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Tamazight NLP 25

In particular, they refuted the assumption of Confucius as a godlike figure and considered him as the greatest sage, but simply a human and mortal.

ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ, ⵎⵙⵓⵛⴹⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵏⴼⵓⵛⵢⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⵎ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⴰⴽⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴼⵍⵓⵙ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵅⵙ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵏⵓ.

Buddhism arrived in China around the 1st century AD, but it was not until the Northern and Southern, Sui and Tang Dynasties that it gained considerable influence and acknowledgement.

ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⴱⵓⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ (1) ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵢⵏⴰⵚⵓⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⵓⵙ, ⵢⴰⵙⵜⵡⴰ ⵉⵎⵖⵓⵔ.

This leads to the inquiry into the one being that underlies the diversity of empirical phenomena and the origin of all things.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ.

Seven Rishis — Atri, Bharadwaja, Gautama, Jamadagni, Kasyapa, Vasishtha, Viswamitra.

ⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵔⵛⵉⵙ-ⴰⵜⵔⵉ, ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰⴷⵡⴰⵊⴰ, ⵖⴰⵡⵜⴰⵎⴰ, ⵊⴰⵎⴷⴰⵖⵏⵉ, ⴽⴰⵙⵢⴰⴱⴰ, ⴼⴰⵙⵉⵛⵜⴰ, ⴼⵉⵙⵢⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔⴰ.

Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC, marking the end of the Greek Dark Ages.

ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 6 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⴰⵏⴽⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏ.

It dealt with a wide variety of subjects, including astronomy, epistemology, mathematics, political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, ontology, logic, biology, rhetoric and aesthetics.

ⵉⵙⴰⵡⵍ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵎⵉⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵔⵇⵇⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴰⵍⴽⴰⵢⵉⵏ.

Clear, unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers to Roman philosophy, Early Islamic philosophy, Medieval Scholasticism, the European Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵕⵥⵥⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵢⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵀⵉⵍⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵉⵙⵍⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⴰⵡ.

But they taught themselves to reason.

ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⵍⵍⵉ.

"Thales inspired the Milesian school of philosophy and was followed by Anaximander, who argued that the substratum or arche could not be water or any of the classical elements but was instead something ""unlimited"" or ""indefinite"" (in Greek, the apeiron)."

‘’ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵙⵎ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵍⵉⵙⵉⵢⵜ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⴽⵙⵉⵎⵏⴹⵕ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵖⵕⵕⴰⴱⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵎⵛⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ‘’ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴽⵓⵜⵜⵉ’’ ⵏⵖ ‘’ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ’’ (ⵙ ⵜⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ.’’

"Contrary to the Milesian school, which posits one stable element as the arche, Heraclitus taught that panta rhei (""everything flows""), the closest element to this eternal flux being fire."

‘’ⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵍⵉⵙⵉⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵡⵛⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵖⵕⵕⴰⴱⵓ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵀⵉⵔⴰⴽⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵍⴱⵓⵟⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴱⴱⵍⴱⵟ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵡⴰⴼⴰ.

Being, he argued, by definition implies eternality, while only that which is can be thought; a thing which is, moreover, cannot be more or less, and so the rarefaction and condensation of the Milesians is impossible regarding Being; lastly, as movement requires that something exist apart from the thing moving (viz.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⵜ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵅⵙ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ, ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⴰⵙ, ⵙ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⴼⵢ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵉⵍⵉⵙⵉⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵢⴰⴳⵓⵎⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ, ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵛⵜⴰⴳⵏ.

In support of this, Parmenides' pupil Zeno of Elea attempted to prove that the concept of motion was absurd and as such motion did not exist.

ⴰⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵖ ⵓⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵎⵉⵏⴷⵙ ⵣⵉⵏⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵍⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵏⵙⴳⴰⴼⴰ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⴷⴷⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ.

Leucippus also proposed an ontological pluralism with a cosmogony based on two main elements: the vacuum and atoms.

ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵎⵎⵔ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵍⵢⵓⵙⵉⴱⵢⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵟⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ : ⵜⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵏⵓⵣⵏ.

"While philosophy was an established pursuit prior to Socrates, Cicero credits him as ""the first who brought philosophy down from the heavens, placed it in cities, introduced it into families, and obliged it to examine into life and morals, and good and evil."""

ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵚⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵙⴰⵏⵙⵉⵔⵓ ⴷ ‘’ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴳⵣⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵊⵏⵏⴰ, ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵜⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⵍⵣⵎ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵛ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉ ⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ.

The fact that many conversations involving Socrates (as recounted by Plato and Xenophon) end without having reached a firm conclusion, or aporetically, has stimulated debate over the meaning of the Socratic method.

ⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵚⵕ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ (ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵢⵓⵍⵙ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵣⵉⵏⵢⵓⴼⵓ) ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵢ ⴰⵔⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ, ⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴰⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵢ.

Socrates taught that no one desires what is bad, and so if anyone does something that truly is bad, it must be unwillingly or out of ignorance; consequently, all virtue is knowledge.

ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵀⵔⵛⵏ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⵡⵛⵏ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ.

The great statesman Pericles was closely associated with this new learning and a friend of Anaxagoras, however, and his political opponents struck at him by taking advantage of a conservative reaction against the philosophers; it became a crime to investigate the things above the heavens or below the earth, subjects considered impious.

ⵉⵣⴷⵢ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵏⴽⵜ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⴽⵍⵉⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴷⴷⴰⴽⵯⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴽⵙⴰⵊⵓⵔⴰⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵏⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ ⵡⵜⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⴱⵖⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵓⵣ ⵎⴳⴰⴽ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ, ⵜⴳ ⴰⵏⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⴳⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵓⵊⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵍⴰⵃ ⵍⴰⵟⵕ.

Socrates, however, is the only subject recorded as charged under this law, convicted, and sentenced to death in 399 BCE (see Trial of Socrates).

ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵎⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵔⴷⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⴹⵓⴼ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴱⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵍⵍⵓⵢⵖ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 399 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ (ⵥⵕ ⴰⵙⴰⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ).

Plato casts Socrates as the main interlocutor in his dialogues, deriving from them the basis of Platonism (and by extension, Neoplatonism).

ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵔⵓⵙ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵔ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏⵉⵢⵜ (ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵢⵓⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏⵉⵢⵢⴰ).

Zeno of Citium in turn adapted the ethics of Cynicism to articulate Stoicism.

ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵣⵉⵏⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵉⵜⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵟⵟⵏⵥ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵟⵟⵏⵥ.

Along with Xenophon, Plato is the primary source of information about Socrates' life and beliefs and it is not always easy to distinguish between the two.

ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵣⵉⵏⵓⴼⵓⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵖⴱⴰⵍⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵡⵀⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ.

Although rule by a wise man would be preferable to rule by law, the wise cannot help but be judged by the unwise, and so in practice, rule by law is deemed necessary.

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⵏⴼⵍⵓⵙ ⵢⵓⴼ ⴰⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵏⵙ ⵓⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵏⴼⵍⵓⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵅⵙ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵓⵏⵥⵉⵥⵏ, ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ.

Plato's dialogues also have metaphysical themes, the most famous of which is his theory of forms.

ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵉⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵉⵢⵏ, ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵉⴷⴰⵜⵉⵏ.

It likens most humans to people tied up in a cave, who look only at shadows on the walls and have no other conception of reality.

ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴽⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵥⵕⵕⴰⵏ ⵅⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⵉⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ.

If these travelers then re-entered the cave, the people inside (who are still only familiar with the shadows) would not be equipped to believe reports of this 'outside world'.

ⵎⴽ ⴷⵡⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⴷⴷⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵔⵉ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⵎ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ (ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵅⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵢ) ⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵡⵊⴷⵏ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ‘’ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ’’.

Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972).

ⴱⵉⵔⵏⴰⵕⴷ ⵔⴰⵙⵍ, ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ (ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵔⴽ : ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ - ⵡⵛⵓⵙⵜⵔ, 1972).

"He criticizes the regimes described in Plato's Republic and Laws, and refers to the theory of forms as ""empty words and poetic metaphors."""

ⴰⵔ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵅⵡⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵡⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵢⴰⵣⵉⵏ.’’

Antisthenes was inspired by the ascetism of Socrates, and accused Plato of pride and conceit.

ⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⵉⵍⵢ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵉⵙⵜ.

It was founded by Euclides of Megara, one of the pupils of Socrates.

ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵢⵓⴽⵍⵉⴷⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵎⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ.

Pyrrhonism places the attainment of ataraxia (a state of equanimity) as the way to achieve eudaimonia.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⵓⵡⵍⵉⵡⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵉⵜⵓ.

"His ethics were based on ""the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain""."

‘’ⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ‘’ⵜⴹⴼⵕⵜ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵊⵊⵉⵊ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵣ’’.’’

Their logical contributions still feature in contemporary propositional calculus.

ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵣⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵍⵖ ⵏⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵓⵖⵜ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ.

This skeptical period of ancient Platonism, from Arcesilaus to Philo of Larissa, became known as the New Academy, although some ancient authors added further subdivisions, such as a Middle Academy.

ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ, ⵙⴳ ⴰⵔⴽⵙⵉⵍⴰⵡⵙ ⴰⵔ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵔⵉⵙⴰ, ⵜⴷⵡⵍ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵣⴰⵢⴷⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ.

While the objective of the Pyrrhonists was the attainment of ataraxia, after Arcesilaus the Academic skeptics did not hold up ataraxia as the central objective.

ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵎⴰⴳ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴳⴳⵯ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⴽⵙⵉⵢⴰ, ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵙⵉⵙⵍⵢⵓⵙ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵇⵙⵉⵃ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⴽⵙⵉⵢⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ.

In the Byzantine Empire Greek ideas were preserved and studied, and not long after the first major expansion of Islam, however, the Abbasid caliphs authorized the gathering of Greek manuscripts and hired translators to increase their prestige.

ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⵓⴽⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵟⵉⵢⵜ ⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵣⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⴽⴽⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵅⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵡⴷⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵄⴱⴱⴰⵙⵉⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.

Medieval philosophy is the philosophy that existed through the Middle Ages, the period roughly extending from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century to the Renaissance in the 15th century.

ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵓⴽⴷⴰ ⵜⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵉⵙ 5 ⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 15.

With the possible exceptions of Avicenna and Averroes, medieval thinkers did not consider themselves philosophers at all: for them, the philosophers were the ancient pagan writers such as Plato and Aristotle.

ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ : ⵓⵔ ⴷⴷⵊⵉⵏ ⴷⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⴼ ⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ : ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⵜⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵟⵓ.

One of the most heavily debated things of the period was that of faith versus reason.

ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴼⵓⵍⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ.

It is generally agreed that it begins with Augustine (354–430) who strictly belongs to the classical period, and ends with the lasting revival of learning in the late eleventh century, at the beginning of the high medieval period.

ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⴳⵉⵚⵟⵉⵏ (354-430) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ.

In later periods, monks were used for training administrators and churchmen.

ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵔⵀⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵀⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵉⵙⴰⵜ.

Much of the work of Aristotle was unknown in the West in this period.

ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵟⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ.

Augustine is regarded as the greatest of the Church Fathers.

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵖⵓⵚⵟⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰ.

For over a thousand years, there was hardly a Latin work of theology or philosophy that did not quote his writing, or invoke his authority.

ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵀⵓⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵡⴰⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵇⵇⵓⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ.

He became consul in 510 in the kingdom of the Ostrogoths.

ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵇⵓⵏⵙⵓ ⴳ 510 ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⵓⵖⵓⵙ.

He wrote commentaries on these works, and on the Isagoge by Porphyry (a commentary on the Categories).

ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵖⴼⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵣⴰⵊⵓⵊ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵥⵢ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⴼⵉⵔⵉ (ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵖⴼⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ).

Around this period several doctrinal controversies emerged, such as the question of whether God had predestined some for salvation and some for damnation.

ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵕⴱⴱⵉ ⴽⴰ ⵙ ⴼⵔⴰ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵅⵍⵓ.

Is the host the same as Christ's historical body?

ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢ.

This period also witnessed a revival of scholarship.

ⵜⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴷⴷⵖ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ.

Later, under St. Abbo of Fleury (abbot 988–1004), head of the reformed abbey school, Fleury enjoyed a second golden age.

ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⴱⵓ ⵎⴰⵏⴼⴰⵍⵓⵔⵉ (ⴱⴰⴱⴰ 988-1004), ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⴷⴷⵉⵔ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⴷ, ⵉⴼⵊⵊⵉⵊ ⴼⵍⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ.

The early 13th century witnessed the culmination of the recovery of Greek philosophy.

ⵜⵙⵙⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 13 ⴰⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ.

Powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige.

ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵉⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵓⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⴱⴹⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.

The universities developed in the large cities of Europe during this period, and rival clerical orders within the Church began to battle for political and intellectual control over these centers of educational life.

ⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵖⵉⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⵎⵥ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ.

The great representatives of Dominican thinking in this period were Albertus Magnus and (especially) Thomas Aquinas, whose artful synthesis of Greek rationalism and Christian doctrine eventually came to define Catholic philosophy.

ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴱⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⴷⵓⵎⵉⵏⵉⴽⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⵉⵔⵜⵓ ⵎⴰⴳⵏⵓⵙ (ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ) ⵟⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⵡⵉⵏⴰⵙ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵡⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ.

"Aquinas showed how it was possible to incorporate much of the philosophy of Aristotle without falling into the ""errors"" of the Commentator Averroes."

ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵏ ‘’ⴰⴽⵉⵏⴰⵙ’’ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵟⵓ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵏⴹⵕ ⴳ ‘’ⵜⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍ’’’ ⵏ ‘’ⵓⵎⵅⴼⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⵉⵔⵓⵙ’’.

The problem of evil: The classical philosophers had speculated on the nature of evil, but the problem of how an all-powerful, all-knowing, loving God could create a system of things in which evil exists first arose in the medieval period.

ⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ: ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⵃⴰⵔⴳⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵎⴰⵏⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⵛ ⴰⴷⵓⵙⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ, ⴰⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳⴰⵔ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ.

However, from the fourteenth century onward, the increasing use of mathematical reasoning in natural philosophy prepared the way for the rise of science in the early modern period.

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⴽⴽⵓ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ, ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⵉⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⵡⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵍⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ.

In the earlier period, writers such as Peter Abelard wrote commentaries on the works of the Old logic (Aristotle's Categories, On interpretation, and the Isagoge of Porphyry).

ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⵉⵜⵔ ⴰⴱⵉⵍⴰⵕⴹ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ (ⵜⵉⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ, ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ, ⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵖⵓⵊ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⴼⵉⵔⵉ).

(The word 'intentionality' was revived by Franz Brentano, who was intending to reflect medieval usage).

(ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ‘’ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⵜ’’ ⵙ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵣ ⴱⵉⵔⵜⴰⵏⵓ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵇⵍⴱ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ).

"The designation ""Renaissance philosophy"" is used by scholars of intellectual history to refer to the thought of the period running in Europe roughly between 1355 and 1650 (the dates shift forward for central and northern Europe and for areas such as Spanish America, India, Japan, and China under European influence)."

‘’ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ‘’ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ’’ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵄⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ 1355 ⴷ 1650 ( ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴽⵓⴷⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵉⵎⴰ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ ⴷ ⵍⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵜ).’’

The assumption that Aristotle's works were foundational to an understanding of philosophy did not wane during the Renaissance, which saw a flourishing of new translations, commentaries, and other interpretations of his works, both in Latin and in the vernacular.

ⵎⴽ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵙⵟⵓ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵙⵡⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢⵜ.

The latter, similar in some ways to modern debates, examined the pros and cons of particular philosophical positions or interpretations.

ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ, ⵙ ⵜⴱⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵢⵏ.

Plato, known directly only through two and a half dialogues in the Middle Ages, came to be known through numerous Latin translations in fifteenth century Italy, culminating in the hugely influential translation of his complete works by Marsilio Ficino in Florence in 1484.

ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵏⴷⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⴷⵡⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵖⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ, ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⵉⵍⵢⵓ ⴼⵉⵙⵉⵏⵓ ⴳ 1484.

Not all Renaissance humanists followed his example in all things, but Petrarch contributed to a broadening of his time's 'canon' (pagan poetry had previously been considered frivolous and dangerous), something that happened in philosophy as well.

ⵓⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴱⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⴽ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵅⵉⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ‘’ⵜⵖⵔⵓⵛⵜ’’ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ (ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵡⴰⵜⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⵓ), ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ.

Other movements from ancient philosophy also re-entered the mainstream.

ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴷⵡⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵣ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ.

This position came under increasing strain in the Renaissance, as various thinkers claimed that Thomas's classifications were inaccurate, and that ethics were the most important part of morality.

ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵣⴰⵢⴰⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ, ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴼⵓⵍⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵟⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵏ, ⴷ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ.

As we have seen, they believed that philosophy could be brought under the wing of rhetoric.

ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵢⵉⴼⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⵙⵍⴰⵢ.

In 1416–1417, Leonardo Bruni, the pre-eminent humanist of his time and chancellor of Florence, re-translated Aristotle's Ethics into a more flowing, idiomatic and classical Latin.

ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ 1416-1417, ⵢⵓⵍⵙ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵕⴷⵓ ⴱⵕⵓⵏⵉ, ⴰⵙⴽⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵏⵙⴼⴰⵡ ⵏ ⴼⵍⵓⵕⵉⵏⵙⴰ, ⴰⵙⵓⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵃⵉⴹⵏ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ.

The driving conviction was that philosophy should be freed of its technical jargon so that more people would be able to read it.

ⴰⴼⵓⵍⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵖⵔⵉⵏ.

Desiderius Erasmus, the great Dutch humanist, even prepared a Greek edition of Aristotle, and eventually those teaching philosophy in the universities had to at least pretend that they knew Greek.

ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵊⴷ ⴷⵉⵙⵉⴷⵉⵔⵢⵓⵙ ⵉⵔⴰⵙⵎⵓⵙ, ⴰⵀⵓⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴰⵕⵉⵙⵟⵓ, ⵙ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴹⵀⵕⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵅⵙ ⵙⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ.

Once it had been determined, however, that Italian was a language with literary merit and that it could carry the weight of philosophical discussion, numerous efforts in this direction started to appear, particularly from the 1540s onward.

ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⵜⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴻⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉ ⴰⵥⴰⵥⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵢ, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵙⴳ 1540 ⵙ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ.

We know that debates about the freedom of the will continued to flare up (for instance, in the famous exchanges between Erasmus and Martin Luther), that Spanish thinkers were increasingly obsessed with the notion of nobility, that duelling was a practice that generated a large literature in the sixteenth century (was it permissible or not?).

ⵏⵙⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵖ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵉⵎⵎⵙⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵔⴰⵙⵎⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵓⵜ), ⴷ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵏ ⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵣⵖⴰ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵓⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵚⴹⵉⵚⵚ (ⵉⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵓⵔⴼ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵓⵀⵓⵢ ?).

We must not forget that most philosophers of the time were at least nominal, if not devout, Christians, that the sixteenth century saw both the Protestant and the Catholic reformations, and that Renaissance philosophy culminates with the period of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648).

ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵜⵜⵓ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵅⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ, ⵅⵙ ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵚⴹⵉⵚⵚ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵓⵙⵜⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ (1618-1648).

In conclusion, like any other moment in the history of thought Renaissance philosophy cannot be considered to have provided something entirely new nor to have continued for centuries to repeat the conclusions of its predecessors.

ⴳ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵎ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵣⴷⵢ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ.

Modern philosophy is philosophy developed in the modern era and associated with modernity.

ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ.

By the 17th and 18th centuries the major figures in philosophy of mind, epistemology, and metaphysics were roughly divided into two main groups.

ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴷ ⵍⴽⵎⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 17 ⴷ 18 ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵍⵉⴱⴱⵉⵙⵜⵉⵎⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ (ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ) ⴷ ⵍⵎⵉⵟⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⴰ ⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵄⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ.

"The ""Empiricists,"" by contrast, held that knowledge must begin with sensory experience."

‘’ⴳ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵥⵕⴰⵏ ‘’ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ’’ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵓⵣⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴽ’’.

Other important figures in political philosophy include Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

ⵙⴳ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵟⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵀⵓⴱⵣ ⴷ ⴷⴷⵊⵓⵏ ⵊⴰⴽ ⵕⵓⵚⵓ.

Kant sparked a storm of philosophical work in Germany in the early nineteenth century, beginning with German idealism.

ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⴽⴰⵏⵟ ⵜⴰⵣⵡⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴳ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜⵥⴰ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ.

Karl Marx appropriated both Hegel's philosophy of history and the empirical ethics dominant in Britain, transforming Hegel's ideas into a strictly materialist form, setting the grounds for the development of a science of society.

ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵎⴰⵕⴽⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵀⵉⴳⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵢⴰ, ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵀⵉⴳⵍ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎⵜ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ.

Arthur Schopenhauer took idealism to the conclusion that the world was nothing but the futile endless interplay of images and desires, and advocated atheism and pessimism.

ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴰⵕⵜⵕ ⵛⵓⴱⴱⵏⵀⴰⵡⵕ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵅⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵍⴰⵃ ⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵥⴻⵥⴹⵉⵏ, ⵉⴳⵔ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵛⵓⴼⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵉⵎⴰⵍ.

Descartes argued that many predominant Scholastic metaphysical doctrines were meaningless or false.

ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⵉⴽⴰⵕⵟ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵟⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵄⵏⵡⴰ.

He tries to set aside as much as he possibly can of all his beliefs, to determine what if anything he knows for certain.

ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵍⴽⵏ.

From this basis he builds his knowledge back up again.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵚⴽⴽⵓ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⴰⴷ.

While historicism also acknowledges the role of experience, it differs from empiricism by assuming that sensory data cannot be understood without considering the historical and cultural circumstances in which observations are made.

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵇⵔⵔⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵍ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵖ ⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ.

"As such empiricism is first and foremost characterized by the ideal to let observational data ""speak for themselves"", while the competing views are opposed to this ideal."

‘’ⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵥⵍⵢ ⵜⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵉ ‘’ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ’’, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵎⴳⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ’’.

In other words: Empiricism as a concept has to be constructed along with other concepts, which together make it possible to make important discriminations between different ideals underlying contemporary science.

ⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ : ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ.

Epistemologically, idealism manifests as a skepticism about the possibility of knowing any mind-independent thing.

ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ.

It describes a process where theory is extracted from practice, and applied back to practice to form what is called intelligent practice.

ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⵖ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵚⴽⵓ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵉⵛⵡⴰⵏ.

Brian Leiter (2006) webpage “Analytic” and “Continental” Philosophy.

ⴱⵕⴰⵢⵏ ⵍⵉⵜⵔ (2006) ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ ⵏ ‘’ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵉ’’ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ‘’ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡⵉⵢⵜ’’.

Contemporary philosophy is the present period in the history of Western philosophy beginning at the early 20th century with the increasing professionalization of the discipline and the rise of analytic and continental philosophy.

ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20 ⵜⵣⴰⵢⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵓⵣⵣⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵢⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡⵉⵢⵜ.

Germany was the first country to professionalize philosophy.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏ.

Furthermore, unlike many of the sciences for which there has come to be a healthy industry of books, magazines, and television shows meant to popularize science and communicate the technical results of a scientific field to the general populace, works by professional philosophers directed at an audience outside the profession remain rare.

ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵙⵖⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⵙⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ, ⵙⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏⵜ.

Each division organises a large annual conference.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴽⵓ ⵜⵣⵓⵏⵉ ⴰⵎⵙⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵯⵙⴰⵏ.

Among its many other tasks, the association is responsible for administering many of the profession's top honors.

ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ, ⵟⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵎⴰⵀⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ.

"This development was roughly contemporaneous with work by Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell inaugurating a new philosophical method based on the analysis of language via modern logic (hence the term ""analytic philosophy"")."

‘’ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵖⵓⵜⵍⵓⴱ ⴼⵔⵉⵊ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵔⵜⵕⴰⵏⴷ ⵔⴰⵙⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ (ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ‘’ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵜ’’).

"Some philosophers, such as Richard Rorty and Simon Glendinning, argue that this ""analytic–continental"" divide is inimical to the discipline as a whole."

‘’ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵕⵉⵜⵛⴰⵕⴷ ⵕⵓⵕⵜⵉ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⵖⵍⵉⵏⴷⵏⵉⵏⵖ, ⵎⵖⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⴷ ‘’ⴰⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢ- ⴰⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡⵉⵢ’’ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵄⵢⵓⴷ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ’’.

Afterwards, analytic and continental philosophers differ on the importance and influence of subsequent philosophers on their respective traditions.

ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵥⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.

Although, since analytic and continental philosophy have such starkly different views of philosophy after Kant, continental philosophy is also often understood in an extended sense to include any post-Kant philosophers or movements important to continental philosophy but not analytic philosophy.

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴼⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵏⵥⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⵟ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵥⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⴷⵉⵖ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵟⴰⵎⵥ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⵟ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵥⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴼⵙⴰⵏⵜ.

Thus continental philosophy tends toward historicism, where analytic philosophy tends to treat philosophy in terms of discrete problems, capable of being analyzed apart from their historical origins.

ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵥⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵙⴰⴽⵓⴷⵜ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵓⴳⴳⵓ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ. ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴼⵙⵉⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵉⵡⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ.

The major orthodox schools arose sometime between the start of the Common Era and the Gupta Empire.

ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵟⴰⵕⵜⵓⴹⵓⴽⵙⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵏⵓⴽⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵖⵓⴱⵜⴰ.