StivenLancheros/all_datasets_wikis · Datasets at Hugging Face

src_title stringlengths 1 140 ⌀	tgt_title stringlengths 1 140 ⌀	src_summary stringlengths 41 2.74k ⌀	tgt_summary stringlengths 41 2.64k ⌀	input_ids sequence	attention_mask sequence	labels sequence	text stringlengths 946 37.7k ⌀	summary stringlengths 29 3.02k ⌀	gem_id stringlengths 10 19 ⌀	gem_parent_id stringlengths 10 19 ⌀	id stringlengths 1 7 ⌀	src_document sequence
Constitutional monarchy	Monarchie constitutionnelle	A constitutional monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the sovereign exercises authority in accordance with a written or unwritten constitution. Constitutional monarchy differs from absolute monarchy (in which a monarch holds absolute power) in that constitutional monarchs are bound to exercise their powers and authorities within the limits prescribed within an established legal framework. Constitutional monarchies range from countries such as Monaco, Morocco, Jordan, Kuwait and Bahrain, where the constitution grants substantial discretionary powers to the sovereign, to countries such as the United Kingdom, Spain, Belgium, Sweden and Japan, where the monarch retains significantly less personal discretion in the exercise of their authority.	Une monarchie constitutionnelle est un type de régime politique qui reconnaît un monarque élu ou héréditaire comme chef de l'État, mais où une constitution limite ses pouvoirs.	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Walter Gropius	Walter Gropius	Walter Adolph Georg Gropius (18 May 1883 – 5 July 1969) was a German architect and founder of the Bauhaus School, who, along with Alvar Aalto, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright, is widely regarded as one of the pioneering masters of modernist architecture. He is a founder of Bauhaus in Weimar (1919). Gropius was also a leading architect of the International Style.	Walter Gropius ( à Berlin – à Boston, États-Unis) est un architecte, designer et urbaniste allemand, naturalisé américain en 1944. Il est le fondateur du Bauhaus, mouvement clé de l'art européen de l'entre-deux-guerres, qui jette les bases du style international. Théoricien du design, il promeut toute sa vie les concepts de rationalisme, de fonctionnalisme et de standardisation.	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Louis Majorelle	Louis Majorelle	Louis-Jean-Sylvestre Majorelle, usually known simply as Louis Majorelle, (26 September 1859 – 15 January 1926) was a French decorator and furniture designer who manufactured his own designs, in the French tradition of the "ébéniste". He was one of the outstanding designers of furniture in the Art Nouveau style, and after 1901 formally served as one of the vice-presidents of the "École de Nancy".	Louis-Jean-Sylvestre Majorelle, usuellement Louis Majorelle (Toul, -Nancy, ), était un ébéniste et décorateur français du mouvement Art nouveau de l'École de Nancy, dont il fut également vice-président.	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Cato the Younger	Caton d'Utique	Marcus Porcius Cato (; 95 BC – April 46 BC), also known as Cato of Utica () or Cato the Younger (""), was a conservative Roman senator in the period of the late republic. A noted orator and a follower of the Stoic philosophy, he is remembered for his stubbornness and tenacity (especially in his lengthy conflict with Julius Caesar), as well as his immunity to bribes, his moral integrity, and his famous distaste for the ubiquitous corruption of the period. His epithet "the Younger" distinguishes him from his great-grandfather, Cato the Elder.	Caton d'Utique ("Marcus Porcius Cato Uticencis"), ou Caton le Jeune, était un homme politique romain, né en 95 av. J.-C. et mort en 46 av. J.-C. à Utique (Tunisie actuelle). Il est resté dans l'histoire comme une figure du stoïcisme, célèbre pour son intégrité.	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Prime Minister of Japan	Premier ministre du Japon	The is the head of government of Japan and the commander in chief of the Japanese Armed Forces. The prime minister is appointed by the Emperor of Japan after being designated by the National Diet and must enjoy the confidence of the House of Representatives to remain in office. He is the head of the Cabinet and appoints and dismisses the other ministers of state. The literal translation of the Japanese name for the office is "Minister for the Comprehensive Administration of ("or" the Presidency over) the Cabinet".	Le est le chef du gouvernement au Japon et détient donc le pouvoir exécutif, à l'instar de ses homologues dans la plupart des autres monarchies constitutionnelles. Il représente également l'État japonais sur la scène internationale. Responsable devant la Diète qui l'élit (choix ensuite automatiquement confirmé officiellement par sa nomination par l'empereur) et peut le renverser par une motion de censure, il en est obligatoirement un membre et est généralement le président du principal parti en son sein.	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James W.C. Pennington	James W.C. Pennington	James William Charles Pennington (c. 1807 – October 22, 1870) was an African-American orator, minister, writer, and abolitionist active in Brooklyn, New York. He escaped at the age of 19 from slavery in western Maryland and reached New York. After working in Brooklyn and gaining some education, he was admitted to Yale University as its first black student. He completed studies and was ordained as a minister in the Congregational Church, later also serving in Presbyterian churches for congregations in Hartford, Connecticut; and New York. After the Civil War, he served congregations in Natchez, Mississippi; Portland, Maine; and Jacksonville, Florida.	James William Charles Pennington, dont le nom de naissance est James Pembroke, est un abolitionniste américain, écrivain, enseignant et pasteur, né en 1809 dans le comté de Queen Anne et mort en 1870.	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Belle Boyd	Belle Boyd	Isabella Maria Boyd (May 9, 1844 – June 11, 1900), best known as Belle Boyd (or as Cleopatra of the Secession or Siren of the Shenandoah), was a Confederate spy in the American Civil War. She operated from her father's hotel in Front Royal, Virginia, and provided valuable information to Confederate General Stonewall Jackson in 1862.	Isabella Marie Boyd (Martinsburg, - Wisconsin Dells, ), plus connue sous le nom de Belle Boyd, était une espionne confédérée durant la guerre de Sécession. Elle opérait depuis l'hôtel de sa tante en Virginie et fournit un certain nombre d'informations valables au général de l'armée confédérée Stonewall Jackson en 1862.	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Theodore S. Wright	Theodore S. Wright	Theodore Sedgwick Wright (1797–1847), sometimes Theodore Sedgewick Wright, was an African-American abolitionist and minister who was active in New York City, where he led the First Colored Presbyterian Church as its second pastor. He was the first African American to attend Princeton Theological Seminary (and any United States theological seminary), from which he graduated in 1828 or 1829. In 1833 he became a founding member of the American Anti-Slavery Society, an interracial group that included Samuel Cornish, a black Presbyterian, and many Congregationalists, and served on its executive committee until 1840.	Theodore Sedgwick Wright (parfois orthographié Theodore Sedgewick Wright), né à Providence vers 1797 et mort à New York en 1847, est un pasteur abolitionniste afro-américain actif à New York.	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Bauhaus	Bauhaus	The Staatliches Bauhaus (), commonly known as the Bauhaus (German: "building house"), was a German art school operational from 1919 to 1933 that combined crafts and the fine arts. The school became famous for its approach to design, which attempted to unify the principles of mass production with individual artistic vision and strove to combine aesthetics with everyday function.	La Staatliches Bauhaus est une école d'architecture et d'arts appliqués, fondée en 1919 à Weimar (Allemagne) par Walter Gropius. Par extension, Bauhaus désigne un courant artistique concernant, notamment, l'architecture et le design, la modernité mais également la photographie, le costume et la danse. Ce mouvement posera les bases de la réflexion sur l'architecture moderne, et notamment du style international.	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Samuel Cornish	Samuel Cornish	Samuel Eli Cornish (1795 – 6 November 1858) was an American Presbyterian minister, abolitionist, publisher, and journalist. He was a leader in New York City's small free black community, where he organized the first congregation of black Presbyterians in New York. In 1827 he became one of two editors of the newly founded "Freedom's Journal", the first black newspaper in the United States. In 1833 he was a founding member of the interracial American Anti-Slavery Society.	Samuel Cornish (1795-1858) est un journaliste et abolitionniste afro-américain. Il est né dans le comté du Sussex au Delaware de parents libres.	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Edward Ord	Edward Ord	Edward Otho Cresap Ord (October 18, 1818 – July 22, 1883) was an American engineer and United States Army officer who saw action in the Seminole War, the Indian Wars, and the American Civil War. He commanded an army during the final days of the Civil War, and was instrumental in forcing the surrender of Confederate General Robert E. Lee. He also designed Fort Sam Houston. He died in Havana, Cuba of yellow fever.	Edward Otho Cresap Ord (-) est un militaire de carrière de l'U.S. Army qui s'illustra lors de la seconde guerre séminole, de la guerre américano-mexicaine, des guerres indiennes et commanda une armée lors des derniers jours de la guerre de Sécession. Il fut également le concepteur du Fort Sam Houston de San Antonio au Texas.	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Gabriel Prosser	Gabriel Prosser	Gabriel (1776 – October 10, 1800), today commonly known as Gabriel Prosser, was a literate enslaved blacksmith who planned a large slave rebellion in the Richmond area in the summer of 1800. Information regarding the revolt was leaked prior to its execution, and he and twenty-five followers were taken captive and hanged in punishment. In reaction, Virginia and other state legislatures passed restrictions on free blacks, as well as prohibiting the education, assembly, and hiring out of slaves, to restrict their chances to learn and to plan similar rebellions.	Gabriel aujourd'hui couramment connu même si incorrect sous le nom de Gabriel Prosser (comté de Henrico, Virginie, env. 1775 - ) est un esclave afro-américain qui, en 1800, projeta une grande révolte d'esclaves à Richmond.	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National Diet	Diète du Japon	The is Japan's bicameral legislature. It is composed of a lower house called the House of Representatives, and an upper house, called the House of Councillors. Both houses of the Diet are directly elected under parallel voting systems. In addition to passing laws, the Diet is formally responsible for selecting the Prime Minister. The Diet was first convened as the Imperial Diet in 1889 as a result of adopting the Meiji Constitution. The Diet took its current form in 1947 upon the adoption of the post-war constitution, which considers it the highest organ of state power. The National Diet Building is in Nagatachō, Chiyoda, Tokyo.	La désigne au Japon, le parlement. La traduction française "diète" est employée, ou le mot analogue en anglais "diet" ou "dieta" dans la majorité des langues romanes, car le terme est celui utilisé dans ces langues pour la constitution allemande de 1849 (Diète impériale pour l'allemand ), dont la Constitution Meiji est inspirée.	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New Conservative Party (Japan)	Nouveau Parti conservateur	The New Conservative Party (NCP) was the name of two now-defunct political parties in Japan. The first of the two parties was founded on April 3, 2000 by 21 lower house and 6 upper house defectors from the Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ). It was then dissolved on December 23, 2002. A new party of the same name (保守新党 "Hoshu Shinto") was then founded on December 25, 2002 by Hiroshi Kumagai, also a defector from the DPJ. The party eventually merged with the Liberal Democratic Party after the 2003 election.	Le, ou NPC, officiellement New Conservative Party (NPC) en anglais, fut un parti politique du Japon créé le, successeur du ou PC.	[ 250004, 250054, 581, 541, 17854, 509, 12441, 390, 19085, 13918, 5585, 161, 429, 10368, 735, 4, 10, 36770, 2561, 2514, 143024, 215542, 5, 581, 14037, 214, 43032, 72104, 297, 1295, 70, 91441, 31016, 7103, 7068, 9, 133, 38970, 2484, 8699, 62468, 7978, 68872, 47, 31358, 142, 144, 87587, 678, 70, 17467, 4935, 91441, 182017, 31016, 5, 581, 2356, 78771, 4935, 31016, 100512, 2831, 111, 10, 17262, 9, 71983, 3114, 2069, 1311, 1799, 1363, 678, 70, 91441, 182017, 31016, 136, 2356, 4440, 13, 2986, 5, 581, 541, 17854, 509, 26725, 141, 4126, 98, 14487, 24645, 55021, 39406, 87713, 88501, 20701, 136, 17262, 3789, 2837, 177, 33302, 6259, 182017, 31016, 111, 15758, 43032, 15, 9874, 74312, 947, 188, 4, 25908, 658, 516, 2734, 6166, 136, 27303, 31, 149958, 18554, 16, 72104, 297, 1295, 70, 19085, 23, 14487, 5726, 136, 100, 4806, 70, 17932, 2356, 78771, 4935, 31016, 678, 36770, 43032, 111, 70, 5117, 2356, 78771, 4935, 31016, 5, 581, 19085, 509, 10, 17467, 4935, 17690, 1419, 19085, 136, 509, 4552, 7108, 9, 14775, 5, 24372, 70, 7582, 6052, 4537, 81843, 4, 70, 2356, 78771, 4935, 31016, 509, 25737, 678, 4734, 22759, 43032, 23, 70, 13038, 111, 130877, 42991, 4, 7565, 1295, 300, 86, 41928, 47, 70, 81843, 5, 2022, 4021, 70, 388, 1314, 23, 70, 81843, 509, 70, 19085, 13918, 4, 39406, 87713, 88501, 20701, 5, 2161, 7582, 209, 4, 88847, 7068, 9, 145111, 13, 33744, 1204, 1418, 8289, 26171, 71, 450, 70, 541, 17854, 42564, 678, 70, 91441, 182017, 31016, 5, 77168, 214, 70, 152132, 4, 70, 196212, 9, 159342, 111, 70, 541, 17854, 4, 717, 7, 77006, 516, 145055, 14, 4, 39563, 297, 70, 42564, 42, 5, 24372, 756, 4, 15044, 68036, 3542, 17467, 4935, 5, 44, 12137, 67915, 538, 75204, 70, 152132, 136, 4, 7103, 35107, 28032, 70, 19085, 4, 642, 176506, 47, 26946, 70, 152132, 47, 69307, 70, 102880, 642, 103036, 71, 47, 169454, 7, 4, 58, 196212, 9, 159342, 145055, 14, 11341, 71, 98, 7582, 209, 4, 46730, 581, 19085, 83, 5036, 64557, 42564, 71, 678, 70, 91441, 182017, 31016, 111, 15758, 5, 2 ]	[ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 ]	[ 250008, 636, 4, 628, 541, 12233, 4, 121494, 674, 2356, 78771, 4935, 31016, 15, 839, 12233, 16, 22, 136561, 4, 17624, 51, 2878, 48391, 115, 26962, 102103, 95, 4, 36272, 7745, 115, 628, 6107, 5, 2 ]	null	null	null	null	null	null
Social Democratic Party (Japan)	Parti social-démocrate (Japon)	The is a political party established in 1996. Since its reformation and name change in 1996, it has defined itself as a social-democratic party. Before 1996 it was known as the.	Le est un parti politique du Japon situé à la gauche de l'échiquier politique. Abrégé traditionnellement en, ou PSD en français, et officiellement appelé en anglais Social Democratic Party (SDP), il est issu d'une transformation du Parti socialiste japonais en, et a connu depuis lors une profonde désaffection de son électorat au profit du Parti démocrate du Japon. Il est allié électoral traditionnel de ce dernier, et son partenaire au sein de la coalition gouvernementale formée par Yukio Hatoyama après les élections législatives du jusqu'au.	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Lusitania	Lusitanie	Lusitania () or Hispania Lusitana was an ancient Iberian Roman province located where modern Portugal (south of the Douro river) and part of western Spain (the present autonomous community of Extremadura and a part of the province of Salamanca) lie. It was named after the Lusitani or Lusitanian people (an Indo-European people).	La Lusitanie ("Lusitania") était une province romaine impériale fondée sous le principat d'Auguste. Elle couvrait la plus grande partie de l'actuel Portugal au sud du Douro et une partie du León et de l'Estrémadure espagnole.	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Andreas Vesalius	André Vésale	Andreas Vesalius (; 31 December 1514 – 15 October 1564) was a 16th-century Flemish anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, "De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem" ("On the Fabric of the Human Body"). Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy. He was born in Brussels, which was then part of the Habsburg Netherlands. He was professor at the University of Padua and later became Imperial physician at the court of Emperor Charles V.	André Vésale, né Andries Wytinck van Wesel à Bruxelles le et mort à Zakynthos le, est un anatomiste et médecin brabançon, considéré par de nombreux historiens des sciences comme le plus grand anatomiste de la Renaissance, voire le plus grand de l’histoire de la médecine. Ses travaux, outre qu’ils ont fait entrer l’anatomie dans la modernité, mettront fin aux dogmes du galénisme qui bloquaient l’évolution scientifique depuis plus de mille ans aussi bien en Europe que dans le monde islamique. Vésale ne se détache pas entièrement de l'œuvre de Galien, pour lequel il a une très grande admiration. Le fait de le critiquer, de souligner ses erreurs n'est pas un signe de mépris. Il reprend d'ailleurs un certain nombre d'éléments de l'œuvre de Galien.	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Office de Radiodiffusion Télévision Française	Office de radiodiffusion-télévision française	The Office de Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française (ORTF) was the national agency charged, between 1964 and 1974, with providing public radio and television in France. All programming, and especially news broadcasts, were under strict control of the national government.	L'Office de radiodiffusion-télévision française (ORTF) est un établissement public à caractère industriel et commercial créé en 1964 et remplacé en 1974, ayant pour mission la tutelle de la radiodiffusion et de la télévision publique, la gestion des émetteurs et de la production audiovisuelle nationales et régionales.	[ 250004, 250054, 62, 3835, 147759, 53, 98, 226347, 214, 23, 9942, 1902, 2809, 170920, 678, 70, 27643, 111, 6436, 428, 420, 92105, 88162, 13, 15, 40756, 919, 16, 23, 18608, 5, 627, 38997, 509, 120514, 4806, 6436, 428, 420, 92105, 9, 618, 50763, 25826, 88162, 13, 15, 20503, 919, 16, 23, 45604, 136, 91995, 71, 390, 70, 33172, 30992, 23, 38425, 5, 360, 19340, 4, 20271, 10, 24234, 108870, 4, 14787, 7, 103598, 3911, 34, 4, 173969, 297, 10, 1221, 47, 65186, 731, 261, 38949, 214, 450, 4677, 47, 70, 33172, 30992, 8110, 186, 4092, 4, 41371, 136, 82791, 289, 4, 12960, 11405, 214, 450, 442, 47143, 7, 44, 2347, 54479, 111, 9942, 36766, 642, 1884, 442, 707, 959, 5, 44, 28090, 70, 86595, 4, 70, 3835, 226347, 56, 122446, 38781, 329, 130412, 1295, 70, 44, 17152, 94266, 289, 29398, 7, 58, 12, 92265, 9, 9217, 11, 6048, 29398, 7, 1300, 4806, 99, 70, 92265, 3835, 1284, 71872, 1916, 98, 4989, 634, 272, 1295, 108, 6958, 38648, 214, 76726, 4, 6044, 237, 6436, 17629, 83551, 15, 25656, 441, 16, 1295, 138550, 4, 6436, 211546, 15, 94068, 171064, 16, 1295, 211546, 4, 136, 14713, 106, 1295, 102126, 15, 3355, 63928, 25958, 4, 23, 27898, 4, 12174, 441, 509, 107003, 47, 5423, 1257, 10, 71872, 720, 98, 92265, 181991, 53, 194, 2161, 14487, 48877, 27898, 4, 70, 33172, 30992, 65450, 23, 190, 4, 137802, 361, 39457, 42, 38016, 7, 12, 360, 27631, 70, 33172, 30992, 25, 7, 1653, 13, 26531, 748, 4, 627, 30992, 4, 1902, 2809, 1632, 111, 1105, 14037, 214, 226347, 214, 139240, 111, 70, 28811, 213995, 214, 32528, 5, 345, 5416, 70, 36356, 9, 2037, 111, 70, 33172, 30992, 23, 27898, 4, 92265, 209274, 111, 70, 241, 15639, 509, 12302, 2822, 47, 70, 179965, 14380, 384, 38997, 4, 12960, 6, 30992, 418, 100512, 10, 17932, 92265, 36457, 32786, 5, 62, 304, 4, 75023, 363, 4, 136, 159, 54612, 100512, 107506, 6635, 36457, 43032, 8108, 155605, 141753, 4393, 43032, 23, 24427, 5, 360, 26819, 70, 92265, 3835, 226347, 1314, 25, 209274, 509, 12302, 2822, 47, 10, 124416, 49894, 4, 70, 63917, 282, 43054, 8, 5977, 428, 420, 92105, 82, 8, 211402, 15, 82341, 20503, 194, 1520, 86, 5369, 14432, 4, 70, 31766, 20503, 509, 214493, 297, 390, 70, 10760, 5911, 224, 6436, 152462, 223, 17706, 88162, 8, 96, 26, 1062, 12501, 15, 724, 54612, 16, 3129, 82424, 16401, 7, 1632, 111, 70, 92265, 209274, 7, 111, 70, 241, 15639, 5, 2 ]	[ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 ]	[ 250008, 339, 25, 94833, 8, 5977, 428, 420, 92105, 9, 18, 50763, 25826, 72358, 15, 105259, 919, 16, 437, 51, 6, 106216, 3835, 253, 119818, 163462, 82, 60091, 102103, 22, 38425, 82, 14194, 133266, 446, 22, 27898, 4, 62117, 578, 29752, 21, 12956, 2118, 8, 21, 5977, 428, 420, 92105, 82, 8, 21, 211402, 62195, 4, 21, 41384, 224, 393, 1928, 16034, 82, 8, 21, 36049, 18215, 1824, 34, 2118, 40567, 7, 82, 215237, 7, 5, 2 ]	null	null	null	null	null	null
Melanesia	Mélanésie	Melanesia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania extending from New Guinea island in the southwestern Pacific Ocean to the Arafura Sea, and eastward to Tonga.	La Mélanésie (littér. « îles noires », du grec ancien :, « noir » et, « île ») est l'un des trois grands groupes « traditionnels » d'îles de l'océan Pacifique qui, ensemble, forment l'Océanie. Ce regroupement géographique est aujourd'hui contesté par une partie des géographes, mais il reste très couramment employé, y compris par les pays concernés.	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Enlightenment (spiritual)	Éveil spirituel	Enlightenment is the "full comprehension of a situation". The term is commonly used to denote the Age of Enlightenment, but is also used in Western cultures in a religious context. It translates several Buddhist terms and concepts, most notably "bodhi", "kensho" and "satori". Related terms from Asian religions are "moksha" (liberation) in Hinduism, "Kevala Jnana" in Jainism, and "ushta" in Zoroastrianism.	La notion d'éveil spirituel (appelée également « illumination », « réalisation de soi », ou simplement « éveil »), communément associée au bouddhisme et à l'hindouisme, désigne un état de conscience supérieur dans de nombreuses religions et philosophies et l'aboutissement d'une voie religieuse ou spirituelle.	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Complete blood count	Hémogramme	A complete blood count (CBC), also known as a full blood count (FBC), is a medical laboratory test that gives information about the cells in a person's blood. The test reports the amounts of white blood cells, red blood cells and platelets, the concentration of hemoglobin in the blood, and the hematocrit, which is the percentage of the blood that is made up of red blood cells. The red blood cell indices, which describe the average size and hemoglobin content of red blood cells, are also reported, and a white blood cell differential, which counts the different types of white blood cells, may be performed.	L'hémogramme, aussi appelé numération de la formule sanguine (NFS), formule sanguine complète (FSC), ou examen hématologique complet (hémato complet), est l'analyse quantitative (numération) et qualitative (formule) des éléments figurés du sang : hématies (globules rouges ou érythrocytes), leucocytes (globules blancs) et thrombocytes (plaquettes).	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Cato the Elder	Caton l'Ancien	Marcus Porcius Cato (; 234–149 BC), also known as Cato the Censor (), the Elder (') and the Wise ('), was a Roman soldier, senator and historian known for his conservatism and opposition to Hellenization. He was the first to write history in Latin. His epithet "Elder" distinguishes him from his equally famous great-grandson Cato the Younger, who opposed Julius Caesar.	, dit Caton l'Ancien (') ou Caton le Censeur (') par opposition à son arrière-petit-fils, Marcus Porcius Cato dit « Caton le Jeune » ou d'Utique, est un homme politique et un écrivain romain né en 234 av. J.-C. dans le municipe de Tusculum et mort en 149 av. J.-C. à Rome. Caton provient d'une ancienne famille plébéienne qui s'est distinguée par des services militaires remarquables, mais non dans l'exercice de magistratures à Rome. Il est élevé à la manière de ses ancêtres latins et formé à l'agriculture. Il attire l'attention de Lucius Valerius Flaccus, qui l'emmène à Rome et qui, grâce à son influence, lui fait franchir les diverses étapes du "cursus honorum" : tribun en 214 av. J.-C, questeur en 204 av. J.-C., préteur en 198 av. J.-C., consul en 195 av. J.-C. avec son ancien patron, puis censeur en 184 av. J.-C. Militaire, il combat les Carthaginois, pendant la deuxième guerre punique, de 217 à 207 av. J.-C. ; il participe notamment à la bataille décisive du Métaure, où meurt Hasdrubal. Proconsul de l'Hispanie citérieure, il dirige ses troupes avec habileté et dynamisme pour subjuguer les insurgés espagnols avec dureté. En 191 av. J.-C., il intervient comme tribun militaire dans la campagne de Grèce contre l'empire séleucide d'Antiochos III Mégas et participe de façon décisive à la bataille des Thermopyles, qui marque l'arrêt des incursions Séleucides.	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Angola Avante	Angola Avante	"Angola Avante" (, ) is the national anthem of Angola. composed the music, while the lyrics were authored by Manuel Rui Alves Monteiro. It was adopted as the national anthem in November 1975, when the country gained its independence from Portugal. The lyrics make reference to several key events of the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), which has been in power since independence and was the only party in Angola until 1992.	Angola Avante ("En avant, Angola") est l'hymne national de l'Angola. Il a été adopté en 1975 quand l'Angola est devenu indépendant du Portugal.	[ 250004, 250054, 44, 53480, 5330, 92959, 13, 58, 509, 150350, 71, 390, 5, 581, 68944, 47, 70, 11531, 3542, 95545, 297, 390, 19639, 4518, 14, 884, 3132, 12982, 11126, 15, 163840, 1104, 247, 142, 42179, 2750, 22282, 71, 23, 7674, 49246, 136, 83, 148272, 71, 678, 15044, 70, 23295, 25, 7, 601, 2783, 56, 32528, 136, 32528, 111, 69891, 7, 136, 3288, 100587, 7, 5, 1529, 83, 1632, 111, 70, 2965, 9, 1428, 2069, 6, 70035, 7, 23, 70, 10323, 26349, 3350, 8054, 46, 59499, 47, 142, 44, 81183, 141, 110297, 58, 55080, 297, 23, 20414, 6052, 46, 136, 33022, 7, 1672, 44, 13, 104643, 5636, 6897, 58, 23, 70, 23295, 17368, 19786, 107, 136, 193, 6833, 5, 581, 11531, 509, 51521, 538, 4331, 27686, 237, 70, 23295, 25, 7, 15889, 12936, 7701, 23, 26527, 4, 3229, 70, 23295, 21647, 297, 23, 215131, 98, 7582, 534, 111, 450, 6602, 5, 1650, 83, 22, 1495, 2677, 297, 1379, 24241, 84900, 111, 70, 171484, 111, 202468, 5, 1650, 7, 68944, 15005, 47, 40368, 22799, 47353, 23, 70, 32692, 111, 70, 276, 149643, 5, 33306, 4, 903, 1556, 2809, 79516, 71, 44, 3522, 40777, 67, 58, 16792, 70, 3564, 111, 70, 1632, 9, 71983, 11341, 23, 86591, 1301, 10, 16750, 4, 2685, 765, 2809, 79825, 47, 2811, 40383, 70, 15889, 12936, 7701, 4, 33233, 678, 3789, 15889, 26582, 7, 5, 33306, 4, 351, 13, 111, 6097, 765, 1380, 47, 41896, 1830, 4, 136, 70, 12936, 7701, 47143, 7, 51, 152028, 71, 237, 111, 8432, 581, 68944, 111, 44, 53480, 5330, 92959, 13, 58, 756, 9233, 47, 3642, 70, 23295, 136, 6863, 3395, 1221, 42658, 40225, 23, 70, 22690, 5, 1650, 1556, 2809, 18507, 47314, 390, 44, 3957, 23865, 199668, 58, 55673, 7, 23698, 1529, 33601, 18, 237, 1632, 111, 40368, 158, 99736, 6635, 15889, 12936, 7701, 7, 450, 158, 67709, 44, 11, 1286, 70116, 289, 70334, 58, 191722, 390, 44, 2729, 23342, 13, 2298, 3075, 740, 581, 9351, 111, 70, 15889, 12936, 7701, 83, 11814, 237, 10, 128911, 11627, 100, 142, 1940, 9, 277, 12303, 2481, 125413, 101740, 130412, 34658, 47, 97551, 29681, 69924, 15044, 23, 202468, 136, 54940, 3395, 1295, 70, 82528, 21325, 13, 9, 9217, 11, 6048, 101334, 76726, 15, 138005, 20880, 16, 38043, 23, 15604, 5, 100932, 297, 23, 15604, 23, 1392, 136, 24159, 70, 21, 3055, 233547, 60213, 71, 87199, 1295, 30089, 4, 64958, 28540, 944, 4, 117081, 66509, 4, 200925, 9, 571, 3031, 34, 4, 136, 11182, 8352, 446, 136, 242644, 5, 581, 1392, 2896, 214, 19732, 60754, 297, 678, 136, 739, 3165, 2822, 70, 4039, 927, 204320, 111, 70, 23, 215131, 111, 202468, 5, 2 ]	[ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 ]	[ 250008, 202468, 92959, 13, 24073, 7768, 9600, 4, 202468, 18939, 437, 96, 25, 3038, 39, 86, 15889, 8, 96, 25, 53480, 5330, 5, 891, 10, 5325, 30666, 446, 22, 26527, 12723, 96, 25, 53480, 5330, 437, 139212, 157085, 115, 15604, 5, 2 ]	null	null	null	null	null	null
Londonderry Air	Londonderry Air	The Londonderry Air is an Irish air that originated in County Londonderry. It is popular among the American Irish diaspora and is well known throughout the world. The tune is played as the victory sporting anthem of Northern Ireland at the Commonwealth Games. The song "Danny Boy" uses the tune, with a set of lyrics written in the early 20th century.	The (London)Derry Air est un air traditionnel irlandais collecté au milieu du XIXe siècle par Jane Ross, à Limavady dans le comté de (London)Derry et publié par George Petrie en 1855 dans son recueil "Ancient Music of Ireland". Cette mélodie populaire au sein de la diaspora irlandaise est également utilisée par l'Irlande du Nord comme hymne avant certaines compétitions sportives (comme aux Jeux du Commonwealth).	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Advance Australia Fair	Advance Australia Fair	"Advance Australia Fair" is the national anthem of Australia. Created by the Scottish-born composer Peter Dodds McCormick, the song was first performed in 1878 and sung in Australia as a patriotic song. It replaced "God Save the Queen" as the official national anthem in 1984, following a plebiscite to choose the national song in 1977. Other songs and marches have been influenced by "Advance Australia Fair", such as the Australian vice-regal salute.	La plupart du temps seule la première strophe est entonnée. Une deuxième strophe est parfois ajoutée, pour les grandes occasions. Il existe d'autres strophes, présentées dans cet article.	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Flower of Scotland	Flower of Scotland	"Flower of Scotland" (, ) is a Scottish song, frequently performed at special occasions and sporting events as an unofficial national anthem of Scotland.	Flower of Scotland (' en gaélique écossais,'en scots) est un hymne national officieux de l'Écosse, au même titre que le plus ancien "Scotland the Brave". Cette chanson a été créée (paroles et musiques) par l’Écossais Roy Williamson du groupe folklorique The Corries en 1967.	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Sybaris	Sybaris	Sybaris (; ) was an important city of Magna Graecia. It was situated on the Gulf of Taranto, in Southern Italy, between two rivers, the Crathis (Crati) and the Sybaris (Coscile).	Sybaris (en grec ancien Σύβαρις, "Subaris") était une colonie grecque du sud de l'Italie (en Calabre actuelle), fondée au VIIIe siècle av. J.-C. dans le cadre du mouvement d'établissement et d'essaimage des Grecs vers l'Occident, particulièrement en Grande Grèce. Réputée dès l'Antiquité pour sa richesse devenue proverbiale, ainsi que pour son emprise sur les peuples voisins et différentes cités grecques de son voisinage, elle fut détruite à l'issue d'une guerre qui l'opposa à Crotone à la fin du VIe siècle av. J.-C., et enfouie sous les eaux du fleuve Crathis (aujourd'hui Crati), avant de voir son site réoccupé, soixante ans plus tard, par la colonie athénienne de Thourioi. Enseveli sous près d'une dizaine de mètres de sédiments, le site archaïque de Sybaris reste encore aujourd'hui largement inexploré du fait que les alluvions de la plaine où elle se situe sont gorgées d'eau.	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Small Magellanic Cloud	Petit Nuage de Magellan	The Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC), or "Nubecula Minor", is a dwarf galaxy near the Milky Way. Classified as a dwarf irregular galaxy, the SMC has a diameter of about 7,000 light-years, contains several hundred million stars, and has a total mass of approximately 7 billion solar masses. The SMC contains a central bar structure, and astronomers speculate that it was once a barred spiral galaxy that was disrupted by the Milky Way to become somewhat irregular. At a distance of about 200,000 light-years, the SMC is among the nearest intergalactic neighbors of the Milky Way and is one of the most distant objects visible to the naked eye.	Le Petit Nuage de Magellan, souvent abrégé en SMC dans la littérature en référence à l'anglais, est une galaxie naine de type SB(s)m appartenant au Groupe local et située dans la constellation du Toucan. Satellite de la Voie lactée, il s'agit d'une petite galaxie irrégulière apparentée à une galaxie spirale magellanique dont la barre est visible mais dont le bras spiral est très dispersé. La base de données NASA/IPAC rapporte un échantillon de près de 300 mesures dont la moyenne donne une distance au Soleil de.	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Atoll	Atoll	An atoll (), sometimes called a coral atoll, is a ring-shaped coral reef including a coral rim that encircles a lagoon partially or completely. There may be coral islands or cays on the rim. The coral of the atoll often sits atop the rim of an extinct seamount or volcano which has eroded or subsided partially beneath the water. The lagoon forms over the volcanic crater or caldera while the higher rim remains above water or at shallow depths that permit the coral to grow and form the reefs. For the atoll to persist, continued erosion or subsidence must be at a rate slow enough to permit reef growth upward and outward to replace the lost height.	Un atoll est un type d'île corallienne basse des océans tropicaux. Les atolls se composent d'un récif barrière, d'un ou plusieurs îlots appelés motu formés par accumulation de sable à l'arrière de ce récif, et entourant une dépression centrale.	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Metallicity	Métallicité	In astronomy, metallicity is the abundance of elements present in an object that are heavier than hydrogen or helium. Most of the physical matter in the Universe is in the form of hydrogen and helium, so astronomers use the word "metals" as a convenient short term for "all elements except hydrogen and helium". This usage is distinct from the usual physical definition of a solid metal. For example, stars and nebulae with relatively high abundances of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and neon are called "metal-rich" in astrophysical terms, even though those elements are non-metals in chemistry.	En astrophysique, la métallicité d'un objet astronomique est la fraction de sa masse qui n'est pas constituée d'hydrogène ou d'hélium. La métallicité quantifie l'importance des processus nucléosynthétiques dans l'origine de la matière constituant l'objet considéré (étoile, milieu interstellaire, galaxie, quasar). L'indice de métallicité (souvent appelé simplement "métallicité"), [M/H] ou [Fe/H], véhicule sensiblement la même information sous une autre forme.	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Large Magellanic Cloud	Grand Nuage de Magellan	The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) is a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way. At a distance of about 50 kiloparsecs (≈163,000 light-years), the LMC is the second- or third-closest galaxy to the Milky Way, after the Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal (~16 kpc) and the possible dwarf irregular galaxy known as the Canis Major Overdensity. Based on readily visible stars and a mass of approximately 10 billion solar masses, the diameter of the LMC is about, making it roughly one one-hundredth as massive as the Milky Way. This makes the LMC the fourth-largest galaxy in the Local Group, after the Andromeda Galaxy (M31), the Milky Way, and the Triangulum Galaxy (M33).	Le Grand Nuage de Magellan, en abrégé GNM (on trouve aussi souvent LMC dans la littérature en référence à l'anglais ), est une galaxie naine de type SB(s)m appartenant au Groupe local et située dans les constellations de la Dorade et de la Table. Satellite de la Voie lactée, il s'agit d'une petite galaxie spirale magellanique, caractérisée par une grande barre et un seul bras spiral. La base de données NASA/IPAC rapporte un échantillon de près de dont la moyenne donne une distance de. En 2019, cette distance est déterminée avec une précision de 1 % :. C'est la troisième galaxie la plus proche de la Voie lactée, après les galaxies naines du Grand Chien et du Sagittaire. D'un diamètre de, c'est la quatrième plus massive du Groupe local après la galaxie d'Andromède (M31), la Voie lactée et la galaxie du Triangle (M33).	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Lusaka	Lusaka	Lusaka ( ) is the capital and largest city of Zambia. It is one of the fastest developing cities in southern Africa. Lusaka is in the southern part of the central plateau at an elevation of about., the city's population was about 1.7 million, while the urban population is estimated at 2.5 million in 2018. Lusaka is the centre of both commerce and government in Zambia and connects to the country's four main highways heading north, south, east and west. English is the official language of the city administration, while Nyanja and Bemba are the commonly spoken street languages.	Lusaka est la capitale et la plus grande ville de Zambie. Sa population est estimée à habitants (recensement de 2010). Les deux principales langues qui y sont parlées sont l'anglais et le nyanja. Elle tient lieu de centre de commerce ainsi que de siège du gouvernement zambien.	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Vientiane	Vientiane	Vientiane (, ;,, ) is the capital and largest city of Laos, on the banks of the Mekong River near the border with Thailand. Vientiane became the capital in 1573 due to fears of a Burmese invasion but was later looted then razed to the ground in 1827 by the Siamese (Thai). Vientiane was the administrative capital during French rule and, due to economic growth in recent times, is now the economic center of Laos. The city had a population of 820,000 as at the 2015 Census.	Vientiane (, en "Vieng Chan" ) est la ville la plus peuplée et la capitale du Laos. Elle est située sur la rive gauche du Mékong, qui marque la frontière avec la Thaïlande, presque en face de la ville thaïlandaise de Nong Khai.	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Electrolysis	Électrolyse	In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis is a technique that uses a direct electric current (DC) to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous chemical reaction. Electrolysis is commercially important as a stage in the separation of elements from naturally occurring sources such as ores using an electrolytic cell. The voltage that is needed for electrolysis to occur is called the decomposition potential.	L'électrolyse est une méthode qui permet de réaliser des réactions chimiques grâce à une activation électrique. C'est le processus de conversion de l'énergie électrique en énergie chimique. Elle permet par ailleurs, dans l'industrie chimique, la séparation d'éléments ou la synthèse de composés chimiques. Elle intervient aussi dans la classification des corps purs.	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Ophrys insectifera	Ophrys mouche	Ophrys insectifera, the fly orchid, is a species of orchid and the type species of the genus "Ophrys". It is remarkable as an example of sexually-deceptive pollination and floral mimicry as well as of a highly-selective and highly evolved plant-pollinator relationship.	L'Ophrys mouche (Ophrys insectifera) est une orchidée terrestre européenne qui doit son nom à l'apparence de sa fleur (qui ressemble à une mouche sombre).	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Jacques Villeneuve	Jacques Villeneuve	Jacques Joseph Charles Villeneuve (; born April 9, 1971) is a Canadian professional auto racing driver and amateur musician. Villeneuve currently competes in the NASCAR Whelen Euro Series, driving the #5 car for FEED Vict Racing in the EuroNASCAR PRO class. He is the son of Formula One driver Gilles Villeneuve, and is the namesake of his uncle, who was also a racer. Villeneuve won the 1995 CART Championship, the 1995 Indianapolis 500 and the 1997 Formula One World Championship, making him only the third driver after Mario Andretti and Emerson Fittipaldi to achieve such a feat., no other Canadian has won the Indianapolis 500 or the Formula One Drivers' title.	Jacques Joseph Charles Villeneuve, né le à Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu au Québec, est un pilote automobile canadien, actuellement commentateur des Grands Prix de Formule 1 sur Canal+. En Formule 1, de 1996 à 2006 (166 départs), il a été sacré champion du monde en 1997 et a remporté onze victoires, dont quatre dès sa première saison, toutes sur Williams-Renault. Il compte également à son palmarès les 500 Miles d'Indianapolis et le championnat CART en 1995.	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Functional equation	Équation fonctionnelle	In mathematics, a functional equation is any equation in which the unknown represents a function. Often, the equation relates the value of a function (or functions) at some point with its values at other points. For instance, properties of functions can be determined by considering the types of functional equations they satisfy. The term "functional equation" usually refers to equations that cannot be simply reduced to algebraic equations or differential equations.	En mathématiques, une équation fonctionnelle est une équation dont les inconnues sont des fonctions. De nombreuses propriétés de fonctions peuvent être déterminées en étudiant les équations auxquelles elles satisfont. D'habitude, le terme « équation fonctionnelle » est réservé aux équations qu'on ne peut pas ramener à des équations plus simples, par exemple à des équations différentielles.	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Thomas Kuhn	Thomas Samuel Kuhn	Thomas Samuel Kuhn (; July 18, 1922 – June 17, 1996) was an American philosopher of science whose 1962 book "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" was influential in both academic and popular circles, introducing the term "paradigm shift", which has since become an English-language idiom.	Thomas Samuel Kuhn, né le à Cincinnati, dans l'Ohio et mort le à Cambridge, dans le Massachusetts, est un philosophe des sciences et historien des sciences américain. Il s’est principalement intéressé aux structures et à la dynamique des groupes scientifiques à travers l’histoire des sciences. Il est le promoteur d'une interprétation de l'histoire des sciences selon laquelle le développement historique des théories est discontinu ; pour rendre compte de ce processus il reprend, à Alexandre Koyré notamment, le concept de révolution scientifique et introduit celui, devenu classique, de changement de paradigme ("paradigm shift" en anglais).	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Scheldt	Escaut	The Scheldt (,,, ) is a river that flows through in northern France, western Belgium, and the southwestern part of the Netherlands, with its mouth at the North Sea. Its name is derived from an adjective corresponding to Old English "" ("shallow"), Modern English "shoal", Low German "schol", West Frisian "skol", and Swedish (obsolete) "skäll" ("thin").	L'Escaut ("de Schelde" en néerlandais) est un fleuve européen de de long, qui traverse trois pays (France, Belgique et Pays-Bas), avant de se jeter en mer du Nord.	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Aqua regia	Eau régale	Aqua regia (; from Latin, "regal water" or "king's water") is a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid, optimally in a molar ratio of 1:3. Aqua regia is a yellow-orange (sometimes red) fuming liquid, so named by alchemists because it can dissolve the noble metals, gold and platinum, though not all metals.	L’eau régale ou eau royale ("" en latin) est un mélange d’acide chlorhydrique et d’acide nitrique concentrés dans une proportion de 2 à 4 volumes d’acide chlorhydrique pour 1 d’acide nitrique. Elle est appelée ainsi parce qu’elle est capable de dissoudre certains métaux nobles tels le platine, l'or ou le tantale insolubles dans ces acides seuls ou dans tout autre acide simple concentré.	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Direct current	Courant continu	Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of an electric charge. An electrochemical cell is a prime example of DC power. Direct current may flow through a conductor such as a wire, but can also flow through semiconductors, insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. The electric current flows in a constant direction, distinguishing it from alternating current (AC). A term formerly used for this type of current was galvanic current.	Le courant continu ou CC (DC pour "" en anglais) est un courant électrique dont l'intensité est indépendante du temps (constante). C'est, par exemple, le type de courant délivré par les piles ou les accumulateurs.	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Dendrobium	Dendrobium	Dendrobium is a genus of mostly epiphytic and lithophytic orchids in the family Orchidaceae. It is a very large genus, containing more than 1,800 species that are found in diverse habitats throughout much of south, east and southeast Asia, including China, Japan, India, the Philippines, Indonesia, Australia, New Guinea, Vietnam and many of the islands of the Pacific. Orchids in this genus have roots that creep over the surface of trees or rocks, rarely having their roots in soil. Up to six leaves develop in a tuft at the tip of a shoot and from one to a large number of flowers are arranged along an unbranched flowering stem. Several attempts have been made to separate "Dendrobium" into smaller genera, but most have not been accepted by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families.	Le genre Dendrobium de la famille des "Orchidaceae" originaire des régions sub-tropicales et tropicales d'Asie, d'Australie et de Nouvelle-Zélande. On dénombre 1220 espèces dans des biotopes variés. Le nom se compose des mots grecs "δένδον (dendron)" = arbre et "βίος (bios)" = vie (littéralement qui vit sur les arbres car toutes les espèces sont épiphytes, plus rarement lithophytes). Après "Bulbophyllum", "Dendrobium" représente le deuxième genre le plus important des orchidées en nombre d'espèces. Le genre se caractérise par la tige constituée de pseudobulbes.	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Ionia	Ionie	Ionia (; Ancient Greek: Ἰωνία /i.ɔː.ní.aː/, "Iōnía" or Ἰωνίη, "Iōníē") was an ancient region on the central part of the western coast of Anatolia in present-day Turkey, the region nearest İzmir, which was historically Smyrna. It consisted of the northernmost territories of the Ionian League of Greek settlements. Never a unified state, it was named after the Ionian tribe who, in the Archaic Period (600–480 BC), settled mainly the shores and islands of the Aegean Sea. Ionian states were identified by tradition and by their use of Eastern Greek.	LIonie est une région historique du monde grec antique située à l'ouest de l'Asie mineure, entre Phocée au nord et Milet au sud. Elle correspond à la région située dans un rayon de autour de la ville actuelle d'Izmir, en Turquie. Elle emprunte son nom à Ion, ancêtre légendaire des peuples de cette région. C'est en Ionie que se sont développées les premières formes de science de la philosophie en Occident, chez les penseurs appelés Présocratiques, dont une école particulière, celle des Physiciens, est aussi appelée l'école ionienne. Homère y aurait vécu au (en Turquie).	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A Portuguesa	A Portuguesa	"A Portuguesa" (The Portuguese [song], ) is the national anthem of Portugal. The song was composed by Alfredo Keil and written by Henrique Lopes de Mendonça during the resurgent nationalist movement ignited by the 1890 British Ultimatum to Portugal concerning its African colonies. Used as the marching song of the failed republican rebellion of January 1891, in Porto, it was adopted as the national anthem of the newborn Portuguese Republic in 1911, replacing "Hino da Carta" (Hymn of the Charter), the anthem of the deposed constitutional monarchy.	C'était à l'origine une chanson patriotique en réponse à l'ultimatum britannique de 1890 qui ordonnait au Portugal de retirer ses troupes basées en Afrique, principalement sur une bande s'étirant de l'Angola au Mozambique surnommée Carte rose ("mapa cor-de-rosa" en portugais).	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Blitzkrieg	Blitzkrieg	Blitzkrieg (, from "Blitz" ["lightning"] + "Krieg" ["war"]) is a method of warfare where the attacker, spearheaded using a force concentration of armoured and motorised or mechanised infantry formations with close air support, breaks through the opponent's line of defence by short, fast, powerful attacks and then dislocates the defenders, using speed and surprise to encircle them with the help of air superiority. Through the employment of combined arms in manoeuvre warfare, blitzkrieg attempts to unbalance the enemy by making it difficult for it to respond to the continuously changing front, then defeat it in a decisive (battle of annihilation).	Le ( « guerre éclair ») est une tactique à visée opérationnelle militaire offensive visant à emporter une victoire décisive par l'engagement localisé et limité dans le temps d'un puissant ensemble de forces motorisées, terrestres et aériennes dans l'optique de frapper en profondeur la capacité militaire, économique ou politique.	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Cinnabar	Cinabre	Cinnabar () or cinnabarite (), likely deriving from the (), is the bright scarlet to brick-red form of mercury(II) sulfide (HgS). It is the most common source ore for refining elemental mercury, and is the historic source for the brilliant red or scarlet pigment termed vermilion and associated red mercury pigments.	Le cinabre est une espèce minérale composée de sulfure de mercure(II) de formule HgS. Il a été décrit pour la première fois par le philosophe de la Grèce antique, Théophraste (c.-371, -288), dans son ouvrage de minéralogie "Sur les pierres" (Περὶ λίθων, "Peri lithon").	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Paphiopedilum	Paphiopedilum	Paphiopedilum, often called the Venus slipper, is a genus of the lady slipper orchid subfamily "Cypripedioideae" of the flowering plant family Orchidaceae. The genus comprises some 80 accepted taxa including several natural hybrids. The genus is native to Southeast Asia, the Indian Subcontinent, southern China, New Guinea and the Solomon and Bismarck Islands.	Les Paphiopedilums (du / "Páphios", « de Paphos », adjectif qualifiant Aphrodite et / "pédilon", « sandale ») sont un genre d'orchidées semi-terrestres originaires d’Asie tropicale appelées couramment « Sabot de Vénus », faisant partie de la sous-famille des Cypripedioideae.	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Financial accounting	Comptabilité générale	Financial accounting (or financial accountancy) is the field of accounting concerned with the summary, analysis and reporting of financial transactions related to a business. This involves the preparation of financial statements available for public use. Stockholders, suppliers, banks, employees, government agencies, business owners, and other stakeholders are examples of people interested in receiving such information for decision making purposes.	La comptabilité générale (comptabilité financière) est un système d'organisations dans lequel un individu appelé comptable se propose d'observer, d'enregistrer, de classer, de synthétiser afin d'analyser et renseigner. L'étude de ces étapes du travail du comptable nous permettra de mieux appréhender en quoi consiste la comptabilité financière en tant que fille naturelle de l'économie et du management.	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Ry Tanindrazanay malala ô!	Ry Tanindrazanay malala ô	Ry Tanindrazanay malala ô! is the national anthem of Madagascar. The lyrics were written by Pasteur Rahajason and the music by Norbert Raharisoa. It is similar to a march and was strongly influenced by European music and the French colonial education system It is often played by Malagasy musicians on the accordion. The anthem was officially adopted on April 27, 1959 by the parliament of Madagascar prior to the official granting of independence on 26 June 1960. Philibert Tsiranana was Prime Minister of Madagascar during the creation of the anthem and Michel Debré was the French Prime Minister during this time. The main focus of the anthem is love of the land, as well as thankfulness to God and an appeal to unity and loyalty under the nation.	Ry Tanindrazanay malala ô (Ô, Notre Chère Patrie / Ô Terre de nos ancêtres bien-aimés) est l'hymne national de Madagascar depuis 1958. Il a été écrit par le Pasteur Rahajason et composé par Norbert Raharisoa.	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Luca Pacioli	Luca Pacioli	Fra Luca Bartolomeo de Pacioli (sometimes "Paccioli" or "Paciolo"; 1447 – 19 June 1517) was an Italian mathematician, Franciscan friar, collaborator with Leonardo da Vinci, and an early contributor to the field now known as accounting. He is referred to as "The Father of Accounting and Bookkeeping" in Europe and he was the second person to publish a work on the double-entry system of book-keeping on the continent. He was also called Luca di Borgo after his birthplace, Borgo Sansepolcro, Tuscany.	Luca Bartolomes Pacioli OFM, dit "Luca di Borgo" (vers 1445 à Borgo Sansepolcro en Toscane - entre avril et octobre 1517, probablement dans la même ville), est un religieux franciscain, mathématicien et fondateur de la comptabilité.	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Constitution	Constitution	A constitution is an aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of entity, and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed.	Une constitution est une loi fondamentale qui fixe l'organisation et le fonctionnement d'un organisme, généralement d'un État ou d'un ensemble d'États.	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Charlton Heston	Charlton Heston	Charlton Heston (born John Charles Carter; October 4, 1923 – April 5, 2008) was an American actor and political activist. As a Hollywood star, he appeared in almost 100 films over the course of 60 years. He played Moses in the epic film "The Ten Commandments" (1956), for which he received his first nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama. He also starred in "Touch of Evil" (1958) with Orson Welles, "Ben-Hur" (1959), for which he won the Oscar for Best Actor, "El Cid" (1961), "Planet of the Apes" (1968), "The Greatest Show on Earth" (1952), "Secret of the Incas" (1954), "The Big Country" (1958), and "The Greatest Story Ever Told" (1965).	John Charlton Carter, dit Charlton Heston, est un acteur, réalisateur et scénariste américain né le à Evanston, dans l'Illinois, et mort le (à 84 ans), à Beverly Hills.	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The Structure of Scientific Revolutions	La Structure des révolutions scientifiques	The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962; second edition 1970; third edition 1996; fourth edition 2012) is a book about the history of science by the philosopher Thomas S. Kuhn. Its publication was a landmark event in the history, philosophy, and sociology of scientific knowledge. Kuhn challenged the then prevailing view of progress in science in which scientific progress was viewed as "development-by-accumulation" of accepted facts and theories. Kuhn argued for an episodic model in which periods of conceptual continuity where there is cumulative progress, which Kuhn referred to as periods of "normal science", were interrupted by periods of revolutionary science. The discovery of "anomalies" during revolutions in science leads to new paradigms. New paradigms then ask new questions of old data, move beyond the mere "puzzle-solving" of the previous paradigm, change the rules of the game and the "map" directing new research.	La Structure des révolutions scientifiques ("") est un essai rédigé par le philosophe et historien des sciences, Thomas Samuel Kuhn. Paru en 1962, revu en 1970, l'ouvrage est incontestablement son œuvre majeure. Il y modélise notamment la science comme phénomène social et analyse les implications de cette approche, en s'appuyant sur de nombreux exemples tirés de l'Histoire des sciences. Les apports principaux de cet essai sont la révision des notions de paradigme et de révolution scientifique, avec l'établissement d'une distinction entre science normale et science extraordinaire, ainsi que la redéfinition de l'idée de progrès. Traduit en français en 1972, il a été réédité en 2018 avec une préface inédite de Jean-Pierre Luminet.	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Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie	Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie	Emmanuel Bernard Le Roy Ladurie (born 19 July 1929) is a French historian whose work is mainly focused upon Languedoc in the "Ancien Régime", particularly the history of the peasantry. One of the leading historians of France, Le Roy Ladurie has been called the "standard-bearer" of the third generation of the "Annales" school and the "rock star of the medievalists", noted for his work in social history.	Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, né le 19 juillet 1929 à Les Moutiers-en-Cinglais (Calvados), est un historien français. Titulaire de la chaire d'histoire de la civilisation moderne au Collège de France, directeur d'études à l'École des hautes études en sciences sociales et disciple de Fernand Braudel, il est un des animateurs majeurs de l'École des Annales et devint, dans les, une figure emblématique de la Nouvelle Histoire. Certaines de ses œuvres qui s'inscrivent dans le courant de l'anthropologie historique connurent un grand succès auprès d'un large public.	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Pierre Laval	Pierre Laval	Pierre Jean Marie Laval (; 28 June 1883 – 15 October 1945) was a French politician. During the time of the Third Republic, he served as Prime Minister of France from 27 January 1931 to 20 February 1932, and a second time from 7 June 1935 to 24 January 1936.	Pierre Laval, né le à Châteldon (Puy-de-Dôme) et mort fusillé le à la prison de Fresnes (Seine), est un homme d'État français.	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Karl Jaspers	Karl Jaspers	Karl Theodor Jaspers (; ; 23 February 1883 – 26 February 1969) was a German-Swiss psychiatrist and philosopher who had a strong influence on modern theology, psychiatry, and philosophy. After being trained in and practicing psychiatry, Jaspers turned to philosophical inquiry and attempted to discover an innovative philosophical system. He was often viewed as a major exponent of existentialism in Germany, though he did not accept the label.	Karl Jaspers, né à Oldenburg le et mort à Bâle le, est un psychiatre et philosophe germano-suisse représentatif de l'existentialisme. Ses travaux ont eu une grande influence sur la théologie, la psychologie, la psychiatrie et la philosophie. Il obtient la nationalité suisse en 1967.	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Massif Central	Massif central	The Massif Central (;, ; literally ""Central Massif"") is a highland region in the middle of Southern France, consisting of mountains and plateaus. It covers about 15% of mainland France.	Le Massif central est un massif montagneux essentiellement hercynien qui occupe le centre de la moitié sud de la France métropolitaine. D'une surface de, soit 15 % environ du territoire métropolitain, c'est le massif le plus vaste du pays. Le massif est d'altitude moyenne et ses reliefs sont souvent arrondis par l'érosion. Il culmine à au sommet volcanique du puy de Sancy (sud-ouest du Puy-de-Dôme). Dans l'ensemble, il s'est formé il y a 500 millions d'années, bien que les causses et surtout les reliefs volcaniques soient plus récents, ces derniers étant consécutifs à la formation des Alpes et des Pyrénées. Le Massif central abrite en effet l'essentiel des volcans français de métropole.	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Existentialism	Existentialisme	Existentialism ( or ) is a tradition of philosophical enquiry that explores the nature of existence by emphasizing experience of the human subject—not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human individual. In the view of the existentialist, the individual's starting point is characterized by what has been called "the existential angst" (or, variably, existential attitude, dread, etc.), or a sense of disorientation, confusion, or anxiety in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd world.	L’existentialisme est un courant philosophique et littéraire qui considère que l'être humain forme l'essence de sa vie par ses propres actions, celles-ci n'étant pas prédéterminées par des doctrines théologiques, philosophiques ou morales. L'existentialisme considère chaque individu comme un être unique maître de ses actes, de son destin et des valeurs qu'il décide d'adopter.	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Edmund Husserl	Edmund Husserl	Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl (, ; ; 8 April 1859 – 27 April 1938) was a German philosopher who established the school of phenomenology. In his early work, he elaborated critiques of historicism and of psychologism in logic based on analyses of intentionality. In his mature work, he sought to develop a systematic foundational science based on the so-called phenomenological reduction. Arguing that transcendental consciousness sets the limits of all possible knowledge, Husserl redefined phenomenology as a transcendental-idealist philosophy. Husserl's thought profoundly influenced 20th-century philosophy, and he remains a notable figure in contemporary philosophy and beyond.	Edmund Husserl ( - ) est un philosophe et logicien, autrichien de naissance, puis prussien, fondateur de la phénoménologie, qui eut une influence majeure sur l'ensemble de la philosophie du.	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Empiricism	Empirisme	In philosophy, empiricism is a theory that states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience. It is one of several views of epistemology, along with rationalism and skepticism. Empiricism emphasizes the role of empirical evidence in the formation of ideas, rather than innate ideas or traditions. Recently, there have been increased efforts to advocate for added empiricism in non-scientific and social science studies, especially as such studies relate to health law, public health law, etc. However, empiricists may argue that traditions (or customs) arise due to relations of previous sense experiences.	L'empirisme désigne un ensemble de théories philosophiques qui font de l'expérience sensible l'origine de toute connaissance ou croyance et de tout plaisir esthétique. L'empirisme s'oppose en particulier à l'innéisme et plus généralement au rationalisme « nativiste » pour lesquels nous disposerions de connaissances, idées ou principes avant toute expérience. L'empirisme est à l'origine de la théorie associationniste de l'esprit en psychologie, qui explique la formation des représentations mentales par la conjonction d'idées simples. Défendu principalement par les philosophes Francis Bacon, John Locke, Condillac, George Berkeley, David Hume et des scientifiques comme Ibn Al Haytham, l'empirisme considère que la connaissance se fonde sur l'accumulation d'observations et de faits mesurables, dont on peut extraire des lois générales par un raisonnement inductif, allant par conséquent du concret à l'abstrait.	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Phenomenology (philosophy)	Phénoménologie (philosophie)	Phenomenology (from Greek "phainómenon" "that which appears" and "lógos" "study") is the philosophical study of the structures of experience and consciousness. As a philosophical movement it was founded in the early years of the 20th century by Edmund Husserl and was later expanded upon by a circle of his followers at the universities of Göttingen and Munich in Germany. It then spread to France, the United States, and elsewhere, often in contexts far removed from Husserl's early work. Phenomenology is not a unitary movement; rather, different authors share a common family resemblance but also with many significant differences. Gabriella Farina states:A unique and final definition of phenomenology is dangerous and perhaps even paradoxical as it lacks a thematic focus. In fact, it is not a doctrine, nor a philosophical school, but rather a style of thought, a method, an open and ever-renewed experience having different results, and this may disorient anyone wishing to define the meaning of phenomenology.Phenomenology, in Husserl's conception, is primarily concerned with the systematic reflection on and study of the structures of consciousness and the phenomena that appear in acts of consciousness. Phenomenology can be clearly differentiated from the Cartesian method of analysis which sees the world as objects, sets of objects, and objects acting and reacting upon one another.	La phénoménologie (du grec : "phainómenon", « ce qui apparaît » ; et "lógos", « étude ») est un courant de pensée du fondé par Edmund Husserl dans l'optique de faire de la philosophie une discipline scientifique. Elle tire son nom de sa démarche, qui est d'appréhender la réalité telle qu'elle se donne, à travers les phénomènes. Elle fait de la philosophie l'étude systématique et l'analyse de l’"expérience vécue", des contenus de conscience et des structures des faits de conscience comme étant eux-mêmes des phénomènes de la pensée qui se pense elle-même et pense le monde.	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Frame rate	Images par seconde	Frame rate (expressed in'or FPS) is the frequency (rate) at which consecutive images called frames appear on a display. The term applies equally to film and video cameras, computer graphics, and motion capture systems. Frame rate may also be called the ', and be expressed in hertz.	Le nombre d’images par seconde ou images à la seconde (en abrégé, IPS ou i/s) est une unité de mesure correspondant au nombre d'images affichées en une seconde par un dispositif. La mesure de la fréquence d’affichage peut également être exprimé en Hertz. Plus le nombre d'images est élevé, plus l'animation semble fluide. La persistance rétinienne a longtemps été proposée pour expliquer cet effet, mais elle est remise en cause : l'effet phi est aujourd'hui considéré comme l'explication principale.	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Karen Horney	Karen Horney	Karen Horney (; ; 16 September 1885 – 4 December 1952) was a German psychoanalyst who practiced in the United States during her later career. Her theories questioned some traditional Freudian views. This was particularly true of her theories of sexuality and of the instinct orientation of psychoanalysis. She is credited with founding feminist psychology in response to Freud's theory of penis envy. She disagreed with Freud about inherent differences in the psychology of men and women, and she traced such differences to society and culture rather than biology. As such, she is often classified as neo-Freudian.	Karen Horney, née le à Blankenese, actuel quartier de Hambourg, et morte le à New York, est une psychiatre et psychanalyste américaine d'origine allemande.	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Mannheim	Mannheim	Mannheim (; Palatine German: or ) is a city in the southwestern part of Germany, the third-largest in the German state of Baden-Württemberg after Stuttgart and Karlsruhe with a 2015 population of approximately 310,000 inhabitants. The city is at the centre of the larger densely populated Rhine-Neckar Metropolitan Region which has a population of 2,400,000 and is Germany's eighth-largest metropolitan region.	Mannheim est une ville industrielle du land du Bade-Wurtemberg, dans le Sud-Ouest de l'Allemagne. Elle est une ville-arrondissement de l'aire urbaine Rhin-Neckar.	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Chessboard	Échiquier	A chessboard is the type of used for the game of chess, on which the chess pawns and are placed. A chessboard is usually square in shape, with an alternating pattern of squares in two colours. Traditionally wooden boards are made of unstained light and dark brown woods. To reduce cost, many boards are made with veneers of more expensive woods glued to an inner piece of plywood or chipboard. A variety of colours combinations are used for plastic, vinyl, and silicone boards. Common dark-light combinations are black and white, as well as brown, green or blue with buff or cream. Materials vary widely; while wooden boards are generally used in high-level games; vinyl, plastic, and cardboard are common for less important tournaments and matches and for home use. Decorative glass and marble boards are rarely permitted for games conducted by national or international chess federations. When they are permitted, they must meet various criteria (see the text on FIDE regulations below)	L’échiquier est le tablier ou plateau du jeu d'échecs. C'est une grille carrée de 8 cases de côté, soit 64 cases en tout, en alternance sombres (appelées « "noires" ») et claires (appelées « "blanches" »). Dans les tables d'échecs, l'échiquier est intégré dans la surface supérieure de la table.	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Metic	Métèque	In ancient Greece, a metic (Ancient Greek: μέτοικος, "métoikos": from μετά, "metá", indicating change, and οἶκος, "oîkos" "dwelling") was a foreign resident of Athens, one who did not have citizen rights in their Greek city-state ("polis") of residence.	Un métèque, du grec ancien μέτοικος, "métoïkos", « qui a changé de résidence », est dans la Grèce antique, un statut intermédiaire entre celui de citoyen et d'étranger, réservé à des ressortissants grecs d'autres cités.	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Bernoulli's principle	Théorème de Bernoulli	In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in static pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy. The principle is named after Daniel Bernoulli who published it in his book "Hydrodynamica" in 1738. Although Bernoulli deduced that pressure decreases when the flow speed increases, it was Leonhard Euler who derived Bernoulli's equation in its usual form in 1752. The principle is only applicable for isentropic flows: when the effects of irreversible processes (like turbulence) and non-adiabatic processes (e.g. heat radiation) are small and can be neglected.	Le théorème de Bernoulli, qui a été établi en 1738 par Daniel Bernoulli, est la formulation mathématique du "principe de Bernoulli" qui énonce que dans le flux d'un fluide homogène et incompressible soumis uniquement aux forces de pression et de pesanteur, une accélération se produit simultanément avec la diminution de la pression. Dans un flux de fluide sans viscosité et donc dans lequel une différence de pression est la seule force d'accélération, la vitesse est équivalente à celle donnée par les lois du mouvement de Newton. Il est très commun que l'effet de Bernoulli soit cité pour affirmer qu'un changement de vitesse cause un changement de pression ; cependant le principe de Bernoulli ne fait pas ce rapport et ce n'est pas le cas.	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Tomaso Albinoni	Tomaso Albinoni	Tomaso Giovanni Albinoni (8 June 1671 – 17 January 1751) was an Italian Baroque composer. His output includes operas, concertos, sonatas for one to six instruments, sinfonias, and solo cantatas. While famous in his day as an opera composer, he is known today for his instrumental music, especially his concertos. He is also remembered today for a work called "Adagio in G minor", attributed to him but said to be written by Remo Giazotto, a modern musicologist and composer, who was a cataloger of the works of Albinoni.	Tomaso Giovanni Albinoni né le à Venise et mort le également à Venise, est un violoniste et compositeur italien de musique baroque. Il est souvent considéré comme un compositeur majeur du baroque tardif italien. Il est surtout connu pour ses concertos, parmi lesquels ses œuvres pour un ou deux hautbois ainsi que celles pour violon. Contrairement à bon nombre de ses contemporains, Albinoni décide de ne pas se placer au service d'un protecteur ou d'une institution en particulier, mais de mener sa carrière en toute indépendance.	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Image segmentation	Segmentation d'image	In digital image processing and computer vision, image segmentation is the process of partitioning a digital image into multiple segments (sets of pixels, also known as image objects). The goal of segmentation is to simplify and/or change the representation of an image into something that is more meaningful and easier to analyze. Image segmentation is typically used to locate objects and boundaries (lines, curves, etc.) in images. More precisely, image segmentation is the process of assigning a label to every pixel in an image such that pixels with the same label share certain characteristics.	La segmentation d'image est une opération de traitement d'images qui a pour but de rassembler des pixels entre eux suivant des critères pré-définis. Les pixels sont ainsi regroupés en régions, qui constituent un pavage ou une partition de l'image. Il peut s'agir par exemple de séparer les objets du fond. Si le nombre de classes est égal à deux, elle est appelée aussi binarisation.	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Pixel	Pixel	In digital imaging, a pixel, pel, or picture element is a physical point in a raster image, or the smallest addressable element in an all points addressable display device; so it is the smallest controllable element of a picture represented on the screen.	Le pixel est souvent abrégé p ou px. Il est l'unité de base permettant de mesurer la définition d'une image numérique matricielle. Son nom provient de la locution anglaise "", qui signifie « élément d'image ».	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Jean le Rond d'Alembert	Jean Le Rond d'Alembert	Jean-Baptiste le Rond d'Alembert (; ; 16 November 1717 – 29 October 1783) was a French mathematician, mechanician, physicist, philosopher, and music theorist. Until 1759 he was co-editor with Denis Diderot of the "Encyclopédie". D'Alembert's formula for obtaining solutions to the wave equation is named after him. The wave equation is sometimes referred to as d'Alembert's equation.	Jean Le Rond d’Alembert, parfois écrit « Jean le Rond D’Alembert » est un mathématicien, physicien, philosophe et encyclopédiste français, né le à Paris où il est mort le.	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Fundamental theorem of algebra	Théorème fondamental de l'algèbre	The fundamental theorem of algebra states that every non-constant single-variable polynomial with complex coefficients has at least one complex root. This includes polynomials with real coefficients, since every real number is a complex number with its imaginary part equal to zero.	En mathématiques, le théorème fondamental de l'algèbre, aussi appelé théorème de d'Alembert-Gauss et théorème de d'Alembert, indique que tout polynôme non constant, à coefficients complexes, admet au moins une racine. En conséquence, tout polynôme à coefficients entiers, rationnels ou encore réels admet au moins une racine complexe, car ces nombres sont aussi des complexes. Une fois ce résultat établi, il devient simple de montrer que sur C, le corps des nombres complexes, tout polynôme "P" est scindé, c'est-à-dire constant ou produit de polynômes de degré 1.	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University	Université	A university (, 'a whole') is an institution of higher (or tertiary) education and research, which awards academic degrees in various academic disciplines. Universities typically provide undergraduate education and postgraduate education.	Une université est une institution d'enseignements supérieurs, d'études et de recherches, constituée par la réunion de divers établissements nommés suivant les traditions « collèges » ou « facultés », « instituts », « départements », « centres », « sections », « unités » ou écoles spécifiques, mais aussi bibliothèque ou atelier, médiathèque ou musée... formant un ensemble administratif cohérent avec un statut de droit défini, public, privé ou éventuellement mixte. Sous cette égide légale et administrative sont ainsi rassemblées ou monopolisées la production (recherche), la conservation (publications et bibliothèques) et la transmission (études supérieures) de différents champs choisis d'études et de connaissance.	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Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec	Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec	Henri Marie Raymond de Toulouse-Lautrec-Monfa (24 November 1864 – 9 September 1901), commonly known as just Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (,, ), was a French painter, printmaker, draughtsman, caricaturist, and illustrator whose immersion in the colorful and theatrical life of Paris in the late 19th century allowed him to produce a collection of enticing, elegant, and provocative images of the modern, sometimes decadent, affairs of those times.	Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec est un peintre, dessinateur, lithographe, affichiste et illustrateur français, né le à Albi et mort le, au château Malromé, à Saint-André-du-Bois.	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Electrocardiography	Électrocardiographie	Electrocardiography is the process of producing an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG). It is a graph of voltage versus time of the electrical activity of the heart using electrodes placed on the skin. These electrodes detect the small electrical changes that are a consequence of cardiac muscle depolarization followed by repolarization during each cardiac cycle (heartbeat). Changes in the normal ECG pattern occur in numerous cardiac abnormalities, including cardiac rhythm disturbances (such as atrial fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia), inadequate coronary artery blood flow (such as myocardial ischemia and myocardial infarction), and electrolyte disturbances (such as hypokalemia and hyperkalemia).	L'électrocardiographie (ECG) est une représentation graphique de l'activité électrique du cœur. Cette activité électrique est liée aux variations de potentiel électrique des cellules spécialisées dans la contraction (myocytes) et des cellules spécialisées dans l'automatisme et la conduction des influx. Elle est recueillie par des électrodes à la surface de la peau.	