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Tamazight NLP 24

On the other hand, some researchers try to look for differences between people's personalities across cultures.

ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰⵖⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵣⵓⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ.

For example, people who are raised in a culture with an abacus are trained with distinctive reasoning style.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⵖⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ.

Basically, the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Diversity deal with the protection of culture.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⵎⵇⵇⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵀⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴽ ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴽⵔ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴻⵎⵔⵉⴽ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵇⵇⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵙⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ.

Under international law, the UN and UNESCO try to set up and enforce rules for this.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵍⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ, ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵖ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⵉⵙⴽⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ.

The target of the attack is the identity of the opponent, which is why symbolic cultural assets become a main target.

ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵣⵓⵖ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ, ⵙ ⵜⵎⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⴷⴷⵖ ⴷⵡⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ.

A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect of that community and its religion or cultures.

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵛⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴳⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ.

Next to religion and folklore, a significant origin is agricultural.

ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵓⵍⴽⵍⵓⵕ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵔⵣⴰ.

Festivals often serve to fulfill specific communal purposes, especially in regard to commemoration or thanking to the gods, goddesses or saints: they're called patronal festivals.

ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⴳⴳⵯⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵓⵛⵛ ⵏⵖ ⵉⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵏⵉⵎⵎⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.

In Ancient Greece and Rome, festivals such as the Saturnalia were closely associated with social organisation and political processes as well as religion.

ⴳ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵕⵓⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ !, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⴰⵜⵓⵔⵏⵢⴰ ⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⴳⴰⴷ.

"In Middle English, a ""festival dai"" was a religious holiday."

‘’ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ‘’ⴰⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵏ ‘’ⴰⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ’’ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵕⵥⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴰⴷ’’.

"The term ""feast"" is also used in common secular parlance as a synonym for any large or elaborate meal."

ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ‘’ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵛⵛⴰ’’ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵯⵎⵎⴰⵢ ⴰⵄⵉⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴽⵏⵉⵡ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵡⴰⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ’’.

The most important religious festivals such as Christmas, Rosh Hashanah, Diwali, Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha serve to mark out the year.

ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⵕⵓⵛ ⵀⴰⵛⴰⵏⴰⵀ, ⴷ ⴷⵢⵓⵡⴰⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⴰⵙⴽⴰ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ.

An early example is the festival established by Ancient Egyptian Pharaoh Ramesses III celebrating his victory over the Libyans.

ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵄⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵚⵕⵉⵢ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ ⵔⴰⵎⵙⵉⵙ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵉⴱⵉⵢⵏ.

There are numerous types of festivals in the world and most countries celebrate important events or traditions with traditional cultural events and activities.

ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⴰⵔ ⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ.

Ancient Egyptian festivals could be either religious or political.

ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵚⵕⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵉⵙⴳⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ.

The Sed festival, for example, celebrated the thirtieth year of an Egyptian pharaoh's rule and then every three (or four in one case) years after that.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵔⵄⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵚⵔⵉⵢ, ⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓ ⴽⵓ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ (ⵏⵖ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ) ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ.

In the Christian liturgical calendar, there are two principal feasts, properly known as the Feast of the Nativity of our Lord (Christmas) and the Feast of the Resurrection (Easter), but minor festivals in honour of local patron saints are celebrated in almost all countries influenced by Christianity.

ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵖⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵓⵥⴰⵕ ⵉⵎⴽⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵄⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵢⵜ.

Buddhist religious festivals, such as Esala Perahera are held in Sri Lanka and Thailand.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴰⴷ ⴰⴱⵓⴷⵉⵢ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵍⴰ ⴱⵉⵔⴰⵀⵉⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵙⵔⵉ ⵍⴰⵏⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵏⴷ.

Film festivals involve the screenings of several different films, and are usually held annually.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ.

There are also specific beverage festivals, such as the famous Oktoberfest in Germany for beer.

ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⵡⵉ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴽⵟⵓⴱⵕⴼⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵢⴰ.

Ancient Egyptians relied upon the seasonal inundation caused by the Nile River, a form of irrigation, which provided fertile land for crops.

ⴷⴰ ⵙⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵚⵕⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵏⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⵍ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵎⵙⵡⵓ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵃⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ.

Dree Festival of the Apatanis living in Lower Subansiri District of Arunachal Pradesh is celebrated every year from July 4 to 7 by praying for a bumper crop harvest.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴷⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴱⴱⴰⵜⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⴰⵏⵙⵉⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⴰⵕⵓⵏⴰⵜⵛⴰⵍ ⴱⵔⴰⴷⵉⵛ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴰⵙ 4 ⴰⵔ 7 ⵢⵓⵏⵢⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵥⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴳⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴷⴰ.

A holiday is a day set aside by custom or by law on which normal activities, especially business or work including school, are suspended or reduced.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⴳⴳⴰⵣⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵉⵏ, ⵍⵓⵎⴰⵕ ⵜⵉⵡⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ.

The degree to which normal activities are reduced by a holiday may depend on local laws, customs, the type of job held or personal choices.

ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⴷⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴹⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ.

In most modern societies, however, holidays serve as much of a recreational function as any other weekend days or activities.

ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵔⴰⵔ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙ.

In some cases, a holiday may only be nominally observed.

ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⵓⴽⵔⴰⴼ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵏⵓⵕⵥⵎⵜ ⵅⵙ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ.

The modern use varies geographically.

ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴳⵍⴰⵏⵜ.

For example, Monkey Day is celebrated on December 14, International Talk Like a Pirate Day is observed on September 19, and Blasphemy Day is held on September 30.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵄⴹⵓⴹ ⴳ 14 ⴷⵓⵊⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵔⵉⵜⵍⵏ ⴳ 19 ⵛⵓⵜⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵡⵍ ⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ 30 ⵛⵓⵜⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ.

"Jehovah's Witnesses annually commemorate ""The Memorial of Jesus Christ's Death"", but do not celebrate other holidays with any religious significance such as Easter, Christmas or New Year's."

‘’ⴷⴰ ⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⵙ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ‘’ⴰⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ’’, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴰⴷ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵟⴰⵃ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ.

Ahmadi Muslims additionally celebrate Promised Messiah Day, Promised Reformer Day, and Khilafat Day, but contrary to popular belief, neither are regarded as holidays.

ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵎⵏ ⵉⵃⵎⴰⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵖⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵍⴰ.

Celtic, Norse, and Neopagan holidays follow the order of the Wheel of the Year.

ⵙⵉⵍⵜⴽ, ⴷ ⵏⵓⵔⵣ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⴱⴱⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵟⴼⴼⵓⵕⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ.

Researchers in bioarchaeology combine the skill sets of human osteology, paleopathology, and archaeology, and often consider the cultural and mortuary context of the remains.

ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⴰⵅⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ, ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⴰ ⴷⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ.

Evolutionary psychology is the study of psychological structures from a modern evolutionary perspective.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⵍⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ.

Human behavioral ecology is the study of behavioral adaptations (foraging, reproduction, ontogeny) from the evolutionary and ecologic perspectives (see behavioral ecology).

ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵏ (ⴰⴳⴳⵉⴷⵢ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⴻⵜⵔⵔⴰⵡⵜ) ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ (ⵥⵕ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ)

Paleoanthropology is the study of fossil evidence for human evolution, mainly using remains from extinct hominin and other primate species to determine the morphological and behavioral changes in the human lineage, as well as the environment in which human evolution occurred.

ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵥⵉⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵖⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵓⵎⵉⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴱⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵍⴽⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵕⴼⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ , ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵊⵕⴰ ⵓⵥⵥⵉⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ.

The name is even relatively new, having been 'physical anthropology' for over a century, with some practitioners still applying that term.

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ, ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⵜⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ‘’ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ’’ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⴷ ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ.

Some editors, see below, have rooted the field even deeper than formal science.

ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ, ⵥⵕ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⴱⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵉⵏ.

This became the main system through which scholars thought about nature for the next roughly 2,000 years.

ⵉⴷⵡⵍ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵖⵓⵔ 2000 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ.

He also wrote about physiognomy, an idea derived from writings in the Hippocratic Corpus.

ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵓⴱⵔⵓⵙ ⴰⴱⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ.

In the 19th century, French physical anthropologists, led by Paul Broca (1824-1880), focused on craniometry while the German tradition, led by Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902), emphasized the influence of environment and disease upon the human body.

ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19, ⵙⴷⴽⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ, ⵙ ⵜⵏⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵍ ⴱⵕⵓⴽⴰ (1824-1880), ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⴹⴼⵓⵕ ⴰⵍⴰⵍⵎⵏⵉⵢ, ⵙ ⵜⵏⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵔⵓⴷⵓⵍⴼ ⴼⵉⵔⵛⵓ (1821-1902), ⵅⴼ ⵓⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ.

He changed the focus from racial typology to concentrate upon the study of human evolution, moving away from classification towards evolutionary process.

ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ.

A race is a grouping of humans based on shared physical or social qualities into categories generally viewed as distinct by society.

ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵎⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ.

Modern science regards race as a social construct, an identity which is assigned based on rules made by society.

ⴰⵔ ⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ, ⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵓⵙ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ.

Still others argue that, among humans, race has no taxonomic significance because all living humans belong to the same subspecies, Homo sapiens sapiens.

ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ, ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴱⵓ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ.

In South Africa, the Population Registration Act, 1950 recognized only White, Black, and Coloured, with Indians added later.

ⴳ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⵢⴰ (ⵊⴰⵏⵓⴱ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ), ⵓⵔ ⵉⵇⵔⵔⴰ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ 1950 ⵅⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴱⵓ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.

The United States Census Bureau proposed but then withdrew plans to add a new category to classify Middle Eastern and North African peoples in the U.S. Census 2020, over a dispute over whether this classification should be considered a white ethnicity or a separate race.

ⵉⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⵓⵎⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵢⵢⵍ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴷⵉ ⵉⵎⵜⵓⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴷⴼ ⴰⴳⵓⵣⴷⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵎⵎⴰⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵃⵢⵢⵍ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ 2020, ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵙⵡⴰ ⵎⴰⵢⴳⴰ.

"The establishment of racial boundaries often involves the subjugation of groups defined as racially inferior, as in the one-drop rule used in the 19th-century United States to exclude those with any amount of African ancestry from the dominant racial grouping, defined as ""white""."

‘’ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⵉⴼ ⵓⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵕⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵍⴳⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19 ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏ ⵙⵙⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵜⵜ ⵢⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ‘’ⵜⴰⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵜ’’.

"According to geneticist David Reich, ""while race may be a social construct, differences in genetic ancestry that happen to correlate to many of today's racial constructs are real."""

‘’ⴳ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⴷⵉⴼⵉⴷ ⵔⵉⵜⵛ, ‘’ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ, ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ’’.

Other dimensions of racial groupings include shared history, traditions, and language.

ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ.

Socioeconomic factors, in combination with early but enduring views of race, have led to considerable suffering within disadvantaged racial groups.

ⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ-ⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ, ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵎⵎⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ.

Racism has led to many instances of tragedy, including slavery and genocide.

ⵜⵉⵡⵉ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⴰⵥⵓⵕⵜ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵔⵢⴰⵏⵜ, ⵙⴳ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵅⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏ.

Because in some societies racial groupings correspond closely with patterns of social stratification, for social scientists studying social inequality, race can be a significant variable.

ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵡⴰⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ.

For example, in 2008, John Hartigan, Jr. argued for a view of race that focused primarily on culture, but which does not ignore the potential relevance of biology or genetics.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2008, ⵊⵓⵏ ⵀⴰⵔⵜⵉⵖⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔⴱⴰ. ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⴽⵍ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⵉⵢ.

In this way the idea of race as we understand it today came about during the historical process of exploration and conquest which brought Europeans into contact with groups from different continents, and of the ideology of classification and typology found in the natural sciences.

ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴳ ⴷ ⵜⴷⴷⴰ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵜⵜⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵇⴰⵕⵕⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ.

A set of folk beliefs took hold that linked inherited physical differences between groups to inherited intellectual, behavioral, and moral qualities.

ⵣⵓⵣⵣⵍⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰⵏ.

The 1735 classification of Carl Linnaeus, inventor of zoological taxonomy, divided the human species Homo sapiens into continental varieties of europaeus, asiaticus, americanus, and afer, each associated with a different humour: sanguine, melancholic, choleric, and phlegmatic, respectively.

