StivenLancheros/all_datasets_wikis · Datasets at Hugging Face

src_title stringlengths 1 140 ⌀	tgt_title stringlengths 1 140 ⌀	src_summary stringlengths 41 2.74k ⌀	tgt_summary stringlengths 41 2.64k ⌀	input_ids sequence	attention_mask sequence	labels sequence	text stringlengths 946 37.7k ⌀	summary stringlengths 29 3.02k ⌀	gem_id stringlengths 10 19 ⌀	gem_parent_id stringlengths 10 19 ⌀	id stringlengths 1 7 ⌀	src_document sequence
1998 FIFA World Cup	Coupe du monde de football 1998	The 1998 FIFA World Cup was the 16th FIFA World Cup, the world championship for men's national association football teams. It was held in France from 10 June to 12 July 1998. The country was chosen as the host nation by FIFA for the second time in the history of the tournament, defeating Morocco in the bidding process. It was the second time that France staged the competition (the first was in 1938) and the ninth time that it was held in Europe. It was the first World Cup to be held under the presidency of Sepp Blatter.	La Coupe du monde de football de 1998 est la seizième édition de la Coupe du monde de football et se déroule en France du 10 juin au. C'est la seconde fois que la France organise la coupe du monde après 1938. Il s'agit du premier Mondial à trente-deux équipes participantes. Un tournoi amical, le Tournoi de France, est disputé en 1997 en guise de préparation à l'organisation de cette compétition.	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Charles Alexandre de Calonne	Charles-Alexandre de Calonne	Charles Alexandre de Calonne (20 January 173430 October 1802), titled Count of Hannonville in 1759, was a French statesman, best known for his involvement in the French Revolution.	Charles-Alexandre de Calonne est un homme politique français, né à Douai le et mort à Paris le. Ministre et contrôleur général des finances de Louis XVI entre 1783 et 1787, il s'est retrouvé au cœur des grandes spéculations boursières sous Louis XVI.	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Dark Skies	Dark Skies : L'Impossible Vérité	Dark Skies is an American UFO conspiracy theory-based sci-fi television series that debuted on NBC on September 21, 1996, and ended on May 31, 1997, and was later rerun by the Sci-Fi Channel. 18 episodes and a two-hour pilot episode were broadcast as a part of the Thrillogy block. The success of "The X-Files" on Fox proved there was an audience for science fiction shows, resulting in NBC commissioning this proposed competitor following a pitch from producers Bryce Zabel and Brent Friedman. Its tagline was "History as we know it is a lie."	En France, la série a été diffusée à partir du sur Série Club en prime time puis dans "La Trilogie du Samedi" sur M6 et rediffusée à partir du sur Sci Fi et à partir du sur France 4.	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Jean Hélène	Jean Hélène	Jean Hélène (8 August 1953 in Mulhouse – 21 October 2003) was a French journalist specializing in Africa. He was working for Radio France Internationale in Ivory Coast when he was killed in Abidjan by police Sergeant Théodore Séry Dago. Jean Hélène was his press name, Christian Baldensberger being his real name.	Jean Hélène, de son vrai nom Christian Baldensperger, né le à Mulhouse et mort le à Abidjan, était un journaliste français passionné par l'Afrique.	[ 250004, 250054, 241, 147, 56786, 4, 16162, 88064, 35258, 86, 1902, 149976, 237, 70, 636, 111651, 82122, 660, 23, 144685, 5, 18763, 154271, 111, 70, 144685, 19, 159372, 13, 20271, 903, 14922, 509, 96402, 5281, 23, 1238, 141775, 111, 70, 572, 19726, 5, 360, 17311, 4, 20271, 70, 39395, 21775, 3229, 137107, 111, 9782, 72004, 3542, 1284, 5372, 297, 4, 764, 62816, 29367, 70, 67153, 5180, 237, 8382, 111, 22, 195, 53, 30641, 10840, 5, 62, 92265, 29685, 3114, 2069, 23, 4347, 8272, 17378, 12, 2161, 952, 18374, 88847, 23, 10, 479, 330, 49725, 225748, 111, 96877, 71, 2874, 9, 919, 982, 206, 37022, 20271, 70, 18543, 1631, 23, 26229, 67, 104, 25, 568, 48055, 13, 4, 88064, 35258, 86, 1902, 74955, 47, 70, 155699, 2864, 35206, 10336, 167565, 1314, 47, 33683, 3060, 27759, 233, 54137, 7, 2750, 1902, 1660, 2809, 121447, 1295, 8, 62500, 5, 5787, 99547, 538, 764, 1902, 142, 37264, 120639, 678, 140261, 1236, 13975, 31, 645, 43328, 4, 25632, 3129, 13975, 31, 23409, 46132, 4, 59102, 13482, 142, 15335, 139315, 136, 51876, 4049, 103494, 237, 764, 509, 122395, 1295, 1919, 2258, 4, 56661, 98, 1919, 14288, 24089, 5, 140261, 1236, 13975, 31, 509, 109312, 34784, 297, 136, 198371, 112017, 297, 47, 70, 46824, 5, 8273, 184, 26513, 18, 538, 49903, 4, 764, 98816, 1919, 19069, 63043, 214, 450, 764, 1902, 1380, 46132, 70, 33976, 7103, 56661, 47, 75526, 13, 3229, 764, 49782, 70, 51876, 7, 450, 152388, 4049, 5, 8622, 509, 38134, 21640, 158, 4545, 19, 2320, 111, 70, 19732, 5, 159091, 21640, 2804, 12, 24372, 70, 19732, 4, 6003, 446, 25166, 107, 106509, 53, 13975, 31, 100512, 10, 40814, 136, 10, 13975, 31, 8060, 175352, 509, 100, 4806, 5, 360, 18982, 86097, 10, 116338, 29685, 1379, 116983, 36592, 10082, 169, 2746, 14, 1311, 202, 18437, 538, 90698, 16446, 48242, 77950, 3129, 117414, 71, 450, 70, 50208, 126, 1902, 2809, 51876, 1295, 13975, 31, 25, 7, 4516, 142172, 4, 136, 14037, 4049, 221859, 111, 19441, 44, 34642, 30108, 37838, 152388, 58, 75526, 13, 5, 13975, 31, 509, 149357, 71, 47, 729, 5369, 23, 101085, 5, 2 ]	[ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 ]	[ 250008, 16162, 88064, 35258, 86, 4, 8, 775, 31423, 9901, 14949, 77462, 33, 20595, 1505, 4, 18673, 95, 253, 21442, 23923, 82, 17904, 95, 253, 155699, 2864, 4, 14283, 51, 32485, 13, 43054, 201608, 366, 96, 25, 168075, 5, 2 ]	null	null	null	null	null	null
Claude Martin	Claude Martin (aventurier)	Major General Claude Martin (5 January 1735 – 13 September 1800) was an officer in the French, and later the English East India Company's army in India. He rose to the rank of Major General in the English East India Company's Bengal Army. Martin was born in Lyon, France, into a humble background, and was a self-made man who left a substantial lasting legacy in the form of his writings, buildings and the educational institutions he founded posthumously. There are now ten schools named after him, two in Lucknow, two in Calcutta and six in Lyon. The small village of Martin Purwa in India was also named after him.	Claude Martin, né à Lyon (France) le et mort à Lucknow (Inde) le est un soldat français de la Compagnie française des Indes orientales, puis de la Compagnie anglaise des Indes orientales (CAIO). Il amasse une grande fortune qu'il dédia à la création, après sa mort, de trois écoles, toutes appelées "La Martinière", à Calcutta, Lucknow et Lyon.	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Monkey	Singe	Monkey is a common name that may refer to groups or species of mammals, in part, the simians of infraorder Simiiformes. The term is applied descriptively to groups of primates, such as families of New World monkeys and Old World monkeys. Many monkey species are tree-dwelling (arboreal), although there are species that live primarily on the ground, such as baboons. Most species are also active during the day (diurnal). Monkeys are generally considered to be intelligent, especially the Old World monkeys of Catarrhini.	Les singes sont des mammifères de l'ordre des primates, généralement arboricoles, à la face souvent glabre et caractérisés par un encéphale développé et de longs membres terminés par des doigts. Bien que leur ressemblance avec l'Homme ait toujours frappé les esprits, la science a mis de nombreux siècles à prouver le lien étroit qui existe entre ceux-ci et l'espèce humaine.	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Pierre Schoendoerffer	Pierre Schoendoerffer	Pierre Schoendoerffer (; 5 May 1928 – 14 March 2012) was a French film director, a screenwriter, a writer, a war reporter, a war cameraman, a renowned First Indochina War veteran, a cinema academician. He was president of the Académie des Beaux-Arts for 2001 and for 2007.	Pierre Schoendoerffer est un romancier, réalisateur, scénariste et documentariste français, né le à Chamalières et mort le à Clamart.	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Pierre Tchernia	Pierre Tchernia	Pierre Tcherniakowski (29 January 1928 – 8 October 2016), better known as Pierre Tchernia, was a French cinema and television producer, screenwriter, presenter, animator and actor. In France he was known as ""Magic" Tchernia" and "Monsieur Cinema".	Pierre Tchernia, né Pierre Tcherniakowsky, est un réalisateur, concepteur et animateur d'émissions de télévision français, né le à Paris et mort le dans la même ville.	[ 250004, 250054, 7422, 19, 23, 7270, 237, 58807, 384, 5372, 1174, 71256, 4, 764, 509, 70, 27150, 525, 111, 22759, 20020, 5, 18763, 67373, 4, 10, 61764, 3378, 177705, 4, 509, 142, 185118, 136, 1919, 42732, 10, 40, 302, 95650, 5, 1529, 3514, 434, 1257, 23, 72813, 372, 26789, 13, 5, 360, 27712, 4, 99, 32070, 427, 4, 764, 24124, 4939, 17652, 25, 7, 65925, 44, 294, 16852, 146600, 58, 136, 509, 191722, 47, 4488, 23, 27076, 5, 24372, 25975, 2320, 4, 764, 22, 27722, 297, 23, 10, 1346, 136, 6, 110092, 121392, 10696, 4, 136, 7068, 33284, 297, 70, 43975, 100, 127596, 40572, 188, 48461, 132268, 5, 1529, 509, 2831, 111, 70, 166635, 111, 70, 5117, 5501, 1824, 297, 7123, 23, 9942, 23, 45604, 136, 509, 142, 39395, 92265, 7123, 8121, 42, 5, 360, 47114, 764, 100512, 10, 108558, 111, 6, 114205, 15, 76228, 10, 99162, 79507, 1295, 70, 39395, 6, 114205, 111, 121672, 31073, 194, 1326, 5941, 5369, 764, 27980, 297, 10, 113976, 6712, 7639, 111, 14277, 1927, 3459, 4, 44, 740, 1529, 509, 2843, 27980, 707, 8121, 42, 100, 67842, 92265, 22120, 4, 96551, 4, 81758, 136, 19612, 45831, 645, 70, 5369, 5, 384, 5372, 1174, 509, 70, 20324, 92265, 6868, 4597, 23, 70, 114529, 5986, 185631, 98, 616, 46505, 7, 1295, 42610, 24189, 27898, 5, 2161, 616, 20414, 34975, 764, 100512, 123573, 7745, 111, 70, 206010, 111, 58744, 5, 62, 4127, 34391, 111, 157370, 2016, 7, 6333, 299, 136, 24748, 345, 820, 1158, 4, 70, 179505, 7, 111, 44, 284, 1515, 4084, 830, 764, 29718, 3674, 5941, 111, 70, 44, 284, 1515, 4084, 58, 54180, 23, 70, 7311, 92265, 4, 136, 54397, 70, 49119, 20706, 100, 22759, 111, 2856, 5, 1529, 509, 2843, 91405, 987, 297, 183851, 20028, 23, 70, 36549, 12, 18763, 91405, 6644, 831, 2843, 186, 14037, 23, 70, 138753, 97702, 10127, 3674, 1346, 44, 2729, 21786, 2873, 224, 10017, 1507, 58, 228903, 4, 7440, 764, 83, 8, 18695, 3674, 98, 10, 49726, 98, 70, 58982, 4, 3229, 97702, 19922, 7, 70, 62816, 5971, 19915, 223, 172351, 5, 2 ]	[ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 ]	[ 250008, 58807, 384, 5372, 1174, 4, 18673, 58807, 384, 5372, 1174, 76233, 4922, 4, 437, 51, 3537, 10836, 64631, 4, 23755, 7745, 82, 10127, 11685, 104, 25, 171448, 7, 8, 211402, 43054, 4, 18673, 95, 253, 7270, 82, 17904, 95, 807, 21, 4360, 5054, 5, 2 ]	null	null	null	null	null	null
Frederick III, German Emperor	Frédéric III (empereur allemand)	Frederick III (; 18 October 1831 – 15 June 1888) was German Emperor and King of Prussia for ninety-nine days in 1888, the Year of the Three Emperors. Known informally as "Fritz", he was the only son of Emperor Wilhelm I and was raised in his family's tradition of military service. Although celebrated as a young man for his leadership and successes during the Second Schleswig, Austro-Prussian and Franco-Prussian wars, he nevertheless professed a hatred of warfare and was praised by friends and enemies alike for his humane conduct. Following the unification of Germany in 1871 his father, then King of Prussia, became the German Emperor. Upon Wilhelm's death at the age of ninety on 9 March 1888, the thrones passed to Frederick, who had by then been German Crown Prince for seventeen years and Crown Prince of Prussia for twenty-seven years. Frederick was suffering from cancer of the larynx when he died, aged fifty-six, following unsuccessful medical treatments for his condition.	Issu de la très conservatrice et militariste maison de Hohenzollern, le prince Frédéric acquiert en grandissant des idées libérales qui lui viennent en partie de sa mère Augusta de Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. Après des études mêlant à la fois formation militaire et arts libéraux, le jeune homme épouse, en 1858, la princesse royale Victoria du Royaume-Uni, qui le conforte dans ses idées progressistes. Peu à peu, le prince s’éloigne de son père, le roi de Prusse, et surtout du chef de son gouvernement, le ministre-président de Prusse Otto von Bismarck, qui se méfie de lui. Bien qu’héritier du trône, le prince est alors écarté des affaires politiques et cantonné à un rôle essentiellement représentatif.	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The Murders in the Rue Morgue	Double Assassinat dans la rue Morgue	"The Murders in the Rue Morgue" is a short story by Edgar Allan Poe published in "Graham's Magazine" in 1841. It has been described as the first modern detective story; Poe referred to it as one of his "tales of ratiocination".	Double Assassinat dans la rue Morgue ("The Murders in the Rue Morgue") est une nouvelle de l’écrivain américain Edgar Allan Poe, parue en avril 1841 dans le "Graham's Magazine", traduite en français par Isabelle Meunier puis, en 1856, par Charles Baudelaire pour le recueil "Histoires extraordinaires".	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HTTPS	HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure	Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is an extension of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). It is used for secure communication over a computer network, and is widely used on the Internet. In HTTPS, the communication protocol is encrypted using Transport Layer Security (TLS) or, formerly, Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). The protocol is therefore also referred to as HTTP over TLS, or HTTP over SSL.	L' (HTTPS, littéralement « protocole de transfert hypertextuel sécurisé ») est la combinaison du HTTP avec une couche de chiffrement comme SSL ou TLS.	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Seven Years in Tibet (1997 film)	Sept Ans au Tibet	Seven Years in Tibet is a 1997 American biographical war drama film based on the 1952 book of the same name written by Austrian mountaineer Heinrich Harrer on his experiences in Tibet between 1939 and 1951 during World War II, the interim period, and the Chinese People's Liberation Army's invasion of Tibet in 1950. Directed by Jean-Jacques Annaud and starring Brad Pitt and David Thewlis, the score was composed by John Williams and features cellist Yo-Yo Ma.	Sept Ans au Tibet ("") est un film d'aventure franco-américano-britannique de Jean-Jacques Annaud, réalisé en 1997. Ce film dramatique s'inspire du livre "Sept Ans d'aventures au Tibet", le récit autobiographique du séjour de l'alpiniste autrichien Heinrich Harrer au Tibet, de 1944 à 1951.	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Bernhard Riemann	Bernhard Riemann	Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann (; 17 September 1826 – 20 July 1866) was a German mathematician who made contributions to analysis, number theory, and differential geometry. In the field of real analysis, he is mostly known for the first rigorous formulation of the integral, the Riemann integral, and his work on Fourier series. His contributions to complex analysis include most notably the introduction of Riemann surfaces, breaking new ground in a natural, geometric treatment of complex analysis. His famous 1859 paper on the prime-counting function, containing the original statement of the Riemann hypothesis, is regarded as one of the most influential papers in analytic number theory. Through his pioneering contributions to differential geometry, Riemann laid the foundations of the mathematics of general relativity. He is considered by many to be one of the greatest mathematicians of all time.	Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann, né le à Breselenz, Royaume de Hanovre, mort le à Selasca, hameau de la commune de Verbania, Italie, est un mathématicien allemand. Influent sur le plan théorique, il a apporté de nombreuses contributions importantes à la topologie, l'analyse, la géométrie différentielle et le calcul, certaines d'entre elles ayant permis par la suite le développement de la relativité générale.	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André Weil	André Weil	André Weil (; ; 6 May 1906 – 6 August 1998) was a French mathematician, known for his foundational work in number theory and algebraic geometry. He was a founding member and the "de facto" early leader of the mathematical Bourbaki group. The philosopher Simone Weil was his sister. The writer Sylvie Weil is his daughter.	André Weil, né le à Paris et mort à Princeton (New Jersey, États-Unis) le, est une des grandes figures parmi les mathématiciens du. Connu pour son travail fondamental en théorie des nombres et en géométrie algébrique, il fut un des membres fondateurs du groupe Bourbaki. Il est le frère de la philosophe Simone Weil et père de l'écrivaine Sylvie Weil.	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Estates General (France)	États généraux (France)	In France under the Old Regime, the Estates General () or States-General was a legislative and consultative assembly (see The Estates) of the different classes (or estates) of French subjects. It had a separate assembly for each of the three estates (clergy, nobility and commoners), which were called and dismissed by the king. It had no true power in its own right—unlike the English parliament it was not required to approve royal taxation or legislation—instead it functioned as an advisory body to the king, primarily by presenting petitions from the various estates and consulting on fiscal policy. The Estates General met intermittently until 1614 and only once afterwards, in 1789, but was not definitively dissolved until after the French Revolution. It was distinct from the provincial "parlements" (the most powerful of which was the Parliament of Paris) which started as appellate courts but later used their powers to decide whether to publish laws to claim a legislative role.	Dans le système politique du royaume de France, les états généraux du royaume (ou États-Généraux) étaient une assemblée réunissant les trois ordres (les "états") de la société : la noblesse, le clergé et le tiers état. Ils étaient convoqués par ordre du roi dans des conditions exceptionnelles (crise politique ou financière, guerre ou question diplomatique majeure). Cette assemblée était, entre autres, seule habilitée à réformer la fiscalité générale ou, dans une moindre mesure, à statuer sur des problèmes dynastiques, en vue de traiter la crise rencontrée.	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Optical microscope	Microscope optique	The optical microscope, also referred to as a light microscope, is a type of microscope that commonly uses visible light and a system of lenses to generate magnified images of small objects. Optical microscopes are the oldest design of microscope and were possibly invented in their present compound form in the 17th century. Basic optical microscopes can be very simple, although many complex designs aim to improve resolution and sample contrast.	Le microscope optique ou microscope photonique est un instrument d'optique muni d'un objectif et d'un oculaire qui permet de grossir l'image d'un objet de petites dimensions (ce qui caractérise sa puissance optique) et de séparer les détails de cette image (et son pouvoir de résolution) afin qu'il soit observable par l'œil humain. Il est utilisé en biologie, pour observer les cellules, les tissus, en pétrographie pour reconnaître les roches, en métallurgie et en métallographie pour examiner la structure d'un métal ou d'un alliage.	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Chinese New Year	Nouvel An chinois	Chinese New Year () is the Chinese festival that celebrates the beginning of a new year on the traditional Chinese calendar or lunar calendar. The festival is commonly referred to as the Spring Festival () in China as the spring season in the lunisolar calendar traditionally starts with lichun, the first of the twenty-four solar terms which the festival celebrates around the time of. Marking the end of winter and the beginning of the spring season, observances traditionally take place from New Year’s Eve, the evening preceding the first day of the year to the Lantern Festival, held on the 15th day of the year. The first day of Chinese New Year begins on the new moon that appears between 21 January and 20 February. In 2020, the first day of the Chinese New Year was on Saturday, 25 January, which initiated the Year of the Rat.	Le Nouvel An chinois, Nouvel An du calendrier chinois ou Nouvel An lunaire (sinogrammes traditionnels : 農曆新年 ; sinogrammes simplifiés : 农历新年 ; "hanyu pinyin" : "nónglì xīnnián") ou « passage de l’année » (traditionnels : 過年 ; simplifiés : 过年 ; pinyin : "guònián") est le premier jour du premier mois du calendrier chinois. La fête du printemps (traditionnels : 春節 ; simplifiés : 春节 ; pinyin : "chūnjié") marque le début des festivités qui se déroulent sur quinze jours et qui s’achèvent avec la fête des lanternes (traditionnels : 元宵節 ; simplifiés : 元宵节 ; pinyin : "yuánxiāojié").	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Alexander Grothendieck	Alexandre Grothendieck	Alexander Grothendieck (; ; ; 28 March 1928 – 13 November 2014) was a mathematician who became the leading figure in the creation of modern algebraic geometry. His research extended the scope of the field and added elements of commutative algebra, homological algebra, sheaf theory and category theory to its foundations, while his so-called "relative" perspective led to revolutionary advances in many areas of pure mathematics. He is considered by many to be the greatest mathematician of the 20th century.	Alexandre (ou Alexander) Grothendieck () est un mathématicien français, né le à Berlin et mort le à Saint-Lizier, près de Saint-Girons (Ariège). Il est resté longtemps apatride tout en vivant principalement en France ; il obtient la nationalité française en 1971.	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Badminton	Badminton	Badminton is a racquet sport played using racquets to hit a shuttlecock across a net. Although it may be played with larger teams, the most common forms of the game are "singles" (with one player per side) and "doubles" (with two players per side). Badminton is often played as a casual outdoor activity in a yard or on a beach; formal games are played on a rectangular indoor court. Points are scored by striking the shuttlecock with the racquet and landing it within the opposing side's half of the court.	Le badminton est un sport de raquette qui oppose soit deux joueurs (simples), soit deux paires (doubles), placés dans deux demi-terrains séparés par un filet. Les joueurs, appelés badistes, marquent des points en frappant un volant à l'aide d'une raquette afin de le faire tomber dans le terrain adverse. L'échange se termine dès que le volant touche le sol ou reste accroché dans le filet.	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Pierre-Gilles de Gennes	Pierre-Gilles de Gennes	Pierre-Gilles de Gennes (; 24 October 1932 – 18 May 2007) was a French physicist and the Nobel Prize laureate in physics in 1991.	Pierre-Gilles de Gennes, né le à Paris et mort le à Orsay, est un physicien français. Il reçut le prix Nobel de physique de 1991 pour ses travaux sur les cristaux liquides et les polymères. Ses contributions ont inspiré et généré de très nombreuses études relevant tant de la physique et de la physico-chimie fondamentales que des sciences appliquées.	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Vladimir Arnold	Vladimir Arnold	Vladimir Igorevich Arnold (alternative spelling Arnol'd,, 12 June 1937 – 3 June 2010) was a Soviet and Russian mathematician. While he is best known for the Kolmogorov–Arnold–Moser theorem regarding the stability of integrable systems, he made important contributions in several areas including dynamical systems theory, algebra, catastrophe theory, topology, algebraic geometry, symplectic geometry, differential equations, classical mechanics, hydrodynamics and singularity theory, including posing the ADE classification problem, since his first main result—the solution of Hilbert's thirteenth problem in 1957 at the age of 19. He co-founded two new branches of mathematics—KAM theory, and topological Galois theory (this, with his student Askold Khovanskii).	Vladimir Igorevitch Arnol'd (en ) est un mathématicien soviétique puis russe, né à Odessa en 1937 et mort à Paris en 2010.	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Emily Greene Balch	Emily Greene Balch	Emily Greene Balch (January 8, 1867 – January 9, 1961) was an American economist, sociologist and pacifist. Balch combined an academic career at Wellesley College with a long-standing interest in social issues such as poverty, child labor, and immigration, as well as settlement work to uplift poor immigrants and reduce juvenile delinquency.	Emily Greene Balch, née à Boston (Massachusetts) le et morte à Cambridge (Massachusetts) le, est une économiste, pacifiste et syndicaliste américaine. Elle est prix Nobel de la paix en 1946.	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Jody Williams	Jody Williams	Jody Williams (born October 9, 1950) is an American political activist known for her work in banning anti-personnel landmines, her defense of human rights (especially those of women), and her efforts to promote new understandings of security in today's world. She was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1997 for her work toward the banning and clearing of anti-personnel mines.	Jody Williams, née le à Brattleboro, Vermont, États-Unis, est une professeure d'université américaine. En 1997, elle reçoit le prix Nobel de la paix pour la Campagne internationale pour l'interdiction des mines antipersonnel terrestres.	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Maxim Kontsevich	Maxime Kontsevitch	Maxim Lvovich Kontsevich (, ; born 25 August 1964) is a Russian and French mathematician. He is a professor at the Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques and a distinguished professor at the University of Miami. He received the Henri Poincaré Prize in 1997, the Fields Medal in 1998, the Crafoord Prize in 2008, the Shaw Prize and Fundamental Physics Prize in 2012, and the Breakthrough Prize in Mathematics in 2014.	Maxime Lvovitch Kontsevitch (en ), le plus souvent orthographié Maxim Kontsevich selon la transcription anglophone, est un mathématicien russe, né le en URSS à Khimki, une ville jouxtant Moscou, en Russie. Il a été naturalisé français fin 1999.	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Hector	Hector	In Greek mythology and Roman mythology, Hector (;, ) was a Trojan prince and the greatest fighter for Troy in the Trojan War. He acted as leader of the Trojans and their allies in the defence of Troy, "killing 31,000 Greek fighters." He was ultimately killed by Achilles.	Dans la mythologie grecque, Hector (en grec ancien / ) est un héros troyen de la guerre de Troie. Fils du roi Priam et de la reine Hécube, il est tué par Achille qui veut venger la mort de Patrocle.	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Henri Cartan	Henri Cartan	Henri Paul Cartan (; 8 July 1904 – 13 August 2008) was a French mathematician who made substantial contributions to algebraic topology. He was the son of the French mathematician Élie Cartan and the brother of composer Jean Cartan.	Henri Cartan, né le à Nancy et mort le à Paris, est un mathématicien français. Il est le fils du mathématicien Élie Cartan et de Marie-Louise Bianconi. Il est couramment considéré comme l'un des mathématiciens français les plus influents de son époque. Il est connu pour ses travaux sur les fonctions de plusieurs variables complexes, la topologie (faisceaux, complexes d'Eilenberg-Mac Lane) et l'algèbre homologique. Il a été un des membres fondateurs du groupe Bourbaki. Il était le frère de Louis Cartan, physicien et résistant, de Jean Cartan, compositeur, ainsi que d'Hélène Cartan, mathématicienne.	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Patroclus	Patrocle	In Greek mythology, as recorded in Homer's "Iliad", Patroclus (Ancient Greek: Πάτροκλος "Pátroklos", "glory of the father") was a close wartime companion of Achilles. He was the son of Menoetius, the son of Actor, King of Opus.	Dans la mythologie grecque, Patrocle (en grec ancien ou ) est un des guerriers grecs de la guerre de Troie, principalement décrit dans l’"Iliade".	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Meal	Repas	A meal is an eating occasion that takes place at a certain time and includes prepared food. The names used for specific meals in English vary, depending on the speaker's culture, the time of day, or the size of the meal.	Un repas est un ensemble de nourriture composée de divers mets et de boisson que l'on absorbe à des heures précises de la journée. Par extension, le repas est une action spécifique, consacrée à l'alimentation, qui entre dans le cycle des activités journalières. Il est souvent perçu comme un acte naturel car il répond à la satisfaction de besoins physiologiques essentiels. D'un point de vue sociologique et anthropologique, le repas n'est pas uniquement pensé comme un moyen de se rassasier, mais aussi comme une manière ritualisée de produire et entretenir du lien social ; en témoigne la forte charge symbolique sociale, culturelle et/ou religieuse que contiennent les aliments dans les représentations humaines.	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Priam	Priam	In Greek mythology, Priam (;, ) was the legendary king of Troy during the Trojan War. His many children included notable characters like Hector and Paris.	Dans la mythologie grecque, Priam (en grec ancien ) est le roi mythique de Troie au moment de la guerre de Troie. Il est fils de Laomédon et de la nymphe Strymo ou de Zeuxippe et a pour épouse Hécube.	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Puddling (metallurgy)	Puddlage	Puddling is a step in the manufacture of high-grade iron in a crucible or furnace. Known by the 1st century AD in the Han Dynasty of ancient China, it was advanced in Great Britain during the Industrial Revolution. There molten pig iron in a reverberatory furnace was stirred with consumable rods resulting in a less brittle, more purified steel. It was one of the most important processes of making the first appreciable volumes of valuable and useful bar iron (malleable wrought iron). Eventually, the furnace would be used to make small quantities of specialty steels.	Le puddlage est un ancien procédé d'affinage de la fonte, consistant à la décarburer dans un four à l'aide de scories oxydantes pour obtenir du fer puddlé à partir de fonte.	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Bertha von Suttner	Bertha von Suttner	Bertha Felicitas Sophie Freifrau von Suttner (Baroness Bertha von Suttner, ; "née" Countess Kinsky; 9 June 184321 June 1914) was an Austrian-Bohemian pacifist and novelist. In 1905, she became the second female Nobel laureate (after Marie Curie in 1903), the first woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, and the first Austrian laureate.	Bertha Sophie Felicitas comtesse Kinský von Wchinitz und Tettau, baronne von Suttner, née le à Prague, morte le à Vienne, fut une pacifiste autrichienne radicale, lauréate en 1905 du prix Nobel de la paix. Issue de la haute aristocratie austro-hongroise, elle reçut de son milieu social une éducation assez cosmopolite et apprit dès son plus jeune âge à parler plusieurs langues. Elle a été vice-présidente du Bureau international de la paix de sa création en 1892 à sa mort en 1914.	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Université du Québec à Montréal	Université du Québec à Montréal	The Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM) is a public university based in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. It is a French-language university and is the largest constituent element of the Université du Québec system.	L’Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM) est un établissement d'enseignement universitaire situé à Montréal, au Canada. Elle est affiliée à l'Université du Québec. En 2015, selon les classements du'et du ', l'UQAM figure parmi les universités au monde ayant été créées ces années. Elle s’est vu décerner à neuf reprises au cours des onze dernières années le prix le plus prestigieux de la simulation des Nations unies à New York (NMUN), soit le « " ».	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Brazzaville	Brazzaville	Brazzaville (, ; Teke: Ncuna) is the capital and largest city of the Republic of the Congo (Congo Republic). Constituting the financial and administrative centre of the country, it is located on the north side of the Congo River, opposite Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR Congo). The population of the capital is estimated to exceed 1.8 million residents, comprising more than a third of the national populace, 40% of whom are employed in non-agricultural professions. During World War II, Brazzaville was also the capital of Free France between 1940 and 1942.	Brazzaville est la capitale politique et administrative, ainsi que la ville la plus peuplée de la République du Congo. Elle fut également la capitale de la France libre de 1940 à 1942. Elle compte 1 838 348 habitants en 2017. Les habitants de Brazzaville sont appelés les Brazzavillois.	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Estates General of 1789	États généraux de 1789	The Estates General of 1789 was a general assembly representing the French estates of the realm: the clergy (First Estate), the nobility (Second Estate), and the commoners (Third Estate), the last of Estates General of Kingdom of France. Summoned by King Louis XVI, it was brought to an end when the Third Estate formed into a National Assembly, inviting the other two to join, against the wishes of the King. This signaled the outbreak of the French Revolution.	Les États généraux de 1789 sont les états généraux du royaume de France qui furent convoqués par le roi de France et de Navarre, Louis XVI, le.	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Chinese calendar	Calendrier chinois	The traditional Chinese calendar (officially known as the Agricultural Calendar [], Former Calendar [], Traditional Calendar [] or Lunar Calendar []), is a lunisolar calendar which reckons years, months and days according to astronomical phenomena. In modern days, it is defined in China by GB/T 33661–2017, "Calculation and promulgation of the Chinese calendar", issued by the Standardisation Administration of China on 12 May 2017.	Le calendrier chinois est un calendrier luni-solaire (), les mois sont des mois lunaires, c'est-à-dire que le premier jour de chaque mois (de 29 ou 30 jours) coïncide avec la nouvelle lune (et le avec la pleine lune) ; comme 12 mois lunaires ne forment pas une année solaire (il s’en faut de 11 jours), on ajoute sept mois supplémentaires () au cours d’une période de dix-neuf ans, pour que l'année reste dans l'ensemble compatible avec l’année solaire.	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Tiffani Thiessen	Tiffani Thiessen	Tiffani Amber Thiessen (born January 23, 1974) is an American actress. She is known for starring as Kelly Kapowski on NBC's "Saved by the Bell" (1989–93) and as Valerie Malone on Fox's "Beverly Hills, 90210" (1994–98). Thiessen has also starred in other TV series such as Fox's "Fastlane" (2002–03), ABC's "What About Brian" (2007), and USA Network's "White Collar" (2009–14), as well as in a number of TV movies, and she has also appeared in several films like "Son in Law" (1993), "Shriek If You Know What I Did Last Friday the 13th" (2000), "Hollywood Ending" (2002), "Alexa and Katie" (2018-2020), and "Cyborg Soldier" (2008).	Tiffani Thiessen, de son nom complet Tiffani-Amber Thiessen, est une actrice et animatrice de télévision américaine, née le à Long Beach en Californie.	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8, 211402, 100527, 13, 4, 6, 40062, 95, 253, 14407, 18919, 22, 25971, 2472, 701, 5, 2 ]	null	null	null	null	null	null
Euler's theorem	Théorème d'Euler (arithmétique)	In number theory, Euler's theorem (also known as the Fermat–Euler theorem or Euler's totient theorem) states that if "n" and "a" are coprime positive integers, then where formula_2 is Euler's totient function. (The notation is explained in the article.) In 1736, Leonhard Euler published his proof of Fermat's little theorem, which Fermat had presented without proof. Subsequently, Euler presented other proofs of the theorem, culminating with "Euler's theorem" in his paper of 1763, in which he attempted to find the smallest exponent for which Fermat's little theorem was always true.	En mathématiques, le théorème d'Euler en arithmétique modulaire, publié en 1761 par le mathématicien suisse Leonhard Euler, s'énonce ainsi :	[ 250004, 250054, 615, 5177, 603, 25, 7, 70, 58391, 831, 186, 60449, 17368, 23755, 7, 1295, 70, 154453, 111, 94407, 12, 581, 99996, 13, 61112, 140807, 450, 621, 552, 114654, 47, 3173, 10, 21115, 1379, 127664, 1363, 15, 21231, 70, 5582, 19335, 52721, 4935, 21115, 111, 892, 26255, 140807, 44, 19, 58, 100, 41653, 194, 581, 12989, 111, 450, 21115, 83, 7440, 8, 157, 1636, 5177, 603, 25, 7, 1186, 18750, 32354, 5, 56822, 94250, 25, 7, 70, 58391, 117249, 450, 70, 12989, 111, 2499, 1614, 51588, 111, 10, 94418, 13, 21115, 101637, 7, 70, 12989, 111, 70, 64194, 21115, 4, 23, 903, 7225, 5, 4263, 83, 2499, 14012, 552, 114654, 47, 7068, 83, 23, 1632, 111, 6097, 99996, 13, 61112, 5, 12613, 7, 4, 21115, 12830, 1556, 94418, 13, 12989, 4, 136, 6863, 14537, 7, 140807, 3173, 10, 1614, 51588, 111, 70, 21115, 111, 99996, 13, 61112, 4, 678, 5, 56822, 94250, 25, 7, 70, 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4, 70, 27354, 1363, 111, 70, 24092, 111, 70, 26336, 7, 7, 10554, 4, 70, 145456, 7, 3934, 333, 111533, 9523, 159826, 2481, 4, 136, 51, 179193, 297, 73048, 5, 2 ]	[ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 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Demetrius I of Macedon	Démétrios Ier Poliorcète	Demetrius I (; ; 337–283 BC), called Poliorcetes (;, "The Besieger"), son of Antigonus I Monophthalmus and Stratonice, was a Macedonian nobleman, military leader, and finally king of Macedon (294–288 BC). He belonged to the Antigonid dynasty and was its first member to rule Macedonia.	Démétrios Poliorcète (en grec ancien / ) ou « Preneur de villes », né en 336 av. J.-C., mort en 283, est un général macédonien de la dynastie des Antigonides. Fils d'Antigone le Borgne, roi d'Asie de 306 à 301 et roi de Macédoine de 294 à 288, ses ambitions impériales se heurtent à une coalition des Diadoques qui aboutit au partage de la Macédoine et à sa défaite contre Séleucos. Il peut être considéré comme l'un des principaux, les héritiers des Diadoques.	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Lars Ahlfors	Lars Valerian Ahlfors	Lars Valerian Ahlfors (18 April 1907 – 11 October 1996) was a Finnish mathematician, remembered for his work in the field of Riemann surfaces and his text on complex analysis.	Lars Valerian Ahlfors est un mathématicien finlandais né en 1907 à Helsingfors (Helsinki aujourd'hui) et mort en 1996 dans le Massachusetts, aux États-Unis. Il a reçu la première médaille Fields en 1936.	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Anne Robert Jacques Turgot	Anne Robert Jacques Turgot	Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de l'Aulne (; ; 10 May 172718 March 1781), commonly known as Turgot, was a French economist and statesman. Originally considered a physiocrat, he is today best remembered as an early advocate for economic liberalism. He is thought to be the first economist to have recognized the law of diminishing marginal returns in agriculture.	Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, baron de l'Aulne, souvent appelé Turgot, né le à Paris, où il est mort le, est un homme politique et économiste français. Partisan des théories libérales de Quesnay et de Gournay, il est nommé secrétaire d’État à la Marine, puis contrôleur général des finances du roi Louis XVI. Néanmoins, ses mesures pour tenter de réduire dans le long terme la dette nationale et d'améliorer la vie du peuple n'ont pas porté leur fruit, et furent révoquées par son successeur, le baron Jean Clugny de Nuits.	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Aiseau	Aiseau	Aiseau (wa: "Åjhô") is a village on the Biesme, near its mouth on the Sambre. It is part of the municipality of Aiseau-Presles in the province of Hainaut (Wallonia region of Belgium). It was a separate municipality before the Merger of Commons in 1977.	Aiseau (en wallon "Åjhô") est un village belge de la commune d’Aiseau-Presles situé en Région wallonne dans la province de Hainaut, sur la Biesme, non loin de l’embouchure de celle-ci dans la Sambre. C'était une commune à part entière avant la fusion des communes de 1977.	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Socialization	Socialisation	In sociology, socialization is the process of internalizing the norms and ideologies of society. Socialization encompasses both learning and teaching and is thus "the means by which social and cultural continuity are attained".	La socialisation est le processus au cours duquel un individu apprend à vivre en société, durant lequel il intériorise les normes et les valeurs, et par lequel il construit son identité psychologique et sociale.	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Schedule (computer science)	Théorie de l'ordonnancement	In the fields of databases and transaction processing (transaction management), a schedule (or history) of a system is an abstract model to describe execution of transactions running in the system. Often it is a "list" of operations (actions) ordered by time, performed by a set of transactions that are executed together in the system. If the order in time between certain operations is not determined by the system, then a "partial order" is used. Examples of such operations are requesting a read operation, reading, writing, aborting, committing, requesting a lock, locking, etc. Not all transaction operation types should be included in a schedule, and typically only selected operation types (e.g., data access operations) are included, as needed to reason about and describe certain phenomena. Schedules and schedule properties are fundamental concepts in database concurrency control theory.	La théorie de l'ordonnancement est une branche de la recherche opérationnelle qui s'intéresse au calcul de dates d'exécution optimales de tâches. Pour cela, il est très souvent nécessaire d'affecter en même temps les ressources nécessaires à l'exécution de ces tâches. Un problème d'ordonnancement peut être considéré comme un sous-problème de planification dans lequel il s'agit de décider de l'exécution opérationnelle des tâches planifiées.	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Shilling	Shilling	The shilling is a historical coin, and the name of a unit of modern currencies formerly used in Austria (Schilling), and in the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and other British Commonwealth countries.	Le shilling ou schilling est une unité monétaire utilisée dans divers pays. Le mot "shilling" vient du vieil anglais ou et fut utilisé comme traduction du latin solidus. L'adaptation française "chelin" était aussi employée en vieux français canadien et est employée en français de Jersey.	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Tryo	Tryo	Tryo () is a French-language 'unplugged' ska acoustic band, popular in Europe and Quebec, with three French guitarists, a percussionist, and a producer: Guizmo, Christophe Mali, Manu Eveno, Daniel "Danielito" Bravo and Bibou.	Tryo est un groupe de chanson française à forte influence reggae. Bien que son nom puisse prêter à confusion, Tryo est composé de quatre membres sur scène : Guizmo (de son vrai nom Cyril Célestin), Christophe Mali, Manu Eveno et Daniel Bravo (dit Danielito). Leur producteur exécutif et coproducteur, Sébastien Pujol (surnommé Bibou) prend une part importante dans les activités du groupe, si bien qu'il est compté comme son cinquième membre.	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Norbert Wiener	Norbert Wiener	Norbert Wiener (November 26, 1894 – March 18, 1964) was an American mathematician and philosopher. He was a professor of mathematics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). A child prodigy, Wiener later became an early researcher in stochastic and mathematical noise processes, contributing work relevant to electronic engineering, electronic communication, and control systems.	Norbert Wiener (né le à Columbia (Missouri), États-Unis, mort le à Stockholm, Suède) est un mathématicien américain, théoricien et chercheur en mathématiques appliquées, surtout connu comme le père fondateur de la cybernétique.	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Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr	Ahmad Hassan al-Bakr	Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr ( ""; 1 July 1914 – 4 October 1982) was the fourth President of Iraq, from 17 July 1968 until 16 July 1979. A leading member of the revolutionary Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, and later, the Baghdad-based Ba'ath Party and its regional organisation Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region (the Ba'ath Party's Iraqi branch), which espoused Ba'athism, a mix of Arab nationalism and Arab socialism.	Ahmad Hassan al-Bakr, ou "Hassan Ahmed al-Bakr", né en 1914, mort en 1982, fut président de la République d'Irak de 1968 à 1979.	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Emmy Award	Emmy Awards	An Emmy Award, or simply Emmy, is an American award that recognizes excellence in the television industry. It is presented at numerous annual events held throughout the calendar year, each honoring one of the various sectors of the television industry. The two ceremonies that receive the most media coverage are the Primetime Emmy Awards and the Daytime Emmy Awards, which recognize outstanding work in American primetime and daytime entertainment programming, respectively. Other notable Emmy events include those honoring national sports programming, national news and documentary shows, and technological and engineering achievements in television, including the Primetime Engineering Emmy Awards. Regional Emmy Awards are also presented throughout the country at various times through the year, recognizing excellence in local and statewide television. In addition, the International Emmy Awards honor excellence in TV programming produced and initially aired outside the United States.	Les, surnommés ', sont des récompenses de télévision américaine, remises par l qui honorent chaque année, depuis 1949, les meilleures émissions et les meilleurs professionnels de la télévision américaine.	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Languedoc	Languedoc	Languedoc (, ; ) is a former province of France. Its territory is now contained in the modern-day region of Occitanie in the south of France. Its capital city was Toulouse. It had an area of approximately 42,700 square kilometers (16,490 square miles).	Le Languedoc ( ; "Lengadòc", en occitan) est un territoire du Sud de la France traditionnellement divisé en Haut-Languedoc, approximativement compris dans l’ancienne région Midi-Pyrénées, et Bas-Languedoc, qui correspond approximativement à l’ancienne région Languedoc-Roussillon. Le nom de Languedoc est une traduction française et une contraction du nom latin Lingua Occitana littéralement traduit par « Langue occitane ». Le Languedoc fait partie de l’Occitanie, vaste espace géographique de langue d'oc. Ses habitants sont les "Languedociens", son dialecte s'appelle "le languedocien".	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Frank Lloyd Wright	Frank Lloyd Wright	Frank Lloyd Wright (June 8, 1867 – April 9, 1959) was an American architect, interior designer, writer, and educator, whose creative period spanned more than 70 years, designing more than 1,000 structures, of which 532 were completed. Wright believed in designing structures that were in harmony with humanity and its environment, a philosophy he called organic architecture. This philosophy was best exemplified by Fallingwater (1935), which has been called "the best all-time work of American architecture." As a founder of organic architecture, Wright played a key role in the architectural movements of the twentieth century, influencing three generations of architects worldwide through his works.	Frank Lloyd Wright, né le à Richland Center dans le Wisconsin et mort le à Phoenix en Arizona, est un architecte et concepteur américain.	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Pound sterling	Livre sterling	Pound sterling (symbol: £; ISO code: GBP), known in some contexts simply as the pound or sterling, is the official currency of the United Kingdom, Jersey, Guernsey, the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, the British Antarctic Territory, and Tristan da Cunha. It is subdivided into 100 "pence" (singular: "penny", abbreviated: "p"). The Pound sterling is the oldest currency in continuous use. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have currencies called the "pound".	La livre sterling (), souvent abrégée en livre (), est l'unité monétaire officielle du Royaume-Uni, des dépendances de la Couronne britannique, et des territoires britanniques d'outre-mer. Toutefois, il faut différencier plusieurs livres sterling selon les territoires.	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Obscurantism	Obscurantisme	Obscurantism ( and ) is the practice of deliberately presenting information in an imprecise and abstruse manner, often designed to forestall further inquiry and understanding. There are two historical and intellectual denotations of "Obscurantism": (1) the deliberate restriction of knowledge—opposition to disseminating knowledge; and (2) deliberate obscurity—a recondite literary or artistic style, characterized by deliberate vagueness.	Pour les courants intellectuels et politiques progressistes, héritiers de la philosophie des Lumières, l’obscurantisme est une attitude d'opposition à la diffusion du savoir, dans n'importe quel domaine.	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Television in France	Télévision en France	Television in France was introduced in 1931, when the first experimental broadcasts began. Colour television was introduced in October 1967 on La Deuxième Chaîne.	Au départ, en ce qui concerne la télévision en France, les premières chaînes de télévision étaient des chaînes d'État (RDF puis RTF puis ORTF). Une ouverture de nouveaux canaux en 1984 pour des chaînes privées et la privatisation de TF1 en 1987 a permis l’apparition de chaînes commerciales financées par la publicité, après que les radios libres apparurent en 1981. Au, le nombre de services de télévision titulaires d’une convention ou bénéficiant du régime déclaratif était de 216, dont 154 services de télévision conventionnés et 62 services déclarés.	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Salman Khan	Salman Khan	Abdul Rashid Salim Salman Khan (; Hindi: ; 27 December 1965) is an Indian film actor, producer, occasional singer and television personality. In a film career spanning over thirty years, Khan has received numerous awards, including two National Film Awards as a film producer, and two Filmfare Awards for acting. He is cited in the media as one of the most commercially successful actors of both world and Indian cinema. "Forbes" included him in their 2015 list of Top-Paid 100 Celebrity Entertainers in world; Khan tied with Amitabh Bachchan for No. 71 on the list, both with earnings of $33.5 million. According to the "Forbes" 2018 list of Top-Paid 100 Celebrity Entertainers in world, Khan was the highest ranked Indian with 82nd rank with earnings of $37.7 million. He is also known as the host of the reality show, "Bigg Boss" since 2010.	Salman Khan (1965 - ) est surnommé « Sallu, Bhai », est un acteur de Bollywood. Il est le fils du scénariste Salim Khan. Ses deux frères, Arbaaz Khan et Sohail Khan, sont également acteurs.	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Free and open-source software	Free/Libre Open Source Software	Free and open-source software (FOSS) is software that can be classified as both free software and open-source software. That is, anyone is freely licensed to use, copy, study, and change the software in any way, and the source code is openly shared so that people are encouraged to voluntarily improve the design of the software. This is in contrast to proprietary software, where the software is under restrictive copyright licensing and the source code is usually hidden from the users.	L'emploi de ces expressions permet de ne pas prendre parti entre les deux courants, en insistant sur ce qui les unit : le fait que les logiciels sont publiés sous licence libre afin de permettre aux utilisateurs d'utiliser à toute fin, de copier, d'étudier, de modifier et de redistribuer à titre gratuit ou onéreux ces derniers grâce à la disponibilité du code source. D'après Richard Stallman, l'initiateur du mouvement du logiciel libre via le projet GNU, l'usage du terme « FLOSS » est légitime dans le cas précis où l'on ne souhaite pas prendre parti pour l'une ou l'autre approche.	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Romandy	Suisse romande	Romandy ( or,,, ) is the French-speaking part of western Switzerland. In 2018, about 2.1 million people, or 25.1% of the Swiss population, lived in Romandy. The majority of the'population lives in the western part of the country, especially the'region along Lake Geneva, connecting Geneva, Vaud and the Lower Valais.	La Suisse romande ou Romandie () (' ou'pour les Suisses alémaniques et "" pour la Suisse italienne) est la partie francophone de la Suisse. Les habitants de la Suisse romande sont appelés "Romands" et "Romandes".	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TV Boy	TV Boy	The TV Boy and its successors TV Boy II and Super TV Boy are 1990s handheld TV games sold by many different companies, including Systema, Akor, and NICS, based upon an unlicensed clone of Atari 2600 hardware. They were widely available across Europe. In the UK they were most visibly available through Argos. They were released around 1992, and an improved version of the TV Boy 2, the Super TV Boy, was also made by Akor in 1995.	La TV Boy est une console de jeux vidéo qui reprend 126 jeux compatibles avec l'Atari 2600. La console inclut en fait 128 programmes et le premier est le menu qui permet d'accéder aux 126 jeux. Celui qui reste est un programme de test.	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Michel Platini	Michel Platini	Michel François Platini (born 21 June 1955) is a French former football player, manager and administrator. As the president of UEFA in 2015 he was banned from football, over ethics violations. Regarded as one of the greatest footballers of all time, Platini won the Ballon d'Or three times, in 1983, 1984 and 1985, and came sixth in the FIFA Player of the Century vote. In recognition of his achievements, he was named a Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur in 1985 and became an Officier in 1998.	Michel Platini, né le à Jœuf (Meurthe-et-Moselle), est un joueur de football international français, qui évoluait au poste de milieu de terrain offensif, avant de devenir entraîneur puis dirigeant.	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Brazilian real	Réal brésilien	The Brazilian real (;, pl. ; sign: R$; code: BRL) is the official currency of Brazil. It is subdivided into 100 centavos. The Central Bank of Brazil is the central bank and the issuing authority. The real replaced the Brazilian cruzeiro in 1994.	Le réal brésilien (au pluriel réaux ; sans accent, pluriel ) est la monnaie du Brésil depuis 1994. Le réal brésilien est divisé en. Son code ISO 4217 international est BRL, son abréviation locale usuelle est R$.	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Switch	Interrupteur	In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can disconnect or connect the conducting path in an electrical circuit, interrupting the electric current or diverting it from one conductor to another. The most common type of switch is an electromechanical device consisting of one or more sets of movable electrical contacts connected to external circuits. When a pair of contacts is touching current can pass between them, while when the contacts are separated no current can flow.	Un interrupteur "(dérivé de rupture)" est un organe, physique ou virtuel, permettant d'interrompre ou d'autoriser le passage d'un flux. Le premier interrupteur utilisant la technologie "quick-break" fut inventé par John Henry Holmes en 1864 dans le district de Shieldfield à Newcastle upon Tyne. Il ne faut pas confondre l'interrupteur qui permet d'éteindre ou d'allumer un appareil, et le commutateur qui permet de choisir entre plusieurs états actifs d'un appareil.	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Jules Ferry	Jules Ferry	Jules François Camille Ferry (; 5 April 183217 March 1893) was a French statesman and republican. He was a promoter of laicism and colonial expansion.	Jules Ferry, né le à Saint-Dié (Vosges) et mort le à Paris, est un homme d'État français. Opposant à l'Empire, il est après la chute de celui-ci, en 1870, membre du gouvernement provisoire et, pour quelques mois, maire de Paris.	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Tenspeed and Brown Shoe	Timide et sans complexe	Tenspeed and Brown Shoe is an American detective/comedy series originally broadcast by the ABC network between January and June 1980. The series was created and executive produced by Stephen J. Cannell. Most of the show's creative staff (Cannell, Juanita Bartlett, Gordon T. Dawson) were veterans of the private detective series "The Rockford Files", which concluded its run about two weeks before "Tenspeed and Brown Shoe" debuted.	Timide et sans complexe ("") est une série télévisée américaine en 14 épisodes de 47 minutes (une seule saison) créée par Stephen J. Cannell diffusée du 27 janvier au sur le réseau ABC.	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Atari 2600	Atari 2600	The Atari 2600, originally branded as the Atari Video Computer System or Atari VCS for short until November 1982, is a home video game console from Atari, Inc. Released on September 11, 1977, it is credited with popularizing the use of microprocessor-based hardware and games stored on ROM cartridges (a format first used with the Fairchild Channel F in 1976) instead of dedicated hardware with games physically built into the unit. The 2600 was bundled with two joystick controllers, a conjoined pair of paddle controllers, and a game cartridge: initially "Combat", and later "Pac-Man".	L’Atari 2600, à l’origine appelée Atari VCS, est une console de jeux vidéo de deuxième génération produite par Atari entre 1977 et 1992.	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Xena: Warrior Princess	Xena, la guerrière	Xena: Warrior Princess is an American fantasy television series filmed on location in New Zealand. The series aired in first-run syndication from September 4, 1995, to June 18, 2001. Critics have praised the series for its strong female protagonist, and it has acquired a strong cult following, attention in fandom,, and academia, and has influenced the direction of other television series.	Xena, la guerrière (') est une série télévisée américaine et néo-zélandaise en 134 épisodes de 42 minutes créée par les réalisateurs et producteurs Robert Tapert et John Schulian, avec l'aide des producteurs Sam Raimi et R. J. Stewart. Elle fut produite par ', dont les propriétaires sont Robert Tapert et Sam Raimi, réalisateur de la série et distribuée par Universal Pictures. Elle a été diffusée entre le et le en syndication. Il s'agit d'une série dérivée d’"Hercule".	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Towpath	Halage	A towpath is a road or trail on the bank of a river, canal, or other inland waterway. The purpose of a towpath is to allow a land vehicle, beasts of burden, or a team of human pullers to tow a boat, often a barge. This mode of transport was common where sailing was impractical due to tunnels and bridges, unfavourable winds, or the narrowness of the channel.	Le halage est un mode de traction terrestre des péniches, des coches d'eau et d'une manière générale des bateaux fluviaux, qui consiste à les faire avancer le long d’une rivière, d’un canal, au moyen d’une corde tirée jadis à force de bras ou par des chevaux, à présent par un engin automoteur.	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Nobility	Noblesse	Nobility is a social class normally ranked immediately below royalty and found in some societies that have a formal aristocracy. Nobility possesses more acknowledged privileges and higher social status than most other classes in society. The privileges associated with nobility may constitute substantial advantages over or relative to non-nobles, or may be largely honorary (e.g., precedence), and vary by country and era. As referred to in the Medieval chivalric motto "noblesse oblige" ("nobility obliges"), nobles can also carry a lifelong duty to uphold various social responsibilities, such as honourable behaviour, customary service, or leadership positions. Membership in the nobility, including rights and responsibilities, is typically hereditary.	La noblesse d'un pays (en général un royaume, mais aussi des républiques comme Rome ou Venise), ou d'une province de ce pays, désigne l'institution d'un ensemble de familles chargées d'assurer des fonctions d'autorité militaire et politiques plus ou moins étendues, dans le cadre de charges ou d'emplois réservés. Lorsque ces fonctions sont religieuses, comme chez les lévites ou les brahmanes, on ne parle pas de noblesse, mais de caste sacerdotale.	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La Cinq	La Cinq	La Cinq () was France's first privately owned free-to-air television network. Created by politician Jérôme Seydoux and Italian media mogul Silvio Berlusconi, the network broadcast from 1985 to 1992.	La Cinq, éditée par la société France 5 puis par La Cinq S.A., (ou La Société d'exploitation de la chaine), est la première chaîne de télévision généraliste nationale commerciale privée et gratuite française diffusée du au.	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Hernán Cortés	Hernán Cortés	Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro Altamirano, 1st Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca (; ; 1485 – December 2, 1547) was a Spanish "Conquistador" who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions of what is now mainland Mexico under the rule of the King of Castile in the early 16th century. Cortés was part of the generation of Spanish explorers and conquistadors who began the first phase of the Spanish colonization of the Americas.	Hernán Cortés (parfois écrit Cortès ou Cortez), dont le nom complet est Fernando Cortés de Monroy Pizarro Altamirano, premier marquis de la Vallée d'Oaxaca, né, probablement, en 1485, à Medellín (un village d'Estrémadure) et mort à Castilleja de la Cuesta (près de Séville) le, est un conquistador espagnol qui s'est emparé de l'Empire aztèque pour le compte de Charles Quint, roi de Castille et empereur romain germanique. Cette conquête est l'acte fondateur de la Nouvelle-Espagne et marque une étape fondamentale de la colonisation espagnole des Amériques au.	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Somaliland	Somaliland	Somaliland (; ', '), officially the Republic of Somaliland (, "Jumhūrīyat Ṣūmālīlānd"), is a self-declared state, internationally considered to be an autonomous region of Somalia. The government of the de facto state of Somaliland regards itself as the successor state to the former British Somaliland protectorate, which, in the form of the briefly independent State of Somaliland, united as scheduled on 1 July 1960 with the Trust Territory of Somaliland (the former Italian Somaliland) to form the Somali Republic.	Le Somaliland, en forme longue la république du Somaliland (en somali,'et'; en arabe,, "Arḍ aṣ-Ṣūmāl", et, "Jumhūrīyat Arḍ aṣ-Ṣūmāl"), est un ancien territoire britannique situé dans la Corne de l'Afrique. Son indépendance autoproclamée en 1991 par rapport à la Somalie et sa Constitution du 30 avril 2000 ne sont pas reconnues par la communauté internationale. Il est revendiqué comme un État de la République fédérale de Somalie depuis la modification des entités territoriales de 2016.	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Richard Dean Anderson	Richard Dean Anderson	Richard Dean Anderson (born January 23, 1950) is an American actor and producer. He began his television career in 1976, playing Jeff Webber in the American soap-opera series "General Hospital", then rose to prominence as the lead actor in the television series "MacGyver" (1985–1992). He later appeared in films such as "Through the Eyes of a Killer" (1992), "Pandora's Clock" (1996), and "Firehouse" (1997).	Richard Dean Anderson est un acteur et producteur américain né le à Minneapolis, dans le Minnesota. Il est célèbre pour être l'interprète principal des séries télévisées "MacGyver" et "Stargate SG-1".	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Sports in the United States	Sport aux États-Unis	Sport in the USA are an important part of American culture. American football is the most popular sport to watch in the United States, followed by baseball, basketball, and ice hockey, which makes up the "4 major sports". Soccer, tennis, golf, wrestling, auto racing, arena football, field lacrosse, box lacrosse and volleyball are also played in the country. Based on Olympic Games, World Championships, and other major competitions in respective sports, the United States is the most successful sports nation in the world.	Le sport est très important dans la culture des États-Unis d'Amérique. Les quatre sports d'équipes les plus populaires sont: le football américain, le baseball, le basket-ball et le hockey sur glace. Les ligues majeures de ces sports, la National Football League (NFL), la Ligue majeure de baseball (MLB), la National Basketball Association (NBA) et la Ligue nationale de hockey (NHL),jouissent ainsi d'une exposition médiatique massive et sont considérés comme les compétitions par excellence dans le monde. Chacune de ces ligues ont des équipes qui jouent au Canada, sauf la NFL, et toutes les quatre sont parmi les ligues sportives les plus lucratives au monde. Le soccer (le football tel qu'il est connu en Europe) est moins populaire aux États-Unis que dans de nombreux autres pays, même s'il possède une large participation chez les amateurs, en particulier chez les jeunes et les femmes.	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Vassal	Vassalité	A vassal is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. The obligations often included military support by knights in exchange for certain privileges, usually including land held as a tenant or fief. The term is also applied to similar arrangements in other feudal societies.	Héritière du compagnonnage d'arme du haut Moyen Âge, la vassalité est la situation de dépendance d’un homme libre (vassal, du celtique *uasso-, "jeune homme", "écuyer", par le latin médiéval "vassus" puis "vassalus") envers son seigneur par la cérémonie de l’hommage. Le système féodo-vassalique s’est développé à cause de l’affaiblissement de l’autorité publique après l’effondrement de l’empire carolingien ( - ) : l’empereur, les rois et bientôt les princes territoriaux étaient incapables de faire régner l’ordre et d’imposer leur pouvoir aux seigneurs locaux. Un réseau de relations d’homme à homme s’impose donc, donnant des droits et des devoirs pour chacun d’entre eux, une pyramide sociale allant théoriquement du roi au grand seigneur (grand feudataire), seigneur, vassal et arrière-vassal (Vavasseur) mais dont l'effectivité dépend de l'autorité du supérieur.	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Skylab	Skylab	Skylab was the first United States space station, launched by NASA, occupied for about 24 weeks between May 1973 and February 1974. It was operated by three separate three-astronaut crews: SL-2, SL-3 and SL-4. Major operations included an orbital workshop, a solar observatory, Earth observation, and hundreds of experiments.	"Skylab" est mise en orbite le. Au cours de son lancement, la station perd une partie de son revêtement thermique et un de ses panneaux solaires. Le premier équipage, qui la rejoint quelques jours plus tard, doit d'abord restaurer son habitabilité. Trois équipages y séjournent entre 1973 et 1974, dont le dernier, durant près de 84 jours, établit un nouveau record. Les astronautes réalisent à bord de nombreuses observations scientifiques, en particulier l'observation du Soleil grâce à une batterie d'instruments et l'étude de l'adaptation de l'homme à l'espace. À l'issue de ces missions et faute de lanceurs disponibles et de budget, la station est mise en sommeil en attendant la mise au point de la Navette spatiale américaine en cours de développement. Mais le planning de ce projet prend du retard et l'intensité inattendue de l'activité solaire dégrade plus rapidement que prévu l'orbite de la station spatiale, qui se désintègre en rentrant dans l'atmosphère le.	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Mars, Incorporated	Mars (entreprise)	Mars, Incorporated is an American global manufacturer of confectionery, pet food, and other food products and a provider of animal care services, with US$33 billion in annual sales in 2015. It was ranked as the 6th largest privately held company in the United States by "Forbes". Headquartered in McLean, Virginia, United States, the company is entirely owned by the Mars family. Mars operates in five business segments around the world: Mars Wrigley Confectionary (headquartered in Chicago, Illinois, with US headquarters in Hackettstown and Newark, New Jersey), Petcare (Zaventem, Belgium; Poncitlán and Jalisco, Mexico; Querétaro, Mexico), Food (Rancho Dominguez, California), Drinks (West Chester, Pennsylvania), and Symbioscience (Germantown, Maryland), the company's life sciences division.	Mars Incorporated est une entreprise agroalimentaire et un groupe agroindustriel américain qui est implanté dans une centaine de pays et a un chiffre d'affaires annuel de plus de 30 milliards de dollars. Le siège social est basé à McLean en Virginie aux États-Unis. La société a la particularité d'être entièrement détenue par la famille Mars.	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Clarinet	Clarinette	The clarinet is a family of woodwind instruments. It has a single-reed mouthpiece, a straight, cylindrical tube with an almost cylindrical bore, and a flared bell. A person who plays a clarinet is called a "clarinetist" (sometimes spelled "clarinettist").	La clarinette (du provençal "clarin" désignant un hautbois) est un instrument de musique à vent de la famille des bois caractérisé par son anche simple et sa perce quasi cylindrique. Elle a été créée vers 1690 par Johann Christoph Denner (1655-1707) à Nuremberg sur la base d'un instrument à anche simple plus ancien : le « chalumeau ». La clarinette soprano (en si♭) est le modèle le plus commun.	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John Lasseter	John Lasseter	John Alan Lasseter (; born January 12, 1957) is an American animator, film director, screenwriter, producer, voice actor and former chief creative officer of Walt Disney Animation Studios, Pixar and Disneytoon Studios. He was also the Principal Creative Advisor for Walt Disney Imagineering.	John Lasseter, né le à Hollywood (Los Angeles), est un réalisateur et producteur américain de films d'animation. Il est directeur artistique de Pixar Animation Studios et de Walt Disney Animation Studios ainsi que conseiller artistique de Walt Disney Imagineering.	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National Football League	National Football League	The National Football League (NFL) is a professional American football league consisting of 32 teams, divided equally between the National Football Conference (NFC) and the American Football Conference (AFC). The NFL is one of the four major professional sports leagues in North America, the highest professional level of American football in the world, the wealthiest professional sport league by revenue, and the sport league with the most valuable teams. The NFL's 17-week regular season runs from early September to late December, with each team playing 16 games and having one bye week. Following the conclusion of the regular season, seven teams from each conference (four division winners and three wild card teams) advance to the playoffs, a single-elimination tournament culminating in the Super Bowl, which is usually held on the first Sunday in February and is played between the champions of the NFC and AFC.	La'(désignée par la traduction non officielle « Ligue nationale de football américain » en français), abrégée par son sigle NFL, est une association d'équipes professionnelles de football américain, active aux États-Unis. La NFL a été créée en 1920, d'abord sous le nom d (APFA), avant d’être rebaptisée " en 1922. La NFL organise chaque année un championnat très suivi aux États-Unis ponctué par un événement majeur : le Super Bowl.	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Pierre Trudeau	Pierre Elliott Trudeau	Joseph Philippe Pierre Yves Elliott Trudeau (, ; October 18, 1919 – September 28, 2000), mostly referred to as simply Pierre Trudeau, or by the initials PET, was a Canadian politician who was the 15th prime minister of Canada and leader of the Liberal Party of Canada, between 1968 and 1984, with a brief period as Leader of the Opposition, from 1979 to 1980. His tenure of 15 years and 164 days makes him Canada's third longest-serving Prime Minister, behind William Lyon Mackenzie King and John A. Macdonald.	Pierre Elliott Trudeau surnommé PET, né le à Outremont (Québec) et mort le à Montréal, est un homme d'État canadien. Il exerce la fonction de premier ministre du Canada à deux reprises : du au, puis du au, sous la bannière du Parti libéral. Par sa longévité politique et l'importance des changements qu'il a mis en œuvre, il est certainement la figure politique canadienne la plus importante de la seconde moitié du. En tant que ministre de la Justice sous Lester B. Pearson, il fait adopter le "Bill omnibus" qui légalise le divorce et décriminalise l'avortement et l'homosexualité, considérant que.	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Musk	Musc	Musk is a class of aromatic substances commonly used as base notes in perfumery. They include glandular secretions from animals such as the musk deer, numerous plants emitting similar fragrances, and artificial substances with similar odors. "Musk" was a name originally given to a substance with a strong odor obtained from a gland of the musk deer. The substance has been used as a popular perfume fixative since ancient times and is one of the most expensive animal products in the world. The name originates from the Late Greek μόσχος'moskhos', from Persian'mushk', similar to Sanskrit मुष्क muṣka ("testicle"), derived from Proto-Indo-European noun "mouse". The deer gland was thought to resemble a scrotum. It is applied to various plants and animals of similar smell (e.g. muskox) and has come to encompass a wide variety of aromatic substances with similar odors, despite their often differing chemical structures and molecular shapes.	Le musc est une matière première animale entrant dans la composition des parfums. Il est extrait des glandes abdominales des cerfs porte-musc d'Asie centrale. D'autres espèces animales et végétales peuvent produire une substance qualifiée de musc, notamment les Viverridés, comme les civettes, le rat musqué, l'érismature à barbillons, le canard musqué et le bœuf musqué.	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Imperial, royal and noble ranks	Titre de noblesse	Traditional rank amongst European royalty, peers, and nobility is rooted in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Although they vary over time and among geographic regions (for example, one region's prince might be equal to another's grand duke), the following is a reasonably comprehensive list that provides information on both general ranks and specific differences.	Un titre de noblesse est soit un titre hérité par des personnes de condition noble, soit un titre conférant la noblesse. Il correspond à l'origine à l'exercice de fonctions d'autorité déléguées de celles du souverain : militaires ou judiciaires. D'abord attaché à l'exercice de cette autorité sur une population ou un peuple : prince ou duc des Normands, duc des Francs, "dux Bavarorum", à partir du, il devient attaché au nom de la circonscription territoriale sur laquelle il s'exerçait (duché, comté, vicomté, baronnie, etc.).	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Ghoul	Goule	Ghoul (, "") is a demon-like being or monstrous humanoid originating in pre-Islamic Arabian religion associated with graveyards and consuming human flesh. In modern fiction, the term has often been used for a certain kind of undead monster.	La goule (de l'arabe, "al-ghoûl" ; féminin "al-ghoûla" ; « l'ogre ») est une créature monstrueuse du folklore arabe préislamique qui apparaît dans les contes des "Mille et Une Nuits". Elle forme une classe de djinns, comme les éfrits par exemple, et est donc à ce titre l'engeance du diable, Iblis. Les goules changent de forme, prenant le plus souvent l'apparence d'une hyène ou celle d'une femme, mais elles sont reconnaissables à leurs pieds fourchus, seul élément constant de leur apparence.	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Garden roses	Rose (fleur)	Garden roses are predominantly hybrid roses that are grown as ornamental plants in private or public gardens. They are one of the most popular and widely cultivated groups of flowering plants, especially in temperate climates. Numerous cultivars have been produced, especially over the last two centuries, though roses have been known in the garden for millennia beforehand. While most garden roses are grown for their flowers, some are also valued for other reasons, such as having ornamental fruit, providing ground cover, or for hedging.	La rose est la fleur des rosiers, arbustes du genre "Rosa" et de la famille des "Rosaceae". La rose des jardins se caractérise avant tout par la multiplication de ses pétales imbriqués qui lui donne sa forme caractéristique.	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Belinda Stronach	Belinda Stronach	Belinda Caroline Stronach, (born May 2, 1966) is a Canadian businesswoman, philanthropist and former Member of Parliament (MP) in the House of Commons of Canada from 2004 to 2008. Originally elected as a Conservative, she later crossed the floor to join the Liberals. From May 17, 2005, to February 6, 2006, Stronach was the Minister of Human Resources and Skills Development and Minister responsible for Democratic Renewal in the government of Paul Martin. After leaving politics, she served as the executive vice-chairman of Magna International, Canada's largest automotive parts manufacturer until December 31, 2010.	Belinda Stronach (née le à Newmarket, Ontario) est une femme d'affaires et une femme politique canadienne. Elle fut PDG de la compagnie Magna International. Elle a également été députée du Parti libéral du Canada (PLC) à la Chambre des communes du Canada avant de retourner travailler pour Magna International.	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Seven Years' War	Guerre de Sept Ans	The Seven Years' War was a global conflict that was fought between 1756 and 1763. It involved all five European great powers of the time—the Kingdoms of Great Britain, Prussia and France, the Habsburg Monarchy of Austria and the Russian Empire—plus many of Europe's middle powers and spanned five continents, affecting Europe, the Americas, West Africa, India, and the Philippines. The conflict split Europe into two coalitions: one was led by Great Britain (including the German state, the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg ruled in personal union) and Prussia, supported by the Kingdom of Portugal and a few other small German states; while the other was led by France and included the Austrian-led Holy Roman Empire, including the Electorate of Saxony and most of the smaller German states, Russia (until 1762), the Kingdom of Spain, and Sweden. The Dutch Republic, Denmark–Norway, the Italian States, and the Ottoman Empire did not participate. Meanwhile, in India, some regional polities within the increasingly fragmented Mughal Empire, with the support of the French, failed to defeat a British attempt to conquer Bengal.	La guerre de Sept Ans (1756-1763) est un conflit majeur, le premier à pouvoir être qualifié de « guerre mondiale ». Elle mêle de façon conséquente les grandes puissances de l'époque, regroupées dans deux ensembles d'alliances antagonistes, se déroule simultanément sur plusieurs continents et théâtres d'opérations, notamment en Europe, en Amérique du Nord et en Inde.	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Nyx	Nyx	Nyx (;,,, 'Night') is the Greek goddess (or personification) of the night. A shadowy figure, Nyx stood at or near the beginning of creation and mothered other personified deities such as Hypnos (Sleep) and Thanatos (Death), with Erebus (Darkness). Her appearances are sparse in surviving mythology, but reveal her as a figure of such exceptional power and beauty that she is feared by Zeus himself.	Dans la mythologie grecque, Nyx (en grec ancien, en latin "") est la déesse primordiale de la Nuit personnifiée. Selon la "Théogonie" d'Hésiode, elle et son frère Érèbe (les Ténèbres) sont les premières divinités issues du Chaos primordial. Sa demeure se trouve au-delà du pays d'Atlas, à l'extrême Ouest.	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MacGyver (1985 TV series)	MacGyver	MacGyver is an American action-adventure television series created by Lee David Zlotoff and starring Richard Dean Anderson as the title character. Henry Winkler and John Rich were the executive producers. The series follows the adventures of Angus MacGyver, a secret agent armed with remarkable scientific resourcefulness to solve almost any problem out in the field using mundane materials at hand.	MacGyver est une série télévisée américaine d'action, d'aventure et d'espionnage en 139 épisodes de 47 minutes créée par Lee David Zlotoff et diffusée entre le et le sur le réseau ABC.	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Group action	Action de groupe (mathématiques)	In mathematics, a group action on a space is a group homomorphism of a given group into the group of transformations of the space. Similarly, a group action on a mathematical structure is a group homomorphism of a group into the automorphism group of the structure. It is said that the group "acts" on the space or structure. If a group acts on a structure, it also acts on everything that is built on the structure. For example, the group of Euclidean isometries acts on Euclidean space and also on the figures drawn in it. In particular, it acts on the set of all triangles. Similarly, the group of symmetries of a polyhedron acts on the vertices, the edges, and the faces of the polyhedron.	En mathématiques, une action d'un groupe sur un ensemble est une loi de composition externe du groupe sur l'ensemble, vérifiant des conditions supplémentaires. Plus précisément, c'est la donnée, pour chaque élément du groupe, d'une permutation de l'ensemble, de telle manière que toutes ces bijections se composent de façon compatible avec la loi du groupe.	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Enzyme inhibitor	Inhibiteur enzymatique	An enzyme inhibitor is a molecule that binds to an enzyme and decreases its activity. By binding to enzymes' active sites, inhibitors reduce the compatibility of substrate and enzyme and this leads to the inhibition of Enzyme-Substrate complexes' formation, preventing the catalyzation of reactions and decreasing (at times to zero) the amount of product produced by a reaction. It can be said that as the concentration of enzyme inhibitors increases, the rate of enzyme activity decreases, and thus, the amount of product produced is inversely proportional to the concentration of inhibitor molecules. Since blocking an enzyme's activity can kill a pathogen or correct a metabolic imbalance, many drugs are enzyme inhibitors. They are also used in pesticides. Not all molecules that bind to enzymes are inhibitors; "enzyme activators" bind to enzymes and increase their enzymatic activity, while enzyme substrates bind and are converted to products in the normal catalytic cycle of the enzyme.	Un inhibiteur enzymatique est une substance se liant à une enzyme et qui en diminue l'activité. Un inhibiteur peut empêcher la fixation du substrat sur le site actif en se fixant à sa place, ou provoquer une déformation de l'enzyme qui rend celle-ci inactive (inhibiteur allostérique). L'inhibition des enzymes joue un rôle important dans le contrôle des mécanismes biologiques, et notamment dans la régulation des voies métaboliques. Puisque l'inhibition d'une enzyme peut tuer un pathogène ou corriger un déséquilibre métabolique, des applications existent dans de nombreux autres domaines : beaucoup de médicaments, pesticides ou insecticides sont des inhibiteurs enzymatiques. En enzymologie, les inhibiteurs sont très utilisés pour déterminer le mécanisme d'action d'une enzyme. Toutes les molécules ou ligands se liant à une enzyme ne sont pas des inhibiteurs, les activateurs enzymatiques existent également et accroissent l'activité de l'enzyme.	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Battle of Rossbach	Bataille de Rossbach	The Battle of Rossbach took place on 5November 1757 during the Third Silesian War (1756–1763, part of the Seven Years' War) near the village of Rossbach (Roßbach), in the Electorate of Saxony. It is sometimes called the Battle of, or at, Reichardtswerben, after a different nearby town. In this 90-minute battle, Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, defeated an Allied army composed of French forces augmented by a contingent of the Reichsarmee (Imperial Army) of the Holy Roman Empire. The French and Imperial army included almost 42,000 men, opposing a considerably smaller Prussian force of 22,000. Despite overwhelming odds, Frederick employed rapid movement, a flanking maneuver and oblique order to achieve complete surprise.	La bataille de Rossbach, pendant la guerre de Sept Ans, a lieu près du village de Rossbach dans la commune saxonne de Braunsbedra (actuellement dans le Land de Saxe-Anhalt, en Allemagne), le. Elle oppose l'armée prussienne du roi Frédéric II aux troupes franco-impériales du roi Louis XV de France et de la reine de Bohême et de Hongrie Marie-Thérèse d'Autriche.	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Mössbauer spectroscopy	Spectroscopie Mössbauer	Mössbauer spectroscopy is a spectroscopic technique based on the Mössbauer effect. This effect, discovered by Rudolf Mössbauer (sometimes written "Moessbauer", German: "Mößbauer") in 1958, consists of the nearly recoil-free emission and absorption of nuclear gamma rays in solids. The consequent nuclear spectroscopy method is exquisitely sensitive to small changes in the chemical environment of certain nuclei.	La spectroscopie Mössbauer est une méthode de spectroscopie basée sur l'absorption de rayons gamma par les noyaux atomiques dans un solide. Par la mesure des transitions entre les niveaux d'énergie de ces noyaux, elle permet de remonter à différentes informations sur l'environnement local de l'atome. Elle doit son nom à Rudolf Mössbauer qui en a posé les bases en 1957 en démontrant l'existence de ces phénomènes d'absorption résonante sans effet de recul, ce qu'on appelle aujourd'hui l'effet Mössbauer.	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Missouri Compromise	Compromis du Missouri	The Missouri Compromise was United States federal legislation that admitted Maine to the United States as a free state, simultaneously with Missouri as a slave state—thus maintaining the balance of power between North and South in the United States Senate. As part of the compromise, the legislation prohibited slavery north of the 36°30′ parallel, excluding Missouri. The 16th United States Congress passed the legislation on March 3, 1820, and President James Monroe signed it on March 6, 1820.	Le compromis du Missouri, également appelé compromis de 1820, est un compromis trouvé au Sénat des États-Unis le qui apaise, pour un temps, les dissensions sur la question de l’esclavage au sein de l'Union.	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Aedile	Édile (Rome antique)	Aedile ( ;, from, "temple edifice") was an elected office of the Roman Republic. Based in Rome, the aediles were responsible for maintenance of public buildings () and regulation of public festivals. They also had powers to enforce public order and duties to ensure the city of Rome was well supplied and its civil infrastructure well maintained, akin to modern local government.	Les édiles étaient des magistrats de la Rome antique. Leur fonction primitive était liée à l'administration urbaine de Rome. L'édilité est intégrée au "cursus honorum".	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Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn	Alexandre Soljenitsyne	Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn (11 December 1918 – 3 August 2008) was a Russian novelist, philosopher, historian, short story writer and political prisoner. Solzhenitsyn was an outspoken critic of the Soviet Union and Communism and helped to raise global awareness of its Gulag labour camp system.	Alexandre Issaïevitch Soljenitsyne, parfois en français Soljénitsyne (en, ), né le à Kislovodsk et mort le à Moscou, est un écrivain russe et dissident du régime soviétique.	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Michel Simon	Michel Simon	Michel Simon (; 9 April 1895 – 30 May 1975) was a Swiss actor. He appeared in the notable films "La Chienne" (1931), "Boudu Saved from Drowning" (1932), "L'Atalante" (1934), "Port of Shadows" (1938), "The Head" (1959), and "The Train" (1964). The actor François Simon is his son.	François Simon, dit Michel Simon, est un acteur suisse né le à Genève (canton de Genève) et mort le à Bry-sur-Marne (Val-de-Marne).	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Roman censor	Censeur	The censor (at any time, there were two) was a magistrate in ancient Rome who was responsible for maintaining the census, supervising public morality, and overseeing certain aspects of the government's finances.	Le censeur (en latin "censor") est un magistrat romain. Deux censeurs sont élus tous les cinq ans parmi les anciens consuls par les comices centuriates. Le pouvoir des censeurs est absolu : aucun magistrat ne peut s’opposer à leurs décisions, seul un autre censeur qui leur succède peut les annuler. Après 18 mois de mandat, ils président une grande cérémonie de purification, le "lustrum", à la suite de laquelle ils abdiquent. La censure est la seule magistrature romaine qui n’autorise pas la réélection. Les censeurs ne sont plus élus à partir de la dictature de Sylla, et leurs pouvoirs sont repris par les empereurs romains.	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Praetor	Préteur	Praetor (, ), also spelled prætor or pretor in English, was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities: the commander of an army (in the field or, less often, before the army had been mustered); and as an elected "magistratus" (magistrate), assigned various duties (which varied at different periods in Rome's history). The functions of the magistracy, the "praetura" (praetorship), are described by the adjective: the "praetoria potestas" (praetorian power), the "praetorium imperium" (praetorian authority), and the "praetorium ius" (praetorian law), the legal precedents established by the "praetores" (praetors). "Praetorium", as a substantive, denoted the location from which the praetor exercised his authority, either the headquarters of his "castra", the courthouse (tribunal) of his judiciary, or the city hall of his provincial governorship.	Le préteur (en latin "prætor" « chef », de "præire" « marcher devant », selon l'étymologie des Anciens aujourd'hui révisée) est un magistrat de la Rome antique. Il est de rang sénatorial, peut s'asseoir sur la chaise curule, et porter la toge prétexte. Il est précédé par deux licteurs à l'intérieur de Rome, et six hors du "pomerium" de l’"Urbs". Sous la République, il est élu pour une durée d'un an par les comices centuriates.	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Political correctness	Politiquement correct	Political correctness (adjectivally: politically correct; commonly abbreviated PC) is a term used to describe language, policies, or measures that are intended to avoid offense or disadvantage to members of particular groups in society. In public discourse and the media, the term is generally used as a pejorative with an implication that these policies are excessive or unwarranted. Since the late 1980s, the term has been used to describe a preference for inclusive language and avoiding language or behavior that can be seen as excluding, marginalizing, or insulting groups of people considered disadvantaged or discriminated against, especially groups defined by sex or race.	Le politiquement correct (anglicisme de "politically correct" ou "political correctness", souvent noté "PC" en anglais) désigne, principalement pour la dénoncer, une attitude qui consiste à policer excessivement ou modifier des formulations parce qu'elles pourraient heurter certaines catégories de personnes, notamment en matière d'ethnies, de cultures, de religions, de sexes, d'infirmités, de classes sociales ou de préférences sexuelles.	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Lepidobotryaceae	Lepidobotryaceae	Lepidobotryaceae is a flowering plant family in the order Celastrales. It contains only two genera, each with a single species: "Lepidobotrys staudtii" and "Ruptiliocarpon caracolito".	La petite famille des Lépidobotryacées regroupe des plantes dicotylédones. Elle ne comprend que 1 à 3 espèces dont "Lepidobotrys staudtii", un arbuste originaire d'Afrique tropicale, espèce anciennement située dans les Oxalidacées.	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Opportunity (rover)	Opportunity	Opportunity, also known as MER-B (Mars Exploration Rover – B) or MER-1, and nicknamed "Oppy", is a robotic rover that was active on Mars from 2004 until the middle of 2018. Launched on July 7, 2003, as part of NASA's Mars Exploration Rover program, it landed in Meridiani Planum on January 25, 2004, three weeks after its twin "Spirit" (MER-A) touched down on the other side of the planet. With a planned 90-sol duration of activity (slightly less than 92.5 Earth days), "Spirit" functioned until it got stuck in 2009 and ceased communications in 2010, while "Opportunity" was able to stay operational for sols after landing, maintaining its power and key systems through continual recharging of its batteries using solar power, and hibernating during events such as dust storms to save power. This careful operation allowed "Opportunity" to exceed its operating plan by (in Earth time), 55 times its designed lifespan. By June 10, 2018, when it last contacted NASA, the rover had traveled a distance of.	Opportunity pèse environ et se déplace sur six roues mues par l'énergie électrique fournie par des panneaux solaires. Il est équipé de trois paires de caméras utilisées pour la navigation et de plusieurs instruments scientifiques : une caméra panoramique située sur un mât à de hauteur, un outil pour abraser la surface des roches porté par un bras articulé sur lequel se trouvent également un spectromètre à, un spectromètre Mössbauer et une caméra microscope. Enfin, un spectromètre infrarouge est utilisé pour l'analyse des roches et de l'atmosphère. Ses déplacements sont pilotés par le Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), une division du California Institute of Technology situé à Pasadena, lequel gère l'ensemble du programme Mars Exploration Rover pour la NASA.	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Oval	Ovale	An oval (from Latin "ovum", "egg") is a closed curve in a plane which "loosely" resembles the outline of an egg. The term is not very specific, but in some areas (projective geometry, technical drawing, etc.) it is given a more precise definition, which may include either one or two axes of symmetry. In common English, the term is used in a broader sense: any shape which reminds one of an egg. The three-dimensional version of an oval is called an ovoid.	Dans le sens étymologique, un ovale est une forme d'œuf. En mathématiques, il n'y a pas de définition communément admise. La définition dépend de l'ouvrage consulté.	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1998 FIFA World Cup

Coupe du monde de football 1998

The 1998 FIFA World Cup was the 16th FIFA World Cup, the world championship for men's national association football teams. It was held in France from 10 June to 12 July 1998. The country was chosen as the host nation by FIFA for the second time in the history of the tournament, defeating Morocco in the bidding process. It was the second time that France staged the competition (the first was in 1938) and the ninth time that it was held in Europe. It was the first World Cup to be held under the presidency of Sepp Blatter.

La Coupe du monde de football de 1998 est la seizième édition de la Coupe du monde de football et se déroule en France du 10 juin au. C'est la seconde fois que la France organise la coupe du monde après 1938. Il s'agit du premier Mondial à trente-deux équipes participantes. Un tournoi amical, le Tournoi de France, est disputé en 1997 en guise de préparation à l'organisation de cette compétition.

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Charles Alexandre de Calonne

Charles-Alexandre de Calonne

Charles Alexandre de Calonne (20 January 173430 October 1802), titled Count of Hannonville in 1759, was a French statesman, best known for his involvement in the French Revolution.

Charles-Alexandre de Calonne est un homme politique français, né à Douai le et mort à Paris le. Ministre et contrôleur général des finances de Louis XVI entre 1783 et 1787, il s'est retrouvé au cœur des grandes spéculations boursières sous Louis XVI.

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Dark Skies

Dark Skies : L'Impossible Vérité

Dark Skies is an American UFO conspiracy theory-based sci-fi television series that debuted on NBC on September 21, 1996, and ended on May 31, 1997, and was later rerun by the Sci-Fi Channel. 18 episodes and a two-hour pilot episode were broadcast as a part of the Thrillogy block. The success of "The X-Files" on Fox proved there was an audience for science fiction shows, resulting in NBC commissioning this proposed competitor following a pitch from producers Bryce Zabel and Brent Friedman. Its tagline was "History as we know it is a lie."

En France, la série a été diffusée à partir du sur Série Club en prime time puis dans "La Trilogie du Samedi" sur M6 et rediffusée à partir du sur Sci Fi et à partir du sur France 4.

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Jean Hélène

Jean Hélène (8 August 1953 in Mulhouse – 21 October 2003) was a French journalist specializing in Africa. He was working for Radio France Internationale in Ivory Coast when he was killed in Abidjan by police Sergeant Théodore Séry Dago. Jean Hélène was his press name, Christian Baldensberger being his real name.

Jean Hélène, de son vrai nom Christian Baldensperger, né le à Mulhouse et mort le à Abidjan, était un journaliste français passionné par l'Afrique.

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Claude Martin

Claude Martin (aventurier)

Major General Claude Martin (5 January 1735 – 13 September 1800) was an officer in the French, and later the English East India Company's army in India. He rose to the rank of Major General in the English East India Company's Bengal Army. Martin was born in Lyon, France, into a humble background, and was a self-made man who left a substantial lasting legacy in the form of his writings, buildings and the educational institutions he founded posthumously. There are now ten schools named after him, two in Lucknow, two in Calcutta and six in Lyon. The small village of Martin Purwa in India was also named after him.

Claude Martin, né à Lyon (France) le et mort à Lucknow (Inde) le est un soldat français de la Compagnie française des Indes orientales, puis de la Compagnie anglaise des Indes orientales (CAIO). Il amasse une grande fortune qu'il dédia à la création, après sa mort, de trois écoles, toutes appelées "La Martinière", à Calcutta, Lucknow et Lyon.

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Monkey

Singe

Monkey is a common name that may refer to groups or species of mammals, in part, the simians of infraorder Simiiformes. The term is applied descriptively to groups of primates, such as families of New World monkeys and Old World monkeys. Many monkey species are tree-dwelling (arboreal), although there are species that live primarily on the ground, such as baboons. Most species are also active during the day (diurnal). Monkeys are generally considered to be intelligent, especially the Old World monkeys of Catarrhini.

Les singes sont des mammifères de l'ordre des primates, généralement arboricoles, à la face souvent glabre et caractérisés par un encéphale développé et de longs membres terminés par des doigts. Bien que leur ressemblance avec l'Homme ait toujours frappé les esprits, la science a mis de nombreux siècles à prouver le lien étroit qui existe entre ceux-ci et l'espèce humaine.

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Pierre Schoendoerffer

Pierre Schoendoerffer (; 5 May 1928 – 14 March 2012) was a French film director, a screenwriter, a writer, a war reporter, a war cameraman, a renowned First Indochina War veteran, a cinema academician. He was president of the Académie des Beaux-Arts for 2001 and for 2007.

Pierre Schoendoerffer est un romancier, réalisateur, scénariste et documentariste français, né le à Chamalières et mort le à Clamart.

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Pierre Tchernia

Pierre Tcherniakowski (29 January 1928 – 8 October 2016), better known as Pierre Tchernia, was a French cinema and television producer, screenwriter, presenter, animator and actor. In France he was known as ""Magic" Tchernia" and "Monsieur Cinema".

Pierre Tchernia, né Pierre Tcherniakowsky, est un réalisateur, concepteur et animateur d'émissions de télévision français, né le à Paris et mort le dans la même ville.

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Frederick III, German Emperor

Frédéric III (empereur allemand)

Frederick III (; 18 October 1831 – 15 June 1888) was German Emperor and King of Prussia for ninety-nine days in 1888, the Year of the Three Emperors. Known informally as "Fritz", he was the only son of Emperor Wilhelm I and was raised in his family's tradition of military service. Although celebrated as a young man for his leadership and successes during the Second Schleswig, Austro-Prussian and Franco-Prussian wars, he nevertheless professed a hatred of warfare and was praised by friends and enemies alike for his humane conduct. Following the unification of Germany in 1871 his father, then King of Prussia, became the German Emperor. Upon Wilhelm's death at the age of ninety on 9 March 1888, the thrones passed to Frederick, who had by then been German Crown Prince for seventeen years and Crown Prince of Prussia for twenty-seven years. Frederick was suffering from cancer of the larynx when he died, aged fifty-six, following unsuccessful medical treatments for his condition.

Issu de la très conservatrice et militariste maison de Hohenzollern, le prince Frédéric acquiert en grandissant des idées libérales qui lui viennent en partie de sa mère Augusta de Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. Après des études mêlant à la fois formation militaire et arts libéraux, le jeune homme épouse, en 1858, la princesse royale Victoria du Royaume-Uni, qui le conforte dans ses idées progressistes. Peu à peu, le prince s’éloigne de son père, le roi de Prusse, et surtout du chef de son gouvernement, le ministre-président de Prusse Otto von Bismarck, qui se méfie de lui. Bien qu’héritier du trône, le prince est alors écarté des affaires politiques et cantonné à un rôle essentiellement représentatif.

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The Murders in the Rue Morgue

Double Assassinat dans la rue Morgue

"The Murders in the Rue Morgue" is a short story by Edgar Allan Poe published in "Graham's Magazine" in 1841. It has been described as the first modern detective story; Poe referred to it as one of his "tales of ratiocination".

Double Assassinat dans la rue Morgue ("The Murders in the Rue Morgue") est une nouvelle de l’écrivain américain Edgar Allan Poe, parue en avril 1841 dans le "Graham's Magazine", traduite en français par Isabelle Meunier puis, en 1856, par Charles Baudelaire pour le recueil "Histoires extraordinaires".

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HTTPS

HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure

Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is an extension of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). It is used for secure communication over a computer network, and is widely used on the Internet. In HTTPS, the communication protocol is encrypted using Transport Layer Security (TLS) or, formerly, Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). The protocol is therefore also referred to as HTTP over TLS, or HTTP over SSL.

L' (HTTPS, littéralement « protocole de transfert hypertextuel sécurisé ») est la combinaison du HTTP avec une couche de chiffrement comme SSL ou TLS.

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Seven Years in Tibet (1997 film)

Sept Ans au Tibet

Seven Years in Tibet is a 1997 American biographical war drama film based on the 1952 book of the same name written by Austrian mountaineer Heinrich Harrer on his experiences in Tibet between 1939 and 1951 during World War II, the interim period, and the Chinese People's Liberation Army's invasion of Tibet in 1950. Directed by Jean-Jacques Annaud and starring Brad Pitt and David Thewlis, the score was composed by John Williams and features cellist Yo-Yo Ma.

Sept Ans au Tibet ("") est un film d'aventure franco-américano-britannique de Jean-Jacques Annaud, réalisé en 1997. Ce film dramatique s'inspire du livre "Sept Ans d'aventures au Tibet", le récit autobiographique du séjour de l'alpiniste autrichien Heinrich Harrer au Tibet, de 1944 à 1951.

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Bernhard Riemann

Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann (; 17 September 1826 – 20 July 1866) was a German mathematician who made contributions to analysis, number theory, and differential geometry. In the field of real analysis, he is mostly known for the first rigorous formulation of the integral, the Riemann integral, and his work on Fourier series. His contributions to complex analysis include most notably the introduction of Riemann surfaces, breaking new ground in a natural, geometric treatment of complex analysis. His famous 1859 paper on the prime-counting function, containing the original statement of the Riemann hypothesis, is regarded as one of the most influential papers in analytic number theory. Through his pioneering contributions to differential geometry, Riemann laid the foundations of the mathematics of general relativity. He is considered by many to be one of the greatest mathematicians of all time.

Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann, né le à Breselenz, Royaume de Hanovre, mort le à Selasca, hameau de la commune de Verbania, Italie, est un mathématicien allemand. Influent sur le plan théorique, il a apporté de nombreuses contributions importantes à la topologie, l'analyse, la géométrie différentielle et le calcul, certaines d'entre elles ayant permis par la suite le développement de la relativité générale.

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null

André Weil

André Weil (; ; 6 May 1906 – 6 August 1998) was a French mathematician, known for his foundational work in number theory and algebraic geometry. He was a founding member and the "de facto" early leader of the mathematical Bourbaki group. The philosopher Simone Weil was his sister. The writer Sylvie Weil is his daughter.

André Weil, né le à Paris et mort à Princeton (New Jersey, États-Unis) le, est une des grandes figures parmi les mathématiciens du. Connu pour son travail fondamental en théorie des nombres et en géométrie algébrique, il fut un des membres fondateurs du groupe Bourbaki. Il est le frère de la philosophe Simone Weil et père de l'écrivaine Sylvie Weil.

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Estates General (France)

États généraux (France)

In France under the Old Regime, the Estates General () or States-General was a legislative and consultative assembly (see The Estates) of the different classes (or estates) of French subjects. It had a separate assembly for each of the three estates (clergy, nobility and commoners), which were called and dismissed by the king. It had no true power in its own right—unlike the English parliament it was not required to approve royal taxation or legislation—instead it functioned as an advisory body to the king, primarily by presenting petitions from the various estates and consulting on fiscal policy. The Estates General met intermittently until 1614 and only once afterwards, in 1789, but was not definitively dissolved until after the French Revolution. It was distinct from the provincial "parlements" (the most powerful of which was the Parliament of Paris) which started as appellate courts but later used their powers to decide whether to publish laws to claim a legislative role.

Dans le système politique du royaume de France, les états généraux du royaume (ou États-Généraux) étaient une assemblée réunissant les trois ordres (les "états") de la société : la noblesse, le clergé et le tiers état. Ils étaient convoqués par ordre du roi dans des conditions exceptionnelles (crise politique ou financière, guerre ou question diplomatique majeure). Cette assemblée était, entre autres, seule habilitée à réformer la fiscalité générale ou, dans une moindre mesure, à statuer sur des problèmes dynastiques, en vue de traiter la crise rencontrée.

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Optical microscope

Microscope optique

The optical microscope, also referred to as a light microscope, is a type of microscope that commonly uses visible light and a system of lenses to generate magnified images of small objects. Optical microscopes are the oldest design of microscope and were possibly invented in their present compound form in the 17th century. Basic optical microscopes can be very simple, although many complex designs aim to improve resolution and sample contrast.

Le microscope optique ou microscope photonique est un instrument d'optique muni d'un objectif et d'un oculaire qui permet de grossir l'image d'un objet de petites dimensions (ce qui caractérise sa puissance optique) et de séparer les détails de cette image (et son pouvoir de résolution) afin qu'il soit observable par l'œil humain. Il est utilisé en biologie, pour observer les cellules, les tissus, en pétrographie pour reconnaître les roches, en métallurgie et en métallographie pour examiner la structure d'un métal ou d'un alliage.

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Chinese New Year

Nouvel An chinois

Chinese New Year () is the Chinese festival that celebrates the beginning of a new year on the traditional Chinese calendar or lunar calendar. The festival is commonly referred to as the Spring Festival () in China as the spring season in the lunisolar calendar traditionally starts with lichun, the first of the twenty-four solar terms which the festival celebrates around the time of. Marking the end of winter and the beginning of the spring season, observances traditionally take place from New Year’s Eve, the evening preceding the first day of the year to the Lantern Festival, held on the 15th day of the year. The first day of Chinese New Year begins on the new moon that appears between 21 January and 20 February. In 2020, the first day of the Chinese New Year was on Saturday, 25 January, which initiated the Year of the Rat.

Le Nouvel An chinois, Nouvel An du calendrier chinois ou Nouvel An lunaire (sinogrammes traditionnels : 農曆新年 ; sinogrammes simplifiés : 农历新年 ; "hanyu pinyin" : "nónglì xīnnián") ou « passage de l’année » (traditionnels : 過年 ; simplifiés : 过年 ; pinyin : "guònián") est le premier jour du premier mois du calendrier chinois. La fête du printemps (traditionnels : 春節 ; simplifiés : 春节 ; pinyin : "chūnjié") marque le début des festivités qui se déroulent sur quinze jours et qui s’achèvent avec la fête des lanternes (traditionnels : 元宵節 ; simplifiés : 元宵节 ; pinyin : "yuánxiāojié").

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Alexander Grothendieck

Alexandre Grothendieck

Alexander Grothendieck (; ; ; 28 March 1928 – 13 November 2014) was a mathematician who became the leading figure in the creation of modern algebraic geometry. His research extended the scope of the field and added elements of commutative algebra, homological algebra, sheaf theory and category theory to its foundations, while his so-called "relative" perspective led to revolutionary advances in many areas of pure mathematics. He is considered by many to be the greatest mathematician of the 20th century.

Alexandre (ou Alexander) Grothendieck () est un mathématicien français, né le à Berlin et mort le à Saint-Lizier, près de Saint-Girons (Ariège). Il est resté longtemps apatride tout en vivant principalement en France ; il obtient la nationalité française en 1971.

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Badminton

Badminton is a racquet sport played using racquets to hit a shuttlecock across a net. Although it may be played with larger teams, the most common forms of the game are "singles" (with one player per side) and "doubles" (with two players per side). Badminton is often played as a casual outdoor activity in a yard or on a beach; formal games are played on a rectangular indoor court. Points are scored by striking the shuttlecock with the racquet and landing it within the opposing side's half of the court.

Le badminton est un sport de raquette qui oppose soit deux joueurs (simples), soit deux paires (doubles), placés dans deux demi-terrains séparés par un filet. Les joueurs, appelés badistes, marquent des points en frappant un volant à l'aide d'une raquette afin de le faire tomber dans le terrain adverse. L'échange se termine dès que le volant touche le sol ou reste accroché dans le filet.

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Pierre-Gilles de Gennes

Pierre-Gilles de Gennes (; 24 October 1932 – 18 May 2007) was a French physicist and the Nobel Prize laureate in physics in 1991.

Pierre-Gilles de Gennes, né le à Paris et mort le à Orsay, est un physicien français. Il reçut le prix Nobel de physique de 1991 pour ses travaux sur les cristaux liquides et les polymères. Ses contributions ont inspiré et généré de très nombreuses études relevant tant de la physique et de la physico-chimie fondamentales que des sciences appliquées.

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Vladimir Arnold

Vladimir Igorevich Arnold (alternative spelling Arnol'd,, 12 June 1937 – 3 June 2010) was a Soviet and Russian mathematician. While he is best known for the Kolmogorov–Arnold–Moser theorem regarding the stability of integrable systems, he made important contributions in several areas including dynamical systems theory, algebra, catastrophe theory, topology, algebraic geometry, symplectic geometry, differential equations, classical mechanics, hydrodynamics and singularity theory, including posing the ADE classification problem, since his first main result—the solution of Hilbert's thirteenth problem in 1957 at the age of 19. He co-founded two new branches of mathematics—KAM theory, and topological Galois theory (this, with his student Askold Khovanskii).

Vladimir Igorevitch Arnol'd (en ) est un mathématicien soviétique puis russe, né à Odessa en 1937 et mort à Paris en 2010.

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Emily Greene Balch

Emily Greene Balch (January 8, 1867 – January 9, 1961) was an American economist, sociologist and pacifist. Balch combined an academic career at Wellesley College with a long-standing interest in social issues such as poverty, child labor, and immigration, as well as settlement work to uplift poor immigrants and reduce juvenile delinquency.

Emily Greene Balch, née à Boston (Massachusetts) le et morte à Cambridge (Massachusetts) le, est une économiste, pacifiste et syndicaliste américaine. Elle est prix Nobel de la paix en 1946.

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Jody Williams

Jody Williams (born October 9, 1950) is an American political activist known for her work in banning anti-personnel landmines, her defense of human rights (especially those of women), and her efforts to promote new understandings of security in today's world. She was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1997 for her work toward the banning and clearing of anti-personnel mines.

Jody Williams, née le à Brattleboro, Vermont, États-Unis, est une professeure d'université américaine. En 1997, elle reçoit le prix Nobel de la paix pour la Campagne internationale pour l'interdiction des mines antipersonnel terrestres.

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Maxim Kontsevich

Maxime Kontsevitch

Maxim Lvovich Kontsevich (, ; born 25 August 1964) is a Russian and French mathematician. He is a professor at the Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques and a distinguished professor at the University of Miami. He received the Henri Poincaré Prize in 1997, the Fields Medal in 1998, the Crafoord Prize in 2008, the Shaw Prize and Fundamental Physics Prize in 2012, and the Breakthrough Prize in Mathematics in 2014.

Maxime Lvovitch Kontsevitch (en ), le plus souvent orthographié Maxim Kontsevich selon la transcription anglophone, est un mathématicien russe, né le en URSS à Khimki, une ville jouxtant Moscou, en Russie. Il a été naturalisé français fin 1999.

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Hector

In Greek mythology and Roman mythology, Hector (;, ) was a Trojan prince and the greatest fighter for Troy in the Trojan War. He acted as leader of the Trojans and their allies in the defence of Troy, "killing 31,000 Greek fighters." He was ultimately killed by Achilles.

Dans la mythologie grecque, Hector (en grec ancien / ) est un héros troyen de la guerre de Troie. Fils du roi Priam et de la reine Hécube, il est tué par Achille qui veut venger la mort de Patrocle.

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Henri Cartan

Henri Paul Cartan (; 8 July 1904 – 13 August 2008) was a French mathematician who made substantial contributions to algebraic topology. He was the son of the French mathematician Élie Cartan and the brother of composer Jean Cartan.

Henri Cartan, né le à Nancy et mort le à Paris, est un mathématicien français. Il est le fils du mathématicien Élie Cartan et de Marie-Louise Bianconi. Il est couramment considéré comme l'un des mathématiciens français les plus influents de son époque. Il est connu pour ses travaux sur les fonctions de plusieurs variables complexes, la topologie (faisceaux, complexes d'Eilenberg-Mac Lane) et l'algèbre homologique. Il a été un des membres fondateurs du groupe Bourbaki. Il était le frère de Louis Cartan, physicien et résistant, de Jean Cartan, compositeur, ainsi que d'Hélène Cartan, mathématicienne.

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Patroclus

Patrocle

In Greek mythology, as recorded in Homer's "Iliad", Patroclus (Ancient Greek: Πάτροκλος "Pátroklos", "glory of the father") was a close wartime companion of Achilles. He was the son of Menoetius, the son of Actor, King of Opus.

Dans la mythologie grecque, Patrocle (en grec ancien ou ) est un des guerriers grecs de la guerre de Troie, principalement décrit dans l’"Iliade".

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Meal

Repas

A meal is an eating occasion that takes place at a certain time and includes prepared food. The names used for specific meals in English vary, depending on the speaker's culture, the time of day, or the size of the meal.

Un repas est un ensemble de nourriture composée de divers mets et de boisson que l'on absorbe à des heures précises de la journée. Par extension, le repas est une action spécifique, consacrée à l'alimentation, qui entre dans le cycle des activités journalières. Il est souvent perçu comme un acte naturel car il répond à la satisfaction de besoins physiologiques essentiels. D'un point de vue sociologique et anthropologique, le repas n'est pas uniquement pensé comme un moyen de se rassasier, mais aussi comme une manière ritualisée de produire et entretenir du lien social ; en témoigne la forte charge symbolique sociale, culturelle et/ou religieuse que contiennent les aliments dans les représentations humaines.

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Priam

In Greek mythology, Priam (;, ) was the legendary king of Troy during the Trojan War. His many children included notable characters like Hector and Paris.

Dans la mythologie grecque, Priam (en grec ancien ) est le roi mythique de Troie au moment de la guerre de Troie. Il est fils de Laomédon et de la nymphe Strymo ou de Zeuxippe et a pour épouse Hécube.

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Puddling (metallurgy)

Puddlage

Puddling is a step in the manufacture of high-grade iron in a crucible or furnace. Known by the 1st century AD in the Han Dynasty of ancient China, it was advanced in Great Britain during the Industrial Revolution. There molten pig iron in a reverberatory furnace was stirred with consumable rods resulting in a less brittle, more purified steel. It was one of the most important processes of making the first appreciable volumes of valuable and useful bar iron (malleable wrought iron). Eventually, the furnace would be used to make small quantities of specialty steels.

Le puddlage est un ancien procédé d'affinage de la fonte, consistant à la décarburer dans un four à l'aide de scories oxydantes pour obtenir du fer puddlé à partir de fonte.

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Bertha von Suttner

Bertha Felicitas Sophie Freifrau von Suttner (Baroness Bertha von Suttner, ; "née" Countess Kinsky; 9 June 184321 June 1914) was an Austrian-Bohemian pacifist and novelist. In 1905, she became the second female Nobel laureate (after Marie Curie in 1903), the first woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, and the first Austrian laureate.

Bertha Sophie Felicitas comtesse Kinský von Wchinitz und Tettau, baronne von Suttner, née le à Prague, morte le à Vienne, fut une pacifiste autrichienne radicale, lauréate en 1905 du prix Nobel de la paix. Issue de la haute aristocratie austro-hongroise, elle reçut de son milieu social une éducation assez cosmopolite et apprit dès son plus jeune âge à parler plusieurs langues. Elle a été vice-présidente du Bureau international de la paix de sa création en 1892 à sa mort en 1914.

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Université du Québec à Montréal

The Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM) is a public university based in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. It is a French-language university and is the largest constituent element of the Université du Québec system.

L’Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM) est un établissement d'enseignement universitaire situé à Montréal, au Canada. Elle est affiliée à l'Université du Québec. En 2015, selon les classements du'et du ', l'UQAM figure parmi les universités au monde ayant été créées ces années. Elle s’est vu décerner à neuf reprises au cours des onze dernières années le prix le plus prestigieux de la simulation des Nations unies à New York (NMUN), soit le « " ».

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Brazzaville

Brazzaville (, ; Teke: Ncuna) is the capital and largest city of the Republic of the Congo (Congo Republic). Constituting the financial and administrative centre of the country, it is located on the north side of the Congo River, opposite Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR Congo). The population of the capital is estimated to exceed 1.8 million residents, comprising more than a third of the national populace, 40% of whom are employed in non-agricultural professions. During World War II, Brazzaville was also the capital of Free France between 1940 and 1942.

Brazzaville est la capitale politique et administrative, ainsi que la ville la plus peuplée de la République du Congo. Elle fut également la capitale de la France libre de 1940 à 1942. Elle compte 1 838 348 habitants en 2017. Les habitants de Brazzaville sont appelés les Brazzavillois.

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Estates General of 1789

États généraux de 1789

The Estates General of 1789 was a general assembly representing the French estates of the realm: the clergy (First Estate), the nobility (Second Estate), and the commoners (Third Estate), the last of Estates General of Kingdom of France. Summoned by King Louis XVI, it was brought to an end when the Third Estate formed into a National Assembly, inviting the other two to join, against the wishes of the King. This signaled the outbreak of the French Revolution.

Les États généraux de 1789 sont les états généraux du royaume de France qui furent convoqués par le roi de France et de Navarre, Louis XVI, le.

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Chinese calendar

Calendrier chinois

The traditional Chinese calendar (officially known as the Agricultural Calendar [], Former Calendar [], Traditional Calendar [] or Lunar Calendar []), is a lunisolar calendar which reckons years, months and days according to astronomical phenomena. In modern days, it is defined in China by GB/T 33661–2017, "Calculation and promulgation of the Chinese calendar", issued by the Standardisation Administration of China on 12 May 2017.

Le calendrier chinois est un calendrier luni-solaire (), les mois sont des mois lunaires, c'est-à-dire que le premier jour de chaque mois (de 29 ou 30 jours) coïncide avec la nouvelle lune (et le avec la pleine lune) ; comme 12 mois lunaires ne forment pas une année solaire (il s’en faut de 11 jours), on ajoute sept mois supplémentaires () au cours d’une période de dix-neuf ans, pour que l'année reste dans l'ensemble compatible avec l’année solaire.

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Tiffani Thiessen

Tiffani Amber Thiessen (born January 23, 1974) is an American actress. She is known for starring as Kelly Kapowski on NBC's "Saved by the Bell" (1989–93) and as Valerie Malone on Fox's "Beverly Hills, 90210" (1994–98). Thiessen has also starred in other TV series such as Fox's "Fastlane" (2002–03), ABC's "What About Brian" (2007), and USA Network's "White Collar" (2009–14), as well as in a number of TV movies, and she has also appeared in several films like "Son in Law" (1993), "Shriek If You Know What I Did Last Friday the 13th" (2000), "Hollywood Ending" (2002), "Alexa and Katie" (2018-2020), and "Cyborg Soldier" (2008).

Tiffani Thiessen, de son nom complet Tiffani-Amber Thiessen, est une actrice et animatrice de télévision américaine, née le à Long Beach en Californie.

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Euler's theorem

Théorème d'Euler (arithmétique)

In number theory, Euler's theorem (also known as the Fermat–Euler theorem or Euler's totient theorem) states that if "n" and "a" are coprime positive integers, then where formula_2 is Euler's totient function. (The notation is explained in the article.) In 1736, Leonhard Euler published his proof of Fermat's little theorem, which Fermat had presented without proof. Subsequently, Euler presented other proofs of the theorem, culminating with "Euler's theorem" in his paper of 1763, in which he attempted to find the smallest exponent for which Fermat's little theorem was always true.

En mathématiques, le théorème d'Euler en arithmétique modulaire, publié en 1761 par le mathématicien suisse Leonhard Euler, s'énonce ainsi :

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Demetrius I of Macedon

Démétrios Ier Poliorcète

Demetrius I (; ; 337–283 BC), called Poliorcetes (;, "The Besieger"), son of Antigonus I Monophthalmus and Stratonice, was a Macedonian nobleman, military leader, and finally king of Macedon (294–288 BC). He belonged to the Antigonid dynasty and was its first member to rule Macedonia.

Démétrios Poliorcète (en grec ancien / ) ou « Preneur de villes », né en 336 av. J.-C., mort en 283, est un général macédonien de la dynastie des Antigonides. Fils d'Antigone le Borgne, roi d'Asie de 306 à 301 et roi de Macédoine de 294 à 288, ses ambitions impériales se heurtent à une coalition des Diadoques qui aboutit au partage de la Macédoine et à sa défaite contre Séleucos. Il peut être considéré comme l'un des principaux, les héritiers des Diadoques.

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Lars Ahlfors

Lars Valerian Ahlfors

Lars Valerian Ahlfors (18 April 1907 – 11 October 1996) was a Finnish mathematician, remembered for his work in the field of Riemann surfaces and his text on complex analysis.

Lars Valerian Ahlfors est un mathématicien finlandais né en 1907 à Helsingfors (Helsinki aujourd'hui) et mort en 1996 dans le Massachusetts, aux États-Unis. Il a reçu la première médaille Fields en 1936.

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Anne Robert Jacques Turgot

Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de l'Aulne (; ; 10 May 172718 March 1781), commonly known as Turgot, was a French economist and statesman. Originally considered a physiocrat, he is today best remembered as an early advocate for economic liberalism. He is thought to be the first economist to have recognized the law of diminishing marginal returns in agriculture.

Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, baron de l'Aulne, souvent appelé Turgot, né le à Paris, où il est mort le, est un homme politique et économiste français. Partisan des théories libérales de Quesnay et de Gournay, il est nommé secrétaire d’État à la Marine, puis contrôleur général des finances du roi Louis XVI. Néanmoins, ses mesures pour tenter de réduire dans le long terme la dette nationale et d'améliorer la vie du peuple n'ont pas porté leur fruit, et furent révoquées par son successeur, le baron Jean Clugny de Nuits.

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Aiseau

Aiseau (wa: "Åjhô") is a village on the Biesme, near its mouth on the Sambre. It is part of the municipality of Aiseau-Presles in the province of Hainaut (Wallonia region of Belgium). It was a separate municipality before the Merger of Commons in 1977.

Aiseau (en wallon "Åjhô") est un village belge de la commune d’Aiseau-Presles situé en Région wallonne dans la province de Hainaut, sur la Biesme, non loin de l’embouchure de celle-ci dans la Sambre. C'était une commune à part entière avant la fusion des communes de 1977.

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Socialization

Socialisation

In sociology, socialization is the process of internalizing the norms and ideologies of society. Socialization encompasses both learning and teaching and is thus "the means by which social and cultural continuity are attained".

La socialisation est le processus au cours duquel un individu apprend à vivre en société, durant lequel il intériorise les normes et les valeurs, et par lequel il construit son identité psychologique et sociale.

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Schedule (computer science)

Théorie de l'ordonnancement

In the fields of databases and transaction processing (transaction management), a schedule (or history) of a system is an abstract model to describe execution of transactions running in the system. Often it is a "list" of operations (actions) ordered by time, performed by a set of transactions that are executed together in the system. If the order in time between certain operations is not determined by the system, then a "partial order" is used. Examples of such operations are requesting a read operation, reading, writing, aborting, committing, requesting a lock, locking, etc. Not all transaction operation types should be included in a schedule, and typically only selected operation types (e.g., data access operations) are included, as needed to reason about and describe certain phenomena. Schedules and schedule properties are fundamental concepts in database concurrency control theory.

La théorie de l'ordonnancement est une branche de la recherche opérationnelle qui s'intéresse au calcul de dates d'exécution optimales de tâches. Pour cela, il est très souvent nécessaire d'affecter en même temps les ressources nécessaires à l'exécution de ces tâches. Un problème d'ordonnancement peut être considéré comme un sous-problème de planification dans lequel il s'agit de décider de l'exécution opérationnelle des tâches planifiées.

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Shilling

The shilling is a historical coin, and the name of a unit of modern currencies formerly used in Austria (Schilling), and in the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and other British Commonwealth countries.

Le shilling ou schilling est une unité monétaire utilisée dans divers pays. Le mot "shilling" vient du vieil anglais ou et fut utilisé comme traduction du latin solidus. L'adaptation française "chelin" était aussi employée en vieux français canadien et est employée en français de Jersey.

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Tryo

Tryo () is a French-language 'unplugged' ska acoustic band, popular in Europe and Quebec, with three French guitarists, a percussionist, and a producer: Guizmo, Christophe Mali, Manu Eveno, Daniel "Danielito" Bravo and Bibou.

Tryo est un groupe de chanson française à forte influence reggae. Bien que son nom puisse prêter à confusion, Tryo est composé de quatre membres sur scène : Guizmo (de son vrai nom Cyril Célestin), Christophe Mali, Manu Eveno et Daniel Bravo (dit Danielito). Leur producteur exécutif et coproducteur, Sébastien Pujol (surnommé Bibou) prend une part importante dans les activités du groupe, si bien qu'il est compté comme son cinquième membre.

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Norbert Wiener

Norbert Wiener (November 26, 1894 – March 18, 1964) was an American mathematician and philosopher. He was a professor of mathematics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). A child prodigy, Wiener later became an early researcher in stochastic and mathematical noise processes, contributing work relevant to electronic engineering, electronic communication, and control systems.

Norbert Wiener (né le à Columbia (Missouri), États-Unis, mort le à Stockholm, Suède) est un mathématicien américain, théoricien et chercheur en mathématiques appliquées, surtout connu comme le père fondateur de la cybernétique.

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Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr

Ahmad Hassan al-Bakr

Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr ( ""; 1 July 1914 – 4 October 1982) was the fourth President of Iraq, from 17 July 1968 until 16 July 1979. A leading member of the revolutionary Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, and later, the Baghdad-based Ba'ath Party and its regional organisation Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region (the Ba'ath Party's Iraqi branch), which espoused Ba'athism, a mix of Arab nationalism and Arab socialism.

Ahmad Hassan al-Bakr, ou "Hassan Ahmed al-Bakr", né en 1914, mort en 1982, fut président de la République d'Irak de 1968 à 1979.

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Emmy Award

Emmy Awards

An Emmy Award, or simply Emmy, is an American award that recognizes excellence in the television industry. It is presented at numerous annual events held throughout the calendar year, each honoring one of the various sectors of the television industry. The two ceremonies that receive the most media coverage are the Primetime Emmy Awards and the Daytime Emmy Awards, which recognize outstanding work in American primetime and daytime entertainment programming, respectively. Other notable Emmy events include those honoring national sports programming, national news and documentary shows, and technological and engineering achievements in television, including the Primetime Engineering Emmy Awards. Regional Emmy Awards are also presented throughout the country at various times through the year, recognizing excellence in local and statewide television. In addition, the International Emmy Awards honor excellence in TV programming produced and initially aired outside the United States.

Les, surnommés ', sont des récompenses de télévision américaine, remises par l qui honorent chaque année, depuis 1949, les meilleures émissions et les meilleurs professionnels de la télévision américaine.

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Languedoc

Languedoc (, ; ) is a former province of France. Its territory is now contained in the modern-day region of Occitanie in the south of France. Its capital city was Toulouse. It had an area of approximately 42,700 square kilometers (16,490 square miles).

Le Languedoc ( ; "Lengadòc", en occitan) est un territoire du Sud de la France traditionnellement divisé en Haut-Languedoc, approximativement compris dans l’ancienne région Midi-Pyrénées, et Bas-Languedoc, qui correspond approximativement à l’ancienne région Languedoc-Roussillon. Le nom de Languedoc est une traduction française et une contraction du nom latin Lingua Occitana littéralement traduit par « Langue occitane ». Le Languedoc fait partie de l’Occitanie, vaste espace géographique de langue d'oc. Ses habitants sont les "Languedociens", son dialecte s'appelle "le languedocien".

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Frank Lloyd Wright

Frank Lloyd Wright (June 8, 1867 – April 9, 1959) was an American architect, interior designer, writer, and educator, whose creative period spanned more than 70 years, designing more than 1,000 structures, of which 532 were completed. Wright believed in designing structures that were in harmony with humanity and its environment, a philosophy he called organic architecture. This philosophy was best exemplified by Fallingwater (1935), which has been called "the best all-time work of American architecture." As a founder of organic architecture, Wright played a key role in the architectural movements of the twentieth century, influencing three generations of architects worldwide through his works.

Frank Lloyd Wright, né le à Richland Center dans le Wisconsin et mort le à Phoenix en Arizona, est un architecte et concepteur américain.

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Pound sterling

Livre sterling

Pound sterling (symbol: £; ISO code: GBP), known in some contexts simply as the pound or sterling, is the official currency of the United Kingdom, Jersey, Guernsey, the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, the British Antarctic Territory, and Tristan da Cunha. It is subdivided into 100 "pence" (singular: "penny", abbreviated: "p"). The Pound sterling is the oldest currency in continuous use. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have currencies called the "pound".

La livre sterling (), souvent abrégée en livre (), est l'unité monétaire officielle du Royaume-Uni, des dépendances de la Couronne britannique, et des territoires britanniques d'outre-mer. Toutefois, il faut différencier plusieurs livres sterling selon les territoires.

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Obscurantism

Obscurantisme

Obscurantism ( and ) is the practice of deliberately presenting information in an imprecise and abstruse manner, often designed to forestall further inquiry and understanding. There are two historical and intellectual denotations of "Obscurantism": (1) the deliberate restriction of knowledge—opposition to disseminating knowledge; and (2) deliberate obscurity—a recondite literary or artistic style, characterized by deliberate vagueness.

Pour les courants intellectuels et politiques progressistes, héritiers de la philosophie des Lumières, l’obscurantisme est une attitude d'opposition à la diffusion du savoir, dans n'importe quel domaine.

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Television in France

Télévision en France

Television in France was introduced in 1931, when the first experimental broadcasts began. Colour television was introduced in October 1967 on La Deuxième Chaîne.

Au départ, en ce qui concerne la télévision en France, les premières chaînes de télévision étaient des chaînes d'État (RDF puis RTF puis ORTF). Une ouverture de nouveaux canaux en 1984 pour des chaînes privées et la privatisation de TF1 en 1987 a permis l’apparition de chaînes commerciales financées par la publicité, après que les radios libres apparurent en 1981. Au, le nombre de services de télévision titulaires d’une convention ou bénéficiant du régime déclaratif était de 216, dont 154 services de télévision conventionnés et 62 services déclarés.

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Salman Khan

Abdul Rashid Salim Salman Khan (; Hindi: ; 27 December 1965) is an Indian film actor, producer, occasional singer and television personality. In a film career spanning over thirty years, Khan has received numerous awards, including two National Film Awards as a film producer, and two Filmfare Awards for acting. He is cited in the media as one of the most commercially successful actors of both world and Indian cinema. "Forbes" included him in their 2015 list of Top-Paid 100 Celebrity Entertainers in world; Khan tied with Amitabh Bachchan for No. 71 on the list, both with earnings of $33.5 million. According to the "Forbes" 2018 list of Top-Paid 100 Celebrity Entertainers in world, Khan was the highest ranked Indian with 82nd rank with earnings of $37.7 million. He is also known as the host of the reality show, "Bigg Boss" since 2010.

Salman Khan (1965 - ) est surnommé « Sallu, Bhai », est un acteur de Bollywood. Il est le fils du scénariste Salim Khan. Ses deux frères, Arbaaz Khan et Sohail Khan, sont également acteurs.

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Free and open-source software

Free/Libre Open Source Software

Free and open-source software (FOSS) is software that can be classified as both free software and open-source software. That is, anyone is freely licensed to use, copy, study, and change the software in any way, and the source code is openly shared so that people are encouraged to voluntarily improve the design of the software. This is in contrast to proprietary software, where the software is under restrictive copyright licensing and the source code is usually hidden from the users.

L'emploi de ces expressions permet de ne pas prendre parti entre les deux courants, en insistant sur ce qui les unit : le fait que les logiciels sont publiés sous licence libre afin de permettre aux utilisateurs d'utiliser à toute fin, de copier, d'étudier, de modifier et de redistribuer à titre gratuit ou onéreux ces derniers grâce à la disponibilité du code source. D'après Richard Stallman, l'initiateur du mouvement du logiciel libre via le projet GNU, l'usage du terme « FLOSS » est légitime dans le cas précis où l'on ne souhaite pas prendre parti pour l'une ou l'autre approche.

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Romandy

Suisse romande

Romandy ( or,,, ) is the French-speaking part of western Switzerland. In 2018, about 2.1 million people, or 25.1% of the Swiss population, lived in Romandy. The majority of the'population lives in the western part of the country, especially the'region along Lake Geneva, connecting Geneva, Vaud and the Lower Valais.

La Suisse romande ou Romandie () (' ou'pour les Suisses alémaniques et "" pour la Suisse italienne) est la partie francophone de la Suisse. Les habitants de la Suisse romande sont appelés "Romands" et "Romandes".

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TV Boy

The TV Boy and its successors TV Boy II and Super TV Boy are 1990s handheld TV games sold by many different companies, including Systema, Akor, and NICS, based upon an unlicensed clone of Atari 2600 hardware. They were widely available across Europe. In the UK they were most visibly available through Argos. They were released around 1992, and an improved version of the TV Boy 2, the Super TV Boy, was also made by Akor in 1995.

La TV Boy est une console de jeux vidéo qui reprend 126 jeux compatibles avec l'Atari 2600. La console inclut en fait 128 programmes et le premier est le menu qui permet d'accéder aux 126 jeux. Celui qui reste est un programme de test.

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Michel Platini

Michel François Platini (born 21 June 1955) is a French former football player, manager and administrator. As the president of UEFA in 2015 he was banned from football, over ethics violations. Regarded as one of the greatest footballers of all time, Platini won the Ballon d'Or three times, in 1983, 1984 and 1985, and came sixth in the FIFA Player of the Century vote. In recognition of his achievements, he was named a Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur in 1985 and became an Officier in 1998.

Michel Platini, né le à Jœuf (Meurthe-et-Moselle), est un joueur de football international français, qui évoluait au poste de milieu de terrain offensif, avant de devenir entraîneur puis dirigeant.

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null

Brazilian real

Réal brésilien

The Brazilian real (;, pl. ; sign: R$; code: BRL) is the official currency of Brazil. It is subdivided into 100 centavos. The Central Bank of Brazil is the central bank and the issuing authority. The real replaced the Brazilian cruzeiro in 1994.

Le réal brésilien (au pluriel réaux ; sans accent, pluriel ) est la monnaie du Brésil depuis 1994. Le réal brésilien est divisé en. Son code ISO 4217 international est BRL, son abréviation locale usuelle est R$.

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null

Switch

Interrupteur

In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can disconnect or connect the conducting path in an electrical circuit, interrupting the electric current or diverting it from one conductor to another. The most common type of switch is an electromechanical device consisting of one or more sets of movable electrical contacts connected to external circuits. When a pair of contacts is touching current can pass between them, while when the contacts are separated no current can flow.

Un interrupteur "(dérivé de rupture)" est un organe, physique ou virtuel, permettant d'interrompre ou d'autoriser le passage d'un flux. Le premier interrupteur utilisant la technologie "quick-break" fut inventé par John Henry Holmes en 1864 dans le district de Shieldfield à Newcastle upon Tyne. Il ne faut pas confondre l'interrupteur qui permet d'éteindre ou d'allumer un appareil, et le commutateur qui permet de choisir entre plusieurs états actifs d'un appareil.

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Jules Ferry

Jules François Camille Ferry (; 5 April 183217 March 1893) was a French statesman and republican. He was a promoter of laicism and colonial expansion.

Jules Ferry, né le à Saint-Dié (Vosges) et mort le à Paris, est un homme d'État français. Opposant à l'Empire, il est après la chute de celui-ci, en 1870, membre du gouvernement provisoire et, pour quelques mois, maire de Paris.

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Tenspeed and Brown Shoe

Timide et sans complexe

Tenspeed and Brown Shoe is an American detective/comedy series originally broadcast by the ABC network between January and June 1980. The series was created and executive produced by Stephen J. Cannell. Most of the show's creative staff (Cannell, Juanita Bartlett, Gordon T. Dawson) were veterans of the private detective series "The Rockford Files", which concluded its run about two weeks before "Tenspeed and Brown Shoe" debuted.

Timide et sans complexe ("") est une série télévisée américaine en 14 épisodes de 47 minutes (une seule saison) créée par Stephen J. Cannell diffusée du 27 janvier au sur le réseau ABC.

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null

Atari 2600

The Atari 2600, originally branded as the Atari Video Computer System or Atari VCS for short until November 1982, is a home video game console from Atari, Inc. Released on September 11, 1977, it is credited with popularizing the use of microprocessor-based hardware and games stored on ROM cartridges (a format first used with the Fairchild Channel F in 1976) instead of dedicated hardware with games physically built into the unit. The 2600 was bundled with two joystick controllers, a conjoined pair of paddle controllers, and a game cartridge: initially "Combat", and later "Pac-Man".

L’Atari 2600, à l’origine appelée Atari VCS, est une console de jeux vidéo de deuxième génération produite par Atari entre 1977 et 1992.

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Xena: Warrior Princess

Xena, la guerrière

Xena: Warrior Princess is an American fantasy television series filmed on location in New Zealand. The series aired in first-run syndication from September 4, 1995, to June 18, 2001. Critics have praised the series for its strong female protagonist, and it has acquired a strong cult following, attention in fandom,, and academia, and has influenced the direction of other television series.

Xena, la guerrière (') est une série télévisée américaine et néo-zélandaise en 134 épisodes de 42 minutes créée par les réalisateurs et producteurs Robert Tapert et John Schulian, avec l'aide des producteurs Sam Raimi et R. J. Stewart. Elle fut produite par ', dont les propriétaires sont Robert Tapert et Sam Raimi, réalisateur de la série et distribuée par Universal Pictures. Elle a été diffusée entre le et le en syndication. Il s'agit d'une série dérivée d’"Hercule".

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Towpath

Halage

A towpath is a road or trail on the bank of a river, canal, or other inland waterway. The purpose of a towpath is to allow a land vehicle, beasts of burden, or a team of human pullers to tow a boat, often a barge. This mode of transport was common where sailing was impractical due to tunnels and bridges, unfavourable winds, or the narrowness of the channel.

Le halage est un mode de traction terrestre des péniches, des coches d'eau et d'une manière générale des bateaux fluviaux, qui consiste à les faire avancer le long d’une rivière, d’un canal, au moyen d’une corde tirée jadis à force de bras ou par des chevaux, à présent par un engin automoteur.

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Nobility

Noblesse

Nobility is a social class normally ranked immediately below royalty and found in some societies that have a formal aristocracy. Nobility possesses more acknowledged privileges and higher social status than most other classes in society. The privileges associated with nobility may constitute substantial advantages over or relative to non-nobles, or may be largely honorary (e.g., precedence), and vary by country and era. As referred to in the Medieval chivalric motto "noblesse oblige" ("nobility obliges"), nobles can also carry a lifelong duty to uphold various social responsibilities, such as honourable behaviour, customary service, or leadership positions. Membership in the nobility, including rights and responsibilities, is typically hereditary.

La noblesse d'un pays (en général un royaume, mais aussi des républiques comme Rome ou Venise), ou d'une province de ce pays, désigne l'institution d'un ensemble de familles chargées d'assurer des fonctions d'autorité militaire et politiques plus ou moins étendues, dans le cadre de charges ou d'emplois réservés. Lorsque ces fonctions sont religieuses, comme chez les lévites ou les brahmanes, on ne parle pas de noblesse, mais de caste sacerdotale.

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La Cinq

La Cinq () was France's first privately owned free-to-air television network. Created by politician Jérôme Seydoux and Italian media mogul Silvio Berlusconi, the network broadcast from 1985 to 1992.

La Cinq, éditée par la société France 5 puis par La Cinq S.A., (ou La Société d'exploitation de la chaine), est la première chaîne de télévision généraliste nationale commerciale privée et gratuite française diffusée du au.

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Hernán Cortés

Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro Altamirano, 1st Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca (; ; 1485 – December 2, 1547) was a Spanish "Conquistador" who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions of what is now mainland Mexico under the rule of the King of Castile in the early 16th century. Cortés was part of the generation of Spanish explorers and conquistadors who began the first phase of the Spanish colonization of the Americas.

Hernán Cortés (parfois écrit Cortès ou Cortez), dont le nom complet est Fernando Cortés de Monroy Pizarro Altamirano, premier marquis de la Vallée d'Oaxaca, né, probablement, en 1485, à Medellín (un village d'Estrémadure) et mort à Castilleja de la Cuesta (près de Séville) le, est un conquistador espagnol qui s'est emparé de l'Empire aztèque pour le compte de Charles Quint, roi de Castille et empereur romain germanique. Cette conquête est l'acte fondateur de la Nouvelle-Espagne et marque une étape fondamentale de la colonisation espagnole des Amériques au.

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Somaliland

Somaliland (; ', '), officially the Republic of Somaliland (, "Jumhūrīyat Ṣūmālīlānd"), is a self-declared state, internationally considered to be an autonomous region of Somalia. The government of the de facto state of Somaliland regards itself as the successor state to the former British Somaliland protectorate, which, in the form of the briefly independent State of Somaliland, united as scheduled on 1 July 1960 with the Trust Territory of Somaliland (the former Italian Somaliland) to form the Somali Republic.

Le Somaliland, en forme longue la république du Somaliland (en somali,'et'; en arabe,, "Arḍ aṣ-Ṣūmāl", et, "Jumhūrīyat Arḍ aṣ-Ṣūmāl"), est un ancien territoire britannique situé dans la Corne de l'Afrique. Son indépendance autoproclamée en 1991 par rapport à la Somalie et sa Constitution du 30 avril 2000 ne sont pas reconnues par la communauté internationale. Il est revendiqué comme un État de la République fédérale de Somalie depuis la modification des entités territoriales de 2016.

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Richard Dean Anderson

Richard Dean Anderson (born January 23, 1950) is an American actor and producer. He began his television career in 1976, playing Jeff Webber in the American soap-opera series "General Hospital", then rose to prominence as the lead actor in the television series "MacGyver" (1985–1992). He later appeared in films such as "Through the Eyes of a Killer" (1992), "Pandora's Clock" (1996), and "Firehouse" (1997).

Richard Dean Anderson est un acteur et producteur américain né le à Minneapolis, dans le Minnesota. Il est célèbre pour être l'interprète principal des séries télévisées "MacGyver" et "Stargate SG-1".

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Sports in the United States

Sport aux États-Unis

Sport in the USA are an important part of American culture. American football is the most popular sport to watch in the United States, followed by baseball, basketball, and ice hockey, which makes up the "4 major sports". Soccer, tennis, golf, wrestling, auto racing, arena football, field lacrosse, box lacrosse and volleyball are also played in the country. Based on Olympic Games, World Championships, and other major competitions in respective sports, the United States is the most successful sports nation in the world.

Le sport est très important dans la culture des États-Unis d'Amérique. Les quatre sports d'équipes les plus populaires sont: le football américain, le baseball, le basket-ball et le hockey sur glace. Les ligues majeures de ces sports, la National Football League (NFL), la Ligue majeure de baseball (MLB), la National Basketball Association (NBA) et la Ligue nationale de hockey (NHL),jouissent ainsi d'une exposition médiatique massive et sont considérés comme les compétitions par excellence dans le monde. Chacune de ces ligues ont des équipes qui jouent au Canada, sauf la NFL, et toutes les quatre sont parmi les ligues sportives les plus lucratives au monde. Le soccer (le football tel qu'il est connu en Europe) est moins populaire aux États-Unis que dans de nombreux autres pays, même s'il possède une large participation chez les amateurs, en particulier chez les jeunes et les femmes.

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Vassal

Vassalité

A vassal is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. The obligations often included military support by knights in exchange for certain privileges, usually including land held as a tenant or fief. The term is also applied to similar arrangements in other feudal societies.

Héritière du compagnonnage d'arme du haut Moyen Âge, la vassalité est la situation de dépendance d’un homme libre (vassal, du celtique *uasso-, "jeune homme", "écuyer", par le latin médiéval "vassus" puis "vassalus") envers son seigneur par la cérémonie de l’hommage. Le système féodo-vassalique s’est développé à cause de l’affaiblissement de l’autorité publique après l’effondrement de l’empire carolingien ( - ) : l’empereur, les rois et bientôt les princes territoriaux étaient incapables de faire régner l’ordre et d’imposer leur pouvoir aux seigneurs locaux. Un réseau de relations d’homme à homme s’impose donc, donnant des droits et des devoirs pour chacun d’entre eux, une pyramide sociale allant théoriquement du roi au grand seigneur (grand feudataire), seigneur, vassal et arrière-vassal (Vavasseur) mais dont l'effectivité dépend de l'autorité du supérieur.

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Skylab

Skylab was the first United States space station, launched by NASA, occupied for about 24 weeks between May 1973 and February 1974. It was operated by three separate three-astronaut crews: SL-2, SL-3 and SL-4. Major operations included an orbital workshop, a solar observatory, Earth observation, and hundreds of experiments.

"Skylab" est mise en orbite le. Au cours de son lancement, la station perd une partie de son revêtement thermique et un de ses panneaux solaires. Le premier équipage, qui la rejoint quelques jours plus tard, doit d'abord restaurer son habitabilité. Trois équipages y séjournent entre 1973 et 1974, dont le dernier, durant près de 84 jours, établit un nouveau record. Les astronautes réalisent à bord de nombreuses observations scientifiques, en particulier l'observation du Soleil grâce à une batterie d'instruments et l'étude de l'adaptation de l'homme à l'espace. À l'issue de ces missions et faute de lanceurs disponibles et de budget, la station est mise en sommeil en attendant la mise au point de la Navette spatiale américaine en cours de développement. Mais le planning de ce projet prend du retard et l'intensité inattendue de l'activité solaire dégrade plus rapidement que prévu l'orbite de la station spatiale, qui se désintègre en rentrant dans l'atmosphère le.

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Mars, Incorporated

Mars (entreprise)

Mars, Incorporated is an American global manufacturer of confectionery, pet food, and other food products and a provider of animal care services, with US$33 billion in annual sales in 2015. It was ranked as the 6th largest privately held company in the United States by "Forbes". Headquartered in McLean, Virginia, United States, the company is entirely owned by the Mars family. Mars operates in five business segments around the world: Mars Wrigley Confectionary (headquartered in Chicago, Illinois, with US headquarters in Hackettstown and Newark, New Jersey), Petcare (Zaventem, Belgium; Poncitlán and Jalisco, Mexico; Querétaro, Mexico), Food (Rancho Dominguez, California), Drinks (West Chester, Pennsylvania), and Symbioscience (Germantown, Maryland), the company's life sciences division.

Mars Incorporated est une entreprise agroalimentaire et un groupe agroindustriel américain qui est implanté dans une centaine de pays et a un chiffre d'affaires annuel de plus de 30 milliards de dollars. Le siège social est basé à McLean en Virginie aux États-Unis. La société a la particularité d'être entièrement détenue par la famille Mars.

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Clarinet

Clarinette

The clarinet is a family of woodwind instruments. It has a single-reed mouthpiece, a straight, cylindrical tube with an almost cylindrical bore, and a flared bell. A person who plays a clarinet is called a "clarinetist" (sometimes spelled "clarinettist").

La clarinette (du provençal "clarin" désignant un hautbois) est un instrument de musique à vent de la famille des bois caractérisé par son anche simple et sa perce quasi cylindrique. Elle a été créée vers 1690 par Johann Christoph Denner (1655-1707) à Nuremberg sur la base d'un instrument à anche simple plus ancien : le « chalumeau ». La clarinette soprano (en si♭) est le modèle le plus commun.

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John Lasseter

John Alan Lasseter (; born January 12, 1957) is an American animator, film director, screenwriter, producer, voice actor and former chief creative officer of Walt Disney Animation Studios, Pixar and Disneytoon Studios. He was also the Principal Creative Advisor for Walt Disney Imagineering.

John Lasseter, né le à Hollywood (Los Angeles), est un réalisateur et producteur américain de films d'animation. Il est directeur artistique de Pixar Animation Studios et de Walt Disney Animation Studios ainsi que conseiller artistique de Walt Disney Imagineering.

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National Football League

The National Football League (NFL) is a professional American football league consisting of 32 teams, divided equally between the National Football Conference (NFC) and the American Football Conference (AFC). The NFL is one of the four major professional sports leagues in North America, the highest professional level of American football in the world, the wealthiest professional sport league by revenue, and the sport league with the most valuable teams. The NFL's 17-week regular season runs from early September to late December, with each team playing 16 games and having one bye week. Following the conclusion of the regular season, seven teams from each conference (four division winners and three wild card teams) advance to the playoffs, a single-elimination tournament culminating in the Super Bowl, which is usually held on the first Sunday in February and is played between the champions of the NFC and AFC.

La'(désignée par la traduction non officielle « Ligue nationale de football américain » en français), abrégée par son sigle NFL, est une association d'équipes professionnelles de football américain, active aux États-Unis. La NFL a été créée en 1920, d'abord sous le nom d (APFA), avant d’être rebaptisée " en 1922. La NFL organise chaque année un championnat très suivi aux États-Unis ponctué par un événement majeur : le Super Bowl.

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Pierre Trudeau

Pierre Elliott Trudeau

Joseph Philippe Pierre Yves Elliott Trudeau (, ; October 18, 1919 – September 28, 2000), mostly referred to as simply Pierre Trudeau, or by the initials PET, was a Canadian politician who was the 15th prime minister of Canada and leader of the Liberal Party of Canada, between 1968 and 1984, with a brief period as Leader of the Opposition, from 1979 to 1980. His tenure of 15 years and 164 days makes him Canada's third longest-serving Prime Minister, behind William Lyon Mackenzie King and John A. Macdonald.

Pierre Elliott Trudeau surnommé PET, né le à Outremont (Québec) et mort le à Montréal, est un homme d'État canadien. Il exerce la fonction de premier ministre du Canada à deux reprises : du au, puis du au, sous la bannière du Parti libéral. Par sa longévité politique et l'importance des changements qu'il a mis en œuvre, il est certainement la figure politique canadienne la plus importante de la seconde moitié du. En tant que ministre de la Justice sous Lester B. Pearson, il fait adopter le "Bill omnibus" qui légalise le divorce et décriminalise l'avortement et l'homosexualité, considérant que.

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Musk

Musc

Musk is a class of aromatic substances commonly used as base notes in perfumery. They include glandular secretions from animals such as the musk deer, numerous plants emitting similar fragrances, and artificial substances with similar odors. "Musk" was a name originally given to a substance with a strong odor obtained from a gland of the musk deer. The substance has been used as a popular perfume fixative since ancient times and is one of the most expensive animal products in the world. The name originates from the Late Greek μόσχος'moskhos', from Persian'mushk', similar to Sanskrit मुष्क muṣka ("testicle"), derived from Proto-Indo-European noun "mouse". The deer gland was thought to resemble a scrotum. It is applied to various plants and animals of similar smell (e.g. muskox) and has come to encompass a wide variety of aromatic substances with similar odors, despite their often differing chemical structures and molecular shapes.

Le musc est une matière première animale entrant dans la composition des parfums. Il est extrait des glandes abdominales des cerfs porte-musc d'Asie centrale. D'autres espèces animales et végétales peuvent produire une substance qualifiée de musc, notamment les Viverridés, comme les civettes, le rat musqué, l'érismature à barbillons, le canard musqué et le bœuf musqué.

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Imperial, royal and noble ranks

Titre de noblesse

Traditional rank amongst European royalty, peers, and nobility is rooted in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Although they vary over time and among geographic regions (for example, one region's prince might be equal to another's grand duke), the following is a reasonably comprehensive list that provides information on both general ranks and specific differences.

Un titre de noblesse est soit un titre hérité par des personnes de condition noble, soit un titre conférant la noblesse. Il correspond à l'origine à l'exercice de fonctions d'autorité déléguées de celles du souverain : militaires ou judiciaires. D'abord attaché à l'exercice de cette autorité sur une population ou un peuple : prince ou duc des Normands, duc des Francs, "dux Bavarorum", à partir du, il devient attaché au nom de la circonscription territoriale sur laquelle il s'exerçait (duché, comté, vicomté, baronnie, etc.).

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Ghoul

Goule

Ghoul (, "") is a demon-like being or monstrous humanoid originating in pre-Islamic Arabian religion associated with graveyards and consuming human flesh. In modern fiction, the term has often been used for a certain kind of undead monster.

La goule (de l'arabe, "al-ghoûl" ; féminin "al-ghoûla" ; « l'ogre ») est une créature monstrueuse du folklore arabe préislamique qui apparaît dans les contes des "Mille et Une Nuits". Elle forme une classe de djinns, comme les éfrits par exemple, et est donc à ce titre l'engeance du diable, Iblis. Les goules changent de forme, prenant le plus souvent l'apparence d'une hyène ou celle d'une femme, mais elles sont reconnaissables à leurs pieds fourchus, seul élément constant de leur apparence.

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Garden roses

Rose (fleur)

Garden roses are predominantly hybrid roses that are grown as ornamental plants in private or public gardens. They are one of the most popular and widely cultivated groups of flowering plants, especially in temperate climates. Numerous cultivars have been produced, especially over the last two centuries, though roses have been known in the garden for millennia beforehand. While most garden roses are grown for their flowers, some are also valued for other reasons, such as having ornamental fruit, providing ground cover, or for hedging.

La rose est la fleur des rosiers, arbustes du genre "Rosa" et de la famille des "Rosaceae". La rose des jardins se caractérise avant tout par la multiplication de ses pétales imbriqués qui lui donne sa forme caractéristique.

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Belinda Stronach

Belinda Caroline Stronach, (born May 2, 1966) is a Canadian businesswoman, philanthropist and former Member of Parliament (MP) in the House of Commons of Canada from 2004 to 2008. Originally elected as a Conservative, she later crossed the floor to join the Liberals. From May 17, 2005, to February 6, 2006, Stronach was the Minister of Human Resources and Skills Development and Minister responsible for Democratic Renewal in the government of Paul Martin. After leaving politics, she served as the executive vice-chairman of Magna International, Canada's largest automotive parts manufacturer until December 31, 2010.

Belinda Stronach (née le à Newmarket, Ontario) est une femme d'affaires et une femme politique canadienne. Elle fut PDG de la compagnie Magna International. Elle a également été députée du Parti libéral du Canada (PLC) à la Chambre des communes du Canada avant de retourner travailler pour Magna International.

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Seven Years' War

Guerre de Sept Ans

The Seven Years' War was a global conflict that was fought between 1756 and 1763. It involved all five European great powers of the time—the Kingdoms of Great Britain, Prussia and France, the Habsburg Monarchy of Austria and the Russian Empire—plus many of Europe's middle powers and spanned five continents, affecting Europe, the Americas, West Africa, India, and the Philippines. The conflict split Europe into two coalitions: one was led by Great Britain (including the German state, the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg ruled in personal union) and Prussia, supported by the Kingdom of Portugal and a few other small German states; while the other was led by France and included the Austrian-led Holy Roman Empire, including the Electorate of Saxony and most of the smaller German states, Russia (until 1762), the Kingdom of Spain, and Sweden. The Dutch Republic, Denmark–Norway, the Italian States, and the Ottoman Empire did not participate. Meanwhile, in India, some regional polities within the increasingly fragmented Mughal Empire, with the support of the French, failed to defeat a British attempt to conquer Bengal.

La guerre de Sept Ans (1756-1763) est un conflit majeur, le premier à pouvoir être qualifié de « guerre mondiale ». Elle mêle de façon conséquente les grandes puissances de l'époque, regroupées dans deux ensembles d'alliances antagonistes, se déroule simultanément sur plusieurs continents et théâtres d'opérations, notamment en Europe, en Amérique du Nord et en Inde.

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Nyx

Nyx (;,,, 'Night') is the Greek goddess (or personification) of the night. A shadowy figure, Nyx stood at or near the beginning of creation and mothered other personified deities such as Hypnos (Sleep) and Thanatos (Death), with Erebus (Darkness). Her appearances are sparse in surviving mythology, but reveal her as a figure of such exceptional power and beauty that she is feared by Zeus himself.

Dans la mythologie grecque, Nyx (en grec ancien, en latin "") est la déesse primordiale de la Nuit personnifiée. Selon la "Théogonie" d'Hésiode, elle et son frère Érèbe (les Ténèbres) sont les premières divinités issues du Chaos primordial. Sa demeure se trouve au-delà du pays d'Atlas, à l'extrême Ouest.

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MacGyver (1985 TV series)

MacGyver

MacGyver is an American action-adventure television series created by Lee David Zlotoff and starring Richard Dean Anderson as the title character. Henry Winkler and John Rich were the executive producers. The series follows the adventures of Angus MacGyver, a secret agent armed with remarkable scientific resourcefulness to solve almost any problem out in the field using mundane materials at hand.

MacGyver est une série télévisée américaine d'action, d'aventure et d'espionnage en 139 épisodes de 47 minutes créée par Lee David Zlotoff et diffusée entre le et le sur le réseau ABC.

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null

Group action

Action de groupe (mathématiques)

In mathematics, a group action on a space is a group homomorphism of a given group into the group of transformations of the space. Similarly, a group action on a mathematical structure is a group homomorphism of a group into the automorphism group of the structure. It is said that the group "acts" on the space or structure. If a group acts on a structure, it also acts on everything that is built on the structure. For example, the group of Euclidean isometries acts on Euclidean space and also on the figures drawn in it. In particular, it acts on the set of all triangles. Similarly, the group of symmetries of a polyhedron acts on the vertices, the edges, and the faces of the polyhedron.

En mathématiques, une action d'un groupe sur un ensemble est une loi de composition externe du groupe sur l'ensemble, vérifiant des conditions supplémentaires. Plus précisément, c'est la donnée, pour chaque élément du groupe, d'une permutation de l'ensemble, de telle manière que toutes ces bijections se composent de façon compatible avec la loi du groupe.

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null

Enzyme inhibitor

Inhibiteur enzymatique

An enzyme inhibitor is a molecule that binds to an enzyme and decreases its activity. By binding to enzymes' active sites, inhibitors reduce the compatibility of substrate and enzyme and this leads to the inhibition of Enzyme-Substrate complexes' formation, preventing the catalyzation of reactions and decreasing (at times to zero) the amount of product produced by a reaction. It can be said that as the concentration of enzyme inhibitors increases, the rate of enzyme activity decreases, and thus, the amount of product produced is inversely proportional to the concentration of inhibitor molecules. Since blocking an enzyme's activity can kill a pathogen or correct a metabolic imbalance, many drugs are enzyme inhibitors. They are also used in pesticides. Not all molecules that bind to enzymes are inhibitors; "enzyme activators" bind to enzymes and increase their enzymatic activity, while enzyme substrates bind and are converted to products in the normal catalytic cycle of the enzyme.

Un inhibiteur enzymatique est une substance se liant à une enzyme et qui en diminue l'activité. Un inhibiteur peut empêcher la fixation du substrat sur le site actif en se fixant à sa place, ou provoquer une déformation de l'enzyme qui rend celle-ci inactive (inhibiteur allostérique). L'inhibition des enzymes joue un rôle important dans le contrôle des mécanismes biologiques, et notamment dans la régulation des voies métaboliques. Puisque l'inhibition d'une enzyme peut tuer un pathogène ou corriger un déséquilibre métabolique, des applications existent dans de nombreux autres domaines : beaucoup de médicaments, pesticides ou insecticides sont des inhibiteurs enzymatiques. En enzymologie, les inhibiteurs sont très utilisés pour déterminer le mécanisme d'action d'une enzyme. Toutes les molécules ou ligands se liant à une enzyme ne sont pas des inhibiteurs, les activateurs enzymatiques existent également et accroissent l'activité de l'enzyme.

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Battle of Rossbach

Bataille de Rossbach

The Battle of Rossbach took place on 5November 1757 during the Third Silesian War (1756–1763, part of the Seven Years' War) near the village of Rossbach (Roßbach), in the Electorate of Saxony. It is sometimes called the Battle of, or at, Reichardtswerben, after a different nearby town. In this 90-minute battle, Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, defeated an Allied army composed of French forces augmented by a contingent of the Reichsarmee (Imperial Army) of the Holy Roman Empire. The French and Imperial army included almost 42,000 men, opposing a considerably smaller Prussian force of 22,000. Despite overwhelming odds, Frederick employed rapid movement, a flanking maneuver and oblique order to achieve complete surprise.

La bataille de Rossbach, pendant la guerre de Sept Ans, a lieu près du village de Rossbach dans la commune saxonne de Braunsbedra (actuellement dans le Land de Saxe-Anhalt, en Allemagne), le. Elle oppose l'armée prussienne du roi Frédéric II aux troupes franco-impériales du roi Louis XV de France et de la reine de Bohême et de Hongrie Marie-Thérèse d'Autriche.

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Mössbauer spectroscopy

Spectroscopie Mössbauer

Mössbauer spectroscopy is a spectroscopic technique based on the Mössbauer effect. This effect, discovered by Rudolf Mössbauer (sometimes written "Moessbauer", German: "Mößbauer") in 1958, consists of the nearly recoil-free emission and absorption of nuclear gamma rays in solids. The consequent nuclear spectroscopy method is exquisitely sensitive to small changes in the chemical environment of certain nuclei.

La spectroscopie Mössbauer est une méthode de spectroscopie basée sur l'absorption de rayons gamma par les noyaux atomiques dans un solide. Par la mesure des transitions entre les niveaux d'énergie de ces noyaux, elle permet de remonter à différentes informations sur l'environnement local de l'atome. Elle doit son nom à Rudolf Mössbauer qui en a posé les bases en 1957 en démontrant l'existence de ces phénomènes d'absorption résonante sans effet de recul, ce qu'on appelle aujourd'hui l'effet Mössbauer.

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Missouri Compromise

Compromis du Missouri

The Missouri Compromise was United States federal legislation that admitted Maine to the United States as a free state, simultaneously with Missouri as a slave state—thus maintaining the balance of power between North and South in the United States Senate. As part of the compromise, the legislation prohibited slavery north of the 36°30′ parallel, excluding Missouri. The 16th United States Congress passed the legislation on March 3, 1820, and President James Monroe signed it on March 6, 1820.

Le compromis du Missouri, également appelé compromis de 1820, est un compromis trouvé au Sénat des États-Unis le qui apaise, pour un temps, les dissensions sur la question de l’esclavage au sein de l'Union.

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Aedile

Édile (Rome antique)

Aedile ( ;, from, "temple edifice") was an elected office of the Roman Republic. Based in Rome, the aediles were responsible for maintenance of public buildings () and regulation of public festivals. They also had powers to enforce public order and duties to ensure the city of Rome was well supplied and its civil infrastructure well maintained, akin to modern local government.

Les édiles étaient des magistrats de la Rome antique. Leur fonction primitive était liée à l'administration urbaine de Rome. L'édilité est intégrée au "cursus honorum".

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Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn

Alexandre Soljenitsyne

Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn (11 December 1918 – 3 August 2008) was a Russian novelist, philosopher, historian, short story writer and political prisoner. Solzhenitsyn was an outspoken critic of the Soviet Union and Communism and helped to raise global awareness of its Gulag labour camp system.

Alexandre Issaïevitch Soljenitsyne, parfois en français Soljénitsyne (en, ), né le à Kislovodsk et mort le à Moscou, est un écrivain russe et dissident du régime soviétique.

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Michel Simon

Michel Simon (; 9 April 1895 – 30 May 1975) was a Swiss actor. He appeared in the notable films "La Chienne" (1931), "Boudu Saved from Drowning" (1932), "L'Atalante" (1934), "Port of Shadows" (1938), "The Head" (1959), and "The Train" (1964). The actor François Simon is his son.

François Simon, dit Michel Simon, est un acteur suisse né le à Genève (canton de Genève) et mort le à Bry-sur-Marne (Val-de-Marne).

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Roman censor

Censeur

The censor (at any time, there were two) was a magistrate in ancient Rome who was responsible for maintaining the census, supervising public morality, and overseeing certain aspects of the government's finances.

Le censeur (en latin "censor") est un magistrat romain. Deux censeurs sont élus tous les cinq ans parmi les anciens consuls par les comices centuriates. Le pouvoir des censeurs est absolu : aucun magistrat ne peut s’opposer à leurs décisions, seul un autre censeur qui leur succède peut les annuler. Après 18 mois de mandat, ils président une grande cérémonie de purification, le "lustrum", à la suite de laquelle ils abdiquent. La censure est la seule magistrature romaine qui n’autorise pas la réélection. Les censeurs ne sont plus élus à partir de la dictature de Sylla, et leurs pouvoirs sont repris par les empereurs romains.

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Praetor

Préteur

Praetor (, ), also spelled prætor or pretor in English, was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities: the commander of an army (in the field or, less often, before the army had been mustered); and as an elected "magistratus" (magistrate), assigned various duties (which varied at different periods in Rome's history). The functions of the magistracy, the "praetura" (praetorship), are described by the adjective: the "praetoria potestas" (praetorian power), the "praetorium imperium" (praetorian authority), and the "praetorium ius" (praetorian law), the legal precedents established by the "praetores" (praetors). "Praetorium", as a substantive, denoted the location from which the praetor exercised his authority, either the headquarters of his "castra", the courthouse (tribunal) of his judiciary, or the city hall of his provincial governorship.

Le préteur (en latin "prætor" « chef », de "præire" « marcher devant », selon l'étymologie des Anciens aujourd'hui révisée) est un magistrat de la Rome antique. Il est de rang sénatorial, peut s'asseoir sur la chaise curule, et porter la toge prétexte. Il est précédé par deux licteurs à l'intérieur de Rome, et six hors du "pomerium" de l’"Urbs". Sous la République, il est élu pour une durée d'un an par les comices centuriates.

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Political correctness

Politiquement correct

Political correctness (adjectivally: politically correct; commonly abbreviated PC) is a term used to describe language, policies, or measures that are intended to avoid offense or disadvantage to members of particular groups in society. In public discourse and the media, the term is generally used as a pejorative with an implication that these policies are excessive or unwarranted. Since the late 1980s, the term has been used to describe a preference for inclusive language and avoiding language or behavior that can be seen as excluding, marginalizing, or insulting groups of people considered disadvantaged or discriminated against, especially groups defined by sex or race.

Le politiquement correct (anglicisme de "politically correct" ou "political correctness", souvent noté "PC" en anglais) désigne, principalement pour la dénoncer, une attitude qui consiste à policer excessivement ou modifier des formulations parce qu'elles pourraient heurter certaines catégories de personnes, notamment en matière d'ethnies, de cultures, de religions, de sexes, d'infirmités, de classes sociales ou de préférences sexuelles.

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Lepidobotryaceae

Lepidobotryaceae is a flowering plant family in the order Celastrales. It contains only two genera, each with a single species: "Lepidobotrys staudtii" and "Ruptiliocarpon caracolito".

La petite famille des Lépidobotryacées regroupe des plantes dicotylédones. Elle ne comprend que 1 à 3 espèces dont "Lepidobotrys staudtii", un arbuste originaire d'Afrique tropicale, espèce anciennement située dans les Oxalidacées.

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Opportunity (rover)

Opportunity

Opportunity, also known as MER-B (Mars Exploration Rover – B) or MER-1, and nicknamed "Oppy", is a robotic rover that was active on Mars from 2004 until the middle of 2018. Launched on July 7, 2003, as part of NASA's Mars Exploration Rover program, it landed in Meridiani Planum on January 25, 2004, three weeks after its twin "Spirit" (MER-A) touched down on the other side of the planet. With a planned 90-sol duration of activity (slightly less than 92.5 Earth days), "Spirit" functioned until it got stuck in 2009 and ceased communications in 2010, while "Opportunity" was able to stay operational for sols after landing, maintaining its power and key systems through continual recharging of its batteries using solar power, and hibernating during events such as dust storms to save power. This careful operation allowed "Opportunity" to exceed its operating plan by (in Earth time), 55 times its designed lifespan. By June 10, 2018, when it last contacted NASA, the rover had traveled a distance of.

Opportunity pèse environ et se déplace sur six roues mues par l'énergie électrique fournie par des panneaux solaires. Il est équipé de trois paires de caméras utilisées pour la navigation et de plusieurs instruments scientifiques : une caméra panoramique située sur un mât à de hauteur, un outil pour abraser la surface des roches porté par un bras articulé sur lequel se trouvent également un spectromètre à, un spectromètre Mössbauer et une caméra microscope. Enfin, un spectromètre infrarouge est utilisé pour l'analyse des roches et de l'atmosphère. Ses déplacements sont pilotés par le Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), une division du California Institute of Technology situé à Pasadena, lequel gère l'ensemble du programme Mars Exploration Rover pour la NASA.

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Oval

Ovale

An oval (from Latin "ovum", "egg") is a closed curve in a plane which "loosely" resembles the outline of an egg. The term is not very specific, but in some areas (projective geometry, technical drawing, etc.) it is given a more precise definition, which may include either one or two axes of symmetry. In common English, the term is used in a broader sense: any shape which reminds one of an egg. The three-dimensional version of an oval is called an ovoid.

Dans le sens étymologique, un ovale est une forme d'œuf. En mathématiques, il n'y a pas de définition communément admise. La définition dépend de l'ouvrage consulté.

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