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David Hume	David Hume	David Hume (; born David Home; 7 May 1711 NS – 25 August 1776) was a Scottish Enlightenment philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, who is best known today for his highly influential system of philosophical empiricism, skepticism, and naturalism. Beginning with "A Treatise of Human Nature" (1739–40), Hume strove to create a naturalistic science of man that examined the psychological basis of human nature. Hume argued against the existence of innate ideas, positing that all human knowledge derives solely from experience. This places him with Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and George Berkeley, as a British Empiricist.	David Hume ( - ) est un philosophe, économiste et historien écossais. Il est considéré comme un des plus importants penseurs des Lumières écossaises (avec John Locke, Adam Smith et Thomas Reid, bien que s'opposant à eux dans la plupart de ses thèses) et est un des plus grands philosophes et écrivains de langue anglaise. Fondateur de l'empirisme moderne (avec Locke et Berkeley), l'un des plus radicaux par son scepticisme, il s'opposa tout particulièrement à Descartes et aux philosophies considérant l'esprit humain d'un point de vue théologico-métaphysique : il ouvrit ainsi la voie à l'application de la méthode expérimentale aux phénomènes mentaux.	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Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel	Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel	Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (; ; August 27, 1770 – November 14, 1831) was a German philosopher and an important figure of German idealism. He achieved recognition in his day and—while primarily influential in the continental tradition of philosophy—has become increasingly influential in the analytic tradition as well. His canonical stature in Western philosophy is universally recognized.	Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, né le à Stuttgart et mort le à Berlin, est un philosophe allemand. Son œuvre, postérieure à celle de Emmanuel Kant, appartient à l'idéalisme allemand et a eu une influence décisive sur l'ensemble de la philosophie contemporaine.	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Pope Innocent III	Innocent III	Pope Innocent III (; 1160 or 1161 – 16 July 1216), born Lotario dei Conti di Segni (anglicized as Lothar of Segni) reigned from 8 January 1198 to his death.	Lotario dei conti di Segni (né en à Gavignano et mort en à Pérouse), de la famille des, est le de l'Église catholique, élu le sous le nom d’. Il est considéré comme l’un des plus grands papes du Moyen Âge.	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Fluorite	Fluorine	Fluorite (also called fluorspar) is the mineral form of calcium fluoride, CaF. It belongs to the halide minerals. It crystallizes in isometric cubic habit, although octahedral and more complex isometric forms are not uncommon.	La fluorine (ou fluorite) est une espèce minérale composée de fluorure de calcium, de formule idéale CaF mais comportant des traces de Y, Ce, Si, Al, Fe, Mg, Eu, Sm, O, Cl et composés organiques. Les différents ions en traces sont à l'origine des multiples couleurs et zonations colorées rencontrées pour ce minéral.	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Payne Stewart	Payne Stewart	William Payne Stewart (January 30, 1957 – October 25, 1999) was an American professional golfer who won eleven PGA Tour events, including three major championships in his career, the last of which occurred a few months before he died in an airplane accident at the age of 42.	Payne Stewart (Springfield, Missouri,, Dakota du Sud, ) est un golfeur américain. Après avoir joint le tour PGA en 1976, Il remporta onze tournois professionnels, dont trois titres du Grand Chelem avec l'USPGA en 1989 et l'US Open en 1991 et 1999. Il gagna aussi deux fois le Trophée du roi Hassan II au Maroc. Il représenta les États-Unis lors de cinq éditions de la Ryder Cup et à la Coupe du monde de golf.	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Archilochus	Archiloque	Archilochus (; "Arkhilokhos"; c. 680–645 BCE) was a Greek lyric poet from the island of Paros in the Archaic period. He is celebrated for his versatile and innovative use of poetic meters, and is the earliest known Greek author to compose almost entirely on the theme of his own emotions and experiences.	Archiloque (en grec ancien / ), né à Paros en -712 ou en -680, est un poète élégiaque grec. Citoyen riche puis ruiné, amant éconduit et vindicatif, exilé, mercenaire, colon à Thasos, il finit tué dans une obscure bataille à Naxos en -664 ou en -645. Il fut un des plus grands poètes lyriques grecs ; dans l'antiquité, on le comparait à Homère. Il serait l'inventeur d'une poésie lyrique aux rythmes complexes, et le créateur d'un ton poétique nouveau, anti-épique, voire cynique.	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Sandwich	Sandwich	A sandwich is a food typically consisting of vegetables, sliced cheese or meat, placed on or between slices of bread, or more generally any dish wherein bread serves as a container or wrapper for another food type. The sandwich began as a portable finger food in the Western world, though over time it has become prevalent worldwide. The 3rd of November marks the National Sandwich Day.	Le sandwich est un mets, généralement composé de deux ou plusieurs tranches de pain, avec un ou plusieurs ingrédients entre elles. Par antonomase, le terme tire son origine de John Montagu, de Sandwich (Sandwich était un ancien port important du Moyen Âge anglais dont le nom, en vieil anglais, "Sandwicæ", signifie ).	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Aix-les-Bains	Aix-les-Bains	Aix-les-Bains (, ; ; ), locally simply Aix, is a commune in the department of Savoie, in the southeastern French region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes.	Aix-les-Bains ( voire ), nommée localement Aix, est une commune, station balnéaire et thermale française, située dans le département de la Savoie en région Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes.	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Hamburger	Hamburger	A hamburger (also burger for short) is a sandwich consisting of one or more cooked patties of ground meat, usually beef, placed inside a sliced bread roll or bun. The patty may be pan fried, grilled, smoked or flame broiled. Hamburgers are often served with cheese, lettuce, tomato, onion, pickles, bacon, or chiles; condiments such as ketchup, mustard, mayonnaise, relish, or "special sauce"; and are frequently placed on sesame seed buns. A hamburger topped with cheese is called a cheeseburger.	Un hamburger (initialement "hamburg-er", soit « de Hambourg » en allemand, et non pas « galette de jambon » en anglais) ou par aphérèse burger, est un sandwich d'origine allemande, composé de deux pains de forme ronde (bun) généralement garnis de steak haché (généralement du bœuf) et de crudités, salade, tomate, oignon, cornichon (pickles), et de sauce...	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Names for United States citizens	Dénomination des États-Unis et de leurs habitants	People from the United States of America are known as and refer to themselves as Americans. Different languages use different terms for citizens of the United States, who are known in English as Americans. All forms of English refer to US citizens as Americans, a term deriving from the United States of America, the country's official name. In the English context, it came to refer to inhabitants of British North America, and then the United States. However, there is some linguistic ambiguity over this use due to the other senses of the word American, which can also refer to people from the Americas in general. Other languages, including French, Japanese, and Russian, use cognates of American to refer to people from the United States, while others, particularly Spanish and Portuguese, primarily use terms derived from United States. There are various other local and colloquial names for Americans.	En français, le nom des habitants des États-Unis est, de manière officielle dans l'administration française et les institutions européennes comme dans l'usage courant, « Américain », même si ce terme désigne au sens premier l'ensemble des habitants du continent américain.	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1992 Winter Olympics	Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 1992	The 1992 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XVI Olympic Winter Games (), were a winter multi-sport event celebrated from 8 to 23 February 1992 in Albertville, France. They were the last Winter Olympics to be held the same year as the Summer Olympics, and the first where the Winter Paralympics were held at the same site. Albertville was selected as host in 1986, beating Sofia, Falun, Lillehammer, Cortina d'Ampezzo, Anchorage and Berchtesgaden. The games were the third Winter Olympics held in France, after Chamonix in 1924 and Grenoble in 1968, and the fifth Olympics overall in the country.	Les Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 1992, officiellement connus comme les Jeux olympiques d’hiver, ont lieu à Albertville, dans le département de la Savoie, en France, du 8 au. Les organisateurs désignent l'événement comme les Jeux d'Albertville et de la Savoie. Ce sont les derniers Jeux d'hiver à se dérouler la même année que ceux d'été, avec Barcelone. Pour l'organisation de ces Jeux d'hiver, sept villes sont en compétition et c'est lors du sixième tour que le dossier français remporte les suffrages du Comité international olympique (CIO). Les deux co-présidents du comité d'organisation des Jeux d'Albertville sont Jean-Claude Killy et Michel Barnier. Il s'agit des troisièmes Jeux d'hiver se déroulant en France, après les premiers à Chamonix en 1924, et ceux de Grenoble en 1968.	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Palembang	Palembang	Palembang () is the capital city of the Indonesian province of South Sumatra. The city proper covers of land on both banks of Musi River on the eastern lowland of southern Sumatra, with an estimated population of 1,834,344 in 2019. Palembang is the second most populous city in Sumatra, after Medan, the ninth most populous city in Indonesia, and the nineteenth most populous city in Southeast Asia. The Palembang metropolitan area comprises part of regencies surrounding the city such as Banyuasin, Ogan Ilir, and Ogan Komering Ilir, with a total estimated population of more than 3.5 million in 2015.	Palembang (chinois: 巨港 Jù gǎng) est une ville d'Indonésie, dans le sud de l'île de Sumatra. C'est la capitale de la province de Sumatra du Sud. Elle a le statut de "kota". Sa population s'élevait à en 2013. C'est la deuxième ville importante de Sumatra après Medan, et la septième du pays après Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, Semarang, et Makassar. La ville a accueilli la des SEA Games en 2011 et les Jeux asiatiques de 2018.	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Baryte	Barytine	Baryte, barite or barytes (, ) is a mineral consisting of barium sulfate (BaSO). Baryte is generally white or colorless, and is the main source of the element barium. The "baryte group" consists of baryte, celestine (strontium sulfate), anglesite (lead sulfate), and anhydrite (calcium sulfate). Baryte and celestine form a solid solution (Ba,Sr)SO.	La barytine (ou baryte, voir les synonymes) est une espèce minérale composée de sulfate de baryum de formule BaSO avec des traces de Sr, Ca et Pb. Ce minéral, d'origine hydrothermale, présente de nombreuses variétés. Sa densité et le baryum qu'il contient sont les causes principales de ses utilisations industrielles et plusieurs millions de tonnes de barytine sont extraits et produits chaque année.	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Doctor of the Church	Docteur de l'Église	Doctor of the Church (Latin "doctor" "teacher"), also referred to as Doctor of the Universal Church (Latin: "Doctoris Ecclesiae Universalis"), is a title given by the Catholic Church to saints recognized as having made a significant contribution to theology or doctrine through their research, study, or writing.	Dans l'Église catholique, un docteur de l'Église (en latin : "doctor ecclesiae") est un baptisé, homme ou femme, dont l'Église reconnaît l'autorité exceptionnelle dans le domaine de la théologie ("eminens doctrina"). Selon la conférence des évêques de France,.	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International Olympiad in Informatics	Olympiades internationales d'informatique	The International Olympiad in Informatics (IOI) is an annual competitive programming competition for secondary school students. It is the second largest olympiad, after International Mathematical Olympiad, in terms of number of participating countries (83 at IOI 2017). The first IOI was held in 1989 in Pravetz, Bulgaria.	Les Olympiades internationales d'informatique ("" ou "IOI") sont une compétition annuelle en sciences informatiques (algorithmique) rassemblant des lycéens et collégiens du monde entier. C'est la deuxième plus grande olympiade, après l'Olympiades internationales de mathématiques, en termes de nombre de pays participants (83 en 2017). La première édition de la compétition s'est tenue en 1989 à Pravetz, en Bulgarie.	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Scottish Rite	Rite écossais ancien et accepté	The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry (the Northern Masonic Jurisdiction in the United States often omits the "and", while the English Constitution in the United Kingdom omits the "Scottish"), commonly known as simply the Scottish Rite (or, in England and Australia, as the Rose Croix although this is only one of its degrees), is one of several Rites of Freemasonry. A Rite is a progressive series of degrees conferred by various Masonic organizations or bodies, each of which operates under the control of its own central authority. In the Scottish Rite the central authority is called a Supreme Council.	Le Rite écossais ancien et accepté (REAA) est un rite maçonnique fondé en 1801 à Charleston aux États-Unis sous l'impulsion des frères John Mitchell et Frederic Dalcho, sur la base des Grandes Constitutions de 1786, attribuées à Frédéric II de Prusse. Le rite ne comporte à l'origine que des hauts grades maçonniques. Il est composé de 33 degrés et il est généralement pratiqué dans le cadre de deux organismes complémentaires et distincts. Une obédience maçonnique qui fédère des loges des trois premiers grades de la franc-maçonnerie et une de hauts grades maçonniques dirigée par un, qui regroupe des ateliers du au.	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National accounts	Comptabilité nationale	National accounts or national account systems (NAS) are the implementation of complete and consistent accounting techniques for measuring the economic activity of a nation. These include detailed underlying measures that rely on double-entry accounting. By design, such accounting makes the totals on both sides of an account equal even though they each measure different characteristics, for example production and the income from it. As a method, the subject is termed national accounting or, more generally, social accounting. Stated otherwise, national accounts as "systems" may be distinguished from the economic data associated with those systems. While sharing many common principles with business accounting, national accounts are based on economic concepts. One conceptual construct for representing flows of all economic transactions that take place in an economy is a social accounting matrix with accounts in each respective row-column entry.	La comptabilité nationale est une représentation schématique et quantifiée de l'activité économique d'un pays. Elle consiste en une mesure des flux monétaires représentatifs de l'économie d'un pays pendant une période donnée, en principe une année, et les regroupe dans des totaux nommés "agrégats", dans un but analytique direct. La comptabilité nationale prend en compte de nombreux indicateurs macroéconomiques, dont le plus important est le PIB (produit intérieur brut), qui correspond à la somme des valeurs ajoutées – auxquels il faut ajouter les impôts nets des subventions sur les produits - des biens et services produits dans un pays donné au cours d'une année. La comptabilité nationale prend en compte de nombreuses informations, contenues dans les documents comptables des entreprises d'une part, mais aussi dans les rapports des institutions administratives. La comptabilité nationale classe ainsi les différents agents économiques en catégories, les secteurs institutionnels, afin de recenser au mieux les différentes informations relatives à l'économie.	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Ruble	Rouble	The ruble or rouble (; ) or ₽ is or was a currency unit of a number of countries in Eastern Europe closely associated with the economy of Russia. Originally, the ruble was the currency unit of Imperial Russia and then the Soviet Union (as the Soviet ruble). it is the currency unit of Russia (as the Russian ruble), Belarus (as the Belarussian ruble) and Transnistria (as the Transnistrian ruble). The Russian ruble is also used in two regions of Georgia, the partially recognised states (including by Russia) Abkhazia and South Ossetia. In the past, several other countries influenced by Russia and the Soviet Union had currency units that were also named rubles. One ruble is divided into 100 kopeks ().	Le rouble (en russe : ) est l'unité monétaire utilisée depuis plus de 700 ans dans l'Empire russe, en URSS, en Russie actuelle et dans certains autres pays.	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Corrosion fatigue	Fatigue-corrosion	Corrosion fatigue is fatigue in a corrosive environment. It is the mechanical degradation of a material under the joint action of corrosion and cyclic loading. Nearly all engineering structures experience some form of alternating stress, and are exposed to harmful environments during their service life. The environment plays a significant role in the fatigue of high-strength structural materials like steel, aluminum alloys and titanium alloys. Materials with high specific strength are being developed to meet the requirements of advancing technology. However, their usefulness depends to a large extent on the degree to which they resist corrosion fatigue.	Très comparable à la corrosion sous contrainte, le phénomène de fatigue-corrosion apparaît sous l'action conjuguée de l'environnement et d'une sollicitation cyclique. Il se manifeste par un abaissement de la résistance du matériau à la fatigue. Le plus souvent, et compte tenu des cinétiques de dissolution et de repassivation assez lentes comparées aux phénomènes mécaniques, ce type d'endommagement survient pour des pièces sollicitées à basse fréquence (fatigue oligocyclique), par exemple lors de cycles de chauffage-refroidissement de structures. Les mécanismes évoqués pour rendre compte de la fatigue-corrosion sont les mêmes que ceux présentés pour la corrosion sous contrainte, et les essais de laboratoire sont en général des essais de fatigue en présence du milieu considéré réalisés soit à amplitude de déformation constante, soit à amplitude de contrainte constante.	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Stress corrosion cracking	Corrosion sous contrainte	Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the growth of crack formation in a corrosive environment. It can lead to unexpected sudden failure of normally ductile metal alloys subjected to a tensile stress, especially at elevated temperature. SCC is highly chemically specific in that certain alloys are likely to undergo SCC only when exposed to a small number of chemical environments. The chemical environment that causes SCC for a given alloy is often one which is only mildly corrosive to the metal. Hence, metal parts with severe SCC can appear bright and shiny, while being filled with microscopic cracks. This factor makes it common for SCC to go undetected prior to failure. SCC often progresses rapidly, and is more common among alloys than pure metals. The specific environment is of crucial importance, and only very small concentrations of certain highly active chemicals are needed to produce catastrophic cracking, often leading to devastating and unexpected failure.	Comme son nom l'indique, la corrosion sous contrainte (CSC) résulte de l'action conjuguée d'une contrainte mécanique en tension (résiduelle ou appliquée), et d'un milieu agressif vis-à-vis du matériau, chacun de ces facteurs pris séparément n'étant pas susceptible à lui seul d'endommager la structure. La contrainte peut être d'origine résiduelle (cintrage, écrouissage, laminage à froid,...), d'origine thermique (dilatation, variation de pression), ou inhérente à la fonction de l'installation (gazoducs, oléoducs, câbles de ponts suspendus, structures de soutènement, sous-marin...). Ce type de corrosion, particulièrement sournois et dangereux pour les installations, se caractérise par l'apparition de fissures intergranulaires ou transgranulaires dont la direction générale de propagation est perpendiculaire à la plus grande contrainte.	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Anti-theft system	Antivol	Anti-theft systems protect valuables such as vehicles and personal property like wallets, phones, and jewelry. They are also used in retail settings to protect merchandise in the form of security tags and labels. Anti-theft systems include devices such as locks and keys, RFID tags, and GPS locators.	Un antivol est un dispositif ou un mécanisme destiné à dissuader, décourager, retarder, signaler ou empêcher le vol d'un objet.	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Louvre	Musée du Louvre	The Louvre ( ), or the Louvre Museum ( ), is the world's largest art museum and a historic monument in Paris, France. A central landmark of the city, it is located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the city's 1st arrondissement (district or ward). Approximately 38,000 objects from prehistory to the 21st century are exhibited over an area of 72,735 square meters (782,910 square feet). In 2019, the Louvre received 9.6 million visitors, making it the most visited museum in the world.	Le musée du Louvre est un musée situé à Paris, en France. Une préfiguration en est imaginée en 1775-1776 par le comte d'Angivillier, directeur général des Bâtiments du roi, comme lieu de présentation des chefs-d'œuvre de la collection de la Couronne. Ce musée n'a été inauguré qu'en 1793 sous l'appellation de "Muséum central des arts de la République" dans le palais du Louvre, ancienne résidence royale située au centre de Paris, est aujourd'hui le plus grand musée d'art et d'antiquités au monde. Sa surface d'exposition est de.	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Villeneuve-d'Ascq	Villeneuve-d'Ascq	Villeneuve-d'Ascq (; ) is a commune in the Nord department in northern France. With more than 60,000 inhabitants and 50,000 students, it is one of the main cities of the Métropole Européenne de Lille and the largest in area (27.46 km2) after Lille; it is also one of the main cities of the Hauts-de-France region.	Villeneuve-d’Ascq () est une commune française et une technopole, située dans le département du Nord, en région Hauts-de-France. Elle fait partie de la Métropole européenne de Lille.	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High-temperature corrosion	Corrosion à haute température	High-temperature corrosion is a mechanism of corrosion that takes place in gas turbines, diesel engines, furnaces or other machinery coming in contact with hot gas containing certain contaminants. Fuel sometimes contains vanadium compounds or sulfates which can form compounds during combustion having a low melting point. These liquid melted salts are strongly corrosive for stainless steel and other alloys normally inert against the corrosion and high temperatures. Other high-temperature corrosions include high-temperature oxidation, sulfidation and carbonization. High temperature oxidation and other corrosion types are commonly modelled using the Deal-Grove model to account for diffusion and reaction processes.	La corrosion à haute température est la dégradation des métaux par l'environnement à haute températures (supérieure à ) ; c'est un phénomène complexe qui a lieu dans les moteurs, chaudières et réacteurs. Les gaz de combustion ont en effet une composition complexe du fait de la composition du combustible et de l'air :	[ 250004, 250054, 32964, 52895, 111, 2906, 1021, 67, 9, 18442, 37534, 8010, 121720, 6889, 621, 137567, 157167, 67175, 12, 60457, 87, 51776, 3687, 36917, 70, 21501, 1916, 6275, 111, 221, 28483, 2906, 1021, 67, 136, 60457, 1995, 74918, 7, 35064, 70, 21501, 1916, 6275, 111, 221, 28483, 2906, 1021, 67, 1284, 23, 70, 169424, 111, 19336, 41170, 7, 111, 15969, 5, 360, 60457, 87, 70, 59959, 5844, 128713, 13, 105994, 83, 26725, 141, 4126, 390, 70, 5339, 33, 28279, 5, 9763, 11443, 83, 121447, 1295, 70, 28279, 136, 194314, 7, 3934, 70, 12924, 218250, 13, 3173, 214, 81604, 13, 3514, 53, 64, 143802, 10576, 297, 64344, 78603, 707, 17656, 306, 6664, 2906, 1029, 988, 221, 450, 4, 7103, 70, 28279, 135355, 1556, 2809, 184750, 4, 70, 158285, 53418, 456, 177149, 10, 3525, 59959, 5844, 128713, 13, 135355, 5, 884, 9566, 2906, 7834, 90, 621, 100, 4806, 1295, 2906, 11443, 1927, 61942, 13, 136, 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Ignatius of Loyola	Ignace de Loyola	Ignatius of Loyola (; ; ; – 31 July 1556) was a Spanish Basque Catholic priest and theologian, who co-founded the religious order called the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) and became its first Superior General at Paris in 1541. The Jesuit order served the Pope as missionaries, and they were bound by a vow of special obedience to the sovereign pontiff in regard to the missions. They therefore emerged as an important force during the time of the Counter-Reformation.	Ignace de Loyola ("Ignazio Loiolakoa" en basque, "Íñigo López de Loyola" en espagnol), né en 1491 à Loiola et mort le à Rome, est un prêtre et théologien basque-espagnol, fondateur et premier Supérieur général de la Compagnie de Jésus congrégation catholique reconnue par le pape Paul III en 1540 et qui prit une importance considérable dans la réaction de l'Église catholique romaine aux s, face à l'ébranlement causé par la réforme protestante.	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Constitutional monarchy

Monarchie constitutionnelle

A constitutional monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the sovereign exercises authority in accordance with a written or unwritten constitution. Constitutional monarchy differs from absolute monarchy (in which a monarch holds absolute power) in that constitutional monarchs are bound to exercise their powers and authorities within the limits prescribed within an established legal framework. Constitutional monarchies range from countries such as Monaco, Morocco, Jordan, Kuwait and Bahrain, where the constitution grants substantial discretionary powers to the sovereign, to countries such as the United Kingdom, Spain, Belgium, Sweden and Japan, where the monarch retains significantly less personal discretion in the exercise of their authority.

Une monarchie constitutionnelle est un type de régime politique qui reconnaît un monarque élu ou héréditaire comme chef de l'État, mais où une constitution limite ses pouvoirs.

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Walter Gropius

Walter Adolph Georg Gropius (18 May 1883 – 5 July 1969) was a German architect and founder of the Bauhaus School, who, along with Alvar Aalto, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright, is widely regarded as one of the pioneering masters of modernist architecture. He is a founder of Bauhaus in Weimar (1919). Gropius was also a leading architect of the International Style.

Walter Gropius ( à Berlin – à Boston, États-Unis) est un architecte, designer et urbaniste allemand, naturalisé américain en 1944. Il est le fondateur du Bauhaus, mouvement clé de l'art européen de l'entre-deux-guerres, qui jette les bases du style international. Théoricien du design, il promeut toute sa vie les concepts de rationalisme, de fonctionnalisme et de standardisation.

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Louis Majorelle

Louis-Jean-Sylvestre Majorelle, usually known simply as Louis Majorelle, (26 September 1859 – 15 January 1926) was a French decorator and furniture designer who manufactured his own designs, in the French tradition of the "ébéniste". He was one of the outstanding designers of furniture in the Art Nouveau style, and after 1901 formally served as one of the vice-presidents of the "École de Nancy".

Louis-Jean-Sylvestre Majorelle, usuellement Louis Majorelle (Toul, -Nancy, ), était un ébéniste et décorateur français du mouvement Art nouveau de l'École de Nancy, dont il fut également vice-président.

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Cato the Younger

Caton d'Utique

Marcus Porcius Cato (; 95 BC – April 46 BC), also known as Cato of Utica () or Cato the Younger (""), was a conservative Roman senator in the period of the late republic. A noted orator and a follower of the Stoic philosophy, he is remembered for his stubbornness and tenacity (especially in his lengthy conflict with Julius Caesar), as well as his immunity to bribes, his moral integrity, and his famous distaste for the ubiquitous corruption of the period. His epithet "the Younger" distinguishes him from his great-grandfather, Cato the Elder.

Caton d'Utique ("Marcus Porcius Cato Uticencis"), ou Caton le Jeune, était un homme politique romain, né en 95 av. J.-C. et mort en 46 av. J.-C. à Utique (Tunisie actuelle). Il est resté dans l'histoire comme une figure du stoïcisme, célèbre pour son intégrité.

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Prime Minister of Japan

Premier ministre du Japon

The is the head of government of Japan and the commander in chief of the Japanese Armed Forces. The prime minister is appointed by the Emperor of Japan after being designated by the National Diet and must enjoy the confidence of the House of Representatives to remain in office. He is the head of the Cabinet and appoints and dismisses the other ministers of state. The literal translation of the Japanese name for the office is "Minister for the Comprehensive Administration of ("or" the Presidency over) the Cabinet".

Le est le chef du gouvernement au Japon et détient donc le pouvoir exécutif, à l'instar de ses homologues dans la plupart des autres monarchies constitutionnelles. Il représente également l'État japonais sur la scène internationale. Responsable devant la Diète qui l'élit (choix ensuite automatiquement confirmé officiellement par sa nomination par l'empereur) et peut le renverser par une motion de censure, il en est obligatoirement un membre et est généralement le président du principal parti en son sein.

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James W.C. Pennington

James William Charles Pennington (c. 1807 – October 22, 1870) was an African-American orator, minister, writer, and abolitionist active in Brooklyn, New York. He escaped at the age of 19 from slavery in western Maryland and reached New York. After working in Brooklyn and gaining some education, he was admitted to Yale University as its first black student. He completed studies and was ordained as a minister in the Congregational Church, later also serving in Presbyterian churches for congregations in Hartford, Connecticut; and New York. After the Civil War, he served congregations in Natchez, Mississippi; Portland, Maine; and Jacksonville, Florida.

James William Charles Pennington, dont le nom de naissance est James Pembroke, est un abolitionniste américain, écrivain, enseignant et pasteur, né en 1809 dans le comté de Queen Anne et mort en 1870.

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Belle Boyd

Isabella Maria Boyd (May 9, 1844 – June 11, 1900), best known as Belle Boyd (or as Cleopatra of the Secession or Siren of the Shenandoah), was a Confederate spy in the American Civil War. She operated from her father's hotel in Front Royal, Virginia, and provided valuable information to Confederate General Stonewall Jackson in 1862.

Isabella Marie Boyd (Martinsburg, - Wisconsin Dells, ), plus connue sous le nom de Belle Boyd, était une espionne confédérée durant la guerre de Sécession. Elle opérait depuis l'hôtel de sa tante en Virginie et fournit un certain nombre d'informations valables au général de l'armée confédérée Stonewall Jackson en 1862.

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Theodore S. Wright

Theodore Sedgwick Wright (1797–1847), sometimes Theodore Sedgewick Wright, was an African-American abolitionist and minister who was active in New York City, where he led the First Colored Presbyterian Church as its second pastor. He was the first African American to attend Princeton Theological Seminary (and any United States theological seminary), from which he graduated in 1828 or 1829. In 1833 he became a founding member of the American Anti-Slavery Society, an interracial group that included Samuel Cornish, a black Presbyterian, and many Congregationalists, and served on its executive committee until 1840.

Theodore Sedgwick Wright (parfois orthographié Theodore Sedgewick Wright), né à Providence vers 1797 et mort à New York en 1847, est un pasteur abolitionniste afro-américain actif à New York.

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Bauhaus

The Staatliches Bauhaus (), commonly known as the Bauhaus (German: "building house"), was a German art school operational from 1919 to 1933 that combined crafts and the fine arts. The school became famous for its approach to design, which attempted to unify the principles of mass production with individual artistic vision and strove to combine aesthetics with everyday function.

La Staatliches Bauhaus est une école d'architecture et d'arts appliqués, fondée en 1919 à Weimar (Allemagne) par Walter Gropius. Par extension, Bauhaus désigne un courant artistique concernant, notamment, l'architecture et le design, la modernité mais également la photographie, le costume et la danse. Ce mouvement posera les bases de la réflexion sur l'architecture moderne, et notamment du style international.

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Samuel Cornish

Samuel Eli Cornish (1795 – 6 November 1858) was an American Presbyterian minister, abolitionist, publisher, and journalist. He was a leader in New York City's small free black community, where he organized the first congregation of black Presbyterians in New York. In 1827 he became one of two editors of the newly founded "Freedom's Journal", the first black newspaper in the United States. In 1833 he was a founding member of the interracial American Anti-Slavery Society.

Samuel Cornish (1795-1858) est un journaliste et abolitionniste afro-américain. Il est né dans le comté du Sussex au Delaware de parents libres.

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Edward Ord

Edward Otho Cresap Ord (October 18, 1818 – July 22, 1883) was an American engineer and United States Army officer who saw action in the Seminole War, the Indian Wars, and the American Civil War. He commanded an army during the final days of the Civil War, and was instrumental in forcing the surrender of Confederate General Robert E. Lee. He also designed Fort Sam Houston. He died in Havana, Cuba of yellow fever.

Edward Otho Cresap Ord (-) est un militaire de carrière de l'U.S. Army qui s'illustra lors de la seconde guerre séminole, de la guerre américano-mexicaine, des guerres indiennes et commanda une armée lors des derniers jours de la guerre de Sécession. Il fut également le concepteur du Fort Sam Houston de San Antonio au Texas.

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Gabriel Prosser

Gabriel (1776 – October 10, 1800), today commonly known as Gabriel Prosser, was a literate enslaved blacksmith who planned a large slave rebellion in the Richmond area in the summer of 1800. Information regarding the revolt was leaked prior to its execution, and he and twenty-five followers were taken captive and hanged in punishment. In reaction, Virginia and other state legislatures passed restrictions on free blacks, as well as prohibiting the education, assembly, and hiring out of slaves, to restrict their chances to learn and to plan similar rebellions.

Gabriel aujourd'hui couramment connu même si incorrect sous le nom de Gabriel Prosser (comté de Henrico, Virginie, env. 1775 - ) est un esclave afro-américain qui, en 1800, projeta une grande révolte d'esclaves à Richmond.

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National Diet

Diète du Japon

The is Japan's bicameral legislature. It is composed of a lower house called the House of Representatives, and an upper house, called the House of Councillors. Both houses of the Diet are directly elected under parallel voting systems. In addition to passing laws, the Diet is formally responsible for selecting the Prime Minister. The Diet was first convened as the Imperial Diet in 1889 as a result of adopting the Meiji Constitution. The Diet took its current form in 1947 upon the adoption of the post-war constitution, which considers it the highest organ of state power. The National Diet Building is in Nagatachō, Chiyoda, Tokyo.

La désigne au Japon, le parlement. La traduction française "diète" est employée, ou le mot analogue en anglais "diet" ou "dieta" dans la majorité des langues romanes, car le terme est celui utilisé dans ces langues pour la constitution allemande de 1849 (Diète impériale pour l'allemand ), dont la Constitution Meiji est inspirée.

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null

New Conservative Party (Japan)

Nouveau Parti conservateur

The New Conservative Party (NCP) was the name of two now-defunct political parties in Japan. The first of the two parties was founded on April 3, 2000 by 21 lower house and 6 upper house defectors from the Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ). It was then dissolved on December 23, 2002. A new party of the same name (保守新党 "Hoshu Shinto") was then founded on December 25, 2002 by Hiroshi Kumagai, also a defector from the DPJ. The party eventually merged with the Liberal Democratic Party after the 2003 election.

Le, ou NPC, officiellement New Conservative Party (NPC) en anglais, fut un parti politique du Japon créé le, successeur du ou PC.

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null

Social Democratic Party (Japan)

Parti social-démocrate (Japon)

The is a political party established in 1996. Since its reformation and name change in 1996, it has defined itself as a social-democratic party. Before 1996 it was known as the.

Le est un parti politique du Japon situé à la gauche de l'échiquier politique. Abrégé traditionnellement en, ou PSD en français, et officiellement appelé en anglais Social Democratic Party (SDP), il est issu d'une transformation du Parti socialiste japonais en, et a connu depuis lors une profonde désaffection de son électorat au profit du Parti démocrate du Japon. Il est allié électoral traditionnel de ce dernier, et son partenaire au sein de la coalition gouvernementale formée par Yukio Hatoyama après les élections législatives du jusqu'au.

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Lusitania

Lusitanie

Lusitania () or Hispania Lusitana was an ancient Iberian Roman province located where modern Portugal (south of the Douro river) and part of western Spain (the present autonomous community of Extremadura and a part of the province of Salamanca) lie. It was named after the Lusitani or Lusitanian people (an Indo-European people).

La Lusitanie ("Lusitania") était une province romaine impériale fondée sous le principat d'Auguste. Elle couvrait la plus grande partie de l'actuel Portugal au sud du Douro et une partie du León et de l'Estrémadure espagnole.

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Andreas Vesalius

André Vésale

Andreas Vesalius (; 31 December 1514 – 15 October 1564) was a 16th-century Flemish anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, "De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem" ("On the Fabric of the Human Body"). Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy. He was born in Brussels, which was then part of the Habsburg Netherlands. He was professor at the University of Padua and later became Imperial physician at the court of Emperor Charles V.

André Vésale, né Andries Wytinck van Wesel à Bruxelles le et mort à Zakynthos le, est un anatomiste et médecin brabançon, considéré par de nombreux historiens des sciences comme le plus grand anatomiste de la Renaissance, voire le plus grand de l’histoire de la médecine. Ses travaux, outre qu’ils ont fait entrer l’anatomie dans la modernité, mettront fin aux dogmes du galénisme qui bloquaient l’évolution scientifique depuis plus de mille ans aussi bien en Europe que dans le monde islamique. Vésale ne se détache pas entièrement de l'œuvre de Galien, pour lequel il a une très grande admiration. Le fait de le critiquer, de souligner ses erreurs n'est pas un signe de mépris. Il reprend d'ailleurs un certain nombre d'éléments de l'œuvre de Galien.

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Office de Radiodiffusion Télévision Française

Office de radiodiffusion-télévision française

The Office de Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française (ORTF) was the national agency charged, between 1964 and 1974, with providing public radio and television in France. All programming, and especially news broadcasts, were under strict control of the national government.

L'Office de radiodiffusion-télévision française (ORTF) est un établissement public à caractère industriel et commercial créé en 1964 et remplacé en 1974, ayant pour mission la tutelle de la radiodiffusion et de la télévision publique, la gestion des émetteurs et de la production audiovisuelle nationales et régionales.

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Melanesia

Mélanésie

Melanesia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania extending from New Guinea island in the southwestern Pacific Ocean to the Arafura Sea, and eastward to Tonga.

La Mélanésie (littér. « îles noires », du grec ancien :, « noir » et, « île ») est l'un des trois grands groupes « traditionnels » d'îles de l'océan Pacifique qui, ensemble, forment l'Océanie. Ce regroupement géographique est aujourd'hui contesté par une partie des géographes, mais il reste très couramment employé, y compris par les pays concernés.

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Enlightenment (spiritual)

Éveil spirituel

Enlightenment is the "full comprehension of a situation". The term is commonly used to denote the Age of Enlightenment, but is also used in Western cultures in a religious context. It translates several Buddhist terms and concepts, most notably "bodhi", "kensho" and "satori". Related terms from Asian religions are "moksha" (liberation) in Hinduism, "Kevala Jnana" in Jainism, and "ushta" in Zoroastrianism.

La notion d'éveil spirituel (appelée également « illumination », « réalisation de soi », ou simplement « éveil »), communément associée au bouddhisme et à l'hindouisme, désigne un état de conscience supérieur dans de nombreuses religions et philosophies et l'aboutissement d'une voie religieuse ou spirituelle.

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null

Complete blood count

Hémogramme

A complete blood count (CBC), also known as a full blood count (FBC), is a medical laboratory test that gives information about the cells in a person's blood. The test reports the amounts of white blood cells, red blood cells and platelets, the concentration of hemoglobin in the blood, and the hematocrit, which is the percentage of the blood that is made up of red blood cells. The red blood cell indices, which describe the average size and hemoglobin content of red blood cells, are also reported, and a white blood cell differential, which counts the different types of white blood cells, may be performed.

L'hémogramme, aussi appelé numération de la formule sanguine (NFS), formule sanguine complète (FSC), ou examen hématologique complet (hémato complet), est l'analyse quantitative (numération) et qualitative (formule) des éléments figurés du sang : hématies (globules rouges ou érythrocytes), leucocytes (globules blancs) et thrombocytes (plaquettes).

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Cato the Elder

Caton l'Ancien

Marcus Porcius Cato (; 234–149 BC), also known as Cato the Censor (), the Elder (') and the Wise ('), was a Roman soldier, senator and historian known for his conservatism and opposition to Hellenization. He was the first to write history in Latin. His epithet "Elder" distinguishes him from his equally famous great-grandson Cato the Younger, who opposed Julius Caesar.

, dit Caton l'Ancien (') ou Caton le Censeur (') par opposition à son arrière-petit-fils, Marcus Porcius Cato dit « Caton le Jeune » ou d'Utique, est un homme politique et un écrivain romain né en 234 av. J.-C. dans le municipe de Tusculum et mort en 149 av. J.-C. à Rome. Caton provient d'une ancienne famille plébéienne qui s'est distinguée par des services militaires remarquables, mais non dans l'exercice de magistratures à Rome. Il est élevé à la manière de ses ancêtres latins et formé à l'agriculture. Il attire l'attention de Lucius Valerius Flaccus, qui l'emmène à Rome et qui, grâce à son influence, lui fait franchir les diverses étapes du "cursus honorum" : tribun en 214 av. J.-C, questeur en 204 av. J.-C., préteur en 198 av. J.-C., consul en 195 av. J.-C. avec son ancien patron, puis censeur en 184 av. J.-C. Militaire, il combat les Carthaginois, pendant la deuxième guerre punique, de 217 à 207 av. J.-C. ; il participe notamment à la bataille décisive du Métaure, où meurt Hasdrubal. Proconsul de l'Hispanie citérieure, il dirige ses troupes avec habileté et dynamisme pour subjuguer les insurgés espagnols avec dureté. En 191 av. J.-C., il intervient comme tribun militaire dans la campagne de Grèce contre l'empire séleucide d'Antiochos III Mégas et participe de façon décisive à la bataille des Thermopyles, qui marque l'arrêt des incursions Séleucides.

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Angola Avante

"Angola Avante" (, ) is the national anthem of Angola. composed the music, while the lyrics were authored by Manuel Rui Alves Monteiro. It was adopted as the national anthem in November 1975, when the country gained its independence from Portugal. The lyrics make reference to several key events of the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), which has been in power since independence and was the only party in Angola until 1992.

Angola Avante ("En avant, Angola") est l'hymne national de l'Angola. Il a été adopté en 1975 quand l'Angola est devenu indépendant du Portugal.

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Londonderry Air

The Londonderry Air is an Irish air that originated in County Londonderry. It is popular among the American Irish diaspora and is well known throughout the world. The tune is played as the victory sporting anthem of Northern Ireland at the Commonwealth Games. The song "Danny Boy" uses the tune, with a set of lyrics written in the early 20th century.

The (London)Derry Air est un air traditionnel irlandais collecté au milieu du XIXe siècle par Jane Ross, à Limavady dans le comté de (London)Derry et publié par George Petrie en 1855 dans son recueil "Ancient Music of Ireland". Cette mélodie populaire au sein de la diaspora irlandaise est également utilisée par l'Irlande du Nord comme hymne avant certaines compétitions sportives (comme aux Jeux du Commonwealth).

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Advance Australia Fair

"Advance Australia Fair" is the national anthem of Australia. Created by the Scottish-born composer Peter Dodds McCormick, the song was first performed in 1878 and sung in Australia as a patriotic song. It replaced "God Save the Queen" as the official national anthem in 1984, following a plebiscite to choose the national song in 1977. Other songs and marches have been influenced by "Advance Australia Fair", such as the Australian vice-regal salute.

La plupart du temps seule la première strophe est entonnée. Une deuxième strophe est parfois ajoutée, pour les grandes occasions. Il existe d'autres strophes, présentées dans cet article.

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Flower of Scotland

"Flower of Scotland" (, ) is a Scottish song, frequently performed at special occasions and sporting events as an unofficial national anthem of Scotland.

Flower of Scotland (' en gaélique écossais,'en scots) est un hymne national officieux de l'Écosse, au même titre que le plus ancien "Scotland the Brave". Cette chanson a été créée (paroles et musiques) par l’Écossais Roy Williamson du groupe folklorique The Corries en 1967.

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Sybaris

Sybaris (; ) was an important city of Magna Graecia. It was situated on the Gulf of Taranto, in Southern Italy, between two rivers, the Crathis (Crati) and the Sybaris (Coscile).

Sybaris (en grec ancien Σύβαρις, "Subaris") était une colonie grecque du sud de l'Italie (en Calabre actuelle), fondée au VIIIe siècle av. J.-C. dans le cadre du mouvement d'établissement et d'essaimage des Grecs vers l'Occident, particulièrement en Grande Grèce. Réputée dès l'Antiquité pour sa richesse devenue proverbiale, ainsi que pour son emprise sur les peuples voisins et différentes cités grecques de son voisinage, elle fut détruite à l'issue d'une guerre qui l'opposa à Crotone à la fin du VIe siècle av. J.-C., et enfouie sous les eaux du fleuve Crathis (aujourd'hui Crati), avant de voir son site réoccupé, soixante ans plus tard, par la colonie athénienne de Thourioi. Enseveli sous près d'une dizaine de mètres de sédiments, le site archaïque de Sybaris reste encore aujourd'hui largement inexploré du fait que les alluvions de la plaine où elle se situe sont gorgées d'eau.

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null

Small Magellanic Cloud

Petit Nuage de Magellan

The Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC), or "Nubecula Minor", is a dwarf galaxy near the Milky Way. Classified as a dwarf irregular galaxy, the SMC has a diameter of about 7,000 light-years, contains several hundred million stars, and has a total mass of approximately 7 billion solar masses. The SMC contains a central bar structure, and astronomers speculate that it was once a barred spiral galaxy that was disrupted by the Milky Way to become somewhat irregular. At a distance of about 200,000 light-years, the SMC is among the nearest intergalactic neighbors of the Milky Way and is one of the most distant objects visible to the naked eye.

Le Petit Nuage de Magellan, souvent abrégé en SMC dans la littérature en référence à l'anglais, est une galaxie naine de type SB(s)m appartenant au Groupe local et située dans la constellation du Toucan. Satellite de la Voie lactée, il s'agit d'une petite galaxie irrégulière apparentée à une galaxie spirale magellanique dont la barre est visible mais dont le bras spiral est très dispersé. La base de données NASA/IPAC rapporte un échantillon de près de 300 mesures dont la moyenne donne une distance au Soleil de.

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Atoll

An atoll (), sometimes called a coral atoll, is a ring-shaped coral reef including a coral rim that encircles a lagoon partially or completely. There may be coral islands or cays on the rim. The coral of the atoll often sits atop the rim of an extinct seamount or volcano which has eroded or subsided partially beneath the water. The lagoon forms over the volcanic crater or caldera while the higher rim remains above water or at shallow depths that permit the coral to grow and form the reefs. For the atoll to persist, continued erosion or subsidence must be at a rate slow enough to permit reef growth upward and outward to replace the lost height.

Un atoll est un type d'île corallienne basse des océans tropicaux. Les atolls se composent d'un récif barrière, d'un ou plusieurs îlots appelés motu formés par accumulation de sable à l'arrière de ce récif, et entourant une dépression centrale.

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null

Metallicity

Métallicité

In astronomy, metallicity is the abundance of elements present in an object that are heavier than hydrogen or helium. Most of the physical matter in the Universe is in the form of hydrogen and helium, so astronomers use the word "metals" as a convenient short term for "all elements except hydrogen and helium". This usage is distinct from the usual physical definition of a solid metal. For example, stars and nebulae with relatively high abundances of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and neon are called "metal-rich" in astrophysical terms, even though those elements are non-metals in chemistry.

En astrophysique, la métallicité d'un objet astronomique est la fraction de sa masse qui n'est pas constituée d'hydrogène ou d'hélium. La métallicité quantifie l'importance des processus nucléosynthétiques dans l'origine de la matière constituant l'objet considéré (étoile, milieu interstellaire, galaxie, quasar). L'indice de métallicité (souvent appelé simplement "métallicité"), [M/H] ou [Fe/H], véhicule sensiblement la même information sous une autre forme.

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null

Large Magellanic Cloud

Grand Nuage de Magellan

The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) is a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way. At a distance of about 50 kiloparsecs (≈163,000 light-years), the LMC is the second- or third-closest galaxy to the Milky Way, after the Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal (~16 kpc) and the possible dwarf irregular galaxy known as the Canis Major Overdensity. Based on readily visible stars and a mass of approximately 10 billion solar masses, the diameter of the LMC is about, making it roughly one one-hundredth as massive as the Milky Way. This makes the LMC the fourth-largest galaxy in the Local Group, after the Andromeda Galaxy (M31), the Milky Way, and the Triangulum Galaxy (M33).

Le Grand Nuage de Magellan, en abrégé GNM (on trouve aussi souvent LMC dans la littérature en référence à l'anglais ), est une galaxie naine de type SB(s)m appartenant au Groupe local et située dans les constellations de la Dorade et de la Table. Satellite de la Voie lactée, il s'agit d'une petite galaxie spirale magellanique, caractérisée par une grande barre et un seul bras spiral. La base de données NASA/IPAC rapporte un échantillon de près de dont la moyenne donne une distance de. En 2019, cette distance est déterminée avec une précision de 1 % :. C'est la troisième galaxie la plus proche de la Voie lactée, après les galaxies naines du Grand Chien et du Sagittaire. D'un diamètre de, c'est la quatrième plus massive du Groupe local après la galaxie d'Andromède (M31), la Voie lactée et la galaxie du Triangle (M33).

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Lusaka

Lusaka ( ) is the capital and largest city of Zambia. It is one of the fastest developing cities in southern Africa. Lusaka is in the southern part of the central plateau at an elevation of about., the city's population was about 1.7 million, while the urban population is estimated at 2.5 million in 2018. Lusaka is the centre of both commerce and government in Zambia and connects to the country's four main highways heading north, south, east and west. English is the official language of the city administration, while Nyanja and Bemba are the commonly spoken street languages.

Lusaka est la capitale et la plus grande ville de Zambie. Sa population est estimée à habitants (recensement de 2010). Les deux principales langues qui y sont parlées sont l'anglais et le nyanja. Elle tient lieu de centre de commerce ainsi que de siège du gouvernement zambien.

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Vientiane

Vientiane (, ;,, ) is the capital and largest city of Laos, on the banks of the Mekong River near the border with Thailand. Vientiane became the capital in 1573 due to fears of a Burmese invasion but was later looted then razed to the ground in 1827 by the Siamese (Thai). Vientiane was the administrative capital during French rule and, due to economic growth in recent times, is now the economic center of Laos. The city had a population of 820,000 as at the 2015 Census.

Vientiane (, en "Vieng Chan" ) est la ville la plus peuplée et la capitale du Laos. Elle est située sur la rive gauche du Mékong, qui marque la frontière avec la Thaïlande, presque en face de la ville thaïlandaise de Nong Khai.

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Electrolysis

Électrolyse

In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis is a technique that uses a direct electric current (DC) to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous chemical reaction. Electrolysis is commercially important as a stage in the separation of elements from naturally occurring sources such as ores using an electrolytic cell. The voltage that is needed for electrolysis to occur is called the decomposition potential.

L'électrolyse est une méthode qui permet de réaliser des réactions chimiques grâce à une activation électrique. C'est le processus de conversion de l'énergie électrique en énergie chimique. Elle permet par ailleurs, dans l'industrie chimique, la séparation d'éléments ou la synthèse de composés chimiques. Elle intervient aussi dans la classification des corps purs.

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Ophrys insectifera

Ophrys mouche

Ophrys insectifera, the fly orchid, is a species of orchid and the type species of the genus "Ophrys". It is remarkable as an example of sexually-deceptive pollination and floral mimicry as well as of a highly-selective and highly evolved plant-pollinator relationship.

L'Ophrys mouche (Ophrys insectifera) est une orchidée terrestre européenne qui doit son nom à l'apparence de sa fleur (qui ressemble à une mouche sombre).

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Jacques Villeneuve

Jacques Joseph Charles Villeneuve (; born April 9, 1971) is a Canadian professional auto racing driver and amateur musician. Villeneuve currently competes in the NASCAR Whelen Euro Series, driving the #5 car for FEED Vict Racing in the EuroNASCAR PRO class. He is the son of Formula One driver Gilles Villeneuve, and is the namesake of his uncle, who was also a racer. Villeneuve won the 1995 CART Championship, the 1995 Indianapolis 500 and the 1997 Formula One World Championship, making him only the third driver after Mario Andretti and Emerson Fittipaldi to achieve such a feat., no other Canadian has won the Indianapolis 500 or the Formula One Drivers' title.

Jacques Joseph Charles Villeneuve, né le à Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu au Québec, est un pilote automobile canadien, actuellement commentateur des Grands Prix de Formule 1 sur Canal+. En Formule 1, de 1996 à 2006 (166 départs), il a été sacré champion du monde en 1997 et a remporté onze victoires, dont quatre dès sa première saison, toutes sur Williams-Renault. Il compte également à son palmarès les 500 Miles d'Indianapolis et le championnat CART en 1995.

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null

Functional equation

Équation fonctionnelle

In mathematics, a functional equation is any equation in which the unknown represents a function. Often, the equation relates the value of a function (or functions) at some point with its values at other points. For instance, properties of functions can be determined by considering the types of functional equations they satisfy. The term "functional equation" usually refers to equations that cannot be simply reduced to algebraic equations or differential equations.

En mathématiques, une équation fonctionnelle est une équation dont les inconnues sont des fonctions. De nombreuses propriétés de fonctions peuvent être déterminées en étudiant les équations auxquelles elles satisfont. D'habitude, le terme « équation fonctionnelle » est réservé aux équations qu'on ne peut pas ramener à des équations plus simples, par exemple à des équations différentielles.

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Thomas Kuhn

Thomas Samuel Kuhn

Thomas Samuel Kuhn (; July 18, 1922 – June 17, 1996) was an American philosopher of science whose 1962 book "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" was influential in both academic and popular circles, introducing the term "paradigm shift", which has since become an English-language idiom.

Thomas Samuel Kuhn, né le à Cincinnati, dans l'Ohio et mort le à Cambridge, dans le Massachusetts, est un philosophe des sciences et historien des sciences américain. Il s’est principalement intéressé aux structures et à la dynamique des groupes scientifiques à travers l’histoire des sciences. Il est le promoteur d'une interprétation de l'histoire des sciences selon laquelle le développement historique des théories est discontinu ; pour rendre compte de ce processus il reprend, à Alexandre Koyré notamment, le concept de révolution scientifique et introduit celui, devenu classique, de changement de paradigme ("paradigm shift" en anglais).

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Scheldt

Escaut

The Scheldt (,,, ) is a river that flows through in northern France, western Belgium, and the southwestern part of the Netherlands, with its mouth at the North Sea. Its name is derived from an adjective corresponding to Old English "" ("shallow"), Modern English "shoal", Low German "schol", West Frisian "skol", and Swedish (obsolete) "skäll" ("thin").

L'Escaut ("de Schelde" en néerlandais) est un fleuve européen de de long, qui traverse trois pays (France, Belgique et Pays-Bas), avant de se jeter en mer du Nord.

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null

Aqua regia

Eau régale

Aqua regia (; from Latin, "regal water" or "king's water") is a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid, optimally in a molar ratio of 1:3. Aqua regia is a yellow-orange (sometimes red) fuming liquid, so named by alchemists because it can dissolve the noble metals, gold and platinum, though not all metals.

L’eau régale ou eau royale ("" en latin) est un mélange d’acide chlorhydrique et d’acide nitrique concentrés dans une proportion de 2 à 4 volumes d’acide chlorhydrique pour 1 d’acide nitrique. Elle est appelée ainsi parce qu’elle est capable de dissoudre certains métaux nobles tels le platine, l'or ou le tantale insolubles dans ces acides seuls ou dans tout autre acide simple concentré.

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null

Direct current

Courant continu

Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of an electric charge. An electrochemical cell is a prime example of DC power. Direct current may flow through a conductor such as a wire, but can also flow through semiconductors, insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. The electric current flows in a constant direction, distinguishing it from alternating current (AC). A term formerly used for this type of current was galvanic current.

Le courant continu ou CC (DC pour "" en anglais) est un courant électrique dont l'intensité est indépendante du temps (constante). C'est, par exemple, le type de courant délivré par les piles ou les accumulateurs.

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Dendrobium

Dendrobium is a genus of mostly epiphytic and lithophytic orchids in the family Orchidaceae. It is a very large genus, containing more than 1,800 species that are found in diverse habitats throughout much of south, east and southeast Asia, including China, Japan, India, the Philippines, Indonesia, Australia, New Guinea, Vietnam and many of the islands of the Pacific. Orchids in this genus have roots that creep over the surface of trees or rocks, rarely having their roots in soil. Up to six leaves develop in a tuft at the tip of a shoot and from one to a large number of flowers are arranged along an unbranched flowering stem. Several attempts have been made to separate "Dendrobium" into smaller genera, but most have not been accepted by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families.

Le genre Dendrobium de la famille des "Orchidaceae" originaire des régions sub-tropicales et tropicales d'Asie, d'Australie et de Nouvelle-Zélande. On dénombre 1220 espèces dans des biotopes variés. Le nom se compose des mots grecs "δένδον (dendron)" = arbre et "βίος (bios)" = vie (littéralement qui vit sur les arbres car toutes les espèces sont épiphytes, plus rarement lithophytes). Après "Bulbophyllum", "Dendrobium" représente le deuxième genre le plus important des orchidées en nombre d'espèces. Le genre se caractérise par la tige constituée de pseudobulbes.

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Ionia

Ionie

Ionia (; Ancient Greek: Ἰωνία /i.ɔː.ní.aː/, "Iōnía" or Ἰωνίη, "Iōníē") was an ancient region on the central part of the western coast of Anatolia in present-day Turkey, the region nearest İzmir, which was historically Smyrna. It consisted of the northernmost territories of the Ionian League of Greek settlements. Never a unified state, it was named after the Ionian tribe who, in the Archaic Period (600–480 BC), settled mainly the shores and islands of the Aegean Sea. Ionian states were identified by tradition and by their use of Eastern Greek.

LIonie est une région historique du monde grec antique située à l'ouest de l'Asie mineure, entre Phocée au nord et Milet au sud. Elle correspond à la région située dans un rayon de autour de la ville actuelle d'Izmir, en Turquie. Elle emprunte son nom à Ion, ancêtre légendaire des peuples de cette région. C'est en Ionie que se sont développées les premières formes de science de la philosophie en Occident, chez les penseurs appelés Présocratiques, dont une école particulière, celle des Physiciens, est aussi appelée l'école ionienne. Homère y aurait vécu au (en Turquie).

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A Portuguesa

"A Portuguesa" (The Portuguese [song], ) is the national anthem of Portugal. The song was composed by Alfredo Keil and written by Henrique Lopes de Mendonça during the resurgent nationalist movement ignited by the 1890 British Ultimatum to Portugal concerning its African colonies. Used as the marching song of the failed republican rebellion of January 1891, in Porto, it was adopted as the national anthem of the newborn Portuguese Republic in 1911, replacing "Hino da Carta" (Hymn of the Charter), the anthem of the deposed constitutional monarchy.

C'était à l'origine une chanson patriotique en réponse à l'ultimatum britannique de 1890 qui ordonnait au Portugal de retirer ses troupes basées en Afrique, principalement sur une bande s'étirant de l'Angola au Mozambique surnommée Carte rose ("mapa cor-de-rosa" en portugais).

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Blitzkrieg

Blitzkrieg (, from "Blitz" ["lightning"] + "Krieg" ["war"]) is a method of warfare where the attacker, spearheaded using a force concentration of armoured and motorised or mechanised infantry formations with close air support, breaks through the opponent's line of defence by short, fast, powerful attacks and then dislocates the defenders, using speed and surprise to encircle them with the help of air superiority. Through the employment of combined arms in manoeuvre warfare, blitzkrieg attempts to unbalance the enemy by making it difficult for it to respond to the continuously changing front, then defeat it in a decisive (battle of annihilation).

Le ( « guerre éclair ») est une tactique à visée opérationnelle militaire offensive visant à emporter une victoire décisive par l'engagement localisé et limité dans le temps d'un puissant ensemble de forces motorisées, terrestres et aériennes dans l'optique de frapper en profondeur la capacité militaire, économique ou politique.

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null

Cinnabar

Cinabre

Cinnabar () or cinnabarite (), likely deriving from the (), is the bright scarlet to brick-red form of mercury(II) sulfide (HgS). It is the most common source ore for refining elemental mercury, and is the historic source for the brilliant red or scarlet pigment termed vermilion and associated red mercury pigments.

Le cinabre est une espèce minérale composée de sulfure de mercure(II) de formule HgS. Il a été décrit pour la première fois par le philosophe de la Grèce antique, Théophraste (c.-371, -288), dans son ouvrage de minéralogie "Sur les pierres" (Περὶ λίθων, "Peri lithon").

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Paphiopedilum

Paphiopedilum, often called the Venus slipper, is a genus of the lady slipper orchid subfamily "Cypripedioideae" of the flowering plant family Orchidaceae. The genus comprises some 80 accepted taxa including several natural hybrids. The genus is native to Southeast Asia, the Indian Subcontinent, southern China, New Guinea and the Solomon and Bismarck Islands.

Les Paphiopedilums (du / "Páphios", « de Paphos », adjectif qualifiant Aphrodite et / "pédilon", « sandale ») sont un genre d'orchidées semi-terrestres originaires d’Asie tropicale appelées couramment « Sabot de Vénus », faisant partie de la sous-famille des Cypripedioideae.

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Financial accounting

Comptabilité générale

Financial accounting (or financial accountancy) is the field of accounting concerned with the summary, analysis and reporting of financial transactions related to a business. This involves the preparation of financial statements available for public use. Stockholders, suppliers, banks, employees, government agencies, business owners, and other stakeholders are examples of people interested in receiving such information for decision making purposes.

La comptabilité générale (comptabilité financière) est un système d'organisations dans lequel un individu appelé comptable se propose d'observer, d'enregistrer, de classer, de synthétiser afin d'analyser et renseigner. L'étude de ces étapes du travail du comptable nous permettra de mieux appréhender en quoi consiste la comptabilité financière en tant que fille naturelle de l'économie et du management.

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Ry Tanindrazanay malala ô!

Ry Tanindrazanay malala ô

Ry Tanindrazanay malala ô! is the national anthem of Madagascar. The lyrics were written by Pasteur Rahajason and the music by Norbert Raharisoa. It is similar to a march and was strongly influenced by European music and the French colonial education system It is often played by Malagasy musicians on the accordion. The anthem was officially adopted on April 27, 1959 by the parliament of Madagascar prior to the official granting of independence on 26 June 1960. Philibert Tsiranana was Prime Minister of Madagascar during the creation of the anthem and Michel Debré was the French Prime Minister during this time. The main focus of the anthem is love of the land, as well as thankfulness to God and an appeal to unity and loyalty under the nation.

Ry Tanindrazanay malala ô (Ô, Notre Chère Patrie / Ô Terre de nos ancêtres bien-aimés) est l'hymne national de Madagascar depuis 1958. Il a été écrit par le Pasteur Rahajason et composé par Norbert Raharisoa.

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Luca Pacioli

Fra Luca Bartolomeo de Pacioli (sometimes "Paccioli" or "Paciolo"; 1447 – 19 June 1517) was an Italian mathematician, Franciscan friar, collaborator with Leonardo da Vinci, and an early contributor to the field now known as accounting. He is referred to as "The Father of Accounting and Bookkeeping" in Europe and he was the second person to publish a work on the double-entry system of book-keeping on the continent. He was also called Luca di Borgo after his birthplace, Borgo Sansepolcro, Tuscany.

Luca Bartolomes Pacioli OFM, dit "Luca di Borgo" (vers 1445 à Borgo Sansepolcro en Toscane - entre avril et octobre 1517, probablement dans la même ville), est un religieux franciscain, mathématicien et fondateur de la comptabilité.

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null

Constitution

A constitution is an aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of entity, and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed.

Une constitution est une loi fondamentale qui fixe l'organisation et le fonctionnement d'un organisme, généralement d'un État ou d'un ensemble d'États.

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Charlton Heston

Charlton Heston (born John Charles Carter; October 4, 1923 – April 5, 2008) was an American actor and political activist. As a Hollywood star, he appeared in almost 100 films over the course of 60 years. He played Moses in the epic film "The Ten Commandments" (1956), for which he received his first nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama. He also starred in "Touch of Evil" (1958) with Orson Welles, "Ben-Hur" (1959), for which he won the Oscar for Best Actor, "El Cid" (1961), "Planet of the Apes" (1968), "The Greatest Show on Earth" (1952), "Secret of the Incas" (1954), "The Big Country" (1958), and "The Greatest Story Ever Told" (1965).

John Charlton Carter, dit Charlton Heston, est un acteur, réalisateur et scénariste américain né le à Evanston, dans l'Illinois, et mort le (à 84 ans), à Beverly Hills.

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The Structure of Scientific Revolutions

La Structure des révolutions scientifiques

The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962; second edition 1970; third edition 1996; fourth edition 2012) is a book about the history of science by the philosopher Thomas S. Kuhn. Its publication was a landmark event in the history, philosophy, and sociology of scientific knowledge. Kuhn challenged the then prevailing view of progress in science in which scientific progress was viewed as "development-by-accumulation" of accepted facts and theories. Kuhn argued for an episodic model in which periods of conceptual continuity where there is cumulative progress, which Kuhn referred to as periods of "normal science", were interrupted by periods of revolutionary science. The discovery of "anomalies" during revolutions in science leads to new paradigms. New paradigms then ask new questions of old data, move beyond the mere "puzzle-solving" of the previous paradigm, change the rules of the game and the "map" directing new research.

La Structure des révolutions scientifiques ("") est un essai rédigé par le philosophe et historien des sciences, Thomas Samuel Kuhn. Paru en 1962, revu en 1970, l'ouvrage est incontestablement son œuvre majeure. Il y modélise notamment la science comme phénomène social et analyse les implications de cette approche, en s'appuyant sur de nombreux exemples tirés de l'Histoire des sciences. Les apports principaux de cet essai sont la révision des notions de paradigme et de révolution scientifique, avec l'établissement d'une distinction entre science normale et science extraordinaire, ainsi que la redéfinition de l'idée de progrès. Traduit en français en 1972, il a été réédité en 2018 avec une préface inédite de Jean-Pierre Luminet.

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Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie

Emmanuel Bernard Le Roy Ladurie (born 19 July 1929) is a French historian whose work is mainly focused upon Languedoc in the "Ancien Régime", particularly the history of the peasantry. One of the leading historians of France, Le Roy Ladurie has been called the "standard-bearer" of the third generation of the "Annales" school and the "rock star of the medievalists", noted for his work in social history.

Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, né le 19 juillet 1929 à Les Moutiers-en-Cinglais (Calvados), est un historien français. Titulaire de la chaire d'histoire de la civilisation moderne au Collège de France, directeur d'études à l'École des hautes études en sciences sociales et disciple de Fernand Braudel, il est un des animateurs majeurs de l'École des Annales et devint, dans les, une figure emblématique de la Nouvelle Histoire. Certaines de ses œuvres qui s'inscrivent dans le courant de l'anthropologie historique connurent un grand succès auprès d'un large public.

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Pierre Laval

Pierre Jean Marie Laval (; 28 June 1883 – 15 October 1945) was a French politician. During the time of the Third Republic, he served as Prime Minister of France from 27 January 1931 to 20 February 1932, and a second time from 7 June 1935 to 24 January 1936.

Pierre Laval, né le à Châteldon (Puy-de-Dôme) et mort fusillé le à la prison de Fresnes (Seine), est un homme d'État français.

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Karl Jaspers

Karl Theodor Jaspers (; ; 23 February 1883 – 26 February 1969) was a German-Swiss psychiatrist and philosopher who had a strong influence on modern theology, psychiatry, and philosophy. After being trained in and practicing psychiatry, Jaspers turned to philosophical inquiry and attempted to discover an innovative philosophical system. He was often viewed as a major exponent of existentialism in Germany, though he did not accept the label.

Karl Jaspers, né à Oldenburg le et mort à Bâle le, est un psychiatre et philosophe germano-suisse représentatif de l'existentialisme. Ses travaux ont eu une grande influence sur la théologie, la psychologie, la psychiatrie et la philosophie. Il obtient la nationalité suisse en 1967.

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Massif Central

Massif central

The Massif Central (;, ; literally ""Central Massif"") is a highland region in the middle of Southern France, consisting of mountains and plateaus. It covers about 15% of mainland France.

Le Massif central est un massif montagneux essentiellement hercynien qui occupe le centre de la moitié sud de la France métropolitaine. D'une surface de, soit 15 % environ du territoire métropolitain, c'est le massif le plus vaste du pays. Le massif est d'altitude moyenne et ses reliefs sont souvent arrondis par l'érosion. Il culmine à au sommet volcanique du puy de Sancy (sud-ouest du Puy-de-Dôme). Dans l'ensemble, il s'est formé il y a 500 millions d'années, bien que les causses et surtout les reliefs volcaniques soient plus récents, ces derniers étant consécutifs à la formation des Alpes et des Pyrénées. Le Massif central abrite en effet l'essentiel des volcans français de métropole.

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Existentialism

Existentialisme

Existentialism ( or ) is a tradition of philosophical enquiry that explores the nature of existence by emphasizing experience of the human subject—not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human individual. In the view of the existentialist, the individual's starting point is characterized by what has been called "the existential angst" (or, variably, existential attitude, dread, etc.), or a sense of disorientation, confusion, or anxiety in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd world.

L’existentialisme est un courant philosophique et littéraire qui considère que l'être humain forme l'essence de sa vie par ses propres actions, celles-ci n'étant pas prédéterminées par des doctrines théologiques, philosophiques ou morales. L'existentialisme considère chaque individu comme un être unique maître de ses actes, de son destin et des valeurs qu'il décide d'adopter.

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Edmund Husserl

Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl (, ; ; 8 April 1859 – 27 April 1938) was a German philosopher who established the school of phenomenology. In his early work, he elaborated critiques of historicism and of psychologism in logic based on analyses of intentionality. In his mature work, he sought to develop a systematic foundational science based on the so-called phenomenological reduction. Arguing that transcendental consciousness sets the limits of all possible knowledge, Husserl redefined phenomenology as a transcendental-idealist philosophy. Husserl's thought profoundly influenced 20th-century philosophy, and he remains a notable figure in contemporary philosophy and beyond.

Edmund Husserl ( - ) est un philosophe et logicien, autrichien de naissance, puis prussien, fondateur de la phénoménologie, qui eut une influence majeure sur l'ensemble de la philosophie du.

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null

Empiricism

Empirisme

In philosophy, empiricism is a theory that states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience. It is one of several views of epistemology, along with rationalism and skepticism. Empiricism emphasizes the role of empirical evidence in the formation of ideas, rather than innate ideas or traditions. Recently, there have been increased efforts to advocate for added empiricism in non-scientific and social science studies, especially as such studies relate to health law, public health law, etc. However, empiricists may argue that traditions (or customs) arise due to relations of previous sense experiences.

L'empirisme désigne un ensemble de théories philosophiques qui font de l'expérience sensible l'origine de toute connaissance ou croyance et de tout plaisir esthétique. L'empirisme s'oppose en particulier à l'innéisme et plus généralement au rationalisme « nativiste » pour lesquels nous disposerions de connaissances, idées ou principes avant toute expérience. L'empirisme est à l'origine de la théorie associationniste de l'esprit en psychologie, qui explique la formation des représentations mentales par la conjonction d'idées simples. Défendu principalement par les philosophes Francis Bacon, John Locke, Condillac, George Berkeley, David Hume et des scientifiques comme Ibn Al Haytham, l'empirisme considère que la connaissance se fonde sur l'accumulation d'observations et de faits mesurables, dont on peut extraire des lois générales par un raisonnement inductif, allant par conséquent du concret à l'abstrait.

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Phenomenology (philosophy)

Phénoménologie (philosophie)

Phenomenology (from Greek "phainómenon" "that which appears" and "lógos" "study") is the philosophical study of the structures of experience and consciousness. As a philosophical movement it was founded in the early years of the 20th century by Edmund Husserl and was later expanded upon by a circle of his followers at the universities of Göttingen and Munich in Germany. It then spread to France, the United States, and elsewhere, often in contexts far removed from Husserl's early work. Phenomenology is not a unitary movement; rather, different authors share a common family resemblance but also with many significant differences. Gabriella Farina states:A unique and final definition of phenomenology is dangerous and perhaps even paradoxical as it lacks a thematic focus. In fact, it is not a doctrine, nor a philosophical school, but rather a style of thought, a method, an open and ever-renewed experience having different results, and this may disorient anyone wishing to define the meaning of phenomenology.Phenomenology, in Husserl's conception, is primarily concerned with the systematic reflection on and study of the structures of consciousness and the phenomena that appear in acts of consciousness. Phenomenology can be clearly differentiated from the Cartesian method of analysis which sees the world as objects, sets of objects, and objects acting and reacting upon one another.

La phénoménologie (du grec : "phainómenon", « ce qui apparaît » ; et "lógos", « étude ») est un courant de pensée du fondé par Edmund Husserl dans l'optique de faire de la philosophie une discipline scientifique. Elle tire son nom de sa démarche, qui est d'appréhender la réalité telle qu'elle se donne, à travers les phénomènes. Elle fait de la philosophie l'étude systématique et l'analyse de l’"expérience vécue", des contenus de conscience et des structures des faits de conscience comme étant eux-mêmes des phénomènes de la pensée qui se pense elle-même et pense le monde.

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Frame rate

Images par seconde

Frame rate (expressed in'or FPS) is the frequency (rate) at which consecutive images called frames appear on a display. The term applies equally to film and video cameras, computer graphics, and motion capture systems. Frame rate may also be called the ', and be expressed in hertz.

Le nombre d’images par seconde ou images à la seconde (en abrégé, IPS ou i/s) est une unité de mesure correspondant au nombre d'images affichées en une seconde par un dispositif. La mesure de la fréquence d’affichage peut également être exprimé en Hertz. Plus le nombre d'images est élevé, plus l'animation semble fluide. La persistance rétinienne a longtemps été proposée pour expliquer cet effet, mais elle est remise en cause : l'effet phi est aujourd'hui considéré comme l'explication principale.

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Karen Horney

Karen Horney (; ; 16 September 1885 – 4 December 1952) was a German psychoanalyst who practiced in the United States during her later career. Her theories questioned some traditional Freudian views. This was particularly true of her theories of sexuality and of the instinct orientation of psychoanalysis. She is credited with founding feminist psychology in response to Freud's theory of penis envy. She disagreed with Freud about inherent differences in the psychology of men and women, and she traced such differences to society and culture rather than biology. As such, she is often classified as neo-Freudian.

Karen Horney, née le à Blankenese, actuel quartier de Hambourg, et morte le à New York, est une psychiatre et psychanalyste américaine d'origine allemande.

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Mannheim

Mannheim (; Palatine German: or ) is a city in the southwestern part of Germany, the third-largest in the German state of Baden-Württemberg after Stuttgart and Karlsruhe with a 2015 population of approximately 310,000 inhabitants. The city is at the centre of the larger densely populated Rhine-Neckar Metropolitan Region which has a population of 2,400,000 and is Germany's eighth-largest metropolitan region.

Mannheim est une ville industrielle du land du Bade-Wurtemberg, dans le Sud-Ouest de l'Allemagne. Elle est une ville-arrondissement de l'aire urbaine Rhin-Neckar.

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Chessboard

Échiquier

A chessboard is the type of used for the game of chess, on which the chess pawns and are placed. A chessboard is usually square in shape, with an alternating pattern of squares in two colours. Traditionally wooden boards are made of unstained light and dark brown woods. To reduce cost, many boards are made with veneers of more expensive woods glued to an inner piece of plywood or chipboard. A variety of colours combinations are used for plastic, vinyl, and silicone boards. Common dark-light combinations are black and white, as well as brown, green or blue with buff or cream. Materials vary widely; while wooden boards are generally used in high-level games; vinyl, plastic, and cardboard are common for less important tournaments and matches and for home use. Decorative glass and marble boards are rarely permitted for games conducted by national or international chess federations. When they are permitted, they must meet various criteria (see the text on FIDE regulations below)

L’échiquier est le tablier ou plateau du jeu d'échecs. C'est une grille carrée de 8 cases de côté, soit 64 cases en tout, en alternance sombres (appelées « "noires" ») et claires (appelées « "blanches" »). Dans les tables d'échecs, l'échiquier est intégré dans la surface supérieure de la table.

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Metic

Métèque

In ancient Greece, a metic (Ancient Greek: μέτοικος, "métoikos": from μετά, "metá", indicating change, and οἶκος, "oîkos" "dwelling") was a foreign resident of Athens, one who did not have citizen rights in their Greek city-state ("polis") of residence.

Un métèque, du grec ancien μέτοικος, "métoïkos", « qui a changé de résidence », est dans la Grèce antique, un statut intermédiaire entre celui de citoyen et d'étranger, réservé à des ressortissants grecs d'autres cités.

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Bernoulli's principle

Théorème de Bernoulli

In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in static pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy. The principle is named after Daniel Bernoulli who published it in his book "Hydrodynamica" in 1738. Although Bernoulli deduced that pressure decreases when the flow speed increases, it was Leonhard Euler who derived Bernoulli's equation in its usual form in 1752. The principle is only applicable for isentropic flows: when the effects of irreversible processes (like turbulence) and non-adiabatic processes (e.g. heat radiation) are small and can be neglected.

Le théorème de Bernoulli, qui a été établi en 1738 par Daniel Bernoulli, est la formulation mathématique du "principe de Bernoulli" qui énonce que dans le flux d'un fluide homogène et incompressible soumis uniquement aux forces de pression et de pesanteur, une accélération se produit simultanément avec la diminution de la pression. Dans un flux de fluide sans viscosité et donc dans lequel une différence de pression est la seule force d'accélération, la vitesse est équivalente à celle donnée par les lois du mouvement de Newton. Il est très commun que l'effet de Bernoulli soit cité pour affirmer qu'un changement de vitesse cause un changement de pression ; cependant le principe de Bernoulli ne fait pas ce rapport et ce n'est pas le cas.

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Tomaso Albinoni

Tomaso Giovanni Albinoni (8 June 1671 – 17 January 1751) was an Italian Baroque composer. His output includes operas, concertos, sonatas for one to six instruments, sinfonias, and solo cantatas. While famous in his day as an opera composer, he is known today for his instrumental music, especially his concertos. He is also remembered today for a work called "Adagio in G minor", attributed to him but said to be written by Remo Giazotto, a modern musicologist and composer, who was a cataloger of the works of Albinoni.

Tomaso Giovanni Albinoni né le à Venise et mort le également à Venise, est un violoniste et compositeur italien de musique baroque. Il est souvent considéré comme un compositeur majeur du baroque tardif italien. Il est surtout connu pour ses concertos, parmi lesquels ses œuvres pour un ou deux hautbois ainsi que celles pour violon. Contrairement à bon nombre de ses contemporains, Albinoni décide de ne pas se placer au service d'un protecteur ou d'une institution en particulier, mais de mener sa carrière en toute indépendance.

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Image segmentation

Segmentation d'image

In digital image processing and computer vision, image segmentation is the process of partitioning a digital image into multiple segments (sets of pixels, also known as image objects). The goal of segmentation is to simplify and/or change the representation of an image into something that is more meaningful and easier to analyze. Image segmentation is typically used to locate objects and boundaries (lines, curves, etc.) in images. More precisely, image segmentation is the process of assigning a label to every pixel in an image such that pixels with the same label share certain characteristics.

La segmentation d'image est une opération de traitement d'images qui a pour but de rassembler des pixels entre eux suivant des critères pré-définis. Les pixels sont ainsi regroupés en régions, qui constituent un pavage ou une partition de l'image. Il peut s'agir par exemple de séparer les objets du fond. Si le nombre de classes est égal à deux, elle est appelée aussi binarisation.

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Pixel

In digital imaging, a pixel, pel, or picture element is a physical point in a raster image, or the smallest addressable element in an all points addressable display device; so it is the smallest controllable element of a picture represented on the screen.

Le pixel est souvent abrégé p ou px. Il est l'unité de base permettant de mesurer la définition d'une image numérique matricielle. Son nom provient de la locution anglaise "", qui signifie « élément d'image ».

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Jean le Rond d'Alembert

Jean Le Rond d'Alembert

Jean-Baptiste le Rond d'Alembert (; ; 16 November 1717 – 29 October 1783) was a French mathematician, mechanician, physicist, philosopher, and music theorist. Until 1759 he was co-editor with Denis Diderot of the "Encyclopédie". D'Alembert's formula for obtaining solutions to the wave equation is named after him. The wave equation is sometimes referred to as d'Alembert's equation.

Jean Le Rond d’Alembert, parfois écrit « Jean le Rond D’Alembert » est un mathématicien, physicien, philosophe et encyclopédiste français, né le à Paris où il est mort le.

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null

Fundamental theorem of algebra

Théorème fondamental de l'algèbre

The fundamental theorem of algebra states that every non-constant single-variable polynomial with complex coefficients has at least one complex root. This includes polynomials with real coefficients, since every real number is a complex number with its imaginary part equal to zero.

En mathématiques, le théorème fondamental de l'algèbre, aussi appelé théorème de d'Alembert-Gauss et théorème de d'Alembert, indique que tout polynôme non constant, à coefficients complexes, admet au moins une racine. En conséquence, tout polynôme à coefficients entiers, rationnels ou encore réels admet au moins une racine complexe, car ces nombres sont aussi des complexes. Une fois ce résultat établi, il devient simple de montrer que sur C, le corps des nombres complexes, tout polynôme "P" est scindé, c'est-à-dire constant ou produit de polynômes de degré 1.

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University

Université

A university (, 'a whole') is an institution of higher (or tertiary) education and research, which awards academic degrees in various academic disciplines. Universities typically provide undergraduate education and postgraduate education.

Une université est une institution d'enseignements supérieurs, d'études et de recherches, constituée par la réunion de divers établissements nommés suivant les traditions « collèges » ou « facultés », « instituts », « départements », « centres », « sections », « unités » ou écoles spécifiques, mais aussi bibliothèque ou atelier, médiathèque ou musée... formant un ensemble administratif cohérent avec un statut de droit défini, public, privé ou éventuellement mixte. Sous cette égide légale et administrative sont ainsi rassemblées ou monopolisées la production (recherche), la conservation (publications et bibliothèques) et la transmission (études supérieures) de différents champs choisis d'études et de connaissance.

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Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec

Henri Marie Raymond de Toulouse-Lautrec-Monfa (24 November 1864 – 9 September 1901), commonly known as just Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (,, ), was a French painter, printmaker, draughtsman, caricaturist, and illustrator whose immersion in the colorful and theatrical life of Paris in the late 19th century allowed him to produce a collection of enticing, elegant, and provocative images of the modern, sometimes decadent, affairs of those times.

Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec est un peintre, dessinateur, lithographe, affichiste et illustrateur français, né le à Albi et mort le, au château Malromé, à Saint-André-du-Bois.

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Electrocardiography

Électrocardiographie

Electrocardiography is the process of producing an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG). It is a graph of voltage versus time of the electrical activity of the heart using electrodes placed on the skin. These electrodes detect the small electrical changes that are a consequence of cardiac muscle depolarization followed by repolarization during each cardiac cycle (heartbeat). Changes in the normal ECG pattern occur in numerous cardiac abnormalities, including cardiac rhythm disturbances (such as atrial fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia), inadequate coronary artery blood flow (such as myocardial ischemia and myocardial infarction), and electrolyte disturbances (such as hypokalemia and hyperkalemia).

L'électrocardiographie (ECG) est une représentation graphique de l'activité électrique du cœur. Cette activité électrique est liée aux variations de potentiel électrique des cellules spécialisées dans la contraction (myocytes) et des cellules spécialisées dans l'automatisme et la conduction des influx. Elle est recueillie par des électrodes à la surface de la peau.

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David Hume

David Hume (; born David Home; 7 May 1711 NS – 25 August 1776) was a Scottish Enlightenment philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, who is best known today for his highly influential system of philosophical empiricism, skepticism, and naturalism. Beginning with "A Treatise of Human Nature" (1739–40), Hume strove to create a naturalistic science of man that examined the psychological basis of human nature. Hume argued against the existence of innate ideas, positing that all human knowledge derives solely from experience. This places him with Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and George Berkeley, as a British Empiricist.

David Hume ( - ) est un philosophe, économiste et historien écossais. Il est considéré comme un des plus importants penseurs des Lumières écossaises (avec John Locke, Adam Smith et Thomas Reid, bien que s'opposant à eux dans la plupart de ses thèses) et est un des plus grands philosophes et écrivains de langue anglaise. Fondateur de l'empirisme moderne (avec Locke et Berkeley), l'un des plus radicaux par son scepticisme, il s'opposa tout particulièrement à Descartes et aux philosophies considérant l'esprit humain d'un point de vue théologico-métaphysique : il ouvrit ainsi la voie à l'application de la méthode expérimentale aux phénomènes mentaux.

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Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (; ; August 27, 1770 – November 14, 1831) was a German philosopher and an important figure of German idealism. He achieved recognition in his day and—while primarily influential in the continental tradition of philosophy—has become increasingly influential in the analytic tradition as well. His canonical stature in Western philosophy is universally recognized.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, né le à Stuttgart et mort le à Berlin, est un philosophe allemand. Son œuvre, postérieure à celle de Emmanuel Kant, appartient à l'idéalisme allemand et a eu une influence décisive sur l'ensemble de la philosophie contemporaine.

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Pope Innocent III

Innocent III

Pope Innocent III (; 1160 or 1161 – 16 July 1216), born Lotario dei Conti di Segni (anglicized as Lothar of Segni) reigned from 8 January 1198 to his death.

Lotario dei conti di Segni (né en à Gavignano et mort en à Pérouse), de la famille des, est le de l'Église catholique, élu le sous le nom d’. Il est considéré comme l’un des plus grands papes du Moyen Âge.

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Fluorite

Fluorine

Fluorite (also called fluorspar) is the mineral form of calcium fluoride, CaF. It belongs to the halide minerals. It crystallizes in isometric cubic habit, although octahedral and more complex isometric forms are not uncommon.

La fluorine (ou fluorite) est une espèce minérale composée de fluorure de calcium, de formule idéale CaF mais comportant des traces de Y, Ce, Si, Al, Fe, Mg, Eu, Sm, O, Cl et composés organiques. Les différents ions en traces sont à l'origine des multiples couleurs et zonations colorées rencontrées pour ce minéral.

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Payne Stewart

William Payne Stewart (January 30, 1957 – October 25, 1999) was an American professional golfer who won eleven PGA Tour events, including three major championships in his career, the last of which occurred a few months before he died in an airplane accident at the age of 42.

Payne Stewart (Springfield, Missouri,, Dakota du Sud, ) est un golfeur américain. Après avoir joint le tour PGA en 1976, Il remporta onze tournois professionnels, dont trois titres du Grand Chelem avec l'USPGA en 1989 et l'US Open en 1991 et 1999. Il gagna aussi deux fois le Trophée du roi Hassan II au Maroc. Il représenta les États-Unis lors de cinq éditions de la Ryder Cup et à la Coupe du monde de golf.

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Archilochus

Archiloque

Archilochus (; "Arkhilokhos"; c. 680–645 BCE) was a Greek lyric poet from the island of Paros in the Archaic period. He is celebrated for his versatile and innovative use of poetic meters, and is the earliest known Greek author to compose almost entirely on the theme of his own emotions and experiences.

Archiloque (en grec ancien / ), né à Paros en -712 ou en -680, est un poète élégiaque grec. Citoyen riche puis ruiné, amant éconduit et vindicatif, exilé, mercenaire, colon à Thasos, il finit tué dans une obscure bataille à Naxos en -664 ou en -645. Il fut un des plus grands poètes lyriques grecs ; dans l'antiquité, on le comparait à Homère. Il serait l'inventeur d'une poésie lyrique aux rythmes complexes, et le créateur d'un ton poétique nouveau, anti-épique, voire cynique.

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Sandwich

A sandwich is a food typically consisting of vegetables, sliced cheese or meat, placed on or between slices of bread, or more generally any dish wherein bread serves as a container or wrapper for another food type. The sandwich began as a portable finger food in the Western world, though over time it has become prevalent worldwide. The 3rd of November marks the National Sandwich Day.

Le sandwich est un mets, généralement composé de deux ou plusieurs tranches de pain, avec un ou plusieurs ingrédients entre elles. Par antonomase, le terme tire son origine de John Montagu, de Sandwich (Sandwich était un ancien port important du Moyen Âge anglais dont le nom, en vieil anglais, "Sandwicæ", signifie ).

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Aix-les-Bains

Aix-les-Bains (, ; ; ), locally simply Aix, is a commune in the department of Savoie, in the southeastern French region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes.

Aix-les-Bains ( voire ), nommée localement Aix, est une commune, station balnéaire et thermale française, située dans le département de la Savoie en région Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes.

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Hamburger

A hamburger (also burger for short) is a sandwich consisting of one or more cooked patties of ground meat, usually beef, placed inside a sliced bread roll or bun. The patty may be pan fried, grilled, smoked or flame broiled. Hamburgers are often served with cheese, lettuce, tomato, onion, pickles, bacon, or chiles; condiments such as ketchup, mustard, mayonnaise, relish, or "special sauce"; and are frequently placed on sesame seed buns. A hamburger topped with cheese is called a cheeseburger.

Un hamburger (initialement "hamburg-er", soit « de Hambourg » en allemand, et non pas « galette de jambon » en anglais) ou par aphérèse burger, est un sandwich d'origine allemande, composé de deux pains de forme ronde (bun) généralement garnis de steak haché (généralement du bœuf) et de crudités, salade, tomate, oignon, cornichon (pickles), et de sauce...

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Names for United States citizens

Dénomination des États-Unis et de leurs habitants

People from the United States of America are known as and refer to themselves as Americans. Different languages use different terms for citizens of the United States, who are known in English as Americans. All forms of English refer to US citizens as Americans, a term deriving from the United States of America, the country's official name. In the English context, it came to refer to inhabitants of British North America, and then the United States. However, there is some linguistic ambiguity over this use due to the other senses of the word American, which can also refer to people from the Americas in general. Other languages, including French, Japanese, and Russian, use cognates of American to refer to people from the United States, while others, particularly Spanish and Portuguese, primarily use terms derived from United States. There are various other local and colloquial names for Americans.

En français, le nom des habitants des États-Unis est, de manière officielle dans l'administration française et les institutions européennes comme dans l'usage courant, « Américain », même si ce terme désigne au sens premier l'ensemble des habitants du continent américain.

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1992 Winter Olympics

Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 1992

The 1992 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XVI Olympic Winter Games (), were a winter multi-sport event celebrated from 8 to 23 February 1992 in Albertville, France. They were the last Winter Olympics to be held the same year as the Summer Olympics, and the first where the Winter Paralympics were held at the same site. Albertville was selected as host in 1986, beating Sofia, Falun, Lillehammer, Cortina d'Ampezzo, Anchorage and Berchtesgaden. The games were the third Winter Olympics held in France, after Chamonix in 1924 and Grenoble in 1968, and the fifth Olympics overall in the country.

Les Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 1992, officiellement connus comme les Jeux olympiques d’hiver, ont lieu à Albertville, dans le département de la Savoie, en France, du 8 au. Les organisateurs désignent l'événement comme les Jeux d'Albertville et de la Savoie. Ce sont les derniers Jeux d'hiver à se dérouler la même année que ceux d'été, avec Barcelone. Pour l'organisation de ces Jeux d'hiver, sept villes sont en compétition et c'est lors du sixième tour que le dossier français remporte les suffrages du Comité international olympique (CIO). Les deux co-présidents du comité d'organisation des Jeux d'Albertville sont Jean-Claude Killy et Michel Barnier. Il s'agit des troisièmes Jeux d'hiver se déroulant en France, après les premiers à Chamonix en 1924, et ceux de Grenoble en 1968.

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Palembang

Palembang () is the capital city of the Indonesian province of South Sumatra. The city proper covers of land on both banks of Musi River on the eastern lowland of southern Sumatra, with an estimated population of 1,834,344 in 2019. Palembang is the second most populous city in Sumatra, after Medan, the ninth most populous city in Indonesia, and the nineteenth most populous city in Southeast Asia. The Palembang metropolitan area comprises part of regencies surrounding the city such as Banyuasin, Ogan Ilir, and Ogan Komering Ilir, with a total estimated population of more than 3.5 million in 2015.

Palembang (chinois: 巨港 Jù gǎng) est une ville d'Indonésie, dans le sud de l'île de Sumatra. C'est la capitale de la province de Sumatra du Sud. Elle a le statut de "kota". Sa population s'élevait à en 2013. C'est la deuxième ville importante de Sumatra après Medan, et la septième du pays après Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, Semarang, et Makassar. La ville a accueilli la des SEA Games en 2011 et les Jeux asiatiques de 2018.

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Baryte

Barytine

Baryte, barite or barytes (, ) is a mineral consisting of barium sulfate (BaSO). Baryte is generally white or colorless, and is the main source of the element barium. The "baryte group" consists of baryte, celestine (strontium sulfate), anglesite (lead sulfate), and anhydrite (calcium sulfate). Baryte and celestine form a solid solution (Ba,Sr)SO.

La barytine (ou baryte, voir les synonymes) est une espèce minérale composée de sulfate de baryum de formule BaSO avec des traces de Sr, Ca et Pb. Ce minéral, d'origine hydrothermale, présente de nombreuses variétés. Sa densité et le baryum qu'il contient sont les causes principales de ses utilisations industrielles et plusieurs millions de tonnes de barytine sont extraits et produits chaque année.

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null

Doctor of the Church

Docteur de l'Église

Doctor of the Church (Latin "doctor" "teacher"), also referred to as Doctor of the Universal Church (Latin: "Doctoris Ecclesiae Universalis"), is a title given by the Catholic Church to saints recognized as having made a significant contribution to theology or doctrine through their research, study, or writing.

Dans l'Église catholique, un docteur de l'Église (en latin : "doctor ecclesiae") est un baptisé, homme ou femme, dont l'Église reconnaît l'autorité exceptionnelle dans le domaine de la théologie ("eminens doctrina"). Selon la conférence des évêques de France,.

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International Olympiad in Informatics

Olympiades internationales d'informatique

The International Olympiad in Informatics (IOI) is an annual competitive programming competition for secondary school students. It is the second largest olympiad, after International Mathematical Olympiad, in terms of number of participating countries (83 at IOI 2017). The first IOI was held in 1989 in Pravetz, Bulgaria.

Les Olympiades internationales d'informatique ("" ou "IOI") sont une compétition annuelle en sciences informatiques (algorithmique) rassemblant des lycéens et collégiens du monde entier. C'est la deuxième plus grande olympiade, après l'Olympiades internationales de mathématiques, en termes de nombre de pays participants (83 en 2017). La première édition de la compétition s'est tenue en 1989 à Pravetz, en Bulgarie.

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Scottish Rite

Rite écossais ancien et accepté

The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry (the Northern Masonic Jurisdiction in the United States often omits the "and", while the English Constitution in the United Kingdom omits the "Scottish"), commonly known as simply the Scottish Rite (or, in England and Australia, as the Rose Croix although this is only one of its degrees), is one of several Rites of Freemasonry. A Rite is a progressive series of degrees conferred by various Masonic organizations or bodies, each of which operates under the control of its own central authority. In the Scottish Rite the central authority is called a Supreme Council.

Le Rite écossais ancien et accepté (REAA) est un rite maçonnique fondé en 1801 à Charleston aux États-Unis sous l'impulsion des frères John Mitchell et Frederic Dalcho, sur la base des Grandes Constitutions de 1786, attribuées à Frédéric II de Prusse. Le rite ne comporte à l'origine que des hauts grades maçonniques. Il est composé de 33 degrés et il est généralement pratiqué dans le cadre de deux organismes complémentaires et distincts. Une obédience maçonnique qui fédère des loges des trois premiers grades de la franc-maçonnerie et une de hauts grades maçonniques dirigée par un, qui regroupe des ateliers du au.

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National accounts

Comptabilité nationale

National accounts or national account systems (NAS) are the implementation of complete and consistent accounting techniques for measuring the economic activity of a nation. These include detailed underlying measures that rely on double-entry accounting. By design, such accounting makes the totals on both sides of an account equal even though they each measure different characteristics, for example production and the income from it. As a method, the subject is termed national accounting or, more generally, social accounting. Stated otherwise, national accounts as "systems" may be distinguished from the economic data associated with those systems. While sharing many common principles with business accounting, national accounts are based on economic concepts. One conceptual construct for representing flows of all economic transactions that take place in an economy is a social accounting matrix with accounts in each respective row-column entry.

La comptabilité nationale est une représentation schématique et quantifiée de l'activité économique d'un pays. Elle consiste en une mesure des flux monétaires représentatifs de l'économie d'un pays pendant une période donnée, en principe une année, et les regroupe dans des totaux nommés "agrégats", dans un but analytique direct. La comptabilité nationale prend en compte de nombreux indicateurs macroéconomiques, dont le plus important est le PIB (produit intérieur brut), qui correspond à la somme des valeurs ajoutées – auxquels il faut ajouter les impôts nets des subventions sur les produits - des biens et services produits dans un pays donné au cours d'une année. La comptabilité nationale prend en compte de nombreuses informations, contenues dans les documents comptables des entreprises d'une part, mais aussi dans les rapports des institutions administratives. La comptabilité nationale classe ainsi les différents agents économiques en catégories, les secteurs institutionnels, afin de recenser au mieux les différentes informations relatives à l'économie.

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Ruble

Rouble

The ruble or rouble (; ) or ₽ is or was a currency unit of a number of countries in Eastern Europe closely associated with the economy of Russia. Originally, the ruble was the currency unit of Imperial Russia and then the Soviet Union (as the Soviet ruble). it is the currency unit of Russia (as the Russian ruble), Belarus (as the Belarussian ruble) and Transnistria (as the Transnistrian ruble). The Russian ruble is also used in two regions of Georgia, the partially recognised states (including by Russia) Abkhazia and South Ossetia. In the past, several other countries influenced by Russia and the Soviet Union had currency units that were also named rubles. One ruble is divided into 100 kopeks ().

Le rouble (en russe : ) est l'unité monétaire utilisée depuis plus de 700 ans dans l'Empire russe, en URSS, en Russie actuelle et dans certains autres pays.

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Corrosion fatigue

Fatigue-corrosion

Corrosion fatigue is fatigue in a corrosive environment. It is the mechanical degradation of a material under the joint action of corrosion and cyclic loading. Nearly all engineering structures experience some form of alternating stress, and are exposed to harmful environments during their service life. The environment plays a significant role in the fatigue of high-strength structural materials like steel, aluminum alloys and titanium alloys. Materials with high specific strength are being developed to meet the requirements of advancing technology. However, their usefulness depends to a large extent on the degree to which they resist corrosion fatigue.

Très comparable à la corrosion sous contrainte, le phénomène de fatigue-corrosion apparaît sous l'action conjuguée de l'environnement et d'une sollicitation cyclique. Il se manifeste par un abaissement de la résistance du matériau à la fatigue. Le plus souvent, et compte tenu des cinétiques de dissolution et de repassivation assez lentes comparées aux phénomènes mécaniques, ce type d'endommagement survient pour des pièces sollicitées à basse fréquence (fatigue oligocyclique), par exemple lors de cycles de chauffage-refroidissement de structures. Les mécanismes évoqués pour rendre compte de la fatigue-corrosion sont les mêmes que ceux présentés pour la corrosion sous contrainte, et les essais de laboratoire sont en général des essais de fatigue en présence du milieu considéré réalisés soit à amplitude de déformation constante, soit à amplitude de contrainte constante.

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Stress corrosion cracking

Corrosion sous contrainte

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the growth of crack formation in a corrosive environment. It can lead to unexpected sudden failure of normally ductile metal alloys subjected to a tensile stress, especially at elevated temperature. SCC is highly chemically specific in that certain alloys are likely to undergo SCC only when exposed to a small number of chemical environments. The chemical environment that causes SCC for a given alloy is often one which is only mildly corrosive to the metal. Hence, metal parts with severe SCC can appear bright and shiny, while being filled with microscopic cracks. This factor makes it common for SCC to go undetected prior to failure. SCC often progresses rapidly, and is more common among alloys than pure metals. The specific environment is of crucial importance, and only very small concentrations of certain highly active chemicals are needed to produce catastrophic cracking, often leading to devastating and unexpected failure.

Comme son nom l'indique, la corrosion sous contrainte (CSC) résulte de l'action conjuguée d'une contrainte mécanique en tension (résiduelle ou appliquée), et d'un milieu agressif vis-à-vis du matériau, chacun de ces facteurs pris séparément n'étant pas susceptible à lui seul d'endommager la structure. La contrainte peut être d'origine résiduelle (cintrage, écrouissage, laminage à froid,...), d'origine thermique (dilatation, variation de pression), ou inhérente à la fonction de l'installation (gazoducs, oléoducs, câbles de ponts suspendus, structures de soutènement, sous-marin...). Ce type de corrosion, particulièrement sournois et dangereux pour les installations, se caractérise par l'apparition de fissures intergranulaires ou transgranulaires dont la direction générale de propagation est perpendiculaire à la plus grande contrainte.

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Anti-theft system

Antivol

Anti-theft systems protect valuables such as vehicles and personal property like wallets, phones, and jewelry. They are also used in retail settings to protect merchandise in the form of security tags and labels. Anti-theft systems include devices such as locks and keys, RFID tags, and GPS locators.

Un antivol est un dispositif ou un mécanisme destiné à dissuader, décourager, retarder, signaler ou empêcher le vol d'un objet.

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Louvre

Musée du Louvre

The Louvre ( ), or the Louvre Museum ( ), is the world's largest art museum and a historic monument in Paris, France. A central landmark of the city, it is located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the city's 1st arrondissement (district or ward). Approximately 38,000 objects from prehistory to the 21st century are exhibited over an area of 72,735 square meters (782,910 square feet). In 2019, the Louvre received 9.6 million visitors, making it the most visited museum in the world.

Le musée du Louvre est un musée situé à Paris, en France. Une préfiguration en est imaginée en 1775-1776 par le comte d'Angivillier, directeur général des Bâtiments du roi, comme lieu de présentation des chefs-d'œuvre de la collection de la Couronne. Ce musée n'a été inauguré qu'en 1793 sous l'appellation de "Muséum central des arts de la République" dans le palais du Louvre, ancienne résidence royale située au centre de Paris, est aujourd'hui le plus grand musée d'art et d'antiquités au monde. Sa surface d'exposition est de.

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Villeneuve-d'Ascq

Villeneuve-d'Ascq (; ) is a commune in the Nord department in northern France. With more than 60,000 inhabitants and 50,000 students, it is one of the main cities of the Métropole Européenne de Lille and the largest in area (27.46 km2) after Lille; it is also one of the main cities of the Hauts-de-France region.

Villeneuve-d’Ascq () est une commune française et une technopole, située dans le département du Nord, en région Hauts-de-France. Elle fait partie de la Métropole européenne de Lille.

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High-temperature corrosion

Corrosion à haute température

High-temperature corrosion is a mechanism of corrosion that takes place in gas turbines, diesel engines, furnaces or other machinery coming in contact with hot gas containing certain contaminants. Fuel sometimes contains vanadium compounds or sulfates which can form compounds during combustion having a low melting point. These liquid melted salts are strongly corrosive for stainless steel and other alloys normally inert against the corrosion and high temperatures. Other high-temperature corrosions include high-temperature oxidation, sulfidation and carbonization. High temperature oxidation and other corrosion types are commonly modelled using the Deal-Grove model to account for diffusion and reaction processes.

La corrosion à haute température est la dégradation des métaux par l'environnement à haute températures (supérieure à ) ; c'est un phénomène complexe qui a lieu dans les moteurs, chaudières et réacteurs. Les gaz de combustion ont en effet une composition complexe du fait de la composition du combustible et de l'air :

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Ignatius of Loyola

Ignace de Loyola

Ignatius of Loyola (; ; ; – 31 July 1556) was a Spanish Basque Catholic priest and theologian, who co-founded the religious order called the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) and became its first Superior General at Paris in 1541. The Jesuit order served the Pope as missionaries, and they were bound by a vow of special obedience to the sovereign pontiff in regard to the missions. They therefore emerged as an important force during the time of the Counter-Reformation.

Ignace de Loyola ("Ignazio Loiolakoa" en basque, "Íñigo López de Loyola" en espagnol), né en 1491 à Loiola et mort le à Rome, est un prêtre et théologien basque-espagnol, fondateur et premier Supérieur général de la Compagnie de Jésus congrégation catholique reconnue par le pape Paul III en 1540 et qui prit une importance considérable dans la réaction de l'Église catholique romaine aux s, face à l'ébranlement causé par la réforme protestante.

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