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵍⵉⵏⴰⵢⵓⵙ 1735, ⴰⵎⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⵉⴱⴹⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵀⵓⵎⴰ ⵙⴰⴱⵉⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵇⴰⵔⵔⵉⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰⵢⵓⵙ, ⴷ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵓⵙ, ⴷ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⴽⵓ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴹⵚⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ: ⴰⴳⵕⴹ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵍⴰⵏⴽⵓⵍⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴽⵓⵍⵉⵙⵜⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵓⵊⵎⴰⵜⵉⵢⵜ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ.

"Blumenbach also noted the graded transition in appearances from one group to adjacent groups and suggested that ""one variety of mankind does so sensibly pass into the other, that you cannot mark out the limits between them""."

‘’ⵉⵥⵕⴰ ⴱⵍⵓⵎⵏⴱⴰⵛⵀ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵢⵓⵥⴻⵥⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⴽ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ‘’ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵣⵔⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵃⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵏⴳⵔⴰⵜⵙⵏ’’.

It was further argued that some groups may be the result of mixture between formerly distinct populations, but that careful study could distinguish the ancestral races that had combined to produce admixed groups.

ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵣⵎⵔⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴽⵉⵙ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵥⵍⵢ ⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⴽⴰⵍⵉⵏ.

New studies of culture and the fledgling field of population genetics undermined the scientific standing of racial essentialism, leading race anthropologists to revise their conclusions about the sources of phenotypic variation.

ⵙⴷⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵓⵍⵓⵊⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵖⴱⵓⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵉⴹⵀⵕⵏ.

Studies of human genetic variation show that human populations are not geographically isolated, and their genetic differences are far smaller than those among comparable subspecies.

ⴰⵔ ⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵢ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵙⵜⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⴷⴷⵓⵖⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ.

Andreasen cited tree diagrams of relative genetic distances among populations published by Luigi Cavalli-Sforza as the basis for a phylogenetic tree of human races (p. 661).

ⵉⴱⴷⵔ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⵢⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴳⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⵖ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⵙ ⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⴽⴰⴼⴰⵍⵉ ⵙⴼⵓⵔⵣⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜ ⵏ ‘’ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⴽ’’ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ (ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵜ 661).

Marks, Templeton, and Cavalli-Sforza all conclude that genetics does not provide evidence of human races.

ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⵎⴰⵕⴽⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴱⵍⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴽⴰⴼⴰⵍⵉ ⵙⴼⵓⵔⵣⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵏⵣⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ.

For example, with respect to skin color in Europe and Africa, Brace writes:To this day, skin color grades by imperceptible means from Europe southward around the eastern end of the Mediterranean and up the Nile into Africa.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵇⵇⵢⴰ, ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵢⵙ : ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵍ ⴰⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴷⴷⵓⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⵍ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ.

"He further argued that one could use the term race if one distinguished between ""race differences"" and ""the race concept""."

‘’ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⵉⵖ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵎⴽ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ‘’ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ’’ ⴷ ‘’ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ’’.

In short, Livingstone and Dobzhansky agree that there are genetic differences among human beings; they also agree that the use of the race concept to classify people, and how the race concept is used, is a matter of social convention.

ⵙ ⵓⵙⴳⵣⵍ, ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵍⵉⴼⵏⵉⵖⵙⵜⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴷⵓⴱⵣⴰⵏⵙⴽⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ; ⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵇⵇⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ.

"As the anthropologists Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Linda Jackson observed, ""Discordant patterns of heterogeneity falsify any description of a population as if it were genotypically or even phenotypically homogeneous""."

ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵔⴷ ⵍⵉⴱⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴼⴰⵜⵉⵎⴰ ⵍⵉⵏⴷⴰ ⵊⴰⴽⵙⵓⵏ, ⴳⴰⵏ ‘’ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵔⵣⴰⴼ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵉⴹⵀⵔⵏ’’.

"The mid-20th-century anthropologist William C. Boyd defined race as: ""A population which differs significantly from other populations in regard to the frequency of one or more of the genes it possesses."

ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⴱⵡⵉⴷ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20 ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵙ ‘’ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ’’.

Moreover, the anthropologist Stephen Molnar has suggested that the discordance of clines inevitably results in a multiplication of races that renders the concept itself useless.

ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵔⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⵏ ⵎⵓⵍⵏⴰⵕ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵡⵇⵇⵔ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵍⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ.

Joanna Mountain and Neil Risch cautioned that while genetic clusters may one day be shown to correspond to phenotypic variations between groups, such assumptions were premature as the relationship between genes and complex traits remains poorly understood.

ⵉⵙⵎⵣⵣⵖ ⵊⵡⴰⵏⴰ ⵎⴰⵡⵏⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵔⵉⵛ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⴽ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴹⵀⵕⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵎⵍⵉⵃ.

"Any category you come up with is going to be imperfect, but that doesn't preclude you from using it or the fact that it has utility."""

‘’ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⵓⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⴷ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵙⵎⵎⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ’’.

This assumed three population groups separated by large geographic ranges (European, African and East Asian).

ⵎⴰⵏⴰ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴷⴰ ⴱⴹⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⴳⵔⴰⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ (ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵇⵉⵢⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵢⴰⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ).

"Anthropologists such as C. Loring Brace, the philosophers Jonathan Kaplan and Rasmus Winther, and the geneticist Joseph Graves, have argued that while there it is certainly possible to find biological and genetic variation that corresponds roughly to the groupings normally defined as ""continental races"", this is true for almost all geographically distinct populations."

‘’ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⵓⵔⵉⵏⴳ ⴱⵕⴰⵙ, ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⵊⵓⵏⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴽⴰⴱⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵔⴰⵙⵎⵓⵙ ⵡⵉⵏⵜⵔ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵊⵓⵣⵉⴼ ⵊⵔⴰⵢⴼⵣ, ⵎⵖⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴼ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵄⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ‘’ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡⵉⵢⵏ’’, ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴽⴰⵍⵜ’’.

Weiss and Fullerton have noted that if one sampled only Icelanders, Mayans and Maoris, three distinct clusters would form and all other populations could be described as being clinally composed of admixtures of Maori, Icelandic and Mayan genetic materials.

ⵉⵥⵕⴰ ⵡⴰⵢⵙ ⴷ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵔⵜⵓⵏ ⵎⴽ ⵜⵓⵙⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙⴳ ⵍⴰⵙⵍⵉⵙⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵎⴰⵡⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵉⵎⵥⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵙⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵍⵎⴰⵡⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵙⵍⴰⵏⴷⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵎⴰⵢⴰ.

Moreover, the genomic data underdetermines whether one wishes to see subdivisions (i.e., splitters) or a continuum (i.e., lumpers).

ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⵢⵓⵎ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵔⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ (ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ) ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ (ⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ).

"Alongside empirical and conceptual problems with ""race"", following the Second World War, evolutionary and social scientists were acutely aware of how beliefs about race had been used to justify discrimination, apartheid, slavery, and genocide."

‘’ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴷⴷⵖ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ‘’ⵓⵥⵓⵕ’’, ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵉⴽ ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵙ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵣ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⴰⵥⵓⵕ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵅⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ’’.

Craig Venter and Francis Collins of the National Institute of Health jointly made the announcement of the mapping of the human genome in 2000.

ⵉⴷⵔⴰ ⴽⵔⵉⵖ ⴼⵉⵏⵜⵔ ⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴽⵓⵍⵉⵏⵣ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2000.

It's not a scientific one.

ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ.

"Anthropologist Stephan Palmié has argued that race ""is not a thing but a social relation""; or, in the words of Katya Gibel Mevorach, ""a metonym"", ""a human invention whose criteria for differentiation are neither universal nor fixed but have always been used to manage difference."""

ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵍⵎⵢⵉⵀ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ‘’ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ ⵎⴰⵛ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ’’, ⵏⵖ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⴽⴰⵜⵢⴰ ⵊⵉⵍ ⵎⵉⴼⵓⵔⴰⵛ, ‘’ⵎⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏⵉⵎ’’, ‘’ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⵎⴰⵛ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ’’.

There, racial identity was not governed by rigid descent rule, such as the one-drop rule, as it was in the United States.

ⴷⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴹⴼⵓⵕ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵇⵔⴼⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ.

These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and not one category stands significantly isolated from the rest.

ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴽⴰ ⵅⴼ ⴽⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⵍⴰⴼ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ.

New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc, 1984.

ⵏⵢⵓ ⵊⵉⵔⵙⵉ: ⴱⵔⴰⵏⵜⵉⵙ ⵀⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵙ,1984.

"In European context, historical resonance of ""race"" underscores its problematic nature."

‘’ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢ, ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⵎ ⵓⵏⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ‘’ⵓⵥⵓⵕ’’ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵙⵙ’’.

"The concept of racial origin relies on the notion that human beings can be separated into biologically distinct ""races"", an idea generally rejected by the scientific community."

‘’ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴼⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴱⴹⵓ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ‘’ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ’’ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ, ⵜⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ’’.

In the United States most people who self-identify as African American have some European ancestors, while many people who identify as European American have some African or Amerindian ancestors.

ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⴼ ⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ.

The criteria for membership in these races diverged in the late 19th century.

ⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19.

"Amerindians continue to be defined by a certain percentage of ""Indian blood"" (called blood quantum)."

‘’ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵙⴳ ‘’ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ’’ (ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ’’).

This rule meant that those that were mixed race but with some discernible African ancestry were defined as black.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵉⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴽⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⴰⵍⵜ.

"The term ""Hispanic"" as an ethnonym emerged in the 20th century with the rise of migration of laborers from the Spanish-speaking countries of Latin America to the United States."

‘’ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ‘’ⴰⵚⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ’’ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵜⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20 ⴰⴽⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵣⵓⴳⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵍⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜ ⵍⵎⵓⵜⵜⴰⵃⵉⴷⴰ’’.

Three factors, country of academic education, discipline, and age, were found to be significant in differentiating the replies.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴹⵀⴰⵕ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵢⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵓⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ.

In 2007, Ann Morning interviewed over 40 American biologists and anthropologists and found significant disagreements over the nature of race, with no one viewpoint holding a majority among either group.

ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2007. ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵔ ⵎⵓⵔⵉⵏⵖ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 40 ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵜⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ, ⴷ ⵓⵍⴰⵃ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⴳⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ.

"While he can see good arguments for both sides, the complete denial of the opposing evidence ""seems to stem largely from socio-political motivation and not science at all""."

‘’ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⴽⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵇⵙⵃⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⴷⴳ ⴰⴽⵙⵡⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵢⴼⴰⴽⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵍⵏ ‘’ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ’’.

In partial response to Gill's statement, Professor of Biological Anthropology C. Loring Brace argues that the reason laymen and biological anthropologists can determine the geographic ancestry of an individual can be explained by the fact that biological characteristics are clinally distributed across the planet, and that does not translate into the concept of race.

ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵍⵖⵓ ⵏ ⵖⵉⵍ, ⴰⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵙ. ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⵉⴷⵙ ⵍⵓⵔⵉⵏⴳ ⴱⵔⴰⵢⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵊⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵙⵓ ⴳ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵔⵉ, ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ.

Physical anthropology texts argued that biological races exist until the 1970s, when they began to argue that races do not exist.

ⵎⵖⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1970, ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.

"In February 2001, the editors of Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine asked ""authors to not use race and ethnicity when there is no biological, scientific, or sociological reason for doing so."""

ⴳ ⴼⴱⵕⴰⵢⵕ ⵏ 2001, ⵙⵙⵓⵜⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵃⵓⴷⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ‘’ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ’’ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ’’.

Morning (2008) looked at high school biology textbooks during the 1952–2002 period and initially found a similar pattern with only 35% directly discussing race in the 1983–92 period from initially 92% doing so.

ⵉⵣⵕⴰ ⵚⵚⴱⴱⴰⵀ (2008) ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ 1952-2002, ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ 35% ⴷⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ 1983-92 ⵙⴳ 92% ⴳ ⵜⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ.

In general, the material on race has moved from surface traits to genetics and evolutionary history.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⴰⵏ.

"She notes, ""At best, one can conclude that biologists and anthropologists now appear equally divided in their beliefs about the nature of race."""

‘’ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵃⵍⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵓⵍⵓ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ.

33 health services researchers from differing geographic regions were interviewed in a 2008 study.

ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴷ 33 ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵊⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2008.

Many sociologists focused on African Americans, called Negroes at that time, and claimed that they were inferior to whites.

ⵙⴷⵉⴽⵍ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⵢⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵣⵓⵏⵓⵊ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ.

In 1910, the Journal published an article by Ulysses G. Weatherly (1865-1940) that called for white supremacy and segregation of the races to protect racial purity.

ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1910, ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⵓⵖⵎⵉⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵙⵉⵙ ⵊ. ⵡⵉⴷⵔⵍⵉ (1865-1940) ⵉⵖⵔⴰ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵙ ⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵃⵟⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ.