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Hula hoop | Hula hoop | A hula hoop is a toy hoop that is twirled around the waist, limbs or neck. The modern hula hoop was invented in 1958 by Arthur K. "Spud" Melin and Richard Knerr, but children and adults around the world have played with hoops throughout history. Hula hoops for children generally measure approximately 70 centimetres (28 in) in diameter, while those for adults measure around 1 metre (40 in). Traditional materials for hoops include willow, rattan (a flexible and strong vine), grapevines and stiff grasses. Today, they are usually made of plastic tubing. | Le hula hoop est une pratique où l'on fait tourner un cerceau principalement autour de la taille par un déhanchement rythmé. | [
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Kenneth Arrow | Kenneth Arrow | Kenneth Joseph Arrow (23 August 1921 – 21 February 2017) was an American economist, mathematician, writer, and political theorist. He was the joint winner of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with John Hicks in 1972. | Kenneth Joseph Arrow ( à New York – à Palo Alto) est un économiste américain. Il est co-titulaire, avec John Hicks, du prix dit Nobel d'économie en 1972. Il est considéré comme l'un des fondateurs de l'École néoclassique moderne (c'est-à-dire post-Seconde Guerre mondiale). Pour Kenneth Arrow, la crise économique de 2008 fut en partie causée par l'asymétrie entre distribution du risque et distribution de l'information. | [
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Yo-yo | Yo-yo | A yo-yo (also spelled yoyo) is a toy consisting of an axle connected to two disks, and a string looped around the axle, similar to a spool. It is played by holding the free end of the string known as the handle (by inserting one fingerusually the middle or index fingerinto a slip knot), allowing gravity (or the force of a throw and gravity) to spin the yo-yo and unwind the string (similar to how a pullstring works). The player then allows the yo-yo to wind itself back to the player's hand, exploiting its spin (and the associated rotational energy). This is often called "yo-yoing". | Le yo-yo est un jeu constitué de deux hémisphères aplatis, réunis par un axe autour duquel s’enroule une ficelle dont l’une des extrémités s’attache au doigt ou est retenue par la main. Le jeu consiste à lancer le yo-yo et à le ramener dans un va-et-vient continu. Il existe d’autres figures plus complexes qui demandent plus de virtuosité. Le yo-yo est aussi appelé "émigrette", "jeu de Coblence" ou bien encore "joujou de Normandie". | [
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Game theory | Théorie des jeux | Game theory is the study of mathematical models of strategic interaction among rational decision-makers. It has applications in all fields of social science, as well as in logic, systems science and computer science. Originally, it addressed zero-sum games, in which each participant's gains or losses are exactly balanced by those of the other participants. Today, game theory applies to a wide range of behavioral relations, and is now an umbrella term for the science of logical decision making in humans, animals, and computers. | La théorie des jeux est un domaine des mathématiques qui s'intéresse aux interactions stratégiques des agents (appelés « joueurs »). Les fondements mathématiques de la théorie moderne des jeux sont décrits autour des années 1920 par Ernst Zermelo dans l'article ", et par Émile Borel dans l'article. Ces idées sont ensuite développées par Oskar Morgenstern et John von Neumann en 1944 dans leur ouvrage qui est considéré comme le fondement de la théorie des jeux moderne. Il s'agissait de modéliser les jeux à somme nulle où la somme des gains entre les joueurs est toujours égale à zéro. La théorie des jeux devient dès ce moment un outil théorique important de la microéconomie. | [
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Amazons | Amazones | In Greek mythology, the Amazons (Ancient Greek: Αμαζόνες "Amazónes", singular Αμαζών "Amazōn") were a tribe of warrior women believed to live in Asia Minor. Apollonius Rhodius, in his "Argonautica", mentions that the Amazons were the daughters of Ares and Harmonia (a nymph of the Akmonian Wood), that they were brutal and aggressive, and their main concern in life was war. Lysias, Isocrates, Philostratus the Elder also said that their father was Ares. | Dans la mythologie grecque, les Amazones (en grec ancien ou ) sont un peuple de femmes guerrières que la tradition situe sur les rives de la mer Noire, certains historiens les plaçant plus précisément sur les bords du Pont-Euxin dans le nord de l'Asie Mineure actuelle, et d'autres dans l’extrême ouest de la Libye. | [
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Borsalino (film) | Borsalino (film) | Borsalino is a 1970 French gangster film directed by Jacques Deray and starring Alain Delon, Jean-Paul Belmondo and Catherine Rouvel. It was entered into the 20th Berlin International Film Festival. In 2009 "Empire" magazine named it #19 in a poll of "The 20 Greatest Gangster Movies You've Never Seen... Probably". A sequel, "Borsalino & Co.", was released in 1974 with Alain Delon in the leading role. The film is based on real life gangsters Paul Carbone and François Spirito, who collaborated with Nazi Germany during the occupation of France in World War Two (though this is not mentioned in the film). | Borsalino est un film policier franco-italien réalisé par Jacques Deray en 1970 d'après "Bandits à Marseille" écrit par Eugène Saccomano. Le film, racontant l'histoire des aventures de deux jeunes voyous qui tentent de devenir les caïds de la pègre marseillaise, est notable pour mettre Alain Delon et Jean-Paul Belmondo pour la première fois en tête d'affiche ensemble. | [
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Wehrmacht | Wehrmacht | The Wehrmacht (, ) was the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. It consisted of the "Heer" (army), the "Kriegsmarine" (navy) and the "Luftwaffe" (air force). The designation ""Wehrmacht"" replaced the previously-used term "Reichswehr", and was the manifestation of the Nazi regime's efforts to rearm Germany to a greater extent than the Treaty of Versailles permitted. | La Wehrmacht ( en allemand :, littéralement « force de défense ») est le nom porté par l’armée du Reich à partir du et jusqu'à sa dissolution officielle en par les forces d'occupation de l'Allemagne vaincue. | [
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Niccolò Paganini | Niccolò Paganini | Niccolò (or Nicolò) Paganini (; 27 October 178227 May 1840) was an Italian violinist, violist, guitarist, and composer. He was the most celebrated violin virtuoso of his time, and left his mark as one of the pillars of modern violin technique. His 24 Caprices for Solo Violin Op. 1 are among the best known of his compositions, and have served as an inspiration for many prominent composers. | Niccolò Paganini (Gênes, – Nice, ), est un violoniste, guitariste et compositeur génois. Par sa technique exceptionnelle, il a contribué à l'histoire du violon, mais également à intégrer la dimension virtuose dans l'art, dont il est un des représentants les plus célèbres, attirant à lui d'autres compositeurs romantiques, tel Liszt. Souvent qualifié de plus grand violoniste de tous les temps, il est également un compositeur réputé. | [
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Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky | Piotr Ilitch Tchaïkovski | Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky ( ; ; 7 May 1840 – 6 November 1893) was a Russian composer of the Romantic period. He was the first Russian composer whose music made a lasting impression internationally. He was honored in 1884 by Tsar Alexander III and awarded a lifetime pension. | Piotr Ilitch Tchaïkovski ou Tchaïkovsky (en, ) est un compositeur russe de l’époque romantique né le à Votkinsk et mort le à Saint-Pétersbourg. | [
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Paul Langevin | Paul Langevin | Paul Langevin (; ; 23 January 1872 – 19 December 1946) was a French physicist who developed "Langevin dynamics" and the "Langevin equation". He was one of the founders of the "Comité de vigilance des intellectuels antifascistes", an anti-fascist organization created after the 6 February 1934 far right riots. Langevin was also president of the Human Rights League (LDH) from 1944 to 1946 – having recently joined the French Communist Party. Being a public opponent of fascism in the 1930s resulted in his arrest and being held under house arrest by the Vichy government for most of World War II. | Paul Langevin, né à le et mort à le, est un physicien, philosophe des sciences et pédagogue français, connu notamment pour sa théorie du magnétisme, sa théorie du mouvement brownien, l'invention du sonar, l'introduction de la théorie de la relativité d'Albert Einstein en France, le plan Langevin-Wallon de réforme de l'enseignement ainsi que pour l'organisation des congrès Solvay. | [
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French Revolutionary Wars | Guerres de la Révolution française | The French Revolutionary Wars () were a series of sweeping military conflicts lasting from 1792 until 1802 and resulting from the French Revolution. They pitted France against Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia and several other monarchies. They are divided in two periods: the War of the First Coalition (1792–97) and the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802). Initially confined to Europe, the fighting gradually assumed a global dimension. After a decade of constant warfare and aggressive diplomacy, France had conquered a wide array of territories, from the Italian Peninsula and the Low Countries in Europe to the Louisiana Territory in North America. French success in these conflicts ensured the spread of revolutionary principles over much of Europe. | Les guerres de la Révolution française sont les conflits qui ont impliqué la France révolutionnaire contre d'autres pays européens, souvent coalisés, durant la période comprise entre 1792 (guerre contre le Saint-Empire et les royaumes de Bohême et de Hongrie) et le traité d'Amiens de 1802, première phase des guerres de Coalitions. Une distinction peut être faite entre la période dite de la Première Coalition (1792 – 1797) et la Deuxième Coalition (1798 – 1801), même si certains pays, et notamment le Royaume-Uni, étaient en guerre continue contre la France de 1793 à 1802. | [
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Ivory | Ivoire | Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks (traditionally elephants') and teeth of animals, that consists mainly of dentine, one of the physical structures of teeth and tusks. The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mammals is the same, regardless of the species of origin. The trade in certain teeth and tusks other than elephant is well established and widespread; therefore, "ivory" can correctly be used to describe any mammalian teeth or tusks of commercial interest which are large enough to be carved or scrimshawed. | L'ivoire est une substance dure, blanche, opaque qui est la matière principale des dents et des défenses d'animaux comme l'éléphant, l'hippopotame, le morse, le narval, le cachalot, le phacochère. En France le mot "ivoire" s'applique préférentiellement (et commercialement) à l'ivoire d'éléphant ou de mammouth. | [
