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Tamazight NLP 25

These religio-philosophical traditions were later grouped under the label Hinduism.

ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵀⵉⵏⴷⵓⵙⵉⵢⵜ.

Western scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no single founder.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵜⴰⵀⵉⵏⴷⵓⵙⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⴽⵉⵙ ⵏⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ. ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ.

Indian philosophers developed a system of epistemological reasoning (pramana) and logic and investigated topics such as Ontology (metaphysics, Brahman-Atman, Sunyata-Anatta), reliable means of knowledge (epistemology, Pramanas), value system (axiology) and other topics.

ⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵀⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⴰⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ (ⴱⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰ) ⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ, ⵣⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⴱⵕⴰⵎⴰⵏ - ⴰⵜⵎⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵙⵓⵏⵢⴰⵜⴰ- ⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⵓⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.

Later developments include the development of Tantra and Iranian-Islamic influences.

ⵓⵎⵥⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⵏ.

Nyāya traditionally accepts four Pramanas as reliable means of gaining knowledge – Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference), Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy) and Śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).

ⵏⵢⴰyⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⵟⵓⵎⵥ ⴽⴽⵓⵣ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙ ⴰⵏⴼⵍⵓⵙ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵎⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ, ⴰⵜⴰⵎ, ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ, ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵙⴰⴱⴰⴷⴰ ( ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵍⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ).

This philosophy held that the universe was reducible to paramāṇu (atoms), which are indestructible (anitya), indivisible, and have a special kind of dimension, called “small” (aṇu).

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⵇⵍⴱ ⵅⴼ (ⵉⴼⵏⵓⵣⵏ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵣⵎⵉⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵏⵣⵍⵍⵄ (ⴰⵏⵉⵜⵢⴰ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵄⴷⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵏⵥⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ‘’ⵟⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵜ’’.

Later Vaiśeṣikas (Śrīdhara and Udayana and Śivāditya) added one more category abhava (non-existence).

ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵜⵙⴰⴷⴼ (ⵉⵙⴼⵔⴷⵀⴰⵔⴰ ⵡⵉⴷⵢⴰⵏⴰ) ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ (ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ).

Because of their focus on textual study and interpretation, Mīmāṃsā also developed theories of philology and the philosophy of language which influenced other Indian schools.

ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⵖⵓⴱⴱⵣ ⵎⵉⵎⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ.

The distinguishing features of Jain philosophy include a mind-body dualism, denial of a creative and omnipotent God, karma, an eternal and uncreated universe, non-violence, the theory of the multiple facets of truth, and morality based on liberation of the soul.

ⵎⵓⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵊⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⴰⴽⵕ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⵛ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵛⵓⵛⵛⴹⵏ, ⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⴽⵕⴹⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵎⴰⵏ.

It has also been called a model of philosophical liberalism for its insistence that truth is relative and multifaceted and for its willingness to accommodate all possible view-points of the rival philosophies.

ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⵇⵇⵔⴼⴰ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⵖⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⴳⵓⵜⵉⵏ.

Cārvāka philosophers like Brihaspati were extremely critical of other schools of philosophy of the time.

ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⴽⵔⴰⴼⵉⴽⵢⵉⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⵔⵉⵀⴰⵙⴱⵉⵜⵉ ⴰⵔ ⴼⵔⵔⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ.

It is the dominant philosophical tradition in Tibet and Southeast Asian countries like Sri Lanka and Burma.

ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴹⴳⵯⵓⵕ ⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵉⴱⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⵎⴰⴹ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵔⵉ ⵍⴰⵏⴽⴰ ⴷ ⴱⵓⵔⵎⴰ.

Later Buddhist philosophical traditions developed complex phenomenological psychologies termed 'Abhidharma'.

ⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵓⴷⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵔⴼⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴹⵀⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⴽⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ‘’ⴰⴱⵉⵀⵉⴷⵀⴰⵔⵎⴰ’’.

"This tradition contributed to what has been called an ""epistemological turn"" in Indian philosophy."

‘’ⴰⴹⴼⵓⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ‘’ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵢⵉⴱⴱⵉⵙⵜⵉⵎⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ’’ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵜ’’.

Important exponents of Buddhist modernism include Anagarika Dharmapala (1864–1933) and the American convert Henry Steel Olcott, the Chinese modernists Taixu (1890–1947) and Yin Shun (1906–2005), Zen scholar D.T. Suzuki, and the Tibetan Gendün Chöphel (1903–1951).

