometimes warp and weft threads were tie-dyed and then woven, creating \"ikat\" patterns. Sometimes threads of different colours were woven into the base fabric in patterns; an ornamented border, an elaborate \"pallu\", and often, small repeated accents in the cloth itself. These accents are called \"buttis\" or \"bhuttis\" (spellings vary). For fancy saris, these patterns could be woven with gold or silver thread, which is called \"zari\" work. Sometimes the saris were further decorated, after weaving, with various sorts of embroidery. \"Resham\" work is embroidery done with coloured silk thread. \"Zardozi\" embroidery uses gold and silver thread, and sometimes pearls and precious stones. Cheap modern versions of \"zardozi\" use synthetic metallic thread and imitation stones, such as fake pearls and Swarovski crystals. In modern times, saris are increasingly woven on mechanical looms and made of artificial fibres, such as polyester, nylon, or rayon, which do not require starching or ironing. They are printed by machine, or woven in simple patterns made with \"floats\" across the back of the sari. This can create an elaborate appearance on the front, while looking ugly on the back. The \"punchra\" work is imitated with inexpensive machine-made tassel trim. Fashion designer Aaditya Sharma declared, \"I can drape a sari in 54 different styles\". Hand-woven, hand-decorated saris are naturally much more expensive than the machine imitations. While the overall market for handweaving has plummeted (leading to much distress among Indian handweavers), hand-woven saris are still popular for weddings and other grand social occasions.", "The traditional sari made an impact in the United States during the 1970s. Eugene Novack who ran the New York store, Royal Saree House told that he had been selling it mainly to the Indian women in New York area but later many American business women and housewives became his customers who preferred their saris to resemble the full gown of the western world. He also said that men appeared intrigued by the fragility and the femininity it confers on the wearer. Newcomers to the sari report that it is comfortable to wear, requiring no girdles or stockings and that the flowing garb feels so feminine with unusual grace. The sari has gained its popularity internationally because of the growth of Indian fashion trends globally. Many Bollywood celebrities, like Aishwarya Rai, have worn it at international events representing the Indian culture. In 2010, Bollywood actress Deepika Padukone wanted to represent her country at an international event, wearing the national costume. On her very first red carpet appearance at the Cannes International Film Festival, she stepped out on the red carpet in a Rohit Bal sari. International celebrities have worn traditional sari attire designed by Indian fashion designers. Pamela Anderson made a surprise guest appearance on Bigg Boss, the Indian version of Big Brother, dressed in a sari that was specially designed for her by Mumbai-based fashion designer Ashley Rebello. Ashley Judd donned a purple sari at the YouthAIDS Benefit Gala in November 2007 at the Ritz Carlton in Mclean, Virginia. There was an Indian flavour to the red carpet at the annual Fashion Rocks concert in New York, with designer Rocky S walking the ramp along with Jessica, Ashley, Nicole, Kimberly and Melody – the Pussycat Dolls – dressed in saris. in 2014, American singer Selena Gomez was seen in a sari for an UNICEF charity event at Nepal. In the United States, the sari has recently became politicised with the digital-movement, \"Sari, Not Sorry\". Tanya Rawal-Jindia, a gender studies professor at University of California, Riverside, initiated this anti-xenophobia fashion-campaign on Instagram.", "While an international image of the modern style sari may have been popularised by airline stewardesses, each region in the Indian subcontinent has developed, over the centuries, its own unique sari style. Following are other well-known varieties, distinct on the basis of fabric, weaving style, or motif, in the Indian subcontinent:", "Bibliography" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Early career.", "Later career.", "Recognition.", "Musical collaborations and other work.", "Family and personal life.", "Other business activities.", "Solo discography.", "Collaboration." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Ian Anderson was born in Dunfermline, Fife, Scotland, the youngest of three brothers. His father, James Anderson, ran the RSA Boiler Fluid Company in East Port, Dunfermline. Anderson spent the first part of his childhood in Edinburgh. He was influenced by his father's big band and jazz records and the emergence of rock music, but was disenchanted with the \"show biz\" style of early American rock and roll stars like Elvis Presley. His family moved to Blackpool, Lancashire, England, in 1959, where he was educated at Blackpool Grammar School. In a 2011 interview, Anderson said he was asked to leave grammar school for refusing to submit to corporal punishment (permitted at that time). He studied fine art at Blackpool College of Art from 1964 to 1966 while living in Lytham St Annes.", "", "While a teenager, Anderson took a job as a sales assistant at Lewis's department store in Blackpool, then as a vendor on a news stand. In 1963, he formed The Blades from among school friends: Michael Stephens (guitar), John Evan (keyboards), Jeffrey Hammond (bass) and Barriemore Barlow (drums). This was a soul and blues band, with Anderson on vocals and harmonica – he had yet to take up the flute. They played their first show at the Holy Family Church Hall in North Shore. In late 1967, Anderson was still holding down a day job, namely cleaning the Ritz Cinema in Luton, including the toilets, in the mornings, \"which took me half the day\" he said in a later interview. He took an old, chipped urinal from the cinema storeroom and had it for a time after leaving the job. It was not, however, the urinal which \"was bolted to the side of John Evan's Hammond organ on stage\" and figured in early 1970s Tull performances. At this time Anderson abandoned his ambition to play electric guitar, allegedly because he felt he would never be \"as good as Eric Clapton\". As he himself tells it in the introduction to the video \"\", he traded his electric guitar in for a flute which, after some weeks of practice, he found he could play fairly well in a rock and blues style. According to the sleeve notes for the first Tull album, \"This Was\" (1968), he had been playing the flute only a few months when the album was recorded. His guitar practice did not go to waste either, as he continued to play acoustic guitar, using it as a melodic and rhythmic instrument. As his career progressed, he added soprano saxophone, mandolin, keyboards and other instruments to his arsenal. His tendency to stand on one leg while playing the flute came about by accident, as he had been inclined to stand on one leg while playing the harmonica, holding the microphone stand for balance. Anderson was known for his famous one-legged flute stance, and was once referred to as a \"deranged flamingo\". This stance is on many album covers of Jethro Tull. During a long stint at the Marquee Club, a journalist described him, wrongly, as standing on one leg to play the flute, when in fact he was originally playing the harmonica on one leg. He decided to live up to the reputation, albeit with some difficulty. His early attempts are visible in \"The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus\" (1968) film appearance of Jethro Tull. This was referenced in the facetious liner notes for \"Thick as a Brick\" in a quote about \"the one-legged pop flautist, Ian Anderson\".", "Anderson already wished to start a solo career in 1980, when Jethro Tull was going to take a break after John Glascock's death. He wrote the album \"A\" as a solo record, but Martin Barre and Dave Pegg's participation led the album to be released under the Jethro Tull name, causing the old band to split. His first official solo album was \"Walk into Light\", in 1983, in which Peter-John Vettese played an important role in the electronic direction of the music. In the 1990s he began working with simple bamboo flutes. He uses techniques such as over-blowing and hole-shading to produce note-slurring and other expressive techniques on this otherwise simple instrument. Anderson said that around this time his daughter began taking flute lessons and noticed his fingering was incorrect, prompting him to relearn the flute with the right fingering. In 1995, Anderson released his second solo album, \"\", an instrumental work composed of twelve flute-heavy pieces pursuing varied themes with an underlying motif. The album was recorded with Jethro Tull keyboard player Andrew Giddings and orchestral musicians. Anderson released two further song-based solo albums, \"The Secret Language of Birds\" in 2000 and \"Rupi's Dance\" in 2003. In 2003, Anderson recorded a composition called \"Griminelli's Lament\", in honour of his friend, the Italian flutist Andrea Griminelli. In 2011, with the end of Jethro Tull touring, and the question of his friend Derek Shulman (whatever happened to Gerald Bostock?), Anderson begun to produce a sequel to \"Thick as a Brick\" (1972), entitled \"Thick as a Brick 2\" or \"TAAB2\", was released on 3 April 2012. It is billed as being performed by Jethro Tull's Ian Anderson instead of being a Jethro Tull album proper. Anderson toured performing both albums in their entirety. A trailer for \"TAAB2\" was posted on YouTube. Anderson released a new album, \"Homo Erraticus\", in May 2014. He described it as a progressive rock concept album blending rock, folk, and metal music. Peaking at No. 14 in the UK Albums Chart it is his most successful ever solo album. In September 2017, Anderson announced plans for a tour to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of \"This Was\", and a new studio album in 2019. The band line-up includes Anderson, Hammond, Opahle, O'Hara, and Goodier (all musicians of Anderson's solo band since 2012), with Barre absent from the lineup. On 2 January 2018, Ian Anderson published a New Year post on jethrotull.com, including a picture of Anderson with the caption \"IA in the studio working on a new album for release March 2019. Shhhh; keep it a secret...\" On 1 June 2018, Parlophone Records released a new (50-track) career collection celebrating the Jethro Tull's 50th anniversary featuring all 21 Tull albums, named \"50 for 50\". In the notes of the \"50 for 50\" booklet it is said that the new album scheduled for 2019 will be a solo record by Ian Anderson and not a new album by Jethro Tull. Interviewed in October 2019, Anderson said he planned to finish the new album by February 2020 and to release it in September 2020.", "In 1973, Anderson appeared, along with several other artists, on the cover of \"Time\", for an article about new directions in early 1970s music. In recognition of his lifelong contribution to popular music, Anderson received two honours in 2006: the Ivor Novello Award for International Achievement and an honorary Doctorate of Literature at Heriot-Watt University, on 11 July 2006 Anderson was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2008 New Year Honours for services to music. He was awarded an Honorary Doctorate (Doctor of Letters) from Abertay University in July 2011. At the 2013 Progressive Music Awards, Anderson was presented with the \"Prog God\" award.", "Anderson produced Steeleye Span's 1974 album \"Now We Are Six\", as well as appearing on and producing Steeleye Span member Maddy Prior's first solo album \"Woman in the Wings\" (1978), for which Jethro Tull made most instrumental contributions. Anderson appeared as a guest on the song \"All Along You Knew\" from \"The Big Prize\" (1985), the second album by Canadian rock band Honeymoon Suite. This followed Jethro Tull's 1984 tour, on which Honeymoon Suite was one of the opening acts. Also in 1984, Anderson, along with Martin Barre, Dave Pegg and Peter-John Vettese recorded album \"A Classic Case\" with the London Symphony Orchestra, performing a selection of music from Jethro Tull. He was also a DJ on radio station Planet Rock, presenting his own two-hour show \"Under the Influence\". He also appeared on stage with Joe Bonamassa playing Jethro Tull song \"A New Day Yesterday\" at the Hammersmith Apollo in May 2010. Anderson plays flute on the Men Without Hats song \"On Tuesday\" from their album \"Pop Goes the World\" (1987), and on the Blackmore's Night song \"Play, Minstrel, Play\" from their debut album \"Shadow of the Moon\" (1997). Anderson plays flute on the 1998 Roy Harper album \"The Dream Society\". Anderson has acknowledged Harper as having a strong influence upon him. Anderson performs as a special guest on two Uriah Heep live albums: \"Acoustically Driven\" (2001) and \"Electrically Driven\" (2001), on both performing the same two songs of Uriah Heep repertoire: \"Circus\" and \"Blind Eye\". Anderson plays flute on the track \"Portmeirion\" on Fairport Convention's 2001 album \"XXXV\". Anderson has performed with Fairport Convention at their annual Cropredy Festival on several occasions since the mid-1980s, when their bass player Dave Pegg was also a member of Jethro Tull. Anderson played flute and sang lead vocals on a version of \"The Thin Ice\" for the 2005 album \"Back Against the Wall\", an all-star tribute album covering Pink Floyd's \"The Wall\" in its entirety. In April 2011, Anderson performed a flute duet with astronaut Cady Coleman, during her mission aboard the International Space Station, in honour of the 50th anniversary of the first manned spaceflight by Yuri Gagarin. Anderson played the flute on the track \"Cannonball\" by The Darkness on their 2012 album, \"Hot Cakes\". He played the flute on the track \"Cry to the World\" by Renaissance on their 2013 album, \"Grandine il vento\". He also played the flute on \"The Ocean at the End\", the title track from The Tea Party's 2014 album. He contributed flute on the song \"Black Cherry Pie\", the third single from JEFF the Brotherhood's 2015 album, \"Wasted on the Dream\". On 24 March 2017 the studio album \"Jethro Tull – The String Quartets\" by Ian Anderson was released, featuring the Carducci String Quartet, conducted by John O'Hara. The official video for Marc Almond's song 'Lord of Misrule', taken from his 2020 album \"Chaos and a Dancing Star\" was released on YouTube on 29 November 2019, featuring Ian Anderson playing flute throughout.", "Anderson is the youngest of three brothers. The oldest of the three, Robin, became administrator of Scottish Ballet in 1973. From 1970 to 1974, Anderson was married to Jennie Franks, a photographer who is credited with some of the lyrics to the first couple of verses of the song \"Aqualung\". Anderson married Shona Learoyd in 1976, described by \"Rolling Stone\" magazine as a \"beautiful convent-educated daughter of a wealthy wool manufacturer\". She had studied ballet for 10 years, though when Anderson met her she was working as a press officer at Jethro Tull's record label at the time, Chrysalis Records. She later became involved with the band's on-stage special effects. The couple have lived in a 16th-century redbrick farmhouse on the Pophleys Estate in Radnage, England, in Kilmarie House on their Strathaird Estate on the Isle of Skye in Scotland, as well as a short time in Montreux, Switzerland. They currently live in Wiltshire, England, and have a house again in Switzerland, near Montreux. They have two children: James Duncan Anderson, also a musician; and Gael, who works in the film industry and is married to actor Andrew Lincoln, star of the US TV drama series \"The Walking Dead\". Anderson is a survivor of deep vein thrombosis, and has done several public service announcements to raise awareness of the disease. Among his interests, Anderson lists protecting wild cats, especially those that have been rescued from harsh captivity; cameras, chiefly Leicas; and Indian cuisine – he has written a beginner's guide, thus far published only on the internet. Anderson describes himself as being \"somewhere between deist and pantheist\" religiously, according to his foreword to the pamphlet for his 2006 St Brides charity concerts for the homeless. During a video interview for \"The Big Interview with Dan Rather\" in May 2020, Anderson said he was suffering from the incurable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) after being diagnosed a number of years previously. He went on to state his belief that a likely cause of this condition has been the use of on-stage smoke machines in live performances throughout his long career. Anderson continued medication to treat the condition, avoided areas of high pollution to avoid exacerbation of the disease, and practiced breathing exercises to keep his lungs fit, stating that COPD had otherwise not yet affected his day-to-day routine.", "Anderson has owned several salmon farms in the UK and Chile. His Strathaird concern, based on his estate on the Isle of Skye, operated until the late 1990s, when parts of it were sold off. Anderson is a director of four companies: Jethro Tull Production Limited, Calliandra Productions Limited, Ian Anderson Limited, and the Ian Anderson Group of Companies Limited.", "", "As guest" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background and release.", "Writing and production.", "Composition and lyrical interpretation.", "Critical reception.", "Chart performance.", "Music video.", "Development and reception.", "Synopsis.", "Live performances.", "Credits and personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "After a high-profile title role in the musical biopic \"Selena\" (1997), Lopez began developing her own career in music, later being signed to Work Records by Tommy Mottola. Her debut album entitled \"On the 6\" (1999) became an instant commercial success, and spawned the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 number one song \"If You Had My Love\". This led her to begin recording new material for her second album in April 2000. Initially, the album was to be called \"A Passionate Journey\". During this period, Lopez began to transition into a sex symbol and was nicknamed J.Lo by the public, which is known as a nickname and \"public persona\". Hence, she instead released an album entitled \"J.Lo\", which she credits as being more \"personal\" and \"romantic\" than \"On the 6\". \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" was globally premiered on November 16, 2000. The single began impacting US radio from mid-December. \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" was included on the sixth edition of the American \"Now That's What I Call Music!\" compilation album series, as well as Lopez's greatest hits album, \"Dance Again... the Hits\", which was released on July 24, 2012.", "In July 2000, Lawson came up with an idea for a song he thought would be ideal for Lopez. He recalled: \"I wrote and recorded a track which eventually turned out to be 'Love Don't Cost a Thing'. I called Damon up, and I played the track and sang the melody to him over the phone. We ended up collaborating on the song, with both of us writing parts of the melody and the lyric. I came up with the title, and he came up with the key line, 'Even if you were broke,' in the chorus. Three other writers, Georgette Franklin, Jeremy Munroe and Amil Harris, also contributed parts to the song.\" In August, after a demo for \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" had been recorded, Sharpe sent a CD of the song to Wake at his studio in New York. Wake, who loved the song, played it for Lopez, who also loved it. Not soon after, the master recording of \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" was cut at Sony Studios in New York City.", "\"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" is a pop and R&B song with a running time of three minutes and forty-two seconds (3:42). It was primarily produced by Ric Wake, with additional production from Cory Rooney and Richie Jones. Lopez recorded her vocals for the song with Dan Hetzel and Dave Scheyer at the Cove City Sound Studios in Glen Cove, New York, which were mixed by Jones and Hetzel. Later, the song was mastered by Ted Jensen at Sterling Sound in New York. According to MTV News, \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" carries on Lopez' exploration of love in her music from her first single, \"If You Had My Love\". Additionally, the track details the \"inner workings of love\". Lyrically, it is the \"tale of a materialistic relationship\" which is full of \"credit cards and lavish gifts\"; Lopez sings in the chorus: \"Think you gonna keep me iced, you don't/ Think I'm gonna spend your cash, I won't/ Even if you were broke/ My love don't cost a thing.\" She also states that she is \"not impressed\" by her lover's Mercedes-Benz because \"she's got her own\". It has been reported by multiple sources that the lyrical message of \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" was based around her two-year relationship with rapper Sean Combs, who allegedly \"showered\" her with expensive jewelry. Shortly after the month's release, they broke up. During their courtship, they were considered \"hip-hop's most prominent couple\". Cheryl Lu-Lien Tan of \"The Baltimore Sun\" speculated that materialism was the reason for their break-up, using Combs' signature hit \"It's All About the Benjamins\" vs. \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" as an example.", "\"Entertainment Weekly\"s Marc Weingarten noted the song to be a \"standard fare, booty thump funk, with a snapping snare and a female chorus of yes gals\" but praised its \"bold message\", \"'Love Don't Cost a Thing,' is a sharp rebuke to all of those male hip hoppers who kvetch about their women going for the bling bling\". Slant Magazine's Sal Cinquemani called the song a \"cheap carbon copy\" of producer Rodney Jerkins' \"style of frothy R&B.\" In a review of its parent album, a reviewer from the \"Toronto Star\" said Lopez is best on \"fun\" \"r 'n' b-ish, uptempo tracks\" such as \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" where \"the catchy hooks and thumping bass do most of the work.\" A writer from the website Crosswalk noted it to be a \"fun dance song\" and said, \"This song, with its addictive beat and familiar vocal riffs, has a bunch of young girls singing 'even if you were broke, my love don't cost a thing.'\" Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic called it \"ingratiating\", while Bill Lamb of About.com called it a \"frothy pop confection\" which he felt was \"strongly influenced by the hits of Destiny's Child\".", "\"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" experienced commercial success worldwide, and is considered one of Lopez' biggest hits; it was especially noted for its popularity on pop radio. For the week ending December 9, 2000, \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" made its debut at number 46 on the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100, winning the \"Hot Shot Debut\" of the week award. Its second week saw it climb eighteen positions to number 28, followed by a jump to number 22 the next week. Weeks later, \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" entered the chart's top ten, significantly jumping from number ten to four during the week ending January 27, 2001, as well as rising to number three on the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100 Airplay chart. Though the song began to fall on the Hot 100, it managed to peak at number one on the US \"Billboard\" Mainstream Top 40 Pop Songs chart. However, by the week ending February 24, 2001, \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" peaked at number three on the Hot 100 after slowly rising in the two weeks prior; it also peaked atop the Hot 100 Airplay Chart. Despite this, the song failed to reach the top of the Hot 100, and stalled at number three for a total of three weeks. Additionally, the song peaked at number nine on the \"Billboard\" Hot Dance Club Play chart. Apart from its domestic success, \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" topped numerous charts overseas, including Canada, where it became her second number one following \"If You Had My Love\". It debuted at number nine on the Swiss Singles Chart, and peaked at number two. It was given a Gold certification in Switzerland by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry, representing sales of more than 20,000 units. In Finland, it debuted at number one, before slowly descending on the charts. In the United Kingdom, the song topped the UK Singles Chart, becoming her first number one there. It was later certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry, which denotes sales of 200,000 copies. In Spain, \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" debuted at number one on January 13, 2001. It held this position for two more weeks, and remained in the top ten for a further six weeks. \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" also made its debut at number one in Italy, and spent seven weeks in the top ten of the Italian Singles Chart. The song also peaked atop the Romanian and Dutch singles charts. In Australia, \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" debuted and peaked on the ARIA Singles Chart at number four on January 28, 2001. By the end of 2001, it had been certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association, which certifies shipment of over 70,000 units. On January 14, the song debuted at number 37 in New Zealand, and peaked at number one seven weeks later on March 4, 2001, where it remained for two weeks. \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" placed No. 65 on About.com's \"Top 100 Best Pop Songs of 2001\" list. Additionally, it ranked No. 26 on \"Billboard\"s Year-End Hot 100 singles of 2001 chart.", "", "The music video for \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" was shot in Miami, Florida, with reshoots following her right ankle injury on the first day. It was directed by Paul Hunter, a frequent collaborator with Lopez, and choreographed by actor and dancer Darrin Dewitt Henson. On December 4, 2000, the making of the video was featured on MTV's \"Making the Video\". The video is famously known for having featured Cris Judd as her back-up dancer. Months after the music video, he would go on to become her second husband. The couple were said to have gotten close to each other during the video shoot, causing media speculation following her highly publicized split from Sean Combs. Following its release, the clip became an immediate hit on MTV's \"Total Request Live\", which screens popular music videos; it became the most-requested music video on the series at one stage. Throughout 2001, the music video for \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" became one of the most-watched clips on the music video programming channels MTV, BET, and VH1. In addition to this, the music video for \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" received two nominations at the 2001 MTV Video Music Awards: \"Best Female Video\" and \"Best Dance Video\". At the 2002 ALMA Awards, the clip was nominated for the ALMA People's Choice Award for Outstanding Music Video. John Mitchell of MTV News noted that the video continued Lopez's \"trend\" of \"flaunting her men in videos\". The music video has been included on Lopez's extended play/DVD, \"The Reel Me\" (2003), as well as her greatest hits, \"Dance Again... the Hits\" (2012).", "The music video opens with Lopez at her rich boyfriend's mansion. He calls her to inform her that he can't make their date, but has left her another golden bracelet. Strapped in jewelry, she angrily hangs up the phone and leaves. She gets in her Aston Martin convertible and begins driving down the highway. While driving, she throws a purse he gave her into the air. Lopez pulls over at a tropical beach and begins to strip all of her clothes and expensive jewelry off. She then pulls out a postcard he gave her; and the screen zooms into a dance break, where Lopez is backed by dancers on a tropical beach. Lopez rips up the card and frolics on the beach and in the water and before the video ends, Lopez stripping off her vest and remain bare.", "Lopez globally premiered the song on November 16, 2000, at the 7th MTV Europe Music Awards in Stockholm, Sweden. David Basham of MTV News noted that she arrived on-stage in \"fly girl fashion via a \"prop\" plane\". On January 12, 2001, she performed the song during an appearance on \"Top of the Pops\". That month, she also performed the song at the 2001 American Music Awards. In February 2001, Lopez performed \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" along with \"Play\" at a special \"Total Request Live\" event, CBS Sports Presents: MTV's TRL The Super Bowl Sunday, which occurred in Tampa, Florida at The NFL Experience theme park. Months later, the song was performed at the 2001 MTV Video Music Awards on September 6. From September 22–23, 2001, Lopez performed a set of two concerts in Puerto Rico, entitled Let's Get Loud. These served as the first concerts of her career, in which she was, \"flanked by a 10-piece orchestra, a five-person choir and 11 dancers.\" \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" was included on the concerts' set list. In December 2001, Lopez, Kid Rock and Ja Rule headlined a concert for the USO troops in a German military base. Lopez sang \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\", among other songs. On January 1, 2002, the concert aired as a special on the MTV Network hosted by Carson Daly, \"For the Troops: An MTV/USO Special\". Joe D'Angelo of MTV News noted that she wore \"a series of skimpy outfits despite chilly temperatures.\" In February 2010, she performed the song at the Sanremo Music Festival in Italy, along with multiple other hits. Soraya Roberts of the \"New York Daily News\" commented that her dance moves weren't \"highly complicated\" because she was restricted by a tight leather catsuit. On October 22, 2011, she performed \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" during a special concert which commemorated the 15th anniversary of the Mohegan Sun Arena. The song was included on the set list for her first world tour, 2012's Dance Again World Tour. Elise Vout of the Australian MTV News gave her performance of the song a positive review, \"Working her bodacious booty under the lavish firework and pyrotechnic display, she put Kim Kardashian and Nicki Minaj to shame as she performed 'Love Don’t Cost A Thing'.\" Lopez performed the track along with several other hits during a July 2013 concert in Hyde Park, London. In March 2014, she sang \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" during her concert at the Dubai World Cup. In June of that year, Lopez performed the song during a concert in The Bronx which marked fifteen years since the release of her first album \"On the 6\". Three months later, performed the song again at the 2014 Singapore Grand Prix, as part of a 90-minute set. At her \"The Best Is Yet To Come\" concert which took place on New Year's Eve 2014 in Caesars Palace, Lopez included \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" on her setlist. She later performed the song as part of her medley during the 2018 MTV Video Music Awards on August 20, 2018 at Radio City Music Hall in New York City. Elements of the song were featured in Lopez's performance during the Super Bowl LIV halftime show.", "Credits taken from the liner notes of \"J.Lo\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Composition and critical reception.", "Chart performance.", "Promotion.", "Music video.", "Live performances.", "Cover versions.", "Credits and personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "After a high-profile title role in the musical biopic \"Selena\" (1997), Lopez began developing her own career in music, later being signed to Work Records by Tommy Mottola. Her debut album \"On the 6\" (1999) became an instant commercial success, and spawned the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 number one song \"If You Had My Love\". This led her to begin recording new material for her second album in April 2000. Initially, the album was to be called \"A Passionate Journey\". During this period, Lopez began to transition into a sex symbol and was nicknamed J.Lo by the public, which is known as a nickname and \"public persona\". Hence, she instead released an album entitled \"J.Lo\", which she credits as being more \"personal\" and \"romantic\" than \"On the 6\". \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\", the album's lead single, was globally premiered on November 16, 2000.", "\"Play\" is a dance-pop song with a length of three minutes and thirty-three seconds (3:33). It was written by Anders Bagge, Arnthor Birgisson, and Cory Rooney, with production from the first two (collectively credited as Bag & Arnthor). Before she made her own debut as a recording artist, Christina Milian also co-wrote and performed background vocals on \"Play\". Lopez recorded her vocals for the song with Robert Williams at Murlyn Studios, Stockholm as well as the Sony Music Studios in New York City. It was later mastered by Ted Jensen. On the song, Lopez pleas with a nightclub DJ to \"play her favorite song\", containing lyrics such as, \"Play, come on DJ/ Play that song/ Play it all night long/ Just turn it up and turn me on\". It contains a \"shuffling\" electric guitar, as performed by Paul Pesco, over a \"whistling electronica dance beat.\" A writer from \"Telegram & Gazette\" noted the track to be \"Madonna-esque.\" AllMusic's MacKenzie Wilson said \"Play\" \"coincided with Lopez's funky style\". Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine commented that \"so many of the tracks\" on the album \"sound like they're straight out of 1986\". He then went on to opine that \"I'm Real\" or the \"funky\" \"Play\" would have made a \"brave\" choice for the album's lead single, instead of \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\". A writer from \"The Indianapolis Star\" dismissed the album and its sexual content, while also using the explicit \"Play\" as an example of it not being appropriate for Lopez's target audience, who are predominantly preteens. Jake Barnes of Yahoo! Music UK noted \"Play\" to resemble the music of Prince.", "\"Play\" experienced moderate commercial success. For the week of April 7, 2001, \"Play\" debuted at number 76 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, winning the \"Hot Shot Debut of the Week\" title. It also made its debut at number 69 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 Airplay Chart. The following week, it jumped to number 46 on the Hot 100 and number 47 on the Airplay chart. For the week of April 21, \"Play\" jumped to number 28 to both charts. The song peaked at number 18 on the Hot 100 for the week ending May 19, failing to break into the top ten. \"Play\" also proved to be one of her strongest radio hits, peaking at number seven on the Hot 100 Airplay chart. In addition, the single peaked at number six on the \"Billboard\" Pop 100 as well as two on the \"Billboard\" Hot Dance Club Play chart. In Canada, it peaked at number five on the Canadian Singles Chart. In the United Kingdom, \"Play\" saw its greatest success, debuting and peaking at number three on the UK Singles Chart on May 6, 2001 - for the week ending date May 12, 2001. It remained on the chart for a total of twelve weeks. On April 29, 2001, \"Play' debuted at number twenty one on the Australian Singles Chart on April 30, 2001 - for the week ending date May 6, 2001. It eventually peaked at number fourteen on the chart five weeks later. The Australian Recording Industry Association certified it Gold, marking sales of 35,000 units. In New Zealand, \"Play\" debuted at number forty-eight on the New Zealand Singles Chart on April 23, 2001. It became a top-ten hit there, peaking at number seven a month later. The song peaked at debuted at number eight in Italy on April 26, 2001. Elsewhere, it peaked at ten in Belgium, Finland, Ireland, Sweden and Switzerland.", "", "The mainly computer generated music video for \"Play\" was directed by Francis Lawrence. Set in a futuristic multi-level spaceship, the clip begins with Lopez strutting into the boarding area whilst the other passengers gaze at her in awe. The video then cuts to Lopez, now on the plane, relaxing with a pair of headphones on listening to music. Various shots showing the plane's exterior are intercut with these scenes of the singer. Lopez is then seen entering a room through sliding doors with a new outfit. The doors lead to a club filled with dancers. Intercut with these scenes are Lopez dancing solo on a platform, later joined by back-up dancers. Towards the music video's conclusion, Lopez asks the DJ (who takes the avatar of an iris) to play her favorite song. Its final shot depicts the plane flying towards the horizon. The music video, much like \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\", also features Cris Judd as a back-up dancer, who would later go on to become her second husband months later. According to the VH1 Top 20 Video Countdown, the entire video was computer-generated (apart from the principal actors and extras), and the project spent six weeks in post-production as a result.", "On January 12, 2001, Lopez performed \"Play\" along with \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" live during an appearance on \"Top of the Pops\". In February 2001, Lopez appeared as a featured performer at a special \"Total Request Live\" event, CBS Sports Presents: MTV's TRL The Super Bowl Sunday, which occurred in Tampa, Florida at The NFL Experience theme park. Songs such as \"Play\" and \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" were included on her setlist. From September 22–23, 2001, Lopez performed a set of two concerts in Puerto Rico, entitled Let's Get Loud. These served as the first concerts of her career, in which she was, \"flanked by a 10-piece orchestra, a five-person choir and 11 dancers.\" \"Play\" was included on the concerts' set list.", "In 2004, South Korean girl group Baby V.O.X. covered \"Play\" in Korean and English for their final album, \"Ride West\", with participation from Lopez.", "Credits adapted from the liner notes of \"J.Lo\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Banias.", "Dothan.", "Intel A100 Series.", "Core Solo and Core Duo." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Pentium M represented a new and radical departure for Intel, as it was not a low-power version of the desktop-oriented Pentium 4, but instead a heavily modified version of the Pentium III Tualatin design (itself based on the Pentium II core design, which in turn had been a heavily improved evolution of the Pentium Pro). It is optimized for power efficiency, a vital characteristic for extending notebook computer battery life. Running with very low average power consumption and much lower heat output than desktop processors, the Pentium M runs at a lower clock speed than the laptop version of the Pentium 4 (The Pentium 4-Mobile, or P4-M), but with similar performance - a 1.6 GHz Pentium M can typically attain or even surpass the performance of a 2.4 GHz Pentium 4-M. The Pentium M 740 has been tested to perform up to approximately 7,400 MIPS and 3.9 GFLOPS (using SSE2). The Pentium M coupled the execution core of the Pentium III with a Pentium 4 compatible bus interface, an improved instruction decoding/issuing front end, improved branch prediction, SSE2 support, and a much larger cache. The usually power-hungry secondary cache uses an access method which only switches on the portion being accessed. The main intention behind the large cache was to keep a decent-sized portion of it still available to the processor even when most of the L2 cache was switched off, but its size led to a welcome improvement in performance. Other power saving methods include dynamically variable clock frequency and core voltage, allowing the Pentium M to throttle clock speed when the system is idle in order to conserve energy, using the SpeedStep 3 technology (which has more sleep stages than previous versions of SpeedStep). With this technology, a 1.6 GHz Pentium M can effectively throttle to clock speeds of 600 MHz, 800 MHz, 1000 MHz, 1200 MHz, 1400 MHz and 1600 MHz; these intermediate clock states allow the CPU to better throttle clock speed to suit conditions. The power requirements of the Pentium M varies from 5 watts when idle to 27 watts at full load. This is useful to notebook manufacturers as it allows them to include the Pentium M into smaller notebooks. Although Intel marketed the Pentium M exclusively as a mobile product, motherboard manufacturers such as AOpen, DFI and MSI shipped Pentium M compatible boards designed non-mobile enthusiasts, HTPC, workstation and server applications. An adapter, the CT-479, was developed by ASUS to allow the use of Pentium M processors in selected ASUS motherboards designed for Socket 478 Pentium 4 processors. Shuttle Inc. offered packaged Pentium M desktops, marketed for low energy consumption and minimal cooling system noise. Pentium M processors are also of interest to embedded systems' manufacturers because the low power consumption of the Pentium M allows the design of fanless and miniaturized embedded PCs.", "As the M line was originally designed in Israel, the first Pentium M was identified by the codename Banias, named after an ancient site in the Golan Heights. The Intel Haifa team had previously been working on the memory controller for Timna, which was based on earlier P6 memory controller designs giving them detailed knowledge of P6 architecture which they used when Intel gave them a crash project to create a backup mobile CPU. Given the product code 80535, it initially had no model number suffix, but was later identified as the Pentium M 705. It was manufactured on a 130 nm process, was released at frequencies from 900 MHz to 1.7 GHz using a 400 MT/s FSB, and had 1 megabyte (MB) of Level 2 cache. The core average TDP (Thermal Design Power) is 24.5 watts. The Banias family processors internally support Physical Address Extension (PAE) but do not show the PAE support flag in their CPUID information; this causes some operating systems (primarily Linux distributions) to refuse to boot on such processors since PAE support is required in their kernels. Using the 'forcepae' linux boot option will allow linux to boot using PAE in these cases. The CPUID signature for a Banias is 0x69X.", "On September 17, 2003, Intel unveiled plans for releasing its then next-generation of Pentium M processors, codenamed \"Dothan\" by them. It was named after another ancient town in Israel, and it launched formally on May 10, 2004. Dothan Pentium M processors (product code 80536, CPUID 0x6DX) are among the first Intel processors to be identified using a \"processor number\" rather than a clockspeed rating; the initial Dothan versions with the 400Mhz Front-Side-Bus (FSB) are known as Pentium M 710 (1.4 GHz), 715 (1.5 GHz), 725 (1.6 GHz), 735 (1.7 GHz), 745 (1.8 GHz), 755 (2.0 GHz), and 765 (2.1 GHz). These initial Dothan models all have a TDP of 21 W and a 2 MB L2 cache. These 700 series Dothan Pentium M processors retain the same basic design as the original Banias Pentium M, but are manufactured on a 90 nm process, with twice the secondary cache. Die size, at 87 mm, remains in the same neighborhood as the original Pentium M, even though the 1000 series contains approximately 140 million transistors, most of which make up the 2 MB cache. TDP is also down to 21 watts with the 400 MT/s FSB (from 24.5 watts in Banias), though power use at lower clockspeeds has increased highly However, tests conducted by third party hardware review sites show that Banias and Dothan equipped notebooks have roughly equivalent battery life. Additionally third party hardware review sites have benchmarked the Dothan at approx 10-20% better performance than the Banias in most situations. Revisions of the Dothan core were released in the first quarter of 2005 with the Sonoma chipsets and supported a 533 MT/s FSB and XD (Intel's name for the NX bit); and the PAE support flag in the CPUID was enabled, unlike earlier Pentium Ms that showed PAE unavailable. These revised Dothan processors include the 730 (1.6 GHz), 740 (1.73 GHz), 750 (1.86 GHz), 760 (2.0 GHz), 770 (2.13 GHz) and 780 (2.26 GHz) and have a TDP of 27 W and a 2 MB L2 cache. In July 2005, Intel released the 780 (2.26 GHz) and the low-voltage 778 (1.60 GHz). The processor line had models running at clock speeds from 1.0 GHz to 2.26 GHz. The models with lower frequencies were either low voltage or ultra-low voltage CPUs designed for improved battery life and reduced heat output. The 718 (1.3 GHz), 738 (1.4 GHz), and 758 (1.5 GHz) models are low-voltage (1.116 V) with a TDP of 10 W, while the 723 (1.0 GHz), 733 (1.1 GHz), and 753 (1.2 GHz) models are ultra-low voltage (0.940 V) with a TDP of 5 W.", "An ultra low-power microprocessor based on the Dothan built on a 90 nm process with 512 KB L2 cache and 400 MT/s front side bus (FSB).", "The next generation of processors, codenamed Yonah, were based on the Enhanced Pentium M architecture, and released under the Intel Core brand, as Core Duo and Core Solo." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years.", "EMI.", "Later ownership." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In an interview for Jethro Tull's video \"20 Years of Jethro Tull\", released in 1988, Wright states \"\"Chrysalis Records\" might have come into being anyway, you never know what might have happened, but \"Chrysalis Records\" really came into being because Jethro Tull couldn't get a record deal and MGM couldn't even get their name right on the record\". This was after the single \"Sunshine Day/Aeroplane\" was incorrectly credited to \"Jethro Toe\". Chrysalis entered into a licensing deal with Chris Blackwell's Island Records for distribution, based on the success of bands like Jethro Tull, Ten Years After and Procol Harum, which were promoted by the label. Jethro Tull signed with Reprise Records in the United States, which led Chrysalis to an American distribution deal with Reprise's parent company, Warner Bros. Records. This lasted from 1972 until U.S. Chrysalis switched to independent distribution in 1976. PolyGram handled international distribution and Festival Records covered Australia and New Zealand. Towards the end of the 1970s, the label began to extend its range of music, incorporating acts from the Punk Rock scene such as Generation X. The Chrysalis offshoot 2 Tone Records brought in bands such as The Specials and The Selecter. In 1979 Chrysalis bought and distributed U.S. folk label Takoma Records, naming manager/producer Denny Bruce as president, who signed The Fabulous Thunderbirds and T-Bone Burnett. Jon Monday who was Vice President of Takoma Records prior to the acquisition continued as General Manager, later becoming Director of Marketing of Chrysalis Records. Chrysalis made history in 1979 by creating the first \"music video album\", a videocassette featuring a corresponding music video for each song on Blondie's \"Eat to the Beat\" album (released at the same time as the LP). In the 1980s, Chrysalis was at the forefront of the British New Romantic movement with bands such as Gen X, Ultravox, and Spandau Ballet. The 1980s proved to be the most successful time for the label, whose roster then included Billy Idol, Pat Benatar, Blondie and Huey Lewis and the News. Chrysalis also distributed Animal Records, the short-lived label founded by Blondie guitarist Chris Stein. In 1983 Daniel Glass moved to Chrysalis as Director of New Music Marketing, advancing later to Senior Vice President. In 1984 after the label re-established itself in New York, Eric Heckman, formally of Atlantic and Epic records promotion took over as Senior Director of Promotion and Marketing. During the next two years Chrysalis broke Huey Lewis and the News, Billy Idol and Spandau Ballet. Pat Benatar continued to find success on both traditional and dance charts.", "The Chrysalis Records label was sold 50% in 1990, then the remaining half in 1991 to Thorn EMI with catalogue and artists such as Starsailor being shifted to the main EMI imprints. Chrysalis Records folded into EMI subsidiary and flagship label EMI Records in 2005. In 2010, BMG Rights Management bought Chrysalis Music's assets. The British Chrysalis catalogue (minus Robbie Williams, whose catalogue stayed behind with Universal's Island Records) was put up for sale by Universal Music Group after its acquisition of EMI. In July 2013, Warner Music Group completed acquisition of Parlophone Label Group, which includes the British Chrysalis catalogue, for £487 million. When Universal Music Group purchased EMI in 2012 ownership of Chrysalis passed to UMG. In 2013 Warner Music Group acquired part of EMI from UMG, including the original UK Chrysalis Records Ltd with its catalogue of 130 artists. The American Chrysalis catalogue, including artists such as Blondie, Huey Lewis and The News, and Pat Benatar, was merged into EMI Records Group America, which was then merged into Capitol Music Group, parent of former sister label Capitol Records, and is currently distributed by that label. The Ramones US distribution catalogue was later acquired by another sister label of Capitol's, Geffen Records, with distribution by Universal Music Enterprises, but the British distribution of The Ramones Chrysalis catalogue remained with Parlophone.", "In May 2016, Blue Raincoat Music purchased Chrysalis Records Ltd and most of the British signed artist catalogue from Warner Music Group. Blue Raincoat founders Jeremy Lascelles and Robin Millar brought in Robert Devereux and Chrysalis co-founder Chris Wright to augment the team. The deal reunited Wright, who was named non-executive chairman of Chrysalis, with the company he set up 47 years previously. The catalogues of namely Spandau Ballet, The Proclaimers, Jethro Tull and The Ramones (only in the UK) stayed behind with Warner. The non-Ramones British Chrysalis reissues from Parlophone are distributed in the US by Rhino Entertainment. Besides its European catalogue, the Chrysalis deal also included the rights to Everything but the Girl, Suzi Quatro, Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel, Athlete, Fun Lovin' Criminals, Naked Eyes, Grant Lee Buffalo, The Swinging Blue Jeans, Lucinda Williams, Dario G, and Toumani Diabaté. In August 2019, Reservoir Media Management acquired Blue Raincoat Music." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Features and performance.", "Uses.", "In personal computers.", "Other devices." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The 80186 series was generally intended for embedded systems, as microcontrollers with external memory. Therefore, to reduce the number of integrated circuits required, it included features such as clock generator, interrupt controller, timers, wait state generator, DMA channels, and external chip select lines. The initial clock rate of the 80186 was 6 MHz, but due to more hardware available for the microcode to use, especially for address calculation, many individual instructions ran faster than on an 8086 at the same clock frequency. For instance, the common \"register+immediate\" addressing mode was significantly faster than on the 8086, especially when a memory location was both (one of the) operand(s) and the destination. Multiply and divide also showed great improvement being several times as fast as on the original 8086 and multi-bit shifts were done almost four times as quickly as in the 8086. A few new instructions were introduced with the 80186 (referred to as the 8086-2 instruction set in some datasheets): enter/leave (replacing several instructions when handling stack frames), pusha/popa (push/pop all general registers), bound (check array index against bounds), and ins/outs (input/output of string). A useful \"immediate\" mode was added for the push, imul, and multi-bit shift instructions. These instructions were also included in the contemporary 80286 and in successor chips. (The instruction set of the 80286 is superset of the 80186's, plus new instructions for Protected mode.) The (redesigned) CMOS version, 80C186, introduced DRAM refresh, a power-save mode, and a direct interface to the 8087 or 80187 floating point numeric coprocessor.", "", "The 80186 would have been a natural successor to the 8086 in personal computers. However, because its integrated hardware was incompatible with the hardware used in the original IBM PC, the 80286 was used as the successor instead in the IBM PC/AT. A few notable personal computers used the 80186: the Australian Dulmont Magnum laptop, one of the first laptops; the Wang Office Assistant, marketed as a PC-like stand-alone word processor; the Mindset; the Siemens (not 100% IBM PC compatible but using MS-DOS 2.11); the Compis (a Swedish school computer); the French SMT-Goupil G4; the RM Nimbus (a British school computer); the Unisys ICON (a Canadian school computer); ORB Computer by ABS; the HP 100LX, HP 200LX, HP 1000CX, and HP OmniGo 700LX; the Tandy 2000 desktop (a somewhat PC-compatible workstation with sharp graphics for its day); the Telex 1260 (a desktop PC-XT compatible); the ; the Nokia MikroMikko 2. Acorn created a plug-in for the BBC Master range of computers containing an 80186-10 with 512 KB of RAM, the BBC Master 512 system. In addition to the above examples of stand-alone implementations of the 80186 for personal computers, there was at least one example of an \"add-in\" accelerator card implementation: the Orchid Technology PC Turbo 186, released in 1985. It was intended for use with the original Intel 8088-based IBM PC (Model 5150).", "The Intel 80186 is intended to be embedded in electronic devices that are not primarily computers. For example: In May 2006, Intel announced that production of the 186 would cease at the end of September 2007. Pin- and instruction-compatible replacements might still be manufactured by various third party sources, and FPGA versions are publicly available." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "System of a Down.", "Scars on Broadway.", "Other projects.", "Personal life.", "Equipment." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "John Dolmayan was born in Beirut, Lebanon to Armenian parents. During the Lebanese Civil War, his family moved to California. Dolmayan first became interested in drums at the age of two. His father was a saxophone player and when his mother would take him to watch his father play, he would mimic his father's drummer. He learned to play the drums by putting on records and practicing for hours a day, and continued said practice for years. Dolmayan describes his musical style as one influenced by whatever he could get his hands on, including the jazz albums belonging to his father and the rock albums he shared with his friends. Dolmayan is a fan of The Who and cites Who drummer Keith Moon as his biggest influence. Other drummers that he cites as major influences include Led Zeppelin's John Bonham, Stewart Copeland from The Police, and Rush's Neil Peart.", "Dolmayan joined System of a Down in 1997 after their original drummer, Ontronik \"Andy\" Khachaturian, left the band due to a hand injury. Dolmayan recorded five albums with System of a Down: \"System of a Down\" (1998), \"Toxicity\" (2001), \"Steal This Album!\" (2002), \"Mezmerize\" (2005) and \"Hypnotize\" (2005). Dolmayan won \"DRUM! Magazine\"'s 2006 Drummer of the year and was the feature story in their March edition. The band went on hiatus in 2006, but reunited in 2010 to occasionally tour.", "After System of a Down went on hiatus in 2006 Dolmayan teamed up with Daron Malakian (System of a Down's guitarist/vocalist) to form a new band called Scars on Broadway, which recorded their eponymous debut album in 2007 and 2008. The album was released in the summer of 2008 and Dolmayan, Malakian, guitarist Franky Perez, bassist Dominic Cifarelli, and keyboardist Danny Shamoun performed concerts and prepared to embark on a tour in support of the album before Malakian suddenly cancelled the tour in October 2008. In August 2009, Dolmayan, Franky Perez, Danny Shamoun, and Dominic Cifarelli as Scars on Broadway traveled to Iraq for a USO tour across the U.S. army bases. Their setlist consisted of covers as well as a few Scars on Broadway songs. Scars on Broadway reunited with Malakian on May 2, 2010, and released a new single later that year. However, the project went dormant and Dolmayan was no longer involved when Malakian reformed the group in 2018.", "Dolmayan recorded drums for Killing Joke's 2003 self-titled album, (although the band ended up going with Dave Grohl's tracks) as well as Scum of the Earth's debut album, \"Blah...Blah...Blah...Love Songs for the New Millennium\". He also played drums on the Axis of Justice concert tour with various artists and on the Serj Tankian solo debut, \"Elect the Dead\". In June 2009, Dolmayan formed a new rock band called Indicator with three friends from Southern California, members of the recently disbanded punk rock band, if all else fails: Tom Capossela, Ryan Huber, and Ryan Murphy. The band played their first show at The Bitter End in San Diego on July 22, 2009, with Dolmayan's fellow Scars on Broadway member Franky Perez joining the band for a few songs. Their second and final show took place at a strip club in Las Vegas. The band wrote 10-12 songs from 2009 to 2010; live and acoustic demos exist of them all. The four remain in contact although it is uncertain whether the songs will ever be properly recorded. Dolmayan performed with System of a Down bandmates Daron Malakian and bassist Shavo Odadjian and Scars on Broadway guitarist Franky Perez for Odadjian's Halloween show. Dolmayan, Malakian, and Odadjian performed together again in November 2009 during a charity show for Deftones bassist Chi Cheng. Dolmayan has devoted much of his life to the comic book retail industry, including launching Torpedo Comics out of Nevada. Torpedo Comics has two brick and mortar stores in addition to a significant online presence. In 2009, John auditioned for The Smashing Pumpkins, in the absence of Jimmy Chamberlin. Dolmayan's cover project, These Grey Men, released their first single, a cover of Radiohead's \"Street Spirit,\" January 23, 2020. Avenged Sevenfold singer M. Shadows contributes vocals to the track; Tom Morello contributes the guitar solo at the song's close. The second single features System of a Down bandmate Serj Tankian in a cover of David Bowie's \"Starman\".", "Dolmayan is the brother-in-law of System of a Down bandmate, Serj Tankian. Their wives are sisters. Unlike the other System of a Down members, Dolmayan supports Donald Trump's presidency.", "John uses Tama drums and hardware, Paiste cymbals, Evans Drumheads, LP percussion and his signature Vic Firth drumsticks." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Scars on Broadway.", "Production credits." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Daron Vartan Malakian was born on July 18, 1975, in Hollywood, the only child to Vartan and Zepur Malakian. His parents are ethnic Armenian immigrants originally from Iraq. Vartan Malakian is a painter, dancer, and choreographer and Zepur Malakian is a sculptor who instructed college-level sculpture earlier in her career. At a very early age, Malakian got into heavy metal music; his distant cousin played him a Kiss record when he was four years old. Malakian started listening to Van Halen, Def Leppard, Black Sabbath, Iron Maiden, Judas Priest, Motörhead and Ozzy Osbourne among others. He always wanted to play the drums, but his parents got him a guitar instead because \"You can't turn the drums off.\" Daron first picked up a guitar at age 11, saying in an interview, \"For the first year and a half, I learned how to play by ear, and did alright. After a few years I gained a reputation as being a guitar player in high school. And by 16 or 17 I actually realized it was a good songwriting instrument, and, over anything, that's what I feel like. I don't pretend to be Mr. Guitar Virtuoso.\" During his teens Malakian listened to thrash metal bands such as Slayer, Venom, Metallica, Pantera and Sepultura. Malakian then began listening to The Beatles and cites John Lennon as one of his biggest influences as a songwriter. He also cites other British Invasion bands such as The Kinks and The Who as major influences as well as folk-rock such as trio Peter, Paul and Mary and punk pioneer Iggy Pop. Daron went to Rose and Alex Pilibos Armenian School in the Los Feliz side of Hollywood, which his future bandmates Shavo Odadjian and Ontronik \"Andy\" Khachaturian (System of a Down's original drummer) also attended. System of a Down vocalist Serj Tankian attended the school as well, but he was many years above Malakian and the others. Malakian attended Glendale High School as a teenager. He is a lifelong fan of the Edmonton Oilers and has a large collection of Oilers-related memorabilia. Malakian met Serj Tankian in 1993, while they both shared the same rehearsal studio in different bands. Tankian was playing keyboard for a band, and Daron was playing guitar and singing for another band. They formed a jam band called Soil with bassist Dave Hakopyan and drummer Domingo Laraino. Shavo Odadjian then became their manager, and then rhythm guitarist. Soil broke up and Malakian, Tankian, and Odadjian (who switched to bass) formed a new band using the name “System of a Down”, based on a poem that Daron wrote. The poem's title was \"Victims of a Down\" but Odadjian thought \"system\" was a stronger word than \"victims.\" They then recruited drummer Andy Khachaturian, who was replaced by John Dolmayan in 1997. Malakian co-produced System of a Down's albums with Rick Rubin, as well as albums by The Ambulance and Bad Acid Trip (a band on fellow member Serj Tankian's Serjical Strike Records). In 2003, Malakian started his own label, EatUrMusic, on which Amen was the first signed band. The label is now inactive and its current status is unknown.", "In 2003, Daron Malakian (lead guitar and vocals), Greg Kelso (rhythm guitar), Casey Chaos (vocals), and Zach Hill (drums) recorded a demo tape entitled \"Ghetto Blaster Rehearsals\", credited to the name Scars on Broadway. However, in 2007, an official letter appeared on the band's website that stated that these tracks are not in any way affiliated with Malakian's later project Scars on Broadway. Incidentally, these demo sessions produced \"B.Y.O.B.\", which would be a major hit for System of a Down in 2005. Following System's hiatus, Malakian announced his latest project – Scars on Broadway – a band which would include System of a Down bassist, Shavo Odadjian, and himself. Ultimately, Odadjian was not involved with the band, and instead System of a Down drummer, John Dolmayan became a member. After Malakian and Dolmayan experimented with different musicians (for a period of nine months in 2007 – 2008) the band took form and forged its sound in intense rehearsals and recording sessions (under Malakian's direction at his home studio and Sunset Sound) with musicians Danny Shamoun on keyboards, Dominic Cifarelli on bass, and Franky Perez on guitar and backing vocals for live performances (in the studio Malakian played nearly all the instruments with the exception of drums which were played by Dolmayan and some overdubs provided by the other members). The group released an eponymous album in 2008, which featured the hit single \"They Say\" (written by Malakian). However, shortly before the tour supporting the album, Malakian cancelled all scheduled concert and TV appearances, blaming a lack of enthusiasm and that his \"heart wasn't into touring.\" This sudden cancellation prompted speculation and rumors that the band had broken up. It was the last that would be heard of Malakian for more than a year. Malakian stayed out of the public eye following his cancellation of the tour in support of Scars on Broadway's debut album in October 2008. In 2009 Malakian made a surprise appearance (his first in a year) at Shavo Odadjian's Halloween Party and played \"Suite-Pee,\" \"They Say\", and an unknown song with Odadjian, Dolmayan and Scars on Broadway's Franky Perez on guitar. It was the first time that the band members (minus Tankian, who was working on his second solo album) performed together in more than three years. In August 2009, Scars on Broadway, minus Malakian, traveled to Iraq for a USO tour across the U.S. army bases. Their setlist consisted of covers as well as a few Scars songs. Guitarist/vocalist Franky Perez stated on his Twitter that \"the Scars tunes sound amazing but they're not the same without D...\" He also stated before they left that Malakian had given them his blessing. In 2009 Franky Perez mentioned on his Twitter that he and the D-Man (Malakian) were going into studio to jam, this was the first news people have heard about Malakian's whereabouts for about a year. On November 20, 2009, Malakian played at the Chi Cheng Benefit concert along with Deftones, and also performed with Odadjian and Dolmayan. Malakian, Odadjian, and Dolmayan played \"Aerials\" and \"Toxicity\". He appeared on Cypress Hill's 2010 album \"Rise Up,\" on one song, \"Trouble Seeker\", which he also produced. On May 2, 2010, Malakian reunited with Scars on Broadway at the Troubadour in West Hollywood. It was the first time he had performed with the band since October 2008. The group played songs from their album as well as new songs. Odadjian performed with the band for two songs, playing guitar. On August 20, 2010, Malakian played in Hollywood with Scars on Broadway. On November 29, 2010, it was announced that System of a Down would reunite for a European tour to take place in June 2011. They played at the Download Festival on June 11, 2011. Despite playing a number of reunion shows, the band had no plans to record new material. In October 2011, John Dolmayan expressed his interest in writing new material but cited that band members are all busy with their other projects (such as Daron's Scars on Broadway and Serj Tankian's solo efforts). On July 29, 2010, Scars on Broadway released their first new studio recording in exactly two years, a Malakian-penned song called \"Fucking.\" On February 24, 2012, System of a Down announced that the Scars on Broadway website was back online featuring a preview of a new song called \"Guns Are Loaded\". In 2014, he appeared on Linkin Park's sixth studio album \"The Hunting Party\", for which he provided additional guitars for the promotional single \"Rebellion\". The promotional single was self-produced by Mike Shinoda and Brad Delson. On August 18, 2016, Malakian performed with the Los Angeles-based alternative music project Millennials On October 28, 2017, Malakian performed with the surviving members of Linkin Park which played a show at the Hollywood Bowl dedicated to the passing of their frontman Chester Bennington. He performed \"Rebellion\" alongside SOAD bassist Shavo Odadjian. On April 23, 2018, Malakian released a song with Scars on Broadway called \"Lives\" about the history and culture of Armenia On July 20, 2018, Daron Malakian and Scars on Broadway released the album \"Dictator.\"", "Malakian has also produced a number of albums." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Postwar.", "Remembrance." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Before joining the army in 1937 Maresyev worked as a turner and then participated in the construction of Komsomolsk-on-Amur. In 1941, he graduated from the Bataysk Military School of Aviation. He began his flights as a fighter pilot in August 1941. He had shot down four German aircraft by March 1942. On 5 April 1942 his Yakovlev Yak-1 was shot down near Staraya Russa, probably by future Knight's Cross holder and 48-kill ace Peter Siegler, after which he was almost captured. Despite being badly injured, he managed to return to the Soviet-controlled territory. During his 18-day-long journey his injuries deteriorated so badly that both of his legs had to be amputated above the knee. Before the surgery he was lying on a stretcher with a sheet over his face and considered to be a hopeless case due to the extent of his injuries in addition to suffering from gangrene and blood poisoning. One doctor offered to operate on him and thereby saved him, but told him he would not lose his legs. Upon waking up from anesthesia, he was angered to find that his legs had been amputated above the knee. Desperate to return to his fighter pilot service, he subjected himself to nearly a year of exercise to master the control of his prosthetic devices, and succeeded at that, returning to flying in June 1943. During a dog fight in August 1943, he shot down three German Focke-Wulf Fw 190 fighters. In total, he completed over 80 combat sorties and shot down an estimated 7 German aircraft. He was awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union on 24 August 1943. In 1944, he joined the Communist Party and in 1946 he retired from the military.", "In 1952, Maresyev graduated from the Higher Party School. In 1956, he obtained a Ph.D. in History and started working in the Soviet War Veterans Committee. Eventually, he became a member of the Supreme Soviet. He suffered a heart attack on 18 May 2001 and died 16 hours later, just an hour before the celebration of his 85th birthday.", "His story served as a basis for the novel by Boris Polevoy \"The Story of a Real Man\" and a subsequent film (1948) directed by Aleksandr Stolper, in which his name was changed to Meresyev. The novel also inspired Sergei Prokofiev's last opera \"The Story of a Real Man\". In 2005 a documentary called \"Alexey Maresyev. The Fate of a Real Man\" was produced by Channel Russia. The asteroid 2173 Maresjev is named in his honor." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Use and revitalization efforts.", "Phonology.", "Vowels.", "Vowel length and voicing.", "Consonants.", "Stress.", "Morphology.", "Nouns.", "Verbs.", "Instrumental prefixes.", "Syntax.", "Switch reference.", "Writing system.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Although efforts are now being made to ensure its survival, most speakers of the language are elderly. In the late 19th century, Comanche children were placed in boarding schools where they were discouraged from speaking their native language, and even severely punished for doing so. The second generation then grew up speaking English, because of the belief that it was better for them not to know Comanche. The Comanche language was briefly prominent during World War II. A group of seventeen young men referred to as the Comanche Code Talkers were trained and used by the U.S. Army to send messages conveying sensitive information in the Comanche language so that it could not be deciphered by the enemy. As of July 2013, there are roughly 25-30 native speakers of the language, according to \"The Boston Globe\". An online class is available from the Learn Comanche organization, and the Comanche Language and Cultural Preservation Committee offers dictionaries and language learning materials. Comanche language courses are also available at the Comanche Nation College. The college is conducting a language recording project, as the language is \"mostly oral,\" and emphasizing instruction for tribal members.", "", "Comanche has a typical Numic vowel inventory of six vowels. In addition, there is the common diphthong. Historically, there was a certain amount of free variation between and (as shown by comparison with Shoshoni cognates), but the variation is no longer so common and most morphemes have become fixed on either or. In the following chart, the basic symbols given are in the IPA, whereas the equivalent symbols in the conventional orthography are given to the right of them, in parentheses and boldface. Note that Comanche also has voiceless vowels, but they are non-phonemic and therefore not represented in this chart. In the conventional orthography, these vowels are marked with an underline: a̱, e̱, i̱, o̱, u̱, ʉ̱.", "Comanche distinguishes vowels by length. Vowels can be either long or short. Long vowels are never devoiced and in the orthography they are represented as (aa, ee, ii, oo, uu, ɨɨ). An example of a long vowel is the (ee) in [wakaréʔee] meaning 'turtle'. Short vowels can be lengthened when they are stressed. Short vowels can be either voiced or voiceless. Unstressed short vowels are usually devoiced when /s/ or /h/ follows and optionally when word-final.", "Comanche has a typical Numic consonant inventory. As with the vowel charts, the basic symbols given in this chart are in the IPA, whereas the equivalent symbols in the conventional orthography are given to the right of them in parentheses and boldface.", "Comanche stress most commonly falls on the first syllable. Exceptions to this rule, such as in the words \"Waʔsáasiʔ\", meaning 'Osage people', and \"aná\", meaning 'ouch!', are marked with an acute accent. For the purpose of stress placement, the diphthongs /ai/, /oi/, and /ui/ act as one vowel with one mora. Additionally, possessive pronouns, which serve as proclitics, do not affect the stress of a word (so that \"nʉ + námi\"'my sister' retains its stress on the /a/ in \"námi\"). Secondary stress is placed on the second syllable of a two-syllable word, the third syllable of a word with three, four, or five syllables, and the fourth syllable of a word with six syllables. Primary stress is \"marked when it is non-initial stress\". In addition, \"when a pronoun is suffixed by, for instance a postposition, the pronoun does take primary - and initial - stress.\" An example is [nɨvía] nɨ-pia, which means my mother (my-mother). In the following data where primary stress appears it will be shown as an \"acute accent.\" Primary stress is found in words or compounds of three, six and five syllables. However, when primary stress is marked in a third syllable it can also be consider as a secondary stress according to Canonge's but an \"exception to this case is when both a proclitic and prefix are used.\" An example of a third syllable stress is [há.bi+hu.píi.tu] which means'stopped and lay down'. Words with \"five syllables have primary stress on the first syllable.\" An example is [ká.wo+nò.ka.tu] which means'stress'. Also, words with six syllables have primary stress on the first syllable. An example is [kú.ʔi.na.kù.ʔe.tu] which means 'rosts for'. Non-initial stress can be found in any syllable of a word that is not in the initial position and it can also fall on long vowel. Also, the \"initial syllable never weakens to the point of voicelessness\" Alternating stress occurs when there are words with three four, five and six syllables. In addition alternating stress is given \"when nouns of compound are coequal, a root or stem has one-syllable suffix.\" Also, prefixes or not stem-changes do not receive an indicial stress because the alternating stress \"begins on the second syllable as in the following word of six syllables, following the pattern of five-syllable words.\" An example is [wu.hká.ʔa.mí.ʔanu] which means 'went to cut down'. An examples of alternating stress in a four, five and six syllabuses are [á.ni.múi ]'housefly', [yú.pu.sí.a] meaning 'louse' and [wuh+tú.pu káʔ 'buckle] which meaning 'button'. A examples of three syllables is [wáhkát ìmat òʔiàt I] waha=-?? twelve, which means 'two-??'. Stress shift occurs when \"verves often exhibit stylistic stress shift when occurring at the end of a breathing group.\" In addition, stress moves \"one syllable to the right if that syllable is voiced; otherwise it skips over the voiceless vowels to the next syllable\". An example is [pohínu ]'jumped. According to Charney stress shift is caused by a suffixes-n which cause a 'right ward shift of stress in form with the shape CVHCV or CVhV.\" Examples of CVHCV is [marohtíkwan] ma-toH-tíkwa-n which means 'he hit him' and an example of CVhv is [pahín] pahi-n which means 'he fell'. By using the form CVHCV or CVhV we can see that -h \"is presented as a second or a precipitated consonant\". However, \"stress does not shift rightwards when the verb root does not contain [h]. An example is [nómiʔan] no-miʔa-n meaning 'they moved camp.'", "Like many languages of the Americas, Comanche can be classified as a polysynthetic language.", "Comanche nouns are inflected for case and number, and the language possesses a dual number. Like many Uto-Aztecan languages, nouns may take an absolutive suffix. Many cases are also marked using postpositions. Personal pronouns exist for three numbers (singular, dual, and plural) and three persons. They have different forms depending on whether or not they are the subject or object of a verb, possessive (including reflexive possessive forms), or the object of a postposition. Like many languages of the Americas, Comanche first-person plural pronouns have both inclusive and exclusive forms. The Comanche paradigm for nominal number suffixes is illustrated below:", "Many of the verb stems regularly are suppletive: intransitive verbs are suppletive for singular versus plural subject and transitive verbs are suppletive for singular versus plural object. Verbs can take various affixes, including incorporated nouns before the stem. Most verb affixes are suffixes, except for voicing-changing prefixes and instrumental prefixes. The verb stem can take a number of prefixes and suffixes. A sketch of all the elements that may be affixed to the verb is given on the right: In addition to verbal affixes, Comanche verbs can also be augmented by other verbs. Although in principle Comanche verbs may be freely combined with other verbs, in actuality only a handful of verbs, termed auxiliary verbs, are frequently combined with others. These forms take the full range of aspectual suffixes. Common auxiliary verbs in Comanche include \"hani\" 'to do, make', \"naha\" 'to be, become', \"miʔa\" 'to go', and \"katʉ / yʉkwi\" 'to sit'. An example of how the verbs combine: \"katʉ\" 'to sit' + \"miʔa\" 'to go' = \"katʉmiʔa\" \"to ride (and go)\".", "As mentioned above, Comanche has a rich repertoire of instrumental prefixes, and certain verbs (termed instrumental verbs) cannot occur without an instrumental prefix. These prefixes can affect the transitivity of a verb. The Comanche instrumental prefixes are listed below:", "Comanche parts of speech include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, and interjections (such as \"haa\" 'yes' and \"kee\" 'no'), as well as particles. The standard word order is subject–object–verb, but it can shift in two specific circumstances. The topic of a sentence, though marked with one of two particles, is often placed at the beginning of the sentence, defying the standard word order. Furthermore, the subject of a sentence is often placed second in a sentence. When the subject is also the topic, as is often the case, it ends up in the first position, preserving SOV word order; otherwise, the subject will be placed second. For example, the English sentence 'I hit the man' could be rendered in Comanche with the components in either of the following two orders: 'I' (topic)'man' (object) 'hit' (an aspect marker) - the standard SOV word order - or'man' (object and topic) 'I' 'hit' (an aspect marker) - an OSV word order, which accentuates the role of the man who was hit.", "Like other Numic languages, Comanche has switch-reference markers to handle subordination. This refers to markers which indicate whether or not a subordinate verb has the same or different subject as the main verb, and in the case of Comanche, also the temporal relation between the two verbs. When the verb of a subordinate clause has a different subject from the verb of the main clause, and the time of the verbs is simultaneous, the subordinate verb is marked with \"-ku\", and its subject is marked as if it were an object. When the time of the verbs is not simultaneous, the subordinate verb is marked with one of several affixes depending on the duration of the subordinate verb and whether it refers to an action which occurred before that described by the main verb or one which occurred after.", "The Comanche Alphabet was developed by Dr. Alice Anderton, a linguistic anthropologist, and was adopted as the official Comanche Alphabet by the Comanche Nation in 1994. The alphabet is as follows:", "In the 1956 film \"The Searchers\", starring John Wayne, there are several badly pronounced Comanche words interspersed, such as \"nawyecka\" (\"nooyʉka\"'move camp around') and \"timoway\" (\"tʉmʉʉ\" 'buy, trade'). In the 1963 film \"McLintock!\", also starring John Wayne, McLintock (Wayne) and Chief Puma (Michael Pate) speak Comanche several times throughout the film. In a 2013 \"Boston Globe\" article, linguist Todd McDaniels of Comanche Nation College commented on Johnny Depp's attempts to speak the Comanche language in the film \"The Lone Ranger\", saying \"The words were there, the pronunciation was shaky but adequate.\" In the 2016 film \"The Magnificent Seven\" two of the titular characters, a Comanche warrior named Red Harvest and Sam Chisholm, an African-American warrant officer, speak Comanche to each other. In the 2019 TV Series, \"The Son,\" the main character, Eli McCullough, lives with a tribe of Comanche natives, who speak in Comanche to each other and later to him." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Finite and low cardinality stages of the hierarchy.", "Applications and interpretations.", "Applications of \"V\" as models for set theories.", "Interpretation of \"V\" as the \"set of all sets\".", "\"V\" and the axiom of regularity.", "The existential status of \"V\".", "History.", "Philosophical perspectives." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The cumulative hierarchy is a collection of sets \"V\" indexed by the class of ordinal numbers; in particular, \"V\" is the set of all sets having ranks less than α. Thus there is one set \"V\" for each ordinal number α. \"V\" may be defined by transfinite recursion as follows: A crucial fact about this definition is that there is a single formula φ(α,\"x\") in the language of ZFC that defines \"the set \"x\" is in \"V\"\". The sets \"V\" are called stages or ranks. The class \"V\" is defined to be the union of all the \"V\"-stages: An equivalent definition sets for each ordinal α, where formula_6 is the powerset of formula_7. The rank of a set \"S\" is the smallest α such that formula_8 Another way to calculate rank is:", "The first five von Neumann stages \"V\" to \"V\" may be visualized as follows. (An empty box represents the empty set. A box containing only an empty box represents the set containing only the empty set, and so forth.) The set \"V\" contains 2 = 65536 elements. The set \"V\" contains 2 elements, which very substantially exceeds the number of atoms in the known universe. So the finite stages of the cumulative hierarchy cannot be written down explicitly after stage 5. The set \"V\" has the same cardinality as ω. The set \"V\" has the same cardinality as the set of real numbers.", "", "If ω is the set of natural numbers, then \"V\" is the set of hereditarily finite sets, which is a model of set theory without the axiom of infinity. \"V\" is the universe of \"ordinary mathematics\", and is a model of Zermelo set theory. A simple argument in favour of the adequacy of \"V\" is the observation that \"V\" is adequate for the integers, while \"V\" is adequate for the real numbers, and most other normal mathematics can be built as relations of various kinds from these sets without needing the axiom of replacement to go outside \"V\". If κ is an inaccessible cardinal, then \"V\" is a model of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZFC) itself, and \"V\" is a model of Morse–Kelley set theory. (Note that every ZFC model is also a ZF model, and every ZF model is also a Z model.)", "V is not \"the set of all sets\" for two reasons. First, it is not a set; although each individual stage \"V\" is a set, their union \"V\" is a proper class. Second, the sets in \"V\" are only the well-founded sets. The axiom of foundation (or regularity) demands that every set be well founded and hence in \"V\", and thus in ZFC every set is in \"V\". But other axiom systems may omit the axiom of foundation or replace it by a strong negation (an example is Aczel's anti-foundation axiom). These non-well-founded set theories are not commonly employed, but are still possible to study. A third objection to the \"set of all sets\" interpretation is that not all sets are necessarily \"pure sets\", which are constructed from the empty set using power sets and unions. Zermelo proposed in 1908 the inclusion of urelements, from which he constructed a transfinite recursive hierarchy in 1930. Such urelements are used extensively in model theory, particularly in Fraenkel-Mostowski models.", "The formula \"V\" = ⋃\"V\" is often considered to be a theorem, not a definition. Roitman states (without references) that the realization that the axiom of regularity is equivalent to the equality of the universe of ZF sets to the cumulative hierarchy is due to von Neumann.", "Since the class \"V\" may be considered to be the arena for most of mathematics, it is important to establish that it \"exists\" in some sense. Since existence is a difficult concept, one typically replaces the existence question with the consistency question, that is, whether the concept is free of contradictions. A major obstacle is posed by Gödel's incompleteness theorems, which effectively imply the impossibility of proving the consistency of ZF set theory in ZF set theory itself, provided that it is in fact consistent. The integrity of the von Neumann universe depends fundamentally on the integrity of the ordinal numbers, which act as the rank parameter in the construction, and the integrity of transfinite induction, by which both the ordinal numbers and the von Neumann universe are constructed. The integrity of the ordinal number construction may be said to rest upon von Neumann's 1923 and 1928 papers. The integrity of the construction of \"V\" by transfinite induction may be said to have then been established in Zermelo's 1930 paper.", "The cumulative type hierarchy, also known as the von Neumann universe, is claimed by Gregory H. Moore (1982) to be inaccurately attributed to von Neumann. The first publication of the von Neumann universe was by Ernst Zermelo in 1930. Existence and uniqueness of the general transfinite recursive definition of sets was demonstrated in 1928 by von Neumann for both Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory and Neumann's own set theory (which later developed into NBG set theory). In neither of these papers did he apply his transfinite recursive method to construct the universe of all sets. The presentations of the von Neumann universe by Bernays and Mendelson both give credit to von Neumann for the transfinite induction construction method, although not for its application to the construction of the universe of ordinary sets. The notation \"V\" is not a tribute to the name of von Neumann. It was used for the universe of sets in 1889 by Peano, the letter \"V\" signifying \"Verum\", which he used both as a logical symbol and to denote the class of all individuals. Peano's notation \"V\" was adopted also by Whitehead and Russell for the class of all sets in 1910. The \"V\" notation (for the class of all sets) was not used by von Neumann in his 1920s papers about ordinal numbers and transfinite induction. Paul Cohen explicitly attributes his use of the letter \"V\" (for the class of all sets) to a 1940 paper by Gödel, although Gödel most likely obtained the notation from earlier sources such as Whitehead and Russell.", "There are two approaches to understanding the relationship of the von Neumann universe V to ZFC (along with many variations of each approach, and shadings between them). Roughly, formalists will tend to view V as something that flows from the ZFC axioms (for example, ZFC proves that every set is in V). On the other hand, realists are more likely to see the von Neumann hierarchy as something directly accessible to the intuition, and the axioms of ZFC as propositions for whose truth in V we can give direct intuitive arguments in natural language. A possible middle position is that the mental picture of the von Neumann hierarchy provides the ZFC axioms with a motivation (so that they are not arbitrary), but does not necessarily describe objects with real existence." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Partial definition.", "Hierarchy of consistency strength.", "Motivations and epistemic status." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A necessary condition for a property of cardinal numbers to be a \"large cardinal property\" is that the existence of such a cardinal is not known to be inconsistent with ZFC and it has been proven that if ZFC is consistent, then ZFC + \"no such cardinal exists\" is consistent.", "A remarkable observation about large cardinal axioms is that they appear to occur in strict linear order by consistency strength. That is, no exception is known to the following: Given two large cardinal axioms \"A\" and \"A\", exactly one of three things happens: These are mutually exclusive, unless one of the theories in question is actually inconsistent. In case 1, we say that \"A\" and \"A\" are equiconsistent. In case 2, we say that \"A\" is consistency-wise stronger than \"A\" (vice versa for case 3). If \"A\" is stronger than \"A\", then ZFC+\"A\" cannot prove ZFC+\"A\" is consistent, even with the additional hypothesis that ZFC+\"A\" is itself consistent (provided of course that it really is). This follows from Gödel's second incompleteness theorem. The observation that large cardinal axioms are linearly ordered by consistency strength is just that, an observation, not a theorem. (Without an accepted definition of large cardinal property, it is not subject to proof in the ordinary sense). Also, it is not known in every case which of the three cases holds. Saharon Shelah has asked, \"[i]s there some theorem explaining this, or is our vision just more uniform than we realize?\" Woodin, however, deduces this from the Ω-conjecture, the main unsolved problem of his Ω-logic. It is also noteworthy that many combinatorial statements are exactly equiconsistent with some large cardinal rather than, say, being intermediate between them. The order of consistency strength is not necessarily the same as the order of the size of the smallest witness to a large cardinal axiom. For example, the existence of a huge cardinal is much stronger, in terms of consistency strength, than the existence of a supercompact cardinal, but assuming both exist, the first huge is smaller than the first supercompact.", "Large cardinals are understood in the context of the von Neumann universe V, which is built up by transfinitely iterating the powerset operation, which collects together all subsets of a given set. Typically, models in which large cardinal axioms \"fail\" can be seen in some natural way as submodels of those in which the axioms hold. For example, if there is an inaccessible cardinal, then \"cutting the universe off\" at the height of the first such cardinal yields a universe in which there is no inaccessible cardinal. Or if there is a measurable cardinal, then iterating the \"definable\" powerset operation rather than the full one yields Gödel's constructible universe, L, which does not satisfy the statement \"there is a measurable cardinal\" (even though it contains the measurable cardinal as an ordinal). Thus, from a certain point of view held by many set theorists (especially those inspired by the tradition of the Cabal), large cardinal axioms \"say\" that we are considering all the sets we're \"supposed\" to be considering, whereas their negations are \"restrictive\" and say that we're considering only some of those sets. Moreover the consequences of large cardinal axioms seem to fall into natural patterns (see Maddy, \"Believing the Axioms, II\"). For these reasons, such set theorists tend to consider large cardinal axioms to have a preferred status among extensions of ZFC, one not shared by axioms of less clear motivation (such as Martin's axiom) or others that they consider intuitively unlikely (such as V = L). The hardcore realists in this group would state, more simply, that large cardinal axioms are \"true\". This point of view is by no means universal among set theorists. Some formalists would assert that standard set theory is by definition the study of the consequences of ZFC, and while they might not be opposed in principle to studying the consequences of other systems, they see no reason to single out large cardinals as preferred. There are also realists who deny that ontological maximalism is a proper motivation, and even believe that large cardinal axioms are false. And finally, there are some who deny that the negations of large cardinal axioms \"are\" restrictive, pointing out that (for example) there can be a transitive set model in L that believes there exists a measurable cardinal, even though L itself does not satisfy that proposition." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Size.", "Properties.", "Cultural impact." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The term was coined in 1920 by 9-year-old Milton Sirotta (1911–1981), nephew of U.S. mathematician Edward Kasner. Kasner popularized the concept in his 1940 book \"Mathematics and the Imagination\". Other names for googol include ten duotrigintillion on the short scale, ten thousand sexdecillion on the long scale, or ten sexdecilliard on the Peletier long scale.", "A googol has no special significance in mathematics. However, it is useful when comparing with other very large quantities such as the number of subatomic particles in the visible universe or the number of hypothetical possibilities in a chess game. Kasner used it to illustrate the difference between an unimaginably large number and infinity, and in this role it is sometimes used in teaching mathematics. To give a sense of how big a googol really is, the mass of an electron, just under, can be compared to the mass of the visible universe, estimated at between and. It is a ratio in the order of about 10 to 10, or at most one ten-billionth of a googol (0.00000001% of a googol). Carl Sagan pointed out that the total number of elementary particles in the universe is around 10 (the Eddington number) and that if the whole universe were packed with neutrons so that there would be no empty space anywhere, there would be around 10. He also noted the similarity of the second calculation to that of Archimedes in \"The Sand Reckoner\". By Archimedes's calculation, the universe of Aristarchus (roughly 2 light years in diameter), if fully packed with sand, would contain 10 grains. If the much larger observable universe of today were filled with sand, it would still only equal 10 grains. Another 100,000 observable universes filled with sand would be necessary to make a googol. The decay time for a supermassive black hole of roughly 1 galaxy-mass (10 solar masses) due to Hawking radiation is on the order of 10 years. Therefore, the heat death of an expanding universe is lower-bounded to occur at least one googol years in the future.", "A googol is approximately \"70!\" (factorial of 70). Using an integral, binary numeral system, one would need 333 bits to represent a googol, i.e., 1 googol = formula_1 ≈ 2. However, a googol is well within the maximum bounds of an IEEE 754 double-precision floating point type, but without full precision in the mantissa. Using modular arithmetic, the series of residues (mod \"n\") of one googol, starting with mod 1, is as follows: This sequence is the same as that of the residues (mod n) of a googolplex up until the 17th position.", "Widespread sounding of the word occurs through the name of the company Google, with the name \"Google\" being an accidental misspelling of \"googol\" by the company's founders, which was picked to signify that the search engine was intended to provide large quantities of information. In 2004, family members of Kasner, who had inherited the right to his book, were considering suing Google for their use of the term googol; however, no suit was ever filed. Since October 2009, Google has been assigning domain names to its servers under the domain \"1e100.net\", the scientific notation for 1 googol, in order to provide a single domain to identify servers across the Google network. The word is notable for being the subject of the £1 million question in a 2001 episode of the British quiz show \"Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?\", when contestant Charles Ingram cheated his way through the show with the help of a confederate in the studio audience." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Scientific career.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born in Prague, Czechoslovakia, Antonín Holý studied organic chemistry from 1954 to 1959 at the Faculty of Science of Charles University in Prague. From 1960 he trained at the Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry (IOCB) of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences in Prague and had been a researcher there since 1963. He became the Institute's lead scientist in 1967, and from 1983 headed its working group for nucleic acids. In 1987 he became chief of the Department of Nucleic Acid Chemistry and from 1994 to 2002 he was head of the IOCB. Since 1976 he had collaborated on the development of new antiretroviral drugs with Erik De Clercq of the Rega Institute for Medical Research at the Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium. His key contribution are the synthesis of nucleotide analogues, synthetic mimetics of the building blocks of RNA and DNA, that have found utility as inhibitors of viral replication. These include Tenofovir, Adefovir and Cidofovir. Although ineffective as originally synthesized by Holy because of impermeability conferred by the negative charged phosphonate, conjugation with POM and POC pro-drug moieties developed by David Farquhar at M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, has made these nucleotide analogues into clinically effective drugs for the treatment of Hepatitis B (biPOM-Adefovir, Hepsera), and biPOC-Tenofovir Tenofovir. Together, these drugs have made an dramatic impact for the treatment of HIV. In particular, Truvada has shown exceptionally useful in preventing HIV transmission and thus has not only helped countless HIV patients, but has in fact prevented countless other healthy individuals from contracting the disease in the first place. In 2006 the US biopharmaceutical company Gilead Sciences, under the direction of Tomáš Cihlář, and the Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry (IOCB) of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic jointly established a new research center, oriented to the development of new preparations. Gilead promised the IOCB a $1.1 million donation, to fund its operations and research for 5 years. Several antiretroviral drugs based on Holý's discoveries have been licensed. In 1996, Vistide was approved for production in the United States and European Union. Viread (tenofovir) was approved in the US in 2001 for the treatment of AIDS, and Hepsera was approved in 2003 for the treatment of hepatitis B. Truvada, a combination of Viread and emtricitabine, was approved in 2006 for use in the USA.", "Holý had retired a year before his death and died of an unspecified cause, aged 75, on 16 July 2012. A statement from the IOCB called his death \"an immense loss\". His death occurred two months after the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved Truvada for treating HIV, on the same day that the FDA approved Truvada for HIV prevention." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Recording.", "Concept.", "Packaging.", "Release.", "Reissues.", "Tour.", "Track listing.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1975, Pink Floyd bought a three-story block of church halls at 35 Britannia Row in Islington, north London. Their deal with Harvest Records' parent company EMI for unlimited studio time in return for a reduced percentage of sales had expired, and they converted the building into a recording studio and storage facility. Its construction took up most of 1975, and in April 1976 the band started work on their tenth studio album, \"Animals\", at the new facility. \"Animals\" was engineered by a previous Floyd collaborator, Brian Humphries, and recording took place at Britannia Row from April to December 1976, continuing into early 1977. \"Raving and Drooling\" and \"You've Got to Be Crazy\", two songs previously performed live and considered for \"Wish You Were Here\", reappeared as \"Sheep\" and \"Dogs\" respectively. They were reworked to fit the new concept, and separated by a Waters-penned composition, \"Pigs (Three Different Ones)\". The only other new composition, \"Pigs On The Wing\" (split into two parts to start and end the album,) contains references to Waters' private life; his new romantic interest was Carolyne Anne Christie (married to Rock Scully, manager of the Grateful Dead). With the exception of \"Dogs\" (co-written by David Gilmour) the album's five tracks were written by Waters. Gilmour was distracted by the birth of his first child, and contributed little else towards the songwriting of the album. Similarly, neither Mason nor Wright contributed as much as they had on previous albums, and \"Animals\" was the first Pink Floyd album not to contain a composer's credit for Wright. The band had discussed employing another guitarist for future tours, and Snowy White was therefore invited into the studio. When Waters and Mason inadvertently erased one of Gilmour's completed guitar solos, White was asked to record a solo on \"Pigs on the Wing\". Although his performance was omitted from the vinyl release, it was included on the eight-track cartridge version. White later performed on the \"Animals\" tour. Mason recalled that he enjoyed working on \"Animals\" more than he had working on \"Wish You Were Here\".", "Loosely based on George Orwell's political fable \"Animal Farm\", the album's lyrics describe various classes in society as different kinds of animals: the predatory dogs, the despotic ruthless pigs, and the \"mindless and unquestioning herd\" of sheep. Whereas the novella focuses on bolshevism, the album is a critique of capitalism and differs again in that the sheep eventually rise up to overpower the dogs. The album was developed from a collection of unrelated songs into a concept which, in the words of author Glenn Povey, \"described the apparent social and moral decay of society, likening the human condition to that of mere animals\". Apart from its critique of society, the album is also a part-response to the punk rock movement, which grew in popularity as a nihilistic statement against the prevailing social and political conditions, and also a reaction to the general complacency and nostalgia that appeared to surround rock music. Pink Floyd were an obvious target for punk musicians, notably Johnny Rotten of The Sex Pistols, who wore a Pink Floyd T-shirt on which the words \"I hate\" had been written in ink. Rotten has constantly said it was done for a laugh (he was a fan of several progressive rock bands of the era, including Magma and Van Der Graaf Generator). Drummer Nick Mason later stated that he welcomed the \"Punk Rock insurrection\" and viewed it as a welcome return to the underground scene from which Pink Floyd originated. In 1977 he produced The Damned's second album, \"Music for Pleasure\", at Britannia Row. In his 2008 book \"Comfortably Numb\", author Mark Blake argues that \"Dogs\" contains some of David Gilmour's finest work; although the guitarist sings only one lead vocal, his performance is \"explosive\". The song also contains notable contributions from Wright, which echo the synthesizer sounds used on the band's previous album, \"Wish You Were Here\". \"Pigs (Three Different Ones)\" is audibly similar to \"Have a Cigar\", with bluesy guitar fills and elaborate bass lines. Of the song's three pigs, the only one directly identified is morality campaigner Mary Whitehouse, who amongst other things is described as a \"house-proud town mouse\". \"Sheep\" contains a modified version of Psalm 23, which continues the traditional \"The Lord is my shepherd\" with words like \"he maketh me to hang on hooks in high places and converteth me to lamb cutlets\". Towards the end of the song, the eponymous sheep rise up and kill the dogs, but later retire back to their homes. Wright played the song's introduction unaccompanied on the electric piano, but did not receive a writing credit for it. The album is book-ended by each half of \"Pigs on the Wing\", a simple love song in which a glimmer of hope is offered despite the anger expressed in the album's three other songs. Described by author Andy Mabbett as \"[sitting] in stark contrast to the heavyweight material between them\", the two halves of the song were heavily influenced by Waters' relationship with his then-wife.", "Once the album was complete, work began on its cover. Hipgnosis, designer of the band's previous album covers, offered three ideas, one of which was a small child entering his parents' bedroom to find them having sex: \"copulating, like animals!\" The final concept was, unusually, designed by Waters. At the time he lived near Clapham Common, and regularly drove past Battersea Power Station, which was by then approaching the end of its useful life. A view of the building was chosen for the cover image, and the band commissioned German company Ballon Fabrik (who had previously constructed Zeppelin airships) and Australian artist Jeffrey Shaw to build a porcine balloon (known as \"Algie\"). The balloon was inflated with helium and maneuvered into position on 2 December 1976, with a marksman ready to fire if it escaped. Inclement weather delayed work, and the band's manager Steve O'Rourke neglected to book the marksman for a second day; the balloon broke free of its moorings and disappeared from view. The pig flew over Heathrow, resulting in panic and cancelled flights; pilots also spotted the pig in the air. It eventually landed in Kent and was recovered by a local farmer, who was apparently furious that it had scared his cows. The balloon was recovered and filming continued for a third day, but as the early photographs of the power station were considered better, the image of the pig was later superimposed onto one of those. During the \"Isles of Wonder\" short film shot by Danny Boyle and shown as part of the Opening Ceremonies of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, the camera zooms down the length of the River Thames, from a small spring in the countryside all the way to the Olympic venue. During the fly-by, a pig can be seen floating above Battersea Power Station. The album's theme continues onto the record's picture labels. Side one's label shows a fisheye lens view of a dog and the English countryside, and side two features a pig and sheep, in the same setting. Mason's handwriting is used as a typeface throughout the packaging. The gatefold features monochrome photographs of the dereliction around the power station.", "The album's release followed Capital Radio's broadcast two days earlier of \"The Pink Floyd Story\", and an evening press conference held at the power station two days before that. The broadcast was originally to have been an exclusive for the London-based station, who since mid-December had been broadcasting \"The Pink Floyd Story\", but a copy was given to John Peel, who played side one of the album in its entirety a day earlier. \"Animals\" was released in the UK on 23 January 1977, and in the US on 12 February. It reached number two in the UK, and three in the US. Thanks to the album and the band's back catalogue, noted \"The Guinness Book of British Hit Albums\", \"Pink Floyd bested ABBA for most weeks on chart \"(in 1977)\", 108 to 106.\" \"NME\" called \"Animals\" \"one of the most extreme, relentless, harrowing and downright iconoclastic hunks of music to have been made available this side of the sun\", and \"Melody Maker\" Karl Dallas described it as an \"uncomfortable taste of reality in a medium that has become in recent years, increasingly soporific\". \"Rolling Stone\" Frank Rose was unimpressed, writing: \"The 1977 Floyd has turned bitter and morose. They complain about the duplicity of human behavior (and then title their songs after animals – get it?). They sound like they've just discovered this – their message has become pointless and tedious.\" Robert Christgau of \"The Village Voice\" gave the album a \"B+\" rating and found the negative reaction overly cynical, reasoning that the album functions simply as \"a piece of well-constructed political program music... lyrical, ugly, and rousing, all in the right places\". In his 2004 autobiography \"\", Nick Mason suggests that the album's perceived harshness, when compared to previous Floyd releases, may be a result of a \"workman-like mood in the studio\", and an unconscious reaction to the accusations from the aforementioned punk genre that bands like Pink Floyd represented \"dinosaur rock\". \"Animals\" was certified by the RIAA as 4× Platinum on 31 January 1995.", "Originally released on Harvest Records in the UK and Columbia Records in the US, \"Animals\" was issued on Compact Disc (CD) in 1985, and in the US in 1987. It was reissued as a digitally remastered CD with new artwork in 1994, and as a digitally remastered limited-edition vinyl album in 1997. An anniversary edition was released in the US in the same year, followed in 2000 by a reissue from Capitol Records. The album was also included in the \"Shine On\" box set in 1992, in the 2007 \"Oh, By The Way\" box set and in the 2011 \"Why Pink Floyd...?\" re-release series both in the box set and as a standalone 'Discovery' edition CD. In an April 2020 interview with \"Rolling Stone\", Waters said he had pushed to release a remastered vinyl of \"Animals\", but that it had been rejected by Gilmour and Mason.", "The album became the subject material for the band's In the Flesh Tour, which began in Dortmund on the same day the album was released. The tour continued through continental Europe in February, the UK in March, the United States for three weeks in April and May, and another three weeks in the United States in June and July. \"Algie\" became the inspiration for a number of pig themes used throughout. An inflatable pig was floated over the audience, and during each performance was replaced with a cheaper, but explosive version. On one occasion the mild propane gas was replaced with an oxygen-acetylene mixture, producing a massive (and dangerous) explosion. German promoter Marcel Avram presented the band with a piglet in Munich, only for it to leave a trail of broken mirrors and excrement across its mirrored hotel room, leaving manager O'Rourke to deal with the resulting fallout. The band was joined by familiar figures such as Dick Parry and Snowy White, but relations within the band became fraught. Waters took to arriving at the venues alone, departing as soon as each performance was over. On one occasion, Wright flew back to England, threatening to leave the band. The size of the venues was also an issue; in Chicago, the promoters claimed to have sold out the 67,000 person regular capacity of the Soldier Field stadium (after which ticket sales should have been ended), but Waters and O'Rourke were suspicious. They hired a helicopter, photographer and attorney, and discovered that the actual attendance was 95,000; a shortfall to the band of $640,000. The end of the tour was a low point for Gilmour, who felt that the band had by now achieved the success the members had originally sought, and that there was nothing else they could look forward to. In July 1977 – on the final date at the Montreal Olympic Stadium – a small group of noisy and excited fans in the front row of the audience irritated Waters to such an extent that he spat at one of them. He was not the only person who felt depressed about playing to such large audiences, as Gilmour refused to perform a third encore. Waters later spoke with producer Bob Ezrin and told him of his sense of alienation on the tour, and how he sometimes felt like building a wall to separate himself from the audience. The spitting incident would later form the basis of a new concept, which would eventually become one of the band's most successful album releases, \"The Wall\".", "All tracks written and all lead vocals performed by Roger Waters, except where noted.", "Notes Footnotes Bibliography" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Diet.", "Religion.", "Ovo-vegetarianism in India." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The terminology stems from the Latin \"\" meaning \"milk\" (as in 'lactation'), \"\" meaning \"egg\", and the English term \"vegetarian\", so as giving the definition of a vegetarian diet containing milk and eggs.", "In the Western world, ovo-lacto vegetarians are the most common type of vegetarian. Generally speaking, when one uses the term \"vegetarian\", an ovo-lacto vegetarian is assumed. Ovo-lacto vegetarians are often well-catered to in restaurants and shops, especially in some parts of Europe and metropolitan cities in North America.", "Jainism prohibits causing harm to anything with a soul or potential life. Traditionally this includes eggs and certain kinds of vegetables, as well as animals, but dairy products are permitted. Jains are therefore lacto vegetarians, not ovo-lacto vegetarians. In Hinduism, many individuals are either raised as ovo-lacto vegetarians or lacto vegetarians. The Bible Christian Church was a Christian vegetarian sect founded by William Cowherd in 1809. Cowherd was one of the philosophical forerunners of the Vegetarian Society founded in 1847. The Bible Christian Church promoted the use of eggs, dairy and honey as God's given food per \"the promised land flowing with milk and honey\" (Exodus 3:8). Many Seventh-day Adventist followers are ovo-lacto vegetarians. For over 130 years, Seventh-day Adventists have recommended a vegetarian diet which may include milk products and eggs.", "In India, eggs are not universally considered vegetarian; those who do practice ovo-vegetarianism are often described as \"eggetarians\". To accommodate this, products containing eggs are specially marked to differentiate them from otherwise vegetarian food products. Some manufacturers specifically advise that their products contain eggs but not meat or animal products to avoid diminishing interest among those who practice ovo-vegetarianism." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Politics.", "Research.", "Polygenism and racial theory.", "Asia hypothesis.", "Embryology and recapitulation theory.", "Darwin, Naturphilosophie and Lamarck.", "Embryological drawings.", "Controversy.", "Awards and honors.", "Publications.", "Travel books.", "Assessments of potential influence on Nazism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Ernst Haeckel was born on 16 February 1834, in Potsdam (then part of the Kingdom of Prussia). In 1852 Haeckel completed studies at the \"Domgymnasium\", the cathedral high-school of Merseburg. He then studied medicine in Berlin and Würzburg, particularly with Albert von Kölliker, Franz Leydig, Rudolf Virchow (with whom he later worked briefly as assistant), and with the anatomist-physiologist Johannes Peter Müller (1801–1858). Together with Hermann Steudner he attended botany lectures in Würzburg. In 1857 Haeckel attained a doctorate in medicine, and afterwards he received the license to practice medicine. The occupation of physician appeared less worthwhile to Haeckel after contact with suffering patients. Ernst Haeckel studied under Karl Gegenbaur at the University of Jena for three years, earning a habilitation in comparative anatomy in 1861, before becoming a professor of zoology at Jena, where he remained for 47 years, from 1862 to 1909. Between 1859 and 1866 Haeckel worked on many phyla, such as radiolarians, poriferans (sponges) and annelids (segmented worms). During a trip to the Mediterranean, Haeckel named nearly 150 new species of radiolarians. From 1866 to 1867 Haeckel made an extended journey to the Canary Islands with Hermann Fol. During this period, he met with Charles Darwin (in 1866 at Down House in Kent), Thomas Huxley and Charles Lyell. In 1867 he married Agnes Huschke. Their son Walter was born in 1868, their daughters Elizabeth in 1871 and Emma in 1873. In 1869 he traveled as a researcher to Norway, in 1871 to Croatia (where he lived on the island of Hvar in a monastery), and in 1873 to Egypt, Turkey, and Greece. In 1907 he had a museum built in Jena to teach the public about evolution. Haeckel retired from teaching in 1909, and in 1910 he withdrew from the Evangelical Church of Prussia. On the occasion of his 80th birthday celebration he was presented with a two-volume work entitled \"Was wir Ernst Haeckel verdanken (What We Owe to Ernst Haeckel)\", edited at the request of the German Monistenbund by Heinrich Schmidt of Jena. Haeckel's wife, Agnes, died in 1915, and he became substantially frailer, breaking his leg and arm. He sold his \"Villa Medusa\" in Jena in 1918 to the Carl Zeiss foundation, which preserved his library. Haeckel died on 9 August 1919. Haeckel became the most famous proponent of Monism in Germany.", "Haeckel's affinity for the German Romantic movement, coupled with his acceptance of a form of Lamarckism, influenced his political beliefs. Rather than being a strict Darwinian, Haeckel believed that the characteristics of an organism were acquired through interactions with the environment and that ontogeny reflected phylogeny. He saw the social sciences as instances of \"applied biology\", and that phrase was picked up and used for Nazi propaganda. In 1906 Haeckel founded a group called the Monist League () to promote his religious and political beliefs. This group lasted until 1933 and included such notable members as Wilhelm Ostwald, Georg von Arco (1869-1940), Helene Stöcker and Walter Arthur Berendsohn. He was the first person to use the term \"first world war\".", "Haeckel was a zoologist, an accomplished artist and illustrator, and later a professor of comparative anatomy. Although Haeckel's ideas are important to the history of evolutionary theory, and although he was a competent invertebrate anatomist most famous for his work on radiolaria, many speculative concepts that he championed are now considered incorrect. For example, Haeckel described and named hypothetical ancestral microorganisms that have never been found. He was one of the first to consider psychology as a branch of physiology. He also proposed the kingdom \"Protista\" in 1866. His chief interests lay in evolution and life development processes in general, including development of nonrandom form, which culminated in the beautifully illustrated \"Kunstformen der Natur\" (\"Art forms of nature\"). Haeckel did not support natural selection, rather believing in Lamarckism. Haeckel advanced a version of the earlier recapitulation theory previously set out by Étienne Serres in the 1820s and supported by followers of Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire including Robert Edmond Grant. It proposed a link between ontogeny (development of form) and phylogeny (evolutionary descent), summed up by Haeckel in the phrase \"ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny\". His concept of recapitulation has been refuted in the form he gave it (now called \"strong recapitulation\"), in favour of the ideas first advanced by Karl Ernst von Baer. The strong recapitulation hypothesis views ontogeny as repeating forms of adult ancestors, while weak recapitulation means that what is repeated (and built upon) is the ancestral embryonic development process. Haeckel supported the theory with embryo drawings that have since been shown to be oversimplified and in part inaccurate, and the theory is now considered an oversimplification of quite complicated relationships, however comparison of embryos remains a powerful way to demonstrate that all animals are related. Haeckel introduced the concept of heterochrony, the change in timing of embryonic development over the course of evolution. Haeckel was a flamboyant figure, who sometimes took great, non-scientific leaps from available evidence. For example, at the time when Darwin published \"On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection\" (1859), Haeckel postulated that evidence of human evolution would be found in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). At that time, no remains of human ancestors had yet been identified. He described these theoretical remains in great detail and even named the as-yet unfound species, \"Pithecanthropus alalus\", and instructed his students such as Richard and Oskar Hertwig to go and find it. One student did find some remains: a Dutchman named Eugène Dubois searched the East Indies from 1887 to 1895, discovering the remains of Java Man in 1891, consisting of a skullcap, thighbone, and a few teeth. These remains are among the oldest hominid remains ever found. Dubois classified Java Man with Haeckel's \"Pithecanthropus\" label, though they were later reclassified as \"Homo erectus\". Some scientists of the day suggested Dubois' Java Man as a potential intermediate form between modern humans and the common ancestor we share with the other great apes. The current consensus of anthropologists is that the direct ancestors of modern humans were African populations of \"Homo erectus\" (possibly \"Homo ergaster\"), rather than the Asian populations exemplified by Java Man and Peking Man. (Ironically, a new human species, Homo floresiensis, a dwarf human type, has recently been discovered in the island of Flores).", "The creationist polygenism of Samuel George Morton and Louis Agassiz, which presented human races as separately created species, was rejected by Charles Darwin, who argued for the monogenesis of the human species and the African origin of modern humans. In contrast to most of Darwin's supporters, Haeckel put forward a doctrine of evolutionary polygenism based on the ideas of the linguist August Schleicher, in which several different language groups had arisen separately from speechless prehuman \"Urmenschen\" (), which themselves had evolved from simian ancestors. These separate languages had completed the transition from animals to man, and under the influence of each main branch of languages, humans had evolved – in a kind of Lamarckian use-inheritance – as separate species, which could be subdivided into races. From this, Haeckel drew the implication that languages with the most potential yield the human races with the most potential, led by the Semitic and Indo-Germanic groups, with Berber, Jewish, Greco-Roman and Germanic varieties to the fore. As Haeckel stated: Haeckel's view can be seen as a forerunner of the views of Carleton Coon, who also believed that human races evolved independently and in parallel with each other. These ideas eventually fell from favour. Haeckel also applied the hypothesis of polygenism to the modern diversity of human groups. He became a key figure in social darwinism and leading proponent of scientific racism, stating for instance: Haeckel divided human beings into ten races, of which the Caucasian was the highest and the primitives were doomed to extinction. Haeckel claimed that '[t]he Negro' had stronger and more freely movable toes than any other race, which, he argued, was evidence of their being less evolved, and which led him to compare them to four-handed\" Apes'. Haeckel also believed 'Negroes' were savages and that Whites were the most civilised. In his \"Ontogeny and Phylogeny\" Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould wrote: \"[Haeckel's] evolutionary racism; his call to the German people for racial purity and unflinching devotion to a 'just' state; his belief that harsh, inexorable laws of evolution ruled human civilization and nature alike, conferring upon favored races the right to dominate others... all contributed to the rise of Nazism.\" In his introduction to the Nazi party ideologue Alfred Rosenberg's 1930 book, \"The Myth of the Twentieth Century\", Peter Peel affirms that Rosenberg had indeed read Haeckel. In the same line of thought, historian Daniel Gasman states that Haeckel's ideology stimulated the birth of Fascist ideology in Italy and France. However, Robert J. Richards notes: \"Haeckel, on his travels to Ceylon and Indonesia, often formed closer and more intimate relations with natives, even members of the untouchable classes, than with the European colonials.\" and says the Nazis rejected Haeckel, since he opposed antisemitism, while supporting ideas they disliked (for instance atheism, feminism, internationalism, pacifism etc.).", "Haeckel claimed the origin of humanity was to be found in Asia: he believed that Hindustan (Indian subcontinent) was the actual location where the first humans had evolved. Haeckel argued that humans were closely related to the primates of Southeast Asia and rejected Darwin's hypothesis of Africa. Haeckel later claimed that the missing link was to be found on the lost continent of Lemuria located in the Indian Ocean. He believed that Lemuria was the home of the first humans and that Asia was the home of many of the earliest primates; he thus supported that Asia was the cradle of hominid evolution. Haeckel also claimed that Lemuria connected Asia and Africa, which allowed the migration of humans to the rest of the world. In Haeckel’s book \"The History of Creation\" (1884) he included migration routes which he thought the first humans had used outside of Lemuria.", "When Haeckel was a student in the 1850s he showed great interest in embryology, attending the rather unpopular lectures twice and in his notes sketched the visual aids: textbooks had few illustrations, and large format plates were used to show students how to see the tiny forms under a reflecting microscope, with the translucent tissues seen against a black background. Developmental series were used to show stages within a species, but inconsistent views and stages made it even more difficult to compare different species. It was agreed by all European evolutionists that all vertebrates looked very similar at an early stage, in what was thought of as a common ideal type, but there was a continuing debate from the 1820s between the Romantic recapitulation theory that human embryos developed through stages of the forms of all the major groups of adult animals, literally manifesting a sequence of organisms on a linear chain of being, and Karl Ernst von Baer's opposing view, stated in von Baer's laws of embryology, that the early general forms diverged into four major groups of specialised forms without ever resembling the adult of another species, showing affinity to an archetype but no relation to other types or any transmutation of species. By the time Haeckel was teaching he was able to use a textbook with woodcut illustrations written by his own teacher Albert von Kölliker, which purported to explain human development while also using other mammalian embryos to claim a coherent sequence. Despite the significance to ideas of transformism, this was not really polite enough for the new popular science writing, and was a matter for medical institutions and for experts who could make their own comparisons.", "Darwin's \"On the Origin of Species\", which made a powerful impression on Haeckel when he read it in 1864, was very cautious about the possibility of ever reconstructing the history of life, but did include a section reinterpreting von Baer's embryology and revolutionising the field of study, concluding that \"Embryology rises greatly in interest, when we thus look at the embryo as a picture, more or less obscured, of the common parent-form of each great class of animals.\" It mentioned von Baer's 1828 anecdote (misattributing it to Louis Agassiz) that at an early stage embryos were so similar that it could be impossible to tell whether an unlabelled specimen was of a mammal, a bird, or of a reptile, and Darwin's own research using embryonic stages of barnacles to show that they are crustaceans, while cautioning against the idea that one organism or embryonic stage is \"higher\" or \"lower\", or more or less evolved. Haeckel disregarded such caution, and in a year wrote his massive and ambitious \"Generelle Morphologie\", published in 1866, presenting a revolutionary new synthesis of Darwin's ideas with the German tradition of \"Naturphilosophie\" going back to Goethe and with the progressive evolutionism of Lamarck in what he called \"Darwinismus\". He used morphology to reconstruct the evolutionary history of life, in the absence of fossil evidence using embryology as evidence of ancestral relationships. He invented new terms, including ontogeny and phylogeny, to present his evolutionised recapitulation theory that \"ontogeny recapitulated phylogeny\". The two massive volumes sold poorly, and were heavy going: with his limited understanding of German, Darwin found them impossible to read. Haeckel's publisher turned down a proposal for a \"strictly scholarly and objective\" second edition.", "Haeckel's aim was a reformed morphology with evolution as the organising principle of a cosmic synthesis unifying science, religion, and art. He was giving successful \"popular lectures\" on his ideas to students and townspeople in Jena, in an approach pioneered by his teacher Rudolf Virchow. To meet his publisher's need for a popular work he used a student's transcript of his lectures as the basis of his \"Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte\" of 1868, presenting a comprehensive presentation of evolution. In the Spring of that year he drew figures for the book, synthesising his views of specimens in Jena and published pictures to represent types. After publication he told a colleague that the images \"are completely exact, partly copied from nature, partly assembled from all illustrations of these early stages that have hitherto become known\". There were various styles of embryological drawings at that time, ranging from more schematic representations to \"naturalistic\" illustrations of specific specimens. Haeckel believed privately that his figures were both exact and synthetic, and in public asserted that they were schematic like most figures used in teaching. The images were reworked to match in size and orientation, and though displaying Haeckel's own views of essential features, they support von Baer's concept that vertebrate embryos begin similarly and then diverge. Relating different images on a grid conveyed a powerful evolutionary message. As a book for the general public, it followed the common practice of not citing sources. The book sold very well, and while some anatomical experts hostile to Haeckel's evolutionary views expressed some private concerns that certain figures had been drawn rather freely, the figures showed what they already knew about similarities in embryos. The first published concerns came from Ludwig Rütimeyer, a professor of zoology and comparative anatomy at the University of Basel who had placed fossil mammals in an evolutionary lineage early in the 1860s and had been sent a complimentary copy. At the end of 1868 his review in the \"Archiv für Anthropologie\" wondered about the claim that the work was \"popular and scholarly\", doubting whether the second was true, and expressed horror about such public discussion of man's place in nature with illustrations such as the evolutionary trees being shown to non-experts. Though he made no suggestion that embryo illustrations should be directly based on specimens, to him the subject demanded the utmost \"scrupulosity and conscientiousness\" and an artist must \"not arbitrarily model or generalise his originals for speculative purposes\" which he considered proved by comparison with works by other authors. In particular, \"one and the same, moreover incorrectly interpreted woodcut, is presented to the reader three times in a row and with three different captions as [the] embryo of the dog, the chick, [and] the turtle\". He accused Haeckel of \"playing fast and loose with the public and with science\", and failing to live up to the obligation to the truth of every serious researcher. Haeckel responded with angry accusations of bowing to religious prejudice, but in the second (1870) edition changed the duplicated embryo images to a single image captioned \"embryo of a mammal or bird\". Duplication using galvanoplastic stereotypes (clichés) was a common technique in textbooks, but not on the same page to represent different eggs or embryos. In 1891 Haeckel made the excuse that this \"extremely rash foolishness\" had occurred in undue haste but was \"bona fide\", and since repetition of incidental details was obvious on close inspection, it is unlikely to have been intentional deception. The revised 1870 second edition of 1,500 copies attracted more attention, being quickly followed by further revised editions with larger print runs as the book became a prominent part of the optimistic, nationalist, anticlerical \"culture of progress\" in Otto von Bismarck's new German Empire. The similarity of early vertebrate embryos became common knowledge, and the illustrations were praised by experts such as Michael Foster of the University of Cambridge. In the introduction to his 1871 \"The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex\", Darwin gave particular praise to Haeckel, writing that if \"Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte\" \"had appeared before my essay had been written, I should probably never have completed it\". The first chapter included an illustration: \"As some of my readers may never have seen a drawing of an embryo, I have given one of man and another of a dog, at about the same early stage of development, carefully copied from two works of undoubted accuracy\" with a footnote citing the sources and noting that \"Häckel has also given analogous drawings in his \"Schöpfungsgeschichte.\"\" The fifth edition of Haeckel's book appeared in 1874, with its frontispiece a heroic portrait of Haeckel himself, replacing the previous controversial image of the heads of apes and humans.", "Later in 1874, Haeckel's simplified embryology textbook \"Anthropogenie\" made the subject into a battleground over Darwinism aligned with Bismarck's \"Kulturkampf\" (\"culture struggle\") against the Catholic Church. Haeckel took particular care over the illustrations, changing to the leading zoological publisher Wilhelm Engelmann of Leipzig and obtaining from them use of illustrations from their other textbooks as well as preparing his own drawings including a dramatic double page illustration showing \"early\", \"somewhat later\" and \"still later\" stages of 8 different vertebrates. Though Haeckel's views had attracted continuing controversy, there had been little dispute about the embryos and he had many expert supporters, but Wilhelm His revived the earlier criticisms and introduced new attacks on the 1874 illustrations. Others joined in: both expert anatomists and Catholic priests and supporters were politically opposed to Haeckel's views. While it has been widely claimed that Haeckel was charged with fraud by five professors and convicted by a university court at Jena, there does not appear to be an independently verifiable source for this claim. Recent analyses (Richardson 1998, Richardson and Keuck 2002) have found that some of the criticisms of Haeckel's embryo drawings were legitimate, but others were unfounded. There were multiple versions of the embryo drawings, and Haeckel rejected the claims of fraud. It was later said that \"there is evidence of sleight of hand\" on both sides of the feud between Haeckel and Wilhelm His. Robert J. Richards, in a paper published in 2008, defends the case for Haeckel, shedding doubt against the fraud accusations based on the material used for comparison with what Haeckel could access at the time.", "Haeckel was awarded the title of Excellency by Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1907 and the Linnean Society of London's prestigious Darwin-Wallace Medal in 1908. In the United States, \"Mount Haeckel\", a summit in the Eastern Sierra Nevada, overlooking the Evolution Basin, is named in his honour, as is another \"Mount Haeckel\", a summit in New Zealand; and the asteroid 12323 Haeckel. In Jena he is remembered with a monument at Herrenberg (erected in 1969), an exhibition at Ernst-Haeckel-Haus, and at the Jena Phyletic Museum, which continues to teach about evolution and share his work to this day.", "Darwin's 1859 book \"On the Origin of Species\" had immense popular influence, but although its sales exceeded its publisher's hopes it was a technical book rather than a work of popular science: long, difficult and with few illustrations. One of Haeckel's books did a great deal to explain his version of \"Darwinism\" to the world. It was a bestselling, provocatively illustrated book in German, titled \"Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte\", published in Berlin in 1868, and translated into English as \"The History of Creation\" in 1876. It was frequently reprinted until 1926. Haeckel argued that human evolution consisted of precisely 22 phases, the 21st – the \"missing link\" – being a halfway step between apes and humans. He even formally named this missing link \"Pithecanthropus alalus\", translated as \"ape man without speech\". Haeckel's literary output was extensive, including many books, scientific papers, and illustrations.", "For a fuller list of works of and about Haeckel, see his entry in the.", "Some historians have seen Haeckel's social Darwinism as a forerunner to National Socialist ideology. Others have denied the relationship all together. The evidence is in some respects ambiguous. On one hand, Haeckel was an advocate of scientific racism. He held that evolutionary biology had definitively proven that races were unequal in intelligence and ability, and that their lives were also of unequal value. As a result of the \"struggle for existence\", it followed that the \"lower\" races would eventually be exterminated. He was also a social Darwinist who believed that \"survival of the fittest\" was a natural law, and that struggle led to improvement of the race. As an advocate of eugenics, he also believed that about 200,000 mentally and congenitally ill should be killed by a medical control board. This idea was later put into practice by the Third Reich, as part of the Aktion T4 program. Alfred Ploetz, founder of the German Society for Racial Hygiene, praised Haeckel repeatedly, and invited him to become an honorary member. Haeckel accepted the invitation. Haeckel also believed that Germany should be governed by an authoritarian political system, and that inequalities both within and between societies were an inevitable product of evolutionary law. Haeckel was also an extreme German nationalist who believed strongly in the superiority of German culture. On the other hand, Haeckel was not an anti-Semite. In the racial hierarchies he constructed Jews tended to appear closer to the top, rather than closer to the bottom as in National Socialist racial thought. He was also a pacifist until the First World War, when he wrote propaganda in favor of the war. The principal arguments of historians who deny a meaningful connection between Haeckel and National Socialism are that Haeckel's ideas were very common at the time, that National Socialists were much more strongly influenced by other thinkers, and that Haeckel is properly classified as a 19th century German liberal, rather than a forerunner to 20th century National Socialism. They also point to incompatibilities between evolutionary biology and National Socialist ideology. Nazis themselves divided on the question of whether Haeckel should be counted as a pioneer of their ideology. SS captain and biologist Heinz Brücher wrote a biography of Haeckel in 1936, in which he praised Haeckel as a \"pioneer in biological state thinking\". This opinion was also shared by the scholarly journal, \"Der Biologie\", which celebrated Haeckel's 100th birthday, in 1934, with several essays acclaiming him as a pioneering thinker of National Socialism. Other Nazis kept their distance from Haeckel. Nazi propaganda guidelines issued in 1935 listed books which popularized Darwin and evolution on an \"expunged list\". Haeckel was included by name as a forbidden author. Gunther Hecht, a member of the Nazi Department of Race Politics, also issued a memorandum rejecting Haeckel as a forerunner of National Socialism. Kurt Hildebrandt, a Nazi political philosopher, also rejected Haeckel. Eventually Nazis rejected Haeckel because his evolutionary ideas could not be reconciled with Nazi ideology." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Flora.", "Fauna.", "Mount Cameroon National Park.", "Access." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Mount Cameroon is one of Africa's largest volcanoes, rising to above the coast of west Cameroon. It rises from the coast through tropical rainforest to a bare summit, which is cold, windy, and occasionally dusted with snow. The massive steep-sided volcano of dominantly basaltic-to-trachybasaltic composition forms a volcanic horst constructed above a basement of Precambrian metamorphic rocks covered with Cretaceous to Quaternary sediments. More than 100 small cinder cones, often fissure-controlled parallel to the long axis of the massive volcano, occur on the flanks and surrounding lowlands. A large satellitic peak, \"Etinde\" (also known as Little Mount Cameroon), is located on the southern flank near the coast. Mount Cameroon has the most frequent eruptions of any West African volcano. The first written account of volcanic activity could be the one from the Carthaginian Hanno the Navigator, who may have observed the mountain in the 5th century BC. Moderate explosive and effusive eruptions have occurred throughout history from both summit and flank vents. A 1922 eruption on the southwestern flank produced a lava flow that reached the Atlantic coast. A lava flow from a 1999 south-flank eruption stopped 200 m (660 ft) from the sea, cutting the coastal highway.", "The mountain's natural vegetation varies with elevation. The main plant communities on the mountain include:", "Large mammals on the mountain include the African forest elephant (\"Loxodonta cyclotis\"), with a population of over 100 individuals. Other herbivores include red river hog (\"Potamochoerus porcus\"), bushbuck (\"Tragelaphus scriptus\"), bay duiker (\"Cephalophus dorsalis\"), blue duiker (\"Philantomba monticola\"), and yellow-backed duiker (\"Cephalophus sylvicultor\"). The mountain is home to several species of primates, including chimpanzee (\"Pan troglodytes\"), drill (\"Mandrillus leucophaeus\"), red-capped mangabey (\"Cercocebos torquatus\"), putty-nosed monkey (\"Cercopithecus nictitans\"), mona monkey (\"Cercopithecus mona\"), red-eared monkey (\"Cercopithecus erythrotis\"), Preuss’ guenon (\"Cercopithecus preussii\"), and crowned guenon (\"Cercopithecus pogonias\"). Two species of birds are endemic to Mount Cameroon, Mount Cameroon spurfowl (\"Pternistis camerunensis\") and Mount Cameroon speirops (\"Zosterops melanocephalus\").", "Mount Cameroon National Park (\"Parc National du Mont Cameroun\") was created in 2009. It covers an area of 581.23 km2. The park includes the former Etinde Forest Reserve and most of the Bomboko Forest Reserve. A portion of the Bomboko Forest Reserve remains outside the park, on the lower northern slopes of the mountain.", "The peak is frequently ascended by hikers. The annual Mount Cameroon Race of Hope scales the peak in around 41⁄2 hours. Sarah Etonge has won the race seven times and is also a tour operator. English explorer Mary Kingsley, one of the first Europeans to scale the mountain, recounts her expedition in her 1897 memoir \"Travels in West Africa\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "Family background.", "Childhood.", "Student days.", "Early conducting career 1880–88.", "First appointments.", "Prague and Leipzig.", "Apprentice composer.", "Budapest and Hamburg, 1888–97.", "Royal Opera, Budapest.", "Stadttheater Hamburg.", "Vienna, 1897–1907.", "Hofoper director.", "Philharmonic concerts.", "Mature composer.", "Marriage, family, tragedy.", "Last years, 1908–11.", "New York.", "Illness and death.", "Music.", "Three creative periods.", "Antecedents and influences.", "Genre.", "Style.", "Reception.", "Early responses, 1889–1911.", "Relative neglect, 1911–50.", "Modern revival.", "Later influence.", "Memorials and museums." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "", "The Mahler family came from eastern Bohemia and were of humble circumstances; the composer's grandmother had been a street pedlar. Bohemia was then part of the Austrian Empire; the Mahler family belonged to a German-speaking minority among Bohemians, and was also Ashkenazic Jewish. From this background the future composer developed early on a permanent sense of exile, \"always an intruder,", "In October 1860, Bernhard Mahler moved with his wife and infant son, Gustav, to the town of Iglau (Jihlava), to the south-east (Moravia), where he built up a distillery and tavern business. The family grew rapidly, but of the 12 children (three daughters) born to the family in Iglau only six survived infancy. Iglau was then a thriving commercial town of 20,000 people where Gustav was introduced to music through street songs, dance tunes, folk melodies, and the trumpet calls and marches of the local military band. All of these elements would later contribute to his mature musical vocabulary. When he was four years old, Gustav", "Bernhard Mahler supported his son's ambitions for a music career, and agreed that the boy should try for a place at the Vienna Conservatory. The young Mahler was auditioned by the renowned pianist Julius Epstein, and accepted for 1875–76. He made good progress in his piano studies with Epstein and won prizes at the end of each of his first two years. For his final year, 1877–78, he concentrated on composition and harmony under Robert Fuchs and Franz Krenn. Few of Mahler's student compositions have survived; most were abandoned when he became dissatisfied with them. He destroyed a symphonic movement prepared for an end-of-term competition, after its scornful rejection by the autocratic director Joseph Hellmesberger on the grounds of copying errors. Mahler may have gained his first conducting experience with the Conservatory's student orchestra, in rehearsals and performances, although it appears that his main role in this orchestra was as a percussionist. Among Mahler's fellow students at the Conservatory was the future song composer Hugo Wolf, with whom he formed a close friendship. Wolf was unable to submit to the strict disciplines of the Conservatory and was expelled. Mahler, while sometimes rebellious, avoided the same fate only by writing a penitent letter to Hellmesberger. He attended occasional lectures by Anton Bruckner and, though never formally his", "", "From June to August 1880, Mahler took his first professional conducting job, in a small wooden theatre in the spa town of Bad Hall, south of Linz. The repertory was exclusively operetta; it was, in Carr's words \"a dismal little job,\" which Mahler accepted only after Julius Epstein told him he would soon work his way up. In 1881, he was engaged for six months (September to April) at the Landestheater in Laibach (now Ljubljana, in Slovenia), where the small but resourceful company was prepared to attempt more ambitious works. Here, Mahler conducted his first full-scale opera, Verdi's \"Il trovatore\", one of 10 operas and a number of operettas that he presented during his time in Laibach. After completing this engagement, Mahler returned to Vienna and worked part-time as chorus-master at the Vienna Carltheater. From the beginning of January 1883, Mahler became conductor at the Royal Municipal Theatre in Olmütz (now Olomouc) in Moravia. He later wrote: \"From the moment I crossed the threshold of the Olmütz theatre I felt like one awaiting the wrath of God.\" Despite poor relations with the orchestra, Mahler brought nine (13", "In Prague, the emergence of the Czech National Revival had increased the popularity and importance of the new Czech National Theatre, and had led to a downturn in the \"Neues Deutsches Theater\" fortunes. Mahler's task was to help arrest this decline by offering high-quality productions of German opera. He enjoyed early success presenting works by Mozart and Wagner, composers with whom he would be particularly associated for the rest of his career, but his individualistic and increasingly autocratic conducting style led to friction, and a falling out with", "In the early years of Mahler's conducting career, composing was a spare time activity. Between his Laibach and Olmütz appointments he worked on settings of verses by Richard Leander and Tirso de Molina, later collected as Volume I of \"Lieder und Gesänge\" (\"Songs and Airs\"). Mahler's first orchestral song cycle, \"Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen\", composed at Kassel, was based on his own verses, although the first poem, \"\" (\"When my love becomes a bride\") closely follows the text of a \"Wunderhorn\" poem. The melodies for the second and fourth songs of the cycle were incorporated into the First Symphony, which Mahler finished in 1888, at the height of his relationship with Marion von Weber.", "", "On arriving in Budapest in October 1888, Mahler encountered a cultural conflict between conservative Hungarian nationalists who favoured a policy of Magyarisation, and progressives who wanted to maintain and develop the country's Austro-German cultural traditions. In the opera house a dominant conservative caucus, led by the music director Sándor Erkel, had maintained a limited repertory of historical and folklore opera. By the time that Mahler began his duties, the progressive camp had gained ascendancy following the appointment of the liberal-minded Ferenc", "Mahler's Hamburg post was as chief conductor, subordinate to the director, Bernhard Pohl (known as Pollini) who retained overall artistic control. Pollini was prepared to give Mahler considerable leeway if the conductor could provide commercial as well as artistic success. This Mahler did in his first season, when he conducted Wagner's \"Tristan und Isolde\" for the first time and gave acclaimed performances of the same composer's \"Tannhäuser\" and \"Siegfried\". Another triumph was the German premiere of Tchaikovsky's \"Eugene Onegin\", in the presence of the composer, who called Mahler's conducting \"astounding,\" and later asserted in a letter that he believed Mahler was \"positively a genius.\" Mahler's demanding rehearsal schedules led to predictable resentment from the singers and orchestra with whom, according to music writer Peter Franklin, the conductor \"inspired hatred and respect in almost equal measure.\" He found support, however, from Hans von Bülow, who was in Hamburg as director of the city's subscription concerts. Bülow, who had spurned Mahler's approaches in Kassel, had come to admire the younger man's conducting style, and on Bülow's death in 1894 Mahler took over the direction of the concerts. In the summer of 1892 Mahler took the Hamburg singers to London to participate in an eight-week season of German opera—his only visit to Britain. His conducting of \"Tristan\" enthralled the young composer Ralph Vaughan Williams, who \"staggered home in a daze and could not sleep for two nights.\" However, Mahler refused further", "", "As he waited for the Emperor's confirmation of his directorship, Mahler shared duties as a resident conductor with Joseph Hellmesberger Jr. (son of the former conservatory director) and Hans Richter, an internationally renowned interpreter of Wagner and the conductor of the original \"Ring\" cycle at \"Bayreuth\" in 1876. Director Wilhelm Jahn had not consulted Richter about Mahler's appointment; Mahler, sensitive to the situation, wrote Richter a complimentary letter expressing unswerving admiration for the older conductor. Subsequently, the two were rarely in agreement, but kept their divisions private. Vienna, the imperial Habsburg capital, had recently elected an anti-Semitic conservative mayor, Karl Lueger, who had once proclaimed: \"I myself decide who is a Jew and who isn't.\" In such a volatile political atmosphere Mahler needed an early demonstration of his German cultural credentials. He", "When Richter resigned as head of the Vienna Philharmonic subscription concerts in September 1898, the concerts committee had unanimously chosen Mahler as his successor. The appointment was not universally welcomed; the anti-Semitic press wondered if, as a non-German, Mahler would be capable of defending German music. Attendances rose sharply in Mahler's first season, but members of the orchestra were particularly resentful of his habit of re-scoring acknowledged masterpieces, and of his scheduling of extra rehearsals for works", "The demands of his twin appointments in Vienna initially absorbed all Mahler's time and energy, but by 1899 he had resumed composing. The remaining Vienna years were to prove particularly fruitful. While working on some of the last of his \"Des Knaben Wunderhorn\" settings he started his Fourth Symphony, which he completed in 1900. By this time he had abandoned the composing hut at Steinbach and had acquired another, at Maiernigg on the shores of the Wörthersee in Carinthia, where he later built a villa. In this new venue Mahler embarked upon what is generally considered as his \"middle\" or post-\"Wunderhorn\" compositional period. Between 1901 and 1904 he wrote ten settings of poems by Friedrich Rückert, five of which were", "During his second season in Vienna, Mahler acquired a spacious modern apartment on the Auenbruggerstrasse and built a summer villa on land he had acquired next to his new composing studio at Maiernigg. In November 1901, he met Alma Schindler, the stepdaughter of painter Carl Moll, at a social gathering that included the theatre director Max Burckhard. Alma was not initially keen to meet Mahler, on account of \"the scandals about him and every young woman who aspired to sing in opera.\" The two engaged in a lively disagreement about a ballet by Alexander von Zemlinsky (Alma was one of Zemlinsky's pupils), but agreed to meet at the Hofoper the following day. This meeting led to a rapid courtship; Mahler and Alma were married at a private ceremony on 9 March 1902. Alma was by then pregnant with her first child, a daughter Maria Anna, who was born on 3 November 1902. A second daughter, Anna, was born in 1904. Friends of the couple were surprised by the marriage and dubious of its wisdom. Burckhard called Mahler \"that rachitic degenerate Jew,\" unworthy for such a good-looking girl of good family. On the other hand, Mahler's family considered Alma to be flirtatious, unreliable, and too fond of seeing young men fall for", "", "Mahler made his New York debut at the Metropolitan Opera on 1 January 1908, when he conducted Wagner's \"Tristan und Isolde\". In a busy first season Mahler's performances were widely praised, especially his \"Fidelio\" on 20 March 1908, in which he insisted on using replicas that were at the time being made of Alfred Roller's Vienna sets. On his return to Austria for the summer of 1908, Mahler established himself in the third and last of his composing studios, in the", "In spite of the emotional distractions, during the summer of 1910 Mahler worked on his Tenth Symphony, completing the Adagio and drafting four more movements. He and Alma returned to New York in late October 1910, where Mahler threw himself into a busy Philharmonic season of concerts and tours. Around Christmas 1910 he began suffering from a sore throat, which persisted. On 21 February 1911, with a temperature of 40 °C (104 °F), Mahler insisted on fulfilling an engagement at Carnegie Hall, with a program of mainly new Italian music, including the world premiere of Busoni's \"Berceuse élégiaque\". This was Mahler's last concert. After weeks confined to bed he was diagnosed with bacterial endocarditis, a disease to which sufferers from defective heart valves were particularly prone and could be fatal. Mahler did not give up hope; he talked of resuming the concert season, and took a keen interest when one of Alma's compositions was sung at a public recital by the soprano Frances Alda, on 3 March. On 8 April the Mahler family and a permanent nurse left New York on board SS \"Amerika\" bound for Europe. They reached Paris ten days later, where Mahler entered a clinic at Neuilly, but there was no improvement; on 11 May he was taken by train to the Löw sanatorium in Vienna, where he developed pneumonia and entered a coma. Hundreds had come to the sanitorium during", "", "Deryck Cooke and other analysts have divided Mahler's composing life into three distinct phases: a long \"first period,\" extending from \"Das klagende Lied\" in 1880 to the end of the \"Wunderhorn\" phase in 1901; a \"middle period\" of more concentrated composition ending with Mahler's departure for New York in 1907; and a brief \"late period\" of elegiac works before his death in 1911. The main works of the first period are the first four symphonies, the \"Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen\" song cycle and various song collections in which the \"Wunderhorn\" songs predominate. In this period songs and symphonies are closely related and the symphonic works are programmatic. Mahler initially gave the first three symphonies full descriptive programmes, all of which he later repudiated. He devised, but did not publish, titles for each of the movements for the Fourth Symphony; from these titles the German music critic", "Mahler was a \"late Romantic,\" part of an ideal that placed Austro-German classical music on a higher plane than other types, through its supposed possession of particular spiritual and philosophical significance. He was one of the last major composers of a line which includes, among others, Beethoven, Schubert, Liszt, Wagner, Bruckner and Brahms. From these antecedents Mahler drew many of the features that were to characterise his music. Thus, from Beethoven's Ninth Symphony came the idea of using soloists and a choir within the symphonic genre. From Beethoven, Liszt and (from a different musical tradition) Berlioz came the concept of writing music with an inherent narrative or \"programme,\" and of breaking away from the", "Except for his juvenilia, little of which has survived, Mahler composed only in the media of song and symphony, with a close and complex interrelationship between the two. Donald Mitchell writes that this interaction is the backcloth against which all Mahler's music can be considered. The initial connection between song and symphony occurs with the song-cycle \"Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen\" and the First Symphony. Although this early evidence of cross-fertilisation is important, it is during Mahler's extended \"Wunderhorn\" phase, in which his Second, Third and Fourth Symphonies were written, that the song and symphony genres are consistently intermingled. Themes from the \"Wunderhorn\" song \"Das himmlische Leben\" (\"The Heavenly Life\"), composed", "The union of song and symphonic form in Mahler's music is, in Cooke's view, organic; \"his songs flower naturally into symphonic movements, being already symphonic in cast.\" To Sibelius, Mahler expressed the belief that \"The symphony must be like the world. It must embrace everything.\" True to this belief, Mahler drew material from many sources into his songs and symphonic works: bird calls and cow-bells to evoke nature and the countryside, bugle fanfares, street melodies and country dances to summon the lost world of his childhood. Life's struggles are represented in contrasting moods: the yearning for fulfilment by soaring melodies and chromatic harmony, suffering and despair by discord, distortion and grotesquerie. Amid all this is Mahler's particular hallmark—the constant intrusion of banality and absurdity into moments of deep seriousness, typified in the second movement of the Fifth Symphony when a trivial popular tune suddenly cuts into a solemn funeral march. The trite melody soon changes its character, and in due course re-emerges as one of the majestic Brucknerian chorales which Mahler uses to signify hope and the resolution of conflict. Mahler himself recognised the idiosyncrasies in his work, calling the Scherzo in the Third Symphony \"the most farcical and at the same time the most tragic piece that ever existed... It is as", "", "Mahler's friend Guido Adler calculated that at the time of the composer's death in 1911 there had been more than 260 performances of the symphonies in Europe, Russia and America, the Fourth Symphony with 61 performances given most frequently (Adler did not enumerate performances of the songs). In his lifetime, Mahler's works and their performances attracted wide interest, but rarely unqualified approval; for years after its 1889 premiere critics and public struggled to understand the First Symphony, described by one critic after an 1898 Dresden performance as \"the dullest [symphonic] work the new epoch has produced.\" The Second Symphony was received more positively, one critic calling it \"the most masterly work of its kind since Mendelssohn.\" Such generous praise was rare, particularly after Mahler's accession to", "Performances of Mahler's works became less frequent after his death. In the Netherlands the advocacy of Willem Mengelberg ensured that Mahler remained popular there, and Mengelberg's engagement with the New York Philharmonic from 1922 to 1928 brought Mahler regularly to American audiences. However, much American critical reaction in the 1920s was negative, despite a spirited effort by the young composer Aaron Copland to present Mahler as a progressive, 30 years ahead of his time and infinitely more inventive than Richard Strauss. Earlier, in 1916, Leopold Stokowski had given the American premieres of the Eighth Symphony and \"Das Lied von der Erde\" in Philadelphia. The Eighth was a sensationally successful performance that was immediately taken to New York where it scored a further triumph. An early proponent of Mahler's work in Britain was Adrian Boult, who as conductor of the City of Birmingham Orchestra performed the Fourth Symphony in 1926 and \"Das Lied von der Erde\" in 1930. The Hallé Orchestra brought \"Das Lied\" and the Ninth Symphony to Manchester in 1931; Sir", "According to American composer David Schiff, his compatriot Leonard Bernstein used to imply that he had single-handedly rescued Mahler from oblivion in 1960, after 50 years of neglect. Schiff points out that such neglect was only relative—far less than the (incomplete) disregard of Bach in the years after his death. Although Bernstein gave the Mahler revival further impetus, it was well under way before 1960, sustained by conductors such as Stokowski, Dimitri Mitropoulos and John Barbirolli, and by the long-time Mahler advocate Aaron Copland. Mahler himself predicted his place in history, once commenting: \"Would that I could perform my symphonies for the first time 50 years after my death!\" Deryck Cooke argues that Mahler's popularity escalated when a new, postwar generation of music-lovers arose, untainted by \"the dated polemics of anti-romanticism\" which had affected Mahler's reputation in the inter-war years. In this more", "Donald Mitchell writes that Mahler's influence on succeeding generations of composers is \"a complete subject in itself.\" Mahler's first disciples included Arnold Schoenberg and his pupils Alban Berg and Anton Webern, who together founded the Second Viennese School. Mahler's music influenced the trio's move from progressive tonalism to atonality (music without a key); although Mahler rejected atonality, he became a fierce defender of the bold originality of Schoenberg's work. At the premiere of the latter's First String Quartet in February 1907, Mahler reportedly was held back from physically attacking the hecklers. Schoenberg's Serenade, Op. 24 (1923), Berg's Three Pieces for Orchestra (1915) and Webern's Six Pieces (1928) all", "In Hamburg, the Gustav Mahler Museum is dedicated to Gustav Mahler's life and work. It is situated in the Composers Quarter. In Altschluderbach, near Toblach in South Tyrol, Italy, there remains a little museum and memorial in the former composer's hut of Mahler. It is situated in the animal park next to the Gustav Mahler" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Strict total order.", "Further concepts.", "Lattice theory.", "Finite total orders.", "Category theory.", "Order topology.", "Completeness.", "Sums of orders.", "Orders on the Cartesian product of totally ordered sets.", "Related structures." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "For each (non-strict) total order ≤ there is an associated asymmetric (hence irreflexive) transitive semiconnex relation <, called a strict total order or strict semiconnex order, which can be defined in two equivalent ways: Properties: We can work the other way and start by choosing < as a transitive trichotomous binary relation; then a total order ≤ can be defined in two equivalent ways: Two more associated orders are the complements ≥ and >, completing the quadruple {<, >, ≤, ≥}. We can define or explain the way a set is totally ordered by any of these four relations; the notation implies whether we are talking about the non-strict or the strict total order.", "", "One may define a totally ordered set as a particular kind of lattice, namely one in which we have We then write \"a\" ≤ \"b\" if and only if formula_20. Hence a totally ordered set is a distributive lattice.", "A simple counting argument will verify that any non-empty finite totally ordered set (and hence any non-empty subset thereof) has a least element. Thus every finite total order is in fact a well order. Either by direct proof or by observing that every well order is order isomorphic to an ordinal one may show that every finite total order is order isomorphic to an initial segment of the natural numbers ordered by <. In other words, a total order on a set with \"k\" elements induces a bijection with the first \"k\" natural numbers. Hence it is common to index finite total orders or well orders with order type ω by natural numbers in a fashion which respects the ordering (either starting with zero or with one).", "Totally ordered sets form a full subcategory of the category of partially ordered sets, with the morphisms being maps which respect the orders, i.e. maps \"f\" such that if \"a\" ≤ \"b\" then \"f\"(\"a\") ≤ \"f\"(\"b\"). A bijective map between two totally ordered sets that respects the two orders is an isomorphism in this category.", "For any totally ordered set \"X\" we can define the open intervals (\"a\", \"b\") = {\"x\" : \"a\" < \"x\" and \"x\" < \"b\"}, (−∞, \"b\") = {\"x\" : \"x\" < \"b\"}, (\"a\", ∞) = {\"x\" : \"a\" < \"x\"} and (−∞, ∞) = \"X\". We can use these open intervals to define a topology on any ordered set, the order topology. When more than one order is being used on a set one talks about the order topology induced by a particular order. For instance if N is the natural numbers, < is less than and > greater than we might refer to the order topology on N induced by < and the order topology on N induced by > (in this case they happen to be identical but will not in general). The order topology induced by a total order may be shown to be hereditarily normal.", "A totally ordered set is said to be complete if every nonempty subset that has an upper bound, has a least upper bound. For example, the set of real numbers R is complete but the set of rational numbers Q is not. There are a number of results relating properties of the order topology to the completeness of X: A totally ordered set (with its order topology) which is a complete lattice is compact. Examples are the closed intervals of real numbers, e.g. the unit interval [0,1], and the affinely extended real number system (extended real number line). There are order-preserving homeomorphisms between these examples.", "For any two disjoint total orders formula_21 and formula_22, there is a natural order formula_23 on the set formula_24, which is called the sum of the two orders or sometimes just formula_25: Intuitively, this means that the elements of the second set are added on top of the elements of the first set. More generally, if formula_34 is a totally ordered index set, and for each formula_35 the structure formula_36 is a linear order, where the sets formula_37 are pairwise disjoint, then the natural total order on formula_38 is defined by", "In order of increasing strength, i.e., decreasing sets of pairs, three of the possible orders on the Cartesian product of two totally ordered sets are: All three can similarly be defined for the Cartesian product of more than two sets. Applied to the vector space R, each of these make it an ordered vector space. See also examples of partially ordered sets. A real function of \"n\" real variables defined on a subset of R defines a strict weak order and a corresponding total preorder on that subset.", "A binary relation that is antisymmetric, transitive, and reflexive (but not necessarily total) is a partial order. A group with a compatible total order is a totally ordered group. There are only a few nontrivial structures that are (interdefinable as) reducts of a total order. Forgetting the orientation results in a betweenness relation. Forgetting the location of the ends results in a cyclic order. Forgetting both data results in a separation relation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and rise as a cleric.", "Croatian politics.", "Cultural policy.", "Catholic diplomacy.", "Personal life.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Strossmayer was born in Osijek to a Croatian family. His great-grandfather was an ethnic German immigrant from Styria who had married a Croatian woman. He finished a gymnasium in Osijek, graduated theology at the Catholic seminary in Đakovo, and earned a PhD in philosophy at a high seminary in Budapest, at the age of 20. In 1838 he worked as a vicar in Petrovaradin, before moving to Vienna in 1840 to the Augustineum and the University of Vienna, where he received another doctorate in philosophy and Canon law in 1842. In 1847 he was made the Habsburg palace chaplain (a position he would hold until 1859), and named one of the rectors of the Augustineum. On 18 November 1849 he was made the bishop of Bosnia and Syrmia with seat in Đakovo. The proclamation was made by emperor Franz Joseph and at the proposal of Croatian ban Josip Jelačić. Pope Pius IX confirmed the imperial decree on 20 May 1850. He was made a bishop on 8 September 1850, and officially instated in Đakovo on 29 September the same year. Upon installment as bishop, he declared his motto to be \"Everything for the faith and the homeland\". Strossmayer inherited a wealthy diocese: it had 70,000 acres (280 km2) of mixed forests, pastures, arable land and vineyards, with developed cattle and horse breeding facilities, and it generated a yearly income of 150,000 to 300,000 forints.", "In 1860 he became the leader of the People's Party and remained at its head until 1873. He had previously befriended Ján Kollár in Pest and worked with Czech politicians František Palacký and František Rieger on their common ideals of cultural and political association of the Slavic peoples. He strove to obtain more rights for the Slavs within the Monarchy. He advocated federalization, merging of the kingdoms of Dalmatia and Croatia, as well as the introduction of Croatian language into public administration and schools. In 1861, Strossmayer made an influential speech in front of the Croatian Parliament regarding the relations of Croatia and Hungary, where he stated federalization as a goal, and advocated the merging of Međimurje and Rijeka with Croatia. In 1866, the Parliament elected him the president of the Croatian \"regnikolar\" deputation (\"regnikolarna\", that which represents the people of the kingdom), a committee that was to negotiate terms of statehood with Hungary, but which failed to successfully make a deal. Instead, the Croatian-Hungarian Settlement of 1868 was passed which was less favorably inclined towards the Croatian cause — and which Strossmayer protested with respect to decreased autonomy in the areas of budget and finances. In 1872 the Parliament formed another \"regnikolar\" deputation for the revision of the Settlement, and Strossmayer was its member, but they again failed in their task. This made Strossmayer retire from active political life and from the leadership of the People's Party. He later sided with the Independent People's Party which was in the opposition and which protested the rule of ban Khuen Hedervary (1883–1903), and insisted on the merger of all Croatian lands under the Kingdom of Hungary. In 1888 he retired from public politics after the Emperor had rebuked him for favoring the Russians and opposing the Hungarians.", "Strossmayer was instrumental in the founding of the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts in 1866, as well as the re-establishment of the University of Zagreb in 1874. He initiated the building of the Academy Palace (completed in 1880) and set up The Strossmayer Gallery of Old Masters (1884) in Zagreb. Strossmayer aided the creation of the printing house in Cetinje, helped found the \"Matica slovenska\" and actively supported \"Matica srpska\", the national culture societies of the Slovenes and the Serbs, respectively. In 1861 he had the book \"Bulgarian Folk Songs\" by the Miladinov Brothers from Macedonia printed in Zagreb. He also had several Glagolitic missals printed in the spirit of restoring the Slavonic liturgy that connected the two Christian religions of the South Slavs, and revering the work of saints Cyril and Methodius.", "Strossmayer supported the union of all south Slavic peoples, and promoted religious unification through the use of the Slavonic rite both in the Catholic and Orthodox Churches. He served as the papal nuncio for Serbia and visited that country seven times between 1852 and 1886, and he also helped establish the concordat between the Holy See and the state of Montenegro in 1866. In 1869 and 1870 he attended the First Vatican Council in Rome. He made his mark as one of the vocal opponents of the unlimited power of the Pope as well as the doctrine of papal infallibility. He made a three-hour speech, completely in Latin, deemed heretical by many at the time, and left the Council therewith. He later yielded on the issue of infallibility, and he also headed the Slavic deputations to Rome in 1881 and 1888 which succeeded in convincing Pope Leo XIII to allow the south Slavs of Croatia and Dalmatia to retain Slavonic in the Roman Rite liturgy as well as in the Byzantine Rite.", "Since the early days of his episcopate, he was a close friend of Franjo Rački, the most renowned Croatian historian of his time. When the Academy was founded in 1867, Strossmayer was named chief sponsor, and Rački its President. In 1894, when Rački died, Strossmayer wrote: \"I lost my dearest friend... I lost a part of myself... the good half of everything I have created was his thought, his credit and his glory.\" Their friendship was well documented in a series of four books containing their letters, compiled by historian Ferdo Šišić. Josip Juraj Strossmayer died in Đakovo at the age of 90.", "Strossmayer continuously used the money obtained from his diocese to fund the building of schools, galleries and churches, notably the ornamental Cathedral of St. Peter and St. Paul in Đakovo whose building he oversaw between 1866 and 1882, and which he dedicated to the \"glory of God, unity of the churches, concord and love of his people\". The cathedral of Đakovo was the most grandiose object built by Strossmayer during his 55 years as a bishop: he also opened the printing house in Đakovo, the boys' seminary in Osijek, supported the main theological seminary and the arrival of nuns in Đakovo to help the female youth and caritative efforts, established new parishes throughout the diocese, organized missions for the laity, and finally wrote hundreds if not thousands of pastoral letters sent to the diocese as well as to other parts of Croatia, and elsewhere. Strossmayer is credited with monetary and organizational support for a wide variety of public works in Croatia: schools, gymnasiums, public libraries, helping the poor in remote areas, even building roads, and donating building material for St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican. The university of the city of Osijek is named after him, and a large statue of Strossmayer is located in the park that the Academy building overlooks. The city of Đakovo built him a memorial museum in 1991. One of the main streets in Sarajevo carries his name. A monument in the Sofia district of Ilinden commemorates Strossmayer's contribution to Bulgarian culture. Also, an in Prague is named after him. Bishop Nikolaj Velimirović dedicated a booklet entitled \"Religion and Nationality in Serbia\" to Strossmayer: “to the memory of the great Croatian patriot Bishop Strossmayer on the centenary of his birth (1815–1915)\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Construction.", "Military use.", "The Middle Ages.", "Renaissance and Denmark-Norway.", "World War II.", "Royal residence.", "During the Middle Ages.", "Restoration and palace.", "Prison.", "Kautokeino rebellion prisoners.", "Current use.", "Royal Mausoleum.", "Office of the Prime Minister.", "Imitation.", "Commanders of Akershus Fortress." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "It is not known exactly when the construction of the castle started but it is believed that it took place around the late 1290s, by King Haakon V, replacing Tønsberg as one of the two most important Norwegian castles of the period (the other being Båhus). It was constructed in response to the Norwegian nobleman, Earl Alv Erlingsson of Sarpsborg’s earlier attack on Oslo that occurred in 1287. In the aftermath of the attack, it became clear that the city’s existing defences weren’t effective and therefore, a stronger defensive centre was needed. The castle is mentioned in written sources for the first time in 1300 in a letter from King Haakon to a church in Oslo. However, the letter does not mention how far the construction of the castle had progressed by then. The fortress has successfully survived all sieges, primarily by Swedish forces, including those by forces led by Charles XII in 1716.", "", "The fortress was first used in battle in 1308, when it was besieged by the Swedish duke Eric of Södermanland, whose brother won the Swedish throne in 1309. The siege was eventually broken by a local Norwegian army in a battle. (This battle forms a major part of the plot of Sigrid Undset's historical novel \"In the Wilderness\", the third volume of her tetralogy \"The Master of Hestviken\".)", "In 1449-1450 the castle was besieged again, this time by the Swedish king Karl Knutsson Bonde, but he had to lift the siege after a while. The castle was not besieged again until 1502 when Scottish soldiers in the service of the Danish king besieged the castle in order to regain it from the hands of the Norwegian nobleman Knut Alvsson. Akershus was besieged yet again in 1523, this time by Swedish soldiers but Oslo’s inhabitants, at the command of Hans Mule, burned down their houses in an attempt to drive them out and the Swedes retreated after a short period. King Christian II besieged the castle from 1531 to 1532 but the siege was lifted by forces from Denmark and Lübeck. After this siege the castle was improved and strengthened. In 1567, during the Northern Seven Years' War, the castle was besieged once more by Swedish forces, but the Danish king's lord lieutenant, Christen Munk, responded by burning down the city in order to deprive the attackers themselves of the means of receiving supplies, and eventually the Swedes retreated. The immediate proximity of the sea was a key feature, for naval power was a vital military force as the majority of Norwegian commerce in that period was by sea. The fortress was strategically important for the capital, and therefore, Norway as well. Whoever controlled Akershus fortress ruled Norway.", "The fortress has never successfully been besieged by a foreign enemy. However it surrendered without combat to Nazi Germany in 1940 when the Norwegian government evacuated the capital in the face of the unprovoked German assault on Denmark and Norway (see Operation Weserübung). During World War II, people were executed here by the German occupiers, including members of the Pelle group. The fortress was liberated on 11 May 1945, when it was handed over to Terje Rollem on behalf of the Norwegian resistance movement. After the war, eight Norwegian traitors who had been tried for war crimes and sentenced to death were also executed at the fortress. Among those executed were Vidkun Quisling and Siegfried Fehmer.", "", "After construction of the castle was finished around 1300, Haakon V gradually started to use the castle as a residential palace, favoring the keep over the Oslo Kongsgard Estate despite the fact that the castle likely was unsuited as a residence. The castle becoming a royal residence also played a significant role in the process where the capital for Norway was moved from Bergen to Oslo. Several significant figures from the Norwegian middle ages, including Haakon IV, Queen Euphemia, Ingeborg Eriksdottir and Queen Margaret, all resided at the castle, which functioned as the official Norwegian royal residence for several decades. The last Norwegian king prior to the establishment of the Kalmar Union, Olaf II, was born at the castle in 1370.", "Following the great fire of 1624, King Christian IV made the decision to relocate and rebuild the entire city of Oslo. The king ordered the new city to be located closer to Akershus Fortress, renaming the city \"Christiania\". The fortress was subsequently modernized and remodeled, with the new appearance being that of a renaissance castle with Italian inspired bastions. The castle primarily functioned as a palace until the turn of the 19th century, with new towers, halls, chambers and gates being added over time. When the king was absent, the castle functioned as the seat of the Steward of Norway.", "Akershus has also been a prison, with a section of it known as \"The Slavery\" () because the prisoners could be rented out for work in the city. It has housed many rebels and criminals through Norwegian history. Particularly well-known people to have been imprisoned there include author Gjest Baardsen (1791–1849), and the similarly idealized thief Ole Høiland. Also, many early Norwegian socialists (supporters of Marcus Thrane, 1817–1890) also spent time in the cells of Akershus. The prison was also a plot element in the film \"Fante-Anne\" (1920).", "Following the 1852 Laestadian Sámi revolt in Guovdageaidnu, all men except the two leaders Aslak Hætta and Mons Somby (who were beheaded in Alta) ended up in Akershus Fortress – the women were imprisoned in Trondheim. Many of the rebels died after a few years in captivity. Among the survivors was Lars Hætta (18 years at the time of imprisonment), who during his stay was allowed time and means to write the first translation of the Bible into North Sámi.", "Although still a military area, the Akershus Fortress is open to the public between 6:00 and 21:00 daily. As well as the castle, the Norwegian Armed Forces Museum and Norway's Resistance Museum can also be visited. The Norwegian Ministry of Defence and the country's Defence Staff Norway share a joint modern headquarters in the eastern part of the fortress. His Majesty the King's Guard is responsible for guarding the fortress, with stationary guard posts during open hours and mobile patrols at night. One of the stationary guard posts at the entrance is a popular photography spot for tourists visiting the fortress.", "The castle's Royal Mausoleum is the final resting place of a number of Norwegian royal figures. This includes King Sigurd I, King Haakon V, Queen Eufemia, King Haakon VII, Queen Maud, King Olav V and Crown Princess Märtha. Since restoration of the main building, the castle has frequently been used as the venue for official events and dinners for dignitaries and foreign heads of state.", "After the 22. July attacks in 2011, the Office of the Norwegian Prime minister has been located close to the fortress in a building that originally belongs to the Norwegian Ministry of Defense.", "A portion of the fortress was replicated at the Norway pavilion at the Epcot theme park in Walt Disney World, Bay Lake, Florida, United States.", "The year is that in which they first took command." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "King of Jerusalem.", "Co-ruler.", "Conflicts.", "Fifth Crusade.", "Negotiations.", "Papal service.", "Emperor of Constantinople.", "Election.", "Rule.", "Death.", "Family.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "John was the youngest of the four sons of Erard II, Count of Brienne, and Agnes of Montfaucon. He seemed \"exceedingly about 80\" to the 14-year-old George Akropolites in 1231; if Akropolites' estimate was correct, John was born around 1150. However, no other 13th-century authors described John as an old man. His father referred to John's brothers as \"children\" in 1177 and mentioned the tutor of John's oldest brother, Walter III, in 1184; this suggests that John's brothers were born in the late 1160s. Modern historians agree that John was born after 1168, probably during the 1170s. Although his father destined John for a clerical career, according to the late 13th-century \"Tales of the Minstrel of Reims\" he \"was unwilling\". Instead, the minstrel continued, John fled to his maternal uncle at the Clairvaux Abbey. Encouraged by his fellows, he became a knight and earned a reputation in tournaments and fights. Although elements of the \"Tales of the Minstrel of Reims\" are apparently invented (for instance, John did not have a maternal uncle in Clairvaux), historian Guy Perry wrote that it may have preserved details of John's life. A church career was not unusual for youngest sons of 12th-century noblemen in France; however, if his father sent John to a monastery he left before reaching the age of taking monastic vows. John \"clearly developed the physique that was necessary to fight well\" in his youth, because the 13th-century sources Akropolites and Salimbene di Adam emphasize his physical strength. Erard II joined the Third Crusade and died in the Holy Land in 1191. His oldest son, Walter III, succeeded him in Brienne. John was first mentioned in an 1192 (or 1194) charter issued by his brother, indicating that he was a prominent figure in Walter's court. According to a version of Ernoul's chronicle, John participated in a war against Peter II of Courtenay. Although the \"Tales of the Minstrel of Reims\" claimed that he was called \"John Lackland\", according to contemporary charters John held Jessains, Onjon, Trannes and two other villages in the County of Champagne around 1200. In 1201, Theobald III granted him additional estates in Mâcon, Longsols and elsewhere. Theobald's widow, Blanche of Navarre, persuaded John to sell his estate at Mâcon, saying that it was her dower. Walter III of Brienne died in June 1205 while fighting in southern Italy. His widow, Elvira of Sicily, gave birth to a posthumous son, Walter IV, who grew up in Italy. John assumed the title of count of Brienne, and began administering the county on his nephew's behalf in 1205 or 1206. As a leading vassal of the count of Champagne, John frequented the court of Blanche of Navarre (who ruled Champagne during her son's minority). According to a version of Ernoul's chronicle, she loved John \"more than any man in the world\"; this annoyed Philip II of France. The two versions of Ernoul's chronicle tell different stories about John's ascent to the throne of Jerusalem. According to one version, the leading lords of Jerusalem sent envoys to France in 1208 asking Philip II to select a French nobleman as a husband for their queen, Maria. Taking advantage of the opportunity to rid himself of John, Philip II suggested him. In the other version an unnamed knight encouraged the Jerusalemite lords to select John, who accepted their offer with Philip's consent. John visited Pope Innocent III in Rome. The pope donated 40,000 marks for the defence of the Holy Land, stipulating that John could spend the money only with the consent of the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem and the grand masters of the Knights Templar and the Knights Hospitaller.", "", "John landed at Acre on 13 September 1210; the following day, Patriarch of Jerusalem Albert of Vercelli married him to Queen Maria. John and Maria were crowned in Tyre on 3 October. The truce concluded by Maria's predecessor Aimery and the Ayyubid sultan Al-Adil I had ended by John's arrival. Although Al-Adil was willing to renew it, Jerusalemite lords did not want to sign a new treaty without John's consent. During John and Maria's coronation, Al-Adil's son Al-Mu'azzam Isa pillaged the area around Acre but did not attack the city. After returning to Acre, John raided nearby Muslim settlements in retaliation. Although about 300 French knights accompanied him to the Holy Land, no influential noblemen joined him; they preferred participating in the French Albigensian Crusade or did not see him as sufficiently eminent. John's cousin, Walter of Montbéliard, joined him only after he was expelled from Cyprus. Montbéliard led a naval expedition to Egypt to plunder the Nile Delta. After most of the French crusaders left the Holy Land, John forged a new truce with Al-Adil by the middle of 1211 and sent envoys to Pope Innocent urging him to preach a new crusade.", "Maria died shortly after giving birth to their daughter, Isabella, in late 1212. Her death triggered a legal dispute, with John of Ibelin (who administered Jerusalem before John's coronation) questioning the widowed king's right to rule. The king sent Raoul of Merencourt, Bishop of Sidon, to Rome for assistance from the Holy See. Pope Innocent confirmed John as lawful ruler of the Holy Land in early 1213, urging the prelates to support him with ecclesiastical sanctions if needed. Most of the Jerusalemite lords remained loyal to the king, acknowledging his right to administer the kingdom on behalf of his infant daughter; John of Ibelin left the Holy Land and settled in Cyprus. The relationship between John of Brienne and Hugh I of Cyprus was tense. Hugh ordered the imprisonment of John's supporters in Cyprus, releasing them only at Pope Innocent's command. During the War of the Antiochene Succession John sided with Bohemond IV of Antioch and the Templars against Raymond-Roupen of Antioch and Leo I, King of Cilician Armenia, who were supported by Hugh and the Hospitallers. However, John sent only 50 knights to fight the Armenians in Antiochia in 1213. Leo I concluded a peace treaty with the Knights Templar late that year, and he and John reconciled. John married Leo's oldest daughter, Stephanie (also known as Rita), in 1214 and Stephanie received a dowry of 30,000 bezants. Quarrels among John, Leo I, Hugh I and Bohemond IV are documented by Pope Innocent's letters urging them to reconcile their differences before the Fifth Crusade reached the Holy Land.", "Pope Innocent proclaimed the Fifth Crusade in 1213, with the \"liberation of the Holy Land\" (the reconquest of Jerusalem) its principal object. The first crusader troops, commanded by Leopold VI of Austria, landed at Acre in early September 1217. Andrew II of Hungary and his army followed that month, and Hugh I of Cyprus and Bohemond IV of Antioch soon joined the crusaders. However, hundreds of crusaders soon returned to Europe because of a famine following the previous year's poor harvest. A war council was held in the tent of Andrew II, who considered himself the supreme commander of the crusader army. Other leaders, particularly John, did not acknowledge Andrew's leadership. The crusaders raided nearby territory ruled by Al-Adil I for food and fodder, forcing the sultan to retreat in November 1217. In December John besieged the Ayyubid fortress on Mount Tabor, joined only by Bohemond IV of Antioch. He was unable to capture it, which \"encouraged the infidel\", according to the contemporary Jacques de Vitry. Andrew II decided to return home, leaving the crusaders' camp with Hugh I and Bohemond IV in early 1218. Although military action was suspended after their departure, the crusaders restored fortifications at Caesarea and Atlit. After new troops arrived from the Holy Roman Empire in April, they decided to invade Egypt. They elected John supreme commander, giving him the right to rule the land they would conquer. His leadership was primarily nominal, since he could rarely impose his authority on an army of troops from many countries. The crusaders laid siege to Damietta, on the Nile, in May 1217. Although they seized a strategically important tower on a nearby island on 24 August, Al-Kamil (who had succeeded Al-Adil I in Egypt) controlled traffic on the Nile. In September, reinforcements commanded by Pope Honorius III's legate Cardinal Pelagius (who considered himself the crusade's supreme commander) arrived from Italy. Egyptian forces attempted a surprise attack on the crusaders' camp on 9 October, but John discovered their movements. He and his retinue attacked and annihilated the Egyptian advance guard, hindering the main force. The crusaders built a floating fortress on the Nile near Damietta, but a storm blew it near the Egyptian camp. The Egyptians seized the fortress, killing nearly all of its defenders. Only two soldiers survived the attack; they were accused of cowardice, and John ordered their execution. Taking advantage of the new Italian troops, Cardinal Pelagius began to intervene in strategic decisions. His debates with John angered their troops. The soldiers broke into the Egyptian camp on 29 August 1219 without an order, but they were soon defeated and nearly annihilated. During the ensuing panic, only the cooperation of John, the Templars, the Hospitallers and the noble crusaders prevented the Egyptians from destroying their camp. In late October, Al-Kamil sent messengers to the crusaders offering to restore Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Nazareth to them if they withdrew from Egypt. Although John and the secular lords were willing to accept the sultan's offer, Pelagius and the heads of the military orders resisted; they said that the Moslems could easily recapture the three towns. The crusaders ultimately refused the offer. Al-Kamil tried to send provisions to Damietta across their camp, but his men were captured on 3 November. Two days later, the crusaders stormed into Damietta and seized the town. Pelagius claimed it for the church, but he was forced to acknowledge John's right to administer it (at least temporarily) when John threatened to leave the crusaders' camp. According to John of Joinville, John seized one-third of Damietta's spoils; coins minted there during the following months bore his name. Al-Mu'azzam Isa, Sultan of Damascus, invaded the Kingdom of Jerusalem and pillaged Caesarea before the end of 1219. John's father-in-law, Leo I of Armenia, died several months before the crusaders seized Damietta. He bequeathed his kingdom to his infant daughter, Isabella. John and Raymond-Roupen of Antioch (Leo's nephew) questioned the will's legality, each demanding the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia for themselves. In a February 1220 letter, Pope Honorius declared John Leo's rightful heir. Saying that he wanted to assert his claim to Cilicia, John left Damietta for the Kingdom of Jerusalem around Easter 1220. Although Al-Mu'azzam Isa's successful campaign the previous year also pressed John to leave Egypt, Jacques de Vitry and other Fifth Crusade chroniclers wrote that he deserted the crusader army. Stephanie died shortly after John's arrival. Contemporary sources accused John of causing her sudden death, claiming that he severely beat her when he heard that she tried to poison his daughter Isabella. Their only son died a few weeks later, ending John's claim to Cilicia. Soon after Pope Honorius learned about the deaths of Stephanie and her son, he declared Raymond-Roupen the lawful ruler of Cilicia and threatened John with excommunication if he fought for his late wife's inheritance. John did not return to the crusaders in Egypt for several months. According to a letter from the prelates in the Holy Land to Philip II of France, lack of funds kept John from leaving his kingdom. Since his nephew Walter IV was approaching the age of majority, John surrendered the County of Brienne in 1221. During John's absence from Egypt, Al-Kamil again offered to restore the Holy Land to the Kingdom of Jerusalem in June 1221; Pelagius refused him. John returned to Egypt and rejoined the crusade on 6 July 1221 at the command of Pope Honorius. The commanders of the crusader army decided to continue the invasion of Egypt, despite (according to Philip d'Aubigny) John's strong opposition. The crusaders approached Mansurah, but the Egyptians imposed a blockade on their camp. Outnumbered, Pelagius agreed to an eight-year truce with Al-Kamil in exchange for Damietta on 28 August. John was among the crusade leaders held hostage by Al-Kamil until the crusader army withdrew from Damietta on 8 September.", "After the Fifth Crusade ended \"in colossal and irremediable failure\", John returned to his kingdom. Merchants from Genoa and Pisa soon attacked each other in Acre, destroying a significant portion of the town. According to a Genoese chronicle, John supported the Pisans and the Genoese left Acre for Beirut. John was the first king of Jerusalem to visit Europe, and had decided to seek aid from the Christian powers before he returned from Egypt. He also wanted to find a suitable husband for his daughter, to ensure the survival of Christian rule in the Holy Land. John appointed Odo of Montbéliard as a \"bailli\" to administer the Kingdom of Jerusalem in his absence. He left for Italy in October 1222 to attend a conference about a new crusade. At John's request, Pope Honorius declared that all lands conquered during the crusade should be united with the Kingdom of Jerusalem. To plan the military campaign, the pope and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II met at Ferentino in March 1223; John attended the meeting. He agreed to give his daughter in marriage to Frederick II after the emperor promised that he would allow John to rule the Kingdom of Jerusalem for the rest of his life. John then went to France, although Philip II was annoyed at being excluded from the decision of Isabella's marriage. Matilda I, Countess of Nevers, Erard II of Chacenay, Albert, Abbot of Vauluisant and other local potentates asked John to intervene in their conflicts, indicating that he was esteemed in his homeland. John attended the funeral of Philip II at the Basilica of St Denis in July; Philip bequeathed more than 150,000 marks for the defence of the Holy Land. John then visited England, attempting to mediate a peace treaty between England and France after his return to France. He made a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela in March 1224. According to the \"Latin Chronicle of the Kings of Castile\", John went to the Kingdom of León to marry one of the elder daughters of Alfonso IX of León (Sancha or Dulce) because Alfonso had promised him the kingdom \"along with her\". The marriage could jeopardize the claim of Sancha's and Dulce's half-brother, Ferdinand III of Castile, to León. To protect her son's interests, Ferdinand's mother Berengaria of Castile decided to give her daughter (Berengaria of León) to John in marriage. Although modern historians do not unanimously accept the chronicle's account of John's plan to marry Sancha or Dulce, they agree that the queen of France (Blanche of Castile, Berengaria of Castile's sister) played an important role in convincing John to marry her niece. The marriage of John and Berengaria of León was celebrated in Burgos in May 1224. About three months later, he met Emperor Frederick's son Henry in Metz and visited Henry's guardian, Engelbert, Archbishop of Cologne. From Germany John went to southern Italy, where he persuaded Pope Honorius to allow Emperor Frederick to postpone his crusade for two years. Frederick married John's daughter, Isabella (who had been crowned queen of Jerusalem), on 9 November 1225. John and Frederick's relationship became tense. According to a version of Ernoul's chronicle, John got into a disagreement with his new son-in-law because Frederick seduced a niece of Isabella who was her lady-in-waiting. In the other version of the chronicle John often \"chastised and reproved\" his son-in-law, who concluded that John wanted to seize the Kingdom of Sicily for his nephew Walter IV of Brienne and tried to murder John (who fled to Rome). Frederick declared that John had lost his claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem when Isabella married him; he styled himself king of Jerusalem for the first time in December 1225. Balian of Sidon, Simon of Maugastel, Archbishop of Tyre, and the other Jerusalemite lords who had escorted Isabella to Italy acknowledged Frederick as their lawful king.", "Pope Honorius did not accept Frederick's unilateral act, and continued to regard John as the rightful king of Jerusalem. In an attempt to take advantage of the revived Lombard League (an alliance of northern Italian towns) against Frederick II, John went to Bologna. According to a version of Ernoul's chronicle, he declined an offer by the Lombard League representatives to elect him their king. Even though this account was fabricated, John remained in Bologna for over six months. The dying Pope Honorius appointed John rector of a Patrimony of Saint Peter in Tuscany (part of the Papal States) on 27 January 1227, and urged Frederick II to restore him to the throne of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Honorius' successor, Gregory IX, confirmed John's position in the Papal States on 5 April and ordered the citizens of Perugia to elect him their \"podestà\". Gregory excommunicated Frederick II on 29 September 1227, accusing him of breaking his oath to lead a crusade to the Holy Land; the emperor had dispatched two fleets to Syria, but a plague forced them to return. His wife Isabella died after giving birth to a son, Conrad, in May 1228. Frederick continued to consider himself king of Jerusalem, in accordance with the precedent set by John during Isabella's minority. The imperial army invaded the Papal States under the command of Rainald of Urslingen in October 1228. Although John defeated the invaders in a series of battles, it took a counter-invasion by another papal army in southern Italy to drive Rainald back to Sulmona. John laid a siege before returning to Perugia in early 1229 to conclude negotiations with envoys of the Latin Empire of Constantinople, who were offering him the imperial crown.", "", "The Latin Emperor of Constantinople, Robert I, died in January 1228. His brother Baldwin II succeeded him, but a regent was needed to rule the Latin Empire since Baldwin was ten years old. Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria was willing to accept the regency, but the barons of the Latin Empire suspected that he wanted to unite the Latin Empire with Bulgaria. They offered the imperial crown instead to John, an ally of the Holy See. After months of negotiation, John and the envoys from the Latin Empire signed a treaty in Perugia which was confirmed by Pope Gregory on 9 April 1229. John was elected emperor of the Latin Empire for life as senior co-ruler with Baldwin II, who would marry John's daughter Marie. The treaty also prescribed that although Baldwin would rule the Latin lands in Asia Minor when he was 20 years old, he would become sole emperor only after John's death. John also stipulated that his sons would inherit Epirus and Macedonia, but the two regions still belonged to Emperor of Thessalonica Theodore Doukas. After signing the treaty, John returned to Sulmona. According to the contemporary Matthew Paris, he allowed his soldiers to plunder nearby monasteries to obtain money. John lifted the siege of Sulmona in early 1229 to join Cardinal Pelagius, who launched a campaign against Capua. Frederick II (who had crowned himself king of Jerusalem in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre) returned to Italy, forcing the papal troops to withdraw. John went to France to recruit warriors to accompany him to Constantinople. Pope Gregory did not proclaim John's expedition to the Latin Empire a crusade, but promised papal privileges granted to crusaders to those who joined him. During his stay in France, John was again an intermediary between local potentates and signed a peace treaty between Louis IX of France and Hugh X of Lusignan. He returned to Italy in late 1230. John's envoys signed a treaty with Jacopo Tiepolo, Doge of Venice, who agreed to transport him and his retinue of 500 knights and 5,000 commoners to Constantinople in return for John's confirmation of Venetian possessions and privileges in the Latin Empire. Shortly after John left for Constantinople in August, Pope Gregory acknowledged Frederick II's claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem.", "John was crowned emperor in Hagia Sophia in autumn 1231; by then, his territory was limited to Constantinople and its vicinity. The Venetians urged him to wage war against John III Vatatzes, Emperor of Nicaea, who supported a rebellion against their rule in Crete. According to Philippe Mouskes' \"Rhymed Chronicle\", John could make \"neither war nor peace\"; because he did not invade the Empire of Nicaea, most French knights who accompanied him to Constantinople returned home after his coronation. To strengthen the Latin Empire's financial position, Geoffrey II of Achaea (John's most powerful vassal) gave him an annual subsidy of 30,000 \"hyperpyra\" after his coronation. Taking advantage of John III Vatatzes' invasion of Rhodes, John launched a military expedition across the Bosphorus against the Empire of Nicaea in 1233. His three-to-four-month campaign \"achieved little, or nothing\"; the Latins only seized Pegai, now Biga in Turkey. With John's approval, two Franciscan and two Dominican friars wanted to mediate a truce between the Latin Empire and Nicaea in 1234 but it was never signed. In a letter describing their negotiations, the friars described John as a \"pauper\" abandoned by his mercenaries. John III Vatatzes and Ivan Asen II concluded a treaty dividing the Latin Empire in early 1235. Vatatzes soon seized the last outposts of the empire in Asia Minor and Gallipoli, and Asen occupied the Latin territories in Thrace. Constantinople was besieged in an effort to persuade the defenders to gather in one place, enabling an invasion elsewhere. Although the besiegers outnumbered the defenders, John repelled all attacks on the town's walls. Mouskes compared him to Hector, Roland, Ogier the Dane and Judas Maccabeus in his \"Rhymed Chronicle\", emphasizing his bravery. A Venetian fleet forced Vatatzes' naval forces to withdraw, but after the Venetians departed for home the Greeks and Bulgarians besieged Constantinople again in November 1235. John sent letters to European monarchs and the pope, pleading for assistance. Since the survival of the Latin Empire was in jeopardy, Pope Gregory urged the crusaders to defend Constantinople instead of the Holy Land. A combined naval force from Venice, Genoa, Pisa and Geoffrey II of Achaea broke through the blockade. Asen soon abandoned his alliance with Vatatzes, who was forced to lift the siege in 1236.", "According to three 13th-century authors (Matthew Paris, Salimbene di Adam and Bernard of Besse), John became a Franciscan friar before his death. They agree that John's declining health contributed to his conversion, but Bernard also described a recurring vision of an old man urging the emperor to join the Franciscans. Most 13th-century sources suggest that John died between 19 and 23 March 1237, the only Latin emperor to die in Constantinople. According to the \"Tales of the Minstrel of Reims\", he was buried in Hagia Sophia. Perry wrote that John, who died as a Franciscan friar, may have been buried in the Franciscan church dedicated to Saint Francis of Assisi which was built in Galata during his reign. In a third theory, proposed by Giuseppe Gerola, a tomb decorated with the Latin Empire coat of arms in Assisi's Lower Basilica may have been built for John by Walter VI, Count of Brienne.", "John's first wife (Maria the Marquise, born 1191) was the only child of Isabella I of Jerusalem and her second husband, Conrad of Montferrat. Maria inherited Jerusalem from her mother in 1205. John and Maria's only child, Isabella (also known as Yolanda), was born in late 1212. Stephanie of Armenia became John's second wife in 1214. She was the only daughter of Leo II of Armenia and his first wife, Isabelle (niece of Sibylle, the third wife of Bohemond III of Antioch). Stephanie gave birth to a son in 1220, but she and her son died that year. John married his third wife, Berengaria of León, in 1224; she was born around 1204 to Alfonso IX of León and Berengaria of Castile. John and Berengaria's first child, Marie, was born in 1224. Their first son, Alphonse, was born during the late 1220s. Berengaria's cousin, Louis IX of France, made him Grand Chamberlain of France and he acquired the County of Eu in France with his marriage. John's second son, Louis, was born around 1230. His youngest son, John, who was born in the early 1230s, was Grand Butler of France.", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origins.", "Primitive Welsh.", "Old Welsh.", "Middle Welsh.", "Modern Welsh.", "Welsh Bible.", "Geographic distribution.", "Wales.", "Outside Wales.", "Status.", "Official status.", "In education.", "In information technology.", "Mobile phone technology.", "In warfare.", "Use within the British parliament.", "Use at the European Union.", "Use by the Voyager program.", "Vocabulary.", "Phonology.", "Orthography.", "Morphology.", "Syntax.", "Possessives as direct objects of verbnouns.", "Pronoun doubling.", "Counting system.", "Dialects.", "The four traditional languages.", "Registers.", "Examples of sentences in literary and colloquial Welsh." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The language of the Welsh developed from the language of Britons. The emergence of Welsh was not instantaneous and clearly identifiable. Instead, the shift occurred over a long period of time, with some historians claiming that it had happened by as late as the 9th century, with a watershed moment being that proposed by linguist Kenneth H. Jackson, the Battle of Dyrham, a military battle between the West Saxons and the Britons in 577 AD, which split the South Western British from direct overland contact with the Welsh. Four periods are identified in the history of Welsh, with rather indistinct boundaries: Primitive Welsh, Old Welsh, Middle Welsh, and Modern Welsh. The period immediately following the language's emergence is sometimes referred to as Primitive Welsh, followed by the Old Welsh period – which is generally considered to stretch from the beginning of the 9th century to sometime during the 12th century. The Middle Welsh period is considered to have lasted from then until the 14th century, when the Modern Welsh period began, which in turn is divided into Early and Late Modern Welsh. The word \"Welsh\" is a descendant, via Old English \"wealh\", \"wielisc\", of the Proto-Germanic word \"Walhaz\", which was derived from the name of the Celtic people known to the Romans as Volcae and which came to refer to speakers of Celtic languages, and then indiscriminately to the people of the Western Roman Empire. In Old English the term went through semantic narrowing, coming to refer to either Britons in particular or, in some contexts, slaves. The plural form evolved into the name for their territory, Wales. The modern names for various Romance-speaking people in Continental Europe (e.g. Wallonia, Wallachia,, Vlachs, and, the Polish name for Italy) have a similar etymology. The Welsh term for the language,, descends from the Brythonic word \"combrogi\", meaning \"compatriots\" or \"fellow countrymen\".", "Welsh evolved from Common Brittonic, the Celtic language spoken by the ancient Celtic Britons. Classified as Insular Celtic, the British language probably arrived in Britain during the Bronze Age or Iron Age and was probably spoken throughout the island south of the Firth of Forth. During the Early Middle Ages the British language began to fragment due to increased dialect differentiation, thus evolving into Welsh and the other Brittonic languages. It is not clear when Welsh became distinct. Linguist Kenneth H. Jackson has suggested that the evolution in syllabic structure and sound pattern was complete by around AD 550, and labelled the period between then and about AD 800 \"Primitive Welsh\". This Primitive Welsh may have been spoken in both Wales and the Hen Ogledd (\"Old North\") – the Brittonic-speaking areas of what is now northern England and southern Scotland", "The argued dates for the period of \"Primitive", "The next main period is Old Welsh (, 9th to 11th centuries); poetry from both Wales and Scotland has been preserved in this form of the language. As Germanic and Gaelic colonisation of Britain", "Middle Welsh () is the label attached to the Welsh of the 12th to 14th centuries, of which much more remains than for any earlier period. This", "Modern Welsh is subdivided into Early Modern Welsh and Late Modern Welsh. Early Modern Welsh ran from the 15th century through to the end of the 16th century, and the Late Modern Welsh period roughly dates from the 16th century onwards. Contemporary Welsh differs greatly from the Welsh of", "The Bible translations into Welsh helped maintain the use of Welsh in daily", "", "Welsh has been spoken continuously in Wales throughout recorded history, but by 1911 it had become a minority language, spoken by 43.5 percent of the population. While this decline continued over the following decades, the language did not die out. By the start of the 21st century, numbers began to increase once more, at least partly as a result of the increase in Welsh-medium education. The 2004 Welsh Language Use Survey showed that 21.7 percent of the population of Wales spoke Welsh, compared with 20.8 percent in the 2001 Census, and 18.5 percent in 1991 Census. The 2011 Census, however, showed a slight decline to 562,000, or 19 per cent of the population. The census also showed a \"big drop\" in the number of speakers in the Welsh-speaking heartlands, with the number dropping to under 50 percent in Ceredigion and Carmarthenshire for the first time. However, according to the Welsh Language Use Survey in 2013–15, 24 percent of people aged three and over were able to speak Welsh. The Annual", "Welsh-speaking communities persisted well into the modern period across the border in England. Archenfield was still Welsh enough in the time of Elizabeth I for the Bishop of Hereford to be made responsible, together with the four Welsh bishops, for the translation of the Bible and the Book of Common Prayer into Welsh. Welsh was still commonly spoken there in the first half of the 19th century, and churchwardens' notices were put up in both Welsh and English until about 1860. In one of the earliest works of phonetics, \"On Early English Pronunciation\" in 1889, Alexander John Ellis identified a small part of Shropshire as still speaking Welsh, and plotted a Celtic border that passed from Llanymynech to Chirk through Oswestry. The number of Welsh-speaking people in the rest of Britain has not yet been counted for statistical purposes. In 1993, the Welsh-language television channel S4C published the results of a survey into the numbers of people who spoke or understood Welsh, which estimated that", "", "Although Welsh is a minority language, support for it grew during the second half of the 20th century, along with the rise of organisations such as the nationalist political party from 1925 and Welsh Language Society from 1962. The Welsh Language Act 1993 and the Government of Wales Act 1998 provide that the Welsh and English languages be treated equally in the public sector, as far as is reasonable and practicable. Each public body is required to prepare for approval a Welsh Language Scheme, which indicates its commitment to the equality of treatment principle. This is sent out in draft form for public consultation for a three-month period, whereupon comments on it may be incorporated into a final version. It requires the final approval of the now defunct Welsh Language Board (). Thereafter, the public body is charged with implementing and fulfilling its obligations under the Welsh Language Scheme. The list of other public bodies which have to prepare Schemes could be added to by initially the Secretary of State for", "The decade around 1840 was a period of great social upheaval in Wales, manifested in the Chartist movement. In 1839, 20,000 people marched on Newport, resulting in a riot when 20 people were killed by soldiers defending the Westgate Hotel, and the Rebecca Riots where tollbooths on turnpikes were systematically destroyed. This unrest brought the state of education in Wales to the attention of the English establishment since social reformers of the time considered education as a means of dealing with social ills. \"The Times\" newspaper was prominent among those who considered that the lack of education of the Welsh people was the root cause of most of the problems. In July 1846, three commissioners, R.R.W. Lingen, Jellynger C. Symons and H.R. Vaughan Johnson, were appointed to inquire into the state of education in Wales; the Commissioners were all Anglicans and thus presumed unsympathetic to the nonconformist majority in Wales. The Commissioners presented their report", "Like many of the world's languages, the Welsh language has seen an increased use and presence on the internet, ranging from formal lists of terminology in a variety of fields", "In 2006 the Welsh Language Board launched a free software pack which enabled the use of SMS predictive text in Welsh. At the National Eisteddfod of Wales 2009, a further announcement was made by the Welsh Language Board that the mobile phone company Samsung was to work with the network provider Orange to provide the first mobile phone in the Welsh language, with the interface and the T9 dictionary on", "Secure communications are often difficult to achieve in wartime. In a similar way as Navajo code talkers were used", "In 2017, parliamentary rules were amended to allow the use of Welsh when the Welsh Grand Committee meets at Westminster. The change did not alter the rules about debates within the House of Commons, where only English can be used. In", "In November 2008, the Welsh language was used at a meeting of the European Union's Council of Ministers for the first time. The Heritage Minister Alun Ffred Jones addressed his audience in Welsh and his words were interpreted into the EU's 23 official languages. The official use of the language followed years of campaigning. Jones said \"In the UK we have one of the world's major languages, English, as the", "A greeting in Welsh is one of the 55 languages included on the Voyager Golden Record chosen to be representative of Earth", "Welsh supplements its core Brittonic vocabulary (words such as \"egg\", \"stone\"), with hundreds of word lemmas", "The phonology of Welsh includes a number of sounds that do not occur in English and are typologically rare in European languages. The voiceless alveolar lateral fricative,", "Welsh is written in a Latin alphabet of 29 letters, of which eight are digraphs treated as separate letters for collation: In contrast to English practice, \"w\" and \"y\" are considered vowel letters in Welsh along with \"a\", \"e\", \"i\", \"o\" and \"u\". The letter \"j\" was not used traditionally, but is now used in many everyday words borrowed from English, like \"jam\", \"jôc\" (joke) and \"garej\" (garage). The letters \"k\", \"q\", \"v\", \"x\", and \"z\" are", "Welsh morphology has much in common with that of the other modern Insular Celtic languages, such as the use of initial consonant mutations and of so-called \"conjugated prepositions\" (prepositions that fuse with the personal pronouns that are their object). Welsh nouns belong to one of two grammatical genders, masculine", "The canonical word order in Welsh is verb–subject–object (VSO). Colloquial Welsh inclines very strongly towards the use of auxiliaries with its verbs, as in English. The present tense is constructed with (\"to be\") as an auxiliary verb, with the main verb appearing as a verbnoun (used in a way loosely equivalent to an infinitive) after the particle \"yn\": There, \"mae\" is a third-person singular present indicative form of \"bod\", and \"mynd\" is the verbnoun meaning \"to go\". The imperfect is constructed in a similar manner, as are the periphrastic forms of the future and conditional tenses. In the preterite, future and conditional mood tenses, there are inflected forms of all verbs, which are used in the written language. However, speech now more commonly uses the verbnoun together with an inflected form of (\"do\"), so \"I went\" can be or (\"I did go\"). \"Mi\" is an example of a preverbal particle; such particles are common in Welsh, though less so in the spoken language. Welsh lacks separate pronouns for constructing subordinate clauses; instead, special verb forms or relative pronouns that appear identical to some preverbal particles are used.", "The Welsh for \"I like Rhodri\" is (word for word, \"am I in [the] liking [of] Rhodri\"), with \"Rhodri\" in a possessive relationship with \"hoffi\". With personal pronouns, the possessive form of the personal", "In colloquial Welsh, possessive pronouns, whether they are used to mean \"my\", \"your\", etc. or to indicate the direct object of a verbnoun, are commonly reinforced by the use of the corresponding personal pronoun after the noun or verbnoun: \"his house\" (literally \"his house \"of him\"\"), \"I like you\"", "The traditional counting system used in the Welsh language is vigesimal, i.e. it is based on twenties, as in standard French numbers 70 (, literally \"sixty-ten\") to 99 (, literally \"four twenty nineteen\"). Welsh numbers from 11 to 14 are \"\"x\" on ten\" (e.g. : 11), 16 to 19 are \"\"x\" on fifteen\" (e.g. : 16), though 18 is, \"two nines\"; numbers from 21 to 39 are \"1–19 on twenty\"(e.g. : 30), 40 is \"two twenties\", 60 is \"three twenties\", etc. This form continues to be used, especially by older people, and it is obligatory in certain circumstances (such as telling", "Currently, there is no standardised or definitive form of the Welsh language, with significant differences in dialect marked in pronunciation, vocabulary and in points of grammar. For example: consider the question \"Do you want a cuppa \"[a cup of tea]\"?\" In Gwynedd this would typically be while in the south of Dyfed one would be more likely to hear (though in other parts of the South one would not be surprised to hear as well, among other possibilities). An example of a pronunciation difference is the tendency in some southern dialects to palatalise the letter \"s\", e.g. (), usually pronounced, but as in parts of the south. This normally occurs next to a high front vowel like /i/, although exceptions include the pronunciation of \"how\" as in the southern dialects (compared with northern ).", "Although modern understanding often splits Welsh into northern (Gogledd) and southern (De) 'languages', the traditional classification of four Welsh 'languages' remains the most academically useful: A fifth 'language' is Patagonian Welsh, which has developed since the start of (the Welsh settlement in Argentina) in 1865; it includes Spanish loanwords and terms for local features, but a survey in the 1970s showed that the language in Patagonia is consistent throughout the lower", "Modern Welsh can be considered to fall broadly into two main registers—Colloquial Welsh () and Literary Welsh (). The grammar described is that of Colloquial Welsh, which is used in most speech and informal writing. Literary Welsh is closer to the form of Welsh standardised by the 1588 translation of the Bible and is found in official documents and other formal registers, including much literature. As a standardised form, literary Welsh shows little if any of the dialectal variation found in colloquial Welsh. Some differences include: Amongst the characteristics of the literary, as against the spoken, language are a higher dependence on inflected verb forms, different usage of some of the tenses, less frequent use of pronouns (since the information is usually conveyed in the verb/preposition inflections) and a much lesser tendency to substitute English loanwords for native Welsh words. In addition, more archaic pronouns and forms of mutation may be observed in Literary Welsh.", "The differences between dialects of modern spoken Welsh pale into insignificance compared to the difference between some forms of the spoken language and the most formal constructions of the literary language. The latter is considerably more conservative and is the language used in Welsh translations of the Bible, amongst other things - although the 2004 () is significantly less" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Assassination.", "Princip's testimony." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Judging by its foundations, it is the oldest among the preserved bridges in the city. The census of the Sanjak of Bosnia from 1541 mentions the bridge on this spot, built by the leather-worker Hussein, son of Sirmerd. This first bridge seems to have been made of wood, because the court record from 1565 witness that the stone bridge was built here by eminent citizen of Sarajevo Ali Ajni-Beg. A terrible flood on 15 November 1791 badly damaged the bridge and its reconstruction was financed by the Sarajevo merchant Abdulah-aga Briga. Someone worked out that the year when it was rebuilt can be obtained from the numerical values in the word 'Briga' – it is 1213, which by Islamic calendar equals the year of the reconstruction 1798/99. The bridge has four arches and rests on three strong pillars and the embankment; it is built of stone and gypsum and the two relieving openings, 'eyes' in the mass above pillars are so characteristic that they can be seen in the seal of Sarajevo. Because of heavy traffic at the time of Austria-Hungary, the pavements on consoles were added to the bridge. During the Yugoslav era, the bridge was known as \"Principov most\" / Принципов мост – \"Princip's Bridge\".", "On June 28, 1914 at the turning from the Right Bank into a street Gavrilo Princip shot and killed Franz Ferdinand, heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne. This was the immediate cause for the beginning of the First World War. The bridge was renamed \"Princip\" during the Yugoslavian era. The name returned to the \"Latin Bridge\" after the Yugoslav Wars.", "At the judicial hearing on October 12, 1914, Gavrilo Princip described the site of the shooting during his interrogation, specifically mentioning the bridge. The text reads:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Family and children." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "John was the eldest son of Peter IV and his third wife, Eleanor, who was the daughter of Peter II of Sicily. He was born in Perpignan, capital of the Rousillon, which at that time was part of the Principality of Catalonia, in the Crown of Aragon. He was a man of character, with a taste for verse. He was a Francophile and married Violant of Bar against the wishes of his father, who had wanted him to marry a princess of Sicily. His last marriage was happy. His wife frequently participated in government, since the king was often ill. Once on the throne, John abandoned his father's relatively Anglophile policy and made an alliance with France. He continued Aragon's support for the Pope of the Avignon line, Clement VII, in the Western Schism. John also made an alliance with Castile, and confirmed in 1388 a treaty with Navarre fixing borders between these kingdoms. In 1389-90, the Aragonese battled the troops of the Count of Armagnac, John III, who was attempting to conquer the lands of the vassal Kingdom of Majorca. The attack went from Empordà to Girona. The invaders were defeated in 1390 by Aragonese troops commanded by John's brother Martin. During 1388-90, John gradually lost all lands of the Duchies of Athens and Neopatras in Greece. In 1391, John promulgated legislation on Jews in different cities of the Kingdom of Aragon. Also in 1391, his administration faced a revolt in the vassal kingdom of Sicily, where the population had proclaimed Louis II of Naples as king. John was a protector of culture of Barcelona. He established in 1393 the Consistory of Barcelona (\"jocs florals\"), imitating the same office in Toulouse. Aragon had been attempting to subjugate Sardinia since the reign of James II, and gradually the Aragonese had conquered most of the island. However, in the 1380s, the remaining independent principality Arborea became a fortress of rebellion and the Aragonese were rapidly driven back by Eleanor de Bas-Serra. The Aragonese continued in John's reign to attempt to suppress rebels in Sardinia and regain lost territories. However, during John's reign, practically the whole of Sardinia was lost. John's reign was characterized by disastrous financial administration. He died during a hunt in forests near Foixà by a fall from his horse, like his namesake, cousin, and contemporary, John I of Castile. Leaving no sons, he was succeeded by his younger brother Martin. Two daughters, however, survived to adulthood.", "From his first marriage on 24 June 1373 to Martha of Armagnac (18 February 1347 - 23 October 1378), daughter of Count Jean I of Armagnac: From his second marriage on 2 February 1380 to Yolande of Bar (c. 1365 - 3 July 1431), daughter of Robert I, Duke of Bar and Marie of Valois:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Colours.", "Previous flags." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The colours approximation is listed below:", "The previous flag was adopted in 2003. It was similar to the flag used between 1960 and 1963. That flag, in turn, was based on the flag which was originally used by King Leopold's Association Internationale Africaine and was first used in 1877. The 1877 design featured a yellow star on a blue background. The 1877 flag continued as the flag of the Congo Free State after the territory was recognized as an official possession of Leopold II at the Berlin Conference. After gaining independence from Belgium on 30 June 1960, the same basic design was maintained. However, six smaller stars were added to the hoist to symbolise the six provinces of the country at the time. This design was used only from 1960 to 1963. The flag of the second Republic of Mobutu Sese Seko became the official banner after Mobutu established his dictatorship. This flag was used from 1966 to 1971 and consisted of the same yellow star, now made smaller, situated in the top corner of the hoist side, with a red, yellow-lined band running diagonally across the center. The red symbolized the people's blood; the yellow symbolized prosperity; the blue symbolized hope; and the star represented unity. The flag changed again when the country was renamed Zaire in 1971. The Zaire flag was created as part of Mobutu's attempted re-Africanization of the nation and was used officially until Mobutu's overthrow in the First Congo War. The flag of Zaire was also used as the political-party flag of the Popular Movement of the Revolution, led by Mobutu. In 1997, when the Mobutu government was overthrown and the country assumed its current designation of Democratic Republic of the Congo, the country reverted to 1960s post-independence design, featuring a single large star and six smaller stars. In 2003, the most recent change before the adoption of the current flag, the flag's color was modified to use a lighter shade of blue." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "Demographics.", "Classes and revitalization efforts.", "Phonology.", "Orthography.", "Morphology.", "Nouns.", "Number inflection.", "Verbs.", "Pronominal inflection." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "Although Kiowa is most closely related to the other Tanoan languages of the Pueblos, the earliest historic location of its speakers is western Montana around 1700. Prior to the historic record, oral histories, archaeology, and linguistics suggest that pre-Kiowa was the northernmost dialect of Proto-Kiowa-Tanoan, spoken at Late Basketmaker II Era sites. Around AD 450, they migrated northward through the territory of the Anasazi and Great Basin, occupying the eastern Fremont culture region of the Colorado Plateau until sometime before 1300. Speakers then drifted northward to the northwestern Plains, arriving no later than the mid-16th century in the Yellowstone area where the Kiowa were first encountered by Europeans. The Kiowa then later migrated to the Black Hills and the southern Plains, where the language was recorded in historic times.", "Colorado College anthropologist Laurel Watkins noted in 1984 based on Parker McKenzie's estimates that only about 400 people (mostly over the age of 50) could speak Kiowa and that only rarely were children learning language. A more recent figure from McKenzie is 300 adult speakers of \"varying degrees of fluency\" reported by Mithun (1999) out of a 12,242 Kiowa tribal membership (US Census 2000). The Intertribal Wordpath Society, a nonprofit group dedicated to preserving native languages of Oklahoma, estimates the maximum number of fluent Kiowa speakers as of 2006 to be 400. A 2013 newspaper article estimated 100 fluent speakers. UNESCO classifies Kiowa as'severely endangered.' It claims the language had only 20 mother-tongue speakers in 2007, along with 80 second language speakers, most of whom were between the ages of 45 and 60.", "The Kiowa Tribe offers weekly language classes at the Jacobson House, a non-profit Native American center in Norman, Oklahoma. Dane Poolaw and Carol Williams teach the language using Parker McKenzie's method. The University of Tulsa, the University of Oklahoma in Norman, and the University of Science and Arts of Oklahoma in Chickasha offer Kiowa language classes. Kiowa hymns are sung at Mount Scott Kiowa United Methodist Church. Alecia Gonzales (Kiowa-Apache, 1926–2011), who taught at USAO, created a Kiowa teaching grammar called \"Thaum khoiye tdoen gyah: beginning Kiowa language\". A Kiowa language book of trickster stories, \"Saynday Kiowa Indian Children’s Stories\", was published in 2013.", "There are 23 consonants: Kiowa distinguishes six vowel qualities, with three distinctive levels of height and a front-back contrast. All six vowels may be long or short, oral or nasal. Four of the vowels occur as diphthongs with a high front off-glide of the form \"vowel\" +. There are 24 vowels: Contrasts among the consonants are easily demonstrated with an abundance of minimal and near-minimal pairs. There is no contrast between the presence of an initial glottal stop and its absence. The ejective and aspirated stops are articulated forcefully. The unaspirated voiceless stops are tense, while the voiced stops are lax. The voiceless alveolar fricative is pronounced before The lateral is realized as in syllable-initial position, as lightly affricated in syllable-final position, and slightly devoiced in utterance-final position. It occurs seldom in word-initial position. The dental resonants and are palatalized before. All consonants may begin a syllable but may not occur word-initially outside of loan-words ( 'lion'). The only consonants which may terminate a syllable are. Certain sequences of consonant and vowel do not occur: dental and alveolar obstruents preceding (*); velars and preceding (*). These sequences do occur if they are the result of contraction: 'then he got up' The glide automatically occurs between all velars and, except if they are together as the result of a conjunction ( 'then he saw them'), or in loanwords ( 'American' >Sp. \"Americano\"). Nasalization of voiced stops operates automatically only within the domain of the pronominal prefixes: voiced stops become the corresponding nasals either preceding or following a nasal. The velar nasal that is derived from is deleted; there is no in Kiowa. Underlying surfaces in alternating forms as following velars, as following labials and as if accompanied by falling tone. Obstruents are devoiced in two environments: in syllable-final position and following a voiceless obstruent. Voiced stops are devoiced in syllable-final position without exception. In effect, the rule applies only to and since velars are prohibited in final position. The palatal glide spreads across the laryngeals and, yielding a glide onset, a brief moment of coarticulation and a glide release. The laryngeals and are variably deleted between sonorants, which also applies across a word boundary.", "Kiowa orthography was developed by native speaker Parker McKenzie, who had worked with J. P. Harrington and later with other linguists. The development of the orthography is detailed in Meadows & McKenzie (2001). The tables below show each orthographic symbol used in the Kiowa writing system and its corresponding phonetic value (written IPA). The mid-back vowel is indicated by a digraph. The four diphthongs indicate the offglide with the letter following the main vowel. Nasal vowels are indicated by underlining the vowel letter: nasal \"o\" is thus. Long vowels are indicated with macron diacritics: long \"o\" is thus. Short vowels are unmarked. Tone is indicated with diacritics. The acute accent represents high tone, the grave accent indicates low tone, and the circumflex indicates falling tone, exemplified on the vowel \"o\" as (high), (low), (falling). Since long vowels also have tones, the vowel symbols can have both a macron and a tone diacritic above the macron: (long high), (long low), (long falling). The palatal glide that is pronounced after velar consonants (which are phonetically, respectively) is not normally written. There are, however, a few exceptions where is not followed by a glide, in which case an apostrophe is written after the \"g\" as. Thus, there is, for example, which is pronounced and which is pronounced. The glottal stop is also not written as it is often deleted and its presence is predictable. A final convention is that pronominal prefixes are written as separate words instead of being attached to verbs. Like many scripts of India, such as Devanagari, the Kiowa alphabet is ordered according to mostly phonetic principles. The alphabetical order is shown in the tables above: Vowels first, then consonants, reading down the columns, left column then right.", "", "", "Kiowa, like other Tanoan languages, is characterized by an inverse number system. Kiowa has four noun classes. Class I nouns are inherently singular/dual, Class II nouns are inherently dual/plural, Class III nouns are inherently dual, and Class IV nouns are mass or noncount nouns. If the number of a noun is different from its class's inherent value, the noun takes the suffix \"-gau\" (or a variant). Mithun (1999:445) gives as an example \"chē̲̂\" \"horse/two horses\" (Class I) made plural with the addition of \"-gau\": \"chē̲̂gau\" \"horses\". On the other hand, the Class II noun \"tṓ̲sè\" \"bones/two bones\" is made singular by suffixing \"-gau\": \"tṓ̲sègau\" \"bone.\"", "Kiowa verbs consist of verb stems that can be preceded by prefixes, followed by suffixes, and incorporate other lexical stems into the verb complex. Kiowa verbs have a complex active–stative pronominal system expressed via prefixes, which can be followed by incorporated nouns, verbs, or adverbs. Following the main verb stem are suffixes that indicate tense/aspect and mode. A final group of suffixes that pertain to clausal relations can follow the tense-aspect-modal suffixes. These syntactic suffixes include relativizers, subordinating conjunctions, and switch-reference indicators. A skeletal representation of the Kiowa verb structure can be represented as the following: The pronominal prefixes and tense/aspect-modal suffixes are inflectional and required to be present on every verb.", "Kiowa verb stems are inflected with prefixes that indicate: All these of the categories are indicated for only the \"primary\" animate participant. If there is also a second participant (such as in transitive sentences), the number of the second participant is also indicated. A participant is primary in the following cases: The term \"non-agent\" here refers to semantic roles including involitional agents, patients, beneficiaries, recipients, experiencers, and possessors." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Definitions.", "Socio-economic definitions.", "Mafia-type organizations under Italian law.", "Cultural perspectives.", "History.", "Post-feudal Sicily.", "Fascist suppression.", "Post-Fascist revival.", "Sack of Palermo.", "First Mafia War.", "Smuggling boom.", "Second Mafia War.", "Maxi Trial.", "War against the state and Riina's downfall.", "Provenzano years.", "Modern Mafia in Italy.", "Structure and composition.", "Clan hierarchy.", "Membership.", "Commission.", "Rituals and codes of conduct.", "Initiation ceremony.", "Introductions.", "Etiquette.", "Ten Commandments.", "Omertà.", "Protection rackets.", "Other activities.", "Vote buying.", "Smuggling.", "Bid rigging.", "Loan sharking.", "Forbidden crimes.", "Violence and reputation.", "Murder.", "Reputation.", "Notable Sicilian mafiosi.", "Current status." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The word \"mafia\" originated in Sicily. The Sicilian adjective \"mafiusu\" (in Italian: \"mafioso\") roughly translates to mean \"swagger,\" but can also be translated as \"boldness, bravado\". In reference to a man, \"mafiusu\" in 19th-century Sicily was ambiguous, signifying a bully, arrogant but also fearless, enterprising and proud, according to scholar Diego Gambetta. In reference to a woman, however, the feminine-form adjective, \"\"mafiusa\",\" means beautiful and attractive. The Sicilian word \"mafie\" refers to the caves near Trapani and Marsala, which were often used as hiding places for refugees and criminals. Sicily was once an Islamic emirate, therefore \"mafia\" might have Arabic roots. Possible Arabic roots of the word include: The public's association of the word with the criminal secret society was perhaps inspired by the 1863 play \"\"I mafiusi di la Vicaria\"\" () (\"The Mafiosi of the Vicaria\") by Giuseppe Rizzotto and Gaspare Mosca. The words \"mafia\" and \"mafiusi\" are never mentioned in the play. The play is about a Palermo prison gang with traits similar to the Mafia: a boss, an initiation ritual, and talk of \"\"umirtà\"\" (omertà or code of silence) and \"\"pizzu\"\" (a codeword for extortion money). The play had great success throughout Italy. Soon after, the use of the term \"mafia\" began appearing in the Italian state's early reports on the group. The word was first", "", "In 1876, Leopoldo Franchetti described the Mafia as an \"industry of violence\". In 1993, the Italian sociologist Diego Gambetta called it a \"cartel of private protection firms\". The core business of the Mafia is protection racketeering, i.e. providing extralegal protection against criminal activity and dishonest conduct through violence and vandalism. The Mafia does not serve the general public as the police do, but only specific clients who pay them for protection. The Sicilian Mafia is not a centralized organization. Rather, it is a cartel of independent criminal gangs who sell their services under a common brand. This cartel claims the exclusive right to sell extralegal protection services within their territories, and by their labels (\"man", "Introduced by Pio La Torre, article 416-bis of the Italian Penal Code defines a Mafia-type association (\"Associazione di Tipo Mafioso\") as one where \"those belonging to the association exploit the potential for intimidation which", "Some observers saw \"mafia\" as a set of attributes deeply rooted in popular culture, as a \"way of being\", as illustrated in the definition by Sicilian ethnographer Giuseppe Pitrè: Other scholars such as Gaetano Mosca say: Like Pitrè, some scholars viewed mafiosi as individuals behaving according to specific subcultural codes, but did not consider the Mafia a formal organisation. Judicial investigations and scientific research in the 1980s provided solid proof of the existence of well-structured Mafia groups with entrepreneurial characteristics. The Mafia was seen as an enterprise, and its economic activities became the focus of academic analyses. Ignoring the cultural aspects, the Mafia is", "The genesis of \"Cosa Nostra\" is hard to trace because mafiosi are very secretive and do not keep historical records of their own. They have been known to spread deliberate lies about their past, and sometimes come to believe in their own myths.", "The Mafia began as an extralegal force in the 19th century, during the reign of the Bourbons of Naples, and coinciding with Sicily's transition from feudalism to capitalism. Under feudalism, the nobility owned most of the land and enforced the law through their private armies. After 1812, the feudal barons steadily sold off or rented their lands to private citizens. Primogeniture was abolished, land could no longer be seized to settle debts, and one fifth of the land became private property of the peasants. After Italy annexed Sicily in 1860, it redistributed a large share of public and church land to private citizens. The result was a huge increase in the number of landowners — from 2,000 in 1812 to 20,000 by 1861. With this increase in property owners and commerce came more disputes that needed settling, contracts that needed enforcing, transactions that needed oversight, and properties that needed protecting. The barons released their private armies to let the state take over the job of enforcing the law, but the new authorities were not up to the task, largely due to clashes between official law and local customs. Lack of manpower was also a problem; there were often fewer", "In 1925, Benito Mussolini initiated a campaign to destroy the Mafia and assert Fascist control over Sicilian life. The Mafia threatened and undermined his power in Sicily, and a successful campaign would strengthen him as the new leader, legitimizing and empowering his rule. He believed that such suppression would be a great propaganda coup for Fascism, and it would also provide an excuse to suppress his political opponents on the island, since many Sicilian politicians had Mafia links. As prime minister, Mussolini visited Sicily in May 1924 and passed through Piana dei Greci, where he was received by mayor/Mafia boss Francesco Cuccia. At some point, Cuccia expressed surprise at Mussolini's police escort and whispered in his ear: \"You are with me, you are under my protection. What do you need all these cops for?\" After Mussolini rejected Cuccia's offer of protection, the \"sindaco\" felt that he had been slighted and instructed the townsfolk not to attend the \"duce\"s speech. Mussolini felt humiliated and outraged. Cuccia's careless remark has passed into history as the catalyst for Mussolini's war on the Mafia. Mussolini firmly established", "In 1943, nearly half a million Allied troops invaded Sicily. Crime soared in the upheaval and chaos. Many inmates escaped from prisons, banditry returned, and the black market thrived. During the first six months of Allied occupation, party politics were banned in Sicily. Most institutions were destroyed, with the exception of the police and carabinieri, and the American occupiers had to build a new order from scratch. As Fascist mayors were deposed, the Allied Military Government of Occupied Territories (AMGOT) simply appointed replacements. Many turned out to be mafiosi, such as Calogero Vizzini and Giuseppe Genco Russo. They could easily present themselves as political dissidents, and their anti-communist position gave them additional credibility. Mafia bosses reformed their clans, absorbing some of the marauding bandits into their ranks. The changing economic landscape of Sicily shifted the Mafia's power base from rural to the urban areas. The Minister of", "The post-war period saw a huge building boom in Palermo. Allied bombing in World War II had left more than 14,000 people homeless, and migrants were pouring in from the countryside, so there was a huge demand for new homes. Much of this construction was subsidized by public money. In 1956, two Mafia-connected officials, Vito Ciancimino and Salvatore Lima, took control of Palermo's Office of Public Works. Between 1959 and 1963, about 80 percent of building permits were", "The First Mafia War was the first high-profile conflict between Mafia clans in post-war Italy. (The Sicilian Mafia has a long history of violent rivalries.) In 1962, mafia boss Cesare Manzella organized a drug shipment to the United States with the help of two Sicilian clans, the Grecos and the La Barberas. Manzella entrusted another boss, Calcedonio Di Pisa, to handle the heroin. When the shipment arrived in the United States, however, the American buyers claimed that some heroin was missing, and paid Di Pisa a commensurately lower sum. Di Pisa accused the Americans of defrauding him, while the La Barberas accused", "The 1950s and 1960s were difficult times for the mafia, but in the 1970s their rackets grew considerably more lucrative, particularly smuggling. The most lucrative racket of the 1970s was cigarette smuggling. Sicilian and Neapolitan crime bosses negotiated a joint monopoly over the smuggling of cigarettes to Naples. Heroin refineries operated by Corsican gangsters in Marseilles were shut down by French authorities, and morphine traffickers looked to", "In the early 1970s, Luciano Leggio was boss of the Corleonesi clan and a member of the Sicilian Mafia Commission, and he forged a coalition of mafia clans known as the Corleonesi with himself as its leader. He initiated a campaign to dominate \"Cosa Nostra\" and its narcotics trade. Leggio was imprisoned in 1974, so he acted through his deputy Salvatore Riina, to whom he eventually handed over control. The Corleonesi bribed cash-strapped Palermo clans into the fold, subverted members of other clans, and secretly recruited new members. In 1977, the Corleonesi had Gaetano Badalamenti expelled from the Commission on trumped-up charges of hiding drug revenues. In April 1981,", "In the early 1980s, magistrates Giovanni Falcone and Paolo Borsellino began a campaign against \"Cosa Nostra\". Their big break came with the arrest of Tommaso Buscetta, a mafioso who chose to turn informant in exchange for protection from the Corleonesi, who had already murdered many of his friends and relatives. Other mafiosi", "The Mafia retaliated violently. In 1988, they murdered a Palermo judge and his son; three years later, a prosecutor and an anti-mafia businessman were also murdered. Salvatore Lima, a close political ally of the Mafia, was murdered for failing to reverse the convictions as promised. Falcone was killed on May 23, 1992 with 400 kg of TNT positioned under the highway near Capaci, Sicily. Borsellino was also killed by a car bomb on July 19, 1992. This led to a public outcry and a massive government crackdown, resulting in the arrest of Salvatore Riina in January 1993. More and more informants emerged. Many paid a high price for their cooperation, usually through the murder of relatives. For example, Francesco Marino Mannoia's mother, aunt,", "Under Bernardo Provenzano's leadership, murders of state officials were halted. He also halted the policy of murdering informants and their families, with a view instead to getting them to retract their testimonies and return to the", "The incarcerated bosses are currently subjected to strict controls on their contact with the outside world, limiting their ability to run their operations from behind bars under the article 41-bis prison regime. Antonino Giuffrè is a close confidant of Provenzano who turned \"pentito\" shortly after his capture in 2002. He alleges that \"Cosa Nostra\" had direct contact in 1993 with representatives of Silvio Berlusconi who was then planning the birth of Forza Italia. The alleged deal included a repeal of 41 bis, among other anti-Mafia laws, in return for electoral support in Sicily. Nevertheless, Giuffrè's declarations have not yet been confirmed. The Italian Parliament reinforced the provisions of the 41 bis, with the full support of Forza Italia. The bill was to expire in", "\"Cosa Nostra\" is not a monolithic organization, but rather a loose confederation of about one hundred groups known alternately as \"families\", \"\"cosche\"\", \"\"borgatas\"\", or \"clans.\" (Despite the name, their members are generally not related by blood.) Each of these claims sovereignty over a territory, usually a town or village or a neighborhood of a larger city, though without ever fully conquering and legitimizing its monopoly of violence. For many years, the power apparatuses of the single families were the sole ruling bodies within the two associations, and they have remained the real centers of power even after superordinate bodies were created in the \"Cosa Nostra\" beginning in the late 1950s (the Sicilian Mafia Commission).", "In 1984, mafioso informant Tommaso Buscetta explained to prosecutors the command structure of a typical clan. A clan is led by a \"boss\" (\"capofamiglia\" or \"rappresentante\") who is aided by an underboss (\"capo bastone\" or \"sotto capo\") and supervised by one or more advisers (\"consigliere\"). Under his command are groups (\"decina\") of about ten \"soldiers\" (\"soldati\", \"operai\", or \"picciotti\"). Each \"decina\" is led by a \"capodecina\". The actual structure of any given clan can vary. Despite the name \"decina\", they do not necessarily have ten soldiers, but can have anything from five to thirty. Some clans are so small that they don't even have decinas and capodecinas, and even in large clans certain soldiers may report directly to the boss or underboss. The boss of a clan is typically elected by the rank-and-file soldiers (though violent successions do happen). Due to the small size of most Sicilian clans, the boss of a clan has intimate contact with all members, and doesn't receive much in the way of privileges or rewards as he would in larger organizations (such as the larger Five Families of New York). His tenure is", "Membership in \"Cosa Nostra\" is open only to Sicilian men. A candidate cannot be a relative of or have any close links with a lawman, such as a police officer or a judge. There is no strict age limit; men as young as sixteen have been initiated. A prospective mafioso is carefully tested for obedience, discretion, courage, ruthlessness, and skill at espionage. He is almost always required to commit murder as his ultimate trial, even if he doesn't plan to be a career assassin. The act of murder is to prove his sincerity (i.e., he is not an undercover policeman) and to bind him into silence (i.e., he cannot break \"omertà\" without facing murder charges himself). To be part of the Mafia is highly desirable for many street criminals. Mafiosi receive a great deal of respect, for everyone knows that to offend", "Since the 1950s, the Mafia has maintained multiple commissions to resolve disputes and promote cooperation among clans. Each province of Sicily has its own Commission. Clans are organized into districts (\"Mandamenti\") of three or four geographically adjacent clans. Each district elects a representative (\"capo mandamento\") to sit on its Provincial Commission. Contrary to popular belief, the commissions do not serve as a centralized government for the Mafia. The power of the commissions is limited and clans are autonomous and independent. Rather, each Commission serves as a representative mechanism for consultation of independent clans who decide by consensus. \"Contrary to the wide-spread image presented by the media, these superordinate bodies of coordination cannot be compared with the executive boards of major legal firms. Their power is intentionally limited. And it would be", "", "One of the first accounts of an initiation ceremony into the Mafia was given by Bernardino Verro, a leader of the Fasci Siciliani, a popular movement of democratic and socialist inspiration which arose in Sicily in the early 1890s. In order to give the movement teeth and to protect himself from harm, Verro became a member of a Mafia group in Corleone, the \"Fratuzzi\" (Little Brothers). In a memoir written many years later, he described the initiation ritual which he underwent in the spring of 1893: After his arrest, mafioso Giovanni Brusca described the ceremony in which he was formally made a full member of \"Cosa Nostra\". In 1976, he was invited to a \"banquet\" at a country house. He was brought into a room where several mafiosi were sitting around a table upon which sat a pistol, a dagger, and a piece of paper bearing the image of a saint. They", "There is always a risk that outsiders and undercover policemen might masquerade as a mafioso to infiltrate the organization. To ensure that this does not happen, a mafioso must never introduce himself to another mafioso whom he does not personally know, even if he knows the other through reputation. If he wants to establish a relationship, he must ask a third mafioso whom they", "Mafiosi of equal status sometimes call each other \"\"compare\"\", while", "In November 2007, Sicilian police reported discovery of a list of \"Ten Commandments\" in the hideout of mafia", "Omertà is a code of silence and secrecy that forbids mafiosi from betraying their comrades to the authorities. The penalty for transgression is death, and relatives of the turncoat may also be murdered. Mafiosi generally do not associate with police (aside perhaps from corrupting individual officers as necessary). For instance, a mafioso will not call the police when he is a victim of a crime. He is expected to take care of the problem himself. To do otherwise would undermine his reputation as a capable protector of others (see", "Scholars such as Diego Gambetta and Leopold Franchetti have characterized the Mafia as a \"cartel of private protection firms\". The primary activity of the Mafia is to provide protection and guarantee trust in areas of the Sicilian economy where the police and courts cannot be relied upon. The Mafia arbitrates disputes between criminals, organizes and oversees illicit business deals, and protects businessmen and criminals from cheats, thieves, and vandals. This aspect of the Mafia is often overlooked in the media because, unlike drug dealing and extortion, it is often not reported to the police. In one of his books, Gambetta illustrates this concept with the scenario of a meat wholesaler who wishes to sell some meat to a supermarket without paying sales tax. Since the transaction is essentially a black market deal, the agents cannot turn to the police or the courts if either of them cheats the other. The seller might supply rotting meat, or the purchaser might refuse to pay. The mistrust and fear of being cheated with no recourse might prevent these two agents from making a profitable transaction. To guarantee each other's honesty, the two parties can ask the local mafia clan to oversee the transaction. In exchange for a commission, the mafioso promises to both the buyer and seller that if either of them tries to cheat the other, the cheater can expect to be assaulted or have his property vandalized. Such is the mafioso's reputation for viciousness, impartiality, and reliability that neither the buyer nor the seller would consider cheating with him overseeing the deal. The transaction thus proceeds smoothly. The Mafia's protection is not restricted to illegal activities. Shopkeepers often pay the Mafia to protect them from thieves. If a shopkeeper enters into a protection contract with a mafioso, the mafioso will make it publicly known that if any thief were foolish enough to rob his client's shop, he would track down the thief, beat him up, and, if possible, recover the stolen merchandise (mafiosi make it their business to know all the fences in their territory). Mafiosi have protected a great variety of clients over the years: landowners, plantation owners, politicians, shopkeepers, drug dealers, etc. Whilst some people are coerced into buying protection and some do not receive any actual protection for their money (extortion), by and large there are many clients who actively seek and benefit from mafioso protection. This is one of the main reasons why the Mafia has resisted more than a century of government efforts to destroy it: the people who willingly solicit these services protect the Mafia from the authorities. If one is enjoying the benefits of Mafia protection, one does not want the police arresting one's mafioso. It is estimated that the Sicilian Mafia costs the Sicilian economy more than €10 billion a year through protection rackets. Roughly 70 percent of Sicilian businesses pay protection money to \"Cosa Nostra\". Monthly payments can range from €200 for a small shop or bar to €5,000 for a supermarket. In Sicily, protection money is known as \"pizzo\"; the anti-extortion support group Addiopizzo derives its name from this. Mafiosi might sometimes ask for favours instead of money, such as assistance in committing a crime.", "", "Politicians court mafiosi to obtain votes during elections. A mafioso's mere endorsement of a certain candidate can be enough for their clients, relatives, and associates to vote for that candidate. A particularly influential mafioso can bring in thousands of votes for a candidate; such is the respect that a mafioso can command. The Italian Parliament has", "Mafiosi provide protection and invest capital in smuggling gangs. Smuggling operations require large investments (goods, boats, crews, etc.) but few people would trust their money to criminal gangs. It is mafiosi who raise the necessary money from investors and ensure that all parties act in good faith.", "The Sicilian Mafia in Italy is believed to have a turnover of €6.5 billion through control of public and private contracts. Mafiosi use threats", "In a 2007 publication, the Italian small-business association Confesercenti reported that about 25.2 percent of Sicilian businesses were indebted to loan", "Certain types of crimes are forbidden by \"Cosa Nostra\", either by members or freelance criminals within their domains. Mafiosi are generally forbidden from committing theft (burglary,", "", "Murders are almost always carried out by members. It is very rare for the Mafia to recruit an outsider for a single job, and such people are liable to be eliminated soon", "The Mafia's power comes from its reputation to commit violence, particularly murder, against virtually anyone. Through reputation, mafiosi deter their enemies and enemies of their clients. It allows mafiosi to protect a client without being physically present (e.g. as bodyguards or watchmen), which in turn allows them to protect many clients at once. Compared to other occupations, reputation is especially valuable for a mafioso, as his primary product is protection through intimidation. The reputation of a mafioso is dichotomous: he is either a good protector or a bad one; there is no mediocrity. This is because a mafioso can only either succeed at preventing an act of violence or fail utterly should any violence take place. There is no spectrum of quality when it comes to violent protection. Consequently, a series of failures can completely ruin a mafioso's reputation, and with it his", "", "The status of" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Work.", "Literature." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born in Prague on 24 May 1938, he comes from an old artistic family. His father, Josef Wagner (1901–1957), was an outstanding sculptor of the interwar and post-war eras; his mother, Marie Wagnerová–Kulhánková (1906–1983), as well as his brother, Jan Wagner (1941–2005), were also sculptors. Josef Wagner studied architecture at the Academy of Arts, Architecture and Design in Prague. After graduation he devoted himself to the designing of housing and garden architecture, photography, and scenography. For almost 30 years he had been occupied with exhibition installations as head of the Exhibition Centre of the Union of Czechoslovak Visual Artists and as a collaborator of the National Gallery in Prague. On his study travels he visited a number of European countries, particularly France, Italy, Switzerland, and Greece. He has been living and working in Prague.", "J. Wagner started painting in 1957 and permanently since 1963. In his works he was gradually concerned with the themes of Prague, particularly of Holešovice and its port. In the latter half of the sixties, the themes of World War Two often appeared. After the occupation in 1968 he turned his attention also to general themes of still lifes and landscapes; dominating towers and cranes keep appearing. He created broadly conceived cycles of “Heads” (The Head of a Teacher, of Interrogator K., of Interrogator L., of a Deserter, or of an Executor of Police Orders), “Skulls”, “Honours”, or “Bestiary” (Predatory Fish, Protected Hedgehog, Cocooned Scarab Beetle, Dragon). After 1989 J. Wagner has been creating also pictures and graphics inspired by study travels to Greece, Italy, and France, as well as works reflecting contemporary world in mythical motifs or symbols of power. His works are represented in a number of both state-owned and private collections, both in the Czech Republic and abroad. Apart from some 800 oil paintings, he is the author of a number of drawings and graphics (Grand Diploma for Graphic International Biennial Exhibition of Tuzla, 2004). He is the holder of the Award of the Czech-Bavarian Artistic Society (1994), the Award of the Masaryk Academy of Art (1997), and the Rudolph II Prize for Artistic and Cultural Activities (1997). Out of a number of exhibitions in the Czech Rep. and abroad (France, Greece, Netherlands, Switzerland, USA, Germany), the following may be pointed out: 172 Pictures and Drawings by Josef Wagner, Art Centre of Athens, Athens, Greece (1988), and Joseph Wagner rétrospective de 1958-1997, Palais Bénédicte, Fécamp, France (1999).", "Jan M. Tomeš: Josef Wagner. Athens Wagner Club, Athens, Greece. 1988." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Ancient Greece.", "Persia.", "Western Europe.", "Coordinates.", "Cartesian coordinates (in a plane or space).", "Polar coordinates (in a plane).", "Cylindrical coordinates (in a space).", "Spherical coordinates (in a space).", "Equations and curves.", "Lines and planes.", "Conic sections.", "Quadric surfaces.", "Distance and angle.", "Transformations.", "Finding intersections of geometric objects.", "Finding intercepts.", "Tangents and normals.", "Tangent lines and planes.", "Normal line and vector." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The Greek mathematician Menaechmus solved problems and proved theorems by using a method that had a strong resemblance to the use of coordinates and it has sometimes been maintained that he had introduced analytic geometry. Apollonius of Perga, in \"On Determinate Section\", dealt with problems in a manner that may be called an analytic geometry of one dimension; with the question of finding points on a line that were in a ratio to the others. Apollonius in the \"Conics\" further developed a method that is so similar to analytic geometry that his work is sometimes thought to have anticipated the work of Descartes by some 1800 years. His application of reference lines, a diameter and a tangent is essentially no different from our modern use of a coordinate frame, where the distances measured along the diameter from the point of tangency are the abscissas, and the segments parallel to the tangent and intercepted between the axis and the curve are the ordinates. He further developed relations between the abscissas and the corresponding ordinates that are equivalent to rhetorical equations of curves. However, although Apollonius came close to developing analytic geometry, he did not manage to do so since he did not take into account negative magnitudes and in every case the coordinate system was superimposed upon a given curve \"a posteriori\" instead of \"a priori\". That is, equations were determined by curves, but curves were not determined by equations. Coordinates, variables, and equations were subsidiary notions applied to a specific geometric situation.", "The 11th-century Persian mathematician Omar Khayyám saw a strong relationship between geometry and algebra and was moving in the right direction when he helped close the gap between numerical and geometric algebra with his geometric solution of the general cubic equations, but the decisive step came later with Descartes. Omar Khayyam is credited with identifying the foundations of algebraic geometry, and his book \"Treatise on Demonstrations of Problems of Algebra\" (1070), which laid down the principles of algebra, is part of the body of Persian mathematics that was eventually transmitted to Europe. Because of his thoroughgoing geometrical approach to algebraic equations, Khayyam can be considered a precursor to Descartes in the invention of analytic geometry.", "Analytic geometry was independently invented by René Descartes and Pierre de Fermat, although Descartes is sometimes given sole credit. \"Cartesian geometry\", the alternative term used for analytic geometry, is named after Descartes. Descartes made significant progress with the methods in an essay titled \"La Geometrie (Geometry)\", one of the three accompanying essays (appendices) published in 1637 together with his \"Discourse on the Method for Rightly Directing One's Reason and Searching for Truth in the Sciences\", commonly referred to as \"Discourse on Method\". This work, written in his native French tongue, and its philosophical principles, provided a foundation for calculus in Europe. Initially the work was not well received, due, in part, to the many gaps in arguments and complicated equations. Only after the translation into Latin and the addition of commentary by van Schooten in 1649 (and further work thereafter) did Descartes's masterpiece receive due recognition. Pierre de Fermat also pioneered the development of analytic geometry. Although not published in his lifetime, a manuscript form of \"Ad locos planos et solidos isagoge\" (Introduction to Plane and Solid Loci) was circulating in Paris in 1637, just prior to the publication of Descartes' \"Discourse\". Clearly written and well received, the \"Introduction\" also laid the groundwork for analytical geometry. The key difference between Fermat's and Descartes' treatments is a matter of viewpoint: Fermat always started with an algebraic equation and then described the geometric curve that satisfied it, whereas Descartes started with geometric curves and produced their equations as one of several properties of the curves. As a consequence of this approach, Descartes had to deal with more complicated equations and he had to develop the methods to work with polynomial equations of higher degree. It was Leonhard Euler who first applied the coordinate method in a systematic study of space curves and surfaces.", "In analytic geometry, the plane is given a coordinate system, by which every point has a pair of real number coordinates. Similarly, Euclidean space is given coordinates where every point has three coordinates. The value of the coordinates depends on the choice of the initial point of origin. There are a variety of coordinate systems used, but the most common are the following:", "The most common coordinate system to use is the Cartesian coordinate system, where each point has an \"x\"-coordinate representing its horizontal position, and a \"y\"-coordinate representing its vertical position. These are typically written as an ordered pair (\"x\", \"y\"). This system can also be used for three-dimensional geometry, where every point in Euclidean space is represented by an ordered triple of coordinates (\"x\", \"y\", \"z\").", "In polar coordinates, every point of the plane is represented by its distance \"r\" from the origin and its angle \"θ\", with \"θ\" normally measured counterclockwise from the positive \"x\"-axis. Using this notation, points are typically written as an ordered pair (\"r\", \"θ\"). One may transform back and forth between two-dimensional Cartesian and polar coordinates by using these formulae: formula_1. This system may be generalized to three-dimensional space through the use of cylindrical or spherical coordinates.", "In cylindrical coordinates, every point of space is represented by its height \"z\", its radius \"r\" from the \"z\"-axis and the angle \"θ\" its projection on the \"xy\"-plane makes with respect to the horizontal axis.", "In spherical coordinates, every point in space is represented by its distance \"ρ\" from the origin, the angle \"θ\" its projection on the \"xy\"-plane makes with respect to the horizontal axis, and the angle \"φ\" that it makes with respect to the \"z\"-axis. The names of the angles are often reversed in physics.", "In analytic geometry, any equation involving the coordinates specifies a subset of the plane, namely the solution set for the equation, or locus. For example, the equation \"y\" = \"x\" corresponds to the set of all the points on the plane whose \"x\"-coordinate and \"y\"-coordinate are equal. These points form a line, and \"y\" = \"x\" is said to be the equation for this line. In general, linear equations involving \"x\" and \"y\" specify lines, quadratic equations specify conic sections, and more complicated equations describe more complicated figures. Usually, a single equation corresponds to a curve on the plane. This is not always the case: the trivial equation \"x\" = \"x\" specifies the entire plane, and the equation \"x\" + \"y\" = 0 specifies only the single point (0, 0). In three dimensions, a single equation usually gives a surface, and a curve must be specified as the intersection of two surfaces (see below), or as a system of parametric equations. The equation \"x\" + \"y\" = \"r\" is the equation for any circle centered at the origin (0, 0) with a radius of r.", "Lines in a Cartesian plane, or more generally, in affine coordinates, can be described algebraically by \"linear\" equations. In two dimensions, the equation for non-vertical lines is often given in the \"slope-intercept form\": where: In a manner analogous to the way lines in a two-dimensional space are described using a point-slope form for their equations, planes in a three dimensional space have a natural description using a point in the plane and a vector orthogonal to it (the normal vector) to indicate its \"inclination\". Specifically, let formula_3 be the position vector of some point formula_4, and let formula_5 be a nonzero vector. The plane determined by this point and vector consists of those points formula_6, with position vector formula_7, such that the vector drawn from formula_8 to formula_6 is perpendicular to formula_10. Recalling that two vectors are perpendicular if and only if their dot product is zero, it follows that the desired plane can be described as the set of all points formula_7 such that Expanded this becomes which is the \"point-normal\" form of the equation of a plane. This is just a linear equation: Conversely, it is easily shown that if \"a\", \"b\", \"c\" and \"d\" are constants and \"a\", \"b\", and \"c\" are not all zero, then the graph of the equation is a plane having the vector formula_5 as a normal. This familiar equation for a plane is called the \"general form\" of the equation of the plane. In three dimensions, lines can \"not\" be described by a single linear equation, so they are frequently described by parametric equations: where:", "In the Cartesian coordinate system, the graph of a quadratic equation in two variables is always a conic section – though it may be degenerate, and all conic sections arise in this way. The equation will be of the form As scaling all six constants yields the same locus of zeros, one can consider conics as points in the five-dimensional projective space formula_21 The conic sections described by this equation can be classified using the discriminant If the conic is non-degenerate, then:", "A quadric, or quadric surface, is a \"2\"-dimensional surface in 3-dimensional space defined as the locus of zeros of a quadratic polynomial. In coordinates, the general quadric is defined by the algebraic equation Quadric surfaces include ellipsoids (including the sphere), paraboloids, hyperboloids, cylinders, cones, and planes.", "In analytic geometry, geometric notions such as distance and angle measure are defined using formulas. These definitions are designed to be consistent with the underlying Euclidean geometry. For example, using Cartesian coordinates on the plane, the distance between two points (\"x\", \"y\") and (\"x\", \"y\") is defined by the formula which can be viewed as a version of the Pythagorean theorem. Similarly, the angle that a line makes with the horizontal can be defined by the formula where \"m\" is the slope of the line. In three dimensions, distance is given by the generalization of the Pythagorean theorem: while the angle between two vectors is given by the dot product. The dot product of two Euclidean vectors A and B is defined by where θ is the angle between A and B.", "Transformations are applied to a parent function to turn it into a new function with similar characteristics. The graph of formula_34 is changed by standard transformations as follows: There are other standard transformation not typically studied in elementary analytic geometry because the transformations change the shape of objects in ways not usually considered. Skewing is an example of a transformation not usually considered. For more information, consult the Wikipedia article on affine transformations. For example, the parent function formula_52 has a horizontal and a vertical asymptote, and occupies the first and third quadrant, and all of its transformed forms have one horizontal and vertical asymptote, and occupies either the 1st and 3rd or 2nd and 4th quadrant. In general, if formula_53, then it can be transformed into formula_54. In the new transformed function, formula_55 is the factor that vertically stretches the function if it is greater than 1 or vertically compresses the function if it is less than 1, and for negative formula_55 values, the function is reflected in the formula_35-axis. The formula_43 value compresses the graph of the function horizontally if greater than 1 and stretches the function horizontally if less than 1, and like formula_55, reflects the function in the formula_38-axis when it is negative. The formula_40 and formula_37 values introduce translations, formula_37, vertical, and formula_40 horizontal. Positive formula_37 and formula_40 values mean the function is translated to the positive end of its axis and negative meaning translation towards the negative end. Transformations can be applied to any geometric equation whether or not the equation represents a function. Transformations can be considered as individual transactions or in combinations. Suppose that formula_34 is a relation in the formula_68 plane. For example, is the relation that describes the unit circle.", "For two geometric objects P and Q represented by the relations formula_70 and formula_71 the intersection is the collection of all points formula_72 which are in both relations. For example, formula_6 might be the circle with radius 1 and center formula_74: formula_75 and formula_76 might be the circle with radius 1 and center formula_77. The intersection of these two circles is the collection of points which make both equations true. Does the point formula_74 make both equations true? Using formula_74 for formula_72, the equation for formula_76 becomes formula_82 or formula_83 which is true, so formula_74 is in the relation formula_76. On the other hand, still using formula_74 for formula_72 the equation for formula_6 becomes formula_89 or formula_90 which is false. formula_74 is not in formula_6 so it is not in the intersection. The intersection of formula_6 and formula_76 can be found by solving the simultaneous equations: Traditional methods for finding intersections include substitution and elimination. Substitution: Solve the first equation for formula_38 in terms of formula_35 and then substitute the expression for formula_38 into the second equation: We then substitute this value for formula_102 into the other equation and proceed to solve for formula_35: Next, we place this value of formula_35 in either of the original equations and solve for formula_38: So our intersection has two points: Elimination: Add (or subtract) a multiple of one equation to the other equation so that one of the variables is eliminated. For our current example, if we subtract the first equation from the second we get formula_114. The formula_102 in the first equation is subtracted from the formula_102 in the second equation leaving no formula_38 term. The variable formula_38 has been eliminated. We then solve the remaining equation for formula_35, in the same way as in the substitution method: We then place this value of formula_35 in either of the original equations and solve for formula_38: So our intersection has two points: For conic sections, as many as 4 points might be in the intersection.", "One type of intersection which is widely studied is the intersection of a geometric object with the formula_35 and formula_38 coordinate axes. The intersection of a geometric object and the formula_38-axis is called the formula_38-intercept of the object. The intersection of a geometric object and the formula_35-axis is called the formula_35-intercept of the object. For the line formula_135, the parameter formula_43 specifies the point where the line crosses the formula_38 axis. Depending on the context, either formula_43 or the point formula_139 is called the formula_38-intercept.", "", "In geometry, the tangent line (or simply tangent) to a plane curve at a given point is the straight line that \"just touches\" the curve at that point. Informally, it is a line through a pair of infinitely close points on the curve. More precisely, a straight line is said to be a tangent of a curve at a point on the curve if the line passes through the point on the curve and has slope where \"f\" is the derivative of \"f\". A similar definition applies to space curves and curves in \"n\"-dimensional Euclidean space. As it passes through the point where the tangent line and the curve meet, called the point of tangency, the tangent line is \"going in the same direction\" as the curve, and is thus the best straight-line approximation to the curve at that point. Similarly, the tangent plane to a surface at a given point is the plane that \"just touches\" the surface at that point. The concept of a tangent is one of the most fundamental notions in differential geometry and has been extensively generalized; see Tangent space.", "In geometry, a normal is an object such as a line or vector that is perpendicular to a given object. For example, in the two-dimensional case, the normal line to a curve at a given point is the line perpendicular to the tangent line to the curve at the point. In the three-dimensional case a surface normal, or simply normal, to a surface at a point \"P\" is a vector that is perpendicular to the tangent plane to that surface at \"P\". The word \"normal\" is also used as an adjective: a line normal to a plane, the normal component of a force, the normal vector, etc. The concept of normality generalizes to orthogonality." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy.", "Anatomy and morphology.", "Habitat.", "Behavior.", "Reproduction.", "Diet.", "In captivity." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The mata mata was described for the first time by French naturalist Pierre Barrère in 1741 as a \"large land turtle with spiky and ridged scales\" (translation). It was first classified as \"Testudo fimbriata\" by German naturalist Johann Gottlob Schneider in 1783. It was renamed 14 different times in two centuries, finally being renamed \"Chelus fimbriata\" in 1992. Observations of morphological differences among specimens of mata mata found distinctive differences in the populations of the Amazon and Orinoco basins. A genomic analysis of the mata mata was reported in 2020, which showed a deep split between the populations in the Amazon and Orinoco basins. The authors proposed that the Orinoco population be assigned to a new species, \"Chelus orinocensis\", with the Amazon population retaining the \"Chelus fimbriatus\" species designation.", "The mata mata is a large, sedentary turtle with a large, triangular, flattened head with many tubercles and flaps of skin, and a \"horn\" on its long and tubular snout. Three barbels occur on the chin and four additional filamentous barbels at the upper jaw, which is neither hooked nor notched. The mata mata's brown or black, oblong carapace can measure up to at adult age. The full adult weight is. The mata mata's plastron is reduced, narrowed, hingeless, shortened towards the front, and deeply notched at the rear with narrow bridges. These may be meant to allow the turtle to resemble a piece of bark, camouflaging it from possible predators. The plastron and bridges are cream to yellow or brown. The head, neck, tail, and limbs are grayish brown on adults. The neck is longer than the vertebra under its carapace and is fringed with small skin flaps along both sides. Hatchlings show a pink to reddish tinge in the underside edge of their carapaces and plastrons that gradually disappear as they grow. Each forefoot has five webbed claws. Males have concave plastrons and longer, thicker tails than females.", "The mata mata inhabits slow moving, blackwater streams, stagnant pools, marshes, and swamps ranging into northern Bolivia, eastern Peru, Ecuador, eastern Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, and northern and central Brazil. The mata mata is strictly an aquatic species but it prefers standing in shallow water where its snout can reach the surface to breathe.", "The appearance of the mata mata's shell resembles a piece of bark, and its head resembles fallen leaves. As it remains motionless in the water, its skin flaps enable it to blend into the surrounding vegetation until a fish comes close. The mata mata thrusts out its head and opens its large mouth as wide as possible, creating a low-pressure vacuum that sucks the prey into its mouth, known as suction feeding. The mata mata snaps its mouth shut, the water is slowly expelled, and the fish is swallowed whole; the mata mata cannot chew due to the way its mouth is constructed.", "Males display for females by extending their limbs, lunging their heads toward the females with mouths agape, and moving the lateral flaps on their heads. Nesting occurs from October through December in the Upper Amazon. The 12 to 28 brittle, spherical, 35 mm-diameter eggs are deposited in a clutch.", "The mata mata is carnivorous, feeding exclusively upon aquatic invertebrates and fish. When the stomach content of 20 wild mata mata turtles was examined it consisted exclusively of small fish.The turtles predominantly feed at night in muddy water with limited visibility. However the turtle is well adapted to hunting in these conditions. The mata mata has very fine eyesight with eyes that reflect light, similar to other nocturnal reptiles. In addition, the skin flaps on the neck are also extremely sensitive and help the mata mata detect nearby movement. Mata mata turtles use a specific method of seizing their prey. They will move the prey into shallower areas of water, surround the prey, and wave their front legs to prevent them from escaping. Once surrounded, the mata mata turtles will open their mouths and contract their pharynx, causing a rush of water that pushes the prey into their mouth.", "Mata mata turtles are readily available in the exotic pet trade and are quite expensive to obtain. Due to their unique appearance, they make interesting display animals. They also grow quite large. However, mata matas are not active hunters, so, like the alligator snapping turtle, they need less space than a large, active species. As with all aquatic turtles, water quality is one of the keys to keeping this species successfully in captivity. Warm, acidic water is the best type used with a high tannin content that should be maintained all year round. Moderate to heavy filtration is recommended. Fogel considers his captive mata mata turtles to be quite intelligent. For example, he has observed one turtle positioning itself near the spray bar of the aquarium at feeding time so that floating food is pushed beneath the water's surface where the turtle can catch it more easily." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Classification.", "Anatomy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The suborder Suina includes Suidae (pig family) and Tayassuidae (peccary family). The Merycoidodonts, or \"oreodonts\", a branch of the tylopoda, were often considered suines due to the popular, though inaccurate, description of them as \"ruminating hogs\". Oreodonts were not suines; they were more closely related to camels. Similarly, the entelodonts had long been classified as members of Suina. Spaulding et al. have found them to be closer to whales than to pigs in their Cetacodontamorpha. Some morphological studies have suggested that the hippopotamus family Hippopotamidae was part of the Suina, but a growing body of morphological and genetic evidence has suggested that they share a common ancestor not with the Suina, but with Cetaceans—the clade that includes whales and dolphins. Whales and hippopotamids form a clade called Whippomorpha. The most recent research into the origins of hippopotamidae suggests that hippos and whales shared a common semi-aquatic ancestor that branched off from other Artiodactyls around. Descendants of this hypothesized ancestor likely split into two branches around. One branch would evolve into cetaceans, possibly beginning with the proto-whale \"Pakicetus\" from and other early whale ancestors, known as Archaeoceti, which eventually underwent aquatic adaptation into the almost completely aquatic cetaceans.", "The anatomy of the Suina differs from other even-toed ungulates. For example, they have maxillary (upper) incisor teeth. In contrast, other even-toed ungulates, such as goats and deer, have incisors only on the lower jaw, with a horny dental pad where the upper incisors would be. Most even-toed ungulates have a four-chambered stomach. In contrast, the Suina have a simple stomach that allows an omnivorous diet. While most artiodactyls have long slender legs, the Suina generally have short, stubby legs." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Distribution and habitat.", "Appearance and behavior.", "Potential use in medicine." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The species inhabits ponds, lakes, lagoons and similar waters from the Amazon and the Guianas, to Venezuela and Trinidad, with a disjunct distribution in the Magdalena River watershed in Colombia and adjacent far western Venezuela. More southerly populations from the Pantanal region to northeastern Argentina have been recognized as a subspecies, but are now often considered a full species, \"P. platensis\", although the validity of this split is questionable.", "The adult frogs of \"P. paradoxa\" have a snout–to–vent length of and are green to brown coloured with dark green, olive or dark brownish stripes or mottling; the pattern and hue varies significantly. The female of \"P. paradoxa\" lay eggs among water plants; the eggs develop into tadpoles. They always reach a large size, but there are noticeable local variations in the final size of the tadpoles, with those in large temporary waters with plenty of food and few aquatic predators growing larger than those in smaller waters with less food or waters with more aquatic predators. The tadpoles feed mostly on algae. The adult frogs, which are active both day and night and always in or near water, eat insects and other invertebrates, and small frogs. When threatened, the frog uses its strong toes with an extra joint to stir up the muddy bottom and hide. The frog also uses this mechanism to find food on the bottom of lakes and ponds.", "In March 2008, scientists working from the Universities of Ulster and United Arab Emirates released findings of a study on pseudin-2, a skin compound which protects the paradoxical frog from infection. This work found that a synthetic version of this compound was able to stimulate the secretion of insulin in pancreatic cells under laboratory conditions without toxicity to the cells. As such, this synthetic medicine could be used in the treatment of Type 2 diabetes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Minimal condition sufficient for a Mahlo cardinal.", "Example: showing that Mahlo cardinals κ are κ-inaccessible (hyper-inaccessible).", "α-Mahlo, hyper-Mahlo and greatly Mahlo cardinals.", "The Mahlo operation.", "Mahlo cardinals and reflection principles." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The main difficulty in proving this is to show that κ is regular. We will suppose that it is not regular and construct a club set which gives us a μ such that: If κ were not regular, then cf(κ) < κ. We could choose a strictly increasing and continuous cf(κ)-sequence which begins with cf(κ)+1 and has κ as its limit. The limits of that sequence would be club in κ. So there must be a regular μ among those limits. So μ is a limit of an initial subsequence of the cf(κ)-sequence. Thus its cofinality is less than the cofinality of κ and greater than it at the same time; which is a contradiction. Thus the assumption that κ is not regular must be false, i.e. κ is regular. No stationary set can exist below formula_8 with the required property because {2,3,4...} is club in ω but contains no regular ordinals; so κ is uncountable. And it is a regular limit of regular cardinals; so it is weakly inaccessible. Then one uses the set of uncountable limit cardinals below κ as a club set to show that the stationary set may be assumed to consist of weak inaccessibles. κ is weakly inaccessible and a strong limit, so it is strongly inaccessible. We show that the set of uncountable strong limit cardinals below κ is club in κ. Let μ be the larger of the threshold and ω. For each finite n, let μ = 2 which is less than κ because it is a strong limit cardinal. Then their limit is a strong limit cardinal and is less than κ by its regularity. The limits of uncountable strong limit cardinals are also uncountable strong limit cardinals. So the set of them is club in κ. Intersect that club set with the stationary set of weakly inaccessible cardinals less than κ to get a stationary set of strongly inaccessible cardinals less than κ.", "The term \"hyper-inaccessible\" is ambiguous. In this section, a cardinal κ is called hyper-inaccessible if it is κ-inaccessible (as opposed to the more common meaning of 1-inaccessible). Suppose κ is Mahlo. We proceed by transfinite induction on α to show that κ is α-inaccessible for any α ≤ κ. Since κ is Mahlo, κ is inaccessible; and thus 0-inaccessible, which is the same thing. If κ is α-inaccessible, then there are β-inaccessibles (for β < α) arbitrarily close to κ. Consider the set of simultaneous limits of such β-inaccessibles larger than some threshold but less than κ. It is unbounded in κ (imagine rotating through β-inaccessibles for β < α ω-times choosing a larger cardinal each time, then take the limit which is less than κ by regularity (this is what fails if α ≥ κ)). It is closed, so it is club in κ. So, by κ's Mahlo-ness, it contains an inaccessible. That inaccessible is actually an α-inaccessible. So κ is α+1-inaccessible. If λ ≤ κ is a limit ordinal and κ is α-inaccessible for all α < λ, then every β < λ is also less than α for some α < λ. So this case is trivial. In particular, κ is κ-inaccessible and thus hyper-inaccessible. To show that κ is a limit of hyper-inaccessibles and thus 1-hyper-inaccessible, we need to show that the diagonal set of cardinals μ < κ which are α-inaccessible for every α < μ is club in κ. Choose a 0-inaccessible above the threshold, call it α. Then pick an α-inaccessible, call it α. Keep repeating this and taking limits at limits until you reach a fixed point, call it μ. Then μ has the required property (being a simultaneous limit of α-inaccessibles for all α < μ) and is less than κ by regularity. Limits of such cardinals also have the property, so the set of them is club in κ. By Mahlo-ness of κ, there is an inaccessible in this set and it is hyper-inaccessible. So κ is 1-hyper-inaccessible. We can intersect this same club set with the stationary set less than κ to get a stationary set of hyper-inaccessibles less than κ. The rest of the proof that κ is α-hyper-inaccessible mimics the proof that it is α-inaccessible. So κ is hyper-hyper-inaccessible, etc..", "The term α-Mahlo is ambiguous and different authors give inequivalent definitions. One definition is that a cardinal κ is called α-Mahlo for some ordinal α if κ is strongly inaccessible and for every ordinal β<α, the set of β-Mahlo cardinals below κ is stationary in κ. However the condition \"κ is strongly inaccessible\" is sometimes replaced by other conditions, such as \"κ is regular\" or \"κ is weakly inaccessible\" or \"κ is Mahlo\". We can define \"hyper-Mahlo\", \"α-hyper-Mahlo\", \"hyper-hyper-Mahlo\", \"weakly α-Mahlo\", \"weakly hyper-Mahlo\", \"weakly α-hyper-Mahlo\", and so on, by analogy with the definitions for inaccessibles, so for example a cardinal κ is called hyper-Mahlo if it is κ-Mahlo. The properties of being inaccessible, Mahlo, weakly Mahlo, α-Mahlo, greatly Mahlo, etc. are preserved if we replace the universe by an inner model. Every reflecting cardinal has strictly more consistency strength than a greatly Mahlo, but inaccessible reflecting cardinals aren't in general Mahlo -- see https://mathoverflow.net/q/212597", "If \"X\" is a class of ordinals, them we can form a new class of ordinals \"M\"(\"X\") consisting of the ordinals α of uncountable cofinality such that α∩\"X\" is stationary in α. This operation \"M\" is called the Mahlo operation. It can be used to define Mahlo cardinals: for example, if \"X\" is the class of regular cardinals, then \"M\"(\"X\") is the class of weakly Mahlo cardinals. The condition that α has uncountable cofinality ensures that the closed unbounded subsets of α are closed under intersection and so form a filter; in practice the elements of \"X\" often already have uncountable cofinality in which case this condition is redundant. Some authors add the condition that α is in \"X\", which in practice usually makes little difference as it is often automatically satisfied. For a fixed regular uncountable cardinal κ, the Mahlo operation induces an operation on the Boolean algebra of all subsets of κ modulo the non-stationary ideal. The Mahlo operation can be iterated transfinitely as follows: These iterated Mahlo operations produce the classes of α-Mahlo cardinals starting with the class of strongly inaccessible cardinals. It is also possible to diagonalize this process by defining And of course this diagonalization process can be iterated too. The diagonalized Mahlo operation produces the hyper-Mahlo cardinals, and so on.", "Axiom F is the statement that every normal function on the ordinals has a regular fixed point. (This is not a first-order axiom as it quantifies over all normal functions, so it can be considered either as a second-order axiom or as an axiom scheme.) A cardinal is called Mahlo if every normal function on it has a regular fixed point, so axiom F is in some sense saying that the class of all ordinals is Mahlo. A cardinal κ is Mahlo if and only if a second-order form of axiom F holds in \"V\". Axiom F is in turn equivalent to the statement that for any formula φ with parameters there are arbitrarily large inaccessible ordinals α such that \"V\" reflects φ (in other words φ holds in \"V\" if and only if it holds in the whole universe)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "WPA.", "WPA2.", "WPA3.", "Hardware support.", "WPA terminology.", "EAP extensions under WPA and WPA2 Enterprise.", "Security issues.", "Weak password.", "Lack of forward secrecy.", "WPA packet spoofing and decryption.", "WPS PIN recovery.", "MS-CHAPv2 and lack of AAA server CN validation.", "Hole196.", "Predictable Group Temporal Key (GTK).", "KRACK attack.", "Dragonblood attack." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Wi-Fi Alliance intended WPA as an intermediate measure to take the place of WEP pending the availability of the full IEEE 802.11i standard. WPA could be implemented through firmware upgrades on wireless network interface cards designed for WEP that began shipping as far back as 1999. However, since the changes required in the wireless access points (APs) were more extensive than those needed on the network cards, most pre-2003 APs could not be upgraded to support WPA. The WPA protocol implements much of the IEEE 802.11i standard. Specifically, the Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) was adopted for WPA. WEP used a 64-bit or 128-bit encryption key that must be manually entered on wireless access points and devices and does not change. TKIP employs a per-packet key, meaning that it dynamically generates a new 128-bit key for each packet and thus prevents the types of attacks that compromised WEP. WPA also includes a Message Integrity Check, which is designed to prevent an attacker from altering and resending data packets. This replaces the cyclic redundancy check (CRC) that was used by the WEP standard. CRC's main flaw was that it did not provide a sufficiently strong data integrity guarantee for the packets it handled. Well tested message authentication codes existed to solve these problems, but they required too much computation to be used on old network cards. WPA uses a message integrity check algorithm called \"TKIP\" to verify the integrity of the packets. TKIP is much stronger than a CRC, but not as strong as the algorithm used in WPA2. Researchers have since discovered a flaw in WPA that relied on older weaknesses in WEP and the limitations of the message integrity code hash function, named \"Michael\", to retrieve the keystream from short packets to use for re-injection and spoofing.", "WPA2 replaced WPA. WPA2, which requires testing and certification by the Wi-Fi Alliance, implements the mandatory elements of IEEE 802.11i. In particular, it includes mandatory support for CCMP, an AES-based encryption mode. Certification began in September, 2004; from March 13, 2006 to June 30, 2020, WPA2 certification is mandatory for all new devices to bear the Wi-Fi trademark.", "In January 2018, the Wi-Fi Alliance announced WPA3 as a replacement to WPA2. The new standard uses an equivalent 192-bit cryptographic strength in WPA3-Enterprise mode (AES-256 in GCM mode with SHA-384 as HMAC), and still mandates the use of CCMP-128 (AES-128 in CCM mode) as the minimum encryption algorithm in WPA3-Personal mode. Certification began in June, 2018; from July 1, 2020, WPA3 certification is mandatory for all new devices to bear the Wi-Fi trademark. The WPA3 standard also replaces the Pre-Shared Key exchange with Simultaneous Authentication of Equals as defined in IEEE 802.11-2016 resulting in a more secure initial key exchange in personal mode and forward secrecy. The Wi-Fi Alliance also claims that WPA3 will mitigate security issues posed by weak passwords and simplify the process of setting up devices with no display interface. Protection of management frames as specified in the IEEE 802.11w amendment is also enforced by the WPA3 specifications.", "WPA has been designed specifically to work with wireless hardware produced prior to the introduction of WPA protocol, which provides inadequate security through WEP. Some of these devices support WPA only after applying firmware upgrades, which are not available for some legacy devices. Wi-Fi devices certified since 2006 support both the WPA and WPA2 security protocols. WPA2 may not work with some older network cards.", "Different WPA versions and protection mechanisms can be distinguished based on the target end-user (according to the method of authentication key distribution), and the encryption protocol used.", "Originally, only EAP-TLS (Extensible Authentication Protocol - Transport Layer Security) was certified by the Wi-Fi alliance. In April 2010, the Wi-Fi Alliance announced the inclusion of additional EAP types to its WPA- and WPA2- Enterprise certification programs. This was to ensure that WPA-Enterprise certified products can interoperate with one another. 802.1X clients and servers developed by specific firms may support other EAP types. This certification is an attempt for popular EAP types to interoperate; their failure to do so is one of the major issues preventing rollout of 802.1X on heterogeneous networks. Commercial 802.1X servers include Microsoft Internet Authentication Service and Juniper Networks Steelbelted RADIUS as well as Aradial Radius server. FreeRADIUS is an open source 802.1X server.", "", "Pre-shared key WPA and WPA2 remain vulnerable to password cracking attacks if users rely on a weak password or passphrase. WPA passphrase hashes are seeded from the SSID name and its length; rainbow tables exist for the top 1,000 network SSIDs and a multitude of common passwords, requiring only a quick lookup to speed up cracking WPA-PSK. Brute forcing of simple passwords can be attempted using the Aircrack Suite starting from the four-way authentication handshake exchanged during association or periodic re-authentication. WPA3 replaces cryptographic protocols susceptible to off-line analysis with protocols that require interaction with the infrastructure for each guessed password, supposedly placing temporal limits on the number of guesses. However, design flaws in WPA3 enable attackers to plausibly launch brute-force attacks (see Dragonblood attack).", "WPA and WPA2 don't provide forward secrecy, meaning that once an adverse person discovers the pre-shared key, they can potentially decrypt all packets encrypted using that PSK transmitted in the future and even past, which could be passively and silently collected by the attacker. This also means an attacker can silently capture and decrypt others' packets if a WPA-protected access point is provided free of charge at a public place, because its password is usually shared to anyone in that place. In other words, WPA only protects from attackers who don't have access to the password. Because of that, it's safer to use Transport Layer Security (TLS) or similar on top of that for the transfer of any sensitive data. However starting from WPA3, this issue has been addressed.", "Mathy Vanhoef and Frank Piessens significantly improved upon the WPA-TKIP attacks of Erik Tews and Martin Beck. They demonstrated how to inject an arbitrary number of packets, with each packet containing at most 112 bytes of payload. This was demonstrated by implementing a port scanner, which can be executed against any client using WPA-TKIP. Additionally they showed how to decrypt arbitrary packets sent to a client. They mentioned this can be used to hijack a TCP connection, allowing an attacker to inject malicious JavaScript when the victim visits a website. In contrast, the Beck-Tews attack could only decrypt short packets with mostly known content, such as ARP messages, and only allowed injection of 3 to 7 packets of at most 28 bytes. The Beck-Tews attack also requires Quality of Service (as defined in 802.11e) to be enabled, while the Vanhoef-Piessens attack does not. Neither attack leads to recovery of the shared session key between the client and Access Point. The authors say using a short rekeying interval can prevent some attacks but not all, and strongly recommend switching from TKIP to AES-based CCMP. Halvorsen and others show how to modify the Beck-Tews attack to allow injection of 3 to 7 packets having a size of at most 596 bytes. The downside is that their attack requires substantially more time to execute: approximately 18 minutes and 25 seconds. In other work Vanhoef and Piessens showed that, when WPA is used to encrypt broadcast packets, their original attack can also be executed. This is an important extension, as substantially more networks use WPA to protect broadcast packets, than to protect unicast packets. The execution time of this attack is on average around 7 minutes, compared to the 14 minutes of the original Vanhoef-Piessens and Beck-Tews attack. The vulnerabilities of TKIP are significant in that WPA-TKIP had been held to be an extremely safe combination; indeed, WPA-TKIP is still a configuration option upon a wide variety of wireless routing devices provided by many hardware vendors. A survey in 2013 showed that 71% still allow usage of TKIP, and 19% exclusively support TKIP.", "A more serious security flaw was revealed in December 2011 by Stefan Viehböck that affects wireless routers with the Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS) feature, regardless of which encryption method they use. Most recent models have this feature and enable it by default. Many consumer Wi-Fi device manufacturers had taken steps to eliminate the potential of weak passphrase choices by promoting alternative methods of automatically generating and distributing strong keys when users add a new wireless adapter or appliance to a network. These methods include pushing buttons on the devices or entering an 8-digit PIN. The Wi-Fi Alliance standardized these methods as Wi-Fi Protected Setup; however the PIN feature as widely implemented introduced a major new security flaw. The flaw allows a remote attacker to recover the WPS PIN and, with it, the router's WPA/WPA2 password in a few hours. Users have been urged to turn off the WPS feature, although this may not be possible on some router models. Also, the PIN is written on a label on most Wi-Fi routers with WPS, and cannot be changed if compromised. WPA3 introduces a new alternative for configuration of devices that lack sufficient user interface capabilities by allowing nearby devices to serve as an adequate UI for network provisioning purposes, thus mitigating the need for WPS.", "Several weaknesses have been found in MS-CHAPv2, some of which severely reduce the complexity of brute-force attacks, making them feasible with modern hardware. In 2012 the complexity of breaking MS-CHAPv2 was reduced to that of breaking a single DES key, work by Moxie Marlinspike and Marsh Ray. Moxie advised: \"Enterprises who are depending on the mutual authentication properties of MS-CHAPv2 for connection to their WPA2 Radius servers should immediately start migrating to something else.\" Tunneled EAP methods using TTLS or PEAP which encrypt the MSCHAPv2 exchange are widely deployed to protect against exploitation of this vulnerability. However, prevalent WPA2 client implementations during the early 2000s were prone to misconfiguration by end users, or in some cases (e.g. Android), lacked any user-accessible way to properly configure validation of AAA server certificate CNs. This extended the relevance of the original weakness in MSCHAPv2 within MiTM attack scenarios. Under stricter WPA2 compliance tests announced alongside WPA3, certified client software will be required to conform to certain behaviors surrounding AAA certificate validation.", "Hole196 is a vulnerability in the WPA2 protocol that abuses the shared Group Temporal Key (GTK). It can be used to conduct man-in-the-middle and denial-of-service attacks. However, it assumes that the attacker is already authenticated against Access Point and thus in possession of the GTK.", "In 2016 it was shown that the WPA and WPA2 standards contain an insecure expository random number generator (RNG). Researchers showed that, if vendors implement the proposed RNG, an attacker is able to predict the group key (GTK) that is supposed to be randomly generated by the access point (AP). Additionally, they showed that possession of the GTK enables the attacker to inject any traffic into the network, and allowed the attacker to decrypt unicast internet traffic transmitted over the wireless network. They demonstrated their attack against an Asus RT-AC51U router that uses the MediaTek out-of-tree drivers, which generate the GTK themselves, and showed the GTK can be recovered within two minutes or less. Similarly, they demonstrated the keys generated by Broadcom access daemons running on VxWorks 5 and later can be recovered in four minutes or less, which affects, for example, certain versions of Linksys WRT54G and certain Apple AirPort Extreme models. Vendors can defend against this attack by using a secure RNG. By doing so, Hostapd running on Linux kernels is not vulnerable against this attack and thus routers running typical OpenWrt or LEDE installations do not exhibit this issue.", "In October 2017, details of the KRACK (Key Reinstallation Attack) attack on WPA2 were published. The KRACK attack is believed to affect all variants of WPA and WPA2; however, the security implications vary between implementations, depending upon how individual developers interpreted a poorly specified part of the standard. Software patches can resolve the vulnerability but are not available for all devices.", "In April 2019, serious design flaws in WPA3 were found which allow attackers to perform downgrade attacks and side-channel attacks, enabling brute-forcing the passphrase, as well as launching denial-of-service attacks on Wi-Fi base stations." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Colours.", "Emblem." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Green, Yellow and Red were used for the flag of the Ethiopian Empire in 1914. A year after Ethiopia decisively defended itself from Italian colonization at the Battle of Adwa, Menelik II on 6 October 1897 ordered the three pennants combined in a rectangular tricolour from top to bottom of red, yellow, and green with the first letter of his own name (the Amharic letter \"ም\") on the central stripe. In 1914, the current flag was brought back. The flag's tri-colour scheme has existed since the early 19th century, and the colours red, yellow, and green have carried special importance since at least the early 17th century. The royal flag often featured the emblem of a Lion of Judah, a crowned lion carrying a cross centred in the banner's yellow midsection. The flag is understood to be a link between the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, the peoples, and the nation that was united. The processional cross carried by the lion was the former flag or symbol of Ethiopia, and has likewise been in use since at least the early 17th century. Whilst red is currently featured at the bottom of the horizontal tricolour, this was reversed until the mid-19th century. The emblem was added in 1996. What the colours symbolise varies depending on point of view. However, generally, red represents blood spilled in defence of Ethiopia; yellow represents peace and harmony between Ethiopia's various ethnic and religious groups; and green is said to symbolise hope, or the land and its fertility. Upon gaining independence from colonial rule, several newly established countries in Africa adopted these three colours in homage to Ethiopia's resistance against foreign occupation. When adopted by Pan-Africanist polities and organisations for their activities, the colours are often referred to as the Pan-African colours.", "Prior to 1996 (and to some extent even today), the 'plain' flag was commonly seen across the nation and the world. Previously, especially during the Derg regime, a number of different emblems were experimented with. However, the basic colour schematic has remained constant. Even after declaring itself a socialist regime, the Derg did not dare to tamper with the colours' layout, but simply removed and changed the imperial emblem after Haile Selassie's overthrow. An alternative emblem featuring a five pointed star and rays over a cogwheel surrounded by a wreath of leaves is now the featured emblem. The star is yellow on a blue disc which overlaps the green and red stripes. The star testifies to Ethiopia's bright future, while the yellow rays which it emits are equidistant and are said to represent the equality of all Ethiopians regardless of race, creed, or sex. In recent years, the government of Ethiopia has taken a conscious effort to increase the usage of the flag with the emblem, which had been seen far less than the plain tricolour. As the plain tricolour was used and seen far more often than either the flag of the Derg or the Lion of Judah flag, this was considered unusual. In 2009, the Parliament of Ethiopia passed Proclamation 654/2009 (The Federal Flag Proclamation), which prohibited firstly amongst 23 other provisions \"use [of] the Flag without its Emblem\", as well as \"to deface the Flag by writing or displaying sings, [sic] symbols, emblems or picture [sic]\", or \"to prepare or use the Flag without the proper order of its colours and size or its Emblem.\" While most offences were punishable by a fine of \"3000 birr or rigorous imprisonment up to one year,\" the first offense, mandating the usage of the emblem, received an increased penalty of \"5000 birr or rigorous imprisonment up to one year and six months.\" This replaced the 1996 Flag Proclamation, which made no mention of offenses or penalties." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Born as Marpa Chökyi Lodrö, in Lhodrak Chukhyer in the southern part of Tibet, to an affluent family, he began studying at a young age but was wild and untamed compared to other children. Marpa first received instruction for three years at Mangkhar with Drokmi Shakya Yeshe and mastered Sanskrit. He decided to travel to India to study with renowned Indian Buddhist masters. His first trip to Nepal and India was in the company of Nyo Lōtsawa, whom he attended as a servant. Marpa returned home to Lhodrak and converted his entire inheritance into gold to fund his travel expenses and to make offerings to teachers. Marpa journeyed first to Nepal where he studied with Paindapa and Chitherpa, two famous students of Naropa. Paindapa later accompanied Marpa to Pullahari, near Nalanda University, where Naropa taught. Marpa spent twelve years studying with Naropa and other great Indian gurus, most prominently Maitripada. After twelve years he set forth on his journey back to Tibet to teach and continue his dharma activities. Marpa was to travel to India twice more and Nepal three more times and studied with Naropa and other great teachers including Maitripa. He is said to have stayed in the cave at Phugtal Monastery. On his third visit to India, Naropa, who was engaged in tantric practices, proved difficult to find. However eventually Marpa found him and received the final teachings and instructions from Naropa. It was then that Naropa prophesied that a family lineage would not continue for Marpa, but that his lineage would be carried on by his disciples. Marpa now had received the full transmission, so Naropa formally declared Marpa to be his successor although he had other major disciples including Paindapa, Chitherpa, Shri Shantibhadra or Kukuripa, and Maitripa. Upon his return to Tibet, Marpa spent many years translating Buddhist scriptures and made a major contribution to the transmission of the complete buddhadharma to Tibet. Marpa continued to practice and give teachings and transmissions to many students in Tibet. After his second visit to India Milarepa became his disciple. After the death of Marpa's son, Darma Dode, Milarepa inherited his lineage in full. Marpa lived with his wife Dakmema and their sons in Lhodrak in the southern part of Tibet. Marpa is said to have founded Stongdey Monastery in Zanskar in 1052 CE." ] }