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Social exclusion | Exclusion sociale | Social exclusion, marginalization or social marginalisation is the social disadvantage and relegation to the fringe of society. It is a term used widely in Europe and was first used in France. It is used across disciplines including education, sociology, psychology, politics and economics. | L'exclusion sociale est la relégation ou marginalisation sociale d'individus, ne correspondant pas ou plus au modèle dominant d'une société, incluant personnes âgées, personnes sujettes à un handicap (physique ou mental) ou autres minorités. Elle n'est généralement ni véritablement délibérée, ni socialement admise, mais constitue un processus plus ou moins brutal de rupture parfois progressive des liens sociaux. | [
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Belle Époque | Belle Époque | The Belle Époque or La Belle Époque (; French for "Beautiful Epoch") was a period of French and Western history. It is conventionally dated from the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871 to the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Occurring during the era of the French Third Republic (which began in 1870), it was a period characterised by: optimism; regional peace; economic prosperity; colonial empires; and technological, scientific, and cultural innovations. In this era of France’s cultural and artistic climate (particularly within Paris) the arts markedly flourished; with numerous masterpieces of literature, music, theatre, and visual art gaining extensive recognition. | La Belle Époque est un chrononyme rétrospectif désignant la période marquée par les progrès sociaux, économiques, technologiques et politiques, principalement en France et s'étendant de la fin du au début de la Première Guerre mondiale en 1914. Le terme correspond pour les Britanniques à la fin de l'époque victorienne et à l'époque édouardienne ; pour les Allemands, c'est le wilhelminisme. L'expression française est comprise et utilisée dans la plupart des pays européens. | [
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William I, German Emperor | Guillaume Ier (empereur allemand) | William I or Wilhelm I (; 22 March 1797 – 9 March 1888) of the House of Hohenzollern was King of Prussia from 2 January 1861 and the first German Emperor from 18 January 1871 to his death. William was the first head of state of a united Germany, and was also de facto head of state of Prussia from 1858 to 1861, serving as regent for his brother, Frederick William IV. | Guillaume Frédéric Louis de Hohenzollern, roi de Prusse (1861 – 1888), puis empereur allemand (1871 – 1888) sous le nom de (en allemand : "Wilhelm I." ou "Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig von Preußen"), né le à Berlin et mort le dans la même ville, est le septième roi de Prusse de 1861 à 1888, et le premier empereur allemand de 1871 à 1888. | [
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Patricia Kaas | Patricia Kaas | Patricia Kaas (; born 5 December 1966 in Forbach) is a French singer and actress. Her music is a mix of pop, cabaret, jazz, and chanson. | Patricia Kaas, née le 5 décembre 1966 à Forbach, est une chanteuse et actrice française. Depuis 1987, elle connaît le succès dans les principaux pays francophones et germanophones, ainsi que dans les pays d'Europe de l'Est et d'Asie, où elle se produit régulièrement sur scène. En 2017, ses ventes de disques sont estimées à 17 millions au niveau mondial. | [
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Bismarck, North Dakota | Bismarck (Dakota du Nord) | Bismarck () is the capital of the U.S. state of North Dakota and the county seat of Burleigh County. It is the second-most populous city in North Dakota after Fargo. The city's population was estimated in 2019 at 73,529, while its metropolitan population was 132,678. In 2017, "Forbes" magazine ranked Bismarck as the seventh fastest-growing small city in the United States. | La ville de Bismarck () est la capitale de l’État du Dakota du Nord, aux États-Unis. C’est aussi la deuxième ville la plus peuplée de l’État après Fargo. La ville elle-même compte lors du recensement, tandis que la population de son agglomération est estimée à en, soit également le deuxième de l’État après Fargo. Bismarck est également le siège du comté de Burleigh. | [
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Béla Bartók | Béla Bartók | Béla Viktor János Bartók (;, ; 25 March 1881 – 26 September 1945) was a Hungarian composer, pianist, and ethnomusicologist. He is considered one of the most important composers of the 20th century; he and Franz Liszt are regarded as Hungary's greatest composers. Through his collection and analytical study of folk music, he was one of the founders of comparative musicology, which later became ethnomusicology. | Béla Bartók (prononciation ) est un compositeur et pianiste hongrois, né le à Nagyszentmiklós en Autriche-Hongrie (aujourd'hui Sânnicolau Mare en Roumanie) et mort le à New York (États-Unis). | [
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Myxogastria | Myxomycètes | Myxogastria/Myxogastrea (myxogastrids, ICZN) or Myxomycetes (ICBN), is a class of slime molds that contains 5 orders, 14 families, 62 genera and 888 species. They are colloquially known as the plasmodial or acellular slime moulds. | Les myxomycètes sont une classe de protistes appartenant à l'embranchement des amibozoaires, ce sont des organismes à plasmode. Leur nom est formé de « myxo » qui signifie gélatineux, gluant, et de « mycète » dont la racine myc- signifie champignon, car les myxomycètes sont traditionnellement étudiés par les mycologues, bien qu'il s'agisse en fait d'« amibes collectives ». | [
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Oriental Orthodox Churches | Église des trois conciles | The Oriental Orthodox Churches are a group of Christian churches adhering to miaphysite Christology and theology, and together have about 62 million members worldwide. | Une Église des trois conciles est une Église antéchalcédonienne qui ne reconnaît que les trois premiers conciles œcuméniques des premiers siècles du christianisme — le premier concile de Nicée (325), le premier concile de Constantinople (381) et le concile d'Éphèse (431). Les Églises des trois conciles sont parfois appelées « Églises orthodoxes orientales ». | [
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Cusco | Cuzco | Cusco, often spelled Cuzco (, ), is a city in southeastern Peru, on the eastern end of the Knot of Cuzco near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region and of the Cusco Province. The city is the seventh most populous in Peru, and in 2017 it had a population of 428,450. Its elevation is around. | Cusco (en espagnol péruvien), Cuzco ou Qosqo (en quechua) est une ville du sud-est du Pérou au milieu de la cordillère des Andes. C'est la capitale de la Province ("provincia") de Cusco et de la Région (departamento) de Cusco. | [
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Parabola | Parabole | In mathematics, a parabola is a plane curve which is mirror-symmetrical and is approximately U-shaped. It fits several other superficially different mathematical descriptions, which can all be proved to define exactly the same curves. | La parabole est une courbe plane, symétrique par rapport à un axe, approximativement en forme de U. Elle peut se définir mathématiquement de plusieurs façons, équivalentes. Le plus souvent, la parabole est définie comme une courbe plane dont chacun des points est situé à égale distance d'un point fixe, le foyer, et d'une droite fixe, la directrice. Mais on peut aussi la définir comme l'intersection d'un plan avec un cône de révolution lorsque le plan est parallèle avec un autre plan tangent à la surface du cône. | [
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Flight to Varennes | Fuite de Varennes | The royal Flight to Varennes () during the night of 20–21 June 1791 was a significant episode in the French Revolution in which King Louis XVI of France, his queen Marie Antoinette, and their immediate family unsuccessfully attempted to escape from Paris in order to initiate a counter-revolution at the head of loyal troops under royalist officers concentrated at Montmédy near the frontier. They escaped only as far as the small town of Varennes, where they were arrested after having been recognized at their previous stop in Sainte-Menehould. | La fuite manquée des 20 et 21 juin 1791 — plus connue sous les noms de « fuite de Varennes » ou « fuite à Varennes » — est un épisode important de la Révolution française, au cours duquel le roi de France Louis XVI, sa femme Marie-Antoinette, et leur famille immédiate tentèrent de rejoindre le bastion royaliste de Montmédy, à partir duquel le roi espérait lancer une contre-révolution, et furent arrêtés en route à Varennes-en-Argonne (Lorraine). | [
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Saint Sebastian | Sébastien (martyr) | Saint Sebastian () was an early Christian saint and martyr. According to traditional belief, he was killed during the Roman emperor Diocletian's persecution of Christians. He was initially tied to a post or tree and shot with arrows, though this did not kill him. He was, according to tradition, rescued and healed by Saint Irene of Rome, which became a popular subject in 17th-century painting. In all versions of the story, shortly after his recovery he went to Diocletian to warn him about his sins, and as a result was clubbed to death. He is venerated in the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church. | Sébastien est un saint martyr romain ayant vécu, selon la croyance chrétienne, au. Il est fêté le 20 janvier en Occident et le 18 décembre en Orient. | [
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Gothic fashion | Mode gothique | Gothic fashion is a clothing style marked by dark, mysterious, antiquated and homogeneous features. It is worn by members of the Goth subculture. dress, typical gothic fashion includes dyed black hair, dark lipstick and dark clothing. Both male and female goths can wear dark eyeliner and dark nail polish - most often black. Male goths use cosmetics at a higher rate than other men. Styles are often borrowed from the punk fashion, Victorians and Elizabethans. Goth fashion is sometimes confused with heavy metal fashion and emo fashion. | La perpétuelle évolution du mouvement gothique nourrit régulièrement la mode gothique, dépassant le phénomène éphémère de mode pour dégager un certain nombre de caractéristiques pérennes. Malgré cela, loin d'être figée, elle laisse une large place à la créativité individuelle. | [
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French Upper Volta | Haute-Volta | Upper Volta () was a colony of French West Africa established on 1 March 1919, from territories that had been part of the colonies of Upper Senegal and Niger and the Côte d'Ivoire. The colony was dissolved on 5 September 1932, with parts being administered by the Côte d'Ivoire, French Sudan and the Colony of Niger. | La Haute-Volta était une colonie de l’Afrique-Occidentale française (AOF) établie le à partir des territoires qui formaient auparavant le Haut-Sénégal et Niger et la Côte d'Ivoire. C'est aussi l'année où la direction régionale Afrique occidentale de la Compagnie française pour le développement des fibres textiles (CFDT), qui avait pour mission d’organiser au mieux la culture du coton, est installée à Bobo-Dioulasso. | [
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] | null | null | null | null | null | null |
Nash equilibrium | Équilibre de Nash | In game theory, the Nash equilibrium, named after the mathematician John Forbes Nash Jr., is a proposed solution of a non-cooperative game involving two or more players in which each player is assumed to know the equilibrium strategies of the other players, and no player has anything to gain by changing only their own strategy. | En théorie des jeux, un équilibre de Nash est une situation où : Autrement dit, un profil de stratégie formula_1 est un équilibre de Nash si chaque joueur formula_2 joue une stratégie optimale formula_3 (qui maximise son gain formula_4) compte tenu des stratégies des autres joueurs formula_5, où formula_6 : | [
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Christology | Christologie | In Christianity, Christology (from Greek Χριστός "Khristós" and, "-logia"), translated literally from Greek as "the study of Christ", is a branch of theology that concerns Jesus. Different denominations have different opinions on questions like whether Jesus was human, divine, or both, and as a messiah what his role would be in the freeing of the Jewish people from foreign rulers or in the prophesied Kingdom of God, and in the salvation from what would otherwise be the consequences of sin. | La christologie est la discipline de la théologie dogmatique chrétienne qui étudie la personne, la doctrine et l’œuvre de Jésus-Christ. Elle traite plus particulièrement de la nature de Jésus et de son rapport à Dieu : Jésus est-il le fils de Dieu, le fils adoptif, un être purement humain ou purement divin? | [
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Cahors | Cahors | Cahors (; ) is a commune in the western part of Southern France. It is the smallest prefecture among the 13 departments that constitute the Occitanie Region. Main city of the Lot department and historical center of the Quercy, Cahors is home to 19 878 "cadurciennes" and "cadurciens". | Cahors est une commune d'Occitanie, située dans le quart sud-ouest du pays. Préfecture du Lot, elle est située dans la région Occitanie. Principale ville du département, forte de, au cœur d'une agglomération de, Cahors est la capitale historique du Quercy. Ses habitants sont appelés les "Cadurciens" (autrefois les "Cahorsins"). | [
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Führer | Führer | Nazi Germany cultivated the "Führerprinzip" ("leader principle"), and Hitler was generally known as just "der Führer" ("the Leader"). The word "Führer" in the sense of "guide" remains common in German, and it is used in numerous compound words such as "Bergführer" (mountain guide). The word "Führer" in the sense of "leader" remained common in numerous compound words such as "Oppositionsführer" (Leader of the opposition). However, because of its strong association with Hitler, the isolated word usually has negative connotations when used with the meaning of "leader", especially in political contexts. The word "Führer" has cognates in the Scandinavian languages, spelled "fører" in Danish and Norwegian which have the same meaning and use as the German word, but without necessarily having political connotations. | Führer est un substantif qui signifie en premier lieu « dirigeant », « chef », « guide ». Le mot est passé à la postérité au cours du pour avoir désigné la personne d'Adolf Hitler, chancelier puis dirigeant dictatorial du Troisième Reich de 1933 à 1945. | [
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Evolutionarily stable strategy | Stratégie évolutivement stable | An evolutionarily stable strategy (ESS) is a strategy (or set of strategies) which, if adopted by a population in a given environment, is impenetrable, meaning that it cannot be invaded by any alternative strategy (or strategies) that are initially rare. It is relevant in game theory, behavioural ecology, and evolutionary psychology. An ESS is an equilibrium refinement of the Nash equilibrium. It is a Nash equilibrium that is "evolutionarily" stable: once it is fixed in a population, natural selection alone is sufficient to prevent alternative (mutant) strategies from invading successfully. The theory is not intended to deal with the possibility of gross external changes to the environment that bring new selective forces to bear. | En théorie des jeux, en psychologie comportementale et en psychologie évolutionniste, une stratégie évolutivement stable ou SES (en anglais, "evolutionarily stable strategy" ou "ESS") est un cas particulier d'équilibre de Nash tel que, dans une grande population de joueurs se rencontrant aléatoirement, plusieurs stratégies peuvent coexister chacune possédant une fréquence d'équilibre propre. | [
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Biological membrane | Membrane (biologie) | A biological membrane, biomembrane or cell membrane is a selectively permeable membrane that separates cell from the external environment or creates intracellular compartments. Biological membranes, in the form of eukaryotic cell membranes, consist of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded, integral and peripheral proteins used in communication and transportation of chemicals and ions. The bulk of lipid in a cell membrane provides a fluid matrix for proteins to rotate and laterally diffuse for physiological functioning. Proteins are adapted to high membrane fluidity environment of lipid bilayer with the presence of an annular lipid shell, consisting of lipid molecules bound tightly to surface of integral membrane proteins. The cell membranes are different from the isolating tissues formed by layers of cells, such as mucous membranes, basement membranes, and serous membranes. | La membrane, en biologie cellulaire, est un assemblage de molécules en un double feuillet séparant la cellule de son environnement et délimitant le cytoplasme cellulaire, ainsi que les organites à l'intérieur de celui-ci. La membrane est un ensemble complexe de lipides, de protéines et de sucres (ou oses) régulant les échanges de matière entre l'intérieur et l'extérieur de la cellule ou entre deux compartiments cellulaires par des transporteurs, bourgeonnement de vésicules, phagocytose, "etc". Les composants-clé de la membrane biologique sont les phospholipides. Ils ont la capacité de s'auto-organiser en un double feuillet, leurs têtes hydrophiles pointant vers l'extérieur et leurs chaînes hydrophobes pointant vers l'intérieur de la membrane. | [
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Comptroller | Contrôleur de gestion | A comptroller is a management-level position responsible for supervising the quality of accounting and financial reporting of an organization. A financial comptroller is a senior-level executive who acts as the head of accounting, and oversees the preparation of financial reports, such as balance sheets and income statements. | Le contrôleur de gestion est un métier qui a pour but d'aider les décideurs des organisations à atteindre et/ou à remettre en cause leurs objectifs. Le contrôleur assure ainsi le lien entre les dirigeants et les différents services de l'entreprise. Le contrôleur de gestion a suivi en général une formation de type Master Contrôle de gestion en université. Il peut avoir plusieurs fonctions spécifiques, financière, commerciale, globale pour ne citer qu'elles. Il gagne en débutant brut par mois et peut atteindre jusqu’à (salaire médian à ). | [
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Checkpoint Charlie | Checkpoint Charlie | Checkpoint Charlie (or "Checkpoint C") was the name given by the Western Allies to the best-known Berlin Wall crossing point between East Berlin and West Berlin during the Cold War (1947–1991). | Le Checkpoint Charlie (« point de contrôle C », « Charlie » désignant la lettre C dans l'alphabet phonétique de l'OTAN) est l'un des postes-frontières de Berlin qui, lors de la guerre froide, permettait de franchir le mur qui divisait la capitale allemande entre le secteur Ouest et le secteur Est. Il se situait sur la "Friedrichstraße", à la frontière entre les districts de Mitte (en secteur soviétique) et Kreuzberg (en secteur américain). | [
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Strategy | Stratégie | Strategy (from Greek στρατηγία "stratēgia", "art of troop leader; office of general, command, generalship") is a general plan to achieve one or more long-term or overall goals under conditions of uncertainty. In the sense of the "art of the general", which included several subsets of skills including tactics, siegecraft, logistics etc., the term came into use in the 6th century C.E. in East Roman terminology, and was translated into Western vernacular languages only in the 18th century. From then until the 20th century, the word "strategy" came to denote "a comprehensive way to try to pursue political ends, including the threat or actual use of force, in a dialectic of wills" in a military conflict, in which both adversaries interact. | La stratégie est un "". Elle concerne divers domaines tels l'art militaire, la psychologie (notamment la manipulation mentale ou la séduction), la politique, l’économie, les entreprises en management et en marketing, la diplomatie, l'écologie, les jeux de stratégie comme les échecs, le jeu de go ou le poker | [
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Drosophila | Drosophile | Drosophila () is a genus of flies, belonging to the family Drosophilidae, whose members are often called "small fruit flies" or (less frequently) pomace flies, vinegar flies, or wine flies, a reference to the characteristic of many species to linger around overripe or rotting fruit. They should not be confused with the Tephritidae, a related family, which are also called fruit flies (sometimes referred to as "true fruit flies"); tephritids feed primarily on unripe or ripe fruit, with many species being regarded as destructive agricultural pests, especially the Mediterranean fruit fly. | Les drosophiles (du grec "drosos" : la rosée et "philos" : qui aime) forment un genre ("Drosophila") d'insectes holométaboles diptères radiorésistants. Elles sont également désignées par le terme plus général de « ». Dans la littérature biologique contemporaine, le nom de genre seul est souvent employé pour désigner l'espèce "Drosophila melanogaster", également appelée « mouche du vinaigre », la plus commune dans les laboratoires. | [
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Dahomey | Royaume de Dahomey | The Kingdom of Dahomey () was an African kingdom (located within the area of the present-day country of Benin) that existed from about 1600 until 1904, when the last king, Béhanzin, was defeated by the French, and the country was annexed into the French colonial empire. Dahomey developed on the Abomey Plateau amongst the Fon people in the early 17th century and became a regional power in the 18th century by conquering key cities on the Atlantic coast. | Le royaume de Dahomey — ou du Danhomè en langue fon — est un ancien royaume africain situé dans le sud-ouest de l'actuel Bénin entre le et la fin du. Le Danhomè se développe sur le plateau d'Abomey au début des années 1600 et devient une puissance régionale au en conquérant des villes clés sur la côte Atlantique, en particulier le port de Ouidah. Pendant la majeure partie des, le royaume du Danhomè est un État régional important, qui met fin au bout du compte à son statut de tributaire du royaume d'Oyo et devient un lieu majeur de la traite des esclaves atlantique, fournissant de nombreux esclaves. En 1894, le royaume est intégré à l'Afrique-Occidentale française comme colonie du Dahomey. Le pays devient indépendant en 1960 en tant que république du Dahomey, avant de devenir la république populaire du Bénin en 1975, puis la république du Bénin en 1990. | [
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John Forbes Nash Jr. | John Forbes Nash | John Forbes Nash Jr. (June 13, 1928 – May 23, 2015) was an American mathematician who made fundamental contributions to game theory, differential geometry, and the study of partial differential equations. Nash's work has provided insight into the factors that govern chance and decision-making inside complex systems found in everyday life. | John Forbes Nash, Jr., né le à Bluefield (Virginie-Occidentale) et mort le à Monroe Township (New Jersey), est un mathématicien et économiste américain. Il a travaillé sur la théorie des jeux, la géométrie différentielle et les équations aux dérivées partielles. | [
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Colossus of Rhodes | Colosse de Rhodes | The Colossus of Rhodes ( ) was a statue of the Greek sun-god Helios, erected in the city of Rhodes, on the Greek island of the same name, by Chares of Lindos in 280 BC. One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, it was constructed to celebrate its successful defense against Demetrius Poliorcetes, who had besieged it for a year with a large army and navy. According to most contemporary descriptions, the Colossus stood approximately 70 cubits, or high—the approximate height of the modern Statue of Liberty from feet to crown—making it the tallest statue of the ancient world. It collapsed during the earthquake of 226 BC, although parts of it were preserved. In accordance with a certain oracle, the Rhodians did not build it again. John Malalas wrote that Hadrian in his reign reerected the Colossus, but he was wrong. According to Suda the Rhodians were called Colossaeans (Κολοσσαεῖς), because they erected on the island the statue. | Le colosse de Rhodes était une statue d'Hélios, le dieu Soleil, en bronze, dont la hauteur dépassait trente mètres, œuvre de Charès de Lindos. Souvenir de la résistance victorieuse à Démétrios Poliorcète (-305 à -304), érigée sur l'île de Rhodes vers -292, cette gigantesque effigie d'Hélios, dieu tutélaire de la ville de Rhodes, fut renversée en -227 ou -226 par un tremblement de terre. Cassée au niveau des genoux, elle s'effondra et tomba en morceaux. La statue brisée resta sur place jusqu'en 654. Il ne reste plus aujourd'hui la moindre trace du colosse. Elle était considérée dans l'Antiquité comme la sixième des Sept Merveilles du monde. | [
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Nematode | Nematoda | The nematodes (, ; ) or roundworms constitute the phylum Nematoda (also called "Nemathelminthes"), with plant-parasitic nematodes being known as eelworms. They are a diverse animal phylum inhabiting a broad range of environments. Taxonomically, they are classified along with insects and other moulting animals in the clade Ecdysozoa, and unlike flatworms, have tubular digestive systems with openings at both ends. Like tardigrades they have a reduced number of Hox genes, but as their sister phylum Nematomorpha has kept the ancestral protostome Hox genotype, it shows that the reduction has occurred within the nematode phylum. | Les nématodes (Nematoda), ou vers ronds, constituent un embranchement de vers non segmentés. Classés parmi les ecdysozoaires, ils sont recouverts d'une épaisse cuticule. | [
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Taoiseach | Taoiseach | The Taoiseach (, ) is the prime minister and head of government of Ireland. The Taoiseach is appointed by the President upon the nomination of Dáil Éireann, the lower house of the Oireachtas (parliament), and must, to remain in office, retain the support of a majority in the Dáil. | Le Taoiseach ( ) est le chef du gouvernement de l'Irlande. Le mot signifie « chef » en irlandais. Le titre est équivalent à celui de Premier ministre. | [
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Battle of Fleurus (1794) | Bataille de Fleurus (1794) | The Battle of Fleurus, on 26 June 1794, was an engagement between the army of the First French Republic, under General Jean-Baptiste Jourdan and the Coalition Army (Britain, Hanover, Dutch Republic, and Habsburg Monarchy), commanded by Prince Josias of Coburg, in the most significant battle of the Flanders Campaign in the Low Countries during the French Revolutionary Wars. Both sides had forces in the area of around 80,000 men but the French were able to concentrate their troops and defeat the First Coalition. The Allied defeat led to the permanent loss of the Austrian Netherlands and to the destruction of the Dutch Republic. The battle marked a turning point for the French army, which remained ascendant for the rest of the War of the First Coalition. The French use of the reconnaissance balloon "l'Entreprenant" was the first military use of an aircraft that influenced the result of a battle. | La bataille de Fleurus du 8 messidor an II () a lieu entre les coalisés (Royaume-Uni, Saint-Empire, électorat de Brunswick-Lunebourg) et la France. Les Français remportent une bataille décisive à Fleurus, entre Charleroi et Namur, dans les Pays-Bas autrichiens (Belgique actuelle). | [
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Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne | Étienne-Charles de Loménie de Brienne | Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne (9 October 172719 February 1794) was a French churchman, politician and finance minister of Louis XVI. | Étienne-Charles de Loménie de Brienne, né le à Paris, mort le à Sens, est un homme d'Église et homme politique français, cardinal et ministre. | [
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Rufinus (consul) | Flavius Rufinus | Flavius Rufinus ( – November 27, 395) was a 4th-century East Roman statesman of Gaulish extraction who served as Praetorian prefect of the East for the emperor Theodosius I, as well as for his son Arcadius, under whom Rufinus was the actual power behind the throne. | Flavius Rufinus, ou Rufin, né en 335, à Elusa en Novempopulanie, mort le à Constantinople, est un haut fonctionnaire romain de la fin du, préfet du prétoire d'Orient sous Théodose et favori d'Arcadius pendant quelques mois avant son assassinat. | [
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Lazare Hoche | Lazare Hoche | Louis Lazare Hoche (; 24 June 1768 – 19 September 1797) was a French soldier who rose to be general of the Revolutionary army. He won a victory over Royalist forces in Brittany. His surname is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe, on Column 3. Richard Holmes says he was "quick-thinking, stern, and ruthless...a general of real talent whose early death was a loss to France." A famous statement of general Hoche: "Facta, non verba" ("acts, no words") | Louis Lazare Hoche, né le à Montreuil près de Versailles et mort le à Wetzlar (Hesse), est un général français de la Révolution. | [
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Babylon 5 | Babylon 5 | Babylon 5 is an American space opera television series created by writer and producer J. Michael Straczynski, under the Babylonian Productions label, in association with Straczynski's Synthetic Worlds Ltd. and Warner Bros. Domestic Television. After the successful airing of a test pilot movie on February 22, 1993, "", in May 1993 Warner Bros. commissioned the series for production as part of its Prime Time Entertainment Network (PTEN). The show premiered in the US on January 26, 1994, and ran for five seasons. | Babylon 5 ou Babylone 5 au Québec, est une série télévisée de science-fiction américaine en 110 épisodes de 46 minutes et 6 téléfilms (dont le pilote) de 90 minutes, créée par Joe Michael Straczynski et diffusée du au en syndication (saisons 1 à 4), puis du au sur la chaîne TNT (saison 5). | [
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Honorius (emperor) | Flavius Honorius | Honorius (; 9 September 384 – 15 August 423) was Western Roman Emperor from 395 to 423. He was the younger son of emperor Theodosius I and his first wife Aelia Flaccilla, and brother of Arcadius, who was the Eastern Emperor from 395 until his death in 408. In 410, during his reign, Rome was sacked for the first time in almost 800 years. | Flavius Honorius (9 septembre 384-15 août 423) est fait co-empereur par son père Théodose dans la partie occidentale de l'Empire romain à partir de 393. Puis, par division effective à la mort de Théodose, il est empereur romain d'Occident de 395 à sa mort en 423. Son frère aîné, Flavius Arcadius, gouverna l'Empire romain d'Orient. Personnalité faible, Honorius est incapable de gouverner et ne parvient à régner près de trente ans que grâce au soutien de ses généraux successifs, à la faiblesse des usurpateurs qui se dressent contre lui et au prix de la cession définitive d'une partie de son Empire aux peuples qui l'ont envahi. | [
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Freddie Mercury | Freddie Mercury | Freddie Mercury (born Farrokh Bulsara; 5 September 1946 – 24 November 1991) was a British singer, songwriter, record producer, and lead vocalist of the rock band Queen. Regarded as one of the greatest lead singers in the history of rock music, he was known for his flamboyant stage persona and four-octave vocal range. Mercury defied the conventions of a rock frontman, with his highly theatrical style influencing the artistic direction of Queen. | Freddie Mercury, né Farrokh Bulsara le à Stone Town, dans le protectorat de Zanzibar, et mort le à Londres, est un auteur-compositeur-interprète et musicien britannique, cofondateur en 1970 et chanteur-pianiste du groupe de rock Queen, au sein duquel il a établi sa réputation internationale, en compagnie du guitariste Brian May, du batteur Roger Taylor et du bassiste John Deacon, tous auteurs-compositeurs comme lui. | [
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Jacques François Dugommier | Jacques François Dugommier | Jacques François Coquille named Dugommier (1 August 1738, Trois-Rivières, Guadeloupe – 18 November 1794, at the Battle of the Black Mountain) was a French general. | Jacques François Coquille dit Dugommier, né le à Trois-Rivières (Guadeloupe) et mort le lors de la bataille de la Sierra Negra, est un général français. | [
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Basic income | Revenu de base | Basic income, also called universal basic income (UBI), citizen's income, citizen's basic income, basic income guarantee, basic living stipend, guaranteed annual income, or universal demogrant, is a theoretical governmental public program for a periodic payment delivered to all on an individual basis without a means test or work requirement. | Le revenu de base, encore appelé revenu universel ou allocation universelle, est une somme d'argent versée par une communauté politique à tous ses membres, sur une base individuelle, sans conditions de ressources ni obligation ou absence de travail. L'âge est parfois un critère discriminatif. Ce mode de fonctionnement économique est appliqué dans quelques pays ou à titre expérimental dans certaines zones. | [
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Pierre Augereau | Pierre Augereau | Charles Pierre François Augereau, 1st Duke of Castiglione (21 October 1757 – 12 June 1816) was a French military commander and a Marshal of the Empire who served during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. After serving in the Revolutionary Wars, he earned rapid promotion while fighting against Spain and soon found himself as a division commander under Napoleon Bonaparte in Italy. He fought in all of Bonaparte's battles of 1796 with great distinction. During the Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon entrusted Augereau with important commands. His life ended under a cloud because of his poor timing in switching sides between Napoleon and King Louis XVIII of France. Napoleon wrote of Augereau that he ""has plenty of character, courage, firmness, activity; is inured to war; is well liked by the soldiery; is fortunate in his operations."" | Charles Pierre François Augereau, né le à Paris et mort le à La Houssaye-en-Brie (Seine-et-Marne), est un général français puis maréchal d'Empire et duc de Castiglione. Brillant divisionnaire pendant la première campagne d'Italie, Augereau déçoit Napoléon durant les guerres napoléoniennes par son attitude aussi bien au combat qu'envers la personne de l'Empereur. À Sainte-Hélène, ce dernier lui reproche particulièrement son comportement pendant la campagne de France où, commandant de l'armée de Lyon, le maréchal ne réussit pas à battre les troupes autrichiennes qui lui sont opposées et s'attire plus tard ce sévère jugement du souverain : | [
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Ulysses S. Grant | Ulysses S. Grant | Ulysses S. Grant (born Hiram Ulysses Grant; April 27, 1822July 23, 1885) was an American soldier and politician who served as the 18th president of the United States from 1869 to 1877. Before his presidency, Grant led the Union Army as Commanding General of the United States Army in winning the American Civil War. As president, Grant worked with the Radical Republicans in the Reconstruction of the Union while having to deal with corruption in his administration. | Ulysses S. Grant, né Hiram Ulysses Grant le à Point Pleasant et mort le à Wilton, est un homme d'État américain, président des États-Unis. Après une brillante carrière militaire au cours de laquelle il commanda les armées nordistes durant la guerre de Sécession, il fut élu président en 1868. Sa présidence fut marquée par ses tentatives visant à intégrer davantage les anciens États confédérés dans l'Union, à éliminer les vestiges du nationalisme sudiste et à protéger les droits des Afro-Américains. La fin de son mandat fut néanmoins ternie par les dissensions du Parti républicain, la panique bancaire de 1873 et la corruption de son administration. | [
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UNICEF | Fonds des Nations unies pour l'enfance | The United Nations Children's Fund is a United Nations agency responsible for providing humanitarian and developmental aid to children worldwide. Based in U.N. headquarters in New York City, it is among the most widespread and recognizable social welfare organizations in the world, with a presence in 192 countries and territories. UNICEF's activities include immunizations and disease prevention, administering treatment for children and mothers with HIV, enhancing childhood and maternal nutrition, improving sanitation, promoting education, and providing emergency relief in response to disasters. | Le Fonds des Nations unies pour l'enfance, généralement désigné par l'acronyme Unicef (également typographié UNICEF), est une agence de l'Organisation des Nations unies consacrée à l'amélioration et à la promotion de la condition des enfants. Lors de sa création le, son nom était originellement United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (Fonds d'urgence international des Nations unies pour l'enfance), dont elle a conservé l'acronyme lors de l'adoption de son nom actuel en 1953, lorsqu'elle est devenue un organe permanent du système des Nations unies. | [
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Monasticism | Monachisme | Monasticism (from Ancient Greek,, from,, 'alone') or monkhood, is a religious way of life in which one renounces worldly pursuits to devote oneself fully to spiritual work. Monastic life plays an important role in many Christian churches, especially in the Catholic and Orthodox traditions as well as other faiths such as Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism. In other religions monasticism is criticized and not practiced, as in Islam and Zoroastrianism, or plays a marginal role, as in modern Judaism. Women pursuing a monastic life are generally called "nuns", while monastic men are called "monks". | Le monachisme est l'état et le mode de vie de personnes qui ont prononcé des vœux religieux et font partie d’un ordre dont les membres vivent sous une règle commune, séparés du monde, les moines (moniales au féminin). Le mot vient du grec ancien "monos" qui signifie « solitaire » et plus particulièrement « célibataire ». La première institution connue du monachisme est celle du bouddhisme theravada, il y a vingt-cinq siècles. Dans le bouddhisme, le monachisme est l'un des "trois refuges", particulièrement propice à la méditation qui constitue le cœur de la pratique. | [
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Waremme | Waremme | Waremme () is a Walloon municipality located in the province of Liège, in Belgium. The city is located on the River Geer (), in the loessic Haspengouw region. The economy is based on the cultivation of cereals and sugar beet, and on the food industry. | Waremme (en wallon "Wareme", en néerlandais "Borgworm") est une ville francophone de Belgique située en Région wallonne, chef-lieu d'arrondissement en province de Liège. | [
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Guillaume Brune | Guillaume Brune | Guillaume Marie-Anne Brune, 1st Count Brune (13 March 1764 – 2 August 1816) was a French military commander, Marshal of the Empire, and political figure who served during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. | Guillaume Marie-Anne Brune, né le à Brive-la-Gaillarde et mort assassiné le à Avignon, est un maréchal d'Empire. Tenu à l'écart des hautes fonctions administratives et militaires par en raison de son républicanisme, il commande néanmoins les armées du camp de Boulogne en 1805, et est fait gouverneur des villes hanséatiques en 1806, puis pair de France et comte de l'Empire en 1815. | [
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] | null | null | null | null | null | null |
Archimedes' screw | Vis d'Archimède | The water screw, popularly known as the Archimedes' screw and also known as the screw pump, Archimedean screw, or Egyptian screw, is a machine used for transferring water from a low-lying body of water into irrigation ditches. Water is pumped by turning a screw-shaped surface inside a pipe. Archimedes screws are also used for materials such as powders and grains. Although commonly attributed to Archimedes, the device had been used in Ancient Egypt long before his time. | La vis d'Archimède, parfois aussi nommée escargot, aussi appelée vis sans fin, est un dispositif qu'Archimède aurait mis au point lors d'un voyage en Égypte, permettant aux habitants du bord du Nil d'arroser leurs terrains. Certains auteurs ont suggéré qu'il était déjà en usage en Assyrie avant, notamment pour alimenter en eau les jardins suspendus de Babylone. Léonard de Vinci s'en est inspiré pour sa vis aérienne. | [
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Battle of Valmy | Bataille de Valmy | The Battle of Valmy was the first major victory by the army of France during the Revolutionary Wars that followed the French Revolution. The action took place on 20 September 1792 as Prussian troops commanded by the Duke of Brunswick attempted to march on Paris. Generals François Kellermann and Charles Dumouriez stopped the advance near the northern village of Valmy in Champagne-Ardenne. | La bataille de Valmy, également appelée bataille ou affaire du camp de la Lune, est la première victoire décisive de l'armée française pendant les guerres de la Révolution ayant suivi le renversement de la monarchie des Bourbons. Elle eut lieu le lorsqu'une armée prussienne, commandée par le duc de Brunswick, essaya de marcher sur Paris. Les généraux François Christophe Kellermann et Charles François Dumouriez réussirent à arrêter l'avancée prussienne près du village de Valmy, situé à l'est de Paris, en Champagne-Ardenne. | [
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Stilicho | Stilicon | Flavius Stilicho (; occasionally written as Stilico; c. 359 – 22 August 408) was a high-ranking general ("magister militum") in the Roman army who, for a time, became the most powerful man in the Western Roman Empire. He was half Vandal and married to the niece of Emperor Theodosius I; his regency for the underage Honorius marked the high point of Germanic advancement in the service of Rome. After many years of victories against a number of enemies, both barbarian and Roman, a series of political and military disasters finally allowed his enemies in the court of Honorius to remove him from power, culminating in his arrest and subsequent execution in 408. Known for his military successes and sense of duty, Stilicho was, in the words of historian Edward Gibbon, "the last of the Roman generals." | Stilicon (en latin : "Flavius Stilicho"), né vers 360 près de Constantinople, mort le à Ravenne, est un militaire et homme politique romain d'origine barbare sous les règnes de Théodose, empereur d'Orient de 379 à 395, et de ses fils Honorius (Occident) et Arcadius (Orient). | [
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Pink Floyd – The Wall | The Wall (film) | Pink Floyd – The Wall is a 1982 musical film directed by Alan Parker, based on the 1979 Pink Floyd album "The Wall". The screenplay was written by Pink Floyd vocalist and bassist Roger Waters. Bob Geldof plays rock star Pink, who, driven into insanity by the death of his father, constructs a physical and emotional wall to protect himself. | Le film alterne séquences filmées avec des séquences animées sur un rythme rapide. Il ne comprend presque aucun dialogue, la bande-son reprenant essentiellement les musiques du groupe, certains titres étant réenregistrés pour l'occasion. | [
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Carolingian Empire | Empire carolingien | The Carolingian Empire (800–888) was a large Frankish-dominated empire in western and central Europe during the early Middle Ages. It was ruled by the Carolingian dynasty, which had ruled as kings of the Franks since 751 and as kings of the Lombards in Italy from 774. In 800, the Frankish king Charlemagne was crowned emperor in Rome by Pope Leo III in an effort to transfer the Roman Empire from east to west. The Carolingian Empire is considered the first phase in the history of the Holy Roman Empire, which lasted until 1806. | L'Empire carolingien est un royaume franc du haut Moyen Âge s'étendant sur l'Europe occidentale et centrale. Bâti par le premier souverain de la deuxième dynastie des rois de France, Pépin le Bref, c'est cependant son fils, Charlemagne, couronné empereur par le pape Léon III en 800, qui donne son nom à la dynastie des Carolingiens. La division de l'Empire franc entre les petits-fils de Charlemagne, à la suite de la mort de son fils, le roi Louis, dit le Débonnaire, ou Louis le Pieux, donne naissance à l'ouest à la Francie occidentale, à l'est à la Francie orientale, et à la Francie médiane au centre et au sud, dont le contrôle sera l'objet d'un siècle de luttes entre les Francies occidentale et orientale, et qui finira démembrée, sa moitié nord, la Lotharingie, se rattachant à la Francie orientale, qui deviendra au prochain changement dynastique le Saint-Empire romain germanique, et sa moitié sud ressuscitant le royaume d'Italie. | [
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Hua Tuo | Hua Tuo | Hua Tuo ( 140–208), courtesy name Yuanhua, was a Chinese physician who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty. The historical texts "Records of the Three Kingdoms" and "Book of the Later Han" record Hua Tuo as the first person in China to use anaesthesia during surgery. He used a general anaesthetic combining wine with a herbal concoction called "mafeisan" (; literally "cannabis boil powder"). Besides being respected for his expertise in surgery and anaesthesia, Hua Tuo was famous for his abilities in acupuncture, moxibustion, herbal medicine and medical Daoyin exercises. He developed the "Wuqinxi" (; literally "Exercise of the Five Animals") from studying movements of the tiger, deer, bear, ape and crane. | Hua Tuo 华佗 (110–207), est un célèbre médecin chinois de l'époque de la dynastie Han ou Han postérieurs. On lui attribue la découverte de la narcose ("ma zui fa") et l'art des ouvertures abdominales ("kai fu shu"). Mais les études récentes de l'influence du Bouddhisme indien sur la médecine chinoise, amènent à penser que ses prodiges médicaux ne doivent pas être pris à la lettre mais doivent être situés dans le contexte de la littérature centrée sur le miraculeux, le bizarre et le fantastique, très développée à l'époque. En Chine, les légendes médicales sont souvent prises pour des preuves de pratiques réelles (Salguero, 2009). | [
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Cambridge, Massachusetts | Cambridge (Massachusetts) | Cambridge ( ) is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, and part of the Boston metropolitan area., it was the fifth most populous city in the state, behind Boston, Worcester, Springfield, and Lowell. According to the 2010 Census, the city's population was 105,162. It is one of two de jure county seats of Middlesex County, although the county's government was abolished in 1997. Situated directly north of Boston, across the Charles River, it was named in honor of the University of Cambridge in England, once also an important center of the Puritan theology embraced by the town's founders. | Cambridge (en anglais ) est une ville située dans l'État du Massachusetts, aux États-Unis, dans le comté de Middlesex. La ville de Cambridge se trouve dans l'agglomération de Boston, dont elle n'est séparée que par la rivière Charles (traversée par quelques ponts). | [
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Heavy water | Eau lourde | Heavy water (deuterium oxide, ', ') is a form of water that contains a larger than normal amount of the hydrogen isotope deuterium ( or D, also known as "heavy hydrogen"), rather than the common hydrogen-1 isotope ( or H, also called protium) that makes up most of the hydrogen in normal water. The presence of deuterium gives the water different nuclear properties, and the increase of mass gives it slightly different physical and chemical properties when compared to normal water. | L'eau lourde ou oxyde de deutérium DO (ou HO) est constituée des mêmes éléments chimiques que l'eau ordinaire (ou HO), mais ses atomes d'hydrogène sont des isotopes lourds, du deutérium (le noyau de deutérium comporte un neutron en plus du proton présent dans tout atome d’hydrogène). C'est Gilbert Lewis qui isola le premier échantillon d'eau lourde pure, en 1933. | [
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Aegis | Égide | The aegis ( ; "aigis"), as stated in the "Iliad", is carried by Athena and Zeus, but its nature is uncertain. It had been interpreted as an animal skin or a shield, sometimes bearing the head of a Gorgon. There may be a connection with a deity named Aex or Aix, a daughter of Helios and a nurse of Zeus or alternatively a mistress of Zeus (Hyginus, "Astronomica" 2. 13). The aegis of Athena is referred to in several places in "The Iliad". "It produced a sound as from a myriad roaring dragons ("Iliad", 4.17) and was borne by Athena in battle... and among them went bright-eyed Athene, holding the precious aegis which is ageless and immortal: a hundred tassels of pure gold hang fluttering from it, tight-woven each of them, and each the worth of a hundred oxen." | Dans la mythologie grecque, l’égide (en grec ancien / ) est une arme merveilleuse détenue par Zeus, offensive autant que défensive, symbole de la puissance souveraine. | [
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Battle of Val-ès-Dunes | Bataille du Val-ès-Dunes | The Battle of Val-ès-Dunes was fought in 1047 by the combined forces of the Norman duke William I and the French king Henry I against the forces of several rebel Norman barons, led by William's cousin Guy of Brionne. | La bataille de Val-ès-Dunes opposa le le jeune duc de Normandie Guillaume dit "le Bâtard", aidé de son suzerain le roi Henri de France, à une coalition de barons normands rebelles de l'Ouest du duché. | [
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Fatimah | Fatima Zahra | Fatimah bint Muhammad (, "", IPA: faː.tʕi.mah ib.nat mu.ħam.mad; 615 AD/5 BH – died 28 August 632 ), commonly known as "Fāṭimah al-Zahrāʾ" (), was the youngest daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and Khadijah, according to Sunni Muslims, but according to Shia Muslims, their only child who lived to adulthood, and therefore part of Muhammad's household. Her husband was Ali, the last of the Rightly Guided Caliphs and the first Shia Imam, and her children include Hasan and Husayn, the second and third Imams, respectively. She is respected and venerated by Muslims, as she was the child closest to her father and supported him in his difficulties, was the supporter and caretaker of her own husband and children, and was the only child of Muhammad to have male children live beyond childhood, whose descendants are spread throughout the Islamic world and are known as Sayyids. | Fatima Zahra (fāṭimah az-Zahrāʾ, ; zahra ou az-zahraʾa,, "la resplendissante") est la fille du prophète de l'islam Mahomet et de sa première femme Khadija, née à La Mecque à une date incertaine, en 604, 605, 609 ou 615 selon les sources, et morte à Médine le (le 3 joumada ath-thania 11 AH). | [
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Fátima, Portugal | Fátima | Fátima () is a city in the municipality of Ourém, Beira Litoral Province, in the Central Region and Médio Tejo intermunicipal community of Portugal, with 71.29 km of area and 11,788 inhabitants (2011). Its population density is 162.7 inhabitants/km. The homonymous civil parish encompasses several villages and localities of which the city of Fátima, with a population of 7,756 residents, is the largest. | Fátima est une petite ville portugaise située dans le district de Santarém au Portugal. La ville devient célèbre en 1917, quand trois jeunes bergers ont été témoins à plusieurs reprises d'une apparition mariale. Le, des milliers de personnes ont assisté au miracle du soleil tournoyant sur lui-même comme un disque d'argent. | [
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Hesbaye | Hesbaye | The Hesbaye (French), or Haspengouw (Dutch) is a traditional cultural and geophysical region in eastern Belgium. It is a loamy plateau region which forms a watershed between the Meuse and Scheldt drainage basins. It has been one of the main agricultural regions in what is now Belgium since before Roman times, and specifically named in records since the Middle Ages, when it was an important Frankish "pagus" or gau, called in medieval Latin. | La Hesbaye (néerlandais: "Haspengouw") est une région naturelle de Belgique s'étendant sur les provinces du Brabant flamand, du Brabant wallon, de Liège, de Limbourg et de Namur. | [
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Elf | Elfe | An elf (plural: "elves") is a type of humanlike supernatural being in Germanic mythology and folklore. In medieval Germanic-speaking cultures, elves seem generally to have been thought of as beings with magical powers and supernatural beauty, ambivalent towards everyday people and capable of either helping or hindering them. However, the details of these beliefs have varied considerably over time and space, and have flourished in both pre-Christian and Christian cultures. | Un elfe est une créature légendaire anthropomorphe dont l'apparence, le rôle et la symbolique peuvent être très divers. À l'origine, il s'agissait d'êtres de la mythologie nordique, dont le souvenir dure toujours dans le folklore scandinave. Les elfes étaient originellement des divinités mineures de la nature et de la fertilité. On les retrouve dans la mythologie celtique, puisque quelques textes irlandais et écossais les évoquent. | [
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Slum | Bidonville | A slum is usually a highly populated urban residential area consisting mostly of closely packed, decrepit housing units in a situation of deteriorated or incomplete infrastructure, inhabited primarily by impoverished persons. Although slums, especially in America, are usually located in urban areas, in other countries they can be located in suburban areas where housing quality is low and living conditions are poor. While slums differ in size and other characteristics, most lack reliable sanitation services, supply of clean water, reliable electricity, law enforcement, and other basic services. Slum residences vary from shanty houses to professionally built dwellings which, because of poor-quality construction and/or lack of basic maintenance, have deteriorated. | Un bidonville, comme défini par le Programme des Nations unies pour les établissements humains, est la partie défavorisée d'une ville caractérisée par des logements très insalubres, une grande pauvreté et sans aucun droit ou sécurité foncière. D'après les Nations unies, le pourcentage de citadins qui vit dans des bidonvilles est passé de 47 à 37 % dans les pays en développement entre 1990 et 2005. Cependant, à cause de l'accroissement de la population mondiale et surtout de la population urbaine, le nombre d'habitants des bidonvilles est en augmentation. Un milliard de personnes sur la planète vivaient dans des bidonvilles en 2008 et les prévisions sont de deux milliards pour 2030. | [
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Super Audio CD | Super Audio CD | Super Audio CD (SACD) is a read-only optical disc format for audio storage, introduced in 1999. It was developed jointly by Sony and Philips Electronics, and intended to be the successor to the Compact Disc (CD) format. | Le Super Audio CD ou SA-CD est un support sonore numérique de type disque optique en lecture seule, faisant partie de l'audio haut de gamme. Sa résolution sonore est 64 fois supérieure à celle de son prédécesseur encore commercialisé, le Compact Disc. Il est disponible en format stéréo et/ou multicanal (jusqu'à 6 canaux 5.1). | [
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Noisy-le-Grand | Noisy-le-Grand | Noisy-le-Grand () is a commune in the eastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located from the centre of Paris. The commune of Noisy-le-Grand is part of the sector of Porte de Paris, one of the four sectors of the "new town" of Marne-la-Vallée. | Noisy-le-Grand (prononcé ) est une commune française située dans le département de la Seine-Saint-Denis en région Île-de-France. Noisy-le-Grand faisait partie du périmètre d'aménagement de la ville nouvelle de Marne-la-Vallée dans le secteur 1, Porte de Paris. Elle fait partie actuellement de l'établissement public territorial Grand Paris - Grand Est de la Métropole du Grand Paris. Ses habitants sont appelés les "Noiséens". | [
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Anglo-Normans | Baronnage anglo-normand | The Anglo-Normans (, ) were the medieval ruling class in England, composed mainly of a combination of ethnic Anglo-Saxons, Normans and French, following the Norman conquest. A small number of Normans had earlier befriended future Anglo-Saxon King of England, Edward the Confessor, during his exile in his mother's homeland of Normandy. When he returned to England some of them went with him, and so there were Normans already settled in England prior to the conquest. Following the death of Edward, the powerful Anglo-Saxon noble, Harold Godwinson, acceded to the English throne until his defeat by William, Duke of Normandy at the Battle of Hastings. | Le baronnage anglo-normand (« "baronage" » en anglais) correspond principalement à la noblesse du duché de Normandie qui a reçu des terres en Angleterre à partir du temps de Guillaume le Conquérant après la bataille de Hastings d'octobre 1066. | [
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Critias (dialogue) | Critias (Platon) | Critias (; ), one of Plato's late dialogues, recounts the story of the mighty island kingdom Atlantis and its attempt to conquer Athens, which failed due to the ordered society of the Athenians. "Critias" is the second of a projected trilogy of dialogues, preceded by "Timaeus" and followed by "Hermocrates". The latter was possibly never written and "Critias" was left incomplete. Because of their resemblance (e.g. in terms of persons appearing), modern classicists occasionally combine both "Timaeus" and "Critias" as "Timaeus-Critias". | Critias ou Sur l’Atlantide (en grec ancien / ) est un dialogue de Platon. Tout comme dans "La République" et le "Ménéxène", Platon montre dans ce dialogue une hostilité pour la représentation anthropomorphique qui accepte la querelle entre les dieux. Dans la logique du mythe entamée dans le "Timée", dont le "Critias" est le dialogue qui suit dans la chronologie, les invités de Socrate prolongent l’histoire ancienne, 9000 ans avant leur époque. | [
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Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon | Louis de Rouvroy de Saint-Simon | Louis de Rouvroy, Duke of Saint-Simon, GE (16 January 16752 March 1755), was a French soldier, diplomat and memoirist. He was born in Paris at the Hôtel Selvois, 6 rue Taranne (demolished in 1876 to make place for the Blvd Saint-Germain). The family's ducal peerage ("duché-pairie"), granted in 1635 to his father Claude de Rouvroy (1608–1693), served as both perspective and theme in Saint-Simon's life and writings. He was the second and last Duke of Saint-Simon. | Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon, est né à Versailles le et mort le. Duc et pair de France, courtisan et mémorialiste,, c'est un témoin essentiel de la fin du règne de Louis XIV et de la Régence. | [
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Flag of Indonesia | Drapeau de l'Indonésie | The Flag of Indonesia is a simple bicolour with two equal horizontal bands, red (top) and white (bottom) with an overall ratio of 2:3. It was introduced and hoisted in public during the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence on 17 August 1945 in Pegangsaan Timur 56 in Jakarta, and again when the Dutch formally transferred sovereignty on 27 December 1949. The design of the flag has remained unchanged since. | Le drapeau de l'Indonésie est le drapeau national et le pavillon national de la République d’Indonésie. Il se compose de deux bandes horizontales rouge et blanche de même taille. Le rouge et le blanc sont les couleurs d'un ancien étendard javanais, attesté dans une inscription dite « de Kudadu » provenant de Java oriental et datée de 1294, qui relate la rébellion en 1292 du prince Jayakatwang de Kediri contre son suzerain, le roi Kertanegara de Singasari, la fin de ce royaume et la fondation de celui de Majapahit. Cette inscription mentionne l'usage d'étendards « rouge et blanc ». C'est cet étendard qui a été choisi par les nationalistes indonésiens comme drapeau de la nouvelle nation, en 1949. | [
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Charles XIV John of Sweden | Charles XIV Jean | Charles XIV John (Swedish and Norwegian: "Karl XIV Johan"; born Jean Bernadotte; 26 January 1763 – 8 March 1844) from 1818 until his death was King of Sweden and Norway. In modern Norwegian lists of kings he is called Charles III John. He was the first monarch of the Bernadotte dynasty. | Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, né le à Pau et mort le à Stockholm, est un militaire français devenu roi de Suède et de Norvège sous les noms de Charles XIV Jean (en suédois, "Karl XIV Johan") et de Charles III Jean (en norvégien, "Karl III Johan") de 1818 jusqu'à sa mort, après avoir été nommé régent en 1810 sous le règne de Charles XIII. Il s'engagea dans l'armée française en 1780 et connut un avancement rapide sous la Révolution française, atteignant le grade de général en 1794 après avoir longtemps végété dans des fonctions subalternes. Il se distingua à plusieurs reprises sur les champs de bataille et occupa également, pendant une courte période, le poste de ministre de la Guerre. Ses relations avec Napoléon Bonaparte furent houleuses mais les deux hommes se réconcilièrent en 1804 et Bernadotte fut élevé à la dignité de maréchal d'Empire, la plus haute distinction militaire du pays. Il participa aux campagnes napoléoniennes à la tête d'un corps d'armée, mais son inaction le jour de la bataille d'Auerstaedt en 1806 et le mauvais comportement de ses troupes à celle de Wagram en 1809 lui attirèrent les critiques de l'Empereur. | [
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John Adams | John Adams (homme d'État) | John Adams (October 30, 1735 – July 4, 1826) was an American statesman, attorney, diplomat, writer, and Founding Father who served as the second president of the United States, from 1797 to 1801. Before his presidency, he was a leader of the American Revolution that achieved independence from Great Britain and served as the first vice president of the United States. Adams was a dedicated diarist and regularly corresponded with many important figures in early American history, including his wife and adviser Abigail Adams, and Thomas Jefferson. | John Adams, né le à Quincy (Massachusetts) et mort le dans la même ville, est un homme d'État américain, président des États-Unis de 1797 à 1801. Deuxième occupant de la fonction après George Washington, il est le premier vice-président des États-Unis de 1789 à 1797, durant la présidence de ce dernier. Membre du Parti fédéraliste, il est considéré comme l'un des Pères fondateurs des États-Unis. | [
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Prosper Mérimée | Prosper Mérimée | Prosper Mérimée (; 28 September 1803 – 23 September 1870) was a French writer in the movement of Romanticism, and one of the pioneers of the novella, a short novel or long short story. He was also a noted archaeologist and historian, and an important figure in the history of architectural preservation. He is best known for his novella "Carmen", which became the basis of Bizet's opera "Carmen". He learned Russian and translated the work of several important Russian writers, including Pushkin and Gogol, into French. From 1830 until 1860 he was the inspector of French historical monuments, and was responsible for the protection of many historic sites, including the medieval citadel of Carcassonne and the restoration of the façade of the cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris. Along with the writer George Sand, he discovered the series of tapestries called "The Lady and the Unicorn", and arranged for their preservation. He was instrumental in the creation of Musée national du Moyen Âge in Paris, where the tapestries now are displayed. The official database of French monuments, the Base Mérimée, bears his name. | Prosper Mérimée, né le à Paris et mort le à Cannes, est un écrivain, historien et archéologue français. Issu d'un milieu bourgeois et artiste, Prosper Mérimée fait des études de droit avant de s'intéresser à la littérature et de publier dès 1825 des textes, en particulier des nouvelles, qui le font connaître et lui valent d'être élu à l'Académie française en 1844. | [
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Timaeus (dialogue) | Timée (Platon) | Timaeus (;, ) is one of Plato's dialogues, mostly in the form of a long monologue given by the title character Timaeus of Locri, written c. 360 BC. The work puts forward speculation on the nature of the physical world and human beings and is followed by the dialogue "Critias". | Le Timée (en grec ancien "") est un des derniers dialogues de Platon. Après un bref échange avec Socrate, Critias et Hermocrate, le philosophe pythagoricien Timée de Locres expose une réflexion sur l’origine et la nature du monde physique et de l’âme humaine vues comme les œuvres d’un démiurge tout en abordant les questions de la connaissance scientifique et de la place des mathématiques dans l’explication du monde. | [
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Tahitian language | Tahitien | Tahitian (autonym, part of, languages of French Polynesia) is a Polynesian language, spoken mainly on the Society Islands in French Polynesia. It belongs to the Eastern Polynesian group. | Le tahitien est l'une des cinq langues reconnues de la Polynésie française, où il reste la seconde langue véhiculaire, en concurrence avec le français, unique langue officielle de ce Pays d'outre-mer. | [
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] | null | null | null | null | null | null |
List of English words of French origin | Vrais amis en anglais | A great number of words of French origin have entered the English language to the extent that many Latin words have come to the English language. According to different sources, 45% of all English words have a French origin. This suggests that 80,000 words should appear in this list; this list, however, only includes words imported directly from French, such as both and, and does not include derivatives formed in English of words borrowed from French, including,,, and. It also excludes both combinations of words of French origin with words whose origin is a language other than French — e.g.,,,,,, and — and English-made combinations of words of French origin — e.g., ( + ), ( + ),,,,,, and. This list also excludes words that come from French but were introduced into the English language via a language other than French, which include,,,,,,,,,,,,,, and. | Contrairement aux faux-amis, qui représentent souvent un obstacle à l'apprentissage de la langue, les vrais amis en anglais sont des mots ayant la même forme (parfois à quelques petites différences près) et le même sens qu'en français : ainsi « bus », « poison », « radio », « taxi ». On dit qu'ils sont « transparents ». | [
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Railroad switch | Aiguillage | A railroad switch (), turnout, or [set of] points () is a mechanical installation enabling railway trains to be guided from one track to another, such as at a railway junction or where a spur or siding branches off. | Un aiguillage, dans le langage courant, est un appareil de voie servant à faire changer de voie un train. Dans les compagnies de chemins de fer francophones, cet appareil est couramment appelé "aiguille" par le personnel. | [
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Concordat | Concordat | A concordat is a convention between the Holy See and a sovereign state that defines the relationship between the Catholic Church and the state in matters that concern both, i.e. the recognition and privileges of the Catholic Church in a particular country and with secular matters that impact on church interests. | En matière politico-religieuse, un concordat (du latin médiéval "concordatum", « accord, traité ») est un traité signé entre le Saint-Siège et un État particulier (ou entre un souverain et le pape pour l'Europe pré-moderne) dans le but de définir les domaines respectifs et éclaircir les relations entre l'Église catholique et les autorités civiles du pays signataire (ou "concordataire"). | [
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The Marriage of Figaro | Les Noces de Figaro | The Marriage of Figaro (, ), K. 492, is an opera buffa (comic opera) in four acts composed in 1786 by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, with an Italian libretto written by Lorenzo Da Ponte. It premiered at the Burgtheater in Vienna on 1 May 1786. The opera's libretto is based on a stage comedy by Pierre Beaumarchais, "La folle journée, ou le Mariage de Figaro" ("The Mad Day, or The Marriage of Figaro"), which was first performed in 1784. It tells how the servants Figaro and Susanna succeed in getting married, foiling the efforts of their philandering employer Count Almaviva to seduce Susanna and teaching him a lesson in fidelity. | Les Noces de Figaro (titre original italien : "", K. 492) est un opera buffa en 4 actes de Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, sur un livret en italien de Lorenzo da Ponte inspiré de la comédie de Beaumarchais, "Le Mariage de Figaro". | [
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Patchouli | Patchouli | Patchouli (; "Pogostemon cablin"), from Tamil paccuḷi, is a species of plant from the family Lamiaceae, commonly called the "mint" or "deadnettle" family. The plant grows as a bushy herb, with erect stems reaching around 75 centimetres (2.5 ft) in height and bearing small, pale pink-white flowers. It is native to tropical regions of Asia, and is now extensively cultivated in China, Indonesia, Japan, Cambodia, Myanmar, India, Maldives, Malaysia, Mauritius, Seychelles, Madagascar, Taiwan, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, South America and the Caribbean. | Le patchouli ("Pogostemon cablin") est une plante tropicale de la famille des Lamiacées utilisée surtout en parfumerie et en cosmétologie. Elle est surtout cultivée en Indonésie et aux Philippines pour l'huile essentielle produite à partir de ses feuilles. | [
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French franc | Franc français | The franc (; ; sign: F or Fr), also commonly distinguished as the (FF), was a currency of France. Between 1360 and 1641, it was the name of coins worth 1 livre tournois and it remained in common parlance as a term for this amount of money. It was reintroduced (in decimal form) in 1795. After two centuries of inflation, it was revalued in 1960, with each (NF) being worth 100 old francs. The NF designation was continued for a few years before the currency returned to being simply the franc; some mostly older French continued to reference and value items in terms of the old franc (equivalent to the new centime) until the introduction of the euro in 1999 (for accounting purposes) and 2002 (for coins and banknotes). The French franc was a commonly held international reserve currency of reference in the 19th and 20th centuries. | Le franc, précisé franc français lorsqu'il peut y avoir ambiguïté (en abrégé F, f, FF, Fr, fr, fr., FFR, Ffr ; code FRF pour celui de 1960-2002), est une ancienne unité monétaire de la France, utilisée également en Andorre et à Monaco. | [
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American Revolutionary War | Guerre d'indépendance des États-Unis | The American Revolutionary War (17751783), also known as the American War of Independence, was fought primarily between the Kingdom of Great Britain and its Thirteen Colonies in America, resulting in the overthrow of British rule in the colonies and the establishment of the United States of America. | La guerre d'indépendance des États-Unis, ou guerre d'indépendance américaine, ou pouvant être abrégée en « guerre d'Indépendance », (aussi appelé première guerre Anglo-Américaine) opposa les Treize colonies d'Amérique du Nord au royaume de Grande-Bretagne, de 1775 à 1783. | [
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Eugen Fried | Eugen Fried | Eugen Fried (13 March 1900 – 17 August 1943) was a Czechoslovak communist who played a leading role in the French Communist Party in the 1930s and early 1940s as the representative of the Communist International. He ensured that the party leaders were loyal to Stalin and followed the instructions of Moscow. He was ruthless but discreet, and stayed out of the public eye. | Eugen Fried, né le à Trnava (Autriche-Hongrie) et mort à Bruxelles le, fut le représentant de la Internationale auprès du Parti communiste français. | [
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Sultan | Sultan | Sultan (; ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power" (cognate with the Hebrew word "Shilton" שלטון which retained that meaning to the present). Later, it came to be used as the title of certain rulers who claimed almost full sovereignty in practical terms (i.e., the lack of dependence on any higher ruler), albeit without claiming the overall caliphate, or to refer to a powerful governor of a province within the caliphate. The adjective form of the word is "sultanic", and the dynasty and lands ruled by a sultan are referred to as a sultanate ( "). | Sultan (nom masculin, de l’arabe : domination, autorité ou souveraineté) est un titre porté par des monarques musulmans depuis l'an 1000 environ. | [
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The Marriage of Figaro (play) | Le Mariage de Figaro | The Marriage of Figaro ( ("The Mad Day, or The Marriage of Figaro")) is a comedy in five acts, written in 1778 by Pierre Beaumarchais. This play is the second in the Figaro trilogy, preceded by "The Barber of Seville" and followed by "The Guilty Mother". | La Folle Journée, ou le Mariage de Figaro est une comédie en cinq actes de Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais écrite à 46 ans en 1778, lue à la Comédie-Française en 1781, donnée en privé le dans la maison de campagne du comte de Vaudreil à Gennevilliers(dite "château de Gennevilliers"), mais dont la première représentation officielle publique n'eut lieu que le au théâtre François (aujourd'hui théâtre de l'Odéon), après plusieurs années de censure : ce fut un triomphe, un événement, et l'occasion de polémiques. 68 représentations suivirent en huit mois. | [
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] | null | null | null | null | null | null |
Chinese astrology | Astrologie chinoise | Chinese astrology is based on the traditional astronomy and calendars. Chinese astrology came to flourish during the Han Dynasty (2nd century BC to 2nd century AD). | L'astrologie chinoise (,,, ou bien encore ) est fondée sur les notions astronomiques et calendaires traditionnelles, dont le cycle de douze ans représentés par douze animaux qui sont souvent associés avec les douze rameaux terrestres (). Les 12 animaux sont dans l'ordre : Rat ou Souris, Bœuf ou Vache ou Buffle d’Asie, Tigre, Lapin ou Chat, Dragon, Serpent (Petit Dragon à l'oral), Cheval, Chèvre ou Bélier, Singe, Coq ou Phoenix, Chien, Cochon ou Sanglier ou Éléphant. | [
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Cybernetics | Cybernétique | Cybernetics is a transdisciplinary approach for exploring regulatory systems—their structures, constraints, and possibilities. Norbert Wiener defined cybernetics in 1948 as "the scientific study of control and communication in the animal and the machine". | La cybernétique est l'étude des mécanismes d'information des systèmes complexes, explorés en vue d'être standardisés lors des conférences Macy et décrits en 1947 par Norbert Wiener dans ce but. Des scientifiques d'horizons très divers et parmi les plus brillants de l'époque participèrent à ce projet interdisciplinaire de 1946 à 1953 : mathématiciens, logiciens, ingénieurs, physiologistes, anthropologues, psychologues, etc. Les contours parfois flous de cet ensemble de recherches s'articulent toutefois autour du concept clé de "rétroaction" (en anglais "") ou "mécanisme téléologique". Leur but était de donner une vision unifiée des domaines naissants de l'automatique, de l'électronique et de la théorie mathématique de l'information, en tant que « théorie entière de la commande et de la communication, aussi bien chez l'animal que dans la machine ». | [
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