ⵙⴳ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵊⵊⵓⴽⴽⵓⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵢⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⵏⵊⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵎⴱⴰⵍⴰ (1864-1933), ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⵉⵢ ⵀⵉⵏⵔⵉ ⵙⵜⵉⵍ ⵓⵍⴽⵓⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵚⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴽⵙⵓ (1890-1947), ⵡⵉⵏ ⵛⵓⵏ (1906-2005), ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ.ⵜ ⵙⵓⴼⵙⴽⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴱⵓⵜ ⵖⵉⵏⴷⵓⵏ ⵛⵓⴼⵉⵍ (1903-1951).

Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures and societies, in both the present and past, including past human species.

ⵜⵓⵓⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵡⵙⵙⵏⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⵙⵡⴰ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵏⵖ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ.

Biological or physical anthropology studies the biological development of humans.

ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵓ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ.

Various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed.

ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵉⴽ ⵜⵎⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴳⵯⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ.

When slavery was abolished in France in 1848, the Société was abandoned.

ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵔ ⵓⴽⵍⵍⵓ ⴳ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1848, ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ.

For them, the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect.

ⵉ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ, ⵉⴼⵙ ⵜⵜⵛⴰⵕⵍⵣ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴱⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ.

There was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences.

ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ.

"His definition now became ""the study of the human group, considered as a whole, in its details, and in relation to the rest of nature""."

‘’ⵉⴷⵡⵍ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⵖⵉ ‘’ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ’’.

He discovered the speech center of the human brain, today called Broca's area after him.

ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴳ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⴽⴰ.

The last two volumes were published posthumously.

ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵯⵔⴰ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴷ ⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉ.

He stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation.

ⵢⵓⵙⵙⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ, ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ.

Waitz was influential among the British ethnologists.

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵉⵜⵣ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ.

Representatives from the French Société were present, though not Broca.

ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵙⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰⵡⵉⵢⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴱⵔⵓⴽⴰ.

Previously Edward had referred to himself as an ethnologist; subsequently, an anthropologist.

ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ, ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ.

One notable exception was the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory (1869) founded by Rudolph Virchow, known for his vituperative attacks on the evolutionists.

ⴳⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⵉⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵉⵊⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ (1869) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵔⵓⴷⵓⵍⴼ ⴼⵉⵔⵛⵓ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵟⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ.

The major theorists belonged to these organizations.

ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵚⵚⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ.

Practical anthropology, the use of anthropological knowledge and technique to solve specific problems, has arrived; for example, the presence of buried victims might stimulate the use of a forensic archaeologist to recreate the final scene.

ⵍⴽⵎⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵓⴽⴽⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ; ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⵣⵍ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⴹⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⴰⵚⴰⴹⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵖⵍⵉ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ.

This has been particularly prominent in the United States, from Boas' arguments against 19th-century racial ideology, through Margaret Mead's advocacy for gender equality and sexual liberation, to current criticisms of post-colonial oppression and promotion of multiculturalism.

ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴼⴰⴽⵓⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵡⴰⵙ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19 ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵣⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵎⴰⵔⵖⵔⵉⵜ ⵎⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⵙⵢⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ.

In Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries, the British tradition of social anthropology tends to dominate.

ⴳ ⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵓⵎⵏⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵡⴹⴼⵓⵕ ⴰⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵉⵔⵉⵟⵟ.

Cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the manifold ways in which people make sense of the world around them, while social anthropology is the study of the relationships among individuals and groups.

ⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴽⵜⵜⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ.

There is no hard-and-fast distinction between them, and these categories overlap to a considerable degree.

ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⵓⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵎⵎⴽⵛⴰⵎⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ.

This project is often accommodated in the field of ethnography.

ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵜⵏⵓⵖⵕⴰⴼⵉⵢⴰ.

Participant observation is one of the foundational methods of social and cultural anthropology.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵓⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ.

The study of kinship and social organization is a central focus of sociocultural anthropology, as kinship is a human universal.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵊⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⵙⵉ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ.

Ethnography views first-hand experience and social context as important.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵍⵉⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ.

Ethnomusicology can be used in a wide variety of fields, such as teaching, politics, cultural anthropology etc.

ⵏⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵍⵉⵏⵟⵕⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ.

Economic Anthropology remains, for the most part, focused upon exchange.

ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⴽⵉⵍ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵔⵉⵔⴰ.

"The first of these areas was concerned with the ""pre-capitalist"" societies that were subject to evolutionary ""tribal"" stereotypes."

‘ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⵎⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏ ‘’ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵀⵔⵉ’’ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵍⴱⵓⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ.

Why are those working in development so willing to disregard history and the lessons it might offer?

ⵎⴰⵅ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵡⵊⴷⵏ ⵡⵉⴷⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵖⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ?

Within kinship you have two different families.

ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵜ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ.

Anthropology engages often with feminists from non-Western traditions, whose perspectives and experiences can differ from those of white feminists of Europe, America, and elsewhere.

ⴳ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⴰ ⵜⴷⵔⴰ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵓⵡⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.

"Political anthropology developed as a discipline concerned primarily with politics in stateless societies, a new development started from the 1960s, and is still unfolding: anthropologists started increasingly to study more ""complex"" social settings in which the presence of states, bureaucracies and markets entered both ethnographic accounts and analysis of local phenomena."

‘’ⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵜⵜ ⵢⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵍⴰⵃ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1960, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ : ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ‘’ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ’’ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵉⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴽⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵉⵔⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵉⵜⵏⵓⵖⵕⴰⴼⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵎⵓⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ.’’

Secondly, anthropologists slowly started to develop a disciplinary concern with states and their institutions (and on the relationship between formal and informal political institutions).

ⴳ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵥⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵄⴰⴼ ⴰⴱⵓⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ (ⴷ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵉⵏ).

It is sometimes grouped with sociocultural anthropology, and sometimes considered part of material culture.

ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎⵜ.

It is also the study of the history of various ethnic groups that may or may not exist today.

ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ.

"Various social processes in the Western World as well as in the ""Third World"" (the latter being the habitual focus of attention of anthropologists) brought the attention of ""specialists in 'other cultures'"" closer to their homes."

‘’ ⵣⵡⵉⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴳ ‘’ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ’’ (ⴷ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵎⵢⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ) ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵏ ‘’ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ‘’ⵉⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ’’.

It is an interdisciplinary field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines, including anthropology, ethology, medicine, psychology, veterinary medicine and zoology.

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴳ ⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⴽⵛⴰⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ.

It is the study of ancient humans, as found in fossil hominid evidence such as petrifacted bones and footprints.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵅⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴱⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴹⴰⵕⵏ.

In 1989, a group of European and American scholars in the field of anthropology established the European Association of Social Anthropologists (EASA) which serves as a major professional organization for anthropologists working in Europe.

ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1989, ⵜⵙⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⴰⵛ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⴰⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵓⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ.

This is the notion that cultures should not be judged by another's values or viewpoints, but be examined dispassionately on their own terms.

ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵥⵕ ⵙ ⵓⴷⵖⵔⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.

Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in World War I, and after the war he published a brief expose and condemnation of the participation of several American archaeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists.

ⵢⵓⵎⵎ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵣ ⴱⵡⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⴷⵡⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⴷ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵡⵛⵜⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴽⴹ ⴰⴷⵡⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵖⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵍⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ.

At the same time, David H. Price's work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from their jobs for communist sympathies.

ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴽⴰⵎⵍⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⴽⴰⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴷⴰⴱⵉⴷ ⴱⵕⴰⵢⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵉⵇⵔⴼⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵟⴼⵓⵕ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵥⵥⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵟⵕⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴼⵛⴷⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵛⵓⵢⵓⵄⵉⵢⵏ.

Numerous resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the American Anthropological Association (AAA).

ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⴽⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴼⴼⵓⵖⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ.

The Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth (ASA) has called certain scholarship ethically dangerous.

ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵜⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵍⴽⵓⵎⵏⵓⵍⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵣⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ.

One of the central characteristics is that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more holistic account of phenomena and tends to be highly empirical.

ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵍ ⵄⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ.

These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological.

ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵏⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ, ⵙⵡⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵉⵍⵙ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜ.

On the biological or physical side, human measurements, genetic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs.

ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ, ⵏⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵜⵛⵉ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ.

Further cultural subdivisions according to tool types, such as Olduwan or Mousterian or Levalloisian help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ‘’ⵓⵍⴷⴰⵡⵏ’’ ⵏⵖ ‘’ⵎⵓⵙⵜⴰⵔⵉⵢⴰⵏ’’ ⵏⵖ ‘’ⵍⴼⴰⵍⵡⴰⵣⵉⵢⴰⵏ’’ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ.

A cultural norm codifies acceptable conduct in society; it serves as a guideline for behavior, dress, language, and demeanor in a situation, which serves as a template for expectations in a social group.

ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵀⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵓⵍⴳⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ; ⵉⴳⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵍⵙⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ, ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵎ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ.

These include expressive forms like art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and technologies like tool usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing.

ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⴷⴷⵖ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⵉ, ⴰⵥⴰⵡⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔⴽⴰⵣ, ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⴰⵙⴳⴷ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵡⵉ, ⴰⵙⵙⵔⴽⵯⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵍⵙⵉⵜ.

The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes been used to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies.

ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵥⵍⵉⵏⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ.

Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of consumer culture that emerged in the 20th century.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20.

In the wider social sciences, the theoretical perspective of cultural materialism holds that human symbolic culture arises from the material conditions of human life, as humans create the conditions for physical survival, and that the basis of culture is found in evolved biological dispositions.

ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕ ⵉ ⵜⴽⵎⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵓⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⴽⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵜⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵎⵉ ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ.

In this sense, multiculturalism values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet.

ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⴷ, ⵜⴽⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵢⵉⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵇⵇⵔ ⵉⴰⵎⵎⵙⴽⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵜⵔⵉ.

"In 1986, philosopher Edward S. Casey wrote, ""The very word culture meant 'place tilled' in Middle English, and the same word goes back to Latin colere, 'to inhabit, care for, till, worship' and cultus, 'A cult, especially a religious one.'"

ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1986, ⵢⴰⵔⵓ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⵙ. ⴽⴰⵙⵉ, ‘’ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ‘’ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏⵏ’’ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴷⵡⴰⵍ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⵅⴼ ‘’ⵜⵣⴷⴷⵓⵖⵜ, ⴰⵃⵟⵟⵓ, ⴰⵔ, ⵜⴰⵥⴰⵍⵍⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ, ⵜⴰⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴷⴰⵏⵜ’’.

"Thus a contrast between ""culture"" and ""civilization"" is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such."

ⴰⵙⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ‘’ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ’’ ⴷ ‘’ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ’’ ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⵖ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ’’.

This ability arose with the evolution of behavioral modernity in humans around 50,000 years ago and is often thought to be unique to humans.

ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ 50000 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ.

Rein Raud, building on the work of Umberto Eco, Pierre Bourdieu and Jeffrey C. Alexander, has proposed a model of cultural change based on claims and bids, which are judged by their cognitive adequacy and endorsed or not endorsed by the symbolic authority of the cultural community in question.

ⵉⴽⴰ ⵔⵉⵏ ⵔⴰⵡⴷ, ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵎⴱⵉⵕⵟⵓ ⵉⴽⵓ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵔ ⴱⵓⵕⴹⵢⵓ ⴷ ⵊⵉⴼⵔⵉ ⵙⵉ ⴰⵍⴽⵉⵙⴰⵏⴷⵔ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⵔⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵓⴳⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⴽ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜ ⴹⴼⴼⵓⵕ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵎⴰⴽ.

Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society.

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ.

Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action.

ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⵢⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⵣⴰⵍ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵡⴰⵏ.

Environmental conditions may also enter as factors.

ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⵓⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ.

War or competition over resources may impact technological development or social dynamics.

ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵖⴱⵓⵍⴰ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⴷ ⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⵢⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ.

"For example, Western restaurant chains and culinary brands sparked curiosity and fascination to the Chinese as China opened its economy to international trade in the late 20th-century. """

‘’ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵙⵙⵏⴽⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉⵜⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵏⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵡⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰⴼⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵃⵔⴳⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵚⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵕⵥⵎ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20.’’

He argued that this immaturity comes not from a lack of understanding, but from a lack of courage to think independently.

ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⴳⵎ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.

"Moreover, Herder proposed a collective form of Bildung: ""For Herder, Bildung was the totality of experiences that provide a coherent identity, and sense of common destiny, to a people."""

ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵀⵉⵔⴷⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⵖⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵍⴷⵓⵏⵊ : ‘’ⵉ ⵀⵉⵔⴷⵔ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴱⵉⴷⵓⵏⵊ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵛⴰⴱⴱⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⴷⵓⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ’’.

According to this school of thought, each ethnic group has a distinct worldview that is incommensurable with the worldviews of other groups.

ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⴷ, ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵏⴰⵔⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.

He proposed that a scientific comparison of all human societies would reveal that distinct worldviews consisted of the same basic elements.

ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ.

"""a particular way of life, whether of a people, period or a group."""

‘’ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⵙⵡⴰ ⵉ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ’’.

"In other words, the idea of ""culture"" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries reflected inequalities within European societies."

‘’ⵙ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ‘’ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ’’ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 18 ⴷ ⵜⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19 ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵏ’’.

According to this way of thinking, one could classify some countries and nations as more civilized than others and some people as more cultured than others.

ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ, ⵏⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴱⴹⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵖⵓⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ.

Other 19th-century critics, following Rousseau, have accepted this differentiation between higher and lower culture, but have seen the refinement and sophistication of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people's essential nature.

ⵇⴱⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵙⵓ, ⴰⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴷⴷⵖ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⵇⵇⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵛⴱⴱⴰⴽ ⵙ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⴼⵔⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵄⴷⴰⵎ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ.

In 1870 the anthropologist Edward Tylor (1832–1917) applied these ideas of higher versus lower culture to propose a theory of the evolution of religion.

ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1870 ⵉⵣⵣⵓⴳⵣ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⵓⵕ (1832-1917) ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴷ.

"For sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918), culture referred to ""the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history."""

‘’ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⵙⵉⵎⵉⵍ (1858-1918), ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ‘’ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ’’.

Non-material culture refers to the non-physical ideas that individuals have about their culture, including values, belief systems, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions, while material culture is the physical evidence of a culture in the objects and architecture they make or have made.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵔⵜⵉⵏⴰⴽⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵍⵓⴳⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⴰⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴳⴰⵏ.

"Cultural sociology was then ""reinvented"" in the English-speaking world as a product of the ""cultural turn"" of the 1960s, which ushered in structuralist and postmodern approaches to social science."

ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ‘’ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ’’ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵢⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ’’ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⴹ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ’’ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1960, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ’’.

"Culture"" has since become an important concept across many branches of sociology, including resolutely scientific fields like social stratification and social network analysis."

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ‘’ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ’’ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵜⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ’’.

They saw patterns of consumption and leisure as determined by relations of production, which led them to focus on class relations and the organization of production.

ⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵇⵊⴷⵉⵎ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵖⵏⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ.

It has since become strongly associated with Stuart Hall, who succeeded Hoggart as Director.

ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⵢ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵙⵜⵉⵡⴰⵔⵜ ⵀⵓⵍ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⴷⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵀⵓⵊⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵎⵀⴰⵍ.

These practices comprise the ways people do particular things (such as watching television or eating out) in a given culture.

ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⵔⵊ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵍⴼⴰⵣⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵜⵜⵛⵉ) ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ.

"Watching television to view a public perspective on a historical event should not be thought of as culture unless referring to the medium of television itself, which may have been selected culturally; however, schoolchildren watching television after school with their friends to ""fit in"" certainly qualifies since there is no grounded reason for one's participation in this practice."

‘’ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ; ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵀⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵣⵢⵓⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ‘’ⵢⴰⵙ’’ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⴳⵏ ⵏⵉⴽ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵔⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ’’.

"Culture"" for a cultural-studies researcher not only includes traditional high culture (the culture of ruling social groups) and popular culture, but also everyday meanings and practices."

ⵜⴳⴰ ‘’ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ’’ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵎⵔⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵢⵜ (ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵢⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ) ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵟⵓⵎⵣ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵉⵏ’’.

Scholars in the United Kingdom and the United States developed somewhat different versions of cultural studies after the late 1970s.

ⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1970.

The distinction between American and British strands, however, has faded.

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵉⴷ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ.

The main focus of an orthodox Marxist approach concentrates on the production of meaning.

ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴽⵉⵍ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵔⴽⵙⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⴹⵓⴽⵙⵉⵢⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ.

Other approaches to cultural studies, such as feminist cultural studies and later American developments of the field, distance themselves from this view.

ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⵉⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴷⴷⵖ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵍⵖ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⴷⴷⵖ.

Culture psychologists began to try to explore the relationship between emotions and culture, and answer whether the human mind is independent from culture.

ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⵢ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ.