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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crab-plover
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Crab-plover
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The crab-plover or crab plover (Dromas ardeola) is a bird related to the waders, but sufficiently distinctive to merit its own family Dromadidae. Its relationship within the Charadriiformes is unclear, some have considered it to be closely related to the thick-knees, or the pratincoles, while others have considered it closer to the auks and gulls. It is the only member of the genus Dromas and is unique among waders in making use of ground warmth to aid incubation of the eggs.
Description
This bird resembles a plover, but has very long grey legs and a strong heavy black bill similar to a tern. Its black-and-white plumage and long-necked upright posture with heavy bill makes it distinctive and unmistakable. Its bill is unique among waders, and specialised for eating crabs. It has partially webbed toes. The plumage is white except for black on its back and in the primary feathers of the wings. They are noisy birds, calling frequently on their breeding sites and in their wintering grounds. The usual call is a ka similar to that of the bar-tailed godwit but repeated rapidly. Flocks may produce a whinnying sound that rises and at in the breeding season produce whistling kew-ki-ki notes.
Males and females are not easily distinguished but males have a heavier and longer bill. Juveniles have the black on the mantle, greyish and remain in this plumage for a year. Flocks fly in lines or "V" formations.
The crab-plover is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies.
Range
It is resident on the coasts and islands of the Indian Ocean, where it feeds on crabs and other small animals. They are gregarious and will feed in large groups, at night and during dawn and dusk as well as during the day; this crepuscular and nocturnal behaviour is more common during the breeding season. They breed around the Arabian Sea, Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, Red Sea and Somalia in the months of April to July then disperse across the Indian Ocean in August as far as the Andaman Islands and Sri Lanka in the east and Tanzania and Madagascar.
Habits
The crab-plover is unusual for waders in that it nests in burrows in sandy banks. In the Red Sea region, the breeding season begins around the middle of May. It is a colonial breeder, nesting in colonies as large 1500 pairs. It lays one white egg, occasionally two, which are large for its body size. The nest burrow temperature is optimal due to solar radiation and the parents are able to leave the nest unattended for as long as 58 hours. The chicks are also unique for the usually nidifugous waders in being unable to walk and remain in the nest for several days after hatching, having food brought to them. Even once they fledge they have a long period of parental care afterwards. Both males and females take care of the young.
Gallery
Notes
References
Handbook of the Birds of the World, Volume Three, Hoatzin to Auks; de Hoyo, Elliot and Sargatal,
External links
Crab Plover videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
Lari
Birds of the Middle East
Birds of East Africa
Birds of the Arabian Peninsula
Birds described in 1805
Taxa named by Gustaf von Paykull
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circinus
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Circinus
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Circinus is a small, faint constellation in the southern sky, first defined in 1756 by the French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille. Its name is Latin for compass, referring to the drafting tool used for drawing circles (it should not be confused with Pyxis, a constellation that represents a mariner's compass which points north). Its brightest star is Alpha Circini, with an apparent magnitude of 3.19. Slightly variable, it is the brightest rapidly oscillating Ap star in the night sky. AX Circini is a Cepheid variable visible with the unaided eye, and BX Circini is a faint star thought to have been formed from the merger of two white dwarfs. Two sun-like stars have planetary systems: HD 134060 has two small planets, and HD 129445 has a Jupiter-like planet. Supernova SN 185 appeared in Circinus in 185 AD and was recorded by Chinese observers. Two novae have been observed more recently, in the 20th century.
The Milky Way runs through the constellation, featuring prominent objects such as the open cluster NGC 5823 and the planetary nebula NGC 5315. Circinus hosts a notable spiral galaxy, the Circinus Galaxy, discovered in 1977; it is the closest Seyfert galaxy to the Milky Way. The Alpha Circinids (ACI), a meteor shower also discovered in 1977, radiate from this constellation.
History
In 1756, French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille introduced the constellation of Circinus with the French name le Compas, representing a pair of dividing compasses, on a chart of the southern sky. On that chart, Lacaille portrayed the constellations of Norma, Circinus, and Triangulum Australe, respectively, as a set square and ruler, a compass, and a surveyor's level in a set of draughtsman's instruments. Circinus was given its current name in 1763, when Lacaille published an updated sky map with Latin names for the constellations he introduced.
Characteristics
Bordered by Centaurus, Musca, Apus, Triangulum Australe, Norma and Lupus, Circinus lies adjacent to the Alpha and Beta Centauri stars. As it is at declination −50° to −70°, the whole constellation is only visible south of latitude 30° N. The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of 14 segments. In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , and the declination coordinates are between −55.43° and −70.62°. Circinus culminates each year at 9 p.m. on 30 July. The recommended three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is "Cir".
Features
Stars
Circinus is a faint constellation, with only one star brighter than fourth magnitude. Alpha Circini, a white main sequence star with an apparent magnitude of 3.19, is 54 light-years away and 4° south of Alpha Centauri. Not only the brightest star in the constellation, it is also the brightest example of a rapidly oscillating Ap (RoAp) star in the night sky. It has the unusual spectral type A7 Vp SrCrE, showing increased emissions of strontium, chromium and europium. Stars of this type have oddly localised magnetic fields and are slightly variable. Alpha Circini forms a binary star system with an orange dwarf companion of spectral type K5 and magnitude 8.5, which with a separation of 5.7 arcseconds is only discernible with a telescope. The distance between the two stars is 260 AU and they take 2600 years to rotate around a common centre of gravity. The second brightest star is Beta Circini, a white main sequence star of spectral type A3Va and a magnitude of 4.07, about 100 light-years away. It has around 1.8 times the diameter of the Sun.
Gamma Circini is a binary star 450 light-years away, whose components need a telescope of 150 mm to be seen, as they are only 0.8 arcseconds apart. The brighter component is a bluish Be star of spectral type B5IV+ and magnitude 4.51, while the dimmer component is a yellow star of magnitude 5.5. They orbit each other every 180 years. Delta Circini is also a multiple star whose components have magnitudes of 5.1 and 13.4 and orbit around a common centre of gravity every 3.9 days. The brighter component is a close eclipsing binary (specifically, a rotating ellipsoidal variable), with a minor dip of magnitude (0.1). Both are hot blue stars of spectral types O7III-V and O9.5V, respectively, and are estimated to have around 22 and 12 times the Sun's mass. Over 3600 light-years away, this system would outshine Venus at magnitude −4.8 if it were 32 light-years (10 parsecs) distant. The two main components are separated by 50 arcseconds, resolvable to the naked eye for individuals with good vision and easily discernible with a telescope.
Eta Circini is a yellow giant of spectral type G8III and magnitude 5.17, located around 276 light-years distant, and Zeta Circini is a blue-white main sequence star of spectral type B3V and magnitude 6.09, located around 1273 light-years away.
493 variable stars have been recorded in Circinus, but most have a very small range or are quite dim. Three prominent examples are Theta Circini, T Circini, and AX Circini. Theta Circini is a B-class irregular variable, ranging in magnitude from 5.0 to 5.4. T Circini has a B-type spectrum, ranging in magnitude from 10.6 to 9.3 over a period of 3.298 days, although it is actually an eclipsing binary system rather than a pulsating star. AX is a Cepheid variable that varies between magnitudes 5.6 and 6.19 over 5.3 days. It is a yellow-white supergiant of spectral type F8II+, 1600 light-years away. BP Circini is another Cepheid variable with an apparent magnitude ranging from 7.37 to 7.71 over 2.4 days. Both cepheids are spectroscopic binaries, with companions that are blue-white stars of spectral type B6 and 5 and 4.7 solar masses respectively. BX Circini is a faint star that fluctuates between magnitudes 12.57 and 12.62 over a period of 2 hours 33 minutes. Over 99% of its composition appears to be helium. Its origin is unclear, but thought to be the result of the merger of a helium and a carbon/oxygen white dwarf.
Several stars with planetary systems lie within the borders of Circinus, although none of the host stars are particularly prominent. HD 134060 is a sun-like yellow dwarf star of spectral type G0VFe+0.4 and magnitude 6.29, around 79 light-years away. Its two planets were discovered in 2011 through the radial velocity method: the smaller, HD 134060 b, has a mass of 0.0351 MJ (Jupiter masses) and orbits its star every 3.27 days, at 0.0444 AU; the larger, HD 134060 c (0.15 MJ), orbits farther out at 2.226 AU, with a period of approximately 1161 days. Even fainter, at magnitude 8.8, HD 129445 is 220 light-years away and has 99% of the Sun's mass and a similar spectral type of G8V. HD 129445 b, a Jupiter-like planet (1.6 MJ) discovered in 2010 via the radial velocity method, orbits this star at a distance of 2.9 AU, approximately every 1840 days.
As this constellation intersects the plane of the Milky Way, there are many massive stars located in this constellation, including GKF2010 MN18 (or simply MN18), a blue supergiant located in a bipolar nebula, as well as 9 Wolf-Rayet stars, a very high number for such a small constellation.
Deep-sky objects
Three open clusters and a planetary nebulae are found within the borders of Circinus, all visible with amateur telescopes of varying sizes. NGC 5823, also called Caldwell 88, is an 800-million-year-old open cluster, located 3500 light-years away and spanning a 12-light-year region along the constellation's northern border. Despite having an integrated magnitude of 7.9, the cluster can be seen by star hopping from Beta Circini or from Alpha Centauri. It contains 80–100 stars of 10th magnitude and fainter, which are spread out over a diameter of 10 arcseconds. The brighter stars, however, are not true members of the cluster, as they are closer to the Earth than the dimmer ones. NGC 5823 appears distinct to the observer, sometimes seen as a reversed "S", as described by John Herschel, although it has also been described as "tulip-shaped" and "boxy". That cluster can be easily mistaken with a similar cluster, NGC 5822, nearby in Lupus. Comparatively, open cluster NGC 5715 is fainter (integrated magnitude of 9.8)—its brightest star is only 11th magnitude—and smaller (7.0 arcminutes), comprising only 30 stars. The third open cluster, Pismis 20, contains 12 stars in a diameter of 4.5 arcseconds but exhibits a magnitude similar to NGC 5823 (7.8). At 8270 light-years, it requires an amateur telescope with an aperture over 300 mm to be easily discerned.
The planetary nebula NGC 5315 has a magnitude of 9.8 around a central star of magnitude 14.2, located 5.2 degrees west-southwest of Alpha Circini. It is only visible as a disc at magnifications over 200-fold. Bernes 145 is a dark and reflection nebula first listed in the 1971 Bernes Catalog. The dark nebula component is easily visible in a large amateur telescope, and it measures 12 by 5 arcminutes. The smaller reflection nebula component requires a larger instrument and averted vision to be seen.
Circinus also houses ESO 97-G13, commonly known as the Circinus Galaxy. Discovered in 1977, it is a relatively unobscured galaxy (magnitude 10.6), which is unusual for galaxies located in constellations near the Milky Way, since their dim light is obscured by gas and dust. This oblong spiral galaxy with 6.9 by 3.0 arcminutes and 26,000 light-years in diameter, is located 13 million light-years away from Earth and lies 4 degrees off the galactic plane. It is the closest Seyfert galaxy to the Milky Way, and therefore hosts an active galactic nucleus.
Circinus X-1 is an X-ray binary star system that includes a neutron star. Observations of Circinus X-1 in July 2007 revealed the presence of X-ray jets normally found in black hole systems. Located at 19,000 light-years, the pulsar PSR B1509-58, also called the Circinus Pulsar, has expelled a 20-light-year-long jet of material from its southern pole, clearly visible in the X-ray spectrum. Another supernova remnant in Circinus is that of SN 185. Recorded by Chinese observers in 185 AD, SN 185 was visible in the night sky for around eight months; its remnants, known as RCW 86, cover an area larger than the typical full moon.
A white dwarf star in a close binary system can accumulate material from its companion until it ignites and blows off in a thermonuclear explosion, known as a nova. These stars generally brighten by 7 to 16 magnitudes. Nova Circini 1926, also known as X Circini, was observed at magnitude 6.5 on 3 September 1926, before fading and fluctuating between magnitudes 11.7 and 12.5, during 1928, and magnitude 13, in 1929. Nova Circini 1995 (BY Circini) reached a maximum apparent magnitude of 7.2 in January 1995. BW Circini is a low mass X-ray binary system, comprising a black hole of around 8 solar masses and a yellow G0III-G5III subgiant star. X-ray outbursts were recorded in 1987 and 1997, and possibly 1971–72.
Meteor showers
Circinus is the radiant of an annual meteor shower, the Alpha Circinids (ACI). First observed in Queensland in 1977, the meteors have an average velocity of 27.1 km/s and are thought to be associated with a long-period comet. In 2011, Peter Jenniskens proposed that the debris trail of comet C/1969 T1 could intersect with the Earth's orbit and generate a meteor outburst coming from a radiant close to Beta Circini. The ACI shower peaks on 4 June, the day it was first observed.
See also
Circinus (Chinese astronomy)
References
External links
The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Circinus
Southern constellations
Constellations listed by Lacaille
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volans
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Volans
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Volans is a constellation in the southern sky. It represents a flying fish; its name is a shortened form of its original name, Piscis Volans. Volans was one of twelve constellations created by Petrus Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman and it first appeared on a 35-cm diameter celestial globe published in 1597 (or 1598) in Amsterdam by Plancius with Jodocus Hondius. The first depiction of this constellation in a celestial atlas was in Johann Bayer's Uranometria of 1603.
History
Volans is one of the 12 constellations that were introduced by the Dutch navigators Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman in the late 16th century. It was first depicted on Petrus Plancius’ globe in 1598. Plancius called the constellation Vliegendenvis (flying fish).
In 1603, Johann Bayer included the constellation in his star atlas Uranometria under the name Piscis Volans, the flying fish. John Herschel proposed shrinking the name to one word in 1844, noting that Lacaille himself had abbreviated his constellations thus on occasion. This was universally adopted.
Volans represents a type of tropical fish that can jump out of the water and glide through the air on wings. In early celestial maps, the flying fish was often depicted as accompanying the ship Argo Navis, and being chased by the predatory fish represented by the adjoining constellation Dorado.
Features
Stars
There are two double stars within the constellation which can be observed using a small telescope, Gamma Volantis and Epsilon Volantis, along with two galaxies which may be more difficult to see clearly, NGC 2442 and NGC 2434. The magnitudes of the Gamma Volantis stars are 3.8 and 5.6, and of Epsilon Volantis 4.4 and 7.3.
The Astronomical Society of Southern Africa in 2003 reported that observations of the variable stars R and S Volantis in Volans were very urgently needed as data on their light curves was incomplete.
HD 76700 is a sunlike star some 195 light-years distant that has been found to have a planet.
Deep-sky objects
Volans has several deep-sky objects within its borders.
The Lindsay-Shapley ring, also categorized as AM0644-741, is a ring galaxy located 300 million light-years from Earth. Named for its discoverers, the Lindsay-Shapley ring was found near the Large Magellanic Cloud in 1960. Like the Cartwheel Galaxy in Sculptor, the unusual shape of this galaxy results from a collision many millions of years ago. The blue ring, 150,000 light-years in diameter, was formed when a shock wave from the collision created a ring of hot blue stars; the yellow core is an amalgamation of the progenitors' cores. NGC 2442, an intermediate-spiral galaxy, is also located in this constellation, with a distance of 50 million light-years from Earth.
Graham's Object, aka Das Rheingold or Nibelungen Ring is a ring shaped galaxy at R.A. 6h 41.4m / Decl. -74° 19' (2000.0) in Volans
See also
Dutch celestial cartography in the Age of Exploration (Early systematic mapping of the far southern sky, c. 1595–1599)
Constellations created and listed by Dutch celestial cartographers
IAU-recognized constellations
Volans (Chinese astronomy)
References
Sources
External links
The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Volans
The clickable Volans
Southern constellations
Constellations listed by Petrus Plancius
Dutch celestial cartography in the Age of Discovery
Astronomy in the Dutch Republic
1590s in the Dutch Republic
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211819
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reticulum
|
Reticulum
|
Reticulum is a small, faint constellation in the southern sky. Its name is Latin for a small net, or reticle—a net of crosshairs at the focus of a telescope eyepiece that is used to measure star positions. The constellation is best viewed between October and December, and save for one main star visible in ideal conditions, cannot be seen from north of the 30th parallel north.
History
A constellation in this area was introduced by Isaac Habrecht II in his celestial globe in 1621, who named it Rhombus. It was replaced with a somewhat different constellation by the French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille in the eighteenth century; during his stay at the Cape of Good Hope, he named the constellation le Réticule Rhomboide to commemorate the reticle in his telescope eyepiece. The name was later Latinized to Reticulum in his star catalogue Coelum Australe Stelliferum. In 1810, the stars of Reticulum were used by William Croswell to produce the constellation Marmor Sculptile, which represented the bust of Christopher Columbus, but this did not catch on among astronomers.
The constellation Reticulum became officially recognized during the First General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union in 1922. The boundary for this and other constellations was drawn up by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte along arcs of right ascension and declination for epoch 1875. These were published in 1930 in the Delimination Scientifique des Constellations at the behest of the IAU.
Features
Only two of the stars in this constellation are brighter than visual magnitude 5: Alpha (α) and Beta (β) reticuli. The reddish star R Reticuli is a Mira variable. This variable was discovered by C. Ragoonatha Chary at the Madras Observatory in India.
The binary star system Epsilon Reticuli consists of a spectral class K2IV star being orbited by a white dwarf. Based on parallax measurements, this system is located about 50 light years from the Sun. In 2000, a planetary companion was announced, orbiting the star ε Reticuli A.
Zeta Reticuli is a wide binary star system, with both members being similar to the Sun. It is located at a distance of about 39 light years. This system gained some notoriety in ufology when the alleged alien abductees Betty and Barney Hill named it as the home of their abductors.
In 2005, a type 1a supernova was discovered in the spiral galaxy NGC 1559, located in the constellation.
The dwarf galaxy Reticulum II is enriched in r-process heavy elements.
The Horologium-Reticulum Supercluster is a galaxy supercluster that ranges from 700 million to 1.2 billion light-years from Earth.
See also
Reticulum (Chinese astronomy)
References
External links
The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Reticulum
The clickable Reticulum
Starry Night Photography: Reticulum Constellation
Star Tales – Reticulum
Southern constellations
IAU constellations
Constellations listed by Lacaille
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pictor
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Pictor
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Pictor is a constellation in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere, located between the star Canopus and the Large Magellanic Cloud. Its name is Latin for painter, and is an abbreviation of the older name Equuleus Pictoris (the "painter's easel"). Normally represented as an easel, Pictor was named by Abbé Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille in the 18th century. The constellation's brightest star is Alpha Pictoris, a white main-sequence star around 97 light-years away from Earth. Pictor also hosts RR Pictoris, a cataclysmic variable star system that flared up as a nova, reaching apparent (visual) magnitude 1.2 in 1925 before fading into obscurity.
Pictor has attracted attention because of its second-brightest star Beta Pictoris, 63.4 light-years distant from Earth, which is surrounded by an unusual dust disk rich in carbon, as well as an exoplanet (extrasolar planet). Another five stars in the constellation have been observed to have planets. Among them is HD 40307, an orange dwarf that has six planets orbiting it, one of which—HD 40307 g—is a potential super-Earth in the circumstellar habitable zone. Kapteyn's Star, the nearest star in Pictor to Earth, is a red dwarf located 12.76 light-years away that was found to have two super-Earths in orbit in 2014. Pictor A is a radio galaxy that is shooting an 800,000 light-year long jet of plasma from a supermassive black hole at its centre. In 2006, a gamma-ray burst—GRB 060729—was observed in Pictor, its extremely long X-ray afterglow detectable for nearly two years.
History
The French astronomer Abbé Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille first described Pictor as le Chevalet et la Palette (the easel and palette) in 1756, after observing and cataloguing 10,000 southern stars during a two-year stay at the Cape of Good Hope. He devised 14 new constellations in uncharted regions of the Southern Celestial Hemisphere not visible from Europe. All but one honored instruments that symbolised the Age of Enlightenment. He gave these constellations Bayer designations, including ten stars in Pictor now named Alpha to Nu Pictoris. He labelled the constellation Equuleus Pictorius on his 1763 chart, the word "Equuleus" meaning small horse, or easel—perhaps from an old custom among artists of carrying a canvas on a donkey. The German astronomer Johann Bode called it Pluteum Pictoris. The name was shortened to its current form in 1845 by the English astronomer Francis Baily on the suggestion of his countryman Sir John Herschel.
Characteristics
Pictor is a small constellation bordered by Columba to the north, Puppis and Carina to the east, Caelum to the northwest, Dorado to the southwest and Volans to the south. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is "Pic". The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of 18 segments (illustrated in infobox). In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −42.79° and −64.15°. Pictor culminates each year at 9 p.m. on 17 March. Its position in the far Southern Celestial Hemisphere means that the whole constellation is visible to observers south of latitude 26°N, and parts become circumpolar south of latitude 35°S.
Features
Stars
Pictor is a faint constellation; its three brightest stars can be seen near the prominent Canopus. Within the constellation's borders, there are 49 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6.5. Located about 97 light-years away from Earth, Alpha Pictoris is the brightest star in the constellation; it is a white main-sequence star with an apparent magnitude of 3.3, and spectral type A8VnkA6. A rapidly spinning star with a projected rotational velocity estimated at 206 km/s, it has a shell of circumstellar gas. Beta Pictoris is another white main sequence star of spectral type A6V and apparent magnitude 3.86. Located around 63.4 light-years distant from Earth, it is a member of the Beta Pictoris moving group—a group of 17 star systems around 12 million years old moving through space together. In 1984 Beta Pictoris was the first star discovered to have a debris disk. Since then, an exoplanet about eight times the mass of Jupiter has been discovered orbiting approximately 8 astronomical units (AU) away from the star—a similar distance as that between our Sun and Saturn. The European Southern Observatory (ESO) confirmed its presence through the use of direct imagery with the Very Large Telescope in late 2009.
Gamma Pictoris is an orange giant of spectral type K1III that has swollen to 1.4 times the diameter of the Sun. Shining with an apparent magnitude of 4.5, it lies 174 light-years distant from Earth. HD 42540, called 47 Pictoris by American astronomer Benjamin Apthorp Gould, is a slightly cooler orange giant, with a spectral type of K2.5III and average magnitude 5.04. It has also been suspected of being a variable star. Lacaille mistakenly named this star Mu Doradus, but had recorded its Right Ascension one hour too low. Lacaille named two neighbouring stars Eta Pictoris. Eta2 Pictoris, also known as HR 1663, is an orange giant of spectral type K5III and apparent magnitude 5.05. 474 light-years distant, it has a diameter 5.6 times that of the Sun. Eta1 Pictoris, also known as HR 1649, is 85 light-years distant and is a main sequence star of spectral type F5V and visual magnitude 5.38. A double star, it has a companion of magnitude 13; the two are separated by 11 arcseconds.
Located about 1298 light-years from Earth, Delta Pictoris is an eclipsing binary of the Beta Lyrae type. Composed of two blue stars of spectral types B3III and O9V, the system has a period of 1.67 days, and is observed to dip from apparent magnitude 4.65 to 4.9. The stars are oval-shaped as they are gravitationally distorted by each other. TV Pictoris is a spectroscopic binary system composed of an A-type star and an F-type star which rotate around each other in a very close orbit. The latter star is elliptical in shape and itself varies in brightness. The visual magnitude ranges between 7.37 and 7.53 every 20 hours.
Aside from Beta, five other stars in Pictor are known to host planetary systems. AB Pictoris is a BY Draconis variable star with a substellar companion that is either a large planet or a brown dwarf, which was discovered by direct imaging in 2005. HD 40307 is an orange main sequence star of spectral type K2.5V and apparent magnitude 7.17 located about 42 light-years away. Doppler spectroscopy with the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher (HARPS) indicates that HD 40307 is host to six super-Earth planets, one of which, HD 40307 g, lies in the circumstellar habitable zone of the star, and is not close enough to be tidally locked (i.e. with the same face always facing the star), unlike the other planets in the same system, and many other planets which orbit close to their parent stars. HD 41004 is a complex binary system about 139 light-years distant. The primary is an orange dwarf of spectral type K1V orbited by a planet roughly 2.65 times the mass of Jupiter every 963 days, while the secondary is a red dwarf of spectral type M2V and orbited by a brown dwarf that is at least 19 times as massive as Jupiter. Both substellar components were discovered by doppler spectroscopy using the CORALIE spectrograph in 2004 and 2002 respectively. Kapteyn's Star, a nearby red dwarf at the distance of 12.78 light-years, has a magnitude of 8.8. It has the largest proper motion of any star in the sky after Barnard's Star. Moving around the Milky Way in the opposite direction to most other stars, it may have originated in a dwarf galaxy that was merged into the Milky Way, with the main remnant being the Omega Centauri globular cluster. In 2014 analysis of the doppler variations of Kapteyn's Star with the HARPS spectrograph showed that it hosts two super-Earths—Kapteyn b and Kapteyn c. Kapteyn b is the oldest-known potentially habitable planet, estimated to be possibly 11 billion years old.
Located 1.5 degrees west southwest of Alpha, RR Pictoris is a cataclysmic variable that flared up as a nova, reaching magnitude 1.2 on 9 June 1925. Six months after its peak brightness, it had faded to be invisible to the unaided eye, and was magnitude 12.5 by 1975. RR Pictoris is a close binary system composed of a white dwarf and secondary star that orbit each other every 3.48 hours—so close that the secondary is filling up its Roche lobe with stellar material, which is then transferred onto the first star's accretion disk. Once this material reaches a critical mass, it ignites and the system brightens tremendously. Calculations from the orbital speed suggest the secondary star is not dense enough for its size to still be on the main sequence, so it also must have begun expanding and cooling already after its core ran out of hydrogen fuel. The RR Pictoris system is estimated to lie around 1300 light-years distant from Earth.
Deep-sky objects
NGC 1705 is an irregular dwarf galaxy 17 million light-years from Earth. It is one of the most active star forming galaxies in the nearby universe, despite the fact that its rate of star formation peaked around 30 million years ago. Pictor A, around 485 million light-years away, is a double-lobed radio galaxy and a powerful source of radio waves in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere. From a supermassive black hole at its centre, a relativistic jet shoots out to an X-ray hot spot 800,000 light years away. SPT-CL J0546-5345 is a massive galaxy cluster located around 7 billion light-years away with a mass equivalent to approximately 800 trillion suns.
GRB 060729 was a gamma-ray burst that was first observed on 29 July 2006. It is likely the signal of a type Ic supernova—the core collapse of a massive star. It was also notable for its extraordinarily long X-ray afterglow, detectable 642 days (nearly two years) after the original event. The event was remote, with a redshift of 0.54.
See also
Pictor (Chinese astronomy)
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Online sources
External links
The clickable Pictor
Southern constellations
Constellations listed by Lacaille
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacerta
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Lacerta
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Lacerta is one of the 88 modern constellations defined by the International Astronomical Union. Its name is Latin for lizard. A small, faint constellation, it was defined in 1687 by the astronomer Johannes Hevelius. Its brightest stars form a "W" shape similar to that of Cassiopeia, and it is thus sometimes referred to as 'Little Cassiopeia'. It is located between Cygnus, Cassiopeia and Andromeda on the northern celestial sphere. The northern part lies on the Milky Way.
Notable features
Lacerta is typical of Milky Way constellations: no bright galaxies, nor globular clusters, but instead open clusters, for example NGC 7243, the faint planetary nebula IC 5217 and quite a few double stars. It also contains the prototypic blazar BL Lacertae.
Lacerta contains no Messier objects.
Stars
Alpha Lacertae is a blue-white hued main-sequence star of magnitude 3.8, 102 light-years from Earth. It has a spectral type of A1 V and is an optical double star. Beta Lacertae is far dimmer, a yellow giant of magnitude 4.4, 170 light-years from Earth.
Roe 47 is a multiple star consisting of five components (magnitudes 5.8, 9.8, 10.1, 9.4, 9.8).
ADS 16402 is a binary star system in Lacerta, around which a planet orbits with some unusual properties. The Jupiter-sized planet exhibits an unexpectedly low density, about the same as cork. This planet is dubbed HAT P-1.
EV Lacertae is a rapidly spinning magnitude 10 red dwarf with a strong magnetic field. It is a flare star that can emit powerful flares potentially visible to the naked eye, thousands of times more energetic than any from Earth's sun.
HD 215441 (22h 44m.2 / +55° 35') is known as Babcock's Magnetic Star. Source: Sky Catalogue 2000.0 Volume 2: Double Stars, Variable Stars and Nonstellar Objects, page xlv, chapter Glossary of Selected Astronomical Names.
Deep-sky objects
NGC 7243 is an open cluster 2500 light-years from Earth, visible in small amateur telescopes. It has a few dozen "scattered" stars, the brightest of which are of the 8th magnitude.
BL Lacertae is the prototype of the BL Lacertae objects, which appear to be dim variable stars but are actually the variable nuclei of elliptical galaxies; they are similar to quasars. It lent its name to a whole type of celestial objects, the BL Lacertae objects (a subtype of blazar). The object varies irregularly between magnitudes 14 and 17 over a few days.
History
Centred on a region of the sky without apparently bright stars, Lacerta was apparently not regarded as a constellation by ancient Western astronomers. Johannes Hevelius created the constellation in 1687 and initially named it "Stellio" (the stellion), a lizard with star-like dorsal spots found along the Mediterranean coast.
Other Europeans who sought to name this new constellation included Augustin Royer, who created Sceptrum et Manus Iustitiae (the Hand of Justice and Sceptre) to honor Louis XIV in 1670, and Johann Elert Bode, who created Frederici Honores (Frederick's Glory) to honor Frederick the Great in 1787. Both Sceptrum and Frederici Honores are now obsolete, while Lacerta still survives.
Equivalents
Although not included in ancient star charts of Europe and the Near East, the stars of Lacerta, along with some in the eastern portion of Cygnus, were coincidentally combined by early Chinese astronomers into their "Flying serpent". Similarly, the Chumash people of California call this part of the sky 'Lizard' and include it in multiple stories.
Namesakes
USS Lacerta (AKA-29) was an attack cargo ship in the United States navy named after the constellation.
See also
Lacerta (Chinese astronomy)
References
Sources
External links
The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Lacerta
Star Tales – Lacerta
Weasner's Mighty ETX Site, GO TO LACERTA (a constellation guide for amateur astronomers)
Northern constellations
Constellations listed by Johannes Hevelius
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take%20It%20from%20Here
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Take It from Here
|
Take It from Here (often referred to as TIFH, pronounced – and sometimes humorously spelt – "TIFE") is a British radio comedy programme broadcast by the BBC between 1948 and 1960. It was written by Frank Muir and Denis Norden, and starred Jimmy Edwards, Dick Bentley and Joy Nichols. When Nichols moved to New York City in 1953, she was replaced by June Whitfield and Alma Cogan. The show is best remembered for introducing The Glums. Through TIFH Muir and Norden reinvented British post-war radio comedy – amongst other influences, it was one of the first shows with a significant segment consisting of parody of film and book styles, later used extensively in programmes such as Round the Horne and in many television comedy series.
History
Genesis
Frank Muir had been writing material for Jimmy Edwards's appearances at the Windmill Theatre, and later wrote material for Edwards's radio character, a seedy public school headmaster; Denis Norden had been staff comedy sketch writer with the Kavanagh agency, and had written material for the Australian comedian Dick Bentley. The radio producer Charles Maxwell had contracted Edwards, together with Joy Nichols and Dick Bentley, for the final series in 1947 of the radio show Navy Mixture for which Muir had provided some scripts, and after this show ended Maxwell received a commission for a new weekly comedy series to star Edwards, Nichols and Bentley. He introduced Muir to Norden, and asked them if they would collaborate to write the scripts.
The result was Take It from Here and the start of one of the most enduring comedy writing partnerships. Muir and Norden were to continue collaborating for nearly 50 years, writing such comic masterpieces as Peter Sellers' sketch Balham, Gateway to the South, and appearing together on radio panel games My Word! and My Music.
Early years
The first series of TIFH, broadcast in 1948, was set in a commercial radio station office. Although this first series was not a roaring success, Maxwell persuaded the management to persevere for one more series.
In the second series, Muir and Norden changed to a three-act format. Firstly there was a topical discussion, followed by music from The Keynotes close harmony group. Then came what Muir termed a gimmick, which might be Hamlet done as a pantomime, or an operatic weather forecast. Finally, after another song from Nichols or Bentley, there was a situation comedy sketch worked up from the clichés of a literary or cinematic genre; for example, later TIFH programmes included a sketch about restoration England, with Charles II, Nell Gwyn and the Puritan keeper of the Privy Purse ("anything TV can do, we can do later"); or a spoof spy story set on an international sleeper from London to Paris ("…as I moved through the train I gazed at a handsome film star, slumbering in his compartment, and a thought struck me – whether you're great or whether you're humble, when you sleep upright you dribble"). In addition, the character actor Wallas Eaton was engaged to play minor male roles, replacing Clarence Wright from the first series.
The main announcer throughout the programme's run was David Dunhill, known as "Dunners", although other staff announcers took his place on occasion, famously including Brian Matthew, later to become a mainstay of Light Programme and Radio 2 music programmes.
In 1953 Joy Nichols married an American, and settled in New York City in the hope of becoming a success in Broadway theatre. Because she had been engaged both as singer and actress, she was replaced by Alma Cogan the singer, and June Whitfield the actress (Prunella Scales was also considered as a replacement).
For the first episode of the next series, the TIFH Talking Point segment featured a parody of the sagas of 'nice' families such as those anonymously named in The Archers or Life With The Lyons that abounded on the BBC at the time. This introduced an uncouth dysfunctional family called the Glums, with Mr Glum the archetypal chauvinist pig.
The Glums
First appearing on TIFH on 12 November 1953, the popularity of this sketch made Muir and Norden realise that they were on to something. They made one or two modifications to the characters, and The Glums became a regular part of Take It from Here.
The premise of The Glums was the long engagement between Ron Glum and his long-term fiancée Eth. As a result of post-war austerity, long engagements were common in 1950s Britain. A typical episode would start in the pub, with Mr Glum (played by Jimmy Edwards) talking to the barman (played by Wallas Eaton). It would be closing time, and Mr Glum would start telling the week's story to the barman as a ruse for obtaining another pint (or two) of brown ale. The story would be about some recent episode in the lives of Ron, Mr Glum's dim son (played by Dick Bentley), and Eth, a plain girl for whom Ron represented her only chance of marriage, played by June Whitfield. Bentley, who played the son, was almost thirteen years older than Edwards, who played the father.
A short signature tune would herald a change of scene to the Glums' front room, where Ron and Eth would be sitting on the sofa. Eth would say, "Oh, Ron…!" – her catchphrase – and Ron would vacantly reply something like, "Yes, Eth?" and the week's story would begin in earnest. This opening formula was constantly varied slightly. For instance, in one episode, Eth says, "Oh, Ron, is there anything on your mind, beloved?", to which Ron, after a pause, replies, "No, Eth." Another example has Eth saying "Oh really, Ron, do you expect me to just sit here, like a lemon?", to which Ron responds "No thanks Eth, I've just had a banana."
Most weeks, after scene-setting comedy business between Ron and Eth, Eth would say something like, "Sometimes, Ron, you're so placid – I just wish you would have a little go!" which Ron would stupidly misinterpret as an invitation to a kiss and cuddle. Eth would resist, and Ron and Eth's grappling would be speedily interrupted by the entrance of Mr Glum with an "'Ullo, 'ullo!" and something like "All in wrestling – break clean!" or "Sorry to interrupt, but have you seen the garden shears? Mrs Glum wants to do her eyebrows."
The story usually involved some crisis in the relationship of the three protagonists. In several episodes this crisis followed from Ron's laziness, and his resultant inability to find employment. Some weeks it would be due to Mr Glum's refusal to let Ron and Eth marry (in one episode this is because he is not sure that Ron really loves Eth, in another Eth takes Mr Glum to court because he will not give his consent to the marriage). One story was about Eth getting into difficulties because she was accused of pilfering at the office where she was a secretary. Very often, the story arose from the consequences of some idiotic behaviour on the part of Ron, who was incapable of competently carrying out any simple task, even going to the fish-and-chip shop (in which instance he put his change up his nose).
Another character, who never appears but who is sometimes to be heard incoherently behind the scenes, was Mrs Glum, the family matriarch (Alma Cogan, the singer, usually provided Ma Glum's off-stage noises). Although she never had a speaking part, Ma Glum provided comedy value by always being put upon by Mr Glum, and yet always getting her way (such as the episode where Mr Glum pawned her false teeth). Alma Cogan also played other sundry feminine parts, such as occasional extramarital romantic interest for Mr Glum.
Final year
In 1959, Muir and Norden decided to move into writing for television, and so stopped writing TIFH. The BBC brought in writers Barry Took and Eric Merriman for the 1959/60 season, but this was to be Take It from Heres last.
Influence
The parody sketch, previously used in stage revues but brought to radio by Muir and Norden for Take It from Here, was very influential on comedy shows such as Round the Horne and many television programmes.
In one of the parody sketches, a take-off of the films of English north country factory owners, Muir claimed that they introduced the phrase "Trouble at t'Mill". For one series, Wallas Eaton portrayed an opinionated newspaper letter writer named Disgusted of Tunbridge Wells, another phrase that entered the language.
Many of the jokes and comic exchanges from Take It from Here were recycled in the series of Carry On films when scriptwriter Talbot Rothwell ran out of time, and Muir and Norden gave him some old TIFH scripts – for instance, the line spoken by Julius Caesar (played by Kenneth Williams) in Carry on Cleo on facing some would-be assassins: "Infamy! Infamy! They've all got it in for me!"
While the humour was undoubtedly parochially British, in his autobiography Frank Muir expressed gratification and wonder that the show was so well received in Australia – where TIFHs subtlety, and the show's implied confidence in the listeners' level of intelligence, were commented on in the Australian press as characteristics one would have expected to lead to the show's failure there!
In the 1970s, the Oslo-based radio network NRK produced and transmitted a Norwegian-language version of Take It from Here under the title Familien Glum.
Television revival of The Glums
The Glums were remembered sufficiently for the format to be revived in 1978 as part of the unsuccessful Bruce Forsyth's Big Night programme. A single stand alone series of The Glums was produced and broadcast the following year (consisting of six episodes) by London Weekend Television, usually drawing on two original radio scripts each week. Ron Glum was played by Ian Lavender and Eth by Patricia Brake, while Jimmy Edwards reprised the role of Pa Glum.
A Region 2 DVD of both the Bruce Forsyth's Big Night shorts and the subsequent 1979 series was commercially released in 2011 in the UK.
References
Frank Muir's autobiography.
Radio scripts published at the time of the television revival of The Glums.
Take It from Here, BBC Audio Cassettes, ZBBC 1113 (no longer available)
Take It from Here 2, BBC Audio Cassettes, ZBBC 2127 (no longer available)
External links
British Comedy
Radio Days
1948 radio programme debuts
1960 radio programme endings
BBC Light Programmes
BBC Radio comedy programmes
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibisbill
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Ibisbill
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The ibisbill (Ibidorhyncha struthersii) is a bird related to the waders, but sufficiently distinctive to merit its own family Ibidorhynchidae. It is grey with a white belly, red legs and long down-curved bill, and a black face and black breast band. It occurs on the shingle riverbanks of the high plateau of central Asia and the Himalayas.
Taxonomy
The ibisbill belongs to the order Charadriiformes which also includes the sandpipers, plovers, terns, auks, gulls, skuas and others. Although its evolutionary relationships are not fully understood, the ibisbill appears to be most closely related to a group including the oystercatchers, avocets, stilts and Pluvialis plovers, but sufficiently distinctive to merit its own family, Ibidorhynchidae.
There are no subspecies. The species was described in 1831 by Vigors based on painting by John Gould although Brian Hodgson had sent a manuscript to the Asiatic Society of Bengal two years earlier describing it as the "Red-billed Erolia" but this was published only in 1835 with an apology from the editor. Hodgson later suggested a new genus name of Clorhynchus for the bird stating that Gould's description of Ibidorhyncha was inaccurate while Vieillot's Erolia had been rejected. The species is named in honour of Dr. Struthers who collected specimens of the bird from the Himalayas.
Description
The ibisbill is long and is quite unmistakable in appearance. The adult is grey with a white belly, a crimson, long down-curved bill similar to that of the unrelated ibis, and a black face and black breast band. The sexes are similar, but young birds lack the black on the face and breast, and the bill is duller. The bill is long and is slightly longer in females. The legs are greyish purple in the breeding adults and dull sepia in juveniles or greenish in younger or non-breeding adults. The legs of deceased ibisbills change color to a crimson similar to the bill shade shortly after death. The tarsi is short and reticulated. The ibisbill has three toes, lacking the hind toe. The outer and middle toes are connected by a small, indented web, while the middle and inner toes possess no webbing. The Ibisbill typically weighs and females weigh slightly more than males. In spite of its spectacular appearance it is inconspicuous in its stony environment. The call is a ringing Klew-klew similar to that of a greenshank. In flight, its outstretched neck and rounded wings give an ibis-like appearance.
Distribution and habitat
The Ibisbills are common in Central Asia and the Himalayas, from Lake Issyk-Kul to the southern border of Manchuria, in Russia in the Altai. They also live in the highlands of the Central and Northern Tien Shan, within Kazakhstan along the valleys of the rivers Bolshaya and Malaya Almatinka, Chilik, Issyk, Karkara, Bayankol, Dzhungar Alatau, Choldysu.
The ibisbill breeds across southern Central Asia along stony riverbeds, typically between , although there are records of the ibisbill breeding as low as . Outside the breeding season, it may descend as low as . It typically is found in shingle-bed river valleys from across with patches of sand and silt mixed in with pebbles and small boulders. The river valleys frequented by the ibisbill tend to have very little vegetation and gentle slopes to ensure a slow flow of water. It must live near slow-flowing water in order to feed, limiting its habitat despite a large range.
Behaviour
During the autumn and winter, the ibisbill typically is solitary, though they can be found in pairs or in small flocks of up to eight birds. One group of 25 ibisbills has been reported. Ibisbills breed solitarily and are territorial, though limited habitat availability can cause ibisbills to breed while neighboring others. They are generally not shy of humans. They are good swimmers and prefer crossing rivers by swimming instead of flying.
Wintering birds tend to be fairly inactive, while they become more active and noisy as the breeding season approaches.
When scratching the feathers on their head with their toes, they reach from over the wings. This indirect approach pattern is also found in plovers and lapwings but not in stone-plovers and other waders that reach directly from under the wing.
Breeding
The ibisbill is apparently a monogamous breeder. During the breeding season, the ibisbill is known to run short distances while holding the head down, only standing upright to look at its surroundings. The nest is located on a bank, island or peninsula on the river, and is little more than a scrape on the ground, which may sometimes be lined with small pebbles. Eggs are laid in the end of April and the beginning of May (exact timing varies due to the weather). The clutch size varies from two to four oval eggs. The behaviour of adults near the nest are said to be similar to lapwings. The exact time taken to incubate the eggs is unknown, but both parents share incubation duties. It is suspected that chicks from the previous brood may act as helpers at the nest.
Feeding
The ibisbill feeds by probing under rocks or gravel on stream beds. It will take a variety of terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates including caddisfly and mayfly larvae that hide under boulders in streams, grasshoppers and also small fish.
Conservation status
This species has an extremely large range, estimated at 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles) which is not believed to declining or fragmentating. Although its population is unknown, it is not thought to be declining. For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern by the IUCN.
References
Other sources
Cordeaux, WW (1897) Notes on Ibidorhynchus struthersii. Ibis 7 3(12):563–564.
Stanford, JK (1935) On the occurrence of the Ibisbill Ibidorhyncha struthersii (Gould) in Upper Burma. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 38(2):403–404.
Bailey, FM (1909) Nesting of the Ibis bill (Ibidorhynchus struthersi). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 19(4):993–994.
Whymper, SL (1910) A breeding ground of the Ibisbill (Ibidorynchus struthersi). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 20(2):519–520.
Whymper, SL (1906) Nesting of the Ibis-bill (Ibidorhynchus struthersi) and the Common Sandpiper (Totanus hypoleucus). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 17(2):546–547.
External links
Ibisbill videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
Ibidorhynchidae
Birds of China
Birds of Tibet
Birds of Central Asia
Birds described in 1832
Taxa named by Nicholas Aylward Vigors
Birds of Myanmar
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musca
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Musca
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Musca () is a small constellation in the deep southern sky. It was one of 12 constellations created by Petrus Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman, and it first appeared on a celestial globe in diameter published in 1597 (or 1598) in Amsterdam by Plancius and Jodocus Hondius. The first depiction of this constellation in a celestial atlas was in Johann Bayer's Uranometria of 1603. It was also known as Apis () for 200 years. Musca remains below the horizon for most Northern Hemisphere observers.
Many of the constellation's brighter stars are members of the Scorpius–Centaurus Association, a loose group of hot blue-white stars that appears to share a common origin and motion across the Milky Way. These include Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Zeta2 and (probably) Eta Muscae, as well as HD 100546, a blue-white Herbig Ae/Be star that is surrounded by a complex debris disk containing a large planet or brown dwarf and possible protoplanet. Two further star systems have been found to have planets. The constellation also contains two cepheid variables visible to the naked eye. Theta Muscae is a triple star system, the brightest member of which is a Wolf–Rayet star.
History
Musca was one of the 12 constellations established by the Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius from the observations of the southern sky by the Dutch explorers Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman, who had sailed on the first Dutch trading expedition, known as the Eerste Schipvaart, to the East Indies. De Houtman included it in his southern star catalogue in 1598 under the Dutch name De Vlieghe, "The Fly". They assigned four stars to the constellation, with a star that would be later designated as Beta Muscae marking the head, Gamma the body, and Alpha and Delta the left and right wings, respectively. It first appeared on a 35-cm-diameter (14-in) celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius with Jodocus Hondius, though was unnamed. The first depiction of this constellation in a celestial atlas was in the German cartographer Johann Bayer's Uranometria of 1603, though Bayer termed it Apis— "the Bee", a name by which it was known for the next two centuries. A 1603 celestial globe by Willem Blaeu depicts it as providing nourishment for the nearby constellation Chamaeleon—its tongue trying to catch the insect.
The French explorer and astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille called it la Mouche on the 1756 version of his planisphere of the southern skies. Jean Fortin retained the French name in 1776 for his Atlas Céleste, while Lacaille latinised the name for his revised Coelum Australe Stelliferum in 1763. Lacaille renamed it to Musca Australis, the Southern Fly—Australis, since it counterparted the now discarded constellation of Musca Borealis composed of a few stars in Aries, and to avoid confusion with Apus. Today, the name is simply Musca. It is the only official constellation depicting an insect.
The Kalapalo people of Mato Grosso state in Brazil called Alpha and Beta Muscae (along with Beta and Kappa Crucis) Kutsu anangagï "Ornate Hawk-Eagle's double flutes". The Wardaman people of the Northern Territory in Australia perceived the main stars of Musca as a ceremonial boomerang, part of the Central Arena—a sacred area surrounding the constellation Crux that depicts the lightning creation beings and where they teach Wardaman customs; Alpha and Beta also signified a ceremonial headband, while Gamma and Delta represented two armbands. In central Australia, the Arrernte and Luritja peoples living in on a mission in Hermannsburg viewed the sky as divided between them, east of the Milky Way representing Arrernte camps and west denoting Luritja camps. The stars of Musca, along with Fomalhaut, Alpha Pavonis, and Alpha and Beta Gruis, were all claimed by the Arrernte.
Characteristics
Musca is bordered by Crux to the north, Carina to the west, Chamaeleon to the south, Apus and Circinus to the east, and Centaurus to the northeast. Covering 138 square degrees and 0.335% of the night sky, it ranks 77th of the 88 constellations in size. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is "Mus". The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of six segments. In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −64.64° and −75.68°. The whole constellation is visible to observers south of latitude 14°N.
Features
Stars
Lacaille charted and designated 10 stars with the Bayer designations Alpha to Kappa in 1756. He catalogued stars that became Lambda and Mu, but did not designate them as he considered them informes as they lay outside the asterism proper. Baily considered them part of Musca, and Gould gave them their Bayer designations. Francis Baily also dropped Kappa, which he felt was too faint to warrant a name, and designated two adjacent stars as Zeta1 and Zeta2. These last two stars are 1° apart, quite far to be sharing a Bayer designation. Lacaille had originally labelled the fainter one as Zeta, while Baily presupposed he had meant to label the brighter one. Reluctant to remove Lacaille's designation, he gave them both the Zeta designation. Altogether there are 62 stars brighter than magnitude 6.5 in the constellation.
The pattern of the brightest stars resembles that of Ursa Minor, in that the stars form a pattern reminiscent of a bowl with a handle. Lying south-southeast of Acrux in neighbouring Crux is Alpha Muscae. It is the brightest star in the constellation with an apparent magnitude of 2.7. Lying around 310 light-years away, it is a blue-white star of spectral type B2IV-V that is around 4520 times as luminous and 8 times as massive as the Sun. The star is a Beta Cephei variable with about 4.7 times the Sun's diameter, and pulsates every 2.2 hours, varying by 1% in brightness. A nearby star of magnitude 13 may or may not be a companion star. Marking the fly's tail is Gamma Muscae, a blue-white star of spectral type B5V that varies between magnitudes 3.84 and 3.86 over a period of 2.7 days. It is a variable of a different type, classed as a slowly pulsating B star, a type of variable. It is around five times as massive as our Sun.
Beta Muscae is a binary star system around 341 light-years distant that is composed of two blue-white main-sequence stars of spectral types B2V and B3V that orbit each other every 194 years. They are eight and six times as massive as the Sun, respectively, and have about 3.5 times its diameter. Zeta2 Muscae is a white main sequence star of spectral type A5V around 330 light-years distant from Earth. It is part of a triple star system with faint companions at 0.5 and 32.4 arc seconds distance. Eta Muscae is a multiple star system, the two main components forming an eclipsing binary that has a combined spectral type of B8V and magnitude of 4.77 that dips by 0.05 magnitude every 2.39 days. Alpha, Beta, Gamma, HD 103079, Zeta2 and (likely) Eta are all members of the Lower Centaurus Crux subgroup of the Scorpius–Centaurus Association, a group of predominantly hot blue-white stars that share a common origin and proper motion across the galaxy.
Delta and Epsilon mark the fly's left wing and right wing, respectively. With an apparent magnitude of 3.62, Delta is an orange giant of spectral type K2III located around 91 light-years away. Epsilon Muscae is a red giant of spectral type M5III and semiregular variable that ranges between magnitudes 3.99 and 4.31 over approximately 40 days. It has expanded to 130 times the Sun's diameter and 1800 to 2300 its luminosity. It was a star originally 1.5 to 2 times as massive as our Sun. Although of a similar distance—around 302 light-years—to the stars of the Lower Centaurus Crux subgroup, it is moving much faster at around 100 km/s and does not share a common origin. To the northwest lies Mu Muscae, an orange giant of spectral type K4III that varies between apparent magnitude 4.71 and 4.76, and has been classified as a slow, irregular variable. Near Mu is Lambda Muscae, the third-brightest star in the constellation and a white main-sequence star of spectral type A7V around 128 light-years distant from Earth.
Located near Alpha is R Muscae, a classical Cepheid variable ranging from apparent magnitude 5.93 to 6.73 over 7.5 days. It is a yellow-white supergiant ranging between spectral types F7Ib and G2Ib, located around 2037 light-years away. S Muscae is likewise a classical Cepheid, a yellow-white supergiant ranging between spectral types F6Ib and G0Ib and magnitudes 5.89 to 6.49 over a period of 9.66 days. A luminous star around 5.9 times as massive as the Sun, it is a binary star with a blue-white main-sequence star companion likely to be of spectral type B3V to B5V with a mass of just over 5 solar masses, one of the hottest and brightest companions of a cepheid known. The two stars orbit each other every 505 days.
Theta Muscae is a triple star system thought to be around 7,500 light-years distant. It consists of a spectroscopic binary system composed of the Wolf–Rayet star (spectral type: WC5 or 6) and an O-type main-sequence star (spectral type: O6 or O7) that orbit each other every 19 days and a blue supergiant (spectral type: O9.5/B0Iab) set about 46 milliarcseconds apart from them. If the system's estimated distance from Earth is accurate, the binary stars are about 0.5 astronomical units (AU) apart and the supergiant about 100 AU apart from them. All three are highly luminous; combined, they are likely to be over a million times as luminous as the Sun. TU Muscae is a binary star system located around 15,500 light-years away made up of two hot, luminous, blue main-sequence stars of spectral types O7.5V and O9.5V, with masses 23 and 15 times that of the Sun. The stars are so close that they are in contact with each other (overcontact binary) and are classed as a Beta Lyrae variable as their light varies from Earth as they eclipse each other. The system ranges from apparent magnitude 8.17 to 8.75 over around 1.4 days.
Also known as Nova Muscae 1983, GQ Muscae is a binary system consisting of a white dwarf and small star that is about 10% as massive as the Sun. The two orbit each other every 1.4 hours. The white dwarf accumulates material from its companion star via its accretion disc. After a certain amount has accumulated, the star erupts, as it did in 1983, reaching a magnitude of 7.2. Discovered with a magnitude of 7.1 on 18 January 1983, it was the first nova from which X-rays were detected. The soft X-ray transient GRS 1124-683 (also known as Nova Muscae 1991) is a binary object consisting of an orange main-sequence star (GU Muscae) of spectral type K3V–K4V and a black hole of around six solar masses. During the 1991 outburst which led to its discovery, radiation was produced through a process of positron annihilation. GR Muscae is an X-ray source composed of a neutron star of between 1.2 and 1.8 times the mass of our Sun and a low-mass star likely to be around the mass of the Sun in close orbit. Finally, SY Muscae is a symbiotic star system composed of a red giant and white dwarf, where although the larger star is transferring mass to the smaller, no periodic eruption occurs nor does an accretion disc form. The star system varies in magnitude from 10.2 to 12.7 over a period of 624.5 days.
Three star systems have been discovered to have exoplanets. HD 111232 is a yellow main-sequence star around 78% as massive as the Sun around 95 light-years distant. It has a planet (HD 111232 b) around 6.8 times the mass of Jupiter that has an orbital period around 1143 days. HD 112410 is a yellow giant of spectral type G8III located around 439 light-years distant. With around 1.54 times the mass of our Sun, it is cooling and expanding along the red-giant branch, having left the main sequence after exhausting its core supply of hydrogen fuel. It has a substellar companion calculated to have a mass 9.2 times that of Jupiter and an orbital period of 124.6 days at a distance around 0.57 AU. Yet another member of the Lower Centaurus Crux subgroup, HD 100546 is a young, blue-white Herbig Ae/Be star of spectral type B9V that has yet to settle on the main sequence—the closest of these stars to Earth around 320 light-years distant. It is surrounded by a circumstellar debris disk from a distance of 0.2 to 4 AU, and again from 13 AU out to a few hundred AU, with evidence for a protoplanet forming at a distance around 47 AU. A gap exists between 4 and 13 AU, which appears to contain a large planet around 20 times the mass of Jupiter, although further examination of the disk profile indicates it might be a more massive object such as a brown dwarf or more than one planet. LP 145-141 is a white dwarf located 15 light-years distant—the fourth-closest to the Solar System. It is considered a good candidate to look for Jupiter-like planets, on account if its proximity and mass.
Deep-sky objects
Located on the border with Circinus is the unusual planetary nebula NGC 5189, estimated to be around 1750 light-years away from Earth. Its complex structure is due to multiple ejections of material from the ageing central star, which are distorted by the presence of a likely binary companion. Located 2.4° east of Eta Muscae is the magnitude-12.9 Engraved Hourglass Nebula (MyCn 18), which lies about 8000 light-years distant from Earth. To Eta's west lies IC 4191, a compact bluish planetary nebula of magnitude 10.6, thought to lie around 10,750 light-years away from Earth. West of Epsilon Muscae is NGC 4071, a large, diffuse planetary nebula of magnitude 12.7 with a magnitude 12 central star, thought to lie around 4000 light-years away from Earth. The Coalsack Nebula is a dark nebula located mainly in neighbouring Crux that intrudes into Musca. NGC 4463 is an open cluster located on its southwestern border. Around five light-years across, it is located around 3400 light-years away.
The comparatively old globular cluster NGC 4833 near Delta Muscae was catalogued by Lacaille in 1755. It is 21,200 light-years distant and somewhat obscured by dust clouds near the galactic plane. The globular cluster NGC 4372 near Gamma Muscae is fainter and likewise partially obscured by dust, but spans more arc minutes. It is 18,900 light-years away from Earth and 23,000 light-years distant from the centre of the Milky Way. Its extremely low metallicity indicates it is very old—one of the oldest clusters in the Milky Way. Extending south from it is the Dark Doodad Nebula, resembling a dark L-shaped river through a bright field of stars. Another dark nebula in the constellation is BHR 71.
See also
Dutch celestial cartography in the Age of Exploration (Early systematic mapping of the far southern sky, c. 1595–1599)
Constellations created and listed by Dutch celestial cartographers
IAU-recognized constellations
Musca (Chinese astronomy)
Notes
References
External links
The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Musca
The clickable Musca
Starry Night Photography: Musca
Southern constellations
Constellations listed by Petrus Plancius
Dutch celestial cartography in the Age of Discovery
Astronomy in the Dutch Republic
1590s in the Dutch Republic
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo%20Minor
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Leo Minor
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Leo Minor is a small and faint constellation in the northern celestial hemisphere. Its name is Latin for "the smaller lion", in contrast to Leo, the larger lion. It lies between the larger and more recognizable Ursa Major to the north and Leo to the south. Leo Minor was not regarded as a separate constellation by classical astronomers; it was designated by Johannes Hevelius in 1687.
There are 37 stars brighter than apparent magnitude 6.5 in the constellation; three are brighter than magnitude 4.5. 46 Leonis Minoris, an orange giant of magnitude 3.8, is located some 95 light-years from Earth. At magnitude 4.4, Beta Leonis Minoris is the second-brightest star and the only one in the constellation with a Bayer designation. It is a binary star, the brighter component of which is an orange giant and the fainter a yellow-white main sequence star. The third-brightest star is 21 Leonis Minoris, a rapidly rotating white main-sequence star of average magnitude 4.5. The constellation also includes two stars with planetary systems, two pairs of interacting galaxies, and the unique deep-sky object Hanny's Voorwerp.
History
The classical astronomers Aratus and Ptolemy had noted the region of what is now Leo Minor to be undefined and not containing any distinctive patterns; Ptolemy classified the stars in this area as amorphōtoi (not belonging to a constellation outline) within the constellation Leo.
Johannes Hevelius first depicted Leo Minor in 1687 when he outlined ten new constellations in his star atlas Firmamentum Sobiescianum, and included 18 of its objects in the accompanying Catalogus Stellarum Fixarum. Hevelius decided upon Leo Minor or Leo Junior as a depiction that would align with its beastly neighbours the Lion and the Great Bear. In 1845, English astronomer Francis Baily revised the catalogue of Hevelius's new constellations, and assigned a Greek letter known as Bayer designation to stars brighter than apparent magnitude 4.5. Richard A. Proctor gave the constellation the name Leaena "the Lioness" in 1870, explaining that he sought to shorten the constellation names to make them more manageable on celestial charts.
German astronomer Christian Ludwig Ideler posited that the stars of Leo Minor had been termed Al Thibā' wa-Aulāduhā "Gazelle with her Young" on a 13th-century Arabic celestial globe, recovered by Cardinal Stefano Borgia and housed in the prelate's museum at Velletri. Arabist Friedrich Wilhelm Lach describes a different view, noting that they had been seen as Al Haud "the Pond", which the Gazelle jumps into. In Chinese astronomy, the stars Beta, 30, 37 and 46 Leonis Minoris made up Neiping, a "Court of Judge or Mediator", or Shi "Court Eunuch" or were combined with stars of the neighbouring Leo to make up a large celestial dragon or State Chariot. A line of four stars was known as Shaowei; it represented four Imperial advisors and may have been located in Leo Minor, Leo or adjacent regions.
Characteristics
A dark area of the sky with a triangle of brighter stars just visible to the naked eye in good conditions, Leo Minor has been described by Patrick Moore as having "dubious claims to a separate identity". It is a small constellation bordered by Ursa Major to the north, Lynx to the west, Leo to the south, and touching the corner of Cancer to the southwest. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is "LMi". The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of 16 sides. In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between 22.84° and 41.43°. Ranked 64th out of 88 constellations in size, Leo Minor covers an area of 232.0 square degrees, or 0.562 percent of the sky. It culminates each year at midnight on 24 February, and at 9 p.m. on 24 May.
Notable features
Stars
There are only three stars in the constellation brighter than magnitude 4.5, and 37 stars with a magnitude brighter than 6.5. Leo Minor does not have a star designated Alpha because Baily erred and allocated a Greek letter to only one star, Beta. It is unclear whether he intended to give 46 Leonis Minoris a Bayer designation, as he recognized Beta and 46 Leonis Minoris as of the appropriate brightness in his catalogue. He died before revising his proofs, which might explain this star's omission.
At magnitude 3.8, the brightest star in Leo Minor is an orange giant of spectral class K0III named 46 Leonis Minoris or Praecipua; its colour is evident when seen through binoculars. Situated from Earth, it has around 32 times the luminosity and is 8.5 times the size of the Sun. It was also catalogued and named as o Leonis Minoris by Johann Elert Bode, which has been misinterpreted as Omicron Leonis Minoris. More confusion occurred with its proper name Praecipua, which appears to have been originally applied to 37 Leonis Minoris in the 1814 Palermo Catalogue of Giuseppe Piazzi, who mistakenly assessed the latter star as the brighter. This name was later connected by Allen with 46 Leonis Minoris—an error perpetuated by subsequent astronomers. The original "Praecipua", 37 Leonis Minoris, has an apparent magnitude of 4.69, but is a distant yellow supergiant of spectral type G2.5IIa and absolute magnitude of −1.84, around distant.
Beta Leonis Minoris is a binary star system. The primary is a giant star of spectral class G8 and apparent magnitude of 4.4. It has around double the mass, 7.8 times the radius and 36 times the luminosity of the Earth's Sun. Separated by 0.1 to 0.6 second of arc from the primary, the secondary is a yellow-white main sequence star of spectral type F8. The two orbit around a common centre of gravity every 38.62 years, and lie away from the Solar System.
Around away and around 10 times as luminous as the Sun, 21 Leonis Minoris is a rapidly rotating white main-sequence star, spinning on its axis in less than 12 hours and very likely flattened in shape. Of average apparent magnitude 4.5 and spectral type A7V, it is a Delta Scuti variable. These are short period (six hours at most) pulsating stars which have been used as standard candles and as subjects to study asteroseismology.
Also known as SU and SV Leonis Minoris, 10 and 11 Leonis Minoris are yellow giants of spectral type G8III, with average magnitudes 4.54 and 5.34 respectively. Both are RS Canum Venaticorum variables, with 10 Leonis Minoris varying by 0.012 magnitude over 40.4 days, and 11 Leonis Minoris by 0.033 magnitude over 18 days. 11 Leonis Minoris has a red dwarf companion of spectral type M5V and apparent magnitude 13.0. 20 Leonis Minoris is a multiple star system away from the Sun. The main star is another yellow star, this time a dwarf of spectral type G3Va and apparent magnitude 5.4. The companion is an old, active red dwarf that has a relatively high metallicity and is of spectral type M6.5. The fact that the secondary star is brighter than expected indicates it is likely two stars very close together that are unable to be made out separately with current viewing technology.
R and S Leonis Minoris are long-period Mira variables, while U Leonis Minoris is a semiregular variable; all three are red giants of spectral types M6.5e-M9.0e, M5e and M6 respectively. R varies between magnitudes 6.3 and 13.2 during a period of 372 days, S varies between magnitudes 8.6 and 13.9 during a period of 234 days, and U varies between magnitudes 10.0 and 13.3 during a period of 272 days. The lack of bright stars makes finding these objects challenging for amateur astronomers. G 117-B15A, also known as RY Leonis Minoris, is a pulsating white dwarf of apparent magnitude 15.5. With a period of approximately 215 seconds, and losing a second every 8.9 million years, the 400-million-year-old star has been proposed as the most stable celestial clock.
SX Leonis Minoris is a dwarf nova of the SU Ursae Majoris type that was identified in 1994. It consists of a white dwarf and a donor star, which orbit each other every 97 minutes. The white dwarf sucks matter from the other star onto an accretion disc and heats up to between 6000 and 10000 K. The dwarf star erupts every 34 to 64 days, reaching magnitude 13.4 in these outbursts and remaining at magnitude 16.8 when quiet. Leo Minor contains another dwarf nova, RZ Leonis Minoris, which brightens to magnitude 14.2 from a baseline magnitude of around 17 but does so at shorter intervals than other dwarf novae.
Two stars with planetary systems have been found. HD 87883 is an orange dwarf of magnitude 7.57 and spectral type K0V 18 parsecs distant from Earth. With a diameter three quarters that of Earth's sun, it is only 31 percent as luminous. It is orbited by a planet around 1.78 times the mass of Jupiter every 7.9 years, and there are possibly other smaller planets. HD 82886 (Illyrian) is a yellow dwarf of spectral type G0 and visual magnitude 7.63. A planet 1.3 times the mass of Jupiter and orbiting every 705 days was discovered in 2011.
Deep-sky objects
In terms of deep-sky objects, Leo Minor contains many galaxies viewable in amateur telescopes. Located 3 degrees southeast of 38 Leonis Minoris, NGC 3432 is seen nearly edge on. Known as the knitting needle galaxy, it is of apparent magnitude 11.7 and measures 6.8 by 1.4 arcminutes. Located 42 million light-years away, it is moving away from the Solar System at a rate of 616 km per second. In 2000, a star within the galaxy brightened to magnitude 17.4, and has since been determined to be a luminous blue variable and supernova impostor. NGC 3003, a SBbc barred spiral galaxy with an apparent magnitude of 12.3 and an angular size of 5.8 arcminutes, is seen almost edge-on. NGC 3344, 25 million light-years distant, is face-on towards Earth. Measuring 7.1 by 6.5 arcminutes in size, it has an apparent magnitude of 10.45. NGC 3504 is a starburst barred spiral galaxy of apparent magnitude 11.67 and measuring 2.1 by 2.7 arcminutes. It has hosted supernovae in 1998 and 2001. It and the spiral galaxy NGC 3486 are also almost face-on towards Earth; the latter is of magnitude 11.05 and measures 7.1 by 5.2 arcminutes. NGC 2859 is an SB0-type lenticular galaxy.
At least two pairs of interacting galaxies have been observed. Arp 107 is a pair of galaxies in the process of merging, located 450 million light-years away. NGC 3395 and NGC 3396 are a spiral and irregular barred spiral galaxy, respectively, that are interacting, located 1.33 degrees southwest of 46 Leonis Minoris.
The unique deep-sky object known as Hanny's Voorwerp was discovered in Leo Minor in 2007 by Dutch school teacher Hanny van Arkel while participating as a volunteer in the Galaxy Zoo project. Lying near the 650-million-light-year-distant spiral galaxy IC 2497, it is around the same size as the Milky Way. It contains a 16,000-light-year-wide hole. The voorwerp is thought to be the visual light echo of a quasar now gone inactive, possibly as recently as 200,000 years ago.
Meteor shower
Discovered by Dick McCloskey and Annette Posen of the Harvard Meteor Program in 1959, the Leonis Minorid meteor shower peaks between 18 and 29 October. The shower's parent body is the long period comet C/1739 K1 (Zanotti). It is a minor shower, and can only be seen from the Northern Hemisphere.
See also
3C 234
Leo Minor (Chinese astronomy)
References
Citations
Sources
Online sources
External links
The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Leo Minor
The clickable Leo Minor
Northern constellations
Constellations listed by Johannes Hevelius
Constellations
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] |
211827
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yle%20Fem
|
Yle Fem
|
Yle Fem (Yle Five) was Yle's Finland-Swedish national television channel, providing television programmes in the Swedish language in Finland. It was a public-service channel principally intended for Finland's Swedish-speaking minority. Creating understanding over the language and culture border was also one of the channel's recognized objectives.
History
Yle Fem was launched in 1988 as a late-evening programming block called FST (Finlands Svenska Television, literally "Finland's Swedish Television") which was broadcast on Monday nights on Yle TV2 and on Tuesday nights on Yle TV1, after the conclusion of MTV3's Kymmenen Uutiset (10pm evening news) on either channel. It was relaunched as its own dedicated channel called YLE FST on 27 August 2001, and was called YLE FST5 from 2006 to 2012 but the name was changed because the viewers thought the name was only a combination of letters (Fem is Swedish for five.). Initially, Finlands Svenska Television's output was formerly included in the programming of Yle's two main television channels, TV1 and TV2. Yle Fem and Yle Teema were merged into one network on 24 April 2017, as Yle Teema & Fem.
TV programmes
360 grader
Bettina S.
Buu-klubben - broadcasting cartoons for kids dubbed in Swedish
D-Dax
Enigma
Falkenswärds möbler
Fribby
Idrottsbiten
JOX
Kortnytt
I Mumindalen
Melodifestivalen
Neon
Nordiska videolistan
Närbild Svenskfinland
OBS
Oppåner å hitådit
Pussel
Ratatosk
Scen
Schlager på lager
Sicsac
Solarplexus
Solo
Sportnytt
Spotlight
Strömsö
TV-Nytt
Tärningen
Vad gör Petra?
X-tra
In addition, Yle Fem simulcasts a significant amount of programming from SVT World, the international channel of Sweden's Public Broadcaster SVT.
See also
List of Finnish television channels
References
External links
Yle Fem - Official site
Yle television channels
Publicly funded broadcasters
Television channels and stations established in 1988
Television channels and stations disestablished in 2017
Finland-Swedish television shows
Defunct television channels in Finland
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columba%20%28constellation%29
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Columba (constellation)
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Columba is a faint constellation designated in the late sixteenth century, remaining in official use, with its rigid limits set in the 20th century. Its name is Latin for dove. It takes up 1.31% of the southern celestial hemisphere and is just south of Canis Major and Lepus.
History
Early 3rd century BC: Aratus's astronomical poem Phainomena (lines 367–370 and 384–385) mentions faint stars where Columba is now but does not fit any name or figure to them.
2nd century AD: Ptolemy listed 48 constellations in the Almagest but did not mention Columba.
c. 150–215 AD: Clement of Alexandria wrote in his Logos Paidogogos"Αἱ δὲ σφραγῖδες ἡμῖν ἔστων πελειὰς ἢ ἰχθὺς ἢ ναῦς οὐριοδρομοῦσα ἢ λύρα μουσική, ᾗ κέχρηται Πολυκράτης, ἢ ἄγκυρα ναυτική," (= "[when recommending symbols for Christians to use], let our seals be a dove or a fish or a ship running in a good wind or a musical lyre ... or a ship's anchor ..."), with no mention of stars or astronomy.
1592 AD: Petrus Plancius first depicted Columba on the small celestial planispheres of his large wall map to differentiate the 'unformed stars' of the large constellation Canis Major. Columba is also shown on his smaller world map of 1594 and on early Dutch celestial globes. Plancius named the constellation Columba Noachi ("Noah's Dove"), referring to the dove that gave Noah the information that the Great Flood was receding. This name is found on early 17th-century celestial globes and star atlases.
1592: Frederick de Houtman listed Columba as "De Duyve med den Olijftack" (= "the dove with the olive branch")
1603: Bayer's Uranometria was published. It includes Columba as Columba Noachi.
1624: Bartschius listed Columba in his Usus Astronomicus as "Columba Nohae".
1662: Caesius published Coelum Astronomico-Poeticum, including an inaccurate Latin translation of the above text of Clement of Alexandria: it mistranslated "ναῦς οὐριοδρομοῦσα" as Latin "Navis coelestis cursu in coelum tendens" ("Ship of the sky following a course in the sky"), perhaps misunderstanding "οὐριο-" as "up in the air or sky" by analogy with οὐρανός = "sky".
1679: Halley mentioned Columba in his work Catalogus Stellarum Australium from his observations on St. Helena.
1679: Augustin Royer published a star atlas that showed Columba as a constellation.
c.1690: Hevelius's Prodromus Astronomiae showed Columba but did not list it as a constellation.
1712 (pirated) and 1725 (authorized): Flamsteed's work Historia Coelestis Britannica showed Columba but did not list it as a constellation.
1757 or 1763: Lacaille listed Columba as a constellation and catalogued its stars.
1889: Richard H. Allen, misled by Caesius's mistranslation, wrote that the Columba asterism may have been invented in Roman/Greek times, but with a footnote saying that it may have been another star group.
2001: Ridpath and Tirion wrote that Columba may also represent the dove released by Jason and the Argonauts at the Black Sea's mouth; it helped them navigate the dangerous Symplegades.
2007: The author P.K. Chen wrote (his opinion) that, given the mythological linkage of a dove with Jason and the Argonauts, and the celestial location of Columba over Puppis (part of the old constellation Argo Navis, the ship of the Argonauts), Columba may have an ancient history although Ptolemy omits it.
2019–20: OSIRIS-REx students discovered a black hole in the constellation Columba, based on observing X-ray bursts.
In the Society Islands, Alpha Columbae (Phact) was called Ana-iva.
Features
Stars
Columba is rather inconspicuous, the brightest star, Alpha Columbae, being only of magnitude 2.7. This, a blue-white star, has a pre-Bayer, traditional, Arabic name Phact (meaning ring dove) and is 268 light-years from Earth. The only other named star is Beta Columbae, which has the alike-status name Wazn. It is an orange-hued giant star of magnitude 3.1, 87 light-years away.
The constellation contains the runaway star μ Columbae, which was probably expelled from the ι Orionis system.
Exoplanet NGTS-1b and its star NGTS-1 are in Columba.
General radial velocity
Columba contains the solar antapex – noting the local spiral arm of the Milky Way itself is responsible for most of our change of position over time - the opposite to the net direction of the solar system.
Deep-sky objects
NGC 1851 a globular cluster in Columba appears at 7th magnitude in a far part of our galaxy as is 39,000 light-years away - it is resolvable south of at greatest latitude +40°N in medium-sized amateur telescopes (under good conditions).
NGC 1792 is a spiral galaxy of magnitude 10.2.
NGC 1808 is a Seyfert galaxy of magnitude 10.8.
See also
Columba (Chinese astronomy)
Dutch celestial cartography in the Age of Exploration (Early systematic mapping of the far southern sky, c. 1595–1599)
Constellations created and listed by Dutch celestial cartographers
IAU-recognized constellations
Citations
References
Ridpath, Ian, and Tirion, Wil (2017). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. . Princeton University Press, Princeton. .
External links
The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Columba
The clickable Columba
Star Tales – Columba
Lost Stars, by Morton Wagman, publ. Mcdonald & Woodward Publishing Company, First printing September 2003, , page 110
Southern constellations
Constellations listed by Petrus Plancius
Dutch celestial cartography in the Age of Discovery
Astronomy in the Dutch Republic
1590s in the Dutch Republic
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horologium%20%28constellation%29
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Horologium (constellation)
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Horologium (Latin , the pendulum clock, from Greek , ) is a constellation of six stars faintly visible in the southern celestial hemisphere. It was first described by the French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille in 1756 and visualized by him as a clock with a pendulum and a second hand. In 1922 the constellation was redefined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) as a region of the celestial sphere containing Lacaille's stars, and has since been an IAU designated constellation. Horologium's associated region is wholly visible to observers south of 23°N.
The constellation's brightest star—and the only one brighter than an apparent magnitude of 4—is Alpha Horologii (at 3.85), an aging orange giant star that has swollen to around 11 times the diameter of the Sun. The long-period variable-brightness star, R Horologii (4.7 to 14.3), has one of the largest variations in brightness among all stars in the night sky visible to the unaided eye. Four star systems in the constellation are known to have exoplanets; at least one—Gliese 1061—contains an exoplanet in its habitable zone.
History
The French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille first described the constellation as l'Horloge à pendule & à secondes (Clock with pendulum and seconds hand) in 1756, after he had observed and catalogued almost 10,000 southern stars during a two-year stay at the Cape of Good Hope. He devised fourteen new constellations in previously uncharted regions of the southern celestial hemisphere, which were not visible from Europe. All but one honoured scientific instruments, and so symbolised the Age of Enlightenment. The constellation name was Latinised to Horologium in a catalogue and updated chart published posthumously in 1763. The Latin term is ultimately derived from the Ancient Greek ὡρολόγιον, for an instrument for telling the hour.
Characteristics
Covering a total of 248.9 square degrees or 0.603% of the sky, Horologium ranks 58th in area out of the 88 modern constellations. Its position in the southern celestial hemisphere means the whole constellation is visible to observers south of 23°N. Horologium is bordered by five constellations: Eridanus (the Po river or Nile river), Caelum (the chisel), Reticulum (the reticle), Dorado (the dolphin/swordfish), and Hydrus (the male water snake). The three letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is "Hor". The official constellation boundaries are defined by a twenty-two-sided polygon (illustrated in infobox). In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −39.64° and −67.04°.
Features
Stars
Horologium has one star brighter than apparent magnitude 4, and 41 stars brighter than or equal to magnitude 6.5. Lacaille charted and designated 11 stars in the constellation, giving them the Bayer designations Alpha (α Hor) through Lambda Horologii (λ Hor) in 1756. In the mid-19th century, English astronomer Francis Baily removed the designations of two—Epsilon and Theta Horologii—as he held they were too faint to warrant naming. He was unable to find a star that corresponded to the coordinates of Lacaille's Beta Horologii. Determining that the coordinates were wrong, he assigned the designation to another star. Kappa Horologii, too, was unable to be verified—although it most likely was the star HD 18292—and the name fell out of use. In 1879, American astronomer Benjamin Apthorp Gould assigned designations to what became Mu and Nu Horologii as he felt they were bright enough to warrant them.
At magnitude 3.9, Alpha Horologii is the brightest star in the constellation, located 115 (±0.5) light-years from Earth. German astronomer Johann Elert Bode depicted it as the pendulum of the clock, while Lacaille made it one of the weights. It is an orange giant star of spectral type K2III that has swollen to around 11 times the diameter of the Sun, having spent much of its life as a white main-sequence star. At an estimated 1.55 times the mass of the Sun, it is radiating 38 times the Sun's luminosity from its photosphere at an effective (surface) temperature of 5,028K.
At magnitude 4.93, Delta Horologii is the second-brightest star in the constellation, and forms a wide optical double with Alpha. Delta itself is a true binary system composed of a white main sequence star of spectral type A5V that is 1.41 times as massive as the Sun with a magnitude of 5.15 and its fainter companion of magnitude 7.29. The system is located 179 (±4) light-years from the earth.
At magnitude 5.0, Beta Horologii is a white giant 63 times as luminous as the Sun with an effective temperature of 8,303K. It is 312 (±4) light-years from Earth, and has been little-studied. Lambda Horologii is an ageing yellow-white giant star of spectral type F2III that spins around at 140km/second, and is hence mildly flattened at its poles (oblate). It is 161 (±1) light-years from Earth.
With a magnitude of 5.24, Nu Horologii is a white main sequence star of spectral type A2V located 169 (±1) light-years from Earth that is around 1.9 times as massive as the Sun. Estimated to be around 540 million years old, it has a debris disk that appears to have two components: an inner disk is orbiting at a distance of , while an outer disk lies from the star. The estimated mass of the disks is the mass of the Earth.
Horologium has several variable stars. R Horologii is a red giant Mira variable with one of the widest ranges in brightness known of stars in the night sky visible to the unaided eye. It is around 1,000 light-years from Earth. It has a minimum magnitude of 14.3 and a maximum magnitude of 4.7, with a period of approximately 13 months. T and U Horologii are also Mira variables. The Astronomical Society of Southern Africa reported in 2003 that observations of these two stars were needed as data on their light curves was incomplete. TW Horologii is a semiregular variable red giant star that is classified as a carbon star, and is 1,370 (±70) light-years from Earth.
Iota Horologii is a yellow-white dwarf star 1.23 (±0.12) times as massive and 1.16 (±0.04) times as wide as the Sun with a spectral type of F8V, 57 (±0.05) light-years from Earth. Its chemical profile, movement and age indicate it formed within the Hyades cluster but has drifted around 130 light-years away from the other members. It has a planet at least 2.5 times as massive as Jupiter orbiting it every 307 days. HD 27631 is a Sun-like star located 164 (±0.3) light-years from Earth which was found to have a planet at least 1.45 times as massive as Jupiter that takes 2,208 (±66) days (six years) to complete an orbit. WASP-120 is a yellow-white main-sequence star around 1.4 times as massive as the Sun with a spectral type of F5V that is estimated to be 2.6 (±0.5) billion years old. It has a massive planet around 4.85 times the mass of Jupiter that completes its orbit every 3.6 days, and has an estimated surface temperature of 1,880 (±70)K.
With an apparent magnitude of 13.06, Gliese 1061 is a red dwarf of spectral type M5.5V that has 12% of the mass and 15% of the diameter of the Sun, and shines with only 0.17% of its luminosity. Located 12 light-years away from Earth, it is the 20th-closest single star or stellar system to the Sun. In August 2019, it was announced that it had three planets, one of which lay in its habitable zone.
Deep-sky objects
Horologium is home to many deep-sky objects, including several globular clusters. NGC 1261 is a globular cluster of magnitude 8, located 53,000 light-years from Earth. It lies 4.7 degrees north-northeast of Mu Horologii. The globular cluster Arp-Madore 1 is the most remote known globular cluster in the Milky Way at a distance of from Earth.
NGC 1512 is a barred spiral galaxy 2.1 degrees west-southwest of Alpha Horologii with an apparent magnitude of 10.2. About five arcmin (13.8 kpc) away is the dwarf lenticular galaxy NGC 1510. The two are in the process of a merger which has been going on for 400 million years.
The Horologium-Reticulum Supercluster is a galaxy supercluster, second in size only to the Shapley Supercluster in the local universe (anything within 200 mpc of Earth). It contains over 20 Abell galaxy clusters and covers more than 100 deg2 of the sky, centered roughly at equatorial coordinates α = , δ = .
See also
Horologium (Chinese astronomy)
Notes
References
External links
The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Horologium
The clickable Horologium
Starry Night Photography – Horologium Constellation
Southern constellations
Constellations listed by Lacaille
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus%20%28constellation%29
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Indus (constellation)
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Indus is a constellation in the southern sky first professionally surveyed by Europeans in the 1590s, namely Dutchmen, and mapped on a globe by Pieter Platevoet (Plancius) by early 1598 and thus included in Bayer's keynote, consolidated sky atlas of 1603. On average it is centred, that is to say its zenith, is over 25° south of the Tropic of Capricorn. South of the Tropic lie only four countries, the rest being parts of oceans and Antarctica and ten countries straddle the tropic but the bright right-angled triangle can be seen for most of the year from the Equator. It has a north-south elongated, complex scope and its other English direct translation of its name is sometimes seen in old writings, the Indian as it is in other European languages.
Features
Indus lacks stars of the top 100 in brightness viewed from the solar system (apparent magnitude). Two of its stars rank of third magnitude and three of fourth magnitude.
Alpha Indi, its brightest, is an orange giant of magnitude 3.1, 101 light-years away. Beta Indi is an orange giant of magnitude 3.7, 600 light-years distant. Delta Indi is a white star of magnitude 4.4, 185 light-years from Earth. The three form a near-perfect right-angled triangle, such that Beta marks the right angle and is in the south-east.
Epsilon Indi is one of the closest stars to Earth, approximately 11.8 light years away. It is an orange dwarf of magnitude 4.7, meaning that the yellow dwarf Sun is slightly hotter and larger. The system has been discovered to contain a pair of binary brown dwarfs, and has long been a prime candidate in SETI studies. This star has the third-highest proper motion of all visible to the unaided eye, as ranks behind Groombridge 1830 and 61 Cygni, and the ninth-highest overall. This will move the star into Tucana around 2640. It figures directly between Alpha and Beta.
Indus is home to one bright binary star. Theta Indi is a binary star divisible in small amateur telescopes, 97 light-years from Earth. Its primary is a white star of magnitude 4.5 and its secondary is a white star of magnitude 7.0. It figures close to the hypotenuse of the right-angled triangle of Alpha, Beta and Delta, the three brightest stars of Indus.
T Indi is the only bright variable star in Indus. It is a semi-regular, deeply coloured red giant with a period of 11 months, 1900 light-years away. Its minimum magnitude is 7 and its maximum: 5.
Galaxies include NGC 7090 and NGC 7049.
All Sky Automated Survey for SuperNovae (ASAS-SN) in 2015 detected a superluminous supernova, named ASASSN-15lh (also designated SN 2015L). Based on the study conducted by Subo Dong and team from the Kavli Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics (KIAA) at Peking University, it was approximately doubly luminous to any supernova detected, and at peak was almost 50 times more intrinsically luminous than the Milky Way.
Its distance: approximately 3.82 gigalight-years, denoting an age approximately half that of the universe.
History
The constellation was created by Petrus Plancius who made a fairly large celestial globe from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman. The first depiction of this constellation in a celestial atlas followed in Johann Bayer's Uranometria of 1603. Plancius portrayed the figure as a nude male with three arrows in one hand and one in the other, as a native, lacking quiver and bow. It is among the twelve constellations introduced by Keyser and de Houtman, which first appeared on a celestial globe in 1598.
See also
Dutch celestial cartography in the Age of Exploration (Early systematic mapping of the far southern sky, c. 1595–1599)
Constellations created and listed by Dutch celestial cartographers
IAU-recognized constellations
Indus (Chinese astronomy)
References
Sources
Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. . Princeton University Press, Princeton. .
External links
The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Indus
The clickable Indus
Starry Night Photography: Indus Constellation
Star Tales–Indus
Southern constellations
Constellations listed by Petrus Plancius
Astronomy in the Dutch Republic
Dutch celestial cartography in the Age of Discovery
1590s in the Dutch Republic
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holborn%20tube%20station
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Holborn tube station
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Holborn ( ) is a London Underground station in Holborn, Central London, located at the junction of High Holborn and Kingsway. It is served by the Central and Piccadilly lines. On the Central line the station is between Tottenham Court Road and Chancery Lane stations; on the Piccadilly line it is between Covent Garden and Russell Square and is in Travelcard Zone 1.
Close by are the British Museum, Lincoln's Inn Fields, Red Lion Square, Bloomsbury Square, London School of Economics and Sir John Soane's Museum.
Located at the junction of two earlier tube railway schemes, the station was opened in 1906 by the Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway (GNP&BR). The station entrances and below ground circulation were largely reconstructed for the introduction of escalators and the opening of Central line platforms in 1933, making the station the only interchange between the lines. Before 1994, Holborn was the northern terminus of the short and little-frequented Piccadilly line branch to Aldwych and two platforms originally used for this service are disused. One of the disused platforms has been used for location filming when a London Underground station platform is needed.
History
Planning
The station was planned by the Great Northern and Strand Railway (GN&SR), which had received parliamentary approval for a route from Wood Green station (now Alexandra Palace) to Strand in 1899. After the GN&SR was taken over by the Brompton and Piccadilly Circus Railway (B&PCR) in September 1901, the two companies came under the control of Charles Yerkes' Metropolitan District Electric Traction Company before being transferred to his new holding company, the Underground Electric Railways Company of London (UERL) in June 1902. To connect the two companies' planned routes, the UERL obtained permission for new tunnels between Piccadilly Circus and Holborn. The companies were formally merged as the Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway following parliamentary approval in November 1902.
Construction
The linking of the GN&SR and B&PCR routes at Holborn meant that the section of the GN&SR south of Holborn became a branch from the main route. The UERL began constructing the main route in July 1902. Progress was rapid, so that it was largely complete by the Autumn of 1906. Construction of the branch was delayed while the London County Council carried out slum clearances to construct its new road Kingsway and the tramway subway running beneath it and while the UERL decided how the junction between the main route and the branch would be arranged at Holborn.
When originally planned by the GN&SR, Holborn station was to have just two platforms. The first GNP&BR plan for the station would have seen the two platforms shared by trains on the main route and by the shuttle service on the branch with the junctions between the tunnels south of the station. The interference that shuttle trains would have caused to services on the main route led to a redesign so that two northbound platforms were provided, one for the main line and one for the branch line, with a single southbound platform. The junctions between the two northbound tunnels would have been north of the platforms. When powers were sought to build the junction in 1905, the layout was changed again so that four platforms were to be provided. The southbound tunnel of the main route no longer connected to the branch, which was to be provided with an additional platform in a dead-end tunnel accessed from a crossover from the northbound branch tunnel. As built, for ease of passenger access, the branch's northbound tunnel ended in a dead-end platform adjacent to the northbound main line platform with the branch's southbound tunnel connected to the northbound main line tunnel. To enable the southbound tunnel of the main route to avoid the branch tunnels, it was constructed at a lower level than the other tunnels and platforms. The tunnel towards Covent Garden (at this point heading south-west) passes under the branch tunnels.
As with most of the other GNP&BR stations, the station building was designed by Leslie Green, though at Holborn the station frontage was, uniquely, constructed in stone rather than the standard red glazed terracotta. This was due to planning regulations imposed by the London County Council which required the use of stone for façades in Kingsway. The station entrance and exit sections of the street façade were constructed in granite with the other parts of the ground and first floors in the same style, but using Portland stone. The rest of the building above first floor level was constructed contemporaneously with the station. Access to the platform levels of the station was provided by trapezium-shaped electric lifts manufactured by Otis in America. These operated in pairs in shared circular shafts, with an escape stair in a separate, smaller shaft.
Although the station was constructed where the GNP&BR's tunnels crossed those of the Central London Railway (CLR, now the Central line) running under High Holborn, no interchange between the two lines was made as the CLR's nearest station, British Museum, was to the west. Passengers wishing to interchange between the two stations had to do so at street level.
The station opened on 15 December 1906, although the opening of the branch was delayed until 30 November 1907. Until the 1960s the station was named Holborn (Kingsway). The suffix was only gradually dropped, as it was still displayed on the platform roundels until the 1980s.
1930s station modernisation
The street level interchange between the GNP&BR and CLR involving two sets of lifts was considered a weakness in the network. A below ground subway connection was considered in 1907. A proposal to enlarge the CLR's tunnels to create new platforms at Holborn station and to abandon British Museum station was included in a private bill submitted to parliament by the CLR in November 1913, although the First World War prevented any works taking place.
Like many other central London Underground stations, Holborn was modernised in the early 1930s to replace the lifts with escalators. The station frontages on Kingsway and High Holborn were partially reconstructed to modernist designs by Charles Holden with the granite elements replaced with plain Portland stone façades perforated with glazed screens. The lifts were removed and a spacious new ticket hall was provided giving access to a bank of four escalators down to an intermediate concourse for the Central line platforms. A second bank of three escalators continues down to the Piccadilly line platforms.
To construct the new Central line platforms, the larger diameter station tunnels were manually excavated around the existing running tunnels whilst trains continued to run. When the excavations were complete, the original segmental tunnel linings were dismantled. The new platforms came into use on 25 September 1933 replacing those of British Museum, which had closed the day before. As part of the modernisation the station was renamed Holborn (Kingsway) on 22 May 1933, but the suffix gradually dropped out of use and no longer appears on station signage or tube maps. The new platforms at Holborn led to the number of passengers switching between the lines increasing tenfold by 1938.
Mural additions in the 1980s
The station was redecorated in the 1980s, with platform walls lined with panels of enamelled metal forming murals designed by Allan Drummond that reference the British Museum. These murals reference Egyptian and Roman antiquities, with sarcophagi, statues and trompe-l'œil columns on the walls of the platform.
Branch operations
Initially, shuttle train services on the branch operated from the through platform at Holborn. At peak times, an additional train operated alternately in the branch's western tunnel from the bay platform at Holborn. During the first year of operation, a train for theatregoers operated late on Monday to Saturday evenings from Strand through Holborn and northbound to Finsbury Park; this was discontinued in October 1908.
In March 1908, the off-peak shuttle service began to use the western tunnel on the branch, crossing between the two branch tunnels south of Holborn. Low usage led to the withdrawal of the second peak-hour shuttle and the eastern tunnel was taken out of use in 1914. Sunday services ended in April 1917 and, in August of the same year, the eastern tunnel and the bay platform at Holborn were formally closed. Passenger numbers on the branch remained low: when the branch was considered for closure in 1929, its annual usage was 1,069,650 and takings were £4,500. The branch was again considered for closure in 1933, but remained open.
Wartime efficiency measures led to the branch being closed temporarily on 22 September 1940, shortly after the start of The Blitz, and it was partly fitted out by the City of Westminster as an air-raid shelter. The tunnels were used to store items from the British Museum, including the Elgin Marbles. The branch reopened on 1 July 1946, but patronage did not increase. In 1958, London Transport announced it would be closed. Again it survived, but the service was reduced in June 1958 to run only during Monday to Friday peak hours and Saturday morning and early afternoons. The Saturday service was withdrawn in June 1962.
After operating only during peak hours for more than 30 years, the closure announcement came on 4 January 1993. The original 1907 lifts at Aldwych required replacement at a cost of £3 million. This was not justifiable as only 450 passengers used the station each day and it was losing London Regional Transport £150,000 per year. The Secretary of State for Transport granted permission on 1 September 1994 to close the station and the branch closed on 30 September.
After its closure in 1917, the bay platform was converted into rooms for use, at various times, as offices, air-raid shelters, store rooms, an electrical sub-station and a war-time hostel. Since 1994, the branch's remaining platform at Holborn has been used to test mock-up designs for new platform signage and advertising systems.
Future developments
In the aftermath of the King's Cross fire in 1987, the Fennell Report into the disaster recommended that London Underground investigate "passenger flow and congestion in stations and take remedial action". A private bill was submitted to parliament and approved as the London Underground (Safety Measures) Act 1991 giving London Underground powers to improve and expand the frequently congested station with a new ticket hall and new subways. The expansion works were not carried out and the arrangement of the station remains much the same as it was in the 1930s.
According to Transport for London (TfL), the station is at capacity because of the large number of passengers leaving and entering the station, as well as the large numbers of passengers changing between lines. Currently, everyone who uses the station has to pass through the intermediate concourse at the bottom of the main escalators. This causes congestion and delays.
In September 2017, TfL proposed various station improvements including a second entrance on Procter Street to the north-east of the station, lifts to provide step free access, and new tunnels to improve the interchange between the Central and Piccadilly lines. Owing to the delay in the opening of Crossrail and the subsequent knock on effect on TfL's Business Plan, the upgrade to Holborn station is now not expected to commence until 2023/24, with the works taking around six years to complete, doubling the size of the station.
Incidents and accidents
The Holborn rail crash occurred on the Central line at Holborn on 9 July 1980, at about 13:28 and involved two 1962 stock trains. The 13:17 train from Liverpool Street to White City, standing at the westbound platform, was run into by the 12:49 Hainault to Ealing Broadway train. The rear train was slowing after its brakes had been applied by the emergency train stop system because it had passed two signals at danger, but it failed to stop in time to avoid collision. The driver of the rear train and 20 passengers were injured. An inquiry concluded that the accident was caused by the driver failing to control his train. Disruption of services occurred until the following morning.
On 21 October 1997, a 9-year-old boy, Ajit Singh, was dragged to his death after a toggle on his anorak was trapped in the closing doors of a Piccadilly line train.
Use in media
The disused branch line platform and other parts of the station have been used in the filming of music videos for Howard Jones' "New Song", Leftfield's "Release the Pressure", Suede's "Saturday Night" and Aqua's "Turn Back Time".
The pre-war operation of the station and the branch line features in a pivotal scene in Geoffrey Household's novel Rogue Male, when the pursuit of the protagonist by enemy agents sees them repeatedly using the station's escalators, passageways and the shuttle service.
Use in Particle Physics
Patrick Blackett (who won the Nobel Prize for his discovery of the positron), following a row with his mentor Lord Rutherford at Cambridge University developed plans to install a cosmic ray detector on an abandoned platform of the Holborn Station. The plans included a huge 11 ton magnet and a cloud chamber, and was hailed by the London tabloid press at the time as the efforts of a "new 'Sherlock Holmes', hunting beneath the streets of London for clues about the mysteries of the universe."
Services
The station is in London fare zone 1. On the Central line the station is between Tottenham Court Road and Chancery Lane, and on the Piccadilly line, it is between Covent Garden and Russell Square. Holborn is the only direct interchange between these lines. Train frequencies vary throughout the day, but generally Central line trains operate every 2–6 minutes from approximately 05:53 to 00:30 westbound and 05:51 to 00:33 eastbound. Piccadilly line trains operate every 2–6 minutes from approximately 05:42 to 00:28 westbound and 05:54 to 00:38 northbound.
On the Central line 1992 Stock is used. On the Piccadilly line 1973 Stock is used.
Connections
Historical tram connections
Before the closure of the original London tram network in 1952, Holborn tube station provided an interchange between trams and tubes, via the Kingsway Tramway Subway underground Holborn tramway station located a little distance south of the underground station. This was the only part of London with an underground tram system, and Holborn tramway station (named Great Queen Street when first opened) is still extant beneath ground, though with no public access.
Current bus connections
London Buses routes 1, 59, 68, 91, 168, 188, 243, 521 and X68 and night routes N1, N25, N68, N91 and N171 serve the station.
Notes and references
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
London Transport Museum Photographic Archive
Underground History - Hidden Holborn
Central line stations
Piccadilly line stations
London Underground Night Tube stations
Tube stations in the London Borough of Camden
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1906
Former Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway stations
Charles Holden railway stations
Leslie Green railway stations
Railway stations located underground in the United Kingdom
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211842
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erd%C5%91s%E2%80%93Borwein%20constant
|
Erdős–Borwein constant
|
The Erdős–Borwein constant is the sum of the reciprocals of the Mersenne numbers. It is named after Paul Erdős and Peter Borwein.
By definition it is:
Equivalent forms
It can be proven that the following forms all sum to the same constant:
where σ0(n) = d(n) is the divisor function, a multiplicative function that equals the number of positive divisors of the number n. To prove the equivalence of these sums, note that they all take the form of Lambert series and can thus be resummed as such.
Irrationality
Erdős in 1948 showed that the constant E is an irrational number. Later, Borwein provided an alternative proof.
Despite its irrationality, the binary representation of the Erdős–Borwein constant may be calculated efficiently.
Applications
The Erdős–Borwein constant comes up in the average case analysis of the heapsort algorithm, where it controls the constant factor in the running time for converting an unsorted array of items into a heap.
References
External links
Mathematical constants
Irrational numbers
Borwein constant
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture%20of%20Israel
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Culture of Israel
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The roots of the culture of Israel developed long before modern Israel's independence in 1948 and traces back to ancient Israel ( 1000 BCE). It reflects Jewish culture, Jewish history in the diaspora, the ideology of the Zionist movement that developed in the late 19th century, as well as the history and traditions of the Arab Israeli population and ethnic minorities that live in Israel, among them Druze, Circassians, Armenians and others.
Israel is the birthplace of the Jewish culture and its culture encompasses the foundations of many Jewish cultural characteristics, including philosophy, literature, poetry, art, mythology, folklore, mysticism and festivals; as well as Judaism, which was also fundamental to the creation of Christianity and Islam.
Tel Aviv and Jerusalem are considered the main cultural hubs of Israel. The New York Times has described Tel Aviv as the "capital of Mediterranean cool," Lonely Planet ranked it as a top ten city for nightlife, and National Geographic named it one of the top ten beach cities.
With over 200 museums, Israel has the highest number of museums per capita in the world, with millions of visitors annually. Major art museums operate in Tel Aviv, Jerusalem, Haifa and Herzliya, as well as in many towns and Kibbutzim. The Israel Philharmonic Orchestra plays at venues throughout the country and abroad, and almost every city has its own orchestra, many of the musicians hailing from the former Soviet Union. Folkdancing is popular in Israel, and Israeli modern dance companies, among them the Batsheva Dance Company, are highly acclaimed in the dance world. The national theatre, Habima was established in 1917. Israeli filmmakers and actors have won awards at international film festivals in recent years. Since the 1980s, Israeli literature has been widely translated, and several Israeli writers have achieved international recognition.
History
With a diverse population of immigrants from five continents and more than 100 countries, and significant subcultures like the Mizrahim, Arabs, Russian Jews, Ethiopian Jews, Secular Jews and the Ultra Orthodox, each with its own cultural networks, Israeli culture is extremely varied. It follows cultural trends and changes across the globe as well as expressing a unique spirit of its own. At the same time, Israel is a family-oriented society with a strong sense of community.
Influences and impact
Ancient Near East civilizations
Ancient Israel, as a civilization of the ancient Near East, was influenced to some degree by other regional cultures. The Paleo-Hebrew alphabet was adapted from the Phoenician alphabet and the square script is a derivative of the Aramaic alphabet. Zoroastrianism of Ancient Iran is believed to had an influence on Jewish eschatology and the Jewish mythology contains similarities to Mesopotamian mythologies such as the Enûma Eliš of Babylon and the Genesis creation narrative or the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Genesis flood narrative.
Christianity and Western civilization
Judaism, which originated in Ancient Israel, represents the foundation of much of Western civilization's traits thanks to its relation to Christianity. It impacted the West in a multitude of ways, from its ethics to its practices to monotheism; all of its benefits largely impacted the world through Christianity. The Hebrew Bible, authored by Jews in the Land of Israel from the 8th to the 2nd century BCE, is a corner stone of Western civilization. Around 63 BC, Judea became part of the Roman Empire; around 6 BC Jesus was born to a Jewish family in the town of Nazareth, and decades later crucified under Pontius Pilate. His followers later believed that he was resurrected, inspiring them to spread the new Christian religion throughout the world. Christianity took hold in the Hellenistic Greco-Roman world, which eventually grew into the entirety of Europe thanks to Roman expansion. These nations later became the very foundation of today's 'Western world'.
Christianity, the religion of the West and essential religion of the Western World, grew from Judaism and began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-1st century. The New Testament, authored by first-century Jews, is one of the bedrock texts of Western Civilization as well.
Islamic civilization
Islam was strongly influenced by Judaism in its fundamental religious outlook, structure, jurisprudence and practice. Islam derives its ideas of holy text, the Qur'an, ultimately from Judaism, and contains references to more than fifty people and events also found in the Bible including the creation narrative, Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel, the Genesis flood narrative, Abraham, Sodom and Gomorrah, Moses and the Exodus, King David and the Jewish prophets. The New Testament, authored by Jews in Roman Judea, also influenced Islam and the Qur'an mentions figures such has Jesus, Mary and John the Baptist. The dietary and legal codes of Islam, the basic design of the mosque, the Islamic house of worship and the communal prayer services of Islam including their devotional routines are derived from Judaism.
'Melting pot' approach
With the waves of Jewish aliyah in the 19th and 20th centuries, the existing culture was supplemented by the culture and traditions of the immigrant population. Zionism links the Jewish people to the Land of Israel, the homeland of the Jews between around 1200 BCE and 70 CE (end of the Second Temple era). However, modern Zionism evolved both politically and religiously. Though Zionist groups were first competing with other Jewish political movements, Zionism became an equivalent to political Judaism during and after the Holocaust.
The first Israeli prime minister, David Ben-Gurion, led a trend to blend the many immigrants who, in the first years of the state, had arrived from Europe, North Africa, and Asia, into one 'melting pot' that would not differentiate between the older residents of the country and the new immigrants. The original purpose was to unify the newer immigrants with the veteran Israelis for the creation of a common Hebrew culture, and to build a new nation in the country.
Two central tools employed for this purpose were the Israel Defense Forces, and the education system. The Israel Defense Forces, by means of its transformation to a national army, would constitute a common ground among all civilians of the country, wherever they are. The education system, having been unified under Israeli law, enabled different students from different sectors to study together at the same schools. Gradually, Israeli society became more pluralistic, and the 'melting pot' declined over the years.
Some critics of the 'melting pot' consider it to have been a necessity in the first years of the state, in order to build a mutual society, but now claim that there is no longer a need for it. They instead see a need for Israeli society to enable people to express the differences and the exclusivity of every stream and sector. Others, mainly Mizrahi Jews who are more Shomer Masoret and the Holocaust survivors, have criticized the early 'melting pot' process. According to them, they were forced to give up or conceal their Jewish Masoret and their diaspora heritage and culture, which they brought from their diaspora countries, and to adopt the new secular "Sabra" culture.
Today cultural diversity is being celebrated; many speak several languages, continue to eat the food of their cultural origins, and have mixed outlooks.
Language
While Hebrew is the official languages of the State of Israel, over 83 languages are spoken in the country.
As new immigrants arrived, Hebrew language instruction was important. Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, who founded the Hebrew Language Committee, coined thousands of new words and concepts based on Biblical, Talmudic and other sources, to cope with the needs and demands of life in the 20th century. Learning Hebrew became a national goal, employing the slogan "Yehudi, daber Ivrit" ("Jew—speak Hebrew"). Special schools for Hebrew language learning, ulpanim, were set up all over the country.
The Hebraizing of family names was common in the pre-state period and became more widespread in the 1950s. In the early years of the state, a pamphlet was published on how to choose a Hebrew name. The prime minister, David Ben-Gurion, urged anyone who represented the state in a formal capacity to adopt a Hebrew surname.
Education
In 2012, Israel was named the second most educated country in the world according to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)'s Education at a Glance report, released in 2012. The report found that 78% of the money invested in education is from public funds and 45% of the population has a university or college diploma.
Philosophy
Ancient Israel
Ancient Israeli philosophical ideas and approach can be found in the bible. Psalms contains invitations to admire the wisdom of God through his works; from this, some scholars suggest, Judaism harbors a Philosophical under-current. The exegetical work of Psalm 132 stands between philosophy of language and linguistic philosophy.
Ecclesiastes is often considered to be the only genuine philosophical work in the Hebrew Bible; its author seeks to understand the place of human beings in the world and life's meaning. Ecclesiastes and Book of Job were favorite works of medieval philosophers, who took them as philosophical discussions not dependent on historical revelation. Ecclesiastes has had a deep influence on Western literature. It contains several phrases that have resonated in British and American culture, such as "eat, drink and be merry," "nothing new under the sun," "a time to be born and a time to die," and "vanity of vanities; all is vanity."
In other books such as Proverbs or Sirach and Book of Wisdom of the Jewish apocrypha, there are references and praise to the concept of wisdom which was to have a primordial significance for Jewish thought.
Roman Judea
Philosophical speculation was not a central part of Rabbinic Judaism, although some have seen the Mishnah as a philosophical work. Rabbi Akiva has also been viewed as a philosophical figure: his statements include 1.) "How favored is man, for he was created after an image "for in an image, Elokim made man" (Gen. ix. 6); 2.) "Everything is foreseen; but freedom [of will] is given to every man"; 3.) "The world is governed by mercy... but the divine decision is made by the preponderance of the good or bad in one's actions". Like Philo, who saw in the Hebrew construction of the infinitive with the finite form of the same verb and in certain particles (adverbs, prepositions, etc.) some deep reference to philosophical and ethical doctrines, Akiva perceived in them indications of many important ceremonial laws, legal statutes, and ethical teachings.
A tannaitic tradition mentions that of the four who entered paradise, Akiva was the only one that returned unscathed. This serves at least to show how strong in later ages was the recollection of Akiva's philosophical speculation Akiva's anthropology is based upon the principle that man was created בצלם, that is, not in the image of God—which would be בצלם אלהים—but after an image, after a primordial type; or, philosophically speaking, after an Idea—what Philo calls in agreement with Judean theology, "the first heavenly man" (see Adam ḳadmon).
Modern Israel
Modern Israeli philosophy has been influenced by both secular and religious Jewish thought.
Martin Buber best known for his philosophy of dialogue, a form of existentialism centered on the distinction between the I–Thou relationship and the I–It relationship. In I and Thou, Buber introduced his thesis on human existence; Ich‑Du is a relationship that stresses the mutual, holistic existence of two beings. It is a concrete encounter, because these beings meet one another in their authentic existence, without any qualification or objectification of one another. Even imagination and ideas do not play a role in this relation. In an I–Thou encounter, infinity and universality are made actual (rather than being merely concepts). The Ich-Es ("I‑It") relationship is nearly the opposite of Ich‑Du. Whereas in Ich‑Du the two beings encounter one another, in an Ich‑Es relationship the beings do not actually meet. Instead, the "I" confronts and qualifies an idea, or conceptualization, of the being in its presence and treats that being as an object. All such objects are considered merely mental representations, created and sustained by the individual mind.
Yeshayahu Leibowitz was an Orthodox Jew who held controversial views on the subject of halakha, or Jewish law. He wrote that the sole purpose of religious commandments was to obey God, and not to receive any kind of reward in this world or the world to come. He maintained that the reasons for religious commandments were beyond man's understanding, as well as irrelevant, and any attempt to attribute emotional significance to the performance of mitzvot was misguided and akin to idolatry. The essence of Leibowitz's religious outlook is that a person's faith is his commitment to obey God, meaning God's commandments, and this has nothing to do with a person's image of God. This must be so because Leibowitz thought that God cannot be described, that God's understanding is not man's understanding, and thus all the questions asked of God are out of place. One result of this approach is that faith, which is a personal commitment to obey God, cannot be challenged by the usual philosophical problem of evil or by historical events that seemingly contradict a divine presence. If a person stops believing after an awful event, it shows that he only obeyed God because he thought he understood God's plan, or because he expected to see a reward. But “for Leibowitz, religious belief is not an explanation of life, nature or history, or a promise of a future in this world or another, but a demand.”
Joseph Raz is legal, moral and political philosopher. Raz's first book, The Concept of a Legal System, was based on his doctoral thesis. A later book, The Morality of Freedom, develops a conception of perfectionist liberalism. Raz has argued for a distinctive understanding of legal commands as exclusionary reasons for action and for the "service conception" of authority, according to which those subject to an authority "can benefit by its decisions only if they can establish their existence and content in ways which do not depend on raising the very same issues which the authority is there to settle." This, in turn, supports Raz's argument for legal positivism, in particular "the sources thesis," "the idea that an adequate test for the existence and content of law must be based only on social facts, and not on moral arguments.". Raz is acknowledged by his contemporaries as being one of the most important living legal philosophers. He has authored and edited eleven books to date, namely The Concept of a Legal System, Practical Reason and Norms, The Authority of Law, The Morality of Freedom, Authority, Ethics in the Public Domain, Engaging Reason, Value, Respect and Attachment, The Practice of Value, Between Authority and Interpretation, and From Normativity to Responsibility. In moral theory, Raz defends value pluralism and the idea that various values are incommensurable.
Other notable Israeli philosophers include Avishai Margalit, Hugo Bergmann, Yehoshua Bar-Hillel, Pinchas Lapide, Israel Eldad and Judea Pearl.
Literature and poetry
Ancient Israel
The earliest known inscription in Hebrew is the Khirbet Qeiyafa Inscription (11th — 10th century BCE), if it can indeed be considered Hebrew at that early a stage. By far the most varied, extensive and historically significant body of literature written in the old Classical Hebrew is the canon of the Hebrew Bible. The Bible is not a single, monolithic piece of literature because each of these three sections, in turn, contains books written at different times by different authors, written from the 8th to the 2nd century BCE. It is the primary source of ancient Israelite mythology, literature, philosophy and poetry. All books of the Bible are not strictly religious in nature; for example, The Song of Songs is a love poem and, along with The Book of Esther, does not explicitly mention God.
The Ketuvim sector of the Hebrew Bible is a collection of philosophical and artistic literature believed to have been written under the influence of Ruach ha-Kodesh (the Holy Spirit). The Book of Job, for instance, addressing the problem of theodicy – the vindication of the justice of God in the light of humanity's suffering – it is a rich theological work setting out a variety of perspectives. It has been widely and often extravagantly praised for its literary qualities, with Alfred, Lord Tennyson calling it "the greatest poem of ancient and modern times".
Some content reflects historical events in ancient Israel such as the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah, the siege of Jerusalem, the Babylonian captivity and the Maccabean revolt.
The Dead sea scrolls are thousands of Jewish, mostly Hebrew, manuscripts dated from the last three centuries BCE and from the first century CE. The texts have great historical, religious, and linguistic significance because they include the second-oldest known surviving manuscripts of works later included in the Hebrew Bible canon, along with deuterocanonical and extra-biblical manuscripts which preserve evidence of the diversity of religious and philosophical thought in late Second Temple Judaism. Archaeologists have long associated the scrolls with the ancient Jewish sect called the Essenes, although some recent interpretations have challenged this connection and argue that priests in Jerusalem, or Zadokites, or other unknown Jewish groups wrote the scrolls.
Roman Judea
Post-Biblical Hebrew writings include early rabbinic works of Midrash and Mishnah. The Mishnah is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions known as the "Oral Torah". It is also the first major work of Rabbinic literature, written in religious centers such as Yavneh, Lod and Bnei Brak, under the Roman occupation of Judea. It contains the oral traditions of the Pharisees from the Second Temple period particularly the period of the Tannaim. Most of the Mishnah is written in Mishnaic Hebrew, while some parts are in Jewish Aramaic.
The Jewish-Christian movement was formed in Judea of the early first-century. The books of the New Testament were all or nearly all written by Jewish Christians—that is, Jewish disciples of Jesus, during the first and early second centuries Luke, who wrote the Gospel of Luke and the Book of Acts, is frequently thought of as an exception; scholars are divided as to whether Luke was a Gentile or a Hellenistic Jew. The Gospels were written between 68 and 110 CE, Acts between 95 and 110, Epistles between 51 and 110 CE and Revelation in c. 95 CE.
Josephus was a scholar, historian and hagiographer who was born in 37 CE in Jerusalem, Judea. He recorded Jewish history, with special emphasis on the first century CE and the First Jewish–Roman War, including the Siege of Masada. His most important works were The Jewish War ( 75), Antiquities of the Jews ( 94) and Against Apion. The Jewish War recounts the Jewish revolt against Roman occupation (66–70). Antiquities of the Jews recounts the history of the world from a Jewish perspective for an ostensibly Roman audience. These works provide valuable insight into first century Judaism and the background of Early Christianity.
Old Yishuv
Following the expulsion from Spain and Portugal many Jews settled in the Ottoman Empire including Palestine, contributing greatly to the culture of the Jewish community, especially in literature, poetry, philosophy and mysticism. The city of Safed was a center of a widespread spiritual and mystical activity. Joseph Karo, an author and kabbalist, settled in Safed in 1563. In safed he authored Shulchan Aruch, the most widely consulted of the various legal codes in Judaism. Shlomo Halevi Alkabetz, a kabbalist and poet, settled in 1535 where he composed the Jewish poem Lecha Dodi. Isaac Luria (1534-1572), born in Jerusalem, was a foremost rabbi and Jewish mystic in the community of Safed. He is considered the father of contemporary Kabbalah, his teachings being referred to as Lurianic Kabbalah. The works of his disciples compiled his oral teachings into writing. Every custom of his was scrutinized, and many were accepted, even against previous practice.
Around 1550, Moses ben Jacob Cordovero founded a Kabbalah academy in Safed. Among his disciples were many of the luminaries of Safed, including Rabbi Eliyahu de Vidas, author of Reshit Chochmah ("Beginning of Wisdom"), and Rabbi Chaim Vital, who later became the official recorder and disseminator of the teachings of Rabbi Isaac Luria. Other kabbalists in the Land of Israel at that time were Isaiah Horowitz, Moshe Chaim Luzzatto, Abraham Azulai, Chaim ibn Attar, Shalom Sharabi, Chaim Yosef David Azulai and Abraham Gershon of Kitov.
Modern Israel
The first works of Hebrew literature in Israel were written by immigrant authors rooted in the world and traditions of European Jewry. Yosef Haim Brenner (1881–1921) and Shmuel Yosef Agnon (1888–1970), are considered by many to be the fathers of modern Hebrew literature.
Brenner, torn between hope and despair, struggled with the reality of the Zionist enterprise in the Land of Israel. Agnon, Brenner's contemporary, fused his knowledge of Jewish heritage with the influence of 19th and early 20th century European literature. He produced fiction dealing with the disintegration of traditional ways of life, loss of faith, and the subsequent loss of identity. In 1966, Agnon was co-recipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature.
Native-born writers who published their work in the 1940s and 1950s, often called the "War of Independence generation," brought a sabra mentality and culture to their writing. S. Yizhar, Moshe Shamir, Hanoch Bartov and Benjamin Tammuz vacillated between individualism and commitment to society and state. In the early 1960s, A.B. Yehoshua, Amos Oz, and Yaakov Shabtai broke away from ideologies to focus on the world of the individual, experimenting with narrative forms and writing styles such as psychological realism, allegory, and symbolism.
Since the 1980s and early 1990s, Israeli literature has been widely translated, and several Israeli writers have achieved international recognition.
Science and technology
Ancient Israel
The early activity in science in ancient Israel can be found in the Hebrew Bible where some of the books contain descriptions of the physical world. Biblical cosmology provides sporadic glimpses that may be stitched together to form a Biblical impression of the physical universe. There have been comparisons between the Bible, with passages such as from the Genesis creation narrative, and the astronomy of classical antiquity more generally. The Old Testament also contains various cleansing rituals. One suggested ritual, for example, deals with the proper procedure for cleansing a leper (). It is a fairly elaborate process, which is to be performed after a leper was already healed of leprosy (), involving spiritual purity (the concepts of tumah and taharah), extensive physical cleansing and personal hygiene, but also includes sacrificing a bird and lambs with the addition of using their blood to symbolize that the afflicted has been cleansed. As with other purification ceremonies described in the Torah, cedar wood and the hyssop herb are also burnt during the ritual.
The Torah proscribes Intercropping (Lev. 19:19, Deut 22:9), a practice often associated with sustainable agriculture and organic farming in modern agricultural science. The Mosaic code has provisions concerning the conservation of natural resources, such as trees () and birds ().
Modern Israel
Israel is a developed and highly advanced country and ranks fifth among the most innovative countries in the Bloomberg Innovation Index. Israel counts 140 scientists and technicians per 10,000 employees, one of the highest ratios in the world, and 8,337 full-time equivalent researchers per million inhabitants. It also has one of the highest per capita rates of filed patents. Israel's high technology industry has benefited from both the country's highly educated and technologically skilled workforce coupled with the strong presence of foreign high-tech firms and sophisticated research centres.
During the 1970s and 1980s Israel began developing the infrastructure needed for research and development in space exploration and related sciences. Israel launched its first satellite, Ofeq-1, from the locally built Shavit launch vehicle on September 19, 1988, and has made important contributions in a number of areas in space research, including laser communication, research into embryo development and osteoporosis in space, pollution monitoring, and mapping geology, soil and vegetation in semi-arid environments. Israel is among the few countries capable of launching satellites into orbit and locally designed and manufactured satellites have been produced and launched by Israel Aerospace Industries(IAI), Israel's largest military engineering company, in cooperation with the Israel Space Agency. The AMOS-1 geostationary satellite began operations in 1996 as Israel's first commercial communications satellite. It was built primarily for direct-to-home television broadcasting, TV distribution and VSAT services. Further series of AMOS communications satellites (AMOS 2 – 5i) are operated or in development by the Spacecom Satellite Communications company, which provides satellite telecommunications services to countries in Europe, the Middle East and Africa. Israel also develops, manufactures, and exports a large number of related aerospace products, including rockets and satellites, display systems, aeronautical computers, instrumentation systems, drones and flight simulators. Israel's second largest defense company is Elbit Systems, which makes electro-optical systems for air, sea and ground forces; drones; control and monitoring systems; communications systems and more.
The growth in agricultural production is based on close cooperation of scientists, farmers and agriculture-related industries and has resulted in the development of advanced agricultural technology, water-conserving irrigation methods, anaerobic digestion, greenhouse technology, desert agriculture and salinity research. Israeli companies also supply irrigation, water conservation and greenhouse technologies and know-how to other countries. The modern technology of drip irrigation was invented in Israel by Simcha Blass and his son Yeshayahu. Their first experimental system was established in 1959 when company called Netafim was established. They developed and patented the first practical surface drip irrigation emitter. This method was very successful and had spread to Australia, North America and South America by the late 1960s.
Israeli companies excel in computer software and hardware development, particularly computer security technologies, semiconductors and communications. Israeli firms include Check Point, a leading firewall firm; Amdocs, which makes business and operations support systems for telecoms; Comverse, a voice-mail company; and Mercury Interactive, which measures software performance. A high concentration of high-tech industries in the coastal plain of Israel has led to the nickname Silicon Wadi (lit: "Silicon Valley"). More than 3,850 start-ups have been established in Israel, making it second only to the US in this sector and has the largest number of NASDAQ-listed companies outside North America. Optics, electro-optics, and lasers are significant fields and Israel produces fiber-optics, electro-optic inspection systems for printed circuit boards, thermal imaging night-vision systems, and electro-optics-based robotic manufacturing systems. Research into robotics first began in the late 1970s, has resulted in the production of robots designed to perform a wide variety of computer aided manufacturing tasks, including diamond polishing, welding, packing, and building. Research is also conducted in the application of artificial intelligence to robots.
Israeli scientists contributed many inventions and discoveries in a variety of fields including Joram Lindenstrauss (Johnson–Lindenstrauss lemma); Abraham Fraenkel (Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory); Shimshon Amitsur(Amitsur–Levitzki theorem); Saharon Shelah (Sauer–Shelah lemma); Elon Lindenstrauss (Ergodic theory); Nathan Rosen (Wormhole); Yuval Ne'eman (prediction of Quarks); Yakir Aharonov and David Bohm (Aharonov–Bohm effect); Jacob Bekenstein (formulation of Black holes Entropy); Dan Shechtman (discovery of quasicrystals); Avram Hershko and Aaron Ciechanover (discovery of the role of protein Ubiquitin); Arieh Warshel and Michael Levitt (development of multiscale models for complex chemical systems); Ariel Rubinstein (Rubinstein bargaining model); Abraham Fraenkel (Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory); Moussa B.H. Youdim (Rasagiline); Robert Aumann (Game theory); Michael O. Rabin (Nondeterministic finite automaton); Amir Pnueli (Temporal logic); Judea Pearl (artificial intelligence); Shafi Goldwasser (Blum–Goldwasser cryptosystem); Asher Peres (Quantum information); Adi Shamir (RSA, Differential cryptanalysis, Shamir's Secret Sharing); Yaakov Ziv and Abraham Lempel (Lempel–Ziv–Welch); Notable inventions include ReWalk, Given Imaging, Eshkol-Wachman movement notation, Taliglucerase alfa, USB flash drive, Intel 8088, Projection keyboard, TDMoIP, Mobileye, Waze, Wix.com, Gett, Viber, Uzi, Iron Dome, Arrow missile, Super-iron battery, Epilator.
Visual arts
From the beginning of the 20th century, visual arts in Israel have shown a creative orientation, influenced both by the West and East, as well as by the land itself, its development, the character of the cities, and stylistic trends emanating from art centers abroad. In painting, sculpture, photography, and other art forms, the country's varied landscape is the protagonist: the hill terraces and ridges produce special dynamics of line and shape; the foothills of the Negev, the prevailing grayish-green vegetation, and the clear luminous light result in distinctive color effects; and the sea and sand affect surfaces. On the whole, local landscapes, concerns, and politics lie at the center of Israeli art, and ensure its uniqueness.
The earliest Israeli art movement was the Bezalel school of the Ottoman and early Mandate period, when artists portrayed both Biblical and Zionist subjects in a style influenced by the European Art Nouveau movement, symbolism, and traditional Persian, Jewish, and Syrian artistry.
Symbols
Jewish various symbols are omnipresent in the culture of Israel. The Jewish diversity of Israel enrich the culture with a variety of traditions, symbols and handicrafts.
The national symbols of Israel are influenced by Jewish symbols and Jewish history to represent the country and its people.
Performance art
Music
Classical music in Israel has been vibrant since the 1930s, when hundreds of music teachers and students, composers, instrumentalists and singers, as well as thousands of music lovers, streamed into the country, driven by the threat of Nazism in Europe. Israel is also home to several world-class classical music ensembles, such as the Israel Philharmonic and the New Israeli Opera. The founding of The Palestine Philharmonic Orchestra (today the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra) in 1936 marked the beginning of Israel's classical music scene. In the early 1980s, the New Israeli Opera began staging productions, reviving public enthusiasm for operatic works. Russian immigration in the 1990s boosted the classical music arena with new talents and music lovers.
The contemporary music scene in Israel spans the spectrum of musical genres, and often fuses many musical influences, ranging from Ethiopian, Middle-Eastern soul, rock, jazz, hip-hop, electronic, Arabic, pop and mainstream. Israeli music is versatile, and combines elements of both western and eastern music. It tends to be very eclectic, and contains a wide variety of influences from the Diaspora, as well as more modern cultural importations: Hassidic songs, Asian pop, Arab folk (especially by Yemenite singers), and Israeli hip hop or heavy metal. Also popular are various forms of electronic music, including trance, Hard trance, and Goa trance. Notable artists from Israel in this field are few, but include the psychedelic trance duo Infected Mushroom.
Dance
Traditional folk dances of Israel include the Hora and dances incorporating the Yemenite step. Israeli folk dancing today is choreographed for recreational and performance dance groups.
Modern dance in Israel has won international acclaim. Israeli choreographers, among them Ohad Naharin and Barak Marshall, are considered among the most versatile and original international creators working today. Notable Israeli dance companies include the Batsheva Dance Company, the Kibbutz Contemporary Dance Company, the Inbal Pinto & Avshalom Pollak Dance Company and the Kamea Dance Company. People come from all over Israel and many other nations for the annual dance festival in Karmiel, held in July. First held in 1988, the Karmiel Dance Festival is the largest celebration of dance in Israel, featuring three or four days and nights of dancing, with 5,000 or more dancers and a quarter of a million spectators in the capital of Galilee. Begun as an Israeli folk dance event, the festivities now include performances, workshops, and open dance sessions for a variety of dance forms and nationalities. Choreographer Yonatan Karmon created the Karmiel Dance Festival to continue the tradition of Gurit Kadman's Dalia Festival of Israeli dance, which ended in the 1960s.
Famous companies and choreographers from all over the world have come to Israel to perform and give master classes. In July 2010, Mikhail Baryshnikov came to perform in Israel.
Theatre
Roman Judea
During the Roman rule, some theaters were built in Judea, located in places such as Caesarea, Beth Shean and Jerusalem. The theater in Caesarea Maritima was built by Herod the Great and had a seating capacity of about 4000 seats in its final stage. Another theater, in Bet Shean, was built in the end of the 2nd century CE with a capacity of 7000 seats.
Modern Israel
The emergence of Hebrew theatre predated the state by nearly 50 years. The first amateur Hebrew theatre group was active in Ottoman Palestine from 1904 to 1914. The first professional Hebrew theatre, Habimah, was founded in Moscow in 1917, and moved to British Mandatory Palestine in 1931, where it became the country's national theatre. The Ohel Theater was founded in 1925 as a workers' theatre that explored socialist and biblical themes. The first Hebrew plays revolved around pioneering.
After 1948, two major motifs were the Holocaust and the Arab-Israeli conflict. Moshe Shamir's He Walked in the Fields in 1949 was the first produced by a sabra writing about sabras in idiomatic and contemporary Hebrew. In the 1950s, dramatists portrayed the gap between pre-state dreams and disillusionment. Other plays pitted native Israelis against Holocaust survivors. Beginning in the 1960s, Hanoch Levin wrote 56 plays and political satires. During the 1970s, Israeli theatre became more critical, contrasting extreme images of Israeli identity, such as the muscleman and the spiritual Jew. In the 1980s, Yehoshua Sobol explored Israeli-Jewish identity issues. Today, Israeli theatre is extremely diverse in content and style, and half of all plays are local productions.
Other major theatre companies include the Cameri Theatre, Beit Lessin Theater, Gesher Theater (which performs in Hebrew and Russian), Haifa Theatre and Beersheba Theater.
Founded in 1980, The Acco Festival of Alternative Israeli Theatre is a four-day performing arts festival held annually in early autumn at the city of Acre. the festival became a symbol of coexistence between the city's Jewish and Arab inhabitants.
Cinema
Filmmaking in Israel has undergone major developments since its inception in the 1950s. The first features produced and directed by Israelis, such as "Hill 24 Doesn't Answer" and "They Were Ten", tended, like Israeli literature of the period, to be cast in the heroic mold. Some recent films remain deeply rooted in the Israeli experience, dealing with such subjects as Holocaust survivors and their children (Gila Almagor's "The Summer of Aviya" and its sequel, "Under the Domim Tree") and the travails of new immigrants ("Sh'hur", directed by Hannah Azoulai and Shmuel Hasfari, "Late Marriage" directed by Dover Koshashvili).
Others deal with issues of modern-day Israeli life, such as the Israeli-Arab conflict (Eran Riklis's "The Lemon Tree", Scandar Copti and Yaron Shani's "Ajami") and military service (Joseph Cedar's "Beaufort", Samuel Maoz's "Lebanon", Eytan Fox's "Yossi and Jagger"). Some are set in the context of a universalist, alienated, and hedonistic society (Eytan Fox's "A Siren's Song" and "The Bubble", Ayelet Menahemi and Nirit Yaron's "Tel Aviv Stories").
The Israeli film industry continues to gain worldwide recognition through International awards nominations. For three years consecutively, Israeli films (Beaufort (2008), Waltz with Bashir (2009) and Ajami (2010)) were nominated for Academy Awards. The Spielberg Film Archive at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem is the world's largest repository of film material on Jewish themes as well as on Jewish and Israeli life.
The main international film festivals in Israel are the Jerusalem Film Festival and Haifa Film Festival.
Museums
With over 200 museums, Israel has the highest number of museums per capita in the world, with millions of visitors annually.
Jerusalem's Israel Museum has a special pavilion showcasing the Dead Sea scrolls and a large collection of Jewish religious art, Israeli art, sculptures and Old Masters paintings. Newspapers appear in dozens of languages, and every city and town publishes a local newsletter.
Architecture
The old town of cities in Israel are composed of a variety of architectural styles, which is reflected in the synagogue architecture of Jewish quarters.
After 1850, the Jewish architecture began to open up to European influences and tried to restore an ancient biblical architecture. Notably Mishkenot Sha’ananim was built influenced by the Mediterranean architecture. Until the 1920s, most structures are built in eclectic style and later, Modern architecture is further developed, notably in the "White City", known for its International Style.
The rural architecture of communities of kibbutzim and moshavim, small, white-walled houses with red roofs, are a symbol of Israel.
Cuisine
Ancient Israel
Information about the food of the ancient Israelites is based on written sources, archaeological records, and comparative evidence from the wider region of the ancient Levant. Written sources are primarily the Hebrew Bible and other texts, such as the Dead Sea Scrolls, Apocryphal works, the New Testament, and Rabbinical literature.
The daily diet of the ordinary ancient Israelite was mainly one of bread, cooked grains and legumes. Bread was eaten with every meal. Vegetables played a smaller, but significant role in the diet. The Israelites drank goat and sheep's milk when it was available in the spring and summer, and ate butter and cheese. Figs and grapes were the fruits most commonly eaten, while dates, pomegranates and other fruits and nuts were eaten more occasionally. Wine was the most popular beverage and sometimes other fermented beverages were produced. Olives were used primarily for their oil. Meat, usually goat and mutton, was eaten rarely and was reserved for special occasions such as celebrations, festival meals or sacrificial feasts. Game, birds, eggs and fish were also eaten, depending on availability.
Most food was eaten fresh and in season. Fruits and vegetables had to be eaten as they ripened and before they spoiled. People had to contend with periodic episodes of hunger and famine; producing enough food required hard and well-timed labor, and the climatic conditions resulted in unpredictable harvests and the need to store as much food as possible. Thus, grapes were made into raisins and wine; olives were made into oil; figs, beans and lentils were dried; and grains were stored for use throughout the year. The diet was essentially vegetarian. A typical daily meal is illustrated by the biblical description of the rations that Abigail brought to David's group: bread, wine, roasted grain, raisins and fig cakes ().
Modern Israel
The heterogeneous nature of culture in Israel is also manifested in Israeli cuisine, a diverse combination of local ingredients and dishes, with diasporic dishes from around the world. An Israeli fusion cuisine has developed, with the adoption and continued adaption of elements of various Jewish styles of cuisine including Mizrahi, Sephardic, Yemeni Jewish and Ashkenazi, and many foods traditionally eaten in the Middle East. Israeli cuisine is also influenced by geography, giving prominence to foods common in the Mediterranean region such as olives, chickpeas, dairy products, fish, and fresh fruits and vegetables. The main meal is usually lunch rather than dinner. Jewish holidays influence the cuisine, with many traditional foods served at holiday times. Shabbat dinner, eaten on Friday night, is a significant meal in a large proportion of Israeli homes. While not all Jews in Israel keep kosher, the observance of kashrut influences the menu in homes, public institutions and many restaurants.
In 2013, an Israeli cookbook, Seafoodpedia, won "Best in World" in its category at the Gourmand World Cookbook Award in Paris, and "Jerusalem, A Cookbook," published by the Israeli-Palestinian team of Yotam Ottolenghi and Sami Tamimi, won "Best in the World" for Mediterranean Cuisine.
Fashion
Israel has become an international center of fashion and design. Tel Aviv has been called the “next hot destination” for fashion. Israeli designers, such as swimwear company Gottex, show their collections at leading fashion shows, including New York's Bryant Park fashion show. In 2011, Tel Aviv hosted its first Fashion Week since the 1980s, with Italian designer Roberto Cavalli as a guest of honor.
Sports
Physical fitness received a boost in the 19th century from the physical culture campaign of Max Nordau. The Maccabiah Games, an Olympic-style event for Jewish athletes, was inaugurated in the 1930s, and has been held in Israel every four years since then.
In 1964, Israel hosted and won the AFC Asian Cup; in 1970, the Israel national football team managed to qualify to the FIFA World Cup, which is still considered the biggest achievement in Israeli football. Israel was excluded from the 1978 Asian Games due to Arab pressure, and since 1994 all Israeli sporting organizations now compete in Europe.
Football (soccer) and basketball are the most popular sports in Israel. The Israeli Premier League is the country's Premier Soccer League, and Ligat ha'Al is the premier basketball league. Maccabi Haifa, Maccabi Tel Aviv, Hapoel Tel Aviv and Beitar Jerusalem are the largest sports clubs. Maccabi Tel Aviv, Maccabi Haifa, and Hapoel Tel Aviv have competed in the UEFA Champions League, and Hapoel Tel Aviv reached the Quarterfinal in the UEFA Cup. Maccabi Tel Aviv B.C. has won the European Championship in basketball six times. Israeli tennis champion Shahar Pe'er peaked at 11th on the WTA rank list, a national record. Beersheba has become a national chess center; as a result of Soviet immigration, it is home to the largest number of chess grandmasters of any city in the world. The city hosted the World Team Chess Championship in 2005. Israeli chess teams won the silver medal at the 2008 Chess Olympiad and the bronze medal at the 2010 Chess Olympiad. Israeli Grandmaster Boris Gelfand won the Chess World Cup 2009, and played for the World Champion title in the World Chess Championship 2012.
To date, Israel has won seven Olympic medals since its first win in 1992, including a gold medal in windsurfing at the 2004 Summer Olympics. Israel has won over 100 gold medals in the Paralympic Games, and is ranked about 15th in the All-time Paralympic Games medal table. The 1968 Summer Paralympics were hosted by Israel.
Youth movements
Youth movements were an important feature of Israel from its earliest days. In the 1950s, these movements were categorized in three groups: Zionist youth groups promoting social ideals and the importance of agricultural and communal settlement; working youth promoting educational goals and occupational advancement; and recreational groups with a strong emphasis on sports and leisure-time activities.
Outdoor and vacation culture
Hiking in Israel, named tiyul, has been an integral part of Israeli culture, representing the Sabra ethos. First practiced by Zionist pioneers as a way to bond to the Land of Israel, it had become charged with much cultural significance. Activities such as hiking during Jewish holidays (particularly Tu Bishvat) or backpacking on the Israel National trail, are part of israeli nationhood, culture, and history. National parks and nature reserves across Israel register some 6.5 million visits a year. Schools and youth groups are taken on annual hiking trips throughout the country, raising children with an affinity for hiking and other outdoor activities. Consequently, many young Israelis take several months to a year off to travel the world, primarily to hike and experience the outdoors in remote, mountainous areas, such as Nepal, India, China, Chile, and Peru.
Along the of the Israeli Mediterranean coast, two thirds are accessible to bathing activities. Israel has 100 surf bathing beaches, guarded by professional lifeguards. Matkot is a popular paddle ball game similar to beach tennis, often referred to as the country's national sport.
Wedding customs
All marriages between Jews in Israel are registered with the Chief Rabbinate, and the ceremony follows traditional Jewish practice. Civil ceremonies are not performed in Israel, although a growing number of secular couples circumvent this by traveling to nearby locations such as Cyprus. While some Jews in Israel have adopted Western styles of dress, traditional clothing and jewelry are sometimes brought out for pre-wedding rituals, including the Night of the Henna that is very customary practice among Mizrahi Jews.
See also
Arab-Israeli culture
Public holidays in Israel
Israel Radio International, official radio service for immigrants and listeners outside Israel
Jerusalem March
Kol Yisrael, Israel's public domestic and international radio station
List of Israeli musical artists
List of Israeli visual artists
List of Hebrew language poets
List of Hebrew language authors
List of Israeli actors
List of Hebrew language playwrights
Media of Israel
Religion in Israel
Science and technology in Israel
Start-up Nation
References
External links
Israel Arts Directory
ACUM—Society of Authors, Composers and Music Publishers in Israel
The Institute for the Translation of Hebrew Literature
Israel Music sdfgfte
Israeli Culture Ynetnews
Jewish and Israeli Culture, Eretz Acheret magazine
Israel
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew%20Saad%20Muhammad
|
Matthew Saad Muhammad
|
Matthew Saad Muhammad (born Maxwell Antonio Loach; June 16, 1954 – May 25, 2014) was an American professional boxer who was the WBC Light Heavyweight Champion of the World for two-and-a-half years.
Background
Saad Muhammad's mother died when he was an infant, and he and his elder brother were sent to live with an aunt. When he was five, his aunt could not afford to look after both of them and she instructed his brother to get rid of him. His brother took him to Philadelphia's Benjamin Franklin Parkway and then ran away. Saad Muhammad was taken in by Catholic Social Services. The nuns gave him the name Matthew Franklin (after the saint and the parkway where he was found). Matthew lived in foster care until a couple from Philadelphia adopted him, raised him, and took care of him like he was their own.
Saad Muhammad was very popular in the late 1970s and early 1980s among boxing fans because of his particularly action-oriented style. Saad Muhammad was known for his ability to take punishment and mount comebacks, and because of this, he was nicknamed Miracle Matthew.
Saad Muhammad was also part of a group of world light heavyweight champions who became Muslims and changed their names during his era as a Light-Heavyweight, the others being Eddie Mustafa Muhammad (born as Eddie Gregory), and Dwight Muhammad Qawi (born as Dwight Braxton). Saad Muhammad confirmed this in interviews following his boxing career, stating that he was inspired to convert by Muhammad Ali's conversion.
Amateur career
Saad Muhammad had a relatively short amateur career, consisting of only 20 amateur bouts. He won the Trenton (NJ) Golden Gloves in 1973 and turned pro the following year.
Professional boxing career
Saad Muhammad began to box professionally in 1974, winning his first fight with a second-round knockout win against Billy Early. He posted seven more wins that year before suffering his first loss at the hands of Wayne McGee by a decision in six rounds.
In 1975, after two wins, he and McGee fought again, in a six-round draw. In 1976, he had two matches each with future world champions Marvin Camel and Mate Parlov.
His first fight with Parlov, in Milan, was also his first fight abroad. He beat Parlov in an eight-round decision. He then beat Camel in a ten-round decision, but lost the rematch, also in a ten-round decision. He returned to Italy for a rematch with Parlov, which resulted in a ten-round draw.
Saad Muhammad began 1977 by losing to Mustafa Muhammad (then Edward Lee Gregory), but then defeated the future three-time world champion Marvin Johnson by a knockout in round 12 for the United States Light-Heavyweight title in his first nationally televised match.
In 1978, he won all four of his bouts, including successful defenses of his title against former world title challenger Richie Kates and against four-time world title challenger Yaqui López. The Lopez fight, their first of two, was considered a classic by boxing experts, Saad Muhammad surviving a relentless attack by López to score an 11th-round knockout.
In 1979, after Johnson became world champion by defeating Parlov, he and Saad Muhammad met again on April 22 in Johnson's hometown of Indianapolis for the WBC's world light heavyweight crown . In a fight considered by many experts as a Saad Muhammad classic, and which subsequently featured on ESPN's Classic Fights show, Saad Muhammad won with an eight-round knockout after staggering Johnson towards the end of the seventh round. Shortly afterward, he converted to Islam and changed his name to Matthew Saad Muhammad.
In his first title defense, Saad Muhammad met former world champion John Conteh in Atlantic City. He retained the world title with a 15-round decision. The decision, however, was voided and a rematch ordered because Muhammad's cornermen used an illegal substance to stop the bleeding from a cut. Muhammad retained the crown with a knockout in round four in the second bout. After defeating Louis Pergaud, he and López met again, this time, with the world title on the line. Their rematch has also been shown by ESPN's classic network several times, it was the fight of the year for 1980, according to Ring Magazine, and is still written about by boxing aficionados. Saad Muhammad was hit with 20 unanswered blows in round eight, but he recovered and dropped López five times en route to a 14th-round knockout win. “This was my toughest fight,” said Saad Muhammad of the fight, which some consider the closest López ever came to a world title.
He then went on to defeat Lottie Mwale, Vonzell Johnson, future world Super-Middleweight champion Murray Sutherland and Jerry Martin, all in defense of his world title, before losing to Dwight Muhammad Qawi in December 1981. In yet another fight that would later by shown on ESPN's classic network, Saad Muhammad lost his title when Qawi knocked him out in 10 rounds.
Saad Muhammad entered 1982 with a rematch against Qawi within his sights, and he defeated Pete McIntyre by a knockout in round two. The rematch between Saad Muhammad and Qawi came off in August, at Saad Muhammad's hometown of Philadelphia. The second time around, Qawi won by a knockout in round six.
From there on until 1992, Saad Muhammad fought sporadically and with limited success. He had been confronting vision problems, and in 1986, he declared himself in bankruptcy.
After he lost the rematch to Qawi fought in Australia, Spain, The Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago.
MMA career
Saad Muhammad also took a turn in the forerunner of mixed martial arts in Japan, participating in the first UWF International (UWFi) event in 1991. Matched against Kiyoshi Tamura, Saad Muhammad talked a great deal at a lead-in press conference. He declined to say in which round he would knock Tamura out, but guaranteed a victory. Tamura submitted Saad Muhammad 34 seconds into the first round.
Retirement from boxing
Saad Muhammad retired from professional boxing with a record of 49 wins, 16 losses and 3 draws, with 35 wins by knockout.
In 1998, he became a member of the International Boxing Hall of Fame.
Boxing trainer
Muhammad trained up and coming fighters out of Atlantic City, New Jersey and worked closely with former Indian Olympic boxing team heavyweight Gurcharan "The Guru" Singh.
Retirement and death
In July 2010, Saad Muhammad was homeless and living in a shelter in Philadelphia. He later became involved in charity work in the Philadelphia area, some of which focused on raising money for the homeless.
He died at a hospital in Philadelphia on May 25, 2014; his cause of death was unknown, though he was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).
Muhammad was listed as number 24 on Ring Magazines list of 100 greatest punchers of all time.
Professional boxing record
|-
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="8"|39 Wins (29 knockouts, 10 decisions), 16 Losses (8 knockouts, 8 decisions), 3 Draws
|- style="text-align:center; background:#e3e3e3;"
| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Result| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Record| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Opponent| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Type| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Round| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Date| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Location| style="border-style:none none solid solid; "|Notes'
|- align=center
|Loss
|39–16–3
|align=left| Jason Waller
|KO
|2
|21/03/1992
|align=left| Fredericksburg, Virginia, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Loss
|39–15–3
|align=left| Andrew Maynard
|TKO
|3
|29/10/1991
|align=left| Washington, District of Columbia, United States
|
|-
|Loss
|39–14–3
|align=left| Mike Green
|PTS
|8
|05/10/1991
|align=left| Woodbridge, Virginia, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|39–13–3
|align=left| Govoner Chavers
|KO
|1
|15/08/1991
|align=left| Marbella, Andalucia, Spain
|align=left|
|-
|Loss
|38–13–3
|align=left| Anton Josipovic
|PTS
|8
|09/05/1991
|align=left| Novi Sad, Serbia, Yugoslavia
|align=left|
|-
|Loss
|38–12–3
|align=left| Ed Mack
|UD
|8
|26/02/1991
|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
|
|-
|Loss
|38–11–3
|align=left| Markus Bott
|TKO
|3
|16/02/1990
|align=left| Wandsbek, Hamburg, Germany
|align=left|
|-
|Draw
|38–10–3
|align=left| Kevin Wagstaff
|PTS
|8
|24/10/1989
|align=left| Boondall, Queensland, Australia
|align=left|
|-
|Loss
|38–10–2
|align=left| Frankie Swindell
|TKO
|1
|21/10/1988
|align=left| Newark, New Jersey, United States
|
|-
|Win
|38–9–2
|align=left|Lee Harris
|TKO
|1
|08/04/1988
|align=left| Mechanicsville, Virginia, United States
|
|-
|Win
|37–9–2
|align=left| Bobby Thomas
|UD
|10
|04/12/1987
|align=left| Weirton, West Virginia, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|36–9–2
|align=left| James Coakley
|KO
|3
|26/06/1987
|align=left| Nassau, Bahamas
|align=left|
|-
|Loss
|35–9–2
|align=left| Pat Strachan
|UD
|10
|30/01/1987
|align=left| Nassau, Bahamas
|
|-
|Win
|35–8–2
|align=left| Tomas Polo Ruiz
|UD
|10
|16/11/1986
|align=left| Mucurapo, Trinidad and Tobago
|align=left|
|-
|Loss
|34–8–2
|align=left| Uriah Grant
|UD
|10
|21/02/1986
|align=left| Fort Lauderdale, Florida, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|34–7–2
|align=left| Chris Wells
|TKO
|6
|10/01/1986
|align=left| Hollywood, Florida, United States
|
|-
|Loss
|33–7–2
|align=left| Willie Edwards
|TKO
|11
|11/02/1984
|align=left| Detroit, Michigan, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|33–6–2
|align=left| Larry Davis
|TKO
|10
|09/09/1983
|align=left| New York City, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Loss
|32–6–2
|align=left| Eric Winbush
|TKO
|3
|23/03/1983
|align=left| Atlantic City, New Jersey, United States
|
|-
|Loss
|32–5–2
|align=left| Dwight Muhammad Qawi
|TKO
|6
|07/08/1982
|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|32–4–2
|align=left| Pete McIntyre
|TKO
|2
|17/04/1982
|align=left| Atlantic City, New Jersey, United States
|
|-
|Loss
|31–4–2
|align=left| Dwight Muhammad Qawi
|TKO
|10
|19/12/1981
|align=left| Atlantic City, New Jersey, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|31–3–2
|align=left| Jerry Martin
|TKO
|11
|26/09/1981
|align=left| Atlantic City, New Jersey, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|30–3–2
|align=left| Murray Sutherland
|KO
|9
|25/04/1981
|align=left| Atlantic City, New Jersey, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|29–3–2
|align=left| Vonzell Johnson
|TKO
|11
|28/02/1981
|align=left| Atlantic City, New Jersey, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|28–3–2
|align=left| Lottie Mwale
|KO
|4
|28/11/1980
|align=left| San Diego, California, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|27–3–2
|align=left| Yaqui Lopez
|TKO
|14
|13/07/1980
|align=left| McAfee, New Jersey, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|26–3–2
|align=left| Louis Pergaud
|TKO
|5
|11/05/1980
|align=left| Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|25–3–2
|align=left| John Conteh
|TKO
|4
|29/03/1980
|align=left| Atlantic City, New Jersey, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|24–3–2
|align=left| John Conteh
|UD
|15
|18/08/1979
|align=left| Atlantic City, New Jersey, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|23–3–2
|align=left| Marvin Johnson
|TKO
|8
|22/04/1979
|align=left| Indianapolis, Indiana, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|22–3–2
|align=left| Yaqui Lopez
|TKO
|11
|24/10/1978
|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|21–3–2
|align=left| Fred Bright
|TKO
|8
|16/08/1978
|align=left| Newark, New Jersey, United States
|
|-
|Win
|20–3–2
|align=left| Dale Grant
|TKO
|5
|19/06/1978
|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
|
|-
|Win
|19–3–2
|align=left| Richie Kates
|TKO
|6
|10/02/1978
|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|18–3–2
|align=left| Dave Lee Royster
|UD
|10
|01/11/1977
|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|17–3–2
|align=left| Billy Douglas
|TKO
|6
|17/09/1977
|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|16–3–2
|align=left| Marvin Johnson
|TKO
|12
|26/07/1977
|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|15–3–2
|align=left| Ed Turner
|KO
|6
|23/06/1977
|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
|
|-
|Win
|14–3–2
|align=left| Joe Maye
|PTS
|10
|21/04/1977
|align=left| Wilmington, Delaware, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Loss
|13–3–2
|align=left| Eddie Mustafa Muhammad
|SD
|10
|11/03/1977
|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Draw
|13–2–2
|align=left| Mate Parlov
|PTS
|10
|03/12/1976
|align=left| Trieste, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Italy
|align=left|
|-
|Loss
|13–2–1
|align=left| Marvin Camel
|MD
|10
|23/10/1976
|align=left| Missoula, Montana, United States
|
|-
|Win
|13–1–1
|align=left| Bobby Walker
|TKO
|4
|15/09/1976
|align=left| Scranton, Pennsylvania, United States
|
|-
|Win
|12–1–1
|align=left| Marvin Camel
|SD
|10
|17/07/1976
|align=left| Stockton, California, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|11–1–1
|align=left| Mate Parlov
|PTS
|8
|21/05/1976
|align=left| Milan, Lombardia, Italy
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|10–1–1
|align=left| Harold Carter
|PTS
|10
|13/02/1976
|align=left| Owings Mills, Maryland, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Draw
|9–1–1
|align=left| Wayne McGee
|PTS
|6
|21/10/1975
|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|9–1
|align=left| Roosevelt Brown
|TKO
|4
|24/07/1975
|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|8–1
|align=left| Vandell Woods
|KO
|6
|25/02/1975
|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
|
|-
|Loss
|7–1
|align=left| Wayne McGee
|PTS
|6
|10/12/1974
|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|7–0
|align=left| Joe Middleton
|TKO
|2
|22/10/1974
|align=left| Alexandria, Virginia, United States
|
|-
|Win
|6–0
|align=left| Lloyd Richardson
|TKO
|4
|10/09/1974
|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|5–0
|align=left| Joe Jones
|KO
|3
|15/07/1974
|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
|
|-
|Win
|4–0
|align=left| Joe Middleton
|KO
|5
|22/05/1974
|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|3–0
|align=left| Roy Ingram
|PTS
|4
|11/03/1974
|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|2–0
|align=left|Mukeba Apolosa
|PTS
|4
|25/02/1974
|align=left| Paris, France
|align=left|
|-
|Win
|1–0
|align=left| Billy Early
|TKO
|2
|14/01/1974
|align=left| Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
|align=left|
|}
See also
List of WBC world champions
References
External links
1954 births
African-American Muslims
African-American former Christians
Light-heavyweight boxers
2014 deaths
Boxers from Philadelphia
World boxing champions
Converts to Islam
Deaths from motor neuron disease
Neurological disease deaths in Pennsylvania
American male boxers
Sportspeople with a vision impairment
Burials at Ivy Hill Cemetery (Philadelphia)
|
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211853
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon%20Court%20de%20105%20M%28montagne%29%20mod%C3%A8le%201919%20Schneider
|
Canon Court de 105 M(montagne) modèle 1919 Schneider
|
The Canon Court de 105 M(montagne) modèle 1919 Schneider (105 mm mle.19) was a French mountain gun produced by Schneider and intended to be used in conjunction with the 75 mm mle.19 that was used by a number of countries during World War II.
Design
The modèle 1919 was built from steel and had two spoked wheels, interrupted screw breech, hydro-pneumatic recoil system, box trail carriage and a rounded gun shield to protect the crew. For transport, this gun could be broken down into 8 sections, the barrel could be dismantled into 2 sections. A latter variant called the Canon Court de 105 M(montagne) modèle 1928 Schneider was produced in 1928. The modèle 1928 can be identified by its squared off gun shield and may have had a sprung axle and pneumatic tires for motor traction.
Users
- Captured French guns were given the designations 10.5 cm le.GebH 322(f) for modèle 1919 guns and 10.5 cm le.GebH 323(f) for modèle 1928 guns in German service.
- Japan produced a copy of captured Chinese modèle 1928 guns designated the Type 99 10 cm Mountain Gun. Performance and dimensions of the Japanese gun were very similar.
- Licensed production began in 1924 at Trubia and was designated Obús Schneider 105/11 Modelo 1919.
- Captured Yugoslav guns were given the designation 10.5 cm le.GebH 329(j) in German service.
Gallery
References
Schneider Electric
Artillery of France
World War II weapons of France
105 mm artillery
World War II mountain artillery
World War II artillery of Greece
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave%20Arneson
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Dave Arneson
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David Lance Arneson (; October 1, 1947 – April 7, 2009) was an American game designer best known for co-developing the first published role-playing game (RPG), Dungeons & Dragons, with Gary Gygax, in the early 1970s. Arneson's early work was fundamental to the development of the genre, developing the concept of the RPG using devices now considered to be archetypical, such as adventuring in "dungeons" and using a neutral judge who doubles as the voice and consciousness of all characters aside from the player characters to develop the storyline.
Arneson discovered wargaming as a teenager in the 1960s, and began combining these games with the concept of role-playing. He was a University of Minnesota student when he met Gygax at the Gen Con gaming convention in the late 1960s. In 1970 Arneson created the game and fictional world that became Blackmoor, writing his own rules and basing the setting on medieval fantasy elements. Arneson showed the game to Gygax the following year, and the pair co-developed a set of rules that became Dungeons & Dragons (D&D). Gygax subsequently founded TSR, Inc. to publish the game in 1974. Arneson worked briefly for the company.
Arneson left TSR in 1976, and filed suit in 1979 to retain credits and royalties on the game. He continued to work as an independent game designer, including work submitted to TSR in the 1980s, and continued to play games for his entire life. Arneson also did some work in computer programming, and taught computer game design and game rules design at Full Sail University from the 1990s until shortly before his death in 2009.
Experience with miniature wargaming
Arneson's role-playing game design work grew from his interest in wargames. His parents bought him the board wargame Gettysburg by Avalon Hill. After Arneson taught his friends how to play, the group began to design their own games, and tried out new ways to play existing games. Arneson was especially fond of naval wargames. Exposure to role-playing influenced his later game designs. In college history classes he role-played historical events, and preferred to deviate from recorded history in a manner similar to "what if" scenarios recreated in wargames.
In the late 1960s Arneson joined the Midwest Military Simulation Association (MMSA), a group of miniature wargamers and military figurine collectors in the Minneapolis-St. Paul area that included among its ranks future game designer David Wesely. Wesely asserts that it was during the Braunstein games he created and refereed, and in which other MMSA members participated, that Arneson helped develop the foundations of modern role-playing games on a 1:1 scale basis by focusing on non-combat objectives—a step away from wargaming towards the more individual play and varied challenges of later RPGs. Arneson was a participant in Wesely's wargame scenarios, and as Arneson continued to run his own scenarios he eventually expanded them to include ideas from The Lord of the Rings and Dark Shadows. Arneson took over the Braunsteins when Wesely was drafted into the Army, and often ran them in different eras with different settings. Arneson had also become a member of the International Federation of Wargamers by this time.
In 1969 Arneson was a history student at the University of Minnesota and working part-time as a security guard. He attended the second Gen Con gaming convention in August 1969 (at which time wargaming was still the primary focus) and it was at this event that he met Gary Gygax, who had founded the Castle & Crusade Society within the International Federation of Wargamers in the 1960s at Lake Geneva, Wisconsin. Arneson and Gygax also shared an interest in sailing ship games and they co-authored the Don't Give Up the Ship naval battle rules, serialized from June 1971 and later published as a single volume in 1972 by Guidon Games with a revised edition by TSR, Inc. in 1975.
Blackmoor
Following the departure of David Wesely to service in the Army Reserves in October 1970, Arneson and his fellow players in the Twin Cities began to imagine alternate settings for "Braunstein" games. Arneson developed a Braunstein in which his players played fantasy versions of themselves in the medieval Barony of Blackmoor, a land inhabited in part by fantastic monsters. As the game quickly grew and characters developed, Arneson devised scenarios where they would quest for magic and gold, escort caravans, lead armies for or against the forces of evil, and delve into the dungeons beneath Castle Blackmoor (which was represented by a Kibri kit model of Branzoll Castle). To explain his inspiration for the game, Arneson said:
Arneson drew heavily upon the fantasy material in the Chainmail rules, written by Gygax and Jeff Perren and published in the spring of 1971, but after a short and unsatisfactory trial of the Fantasy Combat table found therein, he developed his own mix of rules, including adapted elements from his revision of Civil War Ironclad game. The gameplay would be recognizable to modern D&D players, featuring the use of hit points, armor class, character development, and dungeon crawls. This setting was fleshed out over time and continues to be played to the present day.
Much of the fantasy medieval trope of D&D, such as the concept of adventuring in "dungeons" originated with Blackmoor, but it also incorporated time travel and science fiction elements. These are visible much later in the DA module series published by TSR (particularly City of the Gods), but were also present from the early to mid-1970s in the original campaign and parallel and intertwined games run by John Snider, whose ruleset developed from these adventures and was intended for publication by TSR from 1974 as the first science fiction RPG. Arneson described Blackmoor as "roleplaying in a non-traditional medieval setting. I have such things as steam power, gunpowder, and submarines in limited numbers. There was even a tank running around for a while. The emphasis is on the story and the roleplaying." Details of Blackmoor and the original campaign, established on the map of the Castle & Crusade Society's "Great Kingdom", were first brought to print briefly in issue #13 of the Domesday Book, the newsletter of the Castle & Crusade Society in July 1972, and later in much-expanded form as The First Fantasy Campaign, published by Judges Guild in 1977.
In November 1972, Dave Arneson and Dave Megarry traveled to Lake Geneva to meet with Gary Gygax, to provide a demonstration of Blackmoor and Dungeon! While meeting at Gygax's house, Dave Arneson ran the Lake Geneva gamers through their first session of Blackmoor. Rob Kuntz describes Dave Arneson as the referee, and the Lake Geneva players as being Gary Gygax, Ernie Gygax, Terry Kuntz, and himself. Kuntz describes Dave Megarry as the de facto leader of the group, as he understood the Blackmoor game and campaign world. In Wargaming magazine, Rob Kuntz wrote a short summary of their first Blackmoor session:
Dungeons & Dragons
After playing in the Blackmoor game Arneson refereed, Gygax almost immediately began a similar campaign of his own, which he called "Greyhawk", and asked Arneson for a draft of his playing-rules. The two then collaborated by phone and mail, and playtesting carried out by their various groups and other contacts. Gygax and Arneson wanted to have the game published, but Guidon Games and Avalon Hill rejected it. Arneson could not afford to invest in the venture.
Gygax felt that there was a need to publish the game as soon as possible, since similar projects were being planned elsewhere, so rules were hastily put together, and Arneson's own final draft was never used. Despite all this, Brian Blume eventually provided the funding required to publish the original Dungeons & Dragons set in 1974, with the initial print run of 1,000 selling out within a year, and sales increasing rapidly in subsequent years. Further rules and a sample dungeon from Arneson's original campaign (the first published RPG scenario in a professional publication) were released in 1975 in the Blackmoor supplement for D&D, named after the campaign-setting. Blackmoor included new classes for monks and assassins, more monsters, and "The Temple of the Frog", the first published RPG adventure for other people to run.
Arneson formally joined TSR as their Director of Research at the beginning of 1976, but left at the end of the year to pursue a career as an independent game-designer.
After TSR
In 1977, despite the fact that he was no longer at TSR, Arneson published Dungeonmaster's Index, a 38-page booklet that indexed all of TSR's D&D properties to that point in time.
TSR had agreed to pay Arneson royalties on all D&D products, but when the company came out with Advanced Dungeons & Dragons (AD&D) in 1977, it claimed that AD&D was a significantly different product and so did not pay him royalties for it. In response, Arneson filed the first of five lawsuits against Gygax and TSR in 1979. In March 1981, as part of a confidential agreement, Arneson and Gygax resolved the suits out of court by agreeing that they would both be credited as "co-creators" on the packaging of D&D products from that point on, and Arneson would receive a 2.5% royalty on all AD&D products. This provided him with a comfortable six-figure annual income for the next twenty years. This did not end the lingering tensions between them.
Continuation of Blackmoor
Arneson wrote up the Blackmoor setting for Judges Guild in The First Fantasy Campaign (1977). In 1979 Arneson and Richard L. Snider, an original Blackmoor player, co-authored Adventures in Fantasy, a role-playing game that attempted to recapture the "original spirit of the Role Playing Fantasy Game" that Arneson had envisioned in the early 1970s, instead of what D&D had become. In the early 1980s he established his own game company, Adventure Games – staffed largely by Arneson's friends, most of whom were also members of a Civil War reenactment group – that produced the miniatures games Harpoon (1981) and Johnny Reb (1983), as well as a new edition of his own Adventures in Fantasy role-playing game (1981). The company also put out about a half-dozen Tékumel related books, due to Arneson's friendship with M. A. R. Barker. Adventure Games was profitable, but Arneson found the workload to be excessive and finally sold the company to Flying Buffalo. Flying Buffalo picked up the rights to Adventure Games in 1985; because Arneson owned a portion of Flying Buffalo, he let them take care of the rest of the company's stock and IP when he shut the company down.
While Gary Gygax was president of TSR in the mid-1980s, he and Arneson reconnected, and Arneson briefly relinked Blackmoor to D&D with the "DA" (Dave Arneson) series of modules set in Blackmoor (1986–1987). The four modules, three of which were written by Arneson, detailed Arneson's campaign setting for the first time. When Gygax was forced out of TSR, Arneson's projects were dropped from the company before a planned fifth module could be published. Gygax and Arneson again went their separate ways. In 1986 Arneson wrote a new D&D module set in Blackmoor called "The Garbage Pits of Despair", which was published in two parts in Different Worlds magazine issues #42 and #43.
Arneson and Dustin Clingman founded Zeitgeist Games to produce an updated d20 System version of the Blackmoor setting. Goodman Games published and distributed Dave Arneson's Blackmoor in 2004, and Goodman produced a few more Blackmoor products in the next year. Code Monkey Publishing released Dave Arneson's Blackmoor: The First Campaign (2009) for 4th edition D&D.
Computer programming and education
In 1988 Arneson stated his belief that RPGs, whether paper or computer, were still "hack and slash" and did not teach novices how to play, and that games like Ultima IV "have stood pretty much alone as quirks instead of trend setters" as others did not follow their innovations. He hoped that computer RPGs would teach newcomers how to role play while offering interesting campaigns, and said that SSI's Gold Box games did not innovate on the genre as much as he had hoped. Arneson stepped into the computer industry and founded 4D Interactive Systems, a computer company in Minnesota that has since dissolved. He also did some computer programming and worked on several games. He eventually found himself consulting with computer companies. Arneson wrote the 1989 adventure DNA / DOA, the first adventure published for the FASA fantasy/cyberpunk game Shadowrun, which was released the same year.
Living in California in the late 1980s, Arneson had a chance to work with special education children. Upon returning to Minnesota, he pursued teaching and began speaking at schools about educational uses of role-playing and using multi-sided dice to teach math.
In the 1990s he began working at Full Sail, a private university that teaches multimedia subjects, and continued there as an instructor of computer game design until 2008. At Full Sail University he taught the class "Rules of the Game", a class in which students learned how to accurately document and create rule sets for games that were balanced between mental challenges for the players and "physical" ones for the characters. He retired from the position on June 19, 2008.
Other RPG involvements
Arneson continued to play games his entire life, including D&D and military miniature games, and regularly attended an annual meeting to play the original Blackmoor in Minnesota.
During the 1990s, he was invited to Brazil by Devir, a game publisher. He became friends with the owner of the publishing company and he gave him his D&D « woodgrain » box and some of his books as a gift.
In 1997, after Wizards of the Coast purchased TSR, Peter Adkison paid Arneson an undisclosed sum to free up D&D from royalties owed to Arneson; this allowed Wizards to retitle Advanced Dungeons & Dragons to simply Dungeons & Dragons.
Around 2000, Arneson was working with videographer John Kentner on Dragons in the Basement (unreleased), a video documentary on the early history of role-playing games. Arneson describes the documentary: "Basically it is a series of interviews with original players ('How did D&D affect your life?') and original RPG designers like Marc Miller (Traveller) and M.A.R. Barker (Empire of the Petal Throne)." He also made a cameo appearance in the Dungeons & Dragons movie as one of many mages throwing fireballs at a dragon, although the scene was deleted from the completed movie.
Personal life
Arneson married Frankie Ann Morneau in 1984; they had one daughter, Malia, and two grandchildren.
Arneson died on April 7, 2009, after battling cancer for two years. According to his daughter, Malia Weinhagen, "The biggest thing about my dad's world is he wanted people to have fun in life."
Honors and tributes
Arneson received numerous industry awards for his part in creating Dungeons & Dragons and other role-playing games. In 1984 he was inducted into the Academy of Adventure Gaming Arts and Design's Hall of Fame (also known as the Charles Roberts Awards Hall of Fame) and in 1999 was named by Pyramid magazine as one of The Millennium's Most Influential Persons, "at least in the realm of adventure gaming". He was honored as a "famous game designer" by being featured on the king of hearts in Flying Buffalo's 2008 Famous Game Designers Playing Card Deck.
Three days after his death, Wizards of the Coast temporarily replaced the front page of the Dungeons & Dragons section of their web site with a tribute to Arneson. Other tributes in the gaming world included Order of the Stick #644, and Dork Tower for April 8, 2009. Video game publisher Activision Blizzard posted a tribute to Arneson on their website and on April 14, 2009, released patch 3.1 of the online role-playing game World of Warcraft, The Secrets of Ulduar, dedicated to Arneson.
Turbine's Dungeons and Dragons Online added an in-game memorial altar to Arneson in the Ruins of Threnal location in the game. They also created an in-game item named the "Mantle of the Worldshaper" that is a reward for finishing the Threnal quest chain that is narrated by Arneson himself. The Mantle's description reads: "A comforting and inspiring presence surrounds you as you hold this cloak. Arcane runes run along the edges of the fine cape, and masterfully drawn on the silken lining is an incredibly detailed map of a place named 'Blackmoor'."
On October 30, 2010, Full Sail University dedicated the student game development studio space as "Dave Arneson's Blackmoor Studios" in Arneson's honor.
Since the release of the history of Braunstein in 2008 and Playing at the World in 2012, a scholarly work by Jon Petersen, the role of Dave Wesely and Dave Arneson was restored in the broad conversation on the origins of the tabletop role-playing games. Robert Kuntz published Dave Arneson's True Genius in 2017 and gave interviews to Kotaku to detail how the gameplay of the current tabletop role-playing games was designed by Arneson. In 2019, the documentary The Secrets of Blackmoor presented interviews of the first players of Dave Arneson and acknowledged his innovations.
Partial bibliography
Source:
Don't Give Up the Ship! (1972) (with Gary Gygax and Mike Carr)
Dungeons & Dragons (1974) (with Gary Gygax)
Blackmoor (1975)
Dungeonmaster's Index (1977)
The First Fantasy Campaign (1977)
Adventures in Fantasy (1979) (with Richard L. Snider)
Robert Asprin's Thieves' World (1981) (co-author)
Citybook II – Port o' Call (1984) (co-author)
Adventures in Blackmoor (D&D Module:DA1) (1986) (with David J. Ritchie)
Temple of the Frog (D&D Module:DA2) (1986) (with David J. Ritchie)
City of the Gods (D&D Module:DA3) (1987) (with David J. Ritchie)
DNA/DOA (Shadowrun module 1) (1989)
The Case of the Pacific Clipper (1991)
The Haunted Lighthouse (Dungeon Crawl Classics Module #3.5) (2003)
Dave Arneson's Blackmoor (2004) (lead designer)
Player's Guide to Blackmoor (2006)
References
External links
of Dave Arneson.
"Dave Arneson Interview" by at Digital Entertainment News.
"Dave Arneson Interview" by Andrew S. Bub at GameSpy, August 11, 2002.
"Slice of SciFi #151: Interview with "Dungeons & Dragons" co-creator Dave Arneson" by Farpoint Media, February 8, 2008.
Jeremy L.C. Jones. "If Their Hearts Are Pure: A Conversation with Dave Arneson", Kobold Quarterly no.9, 2009-04-11. Retrieved on 2009-05-03. Arneson's last known interview.
1947 births
2009 deaths
American game designers
Deaths from cancer in Minnesota
Dungeons & Dragons game designers
People from Hennepin County, Minnesota
People from Lake Geneva, Wisconsin
Role-playing game designers
University of Minnesota College of Liberal Arts alumni
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog%20Tax%20War
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Dog Tax War
|
The Dog Tax war was a confrontation in 1898 between the Crown and a group of Northern Māori, led by Hone Riiwi Toia, opposed to the enforcement of a 'dog tax'. It has been described by some authors as the last gasp of the 19th-century wars between the Māori and Pākehā settlers. It was, however, a bloodless "war", with only a few shots being fired. Hone Heke Ngapua, MHR for Northern Māori, was responsible for de-escalating the confrontation.
The tax
In the 1890s the Hokianga County Council imposed a tax of 2/6d (half crown) on each dog in the district. Many people, particularly in the South Hokianga, refused to pay—including Hone Riiwi Toia. The gradual encroachment on Māori autonomy, including the introduction of colonial laws instigated an armed protest, the response to which became known as the Dog Tax War.
The role of religion
Hone Toia was the leader/prophet of a breakaway group of Wesleyans called Te Huihuinga or Te Huihui. Te Huihuinga was also a political movement and considered themselves as having seceded from 'Te Kotahitanga' - the autonomous Māori parliament movement founded upon the 1835 "Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand" that pre-dated the Treaty of Waitangi. Hone had also met with Te Whiti-o-Rongomai the leader of the Pai Marire movement, Te Huihuinga adopted aspects of this movement which sought to retain their right to live as Māori without interference, and to make use of their traditional resources as guaranteed by the Treaty of Waitangi.
Other grievances held by this group included seasonal restrictions on the hunting of native birds, the land tax (on land held under Crown grant within five miles of a public road), the wheel tax (on vehicles with certain tyre widths).
It was during a Te Huihui meeting that Hone Toia prophesied that "if dogs were to be taxed, men would be next".
Europeans on the other hand, regarded Hone Toia as an imposter, and others associated him with the Hau Hau movement. This was a vehemently anti-Pākehā cult that had developed in the 1860s and spread throughout the North Island, and had been heavily involved in the later major conflicts, such as the Second Taranaki War.
Enforcement
In June 1897, Henry Menzies was put in charge of dog registrations by the Hokianga County Council, for which he received only the commission of one shilling for each dog collar sold. In 1898 he served 40 summons at Pukemiro pa (Hone Toia's village in Hauturu), where Menzies was rumoured to have said, that if the people refused to pay they would be sent to an ice-bound country where their bones would crack from the cold, (probably referring to the prisons of the lower South Island).
This suitably terrified the people of Te Huihuinga, some choosing to sleep in the bush out of fear of being arrested. Hone Toia intervened successfully achieving an adjournment to the summons, he then set up a meeting at Pukemiro on 28 April, inviting Seon, Constable Alexander McGilp, Menzies and others.
Resistance begins
Returning to the Hokianga, on 28 April 1898, Seon, Constable Alexander McGilp, Menzies and others attended the meeting. There they found one hundred and fifty men led by Hone Toia. Romana te Paehangi an elder and relative of Hone stated that they would not pay any taxes and that 'they would die on account of these taxes'. Hone Toia confirmed that they would rather resist than be driven further into poverty and hardship.
At Pukemiro they also announced their intention to come to Rawene (the administrative centre of the area) with their guns to continue their dispute with the County Council. They also gave assurances that no women or children or settlers would be hurt and that there would be no bloodshed unless they came in contact with the law. A telegraph was composed at the meeting and sent to Clendon in Hone Toia's name, however the message received was understood to mean that war would be waged because of the dog tax and that blood would be shed.
In Rawene panic ensued, many people withdrew to neighbouring Kohukohu or aboard the steamer 'Glenburg'.
A police inspector and five constables arrived by boat from Auckland and set up a cannon on the wharf. The party of less than 20 including Hone Toia and led by Romana Te Paehangi duly appeared, stripped for war, ready to present themselves to the law. The outnumbered police sensibly fled leaving their cannon behind. Rawene was deserted apart from a few neutral Māori and a handful of Pākehā including Rev. Gittos, and contractor Robert Cochrane.
Cochrane described the war party as quiet, expressing friendship to all but the law and as stating that they would not fire first. Gittos and Cochrane eventually persuaded them to return to Waima later that evening.
Descendants of the men involved described how Bob Cochrane ran the local hotel. Despite it being a Sunday and therefore illegal, he agreed to open the bar and served the visiting war party with beer. This gesture of goodwill went a long way to defusing the situation.
Some four days later the government had assembled a force of 120 men armed with rifles, two field guns and two rapid fire guns landed in Rawene. The force under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Stuart Newall and was later reinforced by the Royal Navy sloop HMS Torch.
On 5 May 1898, the government forces marched on Waima, Hone Toia sent a message requesting Newall wait at Omanaia, Newall refused. An ambush was feared at the crest of the hill between Waima and Rawene, after two shots were fired over the heads of the colonial troops. However the soldiers were allowed to pass unmolested and carried on to set up camp at Waima School. Toia and his men being camped some distance away.
Surrender and imprisonment of Hone Toia
The potential was there for serious conflict. However the situation was defused by the timely arrival of the Member of the House of Representative (MHR) for Northern Māori, Hone Heke Ngapua. He was the grand-nephew of the famous Hone Heke. He met with Hone Toia and negotiated a truce and the surrender of Hone, his people and some of their guns.
Hone Toia was arrested on 6 May with four others, 11 more were arrested later.
Hone Heke Ngapua had previously sent a telegraph to Hone Toia, advising him to disband his people, withdraw peacefully and to petition parliament, this was seen as a wise move by Heke, considering such acts as the 1863 Suppression of Rebellion Act, which suspended habeas corpus and introduced martial law into disturbed districts, and the New Zealand Settlements Act, which provided for the punitive confiscation of 'rebel natives' land.
Charged with "Intending by conspiring to levy war against the Queen in order to force her to change her measures, and conspiring by force to prevent collection of taxes", Hone and four others were sentenced for a total of two and a half years of hard labour. Others were subsequently fined and heavy costs imposed, but these were later remitted.
Hone Toia near the end of his sentence in Mount Eden prison, prophesied the date of the Huihuinga prisoners release, as the predicted day wore on his powers appeared to have left him, but later that night at 9pm, it was announced and the prisoners released. Te Huihuinga were released short of their full sentence, on 15 March 1899, this was probably due to the petitions of numerous Iwi (tribes) of the Hokianga and far north.
These events are still remembered to this day; the dog tax in the Hokianga remains, yet is still somewhat neglected, up to this very day.
References
Further reading
Lee, Jack (1987). Hokianga. Hodder and Stoughton.
Biography of Hone Toia, a leading figure of the war
External links
Photographs from the Dog Tax War held in Auckland Libraries' heritage collections.
Conflicts in 1898
New Zealand Wars
Far North District
History of the Northland Region
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211857
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banana%20slug
|
Banana slug
|
Banana slugs are North American terrestrial slugs comprising the genus Ariolimax.
They are often bright yellow (giving rise to the "banana" common name) although they may also be greenish, brown, tan, or white.
Species
Species within the genus Ariolimax include:
Species brought into synonymy
Ariolimax andersonii J. G. Cooper, 1872: synonym of Prophysaon andersonii (J.G. Cooper, 1872) (unaccepted combination)
Ariolimax californicus J.G. Cooper, 1872: synonym of Ariolimax californicus californicus J.G. Cooper, 1872
Ariolimax californicus costaricensis Cockerell, 1890: synonym of Deroceras costaricensis (Cockerell, 1890)
Ariolimax hemphilli W. G. Binney, 1875: synonym of Hesperarion hemphilli (W.G. Binney, 1875)
Ariolimax niger J. G. Cooper, 1872: synonym of Hesperarion niger (J. G. Cooper, 1872)
Ariolimax steindachneri Babor, 1900: synonym of Ariolimax columbianus (Gould, 1851)
Description
Banana slugs are often bright yellow (giving rise to the banana nomenclature) although they may also be greenish, brown, tan, or white. The species Ariolimax columbianus sometimes has black spots that are so extensive that the animal looks almost entirely black.
Individual slugs will change colors with alterations in food consumption, light exposure, and moisture levels. Color may also indicate whether a slug is healthy or injured or what age it is.
The Pacific banana slug is the second-largest species of terrestrial slug in the world, growing up to long, and weights of .
(The largest slug species is Limax cinereoniger of Europe, which can reach in length.) Banana slugs have an average lifespan of 1–7 years.
Banana slugs (like other gastropods and many other mollusks) have a radula, a ribbon-like anatomical structure covered in rows of microscopic teeth; the radula is used for feeding. Individuals can move at per minute.
Slugs use two pairs of tentacles to sense their environment. The larger, upper pair, termed "eyestalks," are used to detect light or movement. The second, lower pair are used to detect chemicals. The tentacles can retract and extend themselves to avoid damage.
If a predator bites off a tentacle, the slug can grow a new one.
Banana slugs have a single lung (on the right side) which opens externally via a pneumostome. The pneumostome lung cavity is heavily vascularized to allow gas exchange. Dehydration is a major problem for the mollusk; to combat this, banana slugs excrete a thick coating of mucus around their bodies and can also aestivate. To do so, they secrete a protective layer of mucus and insulate themselves with a layer of soil and leaves. They remain inactive in this state until the environment becomes moist again. Due to their susceptibility to desiccation, they are more commonly active at night, but also appear during cool, moist days.
The slime also contains pheromones to attract other slugs for mating. Slugs are simultaneous hermaphrodites, and reproduce by exchanging sperm with their mate. They produce up to 75 translucent eggs, which are laid in a log or on leaves. Slugs mate and lay eggs throughout the year. The adults provide no further care for their eggs beyond finding a suitable hiding spot, and the eggs are abandoned as soon as the clutch is laid.
Distribution
Ariolimax columbianus is native to the forest floors along North America's Pacific coastal coniferous rainforest belt (including douglas-fir forests and redwood forests) which stretches from Southeastern Alaska to Santa Cruz, California.
Several discontinuous populations also occur in forested slopes of the coastal and transverse mountain ranges south of Santa Cruz as far south as Ventura County, with a tiny, isolated population located in Palomar Mountain State Park within the Palomar Mountain Range in San Diego County, California. The Palomar Mountains have lush Sierra Nevada-like coniferous forests and black oak woodlands unlike the surrounding semiarid lands of inland San Diego County and mark the southernmost population of banana slugs. The slugs were rediscovered several years ago along Doane Creek, part of the Lower Doane Valley/Lower French Trail. This population is believed to be a relict from the Pleistocene epoch when the climate was cooler and wetter.
Small, isolated populations also occur east of the Pacific Coast such as in the inland coniferous rainforests of British Columbia's Columbia Mountains (interior wet-belt), just west of the Canadian Rockies, and have been seen at lower elevations near creeks and damp areas of Mount Revelstoke National Park. Small populations of banana slugs have also been seen along creek and damp areas of the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada mountains to the north of Yosemite National Park in California. Slug densities in these outlying areas in the Columbia Mountains, Sierra Nevada Mountains, and areas south of Santa Cruz are low compared to densities in the coastal coniferous rainforest belt and are rather restricted to damp areas near creeks, ravines, and gullies. This population may also be a relic from the Pleistocene epoch.
Ecology
Banana slugs are detritivores, or decomposers. They process leaves, animal droppings, moss, and dead plant material, and then recycle them into soil humus. They seem to have a fondness for mushrooms, spread seeds and spores when they eat, and excrete a nitrogen-rich fertilizer. By consuming detritus (dead organic matter) slugs contribute to decomposition and the nutrient cycles and are an important aspect of the ecosystem.
Raccoons, garter snakes, ducks, geese and salamanders sometimes eat banana slugs; they roll the slugs in soil to bind the slime. Juvenile banana slugs are sometimes eaten by moles or shrews.
Slime
The mucus secreted by banana slugs contains chemicals that can numb the tongue of predators. This mucus can absorb up to 100 times its volume in water. Technically, this slime is neither liquid nor solid, but rather a liquid crystal substance and has many properties that interest materials engineers.
In culture
Banana slugs have been used as food by Yurok Natives of the North Coast and by German immigrants in the 19th and early 20th centuries. A yearly festival and contest is held at Russian River including slug races and a contest for recipes though, even when fed corn meal to purge them or soaked in vinegar to remove slime, the slugs' flavor is not always well regarded for the modern palate, and the most successful entries are often those in which the flavor is unnoticeable.
The banana slug (specifically Ariolimax dolichophallus, which is the most common banana slug on campus) is the mascot of the University of California, Santa Cruz. It is common in local forests, was approved by a student vote and has won awards. One T-shirt caption was: "No known predators!"
References
Footnotes
External links
Ariolimacidae
Endemic fauna of North America
Molluscs of North America
Pre-Columbian California cuisine
|
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] |
211865
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counties%20of%20Finland
|
Counties of Finland
|
Finland is divided into 19 counties (; )
Until 2022 the counties, often called regions in English, were governed by councils that served as forums of cooperation for the municipalities of each county. The main tasks of these councils were regional planning, development of enterprises, and education, but they also usually administered public health services. Between 2004 and 2022, the only county where popular elections for the council were held was Kainuu, as part of an experimental county administration. Everywhere else the councils were composed of delegates from the municipal councils.
In 2022, the first direct elections for county councils were held. Under reforms aimed at creating wellbeing services counties, these councils have taken over respnsibility for health care and social services reform. In the process the official English name for the unit has been changed from "region" to county, while the Finnish and Swedish names remain unchanged.
Åland
One region, Åland, has a special status and has a much higher degree of autonomy than the others, with its own Parliament and local laws, due to its unique history and the fact that the overwhelming majority of its people are Finland Swedes. The sole language of Åland is Swedish/Finland Swedish, unlike the rest of the country where Finnish and Swedish share official status. It has its own elected head of government who carries the title of Premier and heads the Lantrad, the regional executive. Most powers that would be exercised by the Government of Finland on the mainland are instead exercised by Åland-specific authorities which execute independent policy in most areas. The Åland islanders elect a single representative to the national legislature, while the Government of Finland appoints a Governor to represent the national government on Åland. Åland is a demilitarised zone and Åland islanders are exempt from conscription.
Representation of the state
In addition to inter-municipal cooperation, which is the responsibility of regional councils, there are 15 Centres for Economic Development, Transport and the Environment (Finnish: elinkeino-, liikenne- ja ympäristökeskus, abbreviated ely-keskus), which is responsible for the local administration of labour, agriculture, fisheries, forestry and entrepreneurial affairs. They are each responsible for one or more of regions of Finland, and include offices of the Ministries of Employment and the Economy, Transport and Communications and Environment. The Finnish Defence Forces regional offices are responsible for the regional defence preparations and for the administration of conscription within the region.
List of regions
Former regional borders
See also
Municipalities of Lapland
Regions of Northern Finland
Regions of Eastern Finland
Regions of Western and Central Finland
Regions of South-Western Finland
Regions of Southern Finland
Municipalities of Åland
County Councils of Sweden
Household pennants of Finland
ISO 3166-2:FI
Regional State Administrative Agency
List of Finnish regions by GDP
Notes
References
External links
Regional Councils of FinlandOfficial site
Regional State Administrative Agencies
Subdivisions of Finland
Regions
Finland 1
Regions, Finland
|
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] |
211868
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20trade%20mark%20law
|
Australian trade mark law
|
Australian trade mark law is based on common-law use-based rights as well as the Trade Marks Act 1995 (Cth), which is administered by IP Australia, an Australian government agency within the Department of Industry, Innovation and Science.
Use-based rights are less certain than registration, and depend on the mark having developed a reputation in the region in which a business owner seeks to enforce its common-law trade mark. Registration provides advantages such as constructive notice and nationwide rights.
Among other things, the Trade Marks Act defines trade marks (including certification marks and collective marks), what constitutes trademark infringement and defences and exceptions thereto, and (together with the Trade Marks Regulations 1995 (Cth)) sets out procedures for registration and other proceedings before the Registrar of Trade Marks. The legislation does not codify the law of trade marks in Australia; as a common law jurisdiction, a trade mark owner may also (for example) seek to protect its rights through legal proceedings for passing off or, more commonly, misleading and deceptive conduct contrary to the Competition and Consumer Act 2010.
Section 17 of the Trade Marks Act defines a trade mark as "a sign used, or intended to be used, to distinguish goods or services dealt with or provided in the course of trade by a person from goods or services so dealt with or provided by any other person".
Registration
The procedure to register a trade mark in Australia is much the same as in other British Commonwealth countries. A completed application is filed by an applicant with IP Australia. The application is then checked ("examined") by an examiner of trade marks for compliance with formalities and substantive requirements (e.g. registrability, and lack of confusing similarity with a conflicting trade mark). Examination in Australia has (from 2019 to 2021) been backlogged. The Australian Trade Marks Office Manual of Practice and Procedure is an official publication produced by IP Australia, which provides detailed information to examiners and applicants on the practices and procedures relating to the filing, examination, and registration of a trade mark in accordance with the provisions of the Trade Marks Act 1995 (Cth).
If an application is accepted for registration by an examiner, it will be published for opposition purposes for two months, during which time third parties may oppose registration on certain grounds. If there are no oppositions, or any oppositions are overcome, a certificate of registration will issue.
The term of registration in Australia is 10 years, which may be extended for additional periods of 10 years. Failure to use a registered trade mark for a period of three years or more may expose the registration to removal from the register on the grounds of non-use.
Infringement
Infringement is defined by section 120 of the Trade Marks Act, and includes a cause of action for infringement of well-known marks.
Assistance from Customs
The Australian Border Force has in place a procedure permitting a registered trade mark owner to seize goods which infringe registered trade mark rights.
See also
Trademark symbol
References
External links
IP Australia
Australian Trade Marks Office Manual of Practice and Procedure
Institute of Patent and Trade Marks Attorneys of Australia (IPTA)
Intellectual Property Society of Australia and New Zealand (IPSANZ)
Trademark law by jurisdiction
Australian intellectual property law
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1956%20Winter%20Olympics
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1956 Winter Olympics
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The 1956 Winter Olympics, officially known as the VII Olympic Winter Games () and commonly known as Cortina d'Ampezzo 1956, was a multi-sport event held in Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy, from 26 January to 5 February 1956.
Cortina, which had originally been awarded the 1944 Winter Olympics, beat out Montreal, Colorado Springs and Lake Placid for the right to host the 1956 Games. The Cortina Games were unique in that many of the venues were within walking distance of each other. The organising committee received financial support from the Italian government for infrastructure improvements, but the rest of the costs for the Games had to be privately financed. Consequently, the organising committee was the first to rely heavily on corporate sponsorship for funding.
Thirty-two nations—the largest number of countries participating in the Winter Olympics until then—competed in the four sports and twenty-four events. Austrian Toni Sailer became the first person to sweep all three alpine skiing events in a single Olympics. The figure skating competition was held outdoors for the last time at these Games. Logistically, the only problem encountered was a lack of snow at the alpine skiing events. To remedy this, the Italian army transported large amounts of snow to ensure the courses were adequately covered.
Politics did not affect the 1956 Winter Games – unlike the Summer Games in Melbourne, Australia later in the year which many nations boycotted after the Soviet repression of the Hungarian Revolution, and the Suez War. The Cortina Olympics were the first Winter Olympics televised to a multi-national audience. Cortina is scheduled to co-host the 2026 Winter Olympics with Milan, 70 years after the 1956 Games.
Host city selection
Cortina d'Ampezzo is a ski resort village situated in the Dolomite Alps in the north-eastern corner of Italy. In 1956, it had a population of 6,500 people. Count Alberto Bonacossa, an accomplished alpine skier, figure skater and a member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) since 1925, spearheaded the effort to bring the Olympic Games to Cortina d'Ampezzo. He persuaded the city council of Cortina to bid for the 1944 Games. During the 38th IOC Congress held in London in 1939, Cortina d'Ampezzo was awarded the 1944 Winter Olympics, but the Games were canceled due to the outbreak of World War II.
In 1946 the Italian Winter Sports Federation convened in Milan and decided to support a new attempt from Cortina to host the Winter Games. A delegation, led by Count Bonacossa, presented Cortina's bid to host the 1952 Winter Olympics at the 40th IOC Session in Stockholm, Sweden. They were backed by the city's council and the Italian National Olympic Committee (CONI, Comitato Olimpico Nazionale Italiano). A rival bid from Oslo, Norway, soundly defeated Cortina. Count Bonacossa's and CONI prepared a third bid, this time for the 1956 Winter Games. The host city selection took place in Rome, during the 43rd IOC Session. On 28 April 1949, Cortina d'Ampezzo was selected with 75% of the votes, over bids from Montreal, Colorado Springs and Lake Placid. Unfortunately, Bonacossa died on 30 January 1953, three years before he could witness Cortina host the Games.
Participating nations
A total of 32 nations sent athletes to Cortina d'Ampezzo. Along with the Soviet Union, Bolivia and Iran competed at the Winter Games for the first time, making Bolivia the first completely tropical nation to participate in a Winter Olympics. Korea, Liechtenstein, and Turkey returned after having missed the 1952 Winter Olympics, while Argentina, Denmark, New Zealand, and Portugal did not compete at these Games, after having participated in the previous edition. Athletes from West Germany (FRG) and East Germany (GDR) competed together as the United Team of Germany, an arrangement that would continue for the following two Olympiads.
Below is the list of participating nations, with the number of competitors indicated in brackets:
Number of athletes by National Olympic Committees
<noinclude>
Medal count
These are the top ten nations that won medals at the 1956 Winter Olympics:
Two gold medals were awarded when Soviet skaters tied in the 1,500 metre speed skating competition.
Podium sweeps
Organization
The 1956 Winter Olympics was organised by a committee composed of members of the Italian National Olympic Committee and the Italian government. Observers were sent to the Oslo Games in 1952 to collect information regarding the sports programme, infrastructure, and accommodation requirements. The intelligence gathered there indicated that Cortina's facilities were not up to Olympic standards. The town did not have an ice stadium, or a speed skating rink; the alpine ski runs, ski jump and bobsleigh run were in poor condition. Cortina was a small village, and its infrastructure would be overwhelmed by the crowds expected for the Games. To accommodate the influx of people, new roads and rail lines had to be built, and the city's power grid and telephone lines expanded. Enhancements also had to be made to sewer and water capacity. The Italian government supplied Italian lira 460 million for infrastructure improvements. The Italian Olympic Committee was responsible for funding the rest of the costs of hosting the Games. They did this by setting aside monies from their own budget, ticket sales, and even culling funds from local football betting pools. The organising committee also took the unprecedented step of selling corporate sponsorship. For example, Fiat was designated the official car of the 1956 Winter Olympics, and Olivetti supplied typewriters for the 400 journalists attending the Games.
Politics
The Cold War began after the allied victory in World War II. Until 1952, many of the Communist countries of Eastern Europe had participated in Worker's Olympics or Spartakiads. The Soviet Union emerged from international isolation by eschewing the Spartakiad and participating in the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki; they made their Winter Olympics debut at the Cortina Games. Soviet general secretary Nikita Khrushchev's aim was to use international sports competitions, such as the Olympics, to demonstrate the superiority of communism, strengthen political ties with other communist countries, and project the Soviet Union as a peace-loving nation actively engaged in the world. The Soviets' participation at the Olympics raised the level of competition as they won the most medals and more gold medals than any other nation. Soviet Olympic team was also notorious for skirting the edge of amateur rules. All Soviet athletes held some nominal jobs, but were in fact state-sponsored and trained full-time. According to many experts, that gave the Soviet Union a huge advantage over the United States and other Western countries, whose athletes were students or real amateurs. The Cortina Games were held before the Hungarian Revolution and subsequent Soviet invasion, and the Suez War, which occurred in the autumn of 1956; the Winter Games escaped the boycotts that plagued the Melbourne Olympics, which were celebrated in November and December of that year.
Television
The Cortina Games were the first Winter Olympics to be broadcast to a multi-national audience. Television as a mass communication technology was expanding rapidly in the 1950s. In the midst of the Cold War, Europe was a propaganda battlefield as countries relayed television signals across the Iron Curtain. By 1956, countries in the Soviet sphere of influence had achieved a technological advantage and were able to broadcast communist television programmes into Finland, the eastern border regions and more isolated geographic areas of West Germany and Austria, where residents had coverage from an East German broadcast with a pro-communist point-of-view. Most West Germans watched the 1956 Winter Olympics via Eurovision broadcasts which were relayed all over western Europe including all major West German stations (Eurovision connectivity in 1956) The political ramifications were not the only impact television had these Olympics. The Cortina Games did not generate revenue from television – the 1960 Winter Olympics in Squaw Valley were the first to do so – but were an experiment in the feasibility of televising a large multi-sport event. For the first time at an Olympic Games, the venues were built with television in mind. For example, the grand stand at the cross-country ski venue (Lo Stadio della neve) was built facing south so that the television cameras would not be adversely affected by the rising or setting sun.
Events
Medals were awarded in 24 events contested in 4 sports (8 disciplines). The programme for the 1956 Winter Games saw two new events added to the four sports and twenty-two events from the 1952 Olympics, namely the men's 30 kilometre cross-country ski race and the women's 3x5 kilometre cross-country relay race.
Skating
Skiing
Opening ceremonies
The opening ceremonies took place on Thursday, 26 January 1956 in the Olympic Ice Stadium. Temporary seating was added to boost the stadium's capacity to 14,000 people. Athletes representing 32 nations marched in the ceremony and Mr Giovanni Gronchi, President of the Italian Republic, declared the Games open. At this point, speed skater Guido Caroli skated into the stadium with the Olympic flame. While he was entered on a circuit of the Ice Stadium he tripped and fell over a television cable; he regained his feet and lit the cauldron. The Olympic oath was delivered by Giuliana Chenal-Minuzzo; this was the first time a female athlete gave the oath at an Olympic Games. Michał Spisak's Olympic Hymn, officially recognised as such at the IOC congress in Paris on 13 June 1955 (declined in 1958 in favor of the Olympic Hymn by Spyridon Samaras), was played for the first time at the Cortina Games.
Bobsleigh
There were two bobsleigh events, the two-man and four-man competitions. Every participating nation was limited to two sleighs in each event. The sleighs made four runs, with the total time summed. The Italians won gold and silver in the two-man event. Switzerland took third place when they passed Spain on the fourth run. In the four-man event held a week later, the Swiss won the gold medal, Italy picked up the silver, and the United States won the bronze. Italy had participated in all six previous Olympic bobsleigh competitions but had never reached the podium. Italians Renzo Alverà and Eugenio Monti won the silver in the two-man competition and were also on the silver-winning four-man sleigh. Monti's silver medals at the 1956 Games were the first of six Olympic medals he would win in his bobsleigh career. The bobsleigh run at Cortina was eventually renamed the Eugenio Monti track to honour his bobsleigh career. The medals won in bobsleigh would be the host nation's only medals at these Games. One complaint of the bobsleigh events was that the track surface suffered extensive damage due to overuse. This hampered the performance of teams drawn late in the competition.
Ice hockey
The eighth Olympic ice hockey tournament also served as both the European and World Championships. Split into three pools before the tournament, the ten participating nations began by playing each team in their pool in a round robin format. The top two teams from each pool advanced to the final round, with the remaining teams played in a consolation group for 7th through 10th places. Canada, Czechoslovakia, and the Soviet Union took first place in their preliminary pools with undefeated records. Germany, the United States, and Sweden took second place in their pools.
An important early matchup of the final round was the game between Canada and the United States. The Canadians had never lost to the US in Olympic play prior to that game. In what was considered a tremendous upset, the United States defeated Canada 4–1. The Americans, who placed fourth at the 1955 World Ice Hockey Championships and were not expected to medal, then faced the USSR, who won the tournament in 1954 and took silver in 1955 behind Canada, in a game that would eventually make the difference in the gold medal. The Soviets overwhelmed the underdogs and won the match 4–0. The USSR then played Canada, who still had a chance to win the gold if they defeated the Soviets, and won 2–0 despite being dramatically outshot in the first and second periods. The USSR won gold, the United States surprisingly took silver and Canada, with their two losses, earned bronze, their worst result to date in Olympic play.
Figure skating
The Cortina Games were the last Olympics to feature figure skating outdoors. Skaters from the United States won five medals, sweeping the men's event and taking the top two spots in the ladies' event. Tenley Albright was the women's Olympic champion despite sustaining a serious injury in practice. Less than two weeks before the Olympics she was practicing her skating routine when she hit a rut in the ice and fell. Her skate cut through several layers of clothing, and sliced her right leg at the ankle. Her teammate Carol Heiss won the silver, and Austrian Ingrid Wendl earned the bronze medal. Americans Hayes Jenkins, Ronald Robertson, and Jenkins' brother David Jenkins were the men's medallists. The Austrian pair of Sissy Schwarz and Kurt Oppelt took the gold medal in the pairs event. Canadians Frances Dafoe and Norris Bowden won the silver and the Hungarian siblings Marianna Nagy and László Nagy defended their bronze medal from the 1952 Games.
Speed skating
The Soviet Union dominated the speed skating events by winning seven of the twelve medals, including four golds. Soviet skaters set two world records, an Olympic record, and had at least one medallist in each of the four events. Yevgeny Grishin was the top individual performer, with two gold medals and two world records. Grishin and Soviet teammate Yuri Mikhaylov tied in the 1,500 metre race. It was decided to award both of the athletes gold medals and leave the silver medal position vacant. Sigvard Ericsson of Sweden earned gold and silver medals and set an Olympic record in the 10,000 metre event.
Alpine skiing
Six alpine skiing events were held, three for men and three for women. The races were the downhill, slalom and giant slalom. Toni Sailer of Austria swept the men's gold medals, becoming the first person to win three alpine skiing golds in a single Olympics. Led by Sailer, the Austrians dominated the alpine skiing events for both men and women, winning nine out of a possible eighteen medals. The Austrians were particularly successful in the giant slalom; the men swept the medals and the women took silver and bronze. Chiharu Igaya won the first Winter Olympics medal for Japan when he placed second in the slalom. Swiss teammates, Madeleine Berthod and Renée Colliard won the women's downhill and slalom races. Germany earned its only gold medal of the Games when Ossi Reichert took first in the giant slalom.
Cross-country skiing
Two women's events were added to the cross-country skiing programme for the first time. The Soviet women took the top two spots in the individual 10 kilometre race but lost to Finland in the new 3x5 kilometre relay. The men had a new event as well, the 30 kilometre race, which was won by Veikko Hakulinen from Finland. The other three men's events were won by three different nations: Norway took the 15 kilometre race, Sweden the 50 kilometre event, and the Soviet Union won the relay. Overall the Soviet Union won seven out of a possible eighteen medals in cross-country skiing. Sweden, behind the strong skiing of Sixten Jernberg, won six medals. Jernberg won a gold, two silvers, and a bronze, which were the first of nine Olympic medals he would earn in his cross-country career.
Nordic combined
There were significant changes to the Nordic combined event at the 1956 Games. The event had always been a cross-country race followed by a ski jump. Originally the competitors in the Nordic combined were entered into the open 18 kilometre cross-country race, which meant that they competed alongside athletes who were dedicated cross-country skiers. Their times were combined with their score from two ski jumps to determine the winner. At the Cortina Games, the format was altered to allow the Nordic combined athletes to compete in a dedicated 15 kilometre cross-country race. Two days later they had three jumps on the ski jump hill. Their best two scores were combined with their cross-country time to determine a winner. This format would become the standard for Nordic combined competitions going forward. Norway continued its dominance of Nordic combined when Sverre Stenersen won the gold medal. Since its inception at the 1924 Games, the country had only lost the Nordic combined event once. Stenersen was followed by Bengt Eriksson of Sweden and Poland's Franciszek Gąsienica Groń.
Ski jumping
In the ski jumping event, the Swiss jumper, Andreas Däscher introduced a new style of jumping, which would soon come to be known as the Däscher technique. Before these Games, the athletes would hold their arms forward over their heads. Däscher reasoned that if the athlete held his arms at his side he would fly farther. Adherents to this new style dominated the competition. Finnish jumpers Antti Hyvärinen and Aulis Källakorpi took first and second place; Harry Glass of Germany won the bronze medal. This competition marked the end of Norwegian dominance in the sport. Since the first winter Games in 1924, the Norwegians had won the gold medal at each Olympics until 1956. The poor performance of the Norwegian jumpers was attributed to their refusal to use the new jumping technique.
Closing ceremonies
The closing ceremonies took place on Sunday, 5 February in the Olympic Ice Stadium. They were preceded by a figure skating exhibition performed by the men's, women's, and pairs figure skating champions. The flag bearers of each nation then entered the stadium followed by the flags of Greece, Italy, and the United States. These three flags were raised to honor the nation that founded the Olympics, the host nation, and the next country to host the Winter Games. Avery Brundage, President of the International Olympic Committee, declared the Olympics closed, and a fireworks display concluded the Games.
Calendar
All dates are in Central European Time (UTC+1)
The opening ceremony was held on 26 January, along with the first games of the hockey tournament. From 27 January until 5 February, the day of the closing ceremony, at least one event final was held each day.
† The numeral indicates the number of event finals for each sport held that day.
Venues
A unique feature of the Cortina Olympics was the proximity of many event locations which were in walking distance of each other within the town of Cortina. The speed skating events were held at Lake Misurina, roughly from Cortina. The venues featured grandstands heated by silica coils built into the seats. Silica coil heating was a technology that had only recently become economical. The competitions were held without incident except for the skiing events, which suffered from a lack of snow.
A notable venue not found at the 1956 Games was an Olympic Village, where the athletes would be housed. The town of Cortina d'Ampezzo had a population of less than 7,000 people in 1956. Local hotels were concerned that after the Olympics an Olympic Village would so significantly increase the hotel capacity it would put many of them out of business. Athletes were billeted by local families or stayed in hotels during the Games.
The Olympic Ice Stadium (Stadio Olimpico Del Ghiaccio) was intended to be the focal point of the Games. It was built on the banks of the Boite river just north of Cortina. After new roads and a bridge had been constructed, the stadium was an eight-minute walk from the center of town. The stadium was built to accommodate 6,000–7,000 people. Due to space limitations the grandstands were constructed vertically, with tiers built directly on top of each other. There were two artificial ice rinks of , with a total ice surface of . A special cooling plant was built under the stadium, which froze the ice through the evaporation of ammonia. The construction cost totaled ITL 1.3 billion (US$2.1 million in 1956), making it the most expensive venue of these Games. The stadium was used for the opening and closing ceremonies, all of the figure skating competitions and main ice hockey games. After the Games, the organising committee made the Ice Stadium a gift to the city of Cortina and turned it on a permanent instalation. It was used as an ice skating rink in the winter and an outdoor gymnasium for judo and gymnastics in the summer and will host the curling events at the 2026 Winter Olympics.
The Apollonio Stadium was used for select games of the ice hockey tournament. Considerable work had to be done to bring the stadium up to date. A second rink was added to allow for two games to be held simultaneously. The stadium was outfitted with electric lights and the seating capacity was enlarged to accommodate 2,000 people.
The bobsleigh run (Pista Olimpica di Bob – Eugenio Monti), was originally constructed in 1928. The track was rebuilt and expanded several times during the years leading up to the Olympics. A state-of-the-art signal board was installed displaying a diagram of the run with the position of each sleigh on the run shown with lights,this track will host again the bobsleigh along the skeleton and the luge again during the 2026 Winter Olympics.
Situated around from Cortina, near Zuel, the "Italia" Jump (Trampolino Olimpico Italia) was originally built in 1923 as the "Franchetti" Jump. After modifications in 1926, the first structure was demolished in 1939 and rebuilt in 1940. With the 1956 Games coming to Cortina, the jump had to be updated again to comply with the technical demands of the Olympics. On 15 April 1955, the "Franchetti" Jump was finally demolished and the new "Italia Jump" was completed in the same year at a cost of nearly ITL 310 million ($500,000). The reinforced concrete platform was high, and possessed a long, 35° steep in-run. Two grandstands, each with a capacity for 3,000 people, were placed on either side of the landing slope; a natural amphitheatre at the bottom of the hill could hold up to 40,000 standing spectators. A special road was built between Cortina and the venue for the transport of athletes, officials and authorities.
The Snow Stadium (Stadio della neve) was constructed from Cortina, and hosted all of the cross-country events. Two grandstands were constructed to accommodate 6,000 people. Three types of cross-country courses were constructed: one of , three of , and four of . Some of these courses went through the bobsleigh run. As a result, a bridge had to be constructed so events occurring in the two venues would not interfere with each other.
The alpine runs (Le piste alpine) were built on the slopes of Monte Tofana and Monte Faloria in the nearby Dolomite alps. The men's and women's downhill and slalom races were held on Tofana. Faloria was the site of the two giant slalom events. It took nearly two years to complete construction of the runs. In previous years, lack of snow was never an issue, but in the winter of 1956 there was insufficient snowfall for skiers to safely navigate the runs. As a consequence, snow had to be transported from other parts of the mountains by the Italian army.
The Misurina rink (La pista di Misurina) was the location of the speed skating events. This was the last time that speed skating at the Olympics was held on natural ice. It was from Cortina. The rink was established at the northern end of the lake with a mountain backdrop. Stands were constructed to accommodate 8,500 people. Despite the event being held outdoors on lake ice, two world records and two Olympic records were broken during the competition.
Three of the venues for these games (the bobsleigh run, indoor arena, and ski jump) would serve as film location for the 1981 James Bond film For Your Eyes Only.
See also
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
External links
1956 Winter Olympics official report.
Olympic Games in Italy
Winter Olympics by year
Winter Olympics
Winter Olympics
Sport in Cortina d'Ampezzo
Cortina d'Ampezzo
Winter Olympics
Winter Olympics
Winter sports competitions in Italy
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964%20Winter%20Olympics
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1964 Winter Olympics
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The 1964 Winter Olympics, officially known as the IX Olympic Winter Games () and commonly known as Innsbruck 1964, was a winter multi-sport event which was celebrated in Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria, from January 29 to February 9, 1964. The city was already an Olympic candidate, unsuccessfully bidding to host the 1960 Games. Innsbruck won the 1964 Games bid defeating the cities of Calgary in Canada and Lahti in Finland. The sports venues, many of which were built for the Games, were located within a radius of twenty kilometers around Innsbruck. The Games included 1,091 athletes from 36 nations, which was a record for the Winter Games at the time. Athletes participated in six sports and ten disciplines which bring together a total of thirty-four official events, seven more than the 1960. The luge made its debut on the Olympic program. Three Asian nations made their Winter Games debut: North Korea, India and Mongolia.
The Soviet Union broke the record for the most gold and overall medals at a single Winter Olympics, with eleven and twenty five, and finished first in the medal table. The Soviet Union was followed by Austria, the host country, which won twelve medals, four of which were gold. Soviet athletes Lidia Skoblikova won all four women's races of speed skating and Klavdiya Boyarskikh won all three events of cross-country skiing. The Swedish cross-country skier Sixten Jernberg, a three-time medalist at these Games, became the first athlete to achieve nine medals at the Winter Games. In alpine skiing, the French sisters Christine and Marielle Goitschel each obtained a gold and a silver medal. Before the Games, the Austrian army was mobilized to deal with the lack of snow. They brought thousands of cubic meters of it from Brenner Pass, close to the Italian border. The Olympic Winter Games was held a second time in Innsbruck in 1976.
The Olympic Torch was carried by Joseph Rieder, a former alpine skier who had participated in the 1956 Winter Olympics.
The Games were affected by the deaths of Australian alpine skier Ross Milne and British luge slider Kazimierz Kay-Skrzypeski, during training, and by the deaths, three years earlier, of the entire United States figure skating team and family members.
Bid and background for the Games
Host city selection
The city of Innsbruck submitted its first Olympic bid in the 1950s to host the 1960 Winter Olympic Games. The Austrians had a convincing bid and were viewed as the favorites to host the games. In the second round of the vote of the members of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) selected the American city of Squaw Valley.
A month later, the Innsbruck authorities decided to enter a bid again for the 1964 Winter Games. On 26 May 1959, during the 55th session of the (IOC) in Munich, West Germany, the Austrians were selected in a landslide for the Games with 49 votes in the first round, ahead of Calgary (Canada), which obtained 9 votes and Lahti (Finland), which did not receive a vote.
Political situation
Despite the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961, which increased tensions between East and West and the fact that East Germany wanted to have its own team, the managed to maintain the United Team of Germany for the third consecutive Olympiad. In the 1960s, the IOC also discussed the Olympic participation of South Africa, a country immersed in the apartheid regime. During the Games in Innbruck, the IOC President Avery Brundage announced that the country would not be able to participate in the 1964 Summer Olympics because of its policy of racial segregation in sport. On the other hand, several African countries which had become independent joined the Olympic movement: the national Olympic committees of Algeria, of Congo, from Nigeria and Sierra Leone were recognized by the IOC during the session held during the Innsbruck Games. The number of IOC member nations increased to 114. In addition, the Innsbruck Games were used for the dissemination of political messages. Five Iranian students are arrested after marching with banners hostile to the shah. Twenty other Iranians, who demonstrated for the release of prisoners in their country, were also imprisoned.
Organization
Organizing Committee
The Organizing Committee of the IX Winter Olympics in Innsbruck 1964 was formed on 2 June 1959. Heinrich Drimmel, President of the Austrian Olympic Committee and Federal Minister of Education, was elected as its president and Friedl Wolfgang was elected as its secretary-general. The organizing committee was made up of the general assembly, the board of directors, and the executive committee, as well as eight sub-committees created to manage the different aspects of the Games: finance, construction, sports, transport, etc. accommodation and medical services, lodging, administration and checks.
Financial aspects
The Innsbruck Games cost around one billion schillings, or 40 million US dollars distributed among the organizing committee, the Austrian state, the Land of Tyrol and the city of Innsbruck. The organizers tried to reduce the expenses related to the provisional elements, and to invest more money for the facilities which would continue to be used after the Games. The Olympiaeisstadion costs 75 million schillings, the renovation of the Bergisel Ski Jump 15 million and the Olympic Sliding Centre Innsbruck 10 million. The development of ski slopes, cross-country skiing and biathlon required a total of 29 million. The Olympic village, intended to become a leisure center, costs 174 million. A total of 225 million was invested to renovate and develop the road network in the region.
Television
The 1964 edition was the third time that the Winter Games were broadcast on television and the second time that exclusive broadcasting rights were sold. This was a substantial increase: where they were in 1960, the broadcast rights yielded in 1964, which was approximately 24 million schillings. Thirty countries broadcast the Games. The American channel ABC paid nearly 15.4 million schillings, or 64 per cent of the broadcast rights revenue. The Eurovision network spent around 7.6 million for 16 countries, the Soviet television SURк600,000 and the Intervision network for six countries in Western Europe. The CTV Television Network paid for the exclusive broadcast rights in Canada.
Schedule
Calendar
The Games were held over twelve days, from January 29 to February 9. Thirty-four events were on the program, an increase from the twenty-seven at Squaw Valley four years earlier. Three luge events (individual men and women, doubles men) were included in the Olympic program.Bobsled, which was absent from the 1960 Games due to the cost of building the track, returned to the Games.Ski jumping was divided into two events (small and large hill) and the women's 5-kilometer was added in cross-country skiing. Ice stock sport (Eisstockschießen), a variant of curling popular in Alpine countries, was a demonstration sport as in Garmisch-Partenkirchen in 1936. In total, 1,073,000 people attend the various events. The disciplines which attracted the most spectators were alpine skiing and ice hockey.
Weather conditions before the Games
In the weeks leading up to the Games, temperatures often rose above zero degrees Celsius due to the foehn, a hot, dry wind. There was no major snowfall for seven weeks, and the rain melted snow and ice at sports venues. This was the first time in around a century that the snowfall had been so low in Tyrol. Two weeks before the start of the Games, thousands of Austrian soldiers were mobilized to transport by truck 40,000m3 of snow from the Brenner Pass, close to the Italian border, and spread it by hand on the ski slopes. 20,000m3 of snow was built up and 20,000 blocks of ice were transported to the bobsleigh and toboggan run.
Opening Ceremony
The Opening Ceremony took place on January 29 at the Bergisel Ski Jump stadium in front of approximately 50,000 spectators. The Games were opened by the President of Austria Adolf Schärf. The bobsledder Paul Aste took the Olympic oath. Aste modified the oath slightly: instead of saying "for the glory of sport and the honor of our countries", he replaced the word "country" with "teams" to remove the nationalist elements of the oath. This was the first time that the Olympic flame of the Winter Games has been lit in front of the Temple of Hera in Olympia, Greece. In the stadium, the alpine skier Josef Rieder lit the cauldron. Tyrolean orchestras performed during the ceremony.
Events
Biathlon
The biathlon made its second Olympic appearance. As in 1960, the only event contested was a 20-kilometer cross-country ski race with four shooting ranges of 100 to 250 meters. Soviet athlete Vladimir Melanin, a heavy favorite, won the event. This was the first time he did not miss any of his twenty shots in a major competition. His compatriot Aleksandr Privalov, who also had a clean shoot, was second by more than three minutes and the Norwegian Olav Jordet, who missed a target, won the bronze medal. The Finn Veikko Hakulinen was the fastest, but missed six shots and finished 15th.
Bobsleigh
The bobsleigh was not on the program for the 1960 Winter Olympic Games, at Squaw Valley in the United States, because of the low number of crews and the cost of building the track. In 1964, bobsleigh events made a comeback and were contested on the Olympic Sliding Centre Innsbruck. Neither of the two Olympic champion teams, Great Britain and Canada, has a track in their country
During the first round of the two-man event, the bobsleigh of the British Robin Dixon and Tony Nash was damaged and the competition's favorite, the Italian Eugenio Monti, lent them a axle bolt. After two rounds, the British beat the two Italian teams. After the third set, the Italians Sergio Zardini and Romano Bonagura beat Dixon and Nash by just five hundredths of a second. Finally, Dixon and Nash become Olympic champions with 12 hundredths ahead of silver medalists Zardini and Bonagura and 73 over third, Eugenio Monti and Sergio Siorpaes. This is the only time in history that the British have been Olympic bobsleigh champions. After the Games, Monti received the first Pierre de Coubertin medal for his sportsmanship towards the British team.
The Canadians surprised in the four-man bobsleigh event. As the country competed for the first time in the Olympic bobsleigh events, the pilot's team Vic Emery won the first round, breaking the track record, and increased his lead in the following three rounds. Canada won gold by more than a second ahead of Erwin Thaler 's Austrian bobsleigh and Eugenio Monti' s Italian bobsleigh.
Nordic combined
The Nordic combined event took place in the village of Seefeld in Tirol. On the first day, the competitors did three jumps and the two best results are recorded. The next day, they did a 15-kilometer cross-country ski race. The final ranking was established with a new points system.
The reigning Olympic champion, the German Georg Thoma, was first ahead of the Norwegian Tormod Knutsen and the Soviet Nikolay Kiselyov after the jumps. Knutsen needed to beat Thoma by at least twelve seconds in the cross-country ski race to pass him, which he did, winning by 1.33 and becoming Olympic champion. Kisseliov wins the silver medal. Thoma, who had wax problems and fell twice during the race, was third, just 0.16 points behind Kisseliov after a tenth-place finish in cross-country skiing.
Ice hockey
The matches of ice hockey were played in the Olympiaeisstadion and the Messehalle. The sixteen participating teams first played a match to determine their group for the rest of the competition: group A (which allocates places 1 to 8) or in group B (places 9 to 16). Then, each team faces the other seven of its group.
In Group A, the Soviet favorites won their seven matches and became Olympic champions. The tournament was actually very close since in the last game, the Soviets were losing 2–1 against Canada after two periods to finally win 3–2; if Canada had won they would have taken the gold medal. Behind the Soviet Union, three teams had five wins and two losses: Canada, Czechoslovakia and Sweden. These three teams were ranked by goal difference with Sweden receiving silver, Czechoslovakia bronze and Canada finishing fourth. The Canadians, who were not satisfied with the method used to decide between Sweden and Czechoslovakia, boycotted the medal ceremony.
Luge
Luge was a popular sport in the Alpine countries, the first competition of which dates back to 1831. The first international event was organized in 1928. The decided in 1954 to include luge in the program of the 1964 Games to replace the skeleton, because there was only one track adapted to this sport: the Cresta Run of Saint-Moritz in Switzerland. Three events are contested at the Games: individual for men and women and two for men. Some commentators believed that luge was too dangerous a sport to enter the Olympic program. The death of Poland-born British luger Kazimierz Kay-Skrzypeski during a test run two weeks before the start of the Games helped reinforce this position.
The luge events were dominated by the Germans, who take five out of six medals individually. During the men's individual event, a German trio dominated the competition: the 1962 world champion Thomas Köhler as well as Klaus Bonsack and Hans Plenk are the top three in each of the first three rounds. , won respectively by Köhler, Bonsack and again Köhler. Bonsack also wins the fourth round. Finally, Köhler is Olympic champion with 27 hundredths ahead of Bonsack and 3.38 of Plenk.
The German Ilse Geisler, world champion in 1962 and 1963, was the favorite in the women's event. However, it was her compatriot Ortrun Enderlein who won the first three races. Geiser took a lot of risks in the last heat and made a big mistake, letting Enderlein wins again. Enderlein became Olympic champion, almost three seconds ahead of Geisler. The Austrian Helene Thurner won the bronze medal.
The doubles event, which takes place over two rounds, was dominated by the Austrians. Indeed, Josef Feistmantl and Manfred Stengl won the first round ahead of Reinhold Senn and Helmut Thaler. The latter won the second round without worrying Feistmantl and Stengl, crowned Olympic champions. Italians Walter Aussendorfer and Sigisfredo Mair are bronze medalists.
Figure skating
The figure skating events were held at the Olympiaeisstadion. Individually, men and women performed a free skate and compulsory figures while, for the last time in an international competition, the couples only presented one program. Computers are used for refereeing, which is new to the Olympics. The data processing system provided by the company IBM allows scores to be announced instantly. In addition to figure skating, information is sent to a data center at University of Innsbruck from eleven other facilities.
In the men's event, the German Manfred Schnelldorfer became Olympic champion by winning each round. The Frenchman Alain Calmat, slightly favored before the Olympics, finished in second place. The American Scott Allen won the bronze medal, two days before his fifteenth birthday. He thus becomes the youngest medalist in the history of the Winter Games.
The big favorite in the women's event, the Dutch Sjoukje Dijkstra, easily became Olympic champion. She is in fact placed in the first row by the nine judges. In front of the Dutch royal family, she won the first Dutch gold medal at the Winter Games. The Austrian Regine Heitzer was the silver medalist with a small lead over the Canadian Petra Burka.
The Soviets Ludmila Belousova and Oleg Protopopov, a married couple, narrowly won the pair event ahead of the German Marika Kilius and Hans-Jürgen Bäumler. The bronze medal went to Canadians Debbi Wilkes and Guy Revell. Olympic athletes must be amateurs s, and in 1966 Kilius and Bäumler had to return their medals because of a professional contract signed before the Games. The Canadians received the silver medal and the Americans Vivian and Ronald Joseph, initially fourth, received the bronze medal. In 1987, however, the decided to return the medals of the German couple. The results are then plunged into confusion since the different rankings do not indicate the same information. In 2013, the IOC indicated that the Soviets had the gold medal, the Canadians and the Germans shared the silver medal and the Americans the bronze medal. These were the official results since 1987.
Speed skating
The speed skating events took place on an outdoor track set up around the Olympiaeisstadion. While the Soviets dominated the women's events, the men's podiums are more international.
The American Terry McDermott, who was not one of the favorites, won the men's 500 meters setting a new Olympic record. Taking part in his first international competition, he borrowed skates from his trainer Leo Freisinger. Three athletes, including the favorite of the event Yevgeny Grishin, shared second place. The Soviet Ants Antson won the gold medal in the 1,500 meters, ahead of the Dutch Kees Verkerk and the Norwegian Villy Haugen, after a very close race. The Norwegians score a hat-trick in the 5,000 meters. Knut Johannesen is a gold medalist beating the Olympic record just two tenths ahead of Per Ivar Moe. Finally, the Swede Jonny Nilsson won the 10,000 meters ahead of the Norwegians Fred Anton Maier and Knut Johannesen. This race was controversial because Nilsson was one of the few to skate before the wind picked up, and enjoyed better ice than most of the other competitors.
The Soviet Lidia Skoblikova won all four races at the 1963 world championships. A big favorite, she reproduced the same performance at the 1964 Olympic Games, breaking the Olympic record each time. She thus becomes the first athlete to win four gold medals in one edition of the Winter Games and the first, after her two titles in 1960, to accumulate six gold medals in several editions. Skoblikova first won the 500 meters ahead of her compatriots Irina Yegorova and Tatyana Sidorova. On 1,000 meters, she was ahead of Irina Iegorova and the Finn Kaija Mustonen. She dominated the 1,500 meters, with a time almost three seconds ahead of Mustonen. Finally, Skoblikova took the 5,000 meters with almost four seconds. The North Korean Han Pil-hwa, unknown before the Games, created a surprise: tied with Skoblikova halfway through the course, she was ended up tied for second with the Soviet Valentina Stenina. North Korea participated in the Games for the first time; that was the country's first Olympic medal. Upon her return home, Skoblikova was made a member of the Communist Party and became the first woman to win the title of Soviet Sportsman of the Year.
Ski jumping
For the first time in 1964, two ski jumping events were contested at the Olympic Games: small hill, contested at Toni-Seelos-Olympiaschanze and big hill, which takes place at Bergisel Ski Jump. They have a construction point of 70 and 90 meters respectively. Athletes jump three times and their two best results count in each event.
The Czechoslovak Josef Matouš surprised many by winning the first round of the normal hill while the Finn Veikko Kankkonen, who was among the favorites, was only twenty-ninth. Kankkonen had the best jump of the competition in the second set, at 80 meters, and the Norwegian Toralf Engan took the lead. After the third round, Kankkonen who again produced a good jump, became Olympic champion. Toralf Engan is second while young Norwegian Torgeir Brandtzæg takes third place. In the first round of the big hill, Veikko Kankkonen took the lead in front of Toralf Engan with a jump of 95.5 meters. Engan took the first place after the second jump, while Kankkonen and Brandtzæg followed closely behind. Brandtzæg finished with a good jump unlike his two rivals. The medalists are the same as for the normal hill, but this time Engan is Olympic champion ahead of Kankkonen.
Alpine skiing
Most alpine skiing events were held at Axamer Lizum, with the men's downhill being held at Igls. Three events were on the program for men and women: downhill, giant slalom and slalom. For the first time at the Olympics, athletes were timed to the hundredth of a second. The competition was held in mourning for the death of Australian Ross Milne, who crashed into a tree during downhill training.
The Austrian Egon Zimmermann won the men's downhill, 74 hundredths of a second ahead of the French Léo Lacroix and 1.32 seconds over the German Wolfgang Bartels. For the last time at the Olympics, the men's giant slalom was held in a single round. The French François Bonlieu won the race ahead of the Austrian favorites: Karl Schranz was second, and Josef Stiegler was third. For the first time, the Olympic slalom has a two-round qualifying phase. The 25 best take part in the two final rounds which determine the ranking of the event. Austrian officials tried to replace Josef Stiegler with Egon Zimmermann, but Stiegler competed in the slalom under public pressure. He finally won the event. The Americans Billy Kidd and Jimmy Heuga, second and third respectively, won their country's first Olympic medals in alpine skiing.
In the women's downhill, the Austrians achieved the second treble in the history of the Winter Games in alpine skiing. The favorite Christl Haas was Olympic champion, more than a second ahead of Edith Zimmermann and Traudl Hecher. The technical events were dominated by two French women, the Goitschel sisters. Marielle Goitschel, aged 18, won the first round of the slalom ahead of her sister Christine, one year her senior. Christine was the fastest, however, in the second run. She won gold, ahead of Marielle, while the bronze medal is awarded to the American Jean Saubert. Two days later, Christine Goitschel took the lead in the giant slalom. His time was then equaled by Jean Saubert. Marielle Goitschel, the fourteenth skier to set off, was almost a second ahead of them however. The eldest Goitschel finished furst this time, while her sister shares second place with Saubert.
Cross-country skiing
The cross-country skiing events took place near the village of Seefeld in Tirol. The men competed as usual in individual over 15, 30 and 50 kilometer as well as in the 4 × 10 kilometer relay. On the other hand, women competed for the first time at the Olympic Games the 5 kilometer, introduced at the world championships in 1962, in addition to the 10 kilometer and the relay 3 × 5 kilometer.
Men's events started with the 30 kilometers. The Finn Eero Mäntyranta won the race ahead of the Norwegian Harald Grønningen and the Soviet Igor Voronchikhin. The Swede Sixten Jernberg, the favorite after his six Olympic medals obtained in 1956 and 1960, finished fifth. Eight of the top nine athletes were Scandinavian. In the 15 kilometer skied three days later, Eero Mäntyranta was once again crowned Olympic champion ahead of Harald Grønningen. Sixten Jernberg wins bronze, his seventh Olympic medal. Racing the day before his 35th birthday, Jernberg took the lead at the end of the 50 kilometer. He won gold, his eighth Olympic medal, finishing more than a minute ahead of his compatriot Assar Rönnlund. The end of the relay 4 × 10 kilometer was a duel between the Finnish Eero Mäntyranta and the Swede Assar Rönnlund, who overtook the Soviet Pavel Kolchin one kilometer from the finish. Sweden eventually won the event, eight seconds ahead of Finland and twelve over the Soviet Union. Jernberg ended his Olympic career with nine medals including four gold, which was a new record.
Soviet skiers dominated the women's events as they won six of the seven possible medals. In the 10 kilometer they achieved the treble as in 1960: Klavdiya Boyarskikh ahead Yevdokiya Mekshilo and Maria Gusakova. For the first time among women, non-European cross-country skiers took part in the Olympic Games. The two North Koreans and the two Mongols, however, finished in the last four places. Boyarskikh also won the very close Olympic 5 km, while Finland's Mirja Lehtonen surprised by taking second place. The Soviet Alevtina Kolchina was third. Finally, the Soviets won the relay 3 × 5 kilometer for the first time. They were well ahead of the Swedes by two minutes and the Finns by three. Klavdiya Boyarskikh wins his third gold medal at these Games.
Closing Ceremony
For the first time on games history, the Closing Ceremony was not held at the Olympic Stadium and in an indoor place, took place on February 9 at the Olympiaeisstadion. The flags of Greece, the founding nation of the Olympic Games, Austria, the host country, and France, the host country of the next Games, were raised to the sound of the national anthems. The President of the Avery Brundage officially declared the Games closed before the extinction of the Olympic flame.
Games highlights
The games were opened by a concert performed by Vienna Philharmonic, under the baton of Karl Böhm. Beethoven's 7th Symphony and Mozart's 40th Symphony were performed in the opening concert.
Normally snowy, Innsbruck was threatened by a lack of snow. The Austrian army carved out 20,000 ice bricks from a mountain top and transported them to the bobsled and luge runs. They also carried 40,000 cubic meters of snow to the Alpine skiing courses. The army packed down the slopes by hand and foot. (A heavy snowfall occurred immediately after
Lidia Skoblikova won all of the women's speed skating events.
Italian bobsleigh pilot Eugenio Monti distinguished himself by helping Britain's Tony Nash and Robin Dixon to win the gold medals when he loaned them an axle bolt to replace one that was broken. The Italians took bronze, but Monti was honored as the first recipient of the Pierre de Coubertin medal for sportsmanship.
Egon Zimmermann of Austria took the gold medal in the men's downhill alpine skiing event.
In the 4 man bobsled, the Canadian team won the gold medal with a total winning time of 4:14.46.
Norway's Knut Johannesen won the men's 5,000m speed skating event in an Olympic record time of 7:38.40.
Klavdiya Boyarskikh of the USSR earned three gold medals in cross-country skiing and, on the men's side, Finnish Eero Mäntyranta won two and earned the nickname "Mr. Seefeld" after the venue because of his domination.
In alpine skiing, French sisters Christine and Marielle Goitschel finished first and second in both the slalom and the giant slalom.
Ski jumping gained a second event, and the sport of luge made its Olympic debut.
Politically, the Games were notable because East and West Germany entered a combined team for the last time.
For the first time the Closing Ceremonies were held at a different place than the Opening Ceremonies.This also the first time that an Olympic Ceremonies are held in an indoor venue.
Table of medals
Fourteen of the thirty-six nations which participated in these Games won at least one medal, as detailed in the table below. Already first in 1956 and 1960, Soviet Union came far ahead of this table with twenty-five medals: eleven gold, eight silver and six bronze, a new record for both gold and total medals won at a single Wainter Olympics. The host country, ninth four years earlier, was second with twelve medals, including seven in alpine skiing. Norway, fourth in 1964, came third with fifteen medals.
Most Decorated Athletes
The Soviets also dominated the ranking of the most medal-winning athletes as the speed skater Lidia Skoblikova and cross-country skier Klavdiya Boyarskikh came first and second.
Medal count
These are the top ten nations that won medals at these Games:
Podium sweeps
Venues
Several sports venues were built especially for the Games. New slopes for alpine skiing were developed near the village of Axamer Lizum, about twenty kilometers from Innsbruck. There is a bobsleigh and luge track in Igls, seven kilometers south of Innsbruck. The runway, 1506 meters long, had 14 curves and a drop of 138 meters. For the first time at the Games, the bobsleigh track used artificial ice. The Olympiaeisstadion, an eleven thousand-seat ice rink completed in 1963 and located in the center of Innsbruck, hosted the competitions of figure skating and most games of ice hockey. The other hockey matches were played at the Messehalle. The speed skating ring, made of artificial ice, was installed outside the Olympiaeisstadion.
The ski jumping events were held on the Toni-Seelos-Olympiaschanze (normal hill) at Seefeld in Tirol and the Bergisel Ski Jump (big jump) in Innsbruck. The Bergisel ski jump, built in wood in 1920, was replaced by a concrete ski jump. The cross-country skiing and biathlon tracks were located in Seefeld, like the small hill. The opening ceremony was celebrated at the foot of the Bergisel ski jump while the closing ceremony took place at the Olympiaeisstadion. An Olympic Village consisting of eight eleven-storey buildings was built outside the city.
Axamer Lizum – Alpine skiing (except the men's downhill)
Bergiselschanze – opening ceremonies and ski jumping (large hill)
Bob und Rodelbahn Igls – bobsleigh, luge
Eisschnellaufbahn – speed skating
Messehalle – ice hockey
Olympiahalle – closing ceremonies, figure skating, ice hockey
Patscherkofel – Alpine skiing (men's downhill)
Seefeld – biathlon, cross-county skiing, Nordic combined, ski jumping (normal hill)
Participating nations
A total of 36 nations sent athletes to Innsbruck, six more than in Squaw Valley in 1960. The total number of athletes was 1,091, up from 665 four years earlier. Mongolia, India and North Korea participated in the Winter Games for the first time. Belgium, Greece, Iran, Romania and Yugoslavia returned to this competition after missing it in 1960. On the other hand, South Africa and New Zealand, which took part in Squaw Valley, did not compete in Innsbruck. Athletes from West Germany (FRG) and East Germany (GDR) competed together as Unified Team Germany from 1956 to 1964.
The number indicated in brackets is the number of athletes entered in the official events for each country.
Number of athletes by National Olympic Committees
Prior fatalities
Two fatal events before the 1964 Winter Olympics affected the outcome and mood of the Games:
Australian alpine skier Ross Milne and British luge slider Kazimierz "Kay" Skrzypecki died during training shortly before the Games. The organizing committee said that Ross crashed into a tree during a training run. The IOC suggested that inexperience might have played a role in Ross's death. Manager John Wagner suggested that overcrowding played a role, saying that Milne had tried to slow down "on a spot which was not prepared for stopping or swinging" to avoid a crowd of contestants. His brother Malcolm Milne competed at the 1968 and 1972 Winter Olympics.
On February 15, 1961, the entire United States Figure Skating team and several family members, coaches, and officials were killed when Sabena Flight 548 crashed in Brussels, Belgium, en route to the World Championships in Prague. The accident caused the cancellation of the 1961 World Championships and necessitated the building of a new American skating program.
There were also several injuries which occurred prior to the event.
Liechtenstein Alpine skiers Wolfgang Ender broke his leg and Edmund Schaedler fractured his arm in a crash close to the same location as Australian Milne, only a few minutes after the fatality occurred.
German tobogganer Josef Fleischmann crashed during practices.
After the Games
After the Games
In the 1970s, the American city of Denver, chosen to host the 1976 Winter Olympics, rejected the bid after a statewide referendum. About ten cities applied to take over the Games and Innsbruck was selected. The main reasons for this choice were the venues built for the 1964 Games, which kept costs down, and their good organization during the 1964 Olympics. The Olympic venues subsequently hosted various sports competitions such as the Four Hills Tournament, Bobsleigh and Luge World Cup events, the Winter Universiade and the Ice Hockey World Championship in 2005 and the first Winter Youth Olympic Games in 2012.
See also
Notes
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
The program of the 1964 Innsbruck Winter Olympics
Map of the surrounding area
"Australia and the Olympic Games" by Harry Gordon.
Sports competitions in Innsbruck
Olympic Games in Austria
Winter multi-sport events in Austria
Winter Olympics by year
1964 in multi-sport events
1964 in Austrian sport
January 1964 sports events in Europe
February 1964 sports events in Europe
1960s in Innsbruck
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211872
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972%20Winter%20Olympics
|
1972 Winter Olympics
|
The 1972 Winter Olympics, officially the and commonly known as Sapporo 1972 (), was a winter multi-sport event held from February 3 to February 13, 1972, in Sapporo, Hokkaidō, Japan. It was the first Winter Olympic Games to take place outside Europe and North America.
Host city selection
Sapporo first won the rights to host the 1940 Winter Olympics, but Japan resigned as the Games' host after its 1937 invasion of China. The 1940 Games were later cancelled. All the cities awarded Games that were cancelled due to war have since hosted the Games (London, Tokyo, Helsinki, Sapporo and Cortina d'Ampezzo).
Sapporo competed with Banff, Lahti, and Salt Lake City. The Games were awarded at the 64th IOC Session in Rome, Italy, on April 26, 1966.
In preparation, the Japanese constructed new largescale facilities at Sapporo and conducted a trial run a full year in advance of the Games. An international sport week was held in February, 1971, to assess the city's preparations as well as "to test its civic mettle and hospitality", and this effort was acclaimed by Olympic observers as "a complete success". The development of new infrastructure proved to be a huge boon for the Sapporo economy: by the time of the Games, the national government had invested some US$500 million in upgrades, including a new subway. The Games' organizers themselves turned a healthy profit in part because they arranged a record $8.47 million for broadcast rights.
Highlights
Emperor Hirohito became the third dignitary to open the Olympic Games twice (first time in summer 1964), after Adolf Hitler had done in winter and summer 1936, then Giovanni Gronchi in winter 1956 and summer 1960.
Prior to these games, Japan had never won a gold medal, and had won only one medal (silver by Chiharu Igaya in 1956) overall, in the Winter Olympics. The host country's fans in Sapporo were boosted when three Japanese athletes, led by Yukio Kasaya, swept the ski jumping 70 m (current K-90 normal hill) event for gold (Kasaya), silver (Akitsugu Konno), and bronze (Seiji Aochi); those would also be the only medals Japan would earn in these Olympics.
Galina Kulakova of the USSR won all three cross-country skiing events for women.
Dutch skater Ard Schenk won three gold medals in speed skating.
In Women's Alpine Skiing, American Barbara Cochran, one of three siblings on the U.S. Ski Team, became the first U.S. woman since Andrea Mead Lawrence to win a gold medal in skiing when she took first place in the slalom.
In Alpine skiing, virtual unknown Swiss Marie-Thérès Nadig won both the downhill and the giant slalom events.
Magnar Solberg from Norway was the first repeat winner in the individual 20 km biathlon event, having first won in Grenoble.
Spain scored its first Winter gold medal courtesy of slalom skier Francisco Fernández Ochoa. Poland did the same with Wojciech Fortuna winning large hill ski jumping competition.
American female speedskaters Anne Henning and Dianne Holum made the United States' best showing in the Winter Games, winning two gold, a silver, and a bronze.
Three days before the Games, controversy over amateur status arose when IOC president Avery Brundage threatened to disqualify 40 alpine skiers who received endorsement and other deals. Austrian skier Karl Schranz, who received over $50,000 per year from ski manufacturers, was banned as an example. Meanwhile, Canada refused to send an ice hockey team, maintaining that professional ice hockey players from Communist nations were allowed to compete with no restrictions.
On a historical note, these Games are the last where a skier won the gold medal using all-wooden skis. Since this time, top-level cross-country skiers use skis made mostly of fibreglass synthetics.
In female Figure skating event, American skater Janet Lynn won not only a bronze medal, but also tremendous popularity among Japanese audiences because of her artistic free program, as to make appearance on the cover of "Olympic Winter Games, Sapporo 1972" photo books published in Japan, and even on Japanese TV commercials later.
Luge had its only tie in the history of the Winter Olympics in the men's doubles event.
Venues
City venues
Makomanai Park
Makomanai Speed Skating Rink1 – opening ceremonies, speed skating
Makomanai Ice Arena1 – ice hockey, figure skating, closing ceremonies
Olympic village1
Press center1
Makomanai Cross-Country Events Site1 – cross-country skiing, Nordic combined (cross-country skiing)
Makomanai Biathlon Site1 – biathlon
Mikaho Indoor Skating Rink1 – figure skating
Tsukisamu Indoor Skating Rink1 – ice hockey
Mountain venues
Mt. Teine Alpine Skiing courses1 – alpine skiing (slalom, giant slalom)
Mt. Teine Bobsleigh Course – bobsleigh
Mt. Teine Luge Course – luge
Okurayama Jump Hill2 – ski jumping (large hill)
Miyanomori Jump Hill1 – Nordic combined (ski jumping), ski jumping (normal hill)
Mount Eniwa Downhill Course1 – alpine skiing (downhill)
1 New facilities constructed in preparation for the Olympic Games. 2 Existing facilities modified or refurbished in preparation for the Olympic Games.
Sports
There were 35 events contested in 6 sports (10 disciplines).
Participating nations
35 nations participated in the 1972 Winter Olympics. The Republic of China (commonly known as Taiwan) and the Philippines participated in their first Winter Olympic Games.
Number of athletes by National Olympic Committees
<noinclude>
Medal count
These are the top eleven nations that won medals at these Games. The host nation Japan finished 11th.
Podium sweeps
See also
Notes
External links
Sapporo 72 – Official report, digitized copy online
The program of the 1972 Sapporo Winter Olympics
Sports competitions in Sapporo
Olympic Games in Japan
Winter Olympics by year
1972 in Japanese sport
1972 in multi-sport events
February 1972 sports events in Asia
Winter sports competitions in Japan
20th century in Sapporo
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976%20Winter%20Olympics
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1976 Winter Olympics
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The 1976 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XII Olympic Winter Games (, ) and commonly known as Innsbruck 1976, was a winter multi-sport event celebrated in Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria, from February 4 to February 15, 1976. The Games were awarded to Innsbruck after Denver, the original host city, withdrew in 1972. This was the second time the Tyrolean capital had hosted the Winter Olympics, having first done so in 1964.
Host selection
The cities of Denver, Colorado, United States; Sion, Switzerland; Tampere, Finland; and Vancouver (with the Garibaldi mountains), British Columbia, Canada, made bids for the Games. The chart below displays the vote count for the 69th IOC meeting at Amsterdam, Netherlands, on May 12, 1970.
The selection process for the 1976 Winter Olympics consisted of four bids, and saw Denver, United States, selected ahead of Sion, Switzerland; Tampere, Finland; and Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The selection was made at the 70th IOC Session in Amsterdam on 12 May 1970. In a statewide referendum on 7 November 1972, Colorado voters rejected funding for the games, and for the first time a city awarded the Games rejected them. Denver officially withdrew on 15 November, and the IOC then offered the games to Whistler, British Columbia, Canada, but they too declined owing to a change of government following elections. Salt Lake City offered to host the games, but the IOC, still reeling from the Denver rejection, declined and selected Innsbruck to host the 1976 Winter Olympics, which had hosted the 1964 Winter Olympics games twelve years earlier, on 5 February 1973.
Mascot
The mascot of the 1976 Winter Olympics was Schneemann, a snowman in a red Tyrolean hat. Designed by Walter Pötsch, Schneeman was purported to represent the 1976 Games as the "Games of Simplicity". It was also regarded as a good-luck charm, to avert the dearth of snow that had marred the 1964 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck.
Highlights
First Games under the presidency of Michael Morris, 3rd Baron Killanin
Austrian favorite Franz Klammer won the men's downhill event in alpine skiing in 1:45.73, after great pressure from his country and defending champion Bernhard Russi of Switzerland.
Dorothy Hamill of the US won the gold in figure Skating, and inspired the popular "wedge" haircut.
Elegant British figure skater John Curry altered his routine to appeal to Olympic judges, winning gold.
American figure skater Terry Kubicka attempted – and completed – a dangerous backflip in figure skating.
Rosi Mittermaier of West Germany nearly swept the women's alpine skiing events, earning two golds and a silver, missing the third gold by 0.13 seconds.
Soviet speed skater Tatiana Averina won four medals.
In the 4-man bobsled, the East German team won the first of three consecutive titles.
The USSR won its fourth straight ice hockey gold medal; for the second consecutive Olympics, Canada refused to send a team, protesting the rules that allowed the USSR to field professional players while limiting Canada to amateurs. Sweden also joined the boycott.
Sports technology, in the guise of innovative perforated skis, sleek hooded suits and streamlined helmets appeared in alpine skiing, speed skating and ski jumping, making headlines in Innsbruck.
A second cauldron for the Olympic flame was built to represent the 1976 Games. Both it and the cauldron from the 1964 games were lit together.
Bobsleigh and luge competed on the same track for the first time ever.
Galina Kulakova of the Soviet Union finished 3rd in the women's 5 km ski event, but was disqualified due to a positive test for banned substance ephedrine. She claimed that this was a result of using the nasal spray that contained the substance. Both the FIS and the IOC allowed her to compete in the 10 km and the 4×5 km relay. This was the first stripped medal at the Winter Olympics.
The Austrian anthem was played three times at the closing ceremony during the beginning, the victory ceremony and the handover ceremony to honor the three verses of the anthem.
Venues
Axamer Lizum – Alpine skiing except men's downhill
Bergiselschanze – Ski jumping (large hill), Opening Ceremonies
Eisschnellaufbahn – Speed skating
Kombinierte Kunsteisbahn für Bob-Rodel Igls – Bobsleigh, Luge
Messehalle – Ice hockey
Olympiahalle – Figure skating, Ice hockey, Closing Ceremonies
Patscherkofel – Alpine skiing (men's downhill)
Seefeld – Biathlon, Cross-country skiing, Nordic combined, Ski jumping (normal hill)
Medals awarded
There were 37 events contested in 6 sports (10 disciplines).
Ice dance made its Olympic debut.
See the medal winners, ordered by sport:
Participating nations
37 nations participated in the 1976 Winter Olympic Games. The games marked the final time the Republic of China (Taiwan) participated under the Republic of China flag and name. After most of the international community recognized the People's Republic of China as the legitimate government of all China, the ROC was forced to compete under the name Chinese Taipei, under an altered flag and to use its National Banner Song instead of its national anthem. Andorra and San Marino participated in their first Winter Olympic Games.
Number of athletes by National Olympic Committees
Medal count
These are the top ten nations that won medals at the 1976 Winter Games.
See also
References
Notes
Citations
External links
O
Sports competitions in Innsbruck
Olympic Games in Austria
Winter multi-sport events in Austria
1976 in Austrian sport
Winter Olympics by year
February 1976 sports events in Europe
1970s in Innsbruck
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211876
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong%20Kong%20trade%20mark%20law
|
Hong Kong trade mark law
|
The trade mark law of Hong Kong is based on the Trade Marks Ordinance Cap. 559, which came into force on 4 April 2003 and repealed the Trade Mark Ordinance Cap 43 passed in 1873. The system established by this legislation is entirely separate to the system used in the People's Republic of China, pursuant to the "one country-two systems" policy. The superseded law and the current law share many similarities with the relevant legislation in the United Kingdom, a similarity which is also facilitated by TRIPs.
The new law introduced various substantive and procedural changes, such as expanding the legal definition of a trademark; including or broadening protection for certification marks, collective marks, and well-known trade marks; reducing the period of non-use for revocation purpose from five to three years; and simplifying and streamlining procedures for the registration of assignments, and "registrable transactions" such as licenses.
Procedure
Filing to registration
Registration of a trade mark in Hong Kong commences with the filing of an application at the Trade Mark Registry of the Hong Kong Intellectual Property Department. An application may cover one or more classes of products and/or services. The standard total cost for using the services of a trademark attorney to handle the filing of an application in one class is HK $4,300 (the professional component of this fee is recommended by the Hong Kong Law Society). The official filing fees levied by the Intellectual Property Department of Hong Kong are HK$2000 for the first class and an additional HK$1000 per additional class. There will be additional fees for other stages in the registration process.
Firstly, the application is assessed by an examiner for deficiencies which go to formalities. The next stage is substantive examination, where the main grounds of objection could be raised: absolute grounds for refusal (e.g. where the mark is inherently not registerable), and relative grounds for refusal (e.g. where the mark is identical or similar to mark covered by an application or registration filed earlier in time).
After the objections (if any) are overcome, the application will be accepted by the registry and published for opposition purposes for an extendable period of three months to allow third parties to object to registration of the mark on certain grounds.
Once any oppositions are resolved, a certificate of registration will be issued. The standard timeframe to registration for an application which encounters few if any problems or difficulties is 12 months.
Upon registration, and subject to the discussion on revocation below, a trade mark is valid for an extendible period of 10 years.
Post-registration
A registration for a trade mark may be subject to revocation by a third party if the trade mark has not been genuinely and continuously used for at least three years, and there are no valid reasons explaining the lack of use.
The old law
The old trade mark law (Cap. 43) divided the register of trade marks into two parts called "Part A" and "Part B", whereby the owners of distinctive marks could seek registration under Part A, while the owners of marks with some distinctive character could pursue registration under Part B. Part B registration meant that certain rights were not available to the trade mark owner, which were otherwise available to the owner of a Part A registration.
Under the new law, the division of the register was abolished, and one standard of registrability was introduced.
See also
Hong Kong copyright law
Intellectual property
People's Republic of China's trademark law
References
External links
Trade Marks Ordinance (Cap 559) of Hong Kong law
http://www.hk-trademark.com/
Trademark law by jurisdiction
Hong Kong law
Hong Kong intellectual property law
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madam
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Madam
|
Madam (), or madame ( or ), is a polite and formal form of address for women, often contracted to ma'am (pronounced in American English and this way but also and in British English). The term derives from the French madame (); in French, literally means "my lady". In French, the abbreviation is "M" or "Mme" and the plural is mesdames (abbreviated "M" or "Mmes"). These terms ultimately derive from the Latin domina, meaning "mistress."
Use as a form of address
Formal protocol
After addressing her as "Your Majesty" once, it is correct to address the Queen of the United Kingdom as "Ma'am" to rhyme with the British short pronunciation of "jam" for the remainder of a conversation. A letter to the Queen may begin with Madam or May it please Your Majesty. Other female members of the British royal family are usually addressed in conversation first as Your Royal Highness and subsequently as Ma'am.
Madam President or Madame President is a formal form of address for female presidents and vice presidents of republics. Madam Secretary is a formal form of address for a female member of the United States Cabinet; a female Attorney General of the United States is formally addressed Madam Attorney General. Madam Speaker is a correct form of address for a female speaker of the United States House of Representatives (e.g., Nancy Pelosi), British House of Commons (e.g., Betty Boothroyd), or Canadian House of Commons, as well as a female speaker of the Canadian Senate.
In the United States, between the early 19th century and 1980, justices of the Supreme Court were formally called Mr. Justice (surname). In 1980, the title was dropped in "to avoid the awkward appellation 'Madam Justice'" in anticipation of a woman joining the court. Plaques on chamber doorways reading "Mr. Justice" were removed after Sandra Day O'Connor joined the court in 1981. Female members of state supreme courts were previously sometimes styled as Madam Justice, matching the Mr. Justice formally used. Justice Rosemary Barkett of the Florida Supreme Court disliked the title, since she was unmarried, and announced that she would simply be called Justice Barkett, leading all the male justices to drop Mr. from their forms of address.
In Canada, the appellation Mr/Madam Prime Minister and Mr./Madam Minister is "often heard informally" for prime ministers and other ministers, but is not in official use. Madam is an appropriate title in conversation with a female Governor General of Canada or female spouse of a Governor General on second and subsequent reference (after "Your Excellency" or "Excellency" is used on initial reference). Female members of the Supreme Court are addressed by counsel in hearings as either Madam Justice or Justice; in writing, a female justice is addressed as The Honourable Madame (Chief) Justice. The same style is used for other female members of the Canadian federal courts.
In the courts of England and Wales, a magistrate is addressed as "Your Worship" or "Sir" (if male) or 'Madam' (if female). A female judge of the District Court may be addressed in writing as Dear Judge or Dear Madam, while a female judge of the High Court may be addressed as Dear Madam or Dear Dame (first name) or Dear Judge. While in court, however, District Court judges are addressed as Judge (or according to title), and female High Court judges are addressed as My Lady or Mrs/Ms Justice (last name).
In diplomacy, either Madam Ambassador and Ambassador (lastname) is an appropriate formal mode of address for a female ambassador. In some countries, the wife of an ambassador also may be referred to as Madam Ambassador. This is the case in French-speaking countries, but not among U.S. diplomats or the foreign diplomatic corps in Washington. In countries where the wives of ambassadors may also be titled Madam Ambassador, the Foreign Service Institute advises U.S. diplomats to "refer to a female ambassador by her last name (Ambassador Jones) to avoid confusion and ensure that she receives her due respect." Madam High Commissioner is an appropriate formal mode of spoken address for a female high commissioner. The title Madam may also be used to address female chargés d'affaires although titles "Mrs." or "Ms." may be used instead.
Other settings
Outside the settings of formal protocol, the term ma'am may be used to address a woman with whom one is not familiar. The term is "meant to convey respect and graciousness lightly salted with deference." For example, waiters, store clerks, or police officers may use the term. Unlike miss, the term ma'am tends to be used for older women, which is one reason some dislike the term. Others dislike the term for other reasons, such as the distance it created between the speaker and the person addressed; the "whiff of class distinctions" implied; and "dismissive, stiff and drab" associations. Others, such as etiquette authority Judith Martin, defend the term as dignified. Martin writes that Madam (or Ma'am) and Sir are "all-purpose titles for direct address, as a foolproof way of conveying the respect due to people whose names escape you."
There are regional differences in use; in the United States, ma'am is more commonly heard in the South and Midwest and less common on the East and West Coasts.
Military and police usage
"Ma'am" is commonly used as a verbal address for female officers of inspector and higher ranks in British police forces. The word is also used by junior personnel to address female superiors in the British Armed Forces.
The use of sir and ma'am as forms of address for superiors are common in the United States armed forces. U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force regulations state that ma'am is an appropriate greeting for junior personnel when rendering a hand salute to a female superior. The use of formal modes of address such as sir or ma'am, ingrained in military culture, is distinct from the American corporate or civilian setting, where most co-workers refer to each other by first name and use of formal titles is considered awkward. A 2017 U.S. Army Human Resources Command publication noted that in the Northern United States, "it is common to hear young to middle-aged women say, 'Don't call me ma'am,' as it is seen as a title reserved for older women."
In the Canadian Forces, "ma'am" is a proper response when coming to attention to a female officer or chief warrant officer calling the roll.
Use in non-native English-speaking societies
The title Madame is commonly used in English for French-speaking women, e.g. "President and Madame De Gaulle."
The terms Madame Mao and Madame Chiang Kai-shek were frequently used in English to refer to Jiang Qing (the wife of Mao Zedong) and Soong Mei-ling (the wife of Chiang Kai-shek), respectively; Madame approximated the Chinese respectful forms of address.
References
Women's social titles
ca:Madam
de:Madame
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical%20injury
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Electrical injury
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Electrical injury is a physiological reaction caused by electric current passing through the body. The injury depends on the density of the current, tissue resistance and duration of contact. Very small currents may be imperceptible or produce a light tingling sensation. A shock caused by low and otherwise harmless current could startle an individual and cause injury due to jerking away or falling. Stronger currents may cause some degree of discomfort or pain, while more intense currents may induce involuntary muscle contractions, preventing the person from breaking free of the source of electricity. Still larger currents result in tissue damage and may trigger ventricular fibrillation or cardiac arrest. Consequences of injury from electricity may include amputations, bone fractures and orthopedic and musculoskeletal injuries. If death results from an electric shock the cause of death is generally referred to as electrocution.
Electric injury occurs upon contact of a body part with electricity that causes a sufficient current to pass through the person's tissue. Contact with energized wiring or devices is the most common cause. In cases of exposure to high voltages, such as on a power transmission tower, direct contact may not be necessary as the voltage may "jump" the air gap to the electrical device.
Following an electrical injury from household current, if a person has no symptoms, no underlying heart problems, and is not pregnant further testing is not required. Otherwise an electrocardiogram, blood work to check the heart, and urine testing for signs of muscle breakdown may be performed.
Management may involve resuscitation, pain medications, wound management, and heart monitoring. Electrical injuries affect more than 30,000 people a year in the United States and result in about 1,000 deaths.
Signs and symptoms
Burns
Heating due to resistance can cause extensive and deep burns. When applied to the hand, electricity can cause involuntary muscle contraction, producing the "no-let-go" phenomenon, and increasing the risk for serious burns. Voltage levels of 500 to 1000 volts tend to cause internal burns due to the large energy (which is proportional to the duration multiplied by the square of the voltage divided by resistance) available from the source. Damage due to current is through tissue heating and/or electroporation injury. For most cases of high-energy electrical trauma, the Joule heating in the deeper tissues along the extremity will reach damaging temperatures in a few seconds.
Ventricular fibrillation
A domestic power supply voltage (110 or 230 V), 50 or 60 Hz alternating current (AC) through the chest for a fraction of a second may induce ventricular fibrillation at currents as low as 30 milliamperes (mA). With direct current (DC), 300 to 500 mA is required. If the current has a direct pathway to the heart (e.g., via a cardiac catheter or other kind of electrode), a much lower current of less than 1 mA (AC or DC) can cause fibrillation. If not immediately treated by defibrillation, fibrillation is usually lethal because all of the heart muscle fibres move independently instead of in the coordinated pulses needed to pump blood and maintain circulation. Above 200 mA, muscle contractions are so strong that the heart muscles cannot move at all, but these conditions prevent fibrillation.
Neurological effects
Electrical current can cause interference with nervous control, especially over the heart and lungs. Electric shock which does not lead to death has been shown to cause neuropathy at the site where the current entered the body. The neurologic symptoms of electrical injury may occur immediately, which traditionally have a higher likelihood for healing, though they may also be delayed by days to years. The delayed neurologic consequences of electrical injury have a worse prognosis.
When the patch of electrical current proceeds through the head, it appears that, with sufficient current applied, loss of consciousness almost always occurs swiftly. This is borne out by some limited self-experimentation by early designers of the electric chair and by research from the field of animal husbandry, where electric stunning has been extensively studied.
If ventricular fibrillation occurs (as above), the blood supply to the brain is diminished, which may cause cerebral hypoxia (and its associated neurologic consequences).
Mental health
There are a variety of psychiatric effects that may occur as a result of electrical injuries. Behavioral changes can occur as well, even if the path of electrical current did not proceed through the head. Symptoms may include:
Depression, including feelings of low self-esteem and guilt
Anxiety spectrum disorders, including posttraumatic stress disorder and fear of electricity
Moodiness, including a lower threshold for frustration and "losing one's temper"
Memory loss, decreased attention span, and difficulty learning
Arc-flash hazards
OSHA found that up to 80 percent of its electrical injuries involve thermal burns due to arcing faults. The arc flash in an electrical fault produces the same type of light radiation from which electric welders protect themselves using face shields with dark glass, heavy leather gloves, and full-coverage clothing. The heat produced may cause severe burns, especially on unprotected flesh. The arc blast produced by vaporizing metallic components can break bones and damage internal organs. The degree of hazard present at a particular location can be determined by a detailed analysis of the electrical system, and appropriate protection worn if the electrical work must be performed with the electricity on.
Pathophysiology
The minimum current a human can feel depends on the current type (AC or DC) as well as frequency for AC. A person can sense electrical current as low as 1mA (rms) for 60Hz AC and as low as 5mA for DC. At around 10mA, DC current passing through the arm of a human can cause powerful muscle contractions; the victim is unable to voluntarily control muscles and cannot release an electrified object. This is known as the "let go threshold" and is a criterion for shock hazard in electrical regulations.
The current may, if it is high enough and is delivered at sufficient voltage, cause tissue damage or fibrillation which can cause cardiac arrest; of AC (rms, 60 Hz) or of DC at high voltage can cause fibrillation. A sustained electric shock from AC at 120 V, 60 Hz is an especially dangerous source of ventricular fibrillation because it usually exceeds the let-go threshold, while not delivering enough initial energy to propel the person away from the source. However, the potential seriousness of the shock depends on paths through the body that the currents take. If the voltage is less than 200 V, then the human skin, more precisely the stratum corneum, is the main contributor to the impedance of the body in the case of a macroshock—the passing of current between two contact points on the skin. The characteristics of the skin are non-linear however. If the voltage is above 450–600 V, then dielectric breakdown of the skin occurs. The protection offered by the skin is lowered by perspiration, and this is accelerated if electricity causes muscles to contract above the let-go threshold for a sustained period of time.
If an electrical circuit is established by electrodes introduced in the body, bypassing the skin, then the potential for lethality is much higher if a circuit through the heart is established. This is known as a microshock. Currents of only 10 µA can be sufficient to cause fibrillation in this case with a probability of 0.2%.
Body resistance
The voltage necessary for electrocution depends on the current through the body and the duration of the current. Ohm's law states that the current drawn depends on the resistance of the body. The resistance of human skin varies from person to person and fluctuates between different times of day. The NIOSH states "Under dry conditions, the resistance offered by the human body may be as high as 100,000 ohms. Wet or broken skin may drop the body's resistance to 1,000 ohms," adding that "high-voltage electrical energy quickly breaks down human skin, reducing the human body's resistance to 500 ohms".
The International Electrotechnical Commission gives the following values for the total body impedance of a hand to hand circuit for dry skin, large contact areas, 50 Hz AC currents (the columns contain the distribution of the impedance in the population percentile; for example at 100 V 50% of the population had an impedance of 1875Ω or less):
Skin
The voltage-current characteristic of human skin is non-linear and depends on many factors such as intensity, duration, history, and frequency of the electrical stimulus. Sweat gland activity, temperature, and individual variation also influence the voltage-current characteristic of skin. In addition to non-linearity, skin impedance exhibits asymmetric and time varying properties. These properties can be modeled with reasonable accuracy. Resistance measurements made at low voltage using a standard ohmmeter do not accurately represent the impedance of human skin over a significant range of conditions.
For sinusoidal electrical stimulation less than 10 volts, the skin voltage-current characteristic is quasilinear. Over time, electrical characteristics can become non-linear. The time required varies from seconds to minutes, depending on stimulus, electrode placement, and individual characteristics.
Between 10 volts and about 30 volts, skin exhibits non-linear but symmetric electrical characteristics. Above 20 volts, electrical characteristics are both non-linear and symmetric. Skin conductance can increase by several orders of magnitude in milliseconds. This should not be confused with dielectric breakdown, which occurs at hundreds of volts. For these reasons, current flow cannot be accurately calculated by simply applying Ohm's law using a fixed resistance model.
Point of entry
Macroshock: Current across intact skin and through the body. Current from arm to arm, or between an arm and a foot, is likely to traverse the heart, therefore it is much more dangerous than current between a leg and the ground. This type of shock by definition must pass into the body through the skin.
Microshock: Very small current source with a pathway directly connected to the heart tissue. The shock is required to be administered from inside the skin, directly to the heart i.e. a pacemaker lead, or a guide wire, conductive catheter etc. connected to a source of current. This is a largely theoretical hazard as modern devices used in these situations include protections against such currents.
Lethality
Electrocution
The earliest usage of the term "electrocution" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was a 1889 newspaper reference to the method of execution then being considered. Shortly thereafter, in 1892, the term was used in Science to refer generically to death or injury caused by electricity.
Factors in lethality of electric shock
The lethality of an electric shock is dependent on several variables:
Current. The higher the current, the more likely it is lethal. Since current is proportional to voltage when resistance is fixed (ohm's law), high voltage is an indirect risk for producing higher currents.
Duration. The longer the duration, the more likely it is lethal—safety switches may limit time of current flow
Pathway. If current flows through the heart muscle, it is more likely to be lethal.
High voltage (over about 600 volts). In addition to greater current flow, high voltage may cause dielectric breakdown at the skin, thus lowering skin resistance and allowing further increased current flow.
Medical implants. Artificial cardiac pacemakers or implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICD) are sensitive to very small currents.
Pre-existing medical condition.
Age and sex.
Other issues affecting lethality are frequency, which is an issue in causing cardiac arrest or muscular spasms. Very high frequency electric current causes tissue burning, but does not penetrate the body far enough to cause cardiac arrest (see electrosurgery). Also important is the pathway: if the current passes through the chest or head, there is an increased chance of death. From a main circuit or power distribution panel the damage is more likely to be internal, leading to cardiac arrest. Another factor is that cardiac tissue has a chronaxie (response time) of about 3 milliseconds, so electricity at frequencies of higher than about 333 Hz requires more current to cause fibrillation than is required at lower frequencies.
The comparison between the dangers of alternating current at typical power transmission frequences (i.e., 50 or 60 Hz), and direct current has been a subject of debate ever since the war of the currents in the 1880s. Animal experiments conducted during this time suggested that alternating current was about twice as dangerous as direct current per unit of current flow (or per unit of applied voltage).
It is sometimes suggested that human lethality is most common with alternating current at 100–250 volts; however, death has occurred below this range, with supplies as low as 42 volts. Assuming a steady current flow (as opposed to a shock from a capacitor or from static electricity), shocks above 2,700 volts are often fatal, with those above 11,000 volts being usually fatal, though exceptional cases have been noted. According to a Guinness Book of World Records comic, seventeen-year-old Brian Latasa survived a 230,000 volt shock on the tower of an ultra-high voltage line in Griffith Park, Los Angeles on November 9, 1967. A news report of the event stated that he was "jolted through the air, and landed across the line", and though rescued by firemen, he suffered burns over 40% of his body and was completely paralyzed except for his eyelids. The shock with the highest voltage reported survived was that of Harry F. McGrew, who came in contact with a 340,000 volt transmission line in Huntington Canyon, Utah.
Prevention
Grounding the electrical enclosure of high-voltage machinery.
Use of insulated gloves, insulated boots, mats and tools.
Protecting electrical circuit with a residual-current device (RCD).
Epidemiology
There were 550 reported electrocutions in the US in 1993, 2.1 deaths per million inhabitants. At that time, the incidence of electrocutions was decreasing. Electrocutions in the workplace make up the majority of these fatalities. From 1980–1992, an average of 411 workers were killed each year by electrocution. Workplace deaths caused by exposure to electricity in the U.S. increased by nearly 24% between 2015 and 2019, from 134 to 166. However, workplace electrical injuries dropped 23% between 2015 and 2019 from 2,480 to 1,900. In 2019, the top 5 states with the most workplace electrical fatalities were: (1) Texas (608); (2) California (451); (3) Florida (306); (4) New York (273); and (5) Georgia (207).
A recent study conducted by the National Coroners Information System (NCIS) in Australia has revealed 321 closed case fatalities (and at least 39 case fatalities still under coronial investigation) that had been reported to Australian coroners where a person died from electrocution between July 2000 and October 2011.
In Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Norway the number of electric deaths per million inhabitants was 0.6, 0.3, 0.3 and 0.2, respectively, in the years 2007–2011.
People who survive electrical trauma may suffer a host of injuries including loss of consciousness, seizures, aphasia, visual disturbances, headaches, tinnitus, paresis, and memory disturbances. Even without visible burns, electric shock survivors may be faced with long-term muscular pain and discomfort, exhaustion, headache, problems with peripheral nerve conduction and sensation, inadequate balance and coordination, among other symptoms. Electrical injury can lead to problems with neurocognitive function, affecting speed of mental processing, attention, concentration, and memory. The high frequency of psychological problems is well established and may be multifactorial. As with any traumatic and life-threatening experience, electrical injury may result in post traumatic psychiatric disorders. There exist several non-profit research institutes that coordinate rehabilitation strategies for electrical injury survivors by connecting them with clinicians that specialize in diagnosis and treatment of various traumas that arise as a result of electrical injury.
Deliberate uses
Medical uses
Electric shock is also used as a medical therapy, under carefully controlled conditions:
Electroconvulsive therapy or ECT, a psychiatric therapy for mental disorders
As a surgical tool for cutting or coagulation. An electrosurgical unit (ESU) uses high currents (e.g. 10 amperes) at high frequency (e.g. 500 kHz) with various schemes of amplitude modulation to cut or coagulate
As a treatment for fibrillation or irregular heart rhythms: see Defibrillation and Cardioversion
As a method of pain relief: see Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS)
As a treatment for excessive sweating with a process called iontophoresis
Electrodiagnosis, for example nerve conduction studies and electromyography
Electroporation for gene delivery
Entertainment
Mild electric shocks are also used for entertainment, especially as a practical joke for example in such devices as a shocking pen or a shocking gum. However devices such as a joy buzzer and most other machines in amusement parks today only use vibration that feels somewhat like an electric shock to someone not expecting it.
It is also used entertainingly for sex stimulation. This is usually done via the use of an erotic electrostimulator which induces erotic electrostimulation. These devices may include a violet wand, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, electrical muscle stimulation, and made-for-play units.
Policing and personal defense
Electroshock weapons are incapacitant weapons used for subduing a person by administering electric shock to disrupt superficial muscle functions. One type is a conductive energy device (CED), an electroshock gun popularly known by the brand name "Taser", which fires projectiles that administer the shock through a thin, flexible wire. Although they are illegal for personal use in many jurisdictions, Tasers have been marketed to the general public. Other electroshock weapons such as stun guns, stun batons ("cattle prods"), and electroshock belts administer an electric shock by direct contact.
Electric fences are barriers that use electric shocks to deter animals or people from crossing a boundary. The voltage of the shock may have effects ranging from uncomfortable, to painful or even lethal. Most electric fencing is used today for agricultural fencing and other forms of animal control purposes, though it is frequently used to enhance security of restricted areas, and there exist places where lethal voltages are used.
Torture
Electric shocks are used as a method of torture, since the received voltage and current can be controlled with precision and used to cause pain and fear without always visibly harming the victim's body.
Electrical torture has been used in war and by repressive regimes since the 1930s. The United States Army is known to have used electrical torture during World War II. During the Algerian War electrical torture was used by French military forces. Amnesty International published a statement that Russian military forces in Chechnya tortured local women with electric shocks by attaching wires onto their breasts.
The parrilla () is a method of torture whereby the victim is strapped to a metal frame and subjected to electric shock. It has been used in a number of contexts in South America. The parrilla was commonly used at Villa Grimaldi, a prison complex maintained by Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional, a part of the Pinochet regime. In the 1970s, during the Dirty War, the parrilla was used in Argentina. Francisco Tenório Júnior (known as Tenorinho), a Brazilian piano player, was subjected to the parrilla during the military dictatorship in Brazil.
Advocates for the mentally ill and some psychiatrists such as Thomas Szasz have asserted that electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is torture when used without a bona fide medical benefit against recalcitrant or non-responsive patients.
The Judge Rotenberg Center in Canton, Massachusetts has been condemned for torture by the United Nations special rapporteur on torture for its use of electric shocks as punishment as part of its behavior modification program.
Japanese serial killer Futoshi Matsunaga used electric shocks to control his victims.
Capital punishment
Electric shock delivered by an electric chair is sometimes used as an official means of capital punishment in the United States, although its use has become rare from the 1990's onward due to the adoption of lethal injection. Although some original proponents of the electric chair considered it to be a more humane execution method than hanging, shooting, poison gassing, etc., it has now generally been replaced by lethal injections in states that practice capital punishment. Modern reporting has claimed that it sometimes takes several shocks to be lethal, and that the condemned person may actually catch fire before death.
Other than in parts of the United States, only the Philippines reportedly has used this method, from 1926 to 1976. It was intermittently replaced by the firing squad, until the death penalty was abolished in that country. Electrocution remains legal in at least 4 states (Florida, Alabama, North Carolina and Kentucky) of the United States.
See also
Electrocution
Electrical burn
Electromagnetism
Graduated electronic decelerator
Lichtenberg figure
Lightning injury
Milgram experiment
Residual-current device, a device used to protect against electric shocks
Static electricity
Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation
References
Cited sources
External links
National Institute for Occupation Safety & Health: Worker Deaths by Electrocution, a CDC study
Effect of Electric Shock Currents on Humans
Corporal punishments
Electrical safety
Medical emergencies
Torture
Electrical injuries
Causes of death
Occupational safety and health
Effects of external causes
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] |
211891
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7.5%20cm%20Gebirgskanone%20Model%201911
|
7.5 cm Gebirgskanone Model 1911
|
The 7.5 cm Gebirgskanone Model 1911 was a mountain gun manufactured for export in 1911 by the German firm Rheinmetall. Nine batteries were sold to Norway. During the 1940 Norwegian campaign, a number of these were captured by the Germans, who designated them 7.5 cm GebK 247(n). The crew were protected by an armoured shield.
See also
List of mountain artillery
Notes
75 mm artillery
World War II mountain artillery
World War II artillery of Norway
World War II artillery of Germany
|
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211892
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leamington
|
Leamington
|
Leamington may refer to:
Places
Leamington Spa, Warwickshire, England
Leamington Hastings, Warwickshire, England
Leamington, Ontario, Canada
Leamington, Utah, US
Leamington, Cambridge, a suburb of Cambridge, New Zealand
Leamington, Canterbury, a locality in the Canterbury region of New Zealand
Other uses
HMS Leamington, two Royal Navy vessels
Leamington (horse), a 19th-century racehorse
Leamington F.C., the Leamington Spa football club
See also
Lemington (disambiguation)
Lymington, a town in Hampshire, England
Lymington River, Hampshire, England
|
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] |
211894
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collins%20glass
|
Collins glass
|
A collins glass is a glass tumbler which typically will contain . It is used to serve mixed drinks, especially Tom Collins or John Collins cocktails. It is cylindrical in shape and narrower and taller than a highball glass. An example size is diameter by in height.
See also
Old Fashioned glass
References
Drinking glasses
Drinkware
|
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211895
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barista
|
Barista
|
A barista (; ; from the Italian/Spanish for "bartender") is a person, usually a coffeehouse employee, who prepares and serves espresso-based coffee drinks.
Etymology and inflection
The word barista comes from Italian and Spanish where it means a male or female "bartender" who typically works behind a counter, serving hot drinks (such as espresso), cold alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, and snacks. Prieto (2021) shows that the word barista has been documented since 1916 in both Spanish and Italian. The native plural in English and Spanish is baristas, while in Italian the plural is baristi for masculine (literally meaning "barmen", "bartenders") or bariste for feminine (literally meaning "barmaids").
Application of the title
While the title is not regulated, most coffee shops use the title to describe the preparer of coffee and operator of an espresso machine.
Baristas generally operate a commercial espresso machine, and their role is preparing and pulling the shot; the degree to which this is automated or done manually varies significantly, ranging from push-button operation to an involved manual process. Espresso is a notoriously finicky beverage, and good manual espresso making is considered a skilled task. Further, preparation of other beverages, particularly milk-based drinks such as cappuccinos and lattes, but also non-espresso coffee such as drip or press pot, requires additional work and skill for effective frothing, pouring and most often latte art. In Starbucks, over the counter employees are referred to as "baristas", although the preparation process is fully automated.
The barista usually has been trained to operate the machine and to prepare the coffee based on the guidelines of the roaster or shop owner, while more experienced baristas may have discretion to vary preparation or experiment.
To make the coffee well, there is a series of steps needing attention, including grinding the beans, extracting the coffee, frothing the milk and pouring.
Beyond the preparation of espresso and other beverages and general customer service, skilled baristas acquire knowledge of the entire process of coffee to effectively prepare a desired cup of coffee, including maintenance and programming of the machine, grinding methods, roasting, and coffee plant cultivation, similar to how a sommelier is familiar with the entire process of wine making and consumption. A barista can acquire these skills by attending training classes, but they are more commonly learned on the job.
Competition
Formal barista competitions originated in Norway, and one such is the World Barista Championships, held annually at varied international locations. Baristas worldwide compete, though they must first compete in a competition held in their own country to qualify to enter in the WBC.
See also
Bikini barista
Milkman
Soda jerk
Sommelier
References
Coffee culture
Hospitality occupations
Food services occupations
Coffee in Italy
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runcorn
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Runcorn
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Runcorn is an industrial town and cargo port in the Borough of Halton in Cheshire, England. Its population in 2011 was 61,789. The town is in the southeast of the Liverpool City Region, with Liverpool to the northwest across the River Mersey. Runcorn is on the southern bank of the River Mersey, where the estuary narrows to form the Runcorn Gap.
Runcorn was founded by Ethelfleda in 915 AD as a fortification to guard against Viking invasion at a narrowing of the River Mersey. Under Norman rule, Runcorn fell under the Barony of Halton and an Augustinian abbey was established here in 1115. It remained a small, isolated settlement until the Industrial Revolution when the extension of the Bridgewater Canal to Runcorn in 1776 established it as a port which would link Liverpool with inland Manchester and Staffordshire. The docks enabled the growth of industry, initially shipwrights and sandstone quarries. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, it was a spa and health resort but this ended with the growth of polluting industries, especially soap and chemical works. In 1964, Runcorn was designated a new town and expanded eastward, swallowing neighbouring settlements and more than doubling its population.
Three bridges span the River Mersey and the Manchester Ship Canal at Runcorn: the Silver Jubilee Bridge, Mersey Gateway, and Runcorn Railway Bridge. Its location between Liverpool and Manchester and its links to the rail, motorway and canal networks have made it a centre for manufacturing, logistics, and wholesale and retail. The town's motto is Navem Mercibus Implere (Latin for "fill the ship with goods"), a classical quotation from Juvenal.
History
Early history
The earliest written reference to the town is in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, where it is spelled "Rumcofan", literally meaning "a wide cove or bay". This word is derived from the Old English words "rúm" ("wide" or "broad") and "cofa" ("cave" or "cove"). Other historical spellings of Runcorn include "Rumcoven", "Ronchestorn", "Runckhorne", and "Runcorne".
Little is known about the early history of the settlement but isolated findings of objects from the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages have been made and there is evidence of a Roman presence in the area.
The first recorded event in its history is the building by Ethelfleda of a fortification at Runcorn to protect the northern frontier of her kingdom of Mercia against the Vikings in 915. The fort was built on Castle Rock overlooking the River Mersey at Runcorn Gap.
Medieval
Following the Norman conquest, Runcorn was not mentioned in the 1086 Domesday survey, although surrounding settlements were. William the Conqueror granted the earldom of Chester to Hugh d'Avranches who granted the barony of Halton to Nigel. It is likely that Nigel erected a motte and bailey castle on Halton Hill in the 1070s.
In 1115, Nigel's son, William Fitznigel, founded an Augustinian Priory at Runcorn. In 1134 the priory was moved to Norton, about away. In 1391 the priory was raised to the higher status of abbey. In 1536 the monastery was dissolved, and around nine years later the buildings and some of the monastic lands were sold to Sir Richard Brooke who converted the habitable part of the abbey into a house.
In 1565, Rocksavage, an Elizabethan Hall, was constructed for Sir John Savage in Clifton, now part of Runcorn.
English Civil War
During the Civil War, Halton Castle was held for the Royalists by John Savage, 2nd Earl Rivers, the Steward of Halton. It fell twice to Parliamentarian Roundheads. The first siege was led by Sir William Brereton in 1643; the second was during the following year. Following this, a "Council of War" was held in Warrington in 1646 at which it was decided that the castle should be slighted.
In 1656, Runcorn was described as being "nothing but a fair parish church, a parsonage and a few scattered tenements". And so it remained for over a century, an isolated and poor hamlet. The only through traffic used the ferry which crossed from Runcorn to the north bank of the River Mersey.
Industrialisation
During the 18th century, water transport had been improved in the area by the Mersey and Irwell Navigation, the Bridgewater Canal and the Trent and Mersey Canal. This gave Runcorn waterway connections with most of the interior of England through the canal system and with the sea along the River Mersey, thus forming the basis for the development of the Port of Runcorn.
Later came the Runcorn to Latchford Canal linking with the Mersey and Irwell Navigation, and the Weston Canal which gave better access to the Weaver Navigation system.
Industries began to develop within and around the town, in particular shipbuilding, engineering, chemical manufacturing, tanning, and sandstone quarrying. Towards the end of the 18th century and in the early years of the 19th century, the town was a health resort.
The growth of industry did not diminish Runcorn's late 18th and early 19th century reputation as a health resort and the "Montpelier of England". In 1822 the town's first Saltwater Baths opened followed by new visitor accommodation in Belvedere Terrace in 1831.
In the middle of the century, the growing wealth of the town and its industrialists saw the construction of several new landmarks, including Halton Grange, St Paul's Methodist Chapel and All Saints' Church.
For hundreds of years, the only means of crossing the River Mersey at this point had been by the Runcorn ferry. Thomas Telford proposed a single span suspension bridge as early as 1817, but it was not until 1868 that the first bridge, Runcorn Railway Bridge, was opened across the Mersey at Runcorn. This gave the town direct rail links with Liverpool and the rest of the country.
Runcorn was becoming an industrialised and highly polluted town. During the later 19th century the town became increasingly dominated by the chemical and tanning industries. In the 1880s a pipeline was opened between Northwich and Weston Point, supplying brine to the salt works and in 1896 the Castner Kellner chemical works was established.
In 1894 the Manchester Ship Canal was opened throughout its length. This allowed ocean-going ships to travel inland as far as Salford, some of them calling at the port of Runcorn. The rise in population between 1881 and 1891 and the drop by 1901 is explained by the number of people involved in constructing the ship canal.
In 1905, the Widnes-Runcorn Transporter Bridge opened, giving a direct link for vehicular traffic for the first time between the two towns. This would not be replaced until 1961 with the construction of Runcorn Road Bridge (since renamed the Silver Jubilee Bridge) which allowed a more efficient means of road traffic across Runcorn Gap.
During the first half of the 20th century, the industry of the town continued to be dominated by chemicals and tanning. This growth was largely due to government fixed-priced cost contracts for tanned hides. In 1926, four chemical companies merged to form Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI).
During the second half of the 20th century, the tanneries closed (the last to close was the Highfield Tannery in the late 1960s) and the chemical industry declined. At the same time, light industry developed together with warehouses and distribution centres.
New Town development
In September 1963, the Ministry of Housing and Local Government published a draft of the Runcorn New Town (Designation) Order which would allocate in and around Runcorn for development of a new town under the New Towns Act 1946. The ministry cited the urgent need for more housing to reduce overcrowding in Liverpool and to increase the rate of slum clearance there. Runcorn was chosen because of its strong road, rail and canal connections, ample water supply, convenient location on the Mersey Estuary for the disposal of effluent, established industry and the availability of land for more.
Following objections to the draft order, a public Local Inquiry was held at Runcorn from 10–12 December 1963. The subsequent report accepted the location in principle and the proposed population of 90,000. It did, however, recommend that around the village of Sutton Weaver to the south of the Chester–Manchester and Crewe–Liverpool railway lines be excluded from the designated area, partly to preserve its highly productive agricultural land. The minister, Keith Joseph, accepted the report's recommendations and the designation order was made on 10 April 1964.
The new town masterplan published in 1966 more than doubled the population as it encompassed neighbouring settlements and created new housing estates to the south and east. The key features of the new town were its unique housing and estate designs, segregated pedestrian pathways, Busway, extensive landscaped green space, separate industrial areas and new town centre.
The new town centre was designated at the geographical heart of the expanded town with Shopping City, an American style enclosed mall, as its focus. This was a source of conflict between Arthur Ling, the new town Master Planner, and Fred Roche, Chief Architect. Whereas Ling envisaged a centre reminiscent of a citadel or acropolis at the base of Halton Castle, Roche preferred to expand the existing town centre, partly to placate the Urban District Council and existing traders. The new Halton site was favoured and Shopping City opened in 1972.
However, the Urban District Council secured a commitment from the Development Corporation to continue a programme of regeneration which the council had already begun. In 1971, the Development Corporation published Master Plan Amendment No.1 which focused on the urban renewal of the Old Town centre, now designated a smaller 'district centre'. The plan sought to increase public open space,
reduce shopping provision, rationalise roads and renew housing stock. It also included plans to widen the Runcorn-Widnes Bridge from two to four lanes and create a new system of junctions between the bridge and the expressway.
The masterplan was amended for the second and final time in 1975. Amendment No.2 extended the expressway further to the east and redesignated land at Sandymoor intended for industrial use to residential. The Runcorn Development Corporation merged with Warrington Development Corporation on 1 April 1981 and was wound up on 30 September 1989.
Much of the architecture of the new town was innovative, especially the Southgate development designed by Sir James Stirling and built between 1970 and 1977. Stirling's housing development was beset with problems and it was demolished in the early 1990s. In 2002, the Castlefields Partnership (made up of English Partnerships and Halton Borough Council) was created to comprehensively redevelop the Castlefields estate, including the demolition of over 700 deck access flats.
Governance
Local government
Runcorn is unparished with the exception of Sandymoor, and a large part of the Whitehouse Industrial Estate which falls under Preston Brook Parish Council. The local authority is Halton Borough Council for which the town is divided into nine electoral wards, each electing three councillors.
At the time of the Domesday survey, Runcorn was in the hundred of Tunendune, but later, and until the early 19th century, Runcorn was part of the Bucklow hundred.
Under the Runcorn Improvement Act 1852, a board of Improvement Commissioners was established to administer the civil government of the town. By the Local Government Act 1894, the administration of the town and the surrounding areas was divided into Runcorn Urban District and Runcorn Rural District. Initially the urban district consisted of only the built-up area of Runcorn itself. By 1937, this area had been extended to include the communities of Weston and Weston Point to the south. In 1964, Runcorn was designated as a New Town and greatly expanded so that by 1971 it had grown to incorporate the village of Halton.
Runcorn Urban District was abolished in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972 when it merged with the Municipal Borough of Widnes and parts of Runcorn Rural District and Whiston Rural District to form the Borough of Halton under Halton Borough Council and Cheshire County Council. In 1998, Halton Borough Council became a unitary authority within the ceremonial county of Cheshire. In April 2014, Halton Borough Council joined five other local authorities in Merseyside to form the Liverpool City Region.
Westminster representation
The western area of the town is in the Halton constituency and the eastern part in the Weaver Vale constituency. Since the 1997 general election, the Member of Parliament (MP) for the Halton constituency has been Derek Twigg of the Labour Party. Weaver Vale is a marginal seat and has switched parties several times since its creation in 1997.
Before the Reform Act 1832, Runcorn was in the constituency of Cheshire which was represented by two Members of Parliament. Following the Reform Act, the town was placed in the North Cheshire constituency and from 1868 in the Mid Cheshire constituency. From 1885 to 1950 the town was in the constituency of Northwich. The constituency of Runcorn was created by a 1948 Act of Parliament and Dennis Vosper was the first to be elected to the seat in 1950. In 1964, he was succeeded by Mark Carlisle who held the seat until the constituency of Runcorn was abolished in 1983 and split between the constituencies of Halton and Warrington South.
Geography
Topography
Runcorn is situated on a spur projecting into the River Mersey, which flows to the north and then to the west of the town. On the north bank of the river is another spur forming the West Bank area of Widnes; together these form Runcorn Gap, a narrowing of the River Mersey. The town is bounded to the southwest by the Weaver Navigation; to the south by the Chester–Manchester and Crewe–Liverpool railway lines; and to the east by the West Coast Main Line until the village of Moore. A series of valleys is formed by high points at Runcorn Hill (75m AOD), Halton Castle (75m AOD), Windmill Hill (70m AOD) and Keckwick Hill (75m AOD).
Runcorn Gap is crossed by three bridges: Runcorn Railway Bridge (which carries the Liverpool branch of the West Coast Main Line), the Silver Jubilee Bridge and the Mersey Gateway which carries the A533. A system of dual carriageways called 'expressways' form a figure of 8 around the town. The Central Expressway runs through the centre of the town in a north–south direction and is the main through-road. It connects to the M56 motorway which cuts into the south of the town.
To the west of the Central Expressway lies the Old Town of Runcorn, Higher Runcorn, Weston, Weston Point and Clifton (formerly Rocksavage), and the new town estates of Halton Brook and Halton Lodge. To the east are the formerly separate villages of Halton and Norton, and the new town estates of Castlefields, Palacefields, Windmill Hill, Murdishaw, Brookvale, Hallwood Park, Beechwood and Sandymoor. The density of housing is generally high, but there are open green areas, in particular heathland on Runcorn Hill and the extensive Town Park created as part of the new town. Housing is typically situated within the expressways and industry outside.
Geology
The Runcorn area drains into the River Mersey to the north and the River Weaver to the south.
The bedrock geology of the River Mersey and the northern and western fringes of Runcorn is Sherwood Sandstone and pebbly sandstone. To the south there is a transition to siltstone, sandstone and predominantly Mercia Mudstone. The primary sedimentary rock is New Red Sandstone.
The superficial geology is varied with pockets of sand and diamicton along the lower-lying land adjacent to the Mersey and through Runcorn. Sand and gravel becomes common on the southern fringes of the town and elsewhere there are small pockets of clay, silt, sand and gravel.
Ecology
There are two Sites of Special Scientific Interest within the town: Floodbrook Clough and the Mersey Estuary. Floodbrook Clough in Beechwood is an Ancient Semi-Natural Woodland and one of the best examples in Cheshire of clough woodland on keuper marl.
There are five Local Nature Reserves designated under the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949: Runcorn Hill, Dorchester Park, Oxmoor Woods, Wigg Island and Murdishaw Valley.
Demography
Population growth
Early census statistics for the town include only the areas known now as the Old Town and Higher Runcorn. In the early twentieth century, Runcorn Urban District grew to incorporate the neighbouring villages of Weston and Halton. The present statistical boundaries of Runcorn were defined in the Runcorn New Town (Designation) Order 1964 which greatly expanded the town to the east.
The population of Runcorn in 1664 has been estimated as 305.
Religion
The 2011 census showed that, of the people living in Runcorn, 70.1% declared themselves to be Christian, significantly higher than the national average in England of 59.4%. 23.5% stated that they had "no religion" and 5.5% made no religious claims. Those stating their religions as Buddhist, Hindu, Jewish, Islam, or Sikh amounted to 0.8%.
The Anglican churches are part of the Diocese of Chester and the Deanery of Frodsham. The parish church is All Saints in the old town centre and there are ten other Anglican churches in the town. Five Roman Catholic churches can be found in Runcorn and are administered by the Diocese of Shrewsbury.
There are two Methodist chapels and several shared churches. Wicksten Drive Christian Centre is shared between Anglicans and Methodists. Hallwood Ecumenical Parish in Beechwood and Palace Fields consists of 2 churches, both recognised by the Church of England, the Methodist Church and the United Reformed Church.
There is a Pentecostal church, two independent evangelical churches, an LDS church and a spiritualist church. The Jehovah's Witnesses maintain a Kingdom Hall.
In 2013, the former Waterloo Hotel was converted into a Buddhist temple by Wat Phra Singh UK. , there are five resident monks.
Ethnicity
In the 2011 census, of Runcorn's 61,789 residents, 97.8% were White, with 96.3% identifying as White British. Mixed/multiple ethnic groups made up 1.2%, Asian/Asian British 0.7%, Black/African/Caribbean/Black British 0.2%, and Other/Arab 0.1%. 98.5% had English as a first language.
Economy
Runcorn has a higher proportion of people working in manufacturing, logistics, and wholesale and retail than the average for England. Chemical manufacturing has been the town's dominant sector since the 19th century, but the local economy has increasingly diversified into other advanced manufacturing sectors, such as aerospace and automotive, as well as services and logistics.
The main industrial areas of the town are Astmoor, Manor Park, Whitehouse, the Heath and Weston Point. Sci-Tech Daresbury is to the southeast of the town. The main retail and leisure area is Shopping City in the centre of the town with a smaller district centre at the old town.
Manufacturing and chemicals
The town's chemical industry was dominated for many years by ICI's Chlor Chemical division. But since 2001, Inovyn (a wholly owned subsidiary of Ineos) has operated the extensive chemical works in the west of the town, employing 750 people in 2020. In Runcorn, Invoyn manufactures chlorine, caustic soda and chlorinated derivatives. It also produces salt, made from brine transported by pipeline from the saltfields of central Cheshire, and sulphuric acid. Several other chemical manufacturers also have a presence at the site, including Koura (formerly Mexichem Fluor), Industrial Chemicals, Packed Chlorine Limited, VYNOVA and Runcorn MCP Ltd (a joint venture between INOVYN and VYNOVA). The site is considered to be of strategic national importance to the UK. The site includes two independently owned power stations; the 810 MW natural gas fired Rocksavage Power Station and the Runcorn Energy Recovery Facility operated by Viridor which also supplies heat to the Inovyn facility. ICI's other former site in Runcorn comprising offices and laboratories is now the Heath Business and Technical Park, which provides office, laboratory, conference, and leisure facilities.
Other large employers include advanced manufacturing firms Sigmatex (manufacturer of carbon fibre), Héroux-Devtek (manufacturer of aircraft landing gear), Whitford (manufacturer of speciality coatings), Teva (manufacturer of pharmaceuticals) and Fresenius Kabi (manufacturer of medical and pharmaceutical products). Drinks manufacturer, Diageo, has maintained a packaging plant at Runcorn since 1970 which packages Guinness, Pimm's, Kilkenny and Smirnoff Ice for distribution in Great Britain.
Sci-Tech Daresbury is a National Science and Innovation Campus to the south east of Runcorn. The campus offers lab space, offices and workshops to rent. It is home to the largest supercomputer in Europe and the Virtual Engineering Centre which works with Bentley motor cars, BAE Systems and Jaguar Land Rover. The site also houses Daresbury Laboratory which employs over 300 staff specialising in accelerator science, bio-medicine, physics, chemistry, materials, engineering and computational science.
Logistics
Runcorn's position between Liverpool and Manchester airports and its links to the rail, motorway and canal networks have made it a centre for logistics. There are two ports in the west of the town on the Manchester Ship Canal. Runcorn Docks is owned by the Manchester Ship Canal Company, which is part of the Peel Ports Group. Weston Point Docks is operated by FLX Logistics.
There are several large logistics depots across Runcorn, including Eddie Stobart Group's road haulage site and driver training school in Manor Park, the Downton haulage depot at the Whitehouse Industrial Estate, and an NHS Supply Chain Depot in Astmoor Industrial Estate.
Services
There has been a shift in employment from manufacturing to service industries. In 1991, 34% worked in the manufacturing sector and 61% were in the service sector. By 2004, 17% were in manufacturing jobs and 78% were in service jobs. This trend in the local region is demonstrated in this chart which shows the regional "gross value added" of Halton and Warrington at current basic prices, with figures in millions of pounds.
includes hunting and forestry
includes energy and construction
includes financial intermediation services indirectly measured
Components may not sum to totals due to rounding
Runcorn has two shopping centres. The original shopping area was in the older part of the town on High Street, Regent Street and Church Street. This centre continues to exist, but with the coming of the new town, has declined. In the centre of the new town, Runcorn Shopping City is an enclosed shopping mall with two attached bus stations. Adjacent to it is Trident Retail Park containing shopping outlets and a cinema and nearby is a large Asda superstore that opened in 1989.
Transport
The Runcorn New Town Masterplan created three distinct types of road: busways, expressways and local roads. In addition, there is a network of dedicated cycleways in the town.
The Runcorn Busway was the world's first bus rapid transit system in 1971. First conceived in the Runcorn New Town Masterplan in 1966, it opened for services in October 1971 and all were operational by 1980. It is a road network for use by buses only and, unlike guided busways or bus lanes, it is a totally separate road system, not running alongside (or down the middle of) existing roads. It was designed so that most residents would be no more than five minutes walking distance, or , from a bus stop. The central station is at Runcorn Shopping City where buses arrive on dedicated raised busways to two enclosed stations. Professor Arthur Ling, Runcorn Development Corporation's Master Planner, claimed to have invented the concept while sketching on the back of an envelope. Bus services are provided by Arriva North West, Anthony's Travel, MP Travel, Warrington's Own Buses, Ashcroft Travel, Halton Community Transport and Stagecoach. Two coach companies operate from the town; Selwyns Travel, and Anthony's Travel.
The expressways form a ring road around the town in a figure of eight and are intended to keep all through traffic off the local roads. This system links north to Widnes and Liverpool by the A533 over the Mersey Gateway bridge, east to Warrington by the A56, south to Northwich and north Cheshire by the A533, and west by the A557 to the M56 and to Frodsham. The M56 links to the M6 and, to the north of Widnes, the A557 links to the M62.
There are two railway stations. Runcorn, located in the old town, is on the Liverpool branch of the West Coast Main Line, and is managed by Avanti West Coast, which provides services between Liverpool Lime Street and London Euston. West Midlands Trains run a service between Liverpool and Birmingham New Street that calls at the station. Runcorn East station, located in the Murdishaw district of the new town, is managed by Transport for Wales, and provides services to Warrington, Manchester, Chester and North Wales.
Runcorn is from Liverpool John Lennon Airport and from Manchester Airport.
Landmarks
There are two Grade I listed buildings and scheduled monuments in Runcorn: Halton Castle and Norton Priory. Halton Castle is one of two remaining Norman castles in Cheshire, built in 1071 and reconstructed in local sandstone in the 13th century. The castle was slighted following the Civil War and the gatehouse converted to a courthouse in 1737, now The Castle public house and a Grade II*listed building in its own right. Norton Priory, now a museum, is the most excavated monastic site in Europe, consisting of the ruins of an Abbey, 12th century undercroft and 18th century Walled Garden. Both Norton Priory and Halton Castle are managed by Norton Priory Museum Trust Limited.
Most Grade II*listed buildings in the town are around the base of Halton Castle, including Seneschal's House (1598), Halton Old Hall (1693), Chesshyre Library (1730) and Halton Vicarage (1739). Hallwood (1710), a former mansion house, is also Grade II*listed and its former stable block is Grade II. But both have been derelict since the Tricorn public house closed in 2017. The town's 19th century Anglican churches are also listed buildings, including the Grade II*All Saints (1849) and St John's (1897), and the Grade II Holy Trinity (1838), Christ Church (1841) and St Mary's (1851).
The Runcorn home of the Duke of Bridgewater, Bridgewater House, is a prominent landmark and Grade II listed building on the banks of the Manchester Ship Canal where a flight of locks from his canal once stood. The home of a later industrialist, Thomas Johnson, became Runcorn Town Hall, a Grade II listed Italianate building with similarities to Osborne House on the Isle of White.
The landmarks largest in scale are the three bridges which span the River Mersey and the Manchester Ship Canal at Runcorn. Runcorn Railway Bridge and the Silver Jubilee Bridge are Grade II*and II listed buildings respectively while the Mersey Gateway Bridge was officially opened in 2018 by Queen Elizabeth II and the Duchess of Sussex. Norton Water Tower is another prominent Grade II listed landmark at high.
Runcorn War Memorial is Grade II listed and commemorates those who lost their lives in the First and Second World Wars, as well as those killed in later conflicts. The garden contains a statue of Thomas Alfred Jones who was awarded the Victoria Cross in the First World War. There is a memorial in Halton Village commemorating residents who served in the Boer War.
Runcorn Shopping City, at the heart of the New Town, was designed by Fred Roche CBE and at the time of its construction was the largest covered shopping centre in Europe. It was opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 1972.
Culture
Theatre and cinema
The Brindley is a theatre and arts centre which opened in 2004. It is situated in the old town and named after James Brindley, engineer of the adjacent Bridgewater Canal. It contains a proscenium theatre seating 420 and a multi-purpose theatre seating 108, The Studio, which doubles as a cinema. There is an exhibition space for art installations, a small café and multi-purpose rooms. The centre is owned and administered by Halton Borough Council which runs community events in the building. In 2007, it won the title of 'Best Arts Project in the UK' at the National Lottery Awards. A multiplex cinema run by Cineworld is in Trident Retail Park.
Media
Runcorn is served by two weekly newspapers: the Runcorn & Widnes Weekly News, published by Trinity Mirror North West & North Wales and hosted online by the Liverpool Echo, and the Runcorn and Widnes World, published by Newsquest. The town is also home to Halton Community Radio, a volunteer-run radio station which broadcasts over the Runcorn and Widnes area on the frequency 92.3FM. It was launched on 8 August 2008 with a five-year licence to broadcast.
The BBC situation comedy Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps was set in Runcorn and included external shots of the former Waterloo Hotel (known in the programme as The Archer), the Silver Jubilee Bridge and Halton Castle. Drop Dead Gorgeous, a drama on BBC Three, was also set in Runcorn. The first two series of the BBC police drama Merseybeat featured sequences of the town and areas of Runcorn old town featured in The Five TV crime drama series on Sky1. Norton Priory has been used as a location in historical dramas, sitcoms and children's programmes, including Little Birds, Bone Detectives (Channel 4), Island at War, Casanova and Young Dracula. The Silver Jubilee Bridge featured in the Netflix series, Stay Close.
Literature
The Runcorn Ferry is a monologue written by Marriott Edgar and popularised by Stanley Holloway celebrating the ancient river crossing which existed from the 12th century until the construction of the Transporter Bridge in 1905. It includes the lines:
Community facilities
The main library is at Runcorn Shopping City with a branch library in the old town centre. A Council 'one stop shop' called Halton Direct Link is based next to the main library.
Open areas in Runcorn form part of Mersey Forest, one of Britain's community forests. In addition to smaller local parks and allotments, there are four large parks in Runcorn:
Town Park forms the centre of the eastern part of the New Town. It is accessible from all of the surrounding communities and links them to Shopping City. There is a privately operated dry ski slope in the park in addition to a volunteer-run 7 1/4" gauge miniature railway, first opened in 1979, which runs through the park for almost a mile.
Phoenix Park adjoins Town Park to the north and includes a cafe, rock climbing wall, skate park and BMX track. There is a pavilion, walking routes along the Bridgewater Canal, woodland walks, a lake, picnic benches and a children's playground. Footpaths lead to Norton Priory.
Runcorn Hill Park and Local Nature Reserve is in the centre of the western part of the town, partly on a dis-used nineteenth-century quarry. It holds a Green Flag Award and incorporates natural woodland and heathland with more formal landscaping, playing fields, a bandstand, model boating lake, sporting facilities and cafe. A Chirotherium dinosaur footprint discovered in the quarry can be viewed in the cafe.
Wigg Island is a large park and nature reserve to the north on the banks of the Mersey and Manchester Ship Canal. The community park was opened on 19 April 2002 by the Mayor of Halton and Bill Oddie. The island is named after Charles Wigg. It covers 23 hectares of a former industrial site and includes several bird watching hides. It is reached via The Old Quay Bridge, a Grade II listed swing bridge built in 1894.
There are three privately run swimming pools at Beechwood Community Centre, INARA club and Holiday Inn Runcorn. The local authority runs two leisure centres and swimming pools at Runcorn Swimming Pool and Brookvale Recreation Centre in addition to outdoor sporting facilities in its parks.
Runcorn's hospital is Halton General Hospital, which is administered by the Warrington and Halton Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust. It has an Urgent Care Centre but acute medical services are provided by Warrington Hospital. The Cheshire and Merseyside Treatment Centre, a purpose-built hospital for orthopaedic surgery, is on the same site. Halton Haven Hospice is in the Murdishaw area of the town. The body responsible for planning health services in Runcorn, including primary care, is the Halton Clinical Commissioning Group.
Cheshire Constabulary operate a police station adjacent to Runcorn Shopping City in the centre of the New Town and Cheshire Fire and Rescue Service maintains a 24-hour fire station.
Sports
Football
The town has two senior football teams – Runcorn Linnets FC and Runcorn Town FC. It also has a Sunday League and a Junior League. There is an open age women's team, Runcorn Ladies FC, which is affiliated to Liverpool FA and plays in the Liverpool County Women's Open Age Division.
Runcorn Linnets were formed as a trust-based team in 2006 from the now defunct Runcorn F.C. Halton. It has existed in various guises since 1918, and its performance peaked in 1982 when it won the Alliance Premier League, then the highest division below the Football League.
Runcorn Town was formed in 1970 as Mond Rangers FC with the club changing their name in 2005 in order to "try and bring a more professional look to the club in general, and increase support from both businesses and individuals in the local community." After finishing in third place in the West Cheshire League at the end of the 2009/10 season, the club were elected to join the North West Counties League at their AGM, the highest level that they have ever played at.
Rugby
In the late 19th century, and prior to the 1895 schism, rugby union was played at the now defunct Runcorn RFC. When the rugby football schism occurred in 1895, Runcorn became founder members of the Northern Rugby Football Union (now Rugby Football League). Runcorn finished bottom of the league in the 1914–15 season and did not recommence playing in the aftermath of the First World War.
Rugby league in the town is now represented by Runcorn RLC.
Other sports
Runcorn Sports Club in Higher Runcorn hosts several clubs, including Runcorn Cricket Club, Hockey Club, Running Club and Subscription Bowling Club.
Runcorn Rowing Club is sited on the River Weaver Navigation near Clifton Village and also houses Runcorn Canoe Club.
Weston Angling Club Runcorn is a private fishing club which owns Sandymoor Pool in the east of the town.
There is an 18-hole golf course at Runcorn Golf Club in Clifton Road. Nearby is Heath Tennis Club which uses facilities at the Heath School.
Runcorn Ski Centre in Town Park consists of three dry ski slopes: an 85-metre main slope, a 45-metre extended nursery slope, and a 25-metre nursery slope. The centre runs both skiing and snowboarding lessons.
Runcorn had a professional wrestling school and promotion called the Runcorn Wrestling Academy (RWA) from 2005 until 2020, when it closed following allegations of sexual harassment during the Speaking Out movement.
Notable people
Arts and entertainment
Elizabeth Jocelin (1595–1622), writer
Francis William Bourdillon (1852–1921), poet, translator, bibliophile, and scholar
Sir Hall Caine (1853–1931), novelist, dramatist, short story writer, poet and critic. World War I allied propagandist. Awarded Order of Leopold (Belgium).
Alistair Taylor (1935–2004) assistant to Brian Epstein and General Manager of Apple Corps
Anna Keaveney (1949–2004), actress
Martin Roscoe (born 1952), classical pianist
John Bishop (born 1966), comedian, presenter, and actor
Phil Collins (born 1970), artist
Pete Edmunds (born c. 1972), actor, voice actor, photographer, and artist
Kym Marsh (born 1976), singer and actress
Raymond Waring (born 1977), actor
Susan Nickson (born 1982), television writer and producer
Nicola Roberts (born 1985), singer and member of girl band Girls Aloud
Public service
The Barony of Halton (10711413) comprised a succession of 15 barons; the seat of the Barons of Halton was Halton Castle
Richard Brooke (died 1569), bought the manor of Norton from Henry VIII in 1545
John Savage, 2nd Earl Rivers (c. 1603–1654), politician and royalist
Sir Henry Brooke, 1st Baronet (1611–1664), soldier and politician
Sir John Chesshyre (1662–1738), lawyer
Nathan Alcock (1707–1779), physician
Thomas Alcock (1709–1798), Vicar of Runcorn, writer, cider maker
Thomas Hazlehurst (1816–1876), Methodist who paid for the construction of 12 chapels and three schools in the area
Sir John Rigby PC (1834–1903), judge, politician, and MP for Wisbech
William Allen Whitworth (1840–1905), mathematician and priest in the Church of England
Thomas Alfred Jones VC, DCM (1880–1956), awarded the Victoria Cross and Distinguished Conduct Medal during World War I
Wilson Baker FRS (1900–2002), organic chemist
John Riley Holt FRS (1918–2009), Professor of Experimental Physics at Liverpool University, helped develop the atom bomb
Sports
Harry Speakman (1864–1915), rugby player
Samuel Houghton (1870–1920), rugby player
Jack Fish (1880–1940), rugby player
Dick Padbury (1886–unknown), rugby player
Ernie Shaw (1894–unknown) rugby player
Robert Done (1904–1982), footballer
Bridget Duke-Wooley (1915–1976), alpine skier, competed in the 1948 Winter Olympics
Ray Dutton (born 1945), rugby player
Graham Abel (born 1960), footballer
Robin Reid (born 1971), boxer
Kieron Durkan (1973–2018), footballer
Mike Jackson (born 1973), footballer
Kenny Lunt (born 1979), footballer
Lorna Webb (born 1983), professional cyclist
Scott Brown (born 1985), footballer
Jimmy McNulty (born 1985), footballer
Shauna Coxsey MBE (born 1993), professional rock climber
Business and industry
Thomas Hazlehurst (1779–1842), founder of soap and alkali manufacturer Hazlehurst & Sons
Charles Wigg (1824–1899), manufacturer of chemicals at Wigg Works, which later became Wigg Island
Hamilton Castner (1858–1899), American industrial chemist, formed the Castner-Kellner Alkali Company in Runcorn, which operates the Castner–Kellner process
Sir William Edward Dudley (1868–1938), president of the Co-operative Wholesale Society
See also
List of listed buildings in Runcorn
List of schools in Halton
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
External links
Runcorn & District Historical Society.
Resource for Urban Development International on Runcorn New Town
Towns in Cheshire
New towns in England
Borough of Halton
Liverpool City Region
Unparished areas in Cheshire
New towns started in the 1960s
Port cities and towns in North West England
915 establishments
Populated places established in the 10th century
10th-century establishments in England
|
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] |
211909
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stevens%20Inquiries
|
Stevens Inquiries
|
The Stevens Inquiries were three official British government inquiries led by Sir John Stevens concerning collusion in Northern Ireland between loyalist paramilitaries and the state security forces. While Stevens declared in 1990 that collusion was "neither wide-spread nor institutionalised", by April 2003 he acknowledged that he had uncovered collusion at a level "way beyond" his 1990 view. Much of Stevens' evidence was obtained from advanced fingerprint techniques to link people to documents. By 2005 the team had identified 2,000 people from their prints with a further 1,015 sets of prints outstanding.
Stevens 1
Loughlin Maginn
In September 1989 RUC chief constable, Sir Hugh Annesley, ordered the initial enquiry about the circumstances following the August 1989 death of Loughlin Maginn. Maginn, a 28-year-old Catholic, was shot by the UFF at his home in Lissize, near Rathfriland. Although Maginn had no paramilitary connections, the Ulster Defence Association (UDA) claimed he was a Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) intelligence officer. In an attempt to prove the accuracy of their targeting, the UDA published security force documents and a video of police intelligence. (It was later found that the video had been provided by sympathetic soldiers using equipment supplied by UDA double agent Brian Nelson).
Obstruction
From the outset Stevens recounts a concerted campaign to discredit the Inquiry in the media. Furthermore, he described the British Army induction he received as obvious lies. He was specifically told that a dedicated Military Intelligence unit did not operate in Northern Ireland and only found out about the Force Research Unit when senior RUC officers blamed the unit for an arson attack at his Inquiry headquarters.
Following their discovery of the then-unknown Brian Nelson's fingerprints on security documents, the Inquiry team encountered a wall of silence as they tried to investigate further: Brian Fitzsimmons, Acting Head of the RUC's Special Branch, became evasive, telling Stevens: We can't help you with this man; and, at the Grosvenor Road station, Nelson's card in the intelligence card system was initially whipped away from the investigators. However the team persevered and gathered enough fresh evidence to plan a secret operation to arrest Nelson on Monday 10 January 1990.
Stevens went home the weekend before the planned arrest. As he returned to Belfast on the Sunday afternoon, there were two journalists on the plane; they informed him that they had been sent over to cover the raids. It was obvious that there had been a leak, and it was decided to postpone the operation for 24 hours. In the meantime, Nelson escaped to England.
That night there was a fire at the team's incident room within the secure complex at Sea Park, the RUC's Carrickfergus Headquarters. The main team had left at 9pm but four members unexpectedly returned 25 minutes later to find the room alight. Neither the smoke alarm nor the heat sensors had gone off and the telephone lines had been cut. They made an attempt to tackle the fire but found that there was no water in the fire protection system.
Stevens 3
William Stobie
In April 1999, as part of the Enquiry, William Stobie was arrested and charged with the murder of solicitor Pat Finucane. In June that year, as agreed, journalist Ed Moloney published Stobie's version of the circumstances of Finucane's death.
Overview & Recommendations Report
The "Stevens Enquiry 3", Overview & Recommendations, report was released on 17 April 2003. The report states that members of the security forces in Northern Ireland colluded with the UDA over the loyalist murders of many innocent people in the 1970s and 1980s, including the solicitor Pat Finucane in 1989. The government forces involved include the Force Research Unit of the British army and the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), in particular its Special Branch.
Stevens, required three police inquiries, during which time his offices within RUC headquarters suffered an arson attack.
Stevens noted, under "Obstruction of my Enquiries":
There was a clear breach of security before the planned arrest of Brian Nelson and other senior loyalists. Information was leaked to the loyalist paramilitaries and the press. This resulted in the operation being aborted. Nelson was advised by his FRU handlers to leave home the night before. A new date was set for the operation on account of the leak. The night before the new operation my Incident room was destroyed by fire. This incident, in my opinion, has never been adequately investigated and I believe it was a deliberate act of arson.
Stevens concluded:
4.6 I have uncovered enough evidence to lead me to believe that the murders of Patrick Finucane and Brian Adam Lambert could have been prevented. I also believe that the RUC investigation of Patrick Finucane's murder should have resulted in the early arrest and detection of his killers.
4.7 I conclude there was collusion in both murders and the circumstances surrounding them. Collusion is evidenced in many ways. This ranges from the willful failure to keep records, the absence of accountability, the withholding of intelligence and evidence, through to the extreme of agents being involved in murder.
4.8 The failure to keep records or the existence of contradictory accounts can often be perceived as evidence of concealment or malpractice. It limits the opportunity to rebut serious allegations. The absence of accountability allows the acts or omissions of individuals to go undetected. The withholding of information impedes the prevention of crime and the arrest of suspects. The unlawful involvement of agents in murder implies that the security forces sanction killings.
4.9 My three Enquiries have found all these elements of collusion to be present. The co-ordination, dissemination and sharing of intelligence were poor. Informants and agents were allowed to operate without effective control and to participate in terrorist crimes. Nationalists were known to be targeted but were not properly
warned or protected. Crucial information was withheld from Senior Investigating Officers. Important evidence was neither exploited nor preserved.
Under "Other Matters concerning Collusion", Stevens noted:
2.17 My Enquiry team also investigated an allegation that senior RUC officers briefed the Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for the Home Department, the Rt Hon Douglas Hogg QC, MP, that ‘some solicitors were unduly sympathetic to the cause of the IRA’. Mr Hogg repeated this view during a debate on the Prevention of Terrorism legislation in the House of Commons. Within a few weeks Patrick Finucane was murdered. Mr Hogg’s comments about solicitors’ support for terrorism made on 17 January 1989 aroused controversy. To the extent that they were based on information passed by the RUC, they were not justifiable and the Enquiry concludes that the Minister was compromised.
2.18 A further aspect of my Enquiry was how the RUC dealt with threat intelligence. This included examination and analysis of RUC records to determine whether both sides of the community were dealt with in equal measure. They were not.
Aftermath
Loyalist "Twister" Billy McQuiston revealed to journalist Peter Taylor that he and his comrades believed the Stevens Inquiry and the arrest of Brian Nelson did the UDA a favour, declaring "The Stevens inquiry got rid of all the old guard within the UDA and fresher men took over". In its aftermath, Loyalists began out-killing the IRA for the first time in decades, leading up to the eventual ceasefires and Good Friday Agreement.
References
External links
The Stevens Report on the Sinn Féin web site
Madden & Finucane
Pat Finucane Centre
Deadly Intelligence: State Involvement in Loyalist Murder in Northern Ireland – SUMMARY on the web site of CAIN Conflict and Politics in Northern Ireland (1968 to the Present) part of ARK Northern Ireland Social and Political Archive in collaboration with Queen's University Belfast and the University of Ulster. This article is referenced in the Stevens Report.
Scandal of Ulster's secret war — The Guardian newspaper story
Security forces 'aided' loyalist murders — BBC News report
Reports of the United Kingdom government
History of Northern Ireland
Law enforcement in Northern Ireland
2003 in the United Kingdom
|
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] |
211913
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20metal
|
Christian metal
|
Christian metal, also known as white metal, Jesus metal or heavenly metal, is heavy metal music distinguished by its Christian themed song lyrics and the dedication of the band members to Christianity. Christian metal is typically performed by professed Christians, principally for Christians and is often produced and distributed through various Christian networks.
Christian metal bands exist in most of the subgenres of heavy metal music, and the only common link among most Christian metal bands are the lyrics. The Christian themes are often melded with the subjects of the genre the band is rooted in, regularly providing a Christian take on the subject matter. It has been argued that the marginal yet transnational Christian metal subculture provides its core members with an alternative religious expression and Christian identity, and that the music serves the purpose of offering a positive message through lyrical content. This may not necessarily show a direct connection or reference to the Christian faith but often it does.
Christian metal emerged in the late 1970s as a means of evangelization to the wider heavy metal music scene and was pioneered by the American Resurrection Band and Barnabas, the Swedish Jerusalem, and Canadian Daniel Band. Los Angeles' Stryper achieved wide success in the 1980s. In the mid to late 1980s, extreme metal genres were popularized by bands such as Vengeance Rising, Deliverance, Believer and Tourniquet. Another Christian metal band that was successful during the 80s was American band Stryper, whose album, To Hell with the Devil, sold over two million copies.
In the early 1990s, the Australian death metal band Mortification rose to prominence within its country's underground metal scene. At the turn of the 21st century, the nu metal band P.O.D, with two platinum-selling albums, achieved a mainstream commercial success rivaling that of Stryper. The metalcore groups Underoath, Demon Hunter, As I Lay Dying and Norma Jean (dubbed "The Holy Alliance" by Revolver Magazine) also brought some mainstream attention to the movement in the first decade of the 2000s, achieving ranks in the Billboard 200. Between the 2000s and 2020s, the Christian metal band Skillet had two albums receiving Grammy nominations, two albums certified platinum and double platinum, and various singles certified platinum and gold.
Characteristics
Christian metal is not a solitary style of music, but rather an ideological umbrella term that comprises almost every subgenre of heavy metal music. The musicians within Christian metal bands typically base their lyrics on Judeo-Christian traditions. The lyrical approach of Christian metal bands is somewhat varied, as some emphasize the positive aspects of faith matters while others iterate the teachings of Christ. Some bands keep their message hidden in metaphors. Only a minority take an aggressive attitude towards those who speak against Christianity, "preaching full-on fire and brimstone and Old Testament style God's wrath back at extreme Satanists". References to eschatology and apocalyptic themes, particularly the ongoing spiritual warfare between good and evil as well as the Last Judgment and fall from grace are typical.
The lyrical style varies depending on culture, denomination, and country. For example, in Northern Europe the bands with Lutheran members usually prefer a personal lyrical approach, which is seldom meant to "convert" in an aggressive manner, since evangelism has been more typical among American bands. Christian bands never deny their conviction but typically avoid preaching, and sometimes the matter is left unexpressed, leaving religion as a private issue of the listener. Certain bands choose to deal with everyday life experiences from a Christian perspective in order to draw both Christian and non-Christian listeners. In such cases, identifying a "Christian band" can be difficult. Secular bands that occasionally deal with Christian topics are a different matter altogether. Defining a Christian band is a much debated issue on Christian metal forums. A Christian band is expected to have either professed Christian members or a Christian message, preferably both.
History
Background: Heavy metal music and Christianity
The term 'heavy metal', as it was used by Lester Bangs and Dave Marsh at Creem, referred to a sound best exemplified by albums such as Led Zeppelin's Led Zeppelin II, Deep Purple's Deep Purple in Rock, and Black Sabbath's Paranoid. An examination of some of the lyrics from bands such as these show a lack of any explicitly negative themes. Led Zeppelin's "Whole Lotta Love" could just as well be a conversation between husband and wife, as not. Black Sabbath's "Electric Funeral" exactly parallels the blood red moon of the Book of Revelation by John of Patmos, while their "Hand of Doom" describes the ravages of drug abuse. Ozzy Osbourne could be heard preaching to his audience in the earlier song, "Children of the Grave": "Tell the world that love is still alive you must be brave; or the children of today are children of the grave." Later, in the song "In My Time of Dying", Robert Plant even pleaded to Jesus: "Meet me Jesus, meet me; Meet me in the middle of the air; if my wings should fail me Lord, please meet me with another pair." Perhaps not overtly Christian, but songs such as these exhibited similar themes. Early heavy metal fans were viewed by the populace as a counterculture, just as the fans of rock and roll, in general, were. Early heavy metal lyrics and themes were often accused of challenging Christian values, and as the genre grew, some bands actually did.
Among the early bands who were accused of adding negative connotations to the term was Black Sabbath. Their and other early bands' profligate use and combination of black, occult, tattoo/piercings, and other features in stage- and album-styling; repeated musical features like distorted guitar-filters, open/power chords, riffs (including chords with roots a tritone apart); and moody explorations of diverse spiritual themes (including the social connections of metal-enthusiasts) led to a range of responses, from intense-fandom/identification, widespread patronage for at least the most well-known albums and bands, and polarizing criticism.
Those uncomfortable with heavy-metal musical and fan/scene-features, especially on the religious right (sometimes including fans of other music, including progressive- and mainstream-rock) became more vocal through the 1970s and '80s, at worst casting the makers and fans of such music as "followers of Satan". Despite such accusations, more serious examinations of Black Sabbath lyrics find several songs actually advocate Christianity and specifically warn audiences about the Devil. Rolling Stone reviewer Lester Bangs noted the Christian theme of their song "After Forever" when it was released. Further, as Deena Weinstein and others have established, the vast majority of metal fans are male, white, and blue-collar-identified. Although there are now metal fans of more-advanced ages, from its origins through the 1980s their age centered on teen years.
Bands such as Mötley Crüe, Ratt, and Twisted Sister took "themes of generalized rage, sexual abandon, drug abuse, violence, and despair into the homes of millions of young record buyers." In the 1980s, with the growing appeal of metal, the National Coalition on Television Violence "called attention to the destructive potential of music videos, many of which graphically depict violence and rebellion." A British cleric and metal fan analysed that because of distorted guitar sounds, "intense" beats and "muscular" vocals, heavy metal music songs are "unafraid to deal with death, violence and destruction" and that "much of metal's fascination with Satan or evil is play-acting, driven by a desire to shock." The Italian Capuchin friar and former metal vocalist Cesare Bonizzi ("Fratello Metallo") stated that there are "maybe" some Satanic metal bands "but I think it's an act so that they sell more," and went to add that "metal is the most energetic, vital, deep and true musical language that I know."
Some metal songs criticize religion, such as "Death Church" by Machine Head, which "critici[zes] the hypocrisy of the Christian church." Metal groups "…seek out every…avenue to assault religion", including "religious hypocrisy", specifically Christianity. Metal songs use themes from the Book of Revelation which focus on apocalypse (e.g., Iron Maiden’s "Number of the Beast"). The metal subgenre with the most emphasis on apocalyptic themes is thrash metal. Anti-patriarchal themes are common in metal. Black metal song lyrics usually attack Christianity using apocalyptic language and Satanic elements.
Origins
Christian metal has its origins in the late 1960s and early 1970s in the Jesus movement, a hippie movement with Christian ideology consisting of hippies that converted to Christianity. The Christian hippies within this movement, known as "Jesus People", developed a musical movement called Jesus music, which primarily began in southern California, ex. Los Angeles when hippie street musicians converted to Christianity. These musicians continued playing the same styles of music they had played before converting, among them heavy metal music, though they infused their lyrics with a Christian message. Larry Norman was one of the earliest Christian rock musicians who released his first album titled Upon This Rock in 1969 which is arguably the first Christian rock album produced. Norman's song "Why Should the Devil Have All the Good Music?" summarised the ideas of these musicians.
The first Christian hard rock group was possibly the California-based band Agape, formed in the late 1960s. Known for their psychedelic rock and blues influences, the band released an album titled Gospel Hard Rock in 1971, followed by Victims of Tradition in 1972. After Agape, the Resurrection Band was formed in 1972 in Milwaukee's Jesus People community and released the hard rock album Music to Raise the Dead in 1974. The Swedish group Jerusalem was formed in 1975 and is cited as another early Christian hard rock group. In 1978, Resurrection Band released its album Awaiting Your Reply and Jerusalem released Jerusalem (Volume 1). Both albums had a notable impact on Christian music culture. During that time, heavy metal was a new style of music for the Christian music industry, and many Christian labels did not expect it to sell well. However, Awaiting Your Reply hit big in the Christian market, and reached No. 6 on the Gospel album sales charts. Jerusalem also became an instant hit among listeners, and within the first six months the record sold 20,000 copies, unheard of within the genre of Christian rock in Europe. The Canadian Daniel Band is cited among the first bands, as is Barnabas.
1980s
In the early 1980s, there were four notable Christian heavy metal groups: Messiah Prophet, Leviticus, Saint, and Stryper. Although it is debatable as to which band was formed first, the Orange County native glam metal group Stryper was the most popular one. Stryper was also the first band to identify as Christian metal. Stryper gained attention with their way of throwing Bibles to the audience at their concerts. In the beginning, mostly Christians went to Stryper's concerts but soon they reached non-Christian audience. In the 1980s, Christian metal bands closely followed the trends of mainstream heavy metal bands.
During the mid-1980s, heavy metal music divided into autonomous subgenres. Weinstein described the thematic diversity that cross-cuts musical styles: "In the 1980s, white metal and black metal emerged. Their lyrical themes are at polar opposites to each other, one of them bringing the 'good news' and the other the 'bad news.' Both include bands whose sounds span the full spectrum of metal. White metal is commonly called Christian metal. In part a response to the popularity of the heavy metal genre, it transforms the code of heavy metal to serve purposes of Evangelical Christian sects and other denominations. In part, also, Christian metal is a well-crafted missionary effort to recruit members and save souls. [...] Black metal stands in the thematic opposition to Christianity, not looking upward to heaven but setting its sights on the underworld. Satanic symbols and imagery have been a staple of heavy metal since its beginnings with Black Sabbath and Led Zeppelin. In the West, there is no better symbol for rebellion. But groups such as Mercyful Fate claimed that they were not playing. Their claims to be true believers, followers of the lord of the underworld, were seen by many to be a commercial ploy." Chicago doom metal group Trouble was known to be the first band that was publicly marketed as "white metal" since their early albums Psalm 9 and The Skull feature Biblical references. The origin of the "white metal" term remains unclear; it is merely known that the non-Christian label Metal Blade Records used "white metal" as a marketing term, in contrast to black metal.
Soon the Christian metal bands became controversial for their beliefs and often evangelistic goals in the metal music scene, which typically holds individualism in particularly high esteem. Stryper, for instance, although a commercial success at that time, received a hostile reception when they played at a Dutch metal festival in 1985. Regardless of this, Stryper helped to popularize the genre. They were the first Christian band to reach platinum status on an album. The 1986 album To Hell with the Devil sold 2 million copies and achieved a Grammy nomination. The music videos for "Free", "Calling on You", and the power ballad "Honestly" all spent many weeks on MTV's Top 10, and "Free" was in the No. 1 position for 12 weeks (60 days), May 4 – July 24, 1987.
Not only was Christian metal criticized by non-Christian metal fans, but soon the movement was also criticized by fundamentalists; Allmusic wrote that "when church leaders were accusing heavy metal of encouraging Satanism, Stryper set out to prove that metal and hard rock could be used to promote Christianity. The southern California band was viewed with suspicion by both ministers (who refused to believe that Christianity and metal were compatible) and fellow headbangers—and yet, Stryper managed to sell millions of albums to both Christian and secular audiences." For example, the televangelist Jimmy Swaggart wrote a book titled Religious Rock n' Roll – A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing in 1987 and criticized the scene, particularly Stryper, for using heavy metal music to preach the gospel of Christianity.
In contrast, however, many Christian evangelists and church organizations took a more supportive role. For example, televangelist Jim Bakker expressed public support for the group Stryper, watching them perform and becoming personal friends with the band's members. Many new bands began to arise, eventually drawing the attention of record labels that specialized in Christian music.
Emergence of fanzines, record labels, and Sanctuary International
Christian metal soon developed into its own independent record labels and networks. The first Christian metal label was Pure Metal Records, a sublabel of Refuge Records. Soon there appeared other labels such as R.E.X. Records and Intense Records. Fanzines were published in several countries, with Heaven's Metal as the first one in the US in 1985. During that time almost every Christian record label became interested in Christian metal, and they advertised the newly signed metal bands on their roster on Heaven's Metal since it was the only publication exclusively covering the movement. Soon Heaven's Metal achieved more popularity and became an official, professional publication. Heaven's Metal achieved a dedicated flock of 15,000 readers. Bands' sales usually rose when the ensembles were covered on the magazine. During the 1980s and early 1990s, the more underground Christian metal releases were typically distributed in Christian bookstores, and those as well as the fanzines also traded Christian metal cassette copies with the music fans.
Many rock and metal fans that became Christians through the ministry of Christian metal bands were rejected from churches in the 1980s. In 1984, California pastor Bob Beeman saw this problem and soon started the ministry called Sanctuary - The Rock and Roll Refuge. This fellowship brought many musicians together and formed groups such as Tourniquet, Deliverance, Vengeance and Mortal that would soon become ground breaking acts in Christian music culture. Sanctuary's first worship leader was Stryper's vocalist Michael Sweet and later Barren Cross' bass player Jim LaVerde. Sanctuary sponsored the first Christian metal festival, The Metal Mardi Gras, held in 1987 in Los Angeles. This proved influential and soon Christian metal festivals were organized elsewhere as well. Sanctuary's activities began spreading, and it had 36 parishes all over the United States at its peak by the 1990s. The Sanctuary parishes had a significant impact on the Christian metal movement: groups that would later become notable such as P.O.D. performed their first concerts in Sanctuary.
By the late 1990s, the parish's workers felt that regular churches' attitudes towards metalheads, rockers and punks had become more permissive, and therefore did not feel the need to keep Sanctuary going on any longer, hence, most of the parishes of Sanctuary were closed. Sanctuary became Sanctuary International, and it currently gives international studies and lessons on Christianity. Sanctuary also runs an internet radio station called "Intense Radio" which, in 2003, reached approximately 150,000 listeners.
Late 1980s and 1990s
Doug Van Pelt of HM Magazine stated that Christian metal had its "heyday" in the late 1980s and early 1990s. By 1987, there were more than a hundred Christian metal bands, and their records were sold at both Christian bookstores and non-Christian retails. By 1988, the four largest Christian metal bands (excluding the mainstream success Stryper) were Bloodgood, Barren Cross, Whitecross, and Leviticus. The Kentucky-based band Bride initially played speed metal, particularly on Live to Die, and reached a wider audience when they released Snakes in the Playground (1992). Despite being criticized for their abrupt changes in style in favor of what's "hot", are still considered "a primeval force at the centre of Christian heavy metal."
In 1989, the Orange County group X-Sinner released its debut album Get It, and was one of the most talked about bands within the white metal scene at the time. Noted for a classic metal sound similar to AC/DC, X-Sinner has managed to stay at the head of the Christian classic metal scene.
Glam metal band Holy Soldier, another group hailing from California, released its self-titled debut on Word and A&M Records (Myrrh imprint) in 1990 to critical and commercial acclaim. Two years later, the band followed up their debut with Last Train, another critical success, leading to 60 city world tour. The band Guardian achieved some mainstream attention for its album Fire and Love, and one of the videos was included in the MTV's Headbangers Ball rotation. The heavy metal band Angelica introduced vocalist Rob Rock, who also achieved initial fame as the vocalist for guitar virtuoso Chris Impellitteri's band Impellitteri during the 1980s and 1990s and then went solo with his Rage of Creation album.
In the early 1990s, the rising musical styles, especially grunge, began to take their places as the dominant styles in the mainstream, which resulted in heavy metal music losing popularity and going underground for a decade. Many Christian metal musicians began to play extreme metal, and soon death metal replaced thrash metal in popularity. Audiences in many underground metal scenes began favoring more extreme sounds and disparaging the popular styles. As with other glam metal acts of the time, Stryper lost popularity and split up in 1993.
Bruce Moore writes in the e-book Metal Missionaries that during mid-1990s Christian metal "ceased to play catch up (replicating secular bands) and began to assimilate into its rightful place in the Extreme music scene and the artists who played became influential in helping to define this relatively new, but growing genre." With risen musical quality and more street-credibility, Christian metal and hardcore bands were signed to record labels such as Tooth and Nail, Solid State, Facedown Records as well as secular labels Metal Blade and Victory Records. Christian metal was available through non-Christian outlets; "For the first time Extreme Christian music moved from the dusty back bin of the Christian book stores to the front racks at super retailers like Best Buy, Circuit City, FYE and even giant retailers like Wal-Mart, Target and Hot Topic." The German secular metal label Nuclear Blast Records also released Christian metal. Torodd Fuglesteg of Norway's Arctic Serenades Records has claimed: "The owner of Nuclear Blast was a committed Christian and he was pushing everything with that religious agenda through Nuclear Blast. Mortification and Horde were pushed like mad by Nuclear Blast when other labels were pushing pure satanic stuff."
2000s
In the first decade of the 21st century some groups reached mainstream popularity. There are Christian metal bands that perform virtually every subgenre of metal. The Christian metal movement has spread worldwide since it emerged in the early 1980s, and there are now hundreds of active Christian metal bands. Inspired by the metal revival, many 1980s bands have made comebacks including Saint, Bloodgood and Stryper. In October 2004, Doug Van Pelt brought Heaven's Metal back as its own fanzine. The Internet has had a significant role on the revival of Christian metal as well. Many websites and online communities are dedicated to discussions about Christian metal's music, events, and bands.
For the first time since Stryper's success in the 1980s, certain Christian metal artists found mainstream acceptance selling millions of albums to both Christian and non-Christian fans, including Underoath and P.O.D. The latter became the most successful Christian metal band when their 2001 album Satellite went multi-platinum, while the former's 2006 album, Define the Great Line, ranked No. 2 on the Billboard 200. Stryper would re-form in 2003 and eclipse over 10 million in total album sales. They had adopted more of a power metal sound than the "hair metal" style they were known for. Skillet, who is also often labeled as a metal band reached mainstream success while being open about their Christian faith. Their efforts have resulted in over 12 million units sold including 2 platinum albums. From their 2x platinum album Awake, the song "Monster" alone would sell over 3 million copies. From the same album, the song "Hero" would also reach multi-platinum status.
Role in metal subgenres
Metalcore
Metalcore features many popular Christian bands, including such crossover bands such as Underoath, As I Lay Dying, August Burns Red, Blessthefall, Norma Jean, Haste the Day, The Devil Wears Prada, Silent Planet, Wolves at the Gate, For Today and Demon Hunter. Many of these bands have Grammy nominated or have made it high in the charts of the Billboard 200. Norma Jean was nominated for a Grammy Award for "Best Recording Package" for their album O God, the Aftermath. As I Lay Dying entered the Billboard 200 charts (No. 8) for its record sales and were nominated for the "Best Metal Performance" Grammy for the single "Nothing Left" from the 2007 album An Ocean Between Us. The album made its debut on Metal Blade Records, charting at No. 19 in Canada. In the United States, nearly 40,000 units were sold in its first week. The second week after it was released, it charted at No. 39 in both the United States and Canada. Other Top 200 debuts around the world include a No. 117 in the United Kingdom and No. 154 in Japan. In 2011, The Devil Wears Prada's album Dead Throne charted at No. 10 in the Billboard 200. In 2015, August Burns Red was nominated for "Best Metal Performance" at the Grammys for their song "Identity", off their Found in Far Away Places album.
In its 2006 in Review issue (February 2007), Revolver magazine dubbed Christian metal the phenomenon of the year. Editor in Chief Tom Beaujour interviewed the lead vocalists of As I Lay Dying, Demon Hunter, Norma Jean, and Underoath (Tim Lambesis, Ryan Clark, Cory Brandan Putman, and Spencer Chamberlain, respectively) as the front-page article for the issue. Tooth and Nail Records, P.O.D., Zao, War of Ages, Still Remains, and He Is Legend were also mentioned. In 2018, Chamberlain stated that the band no longer identifies as Christian.
Thrash metal
Some notable American Christian thrash metal groups include Deliverance, Believer, Vengeance (frontman, vocalist and last remaining member Roger Martinez currently against Christianity) and Tourniquet. Allmusic states that Vengeance Rising's first two albums "were huge successes in the world of Christian music, making them one of the few bands in the genre to cross over into the secular music scene." Tourniquet was called "arguably the greatest Christian metal band in history" by Cross Rhythms in 1996. Tourniquet's Psycho Surgery was ranked as the second most influential Christian metal album of all time by HM Magazine. Deliverance's 1990 music video for the title track of Weapons of Our Warfare album received some airplay on MTV. Allmusic wrote about Believer's Sanity Obscure album: "Before 1990, the Christian heavy metal genre rarely strayed from generic riffing and poor lyrics. Bands like Petra and Sacred Warrior never broke through to the mainstream for this very reason. With low expectations, Believer released this massive slab of molten metal. Although it never really became popular, several mainstream magazines praised the album."
The British bands Seventh Angel and Detritus introduced Christian thrash metal to Europe. Seventh Angel were considered to be thrash metal pioneers, and their albums achieved mainstream distribution through the Music for Nations label. Cross Rhythms states that for a long time Seventh Angel were considered to be the best metal act in the UK. Seventh Angel also has included aspects of doom metal on some recordings. In the 1990s, New Mexico based Ultimatum and Oklahoman group called Eternal Decision gained some attention, the latter with its thrash and groove metal style. The band's eponymous 1997 album hit the record stores in the U.S. and 16 other countries, achieving considerable acclaim and providing the band with even more notice.
Death metal
In 1990, the Australian group Mortification became the first widely recognized Christian death metal band. Their 1992 album Scrolls of the Megilloth garnered the band some attention from the heavy metal underground, according to Allmusic.
At roughly the same time, the band Living Sacrifice was creating thrash and death metal, particularly on the albums Nonexistent (1992) and Inhabit (1994), with Allmusic commenting that "the term Christian death metal seems like one of music's most comical oxymorons." Later they "evolved from their early death metal-inspired rumblings into a crushing, staccato-driven, heavily percussive metallic behemoth that pummels listeners with intense riffage and a decidedly personal, though nevertheless, often evangelical lyrical viewpoint." The Minneapolis-based Crimson Thorn is described by Allmusic as "one of the world's most extreme-sounding Christian metal bands." Norwegian band Extol's 1998 album Burial was called "Revolutionary. This release may have single-handedly been responsible for the revival of the Christ-centered extreme metal." The band was popular among both Christian and general metal fans, mostly touring with well-known non-Christian bands.
Unblack metal
Horde is widely considered to be the first unblack metal (also called Christian black metal) band. As a one-man band with only one release (in 1994), Horde initiated controversy within the extreme metal community, opposing the more common lyrical themes of Satanism and evil. The title of Horde's only release – Hellig Usvart – means "Holy Unblack", which is now often used by Christians to refer to Christian black metal, in order to avoid the negative connotations of the term "black metal".
Antestor (then called Crush Evil) existed prior to the release of Hellig Usvart but their music was a death/doom style, and was not yet musically considered black metal. During the early 1990s when the band was known as Crush Evil, Euronymous, guitarist for the seminal black metal band Mayhem, was planning to stop Crush Evil from continuing. However, this never took place.
The release of Antestor's The Return of the Black Death on the British black metal label Cacophonous Records in 1998 "set the standard for Christian black metal". Swedish Crimson Moonlight's The Covenant Progress, HM Magazine stated, "rivals the best any other band (Christian or secular) in this subgenre can offer." While the unblack scene is not part of the traditional black metal scene, several musicians from both have co-operated: Stian Aarstad of Dimmu Borgir produced Vaakevandring's eponymous EP, and Jan Axel Blomberg of Mayhem played drums for Antestor's The Forsaken (2005) album.
Power metal and progressive metal
Sacred Warrior preceded Christian power metal in the United States. The German group Seventh Avenue, formed in 1989, was one of more notable Christian power metal bands in the 1990s. They released Rainbowland in 1995, and after that the band was signed to Treasure Hunt Records. Their first release on this label, Tales of Tales, topped at 18 on the Japanese Heavy Metal Charts.
Later in the 1990s, the Swedish group Narnia made contributions to Christian power metal history, having signed with Nuclear Blast Records, Germany, and Pony Canyon Records, Japan. Later there appeared more notable European groups such as the German bands Chrystyne and Lightmare, and the Swedish groups XT, Divinefire, Harmony, and Heartcry.
Among the progressive metal representatives were Balance of Power, whose album When the World Falls Down was picked by Japanese label Pony Canyon. Jacobs Dream was signed to Metal Blade Records. HM wrote of the Athens, Georgia based Theocracy's self-titled debut album that "Not only did this release gain [the then-sole member] Matt [Smith] a lot of notoriety in the small Christian power/prog scene but the much larger secular power/prog secene embraced this as well." Later turned to a full band, their sophomore 2008 album Mirror of Souls "defines excellence in current Christian metal."
Other
In 1987, the Swedish group Veni Domine started playing progressive and symphonic doom metal and released its first album Fall Babylon Fall in 1992, ranked as the 38th most influential Christian metal album of all time by HM. HM Magazine wrote that Paramaecium, with its 1993 album Exhumed of the Earth, "essentially delivered the most powerful and moving death/doom recording in the history of Christian metal." Saviour Machine's Saviour Machine I was called "amazing accomplishment" by HM and that "their gothic-tinged, progressive metal was quite unique to the scene when it was released in 1993."
The alternative metal style's leading groups included the nu metal bands P.O.D., Thousand Foot Krutch, Disciple, and Pillar. Zao was a pioneer of metalcore, paving way for bands such as Underoath and Norma Jean. The California-based group Mortal is cited as one of the first Christian bands that represented the industrial metal style. Cross Rhythms wrote that when Mortal's second album Fathom hit the scene in 1993 "there was nothing else quite like it" and that it is "truly a musical milestone."
Another 1990s reputive Christian industrial metal band was Circle of Dust. The band received MTV exposure with a music video for "Telltale Crime", and a part of the song "Deviate" was used as the intro-song for a long time in the now defunct MTV Sports show.
Argyle Park, an underground supergroup of Christian industrial metal, received some success with the album Misguided (1995) as did, to some extent, LVL and Klank with Still Suffering in 1997. Klank's second album Numb was somewhat successful because the song "Blind" became a hit single. The Australian industrial metal band called Screams of Chaos was known for its bizarre style that combined several extreme metal influences with industrial. The late 1990s and early first decade of the 21st century popular American shock rock group Rackets & Drapes was known to have elements of industrial metal, and received a following.
While not as well known as Mortification, fellow Australian band, Vomitorial Corpulence was widely known as the first Christian grindcore band. The band had minor success but certainly helped the Extreme metal side of Christian metal.
In mainstream metal
There are notable mainstream acts that feature or have featured Christian members. While these bands may or may not have had lyrics using Christian themes or symbolism, some have caused controversy in their claims to Christianity, such as Tom Araya of Slayer. Others, such as Alice Cooper, Killswitch Engage, Linkin Park, Iron Maiden, and Megadeth also have members who are Christian and often use spiritual themes.
Evangelistic subculture
While not uncommon in predominantly Catholic cultures, Christian metal is rooted in evangelical Protestantism, beginning as a means of evangelism among the non-Christian metal scene. Over the years the focus changed because of the increased secularization of Christianity in the West during the 1990s. Moberg (2008) notes that the current scene seems to have very little interest in evangelism, especially in Northern Europe. Instead, it is argued that the current Christian metal music scene ultimately provides its core members with important resources for the shaping of an alternative and complementary form of religious expression and practice and an alternative Christian identity. Thus, Moberg states that Christian metal serves four main purposes: an alternative form of religious expression and identity; as a legitimate form of religious expression; as an effective means of evangelism and fighting and standing up for the Christian faith; as a positive alternative to non-Christian metal.
In a 2006 interview with HM Magazine, Steve Rowe of Mortification, one of the best known figures in the scene, implies that evangelism is of secondary importance and that Christian metal should first and foremost bring "spiritual encouragement" for its Christian listeners. Moberg (2006) suspects that Christian metal music may suggest dissatisfaction with traditional forms of worship among today's young Christians: "They may not feel comfortable with just going to church and singing hymns, they need an alternative means to express the same faith." Apart from evangelism, Christian metal may also provide a means "to get away from the image of Christianity as something rigid and boring".
Luhr (2009) states that Christian metal expresses feeling of isolation and rebellion just like non-Christian metal - but in a completely different way. Christian metal's rebellion is about "Christian opposition to the perceived sinfulness and immorality of a late modern society and culture in which traditional family values have been eroded through such things as the legalization and increasing acceptability of abortion and pornography and the rise of gay rights and feminist movements." Causes for the feeling of isolation can be explained with the fundamental Christian struggle of being in the world but not of it. Bloodgood and Barren Cross inverted the meaning of rebellion by declaring that in Western society and culture the Christian faith is true rebellion. As in non-Christian metal, fans are encouraged to stand up for their faith, think for themselves and not blindly follow authorities, including religious ones.
According to Moberg (2008), Christian metal has developed scenes in countries with long-standing metal subcultures: United States, Brazil, Mexico, Germany, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Finland. Despite its seemingly marginal niche audience, as Christian metal fans are counted in the thousands and the non-Christian metal fans in the millions, the Christian metal scene is one of the few transnational Christian communities that do not have any leaders or creed - only music connects its attendees. Just like non-Christian metal, the Christian metal scene has developed its own infrastructure of record labels, promotion and distribution channels, specialized media, discussion forums, attitude, rhetorics, slogans such as "Turn or Burn!", "Faster for the Master!" and "Support the War against Satan!", webstores and festivals. Brazil and Mexico have tiny parishes of Christian metal fans. Finland in particular, with metal being more mainstream there than anywhere in the world, has held popular Metal Masses picked up by the Lutheran former state church since 2006.
Most Christian metalheads also listen to non-Christian metal; Christian metal merely offers counterbalance for the dark message of non-Christian metal, and most Christian metalheads only avoid the most satanic bands, if even them, since some ignore the issue altogether. Some differences in concert gestures have been noticed: Los Angeles Times reported in 1985 that in Stryper shows the audience were seen "poking stubby 'one way' fingers heavenward—a refutation of the double-fingered devil horns salute of many metal groups".
Controversy
Certain Christian groups, most notably those in some King James Only denominations, consider all types of rock and metal music to be opposition to their faith, regardless of lyrical content or the lifestyles of the band members. However, fans and artists see metal as another genre of music, parallel to such genres as blues, classical, jazz, punk, and hip-hop. Bands such as Showbread and Antestor believe that the instrumentation of the music is simply a medium of art, while the person creating the music as well as the lyrics being presented provide the message. Therefore, Christian metal is created when Christians compose metal music in a way that reflects their faith in Christ.
Keith Kahn-Harris, a Jewish scholar of metal, states in the book Extreme Metal that sometimes fans of metal consider Christian faith and adherence in Church a membership of an established authority, and therefore Christian metal bands are seen as "posers" and the use of Christian lyrics to be opposed to the "true" purpose of metal, which values individualism and ignoring the opinions or rejection of religion.
Christian metal groups such as Barnabas and Extol have criticized bands within the industry for a lack of innovation and for isolating bands within the industry. Pastor Bob Beeman of Sanctuary International stated that this is a compliment to secular music, as it lets people to listen to the music they enjoyed without feeling like they are giving up on the style they love and allows bands to crossover into mainstream success.
Some groups within the Christian metal movement have criticized bands within the industry for isolating the genre from general industry too avidly. For example, Christer Espevoll of Extol stated in 2003: "I wish the scenes were more together. For a long time there has been a huge – and still growing – distance between Christian and secular music industries. This is the situation peculiarly in the US but also in Scandinavia. In my opinion this kind of polarization is not a good thing. Music is first and foremost about music so why should every band or artist that represents a religion or lack of it have its own industry? Music has no religious borders." However, most Christian bands today oppose to being isolated in the Christian music industry and have become mainstream successes, such as Virgin Black, and Norma Jean.
Christian metal radio
Since Christian metal is very much a counterculture of the Christian music scene, it has never had any major corporate radio outlets, as opposed to the more accepted CCM-associated Christian music formats. Nevertheless, it has remained culturally significant in the genre, primarily enduring the test of time through word of mouth and through the help of pioneering Christian rock and metal broadcasters. Despite the lack of commercial radio support, Christian metal broadcasters have managed to hit the airwaves on public radio, campus radio, Internet radio, and in recent years through podcasting via the Internet. As digital broadcasting technology becomes more accessible, the number of Christian metal broadcasters has steadily increased. Some of today's largest non-commercial Christian alternative radio stations such as RadioU, Call FM, and Effect Radio have some Christian metal programing late nights and on weekends. However, as a whole these larger stations generally maintain a format prescribed by the Gospel Music Association. Other stations such as Almighty Metal Radio, Savage Rock Radio, Reign Radio, Metal Blessing Radio, The Cross Stream, The Refinery Rock Radio, www.theBlast.fm, and FuelRadio.FM have been able to maintain twenty-four-hour Christian metal formats through Internet radio. In September 2011 The Refinery Rock Radio became Dead to Self Radio and in November 2016 FuelRadio.FM changed to FuelRadio.net. Dead to Self Radio and Fuel Radio are owned by Thomas Johns. Some notable Christian metal radio DJs, shows and podcasts include: "Jesus Solid Rock" Show ('74–'80) hosted by Pastor Bob Beeman, "Intense Radio" ('95–present) founded by Pastor Bob Beeman and Sanctuary International, "HM Podcast" with HM Magazine founder & publisher Doug Van Pelt, " The Full Armor of God Broadcast" ('97–present) hosted by Bro Scotland Kubinski (Kuba "The Demon Slayer"), "Radio U Hardcore" and ('02–present) hosted by Jaddeus Dempsey (A.K.A. "Jad"), and "The Nation of Rockwell".
Record labels
Blood and Ink Records
Bombworks Records
Facedown Records
Flicker Records
Intense Records
Lament Records
Nightmare Records
Nosral Recordings
Pluto Records
R.E.X. Records
Retroactive Records
Rivel Records
Rise Records
Rottweiler Records
Rowe Productions
Solid State Records
Tooth & Nail Records
Vision of God Records
Christian metal festivals
Cornerstone Festival 1984–2012 (U.S.)
Elements of Rock 2004–present (Switzerland)
Nordic Fest 2002–2011 (Norway)
Blast of Eternity 2008–present (Germany)
Bobfest
Dikaion Fest (Ecuador)
Call for Eternity / Call for Eternity Extreme 2009–present (Slovakia)
Admonishment (New Zealand)
Rock Alive (the Netherlands)
Audiofeed 2012-present (U.S.)
See also
Christian rock
Heavy metal music
Jesus movement
List of Christian metal artists
Unblack metal
Hell's Bells: The Dangers of Rock 'N' Roll
References
Citations
Sources
pdf
Further reading
(Doctoral Dissertation) link
Metal
Metal
Heavy metal genres
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211914
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukushima%20Prefecture
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Fukushima Prefecture
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Fukushima Prefecture (; , ) is a prefecture of Japan located in the Tōhoku region of Honshu. Fukushima Prefecture has a population of 1,810,286 () and has a geographic area of . Fukushima Prefecture borders Miyagi Prefecture and Yamagata Prefecture to the north, Niigata Prefecture to the west, Gunma Prefecture to the southwest, and Tochigi Prefecture and Ibaraki Prefecture to the south.
Fukushima is the capital and Iwaki is the largest city of Fukushima Prefecture, with other major cities including Kōriyama, Aizuwakamatsu, and Sukagawa. Fukushima Prefecture is located on Japan's eastern Pacific coast at the southernmost part of the Tōhoku region, and is home to Lake Inawashiro, the fourth-largest lake in Japan. Fukushima Prefecture is the third-largest prefecture of Japan (after Hokkaido and Iwate Prefecture) and divided by mountain ranges into the three regions of Aizu, Nakadōri, and Hamadōri.
History
Prehistory
The keyhole-shaped Ōyasuba Kofun is the largest kofun in the Tohoku region. The site was designated a National Historic Site of Japan in 2000.
Classical and feudal period
Until the Meiji Restoration, the area of Fukushima prefecture was part of what was known as Mutsu Province.
The Shirakawa Barrier and the Nakoso Barrier were built around the 5th century to protect 'civilized Japan' from the 'barbarians' to the north. Fukushima became a Province of Mutsu after the Taika Reforms were established in 646.
In 718, the provinces of Iwase and Iwaki were created, but these areas reverted to Mutsu some time between 722 and 724.
The Shiramizu Amidadō is a chapel within the Buddhist temple Ganjō-ji in Iwaki. It was built in 1160 and it is a National Treasure. The temple, including the paradise garden is an Historic Site.
Contemporary period
This region of Japan is also known as Michinoku and Ōshū.
The Fukushima Incident, a political tumult, took place in the prefecture after Mishima Michitsune was appointed governor in 1882.
2011 earthquake and subsequent disasters
On Friday, March 11, 2011, 14:46 JST, a magnitude 9.0 earthquake occurred off the coast of Miyagi Prefecture. Shindo measurements throughout the prefecture reached as high as 6-upper in isolated regions of Hama-dōri on the eastern coast and as low as a 2 in portions of the Aizu region in the western part of the prefecture. Fukushima City, located in Naka-dōri and the capital of Fukushima Prefecture, measured 6-lower.
Following the earthquake there were isolated reports of major damage to structures, including the failure of Fujinuma Dam as well as damage from landslides. The earthquake also triggered a massive tsunami that hit the eastern coast of the prefecture and caused widespread destruction and loss of life. In the two years following the earthquake, 1,817 residents of Fukushima Prefecture had either been confirmed dead or were missing as a result of the earthquake and tsunami.
In the aftermath of the earthquake and tsunami that followed, the outer housings of two of the six reactors at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Ōkuma exploded followed by a partial meltdown and fires at three of the other units. Many residents were evacuated to nearby localities due to the development of a large evacuation zone around the plant. Radiation levels near the plant peaked at 400 mSv/h (millisieverts per hour) after the earthquake and tsunami, due to damage sustained. This resulted in increased recorded radiation levels across Japan. On April 11, 2011, officials upgraded the disaster to a level 7 out of a possible 7, a rare occurrence not seen since the Chernobyl disaster in 1986.
Several months later, officials announced that although the area nearest the melt down were still off limits, areas near the twenty kilometer radial safe zone could start seeing a return of the close to 47,000 residents that had been evacuated.
Geography
Fukushima is both the southernmost prefecture of Tōhoku region and the prefecture of Tōhoku region that is closest to Tokyo. With an area size of it is the third-largest prefecture of Japan, behind Hokkaido and Iwate Prefecture. It is divided by mountain ranges into three regions called (from west to east) Aizu, Nakadōri, and Hamadōri.
Fukushima city is located in the Fukushima Basin's southwest area and nearby mountains. Aizuwakamatsu is located in the western part of Fukushima Prefecture, in the southeast part of Aizu basin. Mount Bandai is the highest mountain in the prefecture with an elevation of . Mount Azuma-kofuji is an active stratovolcano that is tall with many onsen nearby. Lake Inawashiro is the 4th largest lake of Japan () in the center of the prefecture.
The coastal Hamadōri region lies on the Pacific Ocean and is the flattest and most temperate region, while the Nakadōri region is the agricultural heart of the prefecture and contains the capital, Fukushima City. The mountainous Aizu region has scenic lakes, lush forests, and snowy winters.
As of April 1, 2012, 13% of the total land area of the prefecture was designated as Natural Parks, namely Bandai-Asahi, Nikkō, and Oze National Parks; Echigo Sanzan-Tadami Quasi-National Park; and eleven Prefectural Natural Parks.
Cities
Thirteen cities are located in Fukushima Prefecture:
Cityscape
Towns and villages
These are the towns and villages in each district:
Mergers
List of governors of Fukushima Prefecture (from 1947)
Kanichiro Ishihara (石原幹市郎) – April 12, 1947 to November 30, 1949
Sakuma Otake (大竹作摩) – January 28, 1950 to July 25, 1957
Zenichiro Sato (佐藤善一郎) – August 25, 1957 to March 23, 1964
Morie Kimura (木村守江) – May 16, 1964 to August 11, 1976
Isao Matsudaira (松平勇雄) – September 19, 1976 to September 18, 1988
Eisaku Satō (佐藤栄佐久) – September 19, 1988 to September 28, 2006
Yūhei Satō (佐藤 雄平) – November 12, 2006 to November 11, 2014
Masao Uchibori (内堀 雅雄) – November 12, 2014 to present
Economy
The coastal region traditionally specializes in fishing and seafood industries, and is notable for its electric and particularly nuclear power-generating industry, while the upland regions are more focused on agriculture. Thanks to Fukushima's climate, various fruits are grown throughout the year. These include pears, peaches, cherries, grapes, and apples. the prefecture produced 20.6% of Japan's peaches and 8.7% of cucumbers.
Fukushima also produces rice, that combined with pure water from mountain run-offs, is used to make sake. Some sakes from the region are considered so tasteful that they are served to visiting royalty and world leaders by hosts.
Lacquerware is another popular product from Fukushima. Dating back over four hundred years, the process of making lacquerware involves carving an object out of wood, then putting a lacquer on it and decorating it. Objects made are usually dishes, vases and writing materials.
Culture
Legend has it that an ogress, Adachigahara, once roamed the plain after whom it was named. The Adachigahara plain lies close to the city of Fukushima.
Other stories, such as that of a large, strong, red cow that carried wood, influenced toys and superstitions. The Akabeko cow is a small, red papier-mâché cow on a bamboo or wooden frame, and is believed to ease child birth, bring good health, and help children grow up as strong as the cow.
Another superstitious talisman of the region is the Okiagari-koboshi, or self-righting dharma doll. These dolls are seen as bringers of good luck and prosperity because they stand right back up when knocked down.
Miharu-goma are small, wooden, black or white toy horses painted with colorful designs. Depending upon their design, they may be believed to bring things like long life to the owner.
Kokeshi dolls, while less symbolic, are also a popular traditional craft. They are carved wooden dolls, with large round heads and hand painted bodies. Kokeshi dolls are popular throughout many regions of Japan, but Fukushima is credited as their birthplace.
Notable festivals and events
Sōma's is held every summer.
The Nomaoi Festival horse riders dressed in complete samurai attire can be seen racing, chasing wild horses, or having contests that imitate a battle. The history behind the festival and events is over one thousand years old.
Fukushima's is held on the first weekend of August
During the Waraji Festival, a large (12-meter, 38-ft) straw sandal built by locals is dedicated to a shrine. There is also a traditional Taiwanese dragon dance, or Ryumai, performed by Taiwanese visitors.
Aizuwakamatsu's is held in late September
The Aizu festival is a celebration of the time of the samurai. It begins with a display of sword dancing and fighting, and is followed by a procession of around five hundred people. The people in the procession carry flags and tools representing well-known feudal lords of long ago, and some are actually dressed like the lords themselves.
Taimatsu Akashi Fire Festival
A reflection of a long ago time of war, the Taimatsu Akashi Festival consists of men and women carrying large symbolic torches lit with a sacred fire to the top of Mt. Gorozan. Accompanied by drummers, the torchbearers reach the top and light a wooden frame representing an old local castle and the samurai that lived there. In more recent years the festival has been opened up so that anyone wanting to participate may carry a small symbolic torch along with the procession.
Iizaka's is held in October
Nihonmatsu's is held from October 4 to 6
Nihonmatsu's is held from October 1 to November 23
Kōriyama City's Uneme Festival (うねめ祭り）is held early August in honor of the legend of Princess Uneme. The festival features a large parade through the city center with thousands of contestants annually, with several festival floats and a giant taiko-drum.
Date City's Ryozen Taiko Festival (霊山太鼓祭り) is held in August and features multiple troupes of taiko drum players as well as other musical and comedic performances.
Education
Universities
Aizuwakamatsu
Aizu University
Fukushima
Fukushima Gakuin University
Fukushima Medical University
Fukushima University
Iwaki
Higashi Nippon International University
Iwaki Meisei University
Koriyama
Koriyama Women's University
Nihon University – Koriyama campus
Ohu University
Tourism
Tsuruga castle, a samurai castle originally built in the late 14th century, was occupied by the region's governor in the mid-19th century, during a time of war and governmental instability. Because of this, Aizuwakamatsu was the site of an important battle in the Boshin War, during which 19 teenage members of the Byakkotai committed ritual seppuku suicide. Their graves on Mt. Iimori are a popular tourist attraction.
Kitakata is well known for its distinctive Kitakata ramen noodles and well-preserved traditional storehouse buildings, while Ōuchi-juku in the town of Shimogo retains numerous thatched buildings from the Edo period.
Mount Bandai, in the Bandai-Asahi National Park, erupted in 1888, creating a large crater and numerous lakes, including the picturesque 'Five Coloured Lakes' (Goshiki-numa). Bird watching crowds are not uncommon during migration season here. The area is popular with hikers and skiers. Guided snowshoe tours are also offered in the winter.
The Inawashiro Lake area of Bandai-Asahi National Park is Inawashiro-ko, where the parental home of Hideyo Noguchi (1876–1928) can still be found. It was preserved along with some of Noguchi's belongings and letters as part of a memorial. Noguchi is famous not only for his research on yellow fever, but also for having his face on the 1,000 yen note.
The Miharu Takizakura is an ancient weeping higan cherry tree in Miharu, Fukushima. It is over 1,000 years old.
Food
Fruits. Fukushima is known as a "Fruit Kingdom" because of its many seasonal fruits, and the fact that there is fruit being harvested every month of the year. While peaches are the most famous, the prefecture also produces large quantities of cherries, nashi (Japanese pears), grapes, persimmons, and apples.
Fukushima-Gyu is the prefecture's signature beef. The Japanese Black type cattle used to make Fukushima-Gyu are fed, raised, and processed within the prefecture. Only beef with a grade of 2 or 3 can be labeled as "Fukushima-Gyu" (福島牛）
Ikaninjin is shredded carrot and dried squid seasoned with soy sauce, cooking sake, mirin, etc. It is a local cuisine from the northern parts of Fukushima Prefecture. It is primarily made from the late autumn to winter in the household.
Kitakata Ramen is one of the Top 3 Ramen of Japan, along with Sapporo and Hakata. The base is a soy-sauce soup, as historically soy sauce was readily available from the many storehouses around the town. Niboshi (sardines), tonkotsu (pig bones) and sometimes chicken and vegetables are boiled to make the stock. This is then topped with chashu (thinly sliced barbeque pork), spring onions, fermented bamboo shoots, and sometimes narutomaki, a pink and white swirl of cured fish cake.
Mamador is the prefecture's most famous confection. The baked good has a milky red bean flavor center wrapped in a buttery dough. The name means “People who drink mothers’ milk" in Spanish. It is produced by the Sanmangoku Company.
Creambox is prefecture's second famous confection. It is a sweet bread with a thick milk bread and white milk-flavored cream. It is sold in Koriyama City at many bakery and school purchases . The selling price is usually around 100 yen, and in some rare cases, the dough is round.
Since it looks simple and does not change much from normal bread when viewed from above, some processing may be performed on the cream, there are things that put almonds or draw the character's face with chocolate
Sake. The Fukushima Prefecture Sake Brewers Cooperative is made up of nearly 60 sake breweries. Additionally, the Annual Japan Sake Awards has awarded the prefecture the most gold prizes of all of Japan for four years running as of 2016.
Transportation
Rail
AbukumaExpress
Abukuma Express Line
Aizu Railway
Aizu Line
Fukushima Transportation
Iizaka Line
JR East
Ban'etsu East Line
Ban'etsu West Line
Jōban Line
Suigun Line
Tadami Line
Tōhoku Line
Tōhoku Shinkansen
Yamagata Line
Yamagata Shinkansen
Yagan Railway
Kinugawa Line
Road
Expressways
Ban-etsu Expressway
Jōban Expressway
Tōhoku Expressway
National highways
(Fukushima-Yamagata-Shinjo-Yokote-Akita)
(Niigata-Murakami-Nagai-Nanyo-Shiroishi-Soma)
(Soma-Fukushima-Inawashiro)
(Niigata-Tsubame-Uonuma-Tadami-Shirakawa-Iwaki)
(Mito-Hitachiota-Iwaki-Tamura-Nihonmatsu-Date-Shibata)
(Niigata-Agano-Kitakata-Fukushima-Namie)
Ports
Onahama Port – International and domestic goods, container hub port in Iwaki
Airports
Fukushima Airport
Notable people
Junko Tabei, the first woman to reach the summit of Mount Everest, and the first woman to ascend all Seven Summits by climbing the highest peak on every continent
Takeshi Suzuki, an alpine skier and Paralympic athlete.
Yoshihide Muroya, an aerobatics pilot and race pilot
Toshiyuki Nishida, an actor best known for his fishing comedy series, Tsuribaka Nisshi ("The Fishing Maniac's Diary")
Wakatakakage Atsushi, a professional sumo wrestler competing in sumo's top makuuchi division beginning in 2019.
Mazie K. Hirono, US Senator and former Lieutenant Governor for Hawaii, was born in Fukushima Prefecture in 1947, and moved to Hawaii in 1955
Hideyo Noguchi, the doctor who contributed to knowledge in the fight against syphilis and yellow fever. The Japanese government created the Hideyo Noguchi Africa Prize in his honor. This was first awarded in May 2008
Seishiro Okazaki (January 28, 1890 – July 12, 1951) was a Japanese American healer, martial artist, and founder of Danzan-ryū jujitsu. Born in Kakeda, Date County in Fukushima Prefecture, Japan, he immigrated to Hawaii in 1906
See also
2006 Fukushima gubernatorial election
Notes
References
Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 58053128
External links
Fukushima Prefecture Official Website
Fukushima Travel - Official Tourism Information
Tōhoku region
Prefectures of Japan
|
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] |
211915
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandigarh
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Chandigarh
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Chandigarh (; ) is a city, district and union territory in India that serves as the joint capital of the two neighbouring states of Punjab and Haryana. Chandigarh is bordered by the state of Punjab to the north, the west and the south, and by the state of Haryana to the east. It is considered to be a part of the Chandigarh Capital Region or Greater Chandigarh, which includes Chandigarh, and the city of Panchkula (in Haryana) and cities of Kharar, New Chandigarh, Mohali and Zirakpur (in Punjab). It is located 260 km (162 miles) north of New Delhi, 110 km (68 miles) south west of Shimla and 229 km (143 miles) southeast of Amritsar.
Chandigarh is one of the early planned cities in post-independence India and is internationally known for its architecture and urban design. The master plan of the city was prepared by Swiss-French architect Le Corbusier, which transformed from earlier plans created by the Polish architect Maciej Nowicki and the American planner Albert Mayer. Most of the government buildings and housing in the city were designed by the Chandigarh Capital Project Team headed by Le Corbusier, Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry. In 2015, an article published by BBC named Chandigarh as one of the few master-planned cities in the world to have succeeded in terms of combining monumental architecture, cultural growth, and modernisation.
Chandigarh's Capitol Complex was in July 2016 declared by UNESCO as World Heritage at the 40th session of World Heritage Conference held in Istanbul. UNESCO inscription was under "The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier an outstanding contribution to the Modern Movement". The Capitol Complex buildings include the Punjab and Haryana High Court, Punjab and Haryana Secretariat and Punjab and Haryana Assembly along with monuments Open hand, Martyrs Memorial, Geometric Hill and Tower of Shadow and the Rock Garden.
The city has one of the highest per capita incomes in the country. The union territory has one of the highest Human Development Index. In 2015, a survey by LG Electronics ranked it as the happiest city in India over the happiness index. The metropolitan area of Chandigarh, Mohali and Panchkula collectively forms a Tricity, with a combined population of over 1,611,770.
Etymology
The name Chandigarh is a compound of Chandi and Garh. Chandi refers to the Hindu goddess Chandi and Garh means fortress. The name is derived from Chandi Mandir, an ancient temple devoted to the Hindu Goddess Chandi (Parvati) near the city in Panchkula District.
The motif or sobriquet of "The City of Beauty" was derived from the City Beautiful movement that was a popular philosophy in North American urban planning during the 1890s and 1900s. Architect Albert Mayer, the initial planner of Chandigarh, lamented the American rejection of City Beautiful concepts and declared "We want to create a beautiful city..." The phrase was used on as a logo in official publications in the 1970s and is now how the city describes itself.
History
The area that is today Chandigarh was home to some settlements of Indus valley civilisation. It was also the site of a short-lived late 18th century principality, with a small fort at Mani Majra.
As part of the partition of India in 1947, the former British province of Punjab was divided into two, mostly Sikh and Hindu East Punjab in India and mostly Muslim West Punjab in Pakistan. The capital of undivided Punjab, Lahore, had become part of Pakistan after the partition. Instead of shifting the capital to an already existing and established city, Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, envisioned an altogether new and modern city be built to serve as the capital of Punjab. In 1949 the American planner and architect Albert Mayer was commissioned to design a new city to be called "Chandigarh". The government carved out Chandigarh from about fifty Puadhi-speaking villages in the then-state of East Punjab, India. Shimla was the temporary capital of the state until Chandigarh was completed.
Albert Mayer developed a superblock-based city interspersed with green spaces which with an emphasis on cellular neighbourhoods and traffic segregation. His site-plan took advantage of natural land characteristics; the land's gentle grade promoted proper drainage. Mayer stopped work after his architect-partner Matthew Nowicki died in a plane crash in 1950. Government officials recruited Le Corbusier to succeed Mayer and Nowicki, who enlisted many elements of Mayer's original plan without attributing them to him.
Le Corbusier designed many administration buildings, including the High Court, the Palace of Assembly, and the Secretariat Building. Le Corbusier also designed the general layout of the city, dividing it into sectors. Chandigarh hosts the largest of Le Corbusier's many Open Hand sculptures, standing 26 metres high. The Open Hand (La Main Ouverte) is a recurring motif in Le Corbusier's architecture, a sign for him of "peace and reconciliation. It is open to give and open to receive." It represents what Le Corbusier called the "Second Machine Age". Two of the six monuments planned in the Capitol Complex which has the High Court, the Assembly, and the Secretariat, remain incomplete. These include Geometric Hill and Martyrs Memorial; drawings were made, and they were begun in 1956, but they were never completed.
The capital city was officially shifted from Shimla to Chandigarh on 21 September 1953, though Chandigarh was formally inaugurated by India's first president, Rajendra Prasad on 7 October 1953.
On 1 November 1966, the newly formed state of Haryana was carved out of the eastern and southern portion of East Punjab, to create a new state for the majority Haryanvi-speaking people in that portion, while the western portion of East Punjab retained a mostly Punjabi-speaking majority and was renamed as Punjab. Chandigarh was located on the border of both states and the states moved to incorporate the city into their respective territories. However, the city of Chandigarh was declared a union territory to serve as capital of both states.
As of 2016, many historical villages in Chandigarh are still inhabited within the modern blocks of sectors including Burail and Ottawa, while several non-sectoral villages lie on the outskirts of the city. These villages were a part of the pre-Chandigarh era.
Geography and ecology
Location
Chandigarh is located near the foothills of the Sivalik range of the Himalayas in northwest India. It covers an area of approximately 114 km2. It borders the states of Punjab and Haryana. The exact geographic coordinates of Chandigarh are . It has an average elevation of 321 metres (1053 ft).
The city, lying in the northern plains, includes a vast area of flat, fertile land. Its northeast covers sections of Bhabar and while the remainder of its terrain is part of the Terai. The surrounding cities are Mohali, New Chandigarh, Patiala, Zirakpur and Rupnagar in Punjab, and Panchkula and Ambala in Haryana.
Chandigarh is situated 44 km (28 miles) northeast of Ambala, 229 km (143 miles) southeast of Amritsar, and 250 km (156 miles) north of Delhi.
Climate
Chandigarh has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cwa) characterised by a seasonal rhythm: very hot summers, mild winters, unreliable rainfall and great variation in temperature (). The average annual rainfall is . The city also receives occasional winter rains from the Western Disturbance originating over the Mediterranean Sea. The western disturbances usually bring rain predominantly from mid-December till the end of April which can be heavier sometimes with strong winds and hails if the weather turns colder (during March–April months) which usually proves disastrous to the crops. Cold winds usually tend to come from Himalayas that lie to the north, which receive snowfall during wintertime.
The city experiences the following seasons and the respective average temperatures:
Spring: In the spring season (from February-end to early-April), temperatures vary between (max) and (min) .
Autumn: In autumn (from September-end to mid-November), the temperature may rise to a maximum of . Temperatures usually remain between in autumn. The minimum temperature is around .
Summer: The temperature in summer (from mid-April to June-end) may rise to in mid-June, and generally vary between .
Monsoon: During the monsoon (from early-July to mid-September), Chandigarh receives moderate to heavy rainfall and sometimes heavy to very heavy rainfall (generally during the month of August or September). Usually, the rain-bearing monsoon winds blow from south-west/south-east. Mostly, the city receives heavy rain from the south (which is mainly a persistent rain) but it generally receives most of its rain during monsoon either from northwest or northeast. The maximum amount of rain received by the city of Chandigarh during the monsoon season is in a single day.
Winter: Winters (November-end to February-end) are mild but can get chilly during peak winter weeks. Average temperatures in the winter remain at (max) and (min) . Rain usually comes from the west during winter and usually as a persistent rain for 2–3 days, sometimes with hailstorms.
Wildlife and biodiversity
Most of Chandigarh is covered by dense banyan, and eucalyptus plantations. Ashoka, cassia, mulberry and other trees flourish in the forested ecosystem. The city has forests surrounding that sustain many animal and plant species. Deer, sambars, barking deer, parrots, woodpeckers, and peacocks inhabit the protected forests. Sukhna Lake hosts a variety of ducks and geese, and attracts migratory birds from parts of Siberia and Japan in the winter season.
The Parrot Bird Sanctuary Chandigarh provides a home to a large number of parrots. Sukhna Wildlife Sanctuary was declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1998.
Gallery
Heritage Trees of Chandigarh
Many trees in Chandigarh are given a status of the natural heritage of the city. The Chandigarh government have identified a list of 31 trees as Heritage Trees. Department of forest & wildlife Chandigarh administration is the nodal department for this purpose which has published a detailed booklet about it. The trees which are 100 years or more old have been given heritage status.
Landscape
Sukhna Lake, a 3 km2 artificial rain-fed lake in Sector 1, was created in 1958 by damming the Sukhna Choe, a seasonal stream coming down from the Shivalik Hills.
Chandigarh has a belt of parks running from sectors. It is known for its green belts and other special tourist parks. Sukhna Lake itself hosts the Garden of Silence. The Rock Garden, is located near the Sukhna Lake and has numerous sculptures made by using a variety of different discarded waste materials. The Zakir Hussain Rose Garden (which is also Asia's largest rose garden) contains nearly 825 varieties of roses in it and more than 32,500 varieties of other medicinal plants and trees. Other gardens include the Garden of Fragrance in Sector 36, Garden of Palms in Sector 42, Butterfly Park in Sector 26, Valley of Animals in Sector 49, the Japanese Garden in Sector 31, the Terraced Garden in Sector 33, Shanti Kunj Garden, the Botanical garden and the Bougainvillea Garden. There is also a Government museum and art gallery in Sector 10, Chandigarh.
Demographics
Population
India census, Chandigarh had a population of 1,055,450, making for a density of about 9,252 (7,900 in 2001) persons per square kilometre.
Males constitute 55% of the population and females 45%. The sex ratio is 818 females for every 1,000 males. The child sex ratio is 880 females per thousand males. Chandigarh has an effective literacy rate of 86.77% (based on population 7 years and above), higher than the national average; with male literacy of 90.81% and female literacy of 81.88%. 10.8% of the population is under 6 years of age. The population of Chandigarh forms 0.09 per cent of India in 2011.
There has been a substantial decline in the population growth rate in Chandigarh, with just 17.10% growth between 2001 and 2011. Since, 1951–1961 the rate has decreased from 394.13% to 17.10%. This is probably because of rapid urbanisation and development in neighbouring cities. The urban population constitutes as high as 97.25% of the total and the rural population makes up 2.75% as there are only a few villages within Chandigarh on its Western and South-Eastern border and the majority of people live in the heart of Chandigarh.
Languages
English is the sole official language of Chandigarh. The majority of the population speaks Hindi (73.6%) while Punjabi is spoken by 22.03%. Government schools use English, Hindi, and Punjabi textbooks. The percentage of Punjabi speakers has come down from 36.2% in 1981 to 22.03% in 2011, while that of Hindi speakers has increased from 51.5% to 73.6%.
Religion
Hinduism is the predominant religion of Chandigarh followed by 80.78% of the population. Sikhism is the second most popular religion in the city, followed by 13.11% of the people. Islam is followed by 4.87%. Minorities are Christians 0.83%, Jains 0.19%, Buddhists 0.11%, those that didn't state a religion are 0.10%, and others are 0.02%.
Many institutions serve minorities in the city. One such being the Roman Catholic Diocese of Simla and Chandigarh, serving the Catholics, which even has a co-cathedral in the city, Christ the King Co-Cathedral, although it never was a separate bishopric. Most of the convent schools of Chandigarh are governed by this institution.
Chandigarh hosts many religious places, including Chandimandir, the temple after which it was named. The ISKCON temple in Sector 36 is one of the worship places for Hindus. Nada Sahib Gurudwara, a famous place for Sikh worship lies in its vicinity. Apart from this, there are a couple of historical mosques in Manimajra and Burail.
Government and politics
Chandigarh, as a union territory, is not entitled to a state-level election: thus State Assembly elections are not held and it is directly controlled by the central government. One seat for Chandigarh is allocated in the Lok Sabha elections held every five years.
Kirron Kher (BJP) is the Member of Parliament elected in 2019 from the Chandigarh Lok Sabha constituency.
Civic administration
The city is governed by a civic administration or local government headed by Municipal Commissioner Kamal Kishore Yadav and Mayor Ravi Kant Sharma. The city comprises 26 wards represented by 26 elected councillors, and also nominates 9 councillors.
Ravi Kant Sharma is the mayor of the Municipal Corporation of Chandigarh, who assumed office on 8 January 2021.
Composition of Chandigarh Municipal Corporation after 2021 Chandigarh Municipal Corporation election as of December 2021
Civic utilities
The prime responsibilities of the civic body Municipal Corporation Chandigarh, are to ensure cleanliness and sanitation in the city, illumination of street lights, maintenance of parks, and sewerage disposal. The city has both brick and pipe sewers laid in four phases. In September 2020, the civic body announced that it would upgrade and renew the 50-year-old sewerage system. The pilot project for the 24x7 water supply is expected to begin in Chandigarh in May 2021, which was initially to start in September 2020 and end in March 2022. On 8 April 2021, the Chandigarh Smart City Ltd (CSCL) board is yet to take the final decision.
In 2021, the BJP ruled corporation had increased the water tariff by 200 times. This created a widespread discontent among the residents.
In 2021, there was an acute shortage of parking space. As the problem aggravated BJP led corporation increased the parking charges in the city. The increase in the waste collection charges, water tariff and property tax rates during the last five years 2016 to 2021 were unpopular among the public.
Cleanliness
In 2016, Chandigarh was the second cleanest city of India. In 2016 BJP came to power in the corporation. In the years that followed, garbage from the city was not disposed off properly. Lack of a proper process or mechanism led to the garbage piled up at Dadu Majra garbage dump site.
In 2021, Chandigarh fell to the 66 position in the cleanest cities of India. The city had always taken pride in the fact that it was one of the cleanest cities of the country. The fall in cleanliness became an important poll issue. The residents were upset with the downfall in the cleanliness.
The government's handling of the COVID-19 pandemic in India damaged BJP's image as the voters felt that they were not given desired help in getting the hospital beds and medical oxygen from their elected representatives. The sitting Councillors were accused of not found to be approachable when the public needed support. Complaints that No major relief measure was taken by the local government were raised.
Economy
Chandigarh has been rated as one of the "Wealthiest Towns" of India. The Reserve Bank of India ranked Chandigarh as the third-largest deposit centre and seventh largest credit centre nationwide as of June 2012. With an average household monthly income of , Chandigarh is one of the richest towns in India. Chandigarh's gross state domestic product for 2014–15 is estimated at ₹0.29 trillion (short scale) (US$4.3 billion) at current prices. According to a 2014 survey, Chandigarh is ranked 4th in the top 50 cities identified globally as "emerging outsourcing and IT services destinations" ahead of cities like Beijing.
Employment
The government is a major employer in Chandigarh with three governments having their base here i.e. Chandigarh Administration, Punjab government and Haryana government. A significant percentage of Chandigarh's population, therefore, consists of people who are either working for one of these governments or have retired from government service mainly armed forces. For this reason, Chandigarh is often called a "Pensioner's Paradise". Ordnance Cable Factory of the Ordnance Factories Board has been set up by the government of India. There are about 15 medium to large industries including two in the public sector. In addition, Chandigarh has over 2,500 units registered under the small-scale sector. The important industries are paper manufacturing, basic metals and alloys, and machinery. Other industries are relating to food products, sanitary ware, auto parts, machine tools, pharmaceuticals, and electrical appliances.
The main occupation here is trade and business. However, the Punjab and Haryana High Court, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), the availability of an IT Park, and more than a hundred government schools provide job opportunities to people.
Four major trade promotion organisations have their offices in Chandigarh. These are The Associated Chambers of Commerce & Industry, ASSOCHAM India in Sector 8, Chandigarh, Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry, (FICCI) the PhD Chamber of Commerce and Industry and the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) which has its regional headquarters at Sector 31, Chandigarh.
Chandigarh IT Park (also known as Rajiv Gandhi Chandigarh Technology Park) is the city's attempt to break into the information technology world. Chandigarh's infrastructure, proximity to Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, and Himachal Pradesh, and the IT talent pool attracts IT businesses looking for office space in the area. Major Indian firms and multinational corporations like Quark, Infosys, EVRY, Dell, IBM, TechMahindra, Airtel, Amadeus IT Group, DLF have set up base in the city and its suburbs.
The work of the Chandigarh Metro was earlier slated to start by the year 2019. It was opposed by the Member of Parliament from Chandigarh, Kirron Kher. With an estimated cost of around ₹109 billion including 50% funds from the governments of Punjab and Haryana and 25% from Chandigarh and government of India, funds from the Japanese government were proposed to include approximately 56% of the cost. However, the project was turned down owing to its non-feasibility. Kher promised a film city for Chandigarh. After winning the seat, she said that she had difficulty in acquiring land in Chandigarh. Her proposal was accepted by the Chandigarh Administration and the film city is proposed to be set up in Sarangpur, Chandigarh. This has been considered as a source of employment in the future.
Culture
Festivals
Every year, in September or October during the festival of Navratri, many associations and organisations hold a Ramlila event which has been conducted for over 50 years.
The Rose Festival in Zakir Hussain Rose Garden every February shows thousands of subspecies of roses.
The Mango Festival held during the monsoons, and other festivals are held at Sukhna Lake.
Transport
Road
Chandigarh has the largest number of vehicles per capita in India. Wide, well-maintained roads and parking spaces all over the city ease local transport. The Chandigarh Transport Undertaking (CTU) operates public transport buses from its Inter State Bus Terminals (ISBT) in Sectors 17 and 43 of the city. CTU also operates frequent bus services to the neighbouring states of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, and to Delhi.
Chandigarh is well connected by road to the following nearby cities, by the following highway routes:
NH 7 to Patiala in the southwest.
NH 152 to Ambala and Kaithal in the south (NH 44 catches up from Ambala to Panipat-Delhi).
NH 5 to Shimla in the northeast, and to Ludhiana in the west.
Air
Chandigarh Airport has scheduled commercial flights to major cities of India. An international terminal was completed in 2015, and international flights to Dubai and Sharjah were started.
Rail
Chandigarh Junction railway station lies in the Northern Railway zone of the Indian Railways network and provides connectivity to most of the regions of India. The railway station also serves the neighbouring town of Panchkula. There were long-standing proposals to develop a metro rail system in the city, which were formally scrapped in 2017.
Education
There are numerous educational institutions in Chandigarh. These range from privately and publicly operated schools to colleges. These include Panjab University, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGIMER), Punjab Engineering College, National Institute of Technical Teacher Training
and Research (NITTTR), Post Graduate Government College, and DAV College.
According to Chandigarh administration's department of education, there are a total of 115 government schools in Chandigarh, including Government Model Senior Secondary School, Sector 16, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Bhavan Vidyalaya, convent schools like St. Stephen's School, St. John's High School, Chandigarh, Sacred Heart Senior Secondary School, St. Kabir Public School, St. Xavier's Senior Secondary School and Carmel Convent School and other private schools like Delhi Public School and D.A.V. Public School.
Sports
The Sector 16 Stadium has been a venue of several international cricket matches, but it has lost prominence after the PCA Stadium was constructed in Mohali. It still provides a platform for cricketers in this region to practice and play inter-state matches.
The Chandigarh Golf Club has a 7,202-yard, 18-hole course known for its challenging narrow fairways, dogleg 7th hole, and floodlighting on the first nine holes.
Postcolonial significance
Background
Nehru said of Chandigarh when he first visited the site of the new city in 1952: "Let this be a new town, symbolic of the freedom of India, unfettered by the traditions of the past, an expression of the nation's faith in the future". For Nehru, Chandigarh represented a vision for how a new planned city could be a canvas for the regeneration of the nation itself after centuries of oppression under British colonial rule and the dilution of Indian character from the nation's towns. Guided by the architectural optics of Le Corbusier the development of Chandigarh was part of a state-driven exercise to break from the traditions of imperialism in city making and begin the process of healing from the injustices suffered.
To the extent that Chandigarh epitomises the destructive influence of the British, in the impetus of its creation as a solution to the otherwise violent partitioning of territory between India and Pakistan, it represents an early ideological symbol for the birth of India's future. The selection of the physical site involved an extensive vetting process. Many existing towns in Punjab were surveyed as options for the new capital and dismissed for poor performance in relation to factors such as military defensibility and capacity for accommodating potential refugee influxes. The construction of a new town in Chandigarh was determined to be the best option due to its relative strength in these factors as well as its proximity to the national capital, New Delhi, its central location within the state of Punjab, its abundance of fecund land and its beautiful natural landscape.
Modernism in new town design
Off the back of this conflation of assets Chandigarh then was well poised to serve a function as a city-building project in national identity. From a federal policy perspective, the development of the new town became a tool in India for modernisation and an intended driver of economic activity, legal reform, and regional growth as well as a significant agent for the decolonisation project. As Britain's grip on their empire began to weaken their accelerated withdrawal between the beginning of the second world war and 1947 left their former colony in states of disarray and disorganisation, and policymakers for the new Indian government were required to contend with issues such as rapid rural depopulation, urban congestion, and poverty. As well as in Chandigarh this policy tool was implemented in the creation of new capital cities in Bhubaneswar and Gandhinagar, and more broadly throughout India in the 112 planned cities created between independence and 1971, purposed to absorb migration from those regions in demise after being abandoned by the British and provide hubs for growing industries such as in steel and energy.
These examples from a genealogy of utopian urban forms developed in post-independence India as a panacea for issues related to underdevelopment as well as post-independence complications to do with separatist religious conflict and the resulting diplomatic tensions. Chandigarh is the first example of a state-funded master-planned modernisation scheme. These "urban utopias" attempt to enforce nation-building policies through a federalised rule of law at a regional level, and diffuse postcolonial urbanism which codes justice in its design. The intent is that the economic success and progressivism of cities such as Chandigarh as a lightning rod for social change would gradually be emulated at the scale of the nation. Chandigarh was for Nehru and Le Corbusier an embodiment of the egalitarian potential offered by modernism, where the machine age would complete the liberation of the nation's citizens through the productive capacity of industrial technology and the relative ease of constructing civic facilities such as dams, hospitals, and schools; the very antithesis of the conservative and traditional legacy of colonialism. Though built as a state capital Chandigarh came to be focused in industry and higher education. The specialisation of these new towns in particular functions represents a crucial aspect of the modernisation process as a decolonising enterprise, in completing a national portfolio where each town forms a part of the utopian model for contemporary India.
The post-colonialism of Chandigarh is rooted in the transformation of the political ideas of those such as Nehru who generated a new Indian nationalism into the design of newly built forms. Scholars such as Edward Said have emphasised the sinister nature of nostalgia and the romanticisation of colonial architecture in newly independent colonies as artefacts that perpetuate the ideological legacy of the hegemony and replicate the hierarchy of power even after decolonisation. Insofar as modernism in architecture (which defined town planning under the Nehru era of rule) represents an active radical break from tradition and a colonial past even the very presence of Le Corbusier has been recognised as an indelible resistance to the British construction legacy, as he provided the first non-British influence on design thinking in India, enabling a generational shift in the contemporary cohort of architects and planners to be hired by the state throughout the rest of the century who were initiated under Modernist conditioning. As early as the 1950s the presence of the International Style could be detected in the design of houses in India, "whether mistri or architect-designed". The development of low-cost housing was a priority for Chandigarh, and the modern forms designed by Corbusier are characterised by a dispensing with colonial forms focused on classic aesthetics and a refocusing on strategies such as using narrow frontages and orientation for minimising direct exposure to the sun and maximising natural ventilation and efficient cost while providing modern amenities in the International Style aesthetic. These developments are credited as the beginning of a "Chandigarh architecture", inspiring gradual experimentation with form and an "Indianising" of the International Style which precipitated the formation of the country's new cultural identity in town design.
Criticisms
Criticisms are well established regarding the implementation of the postcolonial vision of Nehru and Le Corbusier, and of the critical emphasis on its influence. Claims have been made that the focus on Corbusier's architect-centered discourse erases the plural authorship of the narrative of Chandigarh's development, arguing that it was, in fact, a hybridity of values and of "contested modernities" of Western and indigenous Indian origin and cultural exchanges rather than an uncontested administrative enterprise. Such criticism is consistent with claims that decolonisation in India has marked a shift from segregation based on race to segregation based on class, and that planned cities are truly "designed" ones which represent the values and interests of a westernised middle-class Indian elite which ignore the complexities of India's diverse ethnic and cultural landscape and enabled neocolonial hierarchies such as the imposition of the Hindi language on non-conforming castes. Brent C. Brolin argues that Le Corbusier ignored Indian preferences in designing the housing and communities, and that the residents have done what they can to recreate their accustomed lifestyle. Furthermore, the early over-saturation of the minimalist International Style on building design in Chandigarh has attracted criticisms of effecting a "democratic, self-effacing banality", though this criticism is perhaps negligent of how this was necessary in galvanising higher standards of urban living throughout the country.
Notable people
Sarbjit Bahga, architect, author, photo-artist
Binny Bansal, founder of Flipkart, billionaire
Sachin Bansal, founder of Flipkart, billionaire
Neerja Bhanot, youngest Ashoka Chakra Awardee, flight attendant and model
Sabeer Bhatia, Indian-American entrepreneur who founded Hotmail
Jaspal Bhatti, Padma Bhushan awardee, film and TV actor and renowned satirist
Abhinav Bindra, Olympic gold medalist
Nek Chand, Indian artist and creator of the Rock Garden of Chandigarh
Surveen Chawla, Punjabi film actress
Gurleen Chopra, Punjabi actress
Vivek Dahiya, actor
Harita Kaur Deol, pilot
Kapil Dev, former Indian international cricketer
Harmeet Dhillon, American lawyer
Mukesh Gautam, Punjabi film director
Yami Gautam, Indian film actress
Mahie Gill, Indian actress
Sandesh Jhingan, Indian international professional footballer
Mamta Joshi, Sufi singer
Gurbani Judge, MTV India VJ and actress
AJ Kanwar, award-winning dermatologist, former professor and head, PGI, Chandigarh
Kirron Kher, Indian actress and theatre artist (also BJP M.P. from the city)
Aparshakti Khurana, Indian film actor
Ayushmann Khurrana, Indian film actor
Rochak Kohli, music composer, singer, lyricist
Sargun Mehta, Punjabi film actress
Anjum Moudgil, Indian rifle Shooter
Prince Narula, actor
Ramesh Kumar Nibhoria, winner of Ashden Awards-UK
Gul Panag, Indian film actress and social activist
Neel Kamal Puri novelist, columnist
Gajendra Pal Singh Raghava, bioinformatics scientist
Kulraj Randhawa, Punjabi film actress
Mohinder Singh Randhawa, civil servant who had a major role in establishing Chandigarh
Harnaaz Sandhu, winner of Miss Universe 2021
Mohit Sehgal, TV actor
Piare Lal Sharma, writer
Jeev Milkha Singh, professional golfer
Milkha Singh Commonwealth gold medalist.
Yuvraj Singh, Indian international cricketer
Pammi Somal, Bollywood journalist and filmmaker
Sri Srinivasan, United States Circuit Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit
Manan Vohra, cricketer
See also
Ambala Chandigarh Expressway
Chandigarh capital region
List of tourist attractions in Chandigarh
Mohali
New Chandigarh, Punjab
Panchkula
Pinjore
Explanatory notes
References
Further reading
Fynn, Shaun. Chandigarh Revealed: Le Corbusier's City Today. Princeton Architectural Press, 2017.
Evenson, Norma. Chandigarh. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1966.
Sarbjit Bahga, Surinder Bahga (2014) Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret: The Indian Architecture, CreateSpace,
Joshi, Kiran. Documenting Chandigarh: The Indian Architecture of Pierre Jeanneret, Edwin Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew. Ahmedabad: Mapin Publishing in association with Chandigarh College of Architecture, 1999.
Kalia, Ravi. Chandigarh: The Making of an Indian City. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew. Chandigarh and Planning Development in India, London: Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, No.4948, 1 April 1955, Vol. CIII pages 315–333. I. The Plan, by E. Maxwell Fry, II. Housing, by Jane B. Drew.
Nangia, Ashish. Re-locating Modernism: Chandigarh, Le Corbusier and the Global Postcolonial. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Washington, 2008.
Perera, Nihal. "Contesting Visions: Hybridity, Liminality, and Authorship of the Chandigarh Plan" Planning Perspectives 19 (2004): 175–199
Prakash, Vikramaditya. Chandigarh’s Le Corbusier: The Struggle for Modernity in Postcolonial India. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002.
Sarin, Madhu. Urban Planning in the Third World: The Chandigarh Experience. London: Mansell Publishing, 1982.
External links
Government
The Official Website of Chandigarh Administration
General information
1948 establishments in India
Districts of Chandigarh
Indian union territory capitals
Le Corbusier buildings in India
Modernist architecture in India
Planned cities in India
Populated places established in 1948
States and union territories of India
Union territories of India
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] |
211916
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4n
|
Län
|
Län (Swedish, ), lääni (Finnish, ) and len (Norwegian, ) refer to the administrative divisions used in Sweden and previously in Finland and Norway. The provinces of Finland were abolished on January 1, 2010. In Norway, the term was in use between 1308 and 1662.
They are also sometimes used in other countries, especially as a translation of the Russian word volost. During the period when Finland was a part of the Russian Empire (1809-1917), when Russian was made an official language alongside Swedish, it was synonymous with the word guberniya.
The term
The word literally means fief. The usual English language terms used are separate for the two countries, where Sweden has chosen to translate the term as "county" while Finland prefers "province". With a shared administrative tradition spanning centuries, ending only in 1809, this is a separation by convention, rather than by distinction.
The term matches reasonably well the British term "county", but not so well the American term "county" which is usually much smaller in population, akin to a Swedish "kommun" (and nor does the concept of an American state compare well to län).
In the Swedish Empire, all lands conquered became provinser (provinces); Swedish law, which granted the common people much more freedom and influence than any other European law at the time, was not extended to them, remaining confined to the landskap (in plural) which made up the Swedish-and-Finnish heartland (roughly corresponding to present-day Sweden and Finland). Examples of such former Swedish provinser are Estonia and Swedish Pomerania.
Before län were adopted, the historical provinces were defined as either "hertigdöme" (duchy) or "grevskap" (county), which adds further confusion. Later all historical provinces have been given "hertigdöme" (duchy) as honorary title.
The län
In Sweden a län is but an arm of the executive power of the national government, and has no autonomy nor legislative power. The län subdivision does not always match the traditional provinces, which are called landskap (singular and plural) in Swedish (including Swedish-speaking Finland) and maakunnat (singular maakunta) in Finnish. The same situation existed in Finland until län/lääni were abolished in 2010.
Counties of Sweden — (Sveriges län)
Provinces of Finland (abolished 2010) — (Suomen läänit / Finlands län)
Historically the term guberniya () was used for the län/lääni in the Grand Duchy of Finland as a part of Russia from 1809 to 1917. See Governorates of the Grand Duchy of Finland.
The landsting
In every Swedish län (except Gotland) there was a landsting. This was a locally elected assembly, which collected tax and had responsibility for a number of services to the population. The main responsibilities were health care, public transport and culture. As of 2020, the landsting have been replaced by regions.
The landshövding
The governor has the title landshövding (Swedish) (previously maaherra in Finnish). He or she is appointed by the government, and presides over the länsstyrelse (Swedish; previously lääninhallitus in Finnish) - translated as "County Administrative Board". The governor's office is administrative by nature, which is also hinted at by the now obsolete title Konungens befallningshavande - "the King's Deputy" - and traditionally used as an honourable post for politicians to conclude their careers. In Finland, the office of governor was abolished in 2010. However, the office still exists in the autonomous province of Åland. The governor of a Swedish county is appointed to represent the central government, rather than elected by the people.
Notes
Subdivisions of Finland
Subdivisions of Sweden
Types of administrative division
|
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] |
211917
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20California%2C%20Santa%20Barbara
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University of California, Santa Barbara
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The University of California, Santa Barbara (UC Santa Barbara or UCSB) is a public land-grant research university in Santa Barbara-Isla Vista, California, with 23,196 undergraduates and 2,983 graduate students enrolled in 2021-2022. It is part of the University of California 10-university system. Tracing its roots back to 1891 as an independent teachers' college, UCSB joined the University of California system in 1944, and is the third-oldest undergraduate campus in the system, after UC Berkeley and UCLA.
Located on a WWII-era Marine air station, UC Santa Barbara is organized into three undergraduate colleges (College of Letters and Science, College of Engineering, College of Creative Studies) and two graduate schools (Gevirtz Graduate School of Education and Bren School of Environmental Science & Management), offering more than 200 degrees and programs. The university has 10 national research centers, including the Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics and the Center for Control, Dynamical-Systems and Computation. UCSB has various organized research units (ORUs) researching evolutionary psychology, neuroscience, marine science, and more. According to the National Science Foundation, UC Santa Barbara spent $235 million on research and development in fiscal year 2018, ranking it 100th in the nation. UCSB was the No. 3 host on the ARPAnet and was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1995.
Current UCSB faculty includes six Nobel Prize laureates, one Fields Medalist, 39 members of the National Academy of Sciences, 27 members of the National Academy of Engineering, and 34 members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. UCSB is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity" and is regarded as a Public Ivy. The faculty also includes two Academy and Emmy Award winners, and recipients of a Millennium Technology Prize, an IEEE Medal of Honor, a National Medal of Technology and Innovation and a Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics.
History
UCSB traces its origins back to the Anna Blake School, which was founded in 1891, and offered training in home economics and industrial arts. The Anna Blake School was taken over by the state in 1909 and became the Santa Barbara State Normal School, which then became the Santa Barbara State College in 1921.
In 1944, intense lobbying by an interest group in the City of Santa Barbara led by Thomas Storke and Pearl Chase persuaded the State Legislature, Gov. Earl Warren, and the Regents of the University of California to move the State College over to the more research-oriented University of California system. The State College system sued to stop the takeover, but the governor did not support the suit. A state constitutional amendment was passed in 1946 to stop subsequent conversions of State Colleges to University of California campuses.
From 1944 to 1958, the school was known as Santa Barbara College of the University of California, before taking on its current name. When the vacated Marine Corps training station in Goleta was purchased for the rapidly growing college, Santa Barbara City College moved into the vacated State College buildings.
Originally, the regents envisioned a small, several thousand–student liberal arts college, a so-called "Williams College of the West", at Santa Barbara. Chronologically, UCSB is the third general-education campus of the University of California, after Berkeley and UCLA (the only other state campus to have been acquired by the UC system). The original campus the regents acquired in Santa Barbara was located on only of largely unusable land on a seaside mesa. The availability of a portion of the land used as Marine Corps Air Station Santa Barbara until 1946 on another seaside mesa in Goleta, which the regents could acquire for free from the federal government, led to that site becoming the Santa Barbara campus in 1949.
Originally, only 3000–3500 students were anticipated, but the post-WWII baby boom led to the designation of general campus in 1958, along with a name change from "Santa Barbara College" to "University of California, Santa Barbara," and the discontinuation of the industrial arts program for which the state college was famous. A chancellor, Samuel B. Gould, was appointed in 1959.
In 1959, UCSB professor Douwe Stuurman hosted the English writer Aldous Huxley as the university's first visiting professor. Huxley delivered a lectures series called "The Human Situation".
In the late '60s and early '70s, UCSB became nationally known as a hotbed of anti–Vietnam War activity. A bombing at the school's faculty club in 1969 killed the caretaker, Dover Sharp. In the spring of 1970, multiple occasions of arson occurred, including a burning of the Bank of America branch building in the student community of Isla Vista, during which time one male student, Kevin Moran, was shot and killed by police. UCSB's anti-Vietnam activity impelled then-Gov. Ronald Reagan to impose a curfew and order the National Guard to enforce it. Armed guardsmen were a common sight on campus and in Isla Vista during this time.
In 1995, UCSB was elected to the Association of American Universities, an organization of leading research universities, with a membership consisting of 59 universities in the United States (both public and private) and two universities in Canada.
On May 23, 2014, a killing spree occurred in Isla Vista, California, a community in close proximity to the campus. All six people killed during the rampage were students at UCSB. The murderer was a former Santa Barbara City College student who lived in Isla Vista.
Provosts and chancellors
Provosts:
1944–1946: Clarence L. Phelps
1946–1955: J. Harold Williams
1955–1955: Clark G. Kuebler
1956–1956: John C. Snidecor (acting)
1956–1959: Elmer Noble
Chancellors:
1959–1962: Samuel B. Gould
1962–1977: Vernon Cheadle
1977–1986: Robert Huttenback
1986–1987: Daniel G. Aldrich (acting)
1987–1994: Barbara Uehling
1994–present: Henry T. Yang
Santa Barbara State College was under the supervision of a president, but in 1944, when it became a campus of the University of California, the title of the chief executive was changed to provost. In September 1958, the Regents of the University of California established Santa Barbara as a general university campus, and the official title of the chief executive was changed to chancellor. UCSB's first provost was thus Clarence L. Phelps, while UCSB's first chancellor was Samuel B. Gould.
Campus
UCSB is located on cliffs directly above the Pacific Ocean. UCSB's campus is completely autonomous from local government and has not been annexed by the city of Santa Barbara, and thus is not part of the city. While it appears closer to the recently formed city of Goleta, a parcel of the City of Santa Barbara that forms a strip of "city" through the ocean to the Santa Barbara airport, runs through the west entrance to the university campus. Although UCSB has a Santa Barbara mailing address, as do other unincorporated areas around the city, only this entry parcel is in the Santa Barbara city limits. The campus is divided into four parts: the Main (East) Campus of , which houses all academic units, plus the majority of undergraduate housing; Storke Campus; West Campus; and North Campus. The campuses surround the unincorporated community of Isla Vista.
UCSB is one of a few universities in the United States with its own beach. The campus, bordered on two sides by the Pacific Ocean, has miles of coastline, its own lagoon, and the rocky extension, Goleta Point, which is also known as "Campus Point". The campus has numerous walking and bicycle paths across campus, around the lagoon and along the beach. It owns and manages Coal Oil Point nature preserve on the West Campus.
Much of the campus's early architecture was designed by famed architect William Pereira and his partner Charles Luckman, and made heavy use of custom tinted and patterned concrete block. This design element was carried over into many of the school's subsequent buildings.
Many of the older campus buildings are being replaced with newer facilities.
The lagoon is a large body of water adjacent to the coastline, between San Rafael and San Miguel Residence Halls. It was created from a former tidal salt marsh flat, and is fed by a combination of runoff and ocean water used by the Marine Science Building's aquatic life tanks; thus it's a unique combination of fresh and salt water.
The UCSB Libraries, consisting of the Davidson Library and the Arts Library, hold more than three million bound volumes and millions of microforms, government documents, manuscripts, maps, satellite and aerial images, sound recordings, and other materials. Situated at the center of campus, the Davidson Library in June 2013 broke ground on a significant addition and renovation project, which was completed in November 2015 with re-opening to the public in January 2016.
Campbell Hall is the university's largest lecture hall with 862 seats. It's also the main venue for the UCSB Arts & Lectures series, which presents special performances, films, and lectures for the UCSB campus and Santa Barbara community.
Storke Tower, completed in 1969, is the tallest steel/cement structure in Santa Barbara County. It can be seen from most places on campus, and it overlooks Storke Plaza. It is home to a five-octave, 61-bell carillon. KCSB 91.9 and the Daily Nexus have headquarters beneath Storke Tower.
The UCSB Family Vacation Center, founded in 1969, is a summer family camp located on campus that draws over 2,000 guests each summer. The staff of over 50 includes many UCSB students who have been extensively trained as camp counselors.
Layout
The university (itself termed a campus of the University of California) is divided into two physical campuses: West Campus and East Campus. The vast majority of university facilities, including all lecture halls and laboratories, are in the East Campus. The two campuses are connected by a large strip (known as the North and Storke Campuses) to the north which contain university housing and athletic fields. Thus, the university surrounds Isla Vista on three sides. West Campus, aside from a few buildings dedicated to faculty housing, has largely been leased out to private organizations, and includes a school for the disabled (part of the Devereux Foundation) and a large nature preserve, the Coal Oil Point Reserve. The largest sand dunes on the south-facing coast of the Santa Barbara Channel are located here.
The East Campus centers around two quadrangles, separated from each other by the Davidson (main) Library and bus circle, and the life sciences buildings. Along the western quad are Storke Plaza and buildings housing the various arts, social sciences, and humanities departments. The Student Resource Building and the Events Center are also located along this quad. Surrounding the wider, park-like eastern quad are buildings housing the physical sciences departments and the College of Engineering. Directly to the south of, but not adjacent to, the eastern quad are the life sciences and psychology departments, as well as most of the on-campus housing. The southernmost section of the campus is dominated by the lagoon. The peninsula extending from the beach into the lagoon contains a labyrinth.
Bicycles
UCSB is known for its extensive biking system. A recent survey says that 53% of UCSB students get around by cycling. Bicycles have exclusive right of way on a series of specifically designated paths throughout East Campus. Bicycle stands and lockers are ubiquitous. There is a bicycle registration service at the Community Service Organization (CSO) office in order to prevent theft and increase the likelihood of bike recovery. UCSB is unique among bicycle-heavy areas in that most travel is done within a small radius.
Academics
UC Santa Barbara is a large, comprehensive, primarily residential doctoral university. The full-time, four-year undergraduate program comprises the majority of enrollments and has an arts & sciences focus with high graduate coexistence. UCSB is organized into five colleges and schools offering 87 undergraduate degrees and 55 graduate degrees. The campus is the sixth-largest in the UC system by enrollment with 18,620 undergraduate and 3,065 graduate students. In 2015, UCSB was designated a Hispanic-Serving Institution.
Admissions
Admission to UC Santa Barbara is rated as "most selective" by U.S. News & World Report.
UC Santa Barbara received 93,442 applications for admission to the Fall 2019 incoming freshman class; 27,719 were admitted, with an acceptance rate of 29.7%. The GPA and test scores for the middle 25%-75% of admitted students is as follows: range of enrolled freshmen SAT scores was 630-730 for evidence-based reading and writing, 650-790 for math, while the ACT composite middle 50% range was 26–31.
Research activity
According to the UCSB Office of Research, UC Santa Barbara budgeted $235.3 million on research and development in fiscal 2020, with the National Science Foundation contributing $60.5 million; Department of Defense-$40 million; UC General Fund-$28 million; Industry- $19.5 million; National Institutes of Health-$17 million; Department of Energy-$9 million; Non-Profit-$8.7 million; Other-$20 million. Corporate research partners in the College of Engineering include military contractors Raytheon Vision Systems, Lockheed Martin and Northrop Grumman.
From 2005 to 2009, UCSB was ranked fourth in terms of relative citation impact in the U.S. (behind MIT, Caltech, and Princeton University) according to Thomson Reuters.
UCSB hosts 12 National Research Centers, including the Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics, the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis, the Southern California Earthquake Center, the UCSB Center for Spatial Studies, an affiliate of the National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis, and the California Nanosystems Institute. Eight of these centers are supported by the National Science Foundation. UCSB is also home to Microsoft Station Q, a research group working on topological quantum computing where American mathematician and Fields Medalist Michael Freedman is the director.
Teaching and degrees
The focus of the University of California is on research. Like all University of California campuses, UCSB prioritizes academic development over vocational learning. Undergraduate teaching is centered on lectures, with larger lecture classes having sections. Sections may be tutorial style, or they may be set up as seminars or discussions. For undergraduates, UCSB confers both B.A. and B.S. degrees. Music majors may pursue a Bachelor of Music degree. Graduate teaching involves seminar style classes and an emphasis on research and further study. UCSB confers M.A., M.S., and Ph.D degrees. Those studying music may pursue a MM or DMA degree. Students pursuing a career in education may receive a MEd or EdD degree. The university granted 5,812 bachelor's, 578 master's, and 354 Ph.D degrees in 2010–2011.
Rankings
UCSB is considered to be a "Public Ivy". The 2021 edition of U.S. News & World Report ranked UC Santa Barbara as tied for the 6th best public university and tied for the 30th best university in the United States. Money magazine ranked UC Santa Barbara 30th in the U.S. out of the 744 schools it evaluated for its 2019 Best Colleges ranking. In 2019, Kiplinger ranked UCSB 30th out of 174 best-value public colleges and universities in the nation, and fifth in California. UC Santa Barbara was ranked 32nd in the United States out of 1,380 colleges and universities by Payscale and CollegeNet's 2018 Social Mobility Index rankings.
Research impact rankings
The Times Higher Education World University Rankings ranked UCSB 48th worldwide for 2016–17, while the Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) in 2016 ranked UCSB 42nd in the world, 28th in the nation, and in 2015 tied for 17th worldwide in engineering.
In the United States National Research Council rankings of graduate programs, 10 UCSB departments were ranked in the top ten in the country: Materials, Chemical Engineering, Computer Science, Electrical and Computer Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Physics, Marine Science Institute, Geography, History, and Theater and Dance. Among U.S. university Materials Science and Engineering programs, UCSB was ranked first in each measure of a study by the National Research Council of the NAS
The Centre for Science and Technologies Studies at Leiden University in the Netherlands ranked UCSB as the seventh-best research university in the world based on mean normalized citation score, and as the second best in the world based on the proportion of the publications to the top 10% most frequently cited.
The Global Research Report: United States published by Thomson Reuters in November 2010 rated UCSB's research fourth nationally in citation impact.
Among U.S. university economics programs, in 2010 UCSB was ranked sixth for experimental economics, third for environmental economics, and 12th for cognitive and behavioral economics by RePEc.
Washington Monthly named UCSB as the 20th best national university in 2020, based on its contribution to the public good as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service.
Other rankings
In the United States National Research Council rankings of graduate programs, 10 UCSB departments were ranked in the top ten in the country: Materials, Chemical Engineering, Computer Science, Electrical and Computer Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Physics, Marine Science Institute, Geography, History, and Theater and Dance.
U.S. News & World Report 's 2016 rankings placed UCSB's graduate programs in Materials Engineering and Chemical Engineering the second and ninth best in the U.S., respectively; graduate school Physics was ranked 10th best, including the fifth-best program for Condensed Matter Physics, seventh-best program for Quantum Physics, seventh-best program for Elementary Particles/Field/String Theory, and eighth-best program for Cosmology/Relativity/Gravity. In terms of the social sciences, UCSB's graduate program in Sociology is ranked first for research in sex and gender, and the History department is ranked seventh for women's history.
UCSB's Department of Communication was recognized as top in the nation based on data from the National Research Council's study. Several areas in UCSB's Department of Communication have been Ranked Best in Nation by the National Communication Association. Specifically, UCSB's Department of Communication has been ranked first in the nation for Interpersonal and Small Group Communication, first in the nation for Intercultural/International Communication, second in the nation Organizational Communication, fourth in the nation for Communication and Technology, and 17th in the nation for Mass Communication.
UCSB's Department of Communication has been ranked third in the nation in terms of research productivity, according to a recent analysis of scholarly articles that have appeared in eight academic journals sponsored by the National Communication Association and the International Communication Association. In addition, UCSB's Department of Communication has been named one of the top high-impact departments in the nation.
In 2015, QS World University Rankings ranked UCSB 129th in the world.
Forbes magazine ranked the university 114th in the nation (and 50th best research university) in July 2016. This ranking focuses mainly on net positive financial impact, in contrast to other rankings, and generally ranks liberal arts colleges above most research universities.
PayScale's 2015-16 College Salary Report (ranking universities in terms of graduates' salary potential), UCSB came in first in computer science, seventh in engineering, 14th in Humanities, and 30th in Social Sciences.
UCSB was ranked third in The Princeton Reviews 2015 list of top party schools.
Organization
Santa Barbara is one of the ten major campuses affiliated with the University of California. The University of California is governed by a 26-member Board of Regents, 18 of which are appointed by the Governor of California to 12-year terms, seven serving as ex officio members, and a single student regent. The position of chancellor was created in 1952 to lead individual campuses. The Board of Regents appointed Henry T. Yang to be the fifth chancellor of the university in 1994.
Colleges and schools
College of Creative Studies
College of Engineering
College of Letters & Science
Bren School of Environmental Science & Management
Gevirtz Graduate School of Education
UC Santa Barbara has three colleges: the College of Letters & Science, the College of Engineering, and the College of Creative Studies. The College of Creative Studies offers students an alternative approach to education by supporting advanced, independent work in the arts, mathematics, and sciences. The campus also has two professional schools: the Bren School of Environmental Science & Management, located in Bren Hall, and the Gevirtz Graduate School of Education.
Institutes and programs
Founded in 1973, the Institute for Social, Behavioral, and Economic Research (ISBER), originally the Community and Organization Research Institute (CORI), is the research unit for work in the social sciences. In 1990, it absorbed the Social Process Research Institute''' (SPRI), and its work now includes the humanities.
In February 2015, UCSB opened The Confucius Institute on campus, one of about 400 installments located around the world. It will be aimed at promoting the study of Chinese language, culture, history, science, politics, and economics.
In 2008, the Institute for Energy Efficiency was founded with the goal to establish a new, cross-disciplinary institute that would integrate the many diverse research projects in energy efficiency and provide a focus for work in this area.
Academic year
The university runs on a quarter system. There are three terms in the normal academic year: fall, winter, and spring, as well as a summer term. At the beginning of each term, there are one to three days of pre-instructional activities, where faculty meet to discuss instructional plans. During this period, students acquaint themselves to the campus and have the opportunity to take placement tests. At the end of each term, one week is devoted to final exams and special academic activities. There are 146 days of instruction, with a minimum of 48 per term.
Student demographics
{| class="wikitable" style="width:250px; float:right; clear:right; margin-left:1em;" class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Ethnic Enrollment, Fall
! Ethnicity !! 2020 Undergraduate !! 2016 Undergraduate !! 2020 Graduate !! 2016 Graduate
|-
! Black
| 4.1%
| 4.2%
| 3.4%
| 1.8%
|-
! Asian
| 25.4%
| 24.9%
| 11.2%
| 10.5%
|-
! White
| 30.3%
| 33.4%
| 41.4%
| 46.5%
|-
! Hispanic and Latino
| 23.8%
| 25.5%
| 10.5%
| 8.7%
|-
! Native American
| 0.8%
| 0.9%
| 0.9%
| 1.1%
|-
! Unreported/unknown
| 2.6%
| 2.7%
| 2.6%
| 5.2%
|-
! International
| 12.9%
| 8.4%
| 30.1%
| 26.1%
|}
Student activities and traditions
Social
UCSB is a politically active campus. For the 2008 presidential election, UCSB won a national college competition for student voter registration by registering 10,857 voters, or 51.5% of the student population. Over the years, many political parties and organizations have been known to be active on campus, such as the College Republicans, Campus Democrats, Green Party, Libertarians, NORML, Young Democratic Socialists of America, and Queer Student Union.
There are a variety of on campus centers offering social, recreational, religious, and preprofessional activities for students. The UCSB Multicultural Center puts on numerous activities every year to support students of color and promote awareness of diversity issues on campus. Other organizations and centers include The Daily Nexus, a daily newspaper; the school radio station, KCSB 91.9; The Bottom Line, a weekly newspaper; and The Gaucho Free Press, the campus's conservative magazine.
The UCSB Recreation Center also hosts a variety of activities, from adventure programs to ballroom dancing classes. Further, UCSB Hillel offers a space for UCSB's large Jewish population and a place for Jewish students to come together in a unique building in Isla Vista. Students socialize at the Arbor, the UCen, the Coral Tree Cafe, the Courtyard Cafe, and for a special lunch, the Club and Guest House.
UCSB is also known for its annual free music festival, Extravaganza. It is held at Harder Stadium in the spring and generally attracts around 8,000 people. Past performers have included Nas, T.I., E-40, Sublime, Run-D.M.C., The Pharcyde, Social Distortion, Jack Johnson, Drake, Dada Life, Jane's Addiction, and Snoop Dogg, among many others.
The Nu chapter of Phrateres, a non-exclusive nonprofit social-service club, was installed here in 1939. Between 1924 and 1967, 23 chapters of Phrateres were installed in universities across North America.
Greek life
Housing
There are eight residence halls at UCSB, seven of which are located at the main campus. One, Santa Catalina (formerly Francisco Torres Towers), is located near the entrance to West Campus north of Isla Vista.
Santa Catalina has its own dining commons, Portola Dining Commons, as well as a heated swimming pool, two lounges, numerous study rooms, two recreational rooms, a gym, as well as tennis courts and an expansive lawn. Because Santa Catalina is nearly off-campus, it has its own campus police station, as well as housing offices and Res-Net support center.
The Main Campus residence halls are found in two different locations. On the east end of campus are the residence halls named after five of the Channel Islands: Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, Anacapa, San Miguel and San Nicolas. There are two dining commons located near the Channel Islands residence halls. The Ortega Dining Commons is located between San Miguel and the University Center (UCen), and the De La Guerra Dining Commons is located between Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, and San Nicolas.
The two other residence halls, San Rafael and Manzanita Village, are located on the west side of campus and primarily house continuing and transfer students. The Carrillo Dining Commons is located in Manzanita Village, right next to San Rafael Hall. Manzanita Village was completed in 2002, and is the newest residence hall on campus.
In addition, the university also has four housing complexes for graduate students and their families: San Clemente Villages for single graduate students, Santa Ynez Apartments, El Dorado Apartments, Westgate Apartments, and family student housing: West Campus Apartments and the Storke Apartment complexes. There is also faculty housing at the West Campus Point and new construction underway at the North Campus. The Sierra Madre Villages, located by the West Campus Apartments, was completed in September 2015 and was the first residential complex certified as LEED platinum throughout the entire UC system. UC Santa Barbara is the only campus in the UC system with any "LEED for Homes" certifications.
Private residence halls are also available to UCSB students. Tropicana Del Norte, located directly adjacent to the Main Campus, houses UCSB students in 51 furnished suites, and has an on-site dining hall and heated pool.
Students may also choose to rent housing in the bordering community of Isla Vista. An estimated average for rent costs is $500 to $800 a month to share a bedroom, and includes trash pickup and water utilities. Parking on UCSB's campus is restricted during the day to students living farther than 2 miles from campus, so many Isla Vista residents often bike to class. Low-cost housing is limited, with the cheapest source being the Santa Barbara Student Housing Cooperative.
Other sources of housing include the Greek system, and outlying communities (i.e., Goleta, Santa Barbara, Isla Vista, Montecito). Some students live in Isla Vista, which is immediately adjacent to campus. Since the early '60s, Isla Vista has had a reputation of being a party environment. UCSB is also affiliated with the Santa Barbara Student Housing Cooperative in Isla Vista, which seeks to provide low rent co-op housing regardless of gender, race, social, political, or religious affiliation, thereby influencing the community to eliminate prejudice and discrimination in the community.
Services
There are a number of academic resources offered by the university, including a writing center, open computer labs, a machine shop, a career and counseling center, and drop-in academic advising.
The UCSB Recreation Center provides classes and facilities for students and faculty. The center has swimming pools, racquetball courts, a rock wall, and exercise machines. The University Center has facilities for meetings and presentations, and also contains a bookstore, restaurants, and a cashier.
UCSB has a health clinic. Students with ailments or seeking medical assistance may consult a physician at the clinic. The clinic also offers basic healthcare, and provides emergency medicine and contraceptives. The university is the only UC campus with its own paramedic rescue unit. It's staffed by full-time professional paramedics and part-time undergraduate EMTs.
SexInfo, which was started in 1976 by professors John and Janice Baldwin, is run by students doing advanced course work and research on sexuality through UCSB's Sociology Department. The site is dedicated to providing accurate information about sexuality in a way that is both informative and personal. SexInfo answers questions sent in by readers from all over the world, as well as regularly updates and posts articles on various topics related to human sexuality. This program helps students getting their degree in psychology.
Athletics
The mascot of UCSB is the Gaucho and the school colors are blue and gold. UCSB's sports teams compete in the Big West Conference, with the exception of the men's water polo, men's and women's swimming, and the men's volleyball teams, which are in the Mountain Pacific Sports Federation. Santa Barbara is best known for its men's swimming and men's soccer teams. In 2006, UCSB won their first NCAA men's soccer title and its second overall NCAA championship (1979 water polo) in school history.
While there are some 400 students in ICA, there are over 700 in club sports teams, including Alpine racing, cycling, fencing, field hockey, lacrosse, roller hockey, rugby, sailing, soccer, triathlon, ultimate frisbee, water ski, and rowing. Many of these teams are highly regarded and compete against Intercollegiate teams from across the U.S. For example, rowing has produced several national team members including nine-time National Rowing Team member Amy Fuller, winner of several Olympic and World Championship medals, and currently head of the UCLA Rowing Program. The UCSB cycling team has also produced several national team members, Olympians, and members of numerous U.S. and international professional teams.
Hundreds of students participate in a large intramural program consisting of badminton, basketball, bowling, flag football, golf, floor hockey, indoor and outdoor soccer, racquetball, squash, running, softball, tennis, table tennis, ultimate frisbee, volleyball, inner-tube water polo, and kickball.
Surfing also draws many students to UCSB. The on-campus beaches include a number of decent surfing sites, including "Poles," "Campus Point," "Depressions" and "Sands" and "Devereaux Point" on West Campus. Because Campus Beach actually faces south and east, and is shielded by the Santa Barbara Channel Islands, the surf is usually quite small. However, a large north or west swell can wrap in to create great waves that are typically very clean and good for surfing. UCSB has a surf team that competes in National Scholastic Surfing Association competitions and is generally considered one of the best in the nation. They continued their reputation by winning a record 14th national title at the college level in 2010's finals.
People
Notable faculty
Current UCSB faculty have received several prestigious awards, including six Nobel Prizes and a Fields Medal. In addition, there are 29 members of the National Academy of Sciences, 27 members of the National Academy of Engineering, and 31 members of the Academy of Arts and Sciences on the faculty.
Allison Anders, American film and television director
Tanya Atwater, professor of Geology, known for work on plate tectonics
Stanley Awramik, professor of Geology, bio-geologist and expert on Precambrian deposits and the origin of life
Alison Brysk, Mellichamp chair in global governance, Global Studies Department
Charles Bazerman, Distinguished Professor of Education at the Gevirtz Graduate School of Education and College of Creative Studies Writing & Literature faculty, 2020 Exemplar Award Winner from the Conference on College Composition and Communication (CCCC) and founder of the International Society for the Advancement of Writing Research and its international conference, Writing Research Across Borders (WRAB).
Walter Holden Capps (1934–1997), also known as Walter H. Capps. Religious Studies professor. U.S. Representative from California 22nd District (Democrat), 1997; (defeated, 1994) died in office 1997.
Nick Carter, 1928 Olympian, track coach (1939–1958)
Michael G. Crandall, professor emeritus of mathematics, winner of the Leroy P. Steele Prize for Seminal Contribution to Research
Leda Cosmides, Distinguished Professor of Psychological & Brain Sciences, co-founder of modern Evolutionary Psychology
Glen Culler, professor of Electrical Engineering, principal investigator for UCSB ARPAnet
Dimitrije Dordevic (1922–2009), professor of Balkan History
Renzo Fenci (1914–1999), professor of Fine Art from 1947 until 1954.
Matthew P. A. Fisher, professor of physics, is known for several major contributions to condensed matter physics
Michael Freedman, 1986 Fields Medalist and director of Microsoft Station Q
Kip Fulbeck, professor of art, author, and artist exploring Hapa identity
Michael Gazzaniga, director of the SAGE Center for the Study of the Mind and professor of Psychology, leading researcher in the field of cognitive neuroscience
Colin Gardner, professor of Integrative Studies/Critical Theory, Departments of Art, Film & Media Studies, Comparative Literature, and the History of Art and Architecture
Howard Giles, professor of Communication, creator of communication accommodation theory
Michael Frank Goodchild, professor of Geography, winner of the 2007 Lauréat Prix International de Géographie Vautrin Lud
David J. Gross, director of the Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics and 2004 Nobel laureate in Physics
Alan J. Heeger, professor of Physics and of Materials and 2000 Nobel laureate in Chemistry
Robert Hetzron (1938-1997), linguist and professor of Germanic, Oriental and Slavic Languages.
C. Warren Hollister (1930-1997), historian of medieval Europe
Immanuel C.Y. Hsu, sinologist and emeritus professor of History
Tania Israel, professor of Counseling, Clinical, and School Psychology, and specialist mental health and LGBTQ peoples and communities.
Jacob Israelachvili, professor of Chemical Engineering and Materials, elected fellow of the Royal Society of London, 1988
Heejung Kim, professor of psychological and brain sciences
Charles Kolstad, chair of the Economics Department and professor of Environmental Economics
Walter Kohn, founding director, Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics, research professor of Physics and 1998 Nobel laureate in Chemistry
Herbert Kroemer, professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering and of Materials and 2000 Nobel laureate in Physics
Finn E. Kydland, professor of Economics and 2004 Nobel laureate in Economics
L. Gary Leal, Warren & Katharine Schlinger Professor of Chemical Engineering
Luis Leal (1907–2010), Mexican-American writer and literary critic
Nelson Lichtenstein, labor historian, MacArthur Foundation Chair in History
Bruce H. Lipshutz, professor of Chemistry and Biochemistry
George Lipsitz, professor of Sociology and African American Studies, expert on critical race theory and whiteness studies
Harold Lewis, emeritus professor of Physics and former department chairman
Leonard Marsak (1924-2013), historian of modern Europe
N. Scott Momaday, Native American author, winner of the Pulitzer Prize and recipient of the National Medal of Arts
William W. Murdoch, Charles A. Storke II professor of population ecology, recipient of the 1990 Robert H. MacArthur Award, and AAAS Fellow known for his research in population regulation, biological control, and predator-prey relationships
Shuji Nakamura, professor of Materials and 2014 Nobel laureate in Physics, Japanese inventor of the bright green, white and blue GaN LEDs and a blue laser. Recipient of the Millennium Technology Prize from the Finnish government in 2006
John Nathan, Takashima Professor of Japanese Cultural Studies and Emmy award-winning director of several documentaries
Joachim Remak (1920–2001), historian of modern Europe
Jeffrey Burton Russell, professor emeritus, historian of medieval Europe
Paul Spickard, history professor, named Distinguished Lecturer by Organization of American Historians, 2001 recipient of The Loving Prize for research on mixed racial and cultural experiences
Jeffrey C. Stewart, Black Studies professor, recipient of the 2018 National Book Award for Nonfiction and 2019 Pulitzer Prize in Biography
Galen D. Stucky, E. Khashoggi Industries, LLC Professor in Letters and Science, professor of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Materials Departments
James A. Thomson, adjunct professor of Molecular, Cellular & Developmental Biology, "father of stem-cell research"
John Tooby, Distinguished Professor of Anthropology, co-founder of modern Evolutionary Pschology
Frank Wilczek, Chancellor Robert Huttenback Professor of Physics (1981–88), American theoretical physicist, mathematician and a Nobel laureate.
Anthony Zee, theoretical physicist and Pulitzer Prize nominee. Known for applying quantum field theory to such problems as RNA folding and visual processing.
Notable alumni
UC Santa Barbara alumni have become notable in many varied fields, both academic and otherwise. Carol Greider, who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (2009), graduated from the College of Creative Studies with a B.A. in biology in 1983. Robert Ballard, oceanographer who discovered the RMS Titanic in 1985, graduated from UCSB in 1965 with a degree in chemistry and geology.
Actors who have studied at UCSB include Academy Award winner Michael Douglas, who received a B.A. in drama in 1968 and who is honorary president of the UCSB Alumni Association, and Gwyneth Paltrow, who studied anthropology before dropping out to act.
Filmmakers who have studied at UCSB include Academy Award nominee Don Hertzfeldt, who received a B.A. in Film Studies in 1998; Gregg Araki, director of films like Mysterious Skin and The Doom Generation, who got his B.A. from UCSB in 1982; Brad Silberling, director of films like Moonlight Mile and Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events; and Gavin Garrison, who received a B.A. in Global Studies in 2007 and now produces the Emmy-nominated television show Whale Wars; and Forrest Galante, wildlife biologist and star of Extinct or Alive on the Animal Planet Network.
Musicians who have attended include Robby Krieger, guitarist in The Doors, singer-songwriter Jack Johnson, singer and guitarist for The Beach Boys, Jeffrey Foskett, and electro-house musician Steve Aoki.
Chairman of the Oracle Corporation Jeffrey O. Henley graduated with a B.A. in Economics in 1966, while Knut Vollebæk, former foreign minister of Norway, graduated with a degree in Political Science in 1973.
Athletes who have studied at UCSB include swimmer and four-time Olympic gold medalist Jason Lezak, NBA player and head coach Brian Shaw, and UCLA basketball coach Cori Close. Television journalist Katy Tur of NBC and MSNBC received a degree in 2005, and Elizabeth Wagmeister of Page Six TV and Variety graduated with a B.A. in communications in 2012.
See also
2014 Isla Vista killings
Notes
References
External links
UC Santa Barbara Athletics website
1891 establishments in California
Educational institutions established in 1891
Goleta, California
Public universities and colleges in California
Schools accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges
Tourist attractions in Santa Barbara, California
Universities and colleges in Santa Barbara County, California
Santa Barbara
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] |
211919
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20rail%20transport
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History of rail transport
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The history of rail transport began in the prehistoric times. It can be divided into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of track material and motive power used.
Ancient systems
The Post Track, a prehistoric causeway in the valley of the River Brue in the Somerset Levels, England, is one of the oldest known constructed trackways and dates from around 3838 BC, making it some 30 years older than the Sweet Track from the same area. Various sections have been designated as scheduled monuments.
Evidence indicates that there was a 6 to 8.5 km long Diolkos paved trackway, which transported boats across the Isthmus of Corinth in Greece from around 600 BC. Wheeled vehicles pulled by men and animals ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element, preventing the wagons from leaving the intended route. The Diolkos was in use for over 650 years, until at least the 1st century AD. Paved trackways were also later built in Roman Egypt.
In China, a railway has been discovered in south west Henan province near Nanyang city. It was carbon dated to be about 2200 years old from the Qin dynasty. The rails are made from hard wood and treated against corrosion while the sleepers or railway ties are made from wood that was not treated and therefore has rotted. Qin railway sleepers were designed to allow horses to gallop through to the next rail station where they would be swapped for a fresh horse. The railway is theorized to have been used for transportation of goods to front line troops and to fix the Great Wall.
Pre-steam
Wooden rails introduced
In 1515, Cardinal Matthäus Lang wrote a description of the Reisszug, a funicular railway at the Hohensalzburg Fortress in Austria. The line originally used wooden rails and a hemp haulage rope and was operated by human or animal power, through a treadwheel. The line still exists and remains operational, although in updated form. It may be the oldest operational railway.
Wagonways (or tramways), with wooden rails and horse-drawn traffic, are known to have been used in the 1550s to facilitate transportation of ore tubs to and from mines. They soon became popular in Europe and an example of their operation was illustrated by Georgius Agricola (see image) in his 1556 work De re metallica. This line used "Hund" carts with unflanged wheels running on wooden planks and a vertical pin on the truck fitting into the gap between the planks to keep it going the right way. The miners called the wagons Hunde ("dogs") from the noise they made on the tracks. There are many references to wagonways in central Europe in the 16th century.
A wagonway was introduced to England by German miners at Caldbeck, Cumbria, possibly in the 1560s. A wagonway was built at Prescot, near Liverpool, sometime around 1600, possibly as early as 1594. Owned by Philip Layton, the line carried coal from a pit near Prescot Hall to a terminus about half a mile away. A funicular railway was made at Broseley in Shropshire some time before 1604. This carried coal for James Clifford from his mines down to the river Severn to be loaded onto barges and carried to riverside towns. The Wollaton Wagonway, completed in 1604 by Huntingdon Beaumont, has sometimes erroneously been cited as the earliest British railway. It ran from Strelley to Wollaton near Nottingham.
The Middleton Railway in Leeds, which was built in 1758, later became the world's oldest operational railway (other than funiculars), albeit now in an upgraded form. In 1764, the first railway in America was built in Lewiston, New York.
Metal rails introduced
The introduction of steam engines for powering blast air to blast furnaces led to a large increase in British iron production after the mid 1750s.
In the late 1760s, the Coalbrookdale Company began to fix plates of cast iron to the upper surface of wooden rails, which increased their durability and load-bearing ability. At first only balloon loops could be used for turning wagons, but later, movable points were introduced that allowed passing loops to be created.
A system was introduced in which unflanged wheels ran on L-shaped metal plates these became known as plateways. John Curr, a Sheffield colliery manager, invented this flanged rail in 1787, though the exact date of this is disputed. The plate rail was taken up by Benjamin Outram for wagonways serving his canals, manufacturing them at his Butterley ironworks. In 1803, William Jessop opened the Surrey Iron Railway, a double track plateway, sometimes erroneously cited as world's first public railway, in south London.
In 1789, William Jessop had introduced a form of all-iron edge rail and flanged wheels for an extension to the Charnwood Forest Canal at Nanpantan, Loughborough, Leicestershire. In 1790, Jessop and his partner Outram began to manufacture edge-rails. Jessop became a partner in the Butterley Company in 1790. The first public edgeway (thus also first public railway) built was the Lake Lock Rail Road in 1796. Although the primary purpose of the line was to carry coal, it also carried passengers.
These two systems of constructing iron railways, the "L" plate-rail and the smooth edge-rail, continued to exist side by side into the early 19th century. The flanged wheel and edge-rail eventually proved its superiority and became the standard for railways.
Cast iron was not a satisfactory material for rails because it was brittle and broke under heavy loads. The wrought iron rail, invented by John Birkinshaw in 1820, solved these problems. Wrought iron (usually simply referred to as "iron") was a ductile material that could undergo considerable deformation before breaking, making it more suitable for iron rails. But wrought iron was expensive to produce until Henry Cort patented the puddling process in 1784. In 1783, Cort also patented the rolling process, which was 15 times faster at consolidating and shaping iron than hammering. These processes greatly lowered the cost of producing iron and iron rails. The next important development in iron production was hot blast developed by James Beaumont Neilson (patented 1828), which considerably reduced the amount of coke (fuel) or charcoal needed to produce pig iron. Wrought iron was a soft material that contained slag or dross. The softness and dross tended to make iron rails distort and delaminate and they typically lasted less than 10 years in use, and sometimes as little as one year under high traffic. All these developments in the production of iron eventually led to replacement of composite wood/iron rails with superior all-iron rails.
The introduction of the Bessemer process, enabling steel to be made inexpensively, led to the era of great expansion of railways that began in the late 1860s. Steel rails lasted several times longer than iron. Steel rails made heavier locomotives possible, allowing for longer trains and improving the productivity of railroads. The Bessemer process introduced nitrogen into the steel, which caused the steel to become brittle with age. The open hearth furnace began to replace the Bessemer process near the end of 19th century, improving the quality of steel and further reducing costs. Steel completely replaced the use of iron in rails, becoming standard for all railways.
Steam power introduced
James Watt, a Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer, greatly improved the steam engine of Thomas Newcomen, hitherto used to pump water out of mines. Watt developed a reciprocating engine in 1769, capable of powering a wheel. Although the Watt engine powered cotton mills and a variety of machinery, it was a large stationary engine. It could not be otherwise: the state of boiler technology necessitated the use of low pressure steam acting upon a vacuum in the cylinder; this required a separate condenser and an air pump. Nevertheless, as the construction of boilers improved, Watt investigated the use of high-pressure steam acting directly upon a piston. This raised the possibility of a smaller engine, that might be used to power a vehicle and he patented a design for a steam locomotive in 1784. His employee William Murdoch produced a working model of a self-propelled steam carriage in that year.
The first full-scale working railway steam locomotive was built in the United Kingdom in 1804 by Richard Trevithick, a British engineer born in Cornwall. This used high-pressure steam to drive the engine by one power stroke. The transmission system employed a large flywheel to even out the action of the piston rod. On 21 February 1804, the world's first steam-powered railway journey took place when Trevithick's unnamed steam locomotive hauled a train along the tramway of the Penydarren ironworks, near Merthyr Tydfil in South Wales. Trevithick later demonstrated a locomotive operating upon a piece of circular rail track in Bloomsbury, London, the Catch Me Who Can, but never got beyond the experimental stage with railway locomotives, not least because his engines were too heavy for the cast-iron plateway track then in use.
The first commercially successful steam locomotive was Matthew Murray's rack locomotive Salamanca built for the Middleton Railway in Leeds in 1812. This twin-cylinder locomotive was not heavy enough to break the edge-rails track and solved the problem of adhesion by a cog-wheel using teeth cast on the side of one of the rails. Thus it was also the first rack railway.
This was followed in 1813 by the locomotive Puffing Billy built by Christopher Blackett and William Hedley for the Wylam Colliery Railway, the first successful locomotive running by adhesion only. This was accomplished by the distribution of weight between a number of wheels. Puffing Billy is now on display in the Science Museum in London, making it the oldest locomotive in existence.
In 1814, George Stephenson, inspired by the early locomotives of Trevithick, Murray and Hedley, persuaded the manager of the Killingworth colliery where he worked to allow him to build a steam-powered machine. Stephenson played a pivotal role in the development and widespread adoption of the steam locomotive. His designs considerably improved on the work of the earlier pioneers. He built the locomotive Blücher, also a successful flanged-wheel adhesion locomotive. In 1825, he built the locomotive Locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway in the north east of England, which became the first public steam railway in the world, although it used both horse power and steam power on different runs. In 1829, he built the locomotive Rocket, which entered in and won the Rainhill Trials. This success led to Stephenson establishing his company as the pre-eminent builder of steam locomotives for railways in Great Britain and Ireland, the United States, and much of Europe. The first public railway which used only steam locomotives, all the time, was Liverpool and Manchester Railway, built in 1830.
Steam power continued to be the dominant power system in railways around the world for more than a century.
Electric power introduced
The first known electric locomotive was built in 1837 by chemist Robert Davidson of Aberdeen in Scotland, and it was powered by galvanic cells (batteries). Thus it was also the earliest battery electric locomotive. Davidson later built a larger locomotive named Galvani, exhibited at the Royal Scottish Society of Arts Exhibition in 1841. The seven-ton vehicle had two direct-drive reluctance motors, with fixed electromagnets acting on iron bars attached to a wooden cylinder on each axle, and simple commutators. It hauled a load of six tons at four miles per hour (6 kilometers per hour) for a distance of . It was tested on the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway in September of the following year, but the limited power from batteries prevented its general use. It was destroyed by railway workers, who saw it as a threat to their job security.
Early experimentation with railway electrification was undertaken by the Ukrainian engineer Fyodor Pirotsky. In 1875, he had electrically-powered railway cars run on Miller's line, between Sestroretsk and Beloostrov. During September 1880, in St. Petersburg, Pirotsky put into operation an electric tram he had converted from a double-decker horse tramway. Although Pirotsky's own tram project was taken no further, his experiment and work in the field did stimulate interest in electric trams globally. Carl von Siemens met with Pirotsky and studied exhibits of his work carefully. The Siemens brothers (Carl and Werner) began commercial production of their own design of electric trams soon after, in 1881.
Werner von Siemens demonstrated an electric railway in 1879 in Berlin. One of the world's first electric tram lines, Gross-Lichterfelde Tramway, opened in Lichterfelde near Berlin, Germany, in 1881. It was built by Siemens. The tram ran on 180 Volt DC, which was supplied by running rails. In 1891 the track was equipped with an overhead wire and the line was extended to Berlin-Lichterfelde West station. The Volk's Electric Railway opened in 1883 in Brighton, England. The railway is still operational, thus making it the oldest operational electric railway in the world. Also in 1883, Mödling and Hinterbrühl Tram opened near Vienna in Austria. It was the first tram line in the world in regular service powered from an overhead line. Five years later, in the US electric trolleys were pioneered in 1888 on the Richmond Union Passenger Railway, using equipment designed by Frank J. Sprague.
The first use of electrification on a main line was on a four-mile stretch of the Baltimore Belt Line of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) in 1895 connecting the main portion of the B&O to the new line to New York through a series of tunnels around the edges of Baltimore's downtown.
Electricity quickly became the power supply of choice for subways, abetted by the Sprague's invention of multiple-unit train control in 1897. By the early 1900s, most street railways were electrified.
The first practical AC electric locomotive was designed by Charles Brown, then working for Oerlikon, Zürich. In 1891, Brown had demonstrated long-distance power transmission, using three-phase AC, between a hydro-electric plant at Lauffen am Neckar and Frankfurt am Main West, a distance of 280 km. Using experience he had gained while working for Jean Heilmann on steam-electric locomotive designs, Brown observed that three-phase motors had a higher power-to-weight ratio than DC motors and, because of the absence of a commutator, were simpler to manufacture and maintain. However, they were much larger than the DC motors of the time and could not be mounted in underfloor bogies: they could only be carried within locomotive bodies.
In 1894, Hungarian engineer Kálmán Kandó developed a new type 3-phase asynchronous electric drive motors and generators for electric locomotives. Kandó's early 1894 designs were first applied in a short three-phase AC tramway in Evian-les-Bains (France), which was constructed between 1896 and 1898.
In 1896, Oerlikon installed the first commercial example of the system on the Lugano Tramway. Each 30-tonne locomotive had two motors run by three-phase 750 V 40 Hz fed from double overhead lines. Three-phase motors run at constant speed and provide regenerative braking, and are well suited to steeply graded routes, and the first main-line three-phase locomotives were supplied by Brown (by then in partnership with Walter Boveri) in 1899 on the 40 km Burgdorf–Thun line, Switzerland.
Italian railways were the first in the world to introduce electric traction for the entire length of a main line rather than just a short stretch. The 106 km Valtellina line was opened on 4 September 1902, designed by Kandó and a team from the Ganz works. The electrical system was three-phase at 3 kV 15 Hz. In 1918, Kandó invented and developed the rotary phase converter, enabling electric locomotives to use three-phase motors whilst supplied via a single overhead wire, carrying the simple industrial frequency (50 Hz) single phase AC of the high voltage national networks.
An important contribution to the wider adoption of AC traction came from SNCF of France after World War II. The company conducted trials at 50 Hz, and established it as a standard. Following SNCF's successful trials, 50 Hz (now also called industrial frequency) was adopted as standard for main lines across the world.
Diesel power introduced
Earliest recorded examples of an internal combustion engine for railway use included a prototype designed by William Dent Priestman, which was examined by Sir William Thomson in 1888 who described it as a "[Priestmans' petroleum engine]... mounted upon a truck which is worked on a temporary line of rails to show the adaptation of a petroleum engine for locomotive purposes.". In 1894, a two axle machine built by Priestman Brothers was used on the Hull Docks.
In 1906, Rudolf Diesel, Adolf Klose and the steam and diesel engine manufacturer Gebrüder Sulzer founded Diesel-Sulzer-Klose GmbH to manufacture diesel-powered locomotives. Sulzer had been manufacturing diesel engines since 1898. The Prussian State Railways ordered a diesel locomotive from the company in 1909. The world's first diesel-powered locomotive was operated in the summer of 1912 on the Winterthur–Romanshorn railway in Switzerland, but was not a commercial success. The locomotive weight was 95 tonnes and the power was 883 kW with a maximum speed of 100 km/h. Small numbers of prototype diesel locomotives were produced in a number of countries through the mid-1920s.
A significant breakthrough occurred in 1914, when Hermann Lemp, a General Electric electrical engineer, developed and patented a reliable direct current electrical control system (subsequent improvements were also patented by Lemp). Lemp's design used a single lever to control both engine and generator in a coordinated fashion, and was the prototype for all diesel–electric locomotive control systems. In 1914, world's first functional diesel–electric railcars were produced for the Königlich-Sächsische Staatseisenbahnen (Royal Saxon State Railways) by Waggonfabrik Rastatt with electric equipment from Brown, Boveri & Cie and diesel engines from Swiss Sulzer AG. They were classified as . The first regular use of diesel–electric locomotives was in switching (shunter) applications. General Electric produced several small switching locomotives in the 1930s (the famous "44-tonner" switcher was introduced in 1940) Westinghouse Electric and Baldwin collaborated to build switching locomotives starting in 1929.
In 1929, the Canadian National Railways became the first North American railway to use diesels in mainline service with two units, 9000 and 9001, from Westinghouse.
High-speed rail
The first electrified high-speed rail Tōkaidō Shinkansen (series 0) was introduced in 1964 between Tokyo and Osaka in Japan. Since then high-speed rail transport, functioning at speeds up and above 300 km/h(186.4 m/h), has been built in Japan, Spain, France, Germany, Italy, Taiwan, the People's Republic of China, the United Kingdom, South Korea, Scandinavia, Belgium and the Netherlands. The construction of many of these lines has resulted in the dramatic decline of short haul flights and automotive traffic between connected cities, such as the London–Paris–Brussels corridor, Madrid–Barcelona, Milan–Rome–Naples, as well as many other major lines.
High-speed trains normally operate on standard gauge tracks of continuously welded rail on grade-separated right-of-way that incorporates a large turning radius in its design. While high-speed rail is most often designed for passenger travel, some high-speed systems also offer freight service.
Hydrogen power introduced
Alstom Coradia Lint hydrogen-powered train entered service in Lower Saxony, Germany in 2018.
History by country
Europe
Belgium
Belgium took the lead in the Industrial Revolution on the Continent starting in the 1820s. It provided an ideal model for showing the value of the railways for speeding the industrial revolution. After splitting from the Netherlands in 1830, the new country decided to stimulate industry. It planned and funded a simple cross-shaped system that connected the major cities, ports and mining areas and linked to neighboring countries. Unusually, the Belgian state became a major contributor to early rail development and championed the creation of a national network with no duplication of lines. Belgium thus became the railway center of the region.
The system was built along British lines, often with British engineers doing the planning. Profits were low but the infrastructure necessary for rapid industrial growth was put in place. The first railway in Belgium, running from northern Brussels to Mechelen, was completed in May 1835.
Britain
Early developments
The earliest railway in Britain was a wagonway system, a horse drawn wooden rail system, used by German miners at Caldbeck, Cumbria, England, perhaps from the 1560s. A wagonway was built at Prescot, near Liverpool, sometime around 1600, possibly as early as 1594. Owned by Philip Layton, the line carried coal from a pit near Prescot Hall to a terminus about half a mile away. On 26 July 1803, Jessop opened the Surrey Iron Railway, south of London erroneously considered first railway in Britain, also a horse-drawn one. It was not a railway in the modern sense of the word, as it functioned like a turnpike road. There were no official services, as anyone could bring a vehicle on the railway by paying a toll.
The oldest railway in continuous use is the Tanfield Railway in County Durham, England. This began life in 1725 as a wooden waggonway worked with horse power and developed by private coal owners and included the construction of the Causey Arch, the world's oldest purpose built railway bridge. By the mid 19th century it had converted to standard gauge track and steam locomotive power. It continues in operation as a heritage line. The Middleton Railway in Leeds, opened in 1758, is also still in use as a heritage line and began using steam locomotive power in 1812 before reverting to horsepower and then upgrading to standard gauge. In 1764, the first railway in the Americas was built in Lewiston, New York.
The first passenger Horsecar or tram, Swansea and Mumbles Railway was opened between Swansea and Mumbles in Wales in 1807. Horse remained preferable mode for tram transport even after arrival of steam engines, well till the end of 19th century. The major reason was that the horse-cars were clean as compared to steam driven trams which caused smoke in city streets.
In 1812, Oliver Evans, an American engineer and inventor, published his vision of what steam railways could become, with cities and towns linked by a network of long distance railways plied by speedy locomotives, greatly speeding up personal travel and goods transport. Evans specified that there should be separate sets of parallel tracks for trains going in different directions. However, conditions in the infant United States did not enable his vision to take hold. This vision had its counterpart in Britain, where it proved to be far more influential. William James, a rich and influential surveyor and land agent, was inspired by the development of the steam locomotive to suggest a national network of railways. It seems likely that in 1808 James attended the demonstration running of Richard Trevithick's steam locomotive Catch me who can in London; certainly at this time he began to consider the long-term development of this means of transport. He proposed a number of projects that later came to fruition and is credited with carrying out a survey of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. Unfortunately he became bankrupt and his schemes were taken over by George Stephenson and others. However, he is credited by many historians with the title of "Father of the Railway".
It was not until 1825, that the success of the Stockton and Darlington Railway in County Durham, England, the world's first public railway to combine locomotive power, malleable iron rails, twin tracks and other innovations such as early signalling, proto-Station buildings and rudimentary timetables in one place It proved to a national and international audience that the railways could be made profitable for passengers and general goods as well as a single commodity such as coal. This railway broke new ground by using rails made of rolled wrought iron, produced at Bedlington Ironworks in Northumberland. Such rails were stronger. This railway linked the coal field of Durham with the towns of Darlington and the port of Stockton-on-Tees and was intended to enable local collieries (which were connected to the line by short branches) to transport their coal to the docks. As this would constitute the bulk of the traffic, the company took the important step of offering to haul the colliery wagons or chaldrons by locomotive power, something that required a scheduled or timetabled service of trains. However, the line also functioned as a toll railway, on which private horse-drawn wagons could be carried. This hybrid of a system (which also included, at one stage, a horse-drawn passenger traffic when sufficient locomotives weren't available) could not last and within a few years, traffic was restricted to timetabled trains. (However, the tradition of private owned wagons continued on railways in Britain until the 1960s.). The S&DRs chief engineer Timothy Hackworth under the guidance of its principal funder Edward Pease, hosted visiting engineers from the USA, Prussia and France and shared experience and learning on how to build and run a railway so that by 1830 railways were being built in several locations across the UK, USA and Europe. Trained engineers and workers from the S&DR went on to help develop several other lines elsewhere including the Liverpool and Manchester of 1830, the next step forward in railway development.
The success of the Stockton and Darlington encouraged the rich investors in the rapidly industrialising North West of England to embark upon a project to link the rich cotton manufacturing town of Manchester with the thriving port of Liverpool. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway was the first modern railway, in that both the goods and passenger traffic were operated by scheduled or timetabled locomotive hauled trains. When it was built, there was serious doubt that locomotives could maintain a regular service over the distance involved. A widely reported competition was held in 1829 called the Rainhill Trials, to find the most suitable steam engine to haul the trains. A number of locomotives were entered, including Novelty, Perseverance and Sans Pareil. The winner was Stephenson's Rocket, which steamed better because of its multi-tubular boiler (suggested by Henry Booth, a director of the railway company).
The promoters were mainly interested in goods traffic, but after the line opened on 15 September 1830, they were surprised to find that passenger traffic was just as remunerative. The success of the Liverpool and Manchester railway added to the influence of the S&DR in the development of railways elsewhere in Britain and abroad. The company hosted many visiting deputations from other railway projects and many railwaymen received their early training and experience upon this line. The Liverpool and Manchester line was, however, only long. The world's first trunk line can be said to be the Grand Junction Railway, opening in 1837 and linking a midpoint on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway with Birmingham, via Crewe, Stafford and Wolverhampton.
Further development
The earliest locomotives in revenue service were small four-wheeled ones similar to the Rocket. However, the inclined cylinders caused the engine to rock, so they first became horizontal and then, in his "Planet" design, were mounted inside the frames. While this improved stability, the "crank axles" were extremely prone to breakage. Greater speed was achieved by larger driving wheels at expense of a tendency for wheel slip when starting. Greater tractive effort was obtained by smaller wheels coupled together, but speed was limited by the fragility of the cast iron connecting rods. Hence, from the beginning, there was a distinction between the light fast passenger locomotive and the slower more powerful goods engine. Edward Bury, in particular, refined this design and the so-called "Bury Pattern" was popular for a number of years, particularly on the London and Birmingham.
Meanwhile, by 1840, Stephenson had produced larger, more stable, engines in the form of the 2-2-2 "Patentee" and six-coupled goods engines. Locomotives were travelling longer distances and being worked more extensively. The North Midland Railway expressed their concern to Robert Stephenson who was, at that time, their general manager, about the effect of heat on their fireboxes. After some experiments, he patented his so-called Long Boiler design. These became a new standard and similar designs were produced by other manufacturers, particularly Sharp Brothers whose engines became known affectionately as "Sharpies".
The longer wheelbase for the longer boiler produced problems in cornering. For his six-coupled engines, Stephenson removed the flanges from the centre pair of wheels. For his express engines, he shifted the trailing wheel to the front in the 4-2-0 formation, as in his "Great A". There were other problems: the firebox was restricted in size or had to be mounted behind the wheels; and for improved stability most engineers believed that the centre of gravity should be kept low.
The most extreme outcome of this was the Crampton locomotive which mounted the driving wheels behind the firebox and could be made very large in diameter. These achieved the hitherto unheard of speed of but were very prone to wheelslip. With their long wheelbase, they were unsuccessful on Britain's winding tracks, but became popular in the US and France, where the popular expression became prendre le Crampton.
John Gray of the London and Brighton Railway disbelieved the necessity for a low centre of gravity and produced a series of locomotives that were much admired by David Joy who developed the design at the firm of E. B. Wilson and Company to produce the 2-2-2 Jenny Lind locomotive, one of the most successful passenger locomotives of its day. Meanwhile, the Stephenson 0-6-0 Long Boiler locomotive with inside cylinders became the archetypal goods engine.
Expanding network
Railways quickly became essential to the swift movement of goods and labour that was needed for industrialization. In the beginning, canals were in competition with the railways, but the railways quickly gained ground as steam and rail technology improved and railways were built in places where canals were not practical.
By the 1850s, many steam-powered railways had reached the fringes of built-up London. But the new companies were not permitted to demolish enough property to penetrate the City or the West End, so passengers had to disembark at Paddington, Euston, King's Cross, Fenchurch Street, Charing Cross, Waterloo or Victoria and then make their own way by hackney carriage or on foot into the centre, thereby massively increasing congestion in the city. A Metropolitan Railway was built underground to connect several of these separate railway terminals and was the world's first "Metro".
Social and economic consequences
The railways changed British society in numerous and complex ways. Although recent attempts to measure the economic significance of the railways have suggested that their overall contribution to the growth of GDP was more modest than an earlier generation of historians sometimes assumed, it is nonetheless clear that the railways had a sizeable impact in many spheres of economic activity. The building of railways and locomotives, for example, called for large quantities of heavy materials and thus provided a significant stimulus or 'backward linkage', to the coal-mining, iron-production, engineering and construction industries.
They also helped to reduce transaction costs, which in turn lowered the costs of goods: the distribution and sale of perishable goods such as meat, milk, fish and vegetables were transformed by the emergence of the railways, giving rise not only to cheaper produce in the shops but also to far greater variety in people's diets.
Finally, by improving personal mobility the railways were a significant force for social change. Rail transport had originally been conceived as a way of moving coal and industrial goods but the railway operators quickly realised the potential market for railway travel, leading to an extremely rapid expansion in passenger services. The number of railway passengers trebled in just eight years between 1842 and 1850: traffic volumes roughly doubled in the 1850s and then doubled again in the 1860s.
As the historian Derek Aldcroft has noted, "in terms of mobility and choice they added a new dimension to everyday life".
Bulgaria
The Ruse – Varna was the first railway line in the modern Bulgarian territory, and also in the former Ottoman Empire. It was started in 1864 by the Turkish government, by commissioning for it an English company managed by William Gladstone, a politician, and the Barkley brothers, civil engineers. The line, which was 223 km long, was opened in 1866.
France
In France, railways were first operated by private coal companies the first legal agreement to build a railway was given in 1823 and the line (from Saint-Étienne to Andrézieux) was operated in 1827. Much of the equipment was imported from Britain but this stimulated machinery makers, which soon created a national heavy industry. Trains became a national medium for the modernization of backward regions and a leading advocate of this approach was the poet-politician Alphonse de Lamartine. One writer hoped that railways might improve the lot of "populations two or three centuries behind their fellows" and eliminate "the savage instincts born of isolation and misery." Consequently, France built a centralized system that radiated from Paris (plus lines that cut east to west in the south). This design was intended to achieve political and cultural goals rather than maximize efficiency.
After some consolidation, six companies controlled monopolies of their regions, subject to close control by the government in terms of fares, finances and even minute technical details. The central government department of Ponts et Chaussées [bridges and roads] brought in British engineers and workers, handled much of the construction work, provided engineering expertise and planning, land acquisition and construction of permanent infrastructure such as the track bed, bridges and tunnels. It also subsidized militarily necessary lines along the German border, which was considered necessary for the national defense. Private operating companies provided management, hired labor, laid the tracks and built and operated stations. They purchased and maintained the rolling stock—6,000 locomotives were in operation in 1880, which averaged 51,600 passengers a year or 21,200 tons of freight.
Although starting the whole system at once was politically expedient, it delayed completion and forced even more reliance on temporary experts brought in from Britain. Financing was also a problem. The solution was a narrow base of funding through the Rothschilds and the closed circles of the Bourse in Paris, so France did not develop the same kind of national stock exchange that flourished in London and New York. The system did help modernize the parts of rural France it reached and help to develop many local industrial centers, mostly in the North (coal and iron mines) and in the East (textiles and heavy industry). Critics such as Émile Zola complained that it never overcame the corruption of the political system, but rather contributed to it.
The railways probably helped the industrial revolution in France by facilitating a national market for raw materials, wines, cheeses and imported and exported manufactured products. In The Rise of Rail-Power in War and Conquest, 1833–1914, published in 1915, Edwin A. Pratt wrote, "the French railways … attained a remarkable degree of success. … It was estimated that the 75,966 men and 4,469 horses transported by rail from Paris to the Mediterranean or to the frontiers of the Kingdom of Sardinia between 20 and 30 April April [during the 1859 Second Italian War of Independence] would have taken sixty days to make the journey by road. … This… was about twice as fast as the best achievement recorded up to that time on the German railways. " Yet the goals set by the French for their railway system were moralistic, political and military rather than economic. As a result, the freight trains were shorter and less heavily loaded than those in such rapidly industrializing nations such as Britain, Belgium or Germany. Other infrastructure needs in rural France, such as better roads and canals, were neglected because of the expense of the railways, so it seems likely that there were net negative effects in areas not served by the trains.
Germany
An operation was illustrated in Germany in 1556 by Georgius Agricola in his work De re metallica. This line used "Hund" carts with unflanged wheels running on wooden planks and a vertical pin on the truck fitting into the gap between the planks to keep it going the right way. The miners called the wagons Hunde ("dogs") from the noise they made on the tracks. This system became very popular across Europe.
The takeoff stage of economic development came with the railroad revolution in the 1840s, which opened up new markets for local products, created a pool of middle managers, increased the demand for engineers, architects and skilled machinists and stimulated investments in coal and iron. Political disunity of three dozen states and a pervasive conservatism made it difficult to build railways in the 1830s. However, by the 1840s, trunk lines did link the major cities; each German state was responsible for the lines within its own borders. Economist Friedrich List summed up the advantages to be derived from the development of the railway system in 1841:
As a means of national defence, it facilitates the concentration, distribution and direction of the army.
It is a means to the improvement of the culture of the nation. It brings talent, knowledge and skill of every kind readily to market.
It secures the community against dearth and famine and against excessive fluctuation in the prices of the necessaries of life.
It promotes the spirit of the nation, as it has a tendency to destroy the Philistine spirit arising from isolation and provincial prejudice and vanity. It binds nations by ligaments and promotes an interchange of food and of commodities, thus making it feel to be a unit. The iron rails become a nerve system, which, on the one hand, strengthens public opinion, and, on the other hand, strengthens the power of the state for police and governmental purposes.
Lacking a technological base at first, the Germans imported their engineering and hardware from Britain, but quickly learned the skills needed to operate and expand the railways. In many cities, the new railway shops were the centres of technological awareness and training, so that by 1850, Germany was self-sufficient in meeting the demands of railroad construction and the railways were a major impetus for the growth of the new steel industry. Observers found that even as late as 1890, their engineering was inferior to Britain's. However, German unification in 1870 stimulated consolidation, nationalisation into state-owned companies and further rapid growth. Unlike the situation in France, the goal was support of industrialisation and so heavy lines crisscrossed the Ruhr and other industrial districts and provided good connections to the major ports of Hamburg and Bremen. By 1880, Germany had 9,400 locomotives pulling 43,000 passengers and 30,000 tons of freight a day and forged ahead of France.
Italy
Netherlands
Rail transport in the Netherlands is generally considered to have begun on 20 September 1839 when the first train, drawn by the locomotive De Arend, successfully made the 16 km trip from Amsterdam to Haarlem. However, the first plan for a railroad in the Netherlands was launched only shortly after the first railroad opened in Britain.
The history of rail transport in the Netherlands can be described in six eras:
the period up to 1839 the first plans were made for a railroad,
1840–1860 railroads experienced their early expansion,
1860–1890 the government started ordering the construction of new lines,
1890–1938 the different railroads were consolidated into two large railroads,
1938–1992 Nederlandse Spoorwegen was granted a monopoly on rail transport, and
1992 to present the Nederlandse Spoorwegen lost its monopoly.
Poland
Poland restored its own independence as the Second Polish Republic in 1918 from the German, Austro-Hungarian and Russian Empires.
First Polish locomotive Ok22 (100 km/h) started operating in 1923.
Imported electric locomotives English Electric EL.100 (100 km/h) were in use in Warsaw since 1936.
New Polish locomotive Pm36-1 (140 km/h) was shown at the International Exposition of Art and Technology in Modern Life in Paris in 1937.
New Polish electric locomotive EP09 (160 km/h) was designed in 1977 and started regular operation linking Warsaw and Kraków in 1987.
On 14 December 2014 PKP Intercity New Pendolino trains by Alstom under the name 'Express Intercity Premium' began operating on the CMK line (224 km line from Kraków and Katowice to Warsaw) with trains reaching 200 km/h (124 mph) as a regularly scheduled operation.
Russia
In the early 1830s, the Russian father and son inventors the Cherepanovs built the first Russian steam locomotive. The first railway line was built in Russia in 1837 between Saint-Petersburg and Tsarskoye Selo. It was 27 km long and linked the Imperial Palaces at Tsarskoye Selo and Pavlovsk. The track gauge was . Russia was in need of big transportation systems and geographically suited to railroads, with long flat stretches of land and comparatively simple land acquisition. It was hampered, however, by its outmoded political situation and a shortage of capital. Foreign initiative and capital were required. It was the Americans who brought the technology of railway construction to Russia. In 1842, planning began for the building of Russia's first important railway; it linked Moscow and St Petersburg.
Spain
Cuba, then a Spanish colony, built its first rail line in 1837. The history of rail transport in peninsular Spain begins in 1848 with the construction of a railway line between Barcelona and Mataró. In 1852, the first narrow gauge line was built. In 1863 a line reached the Portuguese border. By 1864, the Madrid-Irun line had been opened and the French border was reached.
North America
Canada
The earliest railway in Canada was a wooden railway reportedly used in the construction of the French fortress at Louisburg, Nova Scotia.
The first Canadian railway, the Champlain and St. Lawrence Railroad, was opened in 1836 outside of Montreal, a seasonal portage railway to connect river traffic. It was followed by the Albion Railway in Stellarton, Nova Scotia in 1840, a collier railway connecting coal mines to a seaport. In Canada, the national government strongly supported railway construction for political goals. First it wanted to knit the far-flung provinces together and second, it wanted to maximize trade inside Canada and minimize trade with the United States, to avoid becoming an economic satellite. The Grand Trunk Railway of Canada linked Toronto and Montreal in 1853, then opened a line to Portland, Maine (which was ice-free) and lines to Michigan and Chicago. By 1870 it was the longest railway in the world. The Intercolonial line, finished in 1876, linked the Maritimes to Quebec and Ontario, tying them to the new Confederation.
Anglo entrepreneurs in Montreal sought direct lines into the US and shunned connections with the Maritimes, with a goal of competing with American railroad lines heading west to the Pacific. Joseph Howe, Charles Tupper and other Nova Scotia leaders used the rhetoric of a "civilizing mission" centered on their British heritage, because Atlantic-centered railway projects promised to make Halifax the eastern terminus of an intercolonial railway system tied to London. Leonard Tilley, New Brunswick's most ardent railway promoter, championed the cause of "economic progress," stressing that Atlantic Canadians needed to pursue the most cost-effective transportation connections possible if they wanted to expand their influence beyond local markets. Advocating an intercolonial connection to Canada and a western extension into larger American markets in Maine and beyond, New Brunswick entrepreneurs promoted ties to the United States first, connections with Halifax second and routes into central Canada last. Thus metropolitan rivalries between Montreal, Halifax and Saint John led Canada to build more railway lines per capita than any other industrializing nation, even though it lacked capital resources and had too little freight and passenger traffic to allow the systems to turn a profit.
Den Otter (1997) challenges popular assumptions that Canada built transcontinental railways because it feared the annexationist schemes of aggressive Americans. Instead Canada overbuilt railroads because it hoped to compete with, even overtake Americans in the race for continental riches. It downplayed the more realistic Maritimes-based London-oriented connections and turned to utopian prospects for the farmlands and minerals of the west. The result was closer ties between north and south, symbolized by the Grand Trunk's expansion into the American Midwest. These economic links promoted trade, commerce and the flow of ideas between the two countries, integrating Canada into a North American economy and culture by 1880. About 700,000 Canadians migrated to the US in the late 19th century. The Canadian Pacific, paralleling the American border, opened a vital link to British Canada and stimulated settlement of the Prairies. The CP was affiliated with James J. Hill's American railways and opened even more connections to the South. The connections were two-way, as thousands of American moved to the Prairies after their own frontier had closed.
Two additional transcontinental lines were built to the west coast—three in all—but that was far more than the traffic would bear, making the system simply too expensive. One after another, the federal government was forced to take over the lines and cover their deficits. In 1923, the government merged the Grand Trunk, Grand Trunk Pacific, Canadian Northern and National Transcontinental lines into the new the Canadian National Railways system. Since most of the equipment was imported from Britain or the US and most of the products carried were from farms, mines or forests, there was little stimulation to domestic manufacturing. On the other hand, the railways were essential to the growth of the wheat regions in the Prairies and to the expansion of coal mining, lumbering and paper making. Improvements to the St. Lawrence waterway system continued apace and many short lines were built to river ports.
United States
Overview
Railroads played a large role in the development of the United States from the industrial revolution in the North-east 1810–50 to the settlement of the West 1850–1890. The American railroad mania began with the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1828 and flourished until the Panic of 1873 bankrupted many companies and temporarily ended growth.
Although the South started early to build railways, it concentrated on short lines linking cotton regions to oceanic or river ports and the absence of an interconnected network was a major handicap during the Civil War. The North and Midwest constructed networks that linked every city by 1860. In the heavily settled Midwestern Corn Belt, over 80 percent of farms were within 10 miles of a railway, facilitating the shipment of grain, hogs and cattle to national and international markets. A large number of short lines were built, but thanks to a fast developing financial system based on Wall Street and oriented to railway bonds, the majority were consolidated into 20 trunk lines by 1890. State and local governments often subsidized lines, but rarely owned them.
The system was largely built by 1910, but then trucks arrived to eat away the freight traffic and automobiles (and later airplanes) to devour the passenger traffic. The use of diesel electric locomotives (after 1940) made for much more efficient operations that needed fewer workers on the road and in repair shops.
Mileage
Route mileage peaked at in 1916 and fell to in 2009.
In 1830, there were about of railroad track, in short lines linked to coal and granite mines.). After this, railroad lines grew rapidly. Ten years later, in 1840, the railways had grown to . By 1860, on the eve of civil war, the length had reached , mostly in the North. The South had much less trackage and it was geared to moving cotton short distances to river or ocean ports. The Southern railroads were destroyed during the war but were soon rebuilt. By 1890, the national system was virtually complete with .
In 1869, the symbolically important transcontinental railroad was completed in the United States with the driving of a golden spike (near the city of Ogden).
Latin America
In Latin America in the late 19th and early 20th centuries railways were critical elements in the early stages of modernization of the Latin American economy, especially in linking agricultural regions to export-oriented seaports. After 1870 Latin American governments encouraged further rail development through generous concessions that included government subsidies for construction. Railway construction is the subject of considerable scholarship, examining the economic, political, and social impacts of railroads. Railways transformed many regions of Latin America beginning in the late nineteenth century. "Increasing exports of primary commodities, rising imports of capital goods, the expansion of activities drawing directly and indirectly on overseas investment, the rising share of manufacturing in output, and a generalized increase in the pace and scope of economic activity were all tied closely to the timing and character of the region's infrastructural development.
Rates of railway line construction were not uniform, but by 1870 railway line construction was underway, with Cuba leading with the largest railway track in service (1,295 km), followed by Chile (797 km), Brazil (744 km), Argentina (732 km), Peru (669 km), and Mexico (417 km). By 1900, Argentina (16,563 km), Brazil (15,316 km) and Mexico (13,615 km) were the leaders in length of track in service, and Peru, which had been an early leader in railway construction, had stagnated (1,790 km). In Mexico, growing nationalistic fervor led the government to bring the bulk of the nation's railroads under national control in 1909, with a new government corporation, Ferrocarriles Nacionales de México (FNM), that exercised control of the main trunk rail lines through a majority of share ownership.
Asia
India
The first proposals for railways in India were made in Madras in 1832. The first train in India ran from Red Hills to Chintadripet bridge in Madras in 1837. It was called Red Hill Railway. It was hauled by a rotary steam engine locomotive manufactured by William Avery. It was built by Sir Arthur Cotton. It was primarily used for transporting granite stones for road building work in Madras. In 1845, a railway was built at Dowleswaram in Rajahmundry. It was called Godavari Dam Construction Railway. It was also built by Arthur Cotton. It was used to supply stones for construction of a dam over Godavari.
On 8 May 1845, Madras Railway was incorporated. In the same year, the East India Railway company was incorporated. On 1 August 1849, Great Indian Peninsular Railway (GIPR) was incorporated. In 1851, a railway was built in Roorkee. It was called Solani Aqueduct Railway. It was hauled by steam locomotive Thomason, named after a British officer-in-charge. It was used for transporting construction materials for building of aqueduct over Solani river. In 1852, the "Madras Guaranteed Railway Company" was incorporated.
The first passenger train in India ran between Bombay (Bori Bunder) and Thane on 16 April 1853. The 14-carriage train was hauled by three steam locomotives: Sahib, Sindh and Sultan. It ran for about 34 kilometers between these two cities carrying 400 people. The line was built and operated by GIPR. This railway line was built in broad gauge, which became the standard for the railways in the country. The first passenger railway train in eastern India ran from Howrah, near Calcutta to Hoogly, for distance of 24 miles, on 15 August 1854. The line was built and operated by EIR. The first passenger train in South India ran from Royapuram / Veyasarapady (Madras) to Wallajah Road (Arcot) on 1 July 1856, for a distance of 60 miles. It was built and operated by Madras Railway. On 24 February 1873, the first tramway (a horse-drawn tramway) opened in Calcutta between Sealdah and Armenian Ghat Street, a distance of 3.8 km.
Iran
Iranian railway history goes back to 1887 when an approximately 20-km long railway between Tehran and Ray was established. After this time many short railways were constructed but the main railway, Trans-Iranian Railway, was started in 1927 and operated in 1938 by connecting the Persian Gulf to the Caspian Sea.
Japan
In 1867, in Japan, Edo period (Tokugawa shogunate) and its feudal system was ended, then Meiji period was entered and the government strived to acquire western culture and technology. In 1872, the first railway in Japan was inaugurated by Japanese Government Railways (JGR), connecting Shimbashi in Tokyo and Yokohama. The first 10 steam locomotives were ordered to Avonside, Dübs, Sharp Stewart, Vulcan and Yorkshire companies in United Kingdom. Subsequently, so many locomotives and railroad cars were ordered to United Kingdom, United States and Germany, before they could be manufactured in Japan. At that time, JGR adopted narrow gauge (1,067 mm) rather than standard gauge (1,435 mm), considering its cost of construction, so still now, narrow gauge has been mostly adopted and called "standard in Japan". In 1874, the second railway connected between Osaka and Kobe by JGR. Following them, railways were spread around Japan, Hokkaido, Tōhoku, Kantō, Chūbu, Kansai, Chūgoku, Shikoku and Kyushu regions by JGR and many private companies. In 1895, the first electric railway, also the first electric street railway was inaugurated by Kyoto Electric Railway in Kyoto, and the first trams seems to be ordered to J. G. Brill in United States. In 1923, the first diesel locomotive was ordered to Deutz AG in Germany by Horinouchi Railway Company in Shizuoka prefecture. In 1927, the first subway was inaugurated by Tokyo Metro, and connected between Ueno and Asakusa in Tokyo, and the electric railroad cars were ordered to Nippon Sharyo as Class 1000. Then, in 1928, the first diesel railroad car, equipped with diesel engine of MAN AG, was ordered and manufactured by Amemiya Manufacturing, for Nagaoka Railway in Niigata prefecture.
Viewing the development of locomotive and railroad car technology in Japan, in 1893, the first steam locomotive was manufactured by Kobe works of JGR as JGR Class 860. Then in 1904, the first electric railroad car seems to be manufactured by Iidabashi works of Kōbu railway (now Chūō Main Line of JR East) as Class 950. In 1926, the first electric locomotive was manufactured by Hitachi as JGR Class ED15. In 1927, the first diesel locomotive, equipped with diesel engine of Niigata Engineering, was manufactured by Amemiya Manufacturing. By World War II, Japan also suffered catastrophic damage, however they accomplished reconstruction. In 1964, the first electric high-speed rail in the world, Tōkaidō Shinkansen (standard gauge) was inaugurated by Japanese National Railways (JNR), and connected between Tokyo and Osaka. The first high-speed trains were manufactured by Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Nippon Sharyo, Hitachi, Kinki Sharyo and Tokyu Car Corporation (now J-TREC), as Shinkansen 0 Series. Today, Electric, battery electric, electric hybrid, electric-diesel, diesel locomotives, railroad cars, high-speed trains, and AGTs are manufacrured by Hitachi, Kawasaki, Nippon Sharyo, Kinki Sharyo, J-TREC and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, and they are running around the world.
Pakistan
It was in 1847 when the first railway was imagined but it was not until 1861 when it came into existence in the form of the railway built from Karachi to Kotri. Since then rail transport is a popular mode of non-independent transport in Pakistan.
Africa
Angola
Botswana
Congo
East Africa
The railway was built from the Kenyan port of Mombasa to Kampala, Uganda, and construction was hampered by the presence of man-eating lions.
Egypt
1833–1877
Robert Stephenson (1803–59) was the engineer of Egypt's first railway
In 1833, Muhammad Ali Pasha considered building a railway between Suez and Cairo to improve transit between Europe and India. Muhammad Ali had proceeded to buy the rail when the project was abandoned due to pressure by the French who had an interest in building a canal instead.
Proposed railway from Cairo to the Sea of Suez by C.F. Cheffins, 1840s; state carriage by Wason Manufacturing built for Sa'id Pasha for state functions, included with 161 less ornate railcars sent by the company in 1860
Muhammad Ali died in 1848, and in 1851 his successor Abbas I contracted Robert Stephenson to build Egypt's first standard gauge railway. The first section, between Alexandria on the Mediterranean coast and Kafr el-Zayyat on the Rosetta branch of the Nile was opened in 1854. This was the first railway in the Ottoman Empire as well as Africa and the Middle East. In the same year Abbas died and was succeeded by Sa'id Pasha, in whose reign the section between Kafr el-Zayyat and Cairo was completed in 1856 followed by an extension from Cairo to Suez in 1858. This completed the first modern transport link between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean, as Ferdinand de Lesseps did not complete the Suez Canal until 1869.
Namibia (South West Africa)
The first railway in the German colony of South West Africa was the -long line running North-East from Walvis Bay to connect with the existing road between Swakopmund and Windhoek. It was built to gauge and was opened in 1898.
Morocco
The Moroccan rail transport was first developed around 1906 and later during the French and Spanish protectorate. It functioned initially as a means to transport natural resources from in-land mines to the harbors. It was also used to move colonial troops.
Mozambique
South Africa
Sudan
Zambia
Zimbabwe
See also
See also
:Category:Rail transport timelines
George Bradshaw, originator of the railway timetable
Historical sizes of railroads in North America
John Blenkinsop (1783–1831), inventor
Matthias W. Baldwin (1795–1866), manufacturer
Oldest railroads in North America
Permanent way: historical development
Railway speed record
Railway spine
Thomas Gray (1788–1848), railway advocate, published 1st ed. of Observations on a General Iron Railway, 1820.
Timeline of railway history
History of trams
References
Bibliography
Cameron, Rondo E. France and the Economic Development of Europe, 1800–1914: Conquests of Peace and Seeds of War (1961), pp. 304–227 covers France, Spain Russia and others
Coatsworth, John H. "Indispensable Railroads in a Backward Economy: The Case of Mexico," Journal of Economic History (1979) 39#4 pp. 939–960 in JSTOR
Fremdling, Rainer. "Railroadss and German Economic Growth: A Leading Sector Analysis with a Comparison to the United States and Great Britain," Journal of Economic History (1977) 37#3 pp. 583–604. in JSTOR
Hadfield, C. and Skempton, A. W. William Jessop, Engineer (Newton Abbot 1979)
Jenks, Leland H. "Railroads as an Economic Force in American Development," The Journal of Economic History, vol. 4, no. 1 (May 1944), 1–20. in JSTOR
Includes maps of major rail lines on all continents c. 1914
Lewis, M. J. T., "Railways in the Greek and Roman world", in Guy, A. / Rees, J. (eds), Early Railways. A Selection of Papers from the First International Early Railways Conference (2001), pp. 8–19 (10–15)
Misa, Thomas J. A Nation of Steel: The Making of Modern America, 1865–1925 (1995) chapter 1 'Dominance of Rails' online
Nock, O. S. ed. Encyclopedia of Railways (London, 1977), worldwide coverage, heavily illustrated
O’Brien, Patrick. Railways and the Economic Development of Western Europe, 1830–1914 (1983)
O'Brien, Patrick. The New Economic History of the Railways (Routledge, 2014)
Omrani, Bijan Asia Overland: Tales of Travel on the Trans-Siberian and Silk Road Odyssey Publications, 2010
Otte, Thomas G. and Keith Neilson, eds. Railways and International Politics: Paths of Empire, 1848–1945 (Routledge, 2012) 11 essays by leading scholars
Riley, C. J. The Encyclopedia of Trains & Locomotives (2002)
Savage, Christopher and T. C. Barker. Economic History of Transport in Britain (Routledge, 2012)
Schivelbusch, Wolfgang. The railway journey: the industrialization of time and space in the nineteenth century (Univ of California Press, 2014)
Stover, John. American Railways (2nd ed 1997)
Includes numerous c. 1880 diagrams and illustrations
Jack Simmons and Gordon Biddle (editors). The Oxford Companion to British Railway History: From 1603 to the 1990s (2nd ed 1999)
Stover, John. The Routledge Historical Atlas of the American Railroads (2001)
Summerhill, William R. "Big Social Savings in a Small Laggard Economy: Railroad-Led Growth in Brazil," Journal of Economic History (2005) 65#1 pp. 72–102 in JSTOR
Historiography
Hurd II, John and Ian J. Kerr, eds. India's railway history: a research handbook (Brill, 2012)
Lee, Robert. "A Fractious Federation: Patterns in Australian Railway Historiography." Mobility in History(2013) 4#1 pp. 149–158
McDonald, Kate. "Asymmetrical Integration: Lessons from a Railway Empire." Technology and Culture (2015) 56#1 pp. 115–149
Pathak, Dev N. "Marian Aguiar, Tracking Modernity: India’s Railway and the Culture of Mobility." South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies (2012) 35#4 pp. 900–901
Salerno, Elena. "The Historiography of Railways in Argentina: Between Foreign Investment, Nationalism and Liberalism." Mobility in History (2014) 5#1 pp. 105–120
External links
WWW Guide to "Railroad History" 2016
John H. White, Jr. Reference Collection, 1880s–1990 Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.
National Railway Historical Society
Foreign Railways of the World: Containing in One Volume, the Names of Officers, Length, Capital,... (1884)
How the Railroad is Modernising Asia, The Advertiser, Adelaide, S. Australia, 22 March 1913. N.B.: The article is approx. 1,500 words, covering approx. a dozen Asian countries.
Rail transport
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211920
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi%20Inthanon
|
Doi Inthanon
|
Doi Inthanon (, ) is the highest mountain in Thailand. It is in Chom Thong District, Chiang Mai Province. This mountain is an ultra prominent peak, known in the past as Doi Luang ('big mountain') or Doi Ang Ga, meaning the 'crow's pond top'. Near the mountain's base was a pond where many crows gathered. The name Doi Inthanon was given in honour of Inthawichayanon, last King of Chiang Mai, who was concerned about the forests in the north and tried to preserve them. He ordered that, after his death, his remains be interred at Doi Luang, which was then renamed in his honour.
Today, the summit of Doi Inthanon is a popular tourist destination for both foreign and Thai tourists, with a peak of 12,000 visitors visiting the summit on New Year's Day. In addition to a range of tourist facilities on the summit, there is also a Royal Thai Air Force weather radar station at the summit and the Thai National Observatory (TNO) at km44.
Geography
Doi Inthanon is the highest peak of the Inthanon Range () of the Thanon Thong Chai Range, a subrange of the Shan Hills in the Thai highlands stretching southwards from the Daen Lao Range. This range, the southwesternmost of the Shan Highland system, separates the Salween watershed from the Mekong watershed. Other high peaks of the Daen Lao Range are Doi Luang Chiang Dao (), Doi Pui (), and Doi Suthep ().
In 1954, the forests around Doi Inthanon were conserved, creating Doi Inthanon National Park, as one of the original 14 national parks of Thailand. This park now covers 482.4 km² and spreads from the lowlands at elevation up to the peak at . Given the varied climatic and ecological areas regions, the park supports a range of animal species, including over 360 bird species.
On the lower slopes of Doi Inthanon, near the Karen hill tribe village, Ban Sop Had, are the Wachirathan waterfalls (), where the Wachirathan (lit. "Diamond Creek") tumbles over a granite escarpment. ()
Climate
The climate is typically tropical and fairly cool on the summit of Doi Inthanon. In the winter, the average temperature is in January and temperatures can sometimes drop below . On 21 December 2017, an all-time low temperature of was recorded at 06:30 at km 44.4. From March to June, temperatures are pleasant, especially at higher altitudes. The rainy season runs from April to November, when it sometimes rains for more than two hours per day.
Geology
Geologically the mountain is a granite batholith in a north-south oriented mountain range. The second-highest peak of this range is Doi Hua Mot Luang at .
Environmental issues
In 2014, visitors to the mountain left behind of rubbish.
Places
On the main road to the summit of Doi Inthanon stand two adjacent chedis, one called Naphamethinidon (นภเมทินีดล), meaning 'by the strength of the land and air', and the other, Naphaphonphumisiri (นภพลภูมิสิริ), meaning 'being the strength of the air and the grace of the land'. These temples were built to honor the 60th birthday anniversary of King Bhumibol Adulyadej in 1987, and the 60th birthday anniversary of Queen Sirikit in 1992, respectively.
Kio Mae Pan Nature Trail
The Inthanon Royal Project Research Station: The agricultural station was a King Bhumibol Adulyadej project to help eliminate opium cultivation. It contains a rhododendron garden, and greenhouses for growing ferns, flowering plants, and vegetables.
Gallery
See also
List of mountains in Thailand
List of Southeast Asian mountains
List of Ultras of Southeast Asia
Doi Inthanon rock frog
List of elevation extremes by country
References
External links
thaibirding.com on Doi Inthanon
www.DoiInthanon.net
"Doi Inthanon, Thailand" on Peakbagger
Mountains of Thailand
Thanon Thong Chai Range
Geography of Chiang Mai province
Two-thousanders of Asia
Highest points of countries
|
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] |
211922
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impulse%20%28physics%29
|
Impulse (physics)
|
In classical mechanics, impulse (symbolized by or Imp) is the integral of a force, , over the time interval, , for which it acts. Since force is a vector quantity, impulse is also a vector quantity. Impulse applied to an object produces an equivalent vector change in its linear momentum, also in the resultant direction. The SI unit of impulse is the newton second (N⋅s), and the dimensionally equivalent unit of momentum is the kilogram meter per second (kg⋅m/s). The corresponding English engineering unit is the pound-second (lbf⋅s), and in the British Gravitational System, the unit is the slug-foot per second (slug⋅ft/s).
A resultant force causes acceleration and a change in the velocity of the body for as long as it acts. A resultant force applied over a longer time, therefore, produces a bigger change in linear momentum than the same force applied briefly: the change in momentum is equal to the product of the average force and duration. Conversely, a small force applied for a long time produces the same change in momentum—the same impulse—as a larger force applied briefly.
The impulse is the integral of the resultant force () with respect to time:
Mathematical derivation in the case of an object of constant mass
Impulse produced from time to is defined to be
where is the resultant force applied from to .
From Newton's second law, force is related to momentum by
Therefore,
where is the change in linear momentum from time to . This is often called the impulse-momentum theorem (analogous to the work-energy theorem).
As a result, an impulse may also be regarded as the change in momentum of an object to which a resultant force is applied. The impulse may be expressed in a simpler form when the mass is constant:
where
is the resultant force applied,
and are times when the impulse begins and ends, respectively,
is the mass of the object,
is the final velocity of the object at the end of the time interval, and
is the initial velocity of the object when the time interval begins.
Impulse has the same units and dimensions as momentum. In the International System of Units, these are . In English engineering units, they are .
The term “impulse” is also used to refer to a fast-acting force or impact. This type of impulse is often idealized so that the change in momentum produced by the force happens with no change in time. This sort of change is a step change, and is not physically possible. However, this is a useful model for computing the effects of ideal collisions (such as in game physics engines). Additionally, in rocketry, the term “total impulse” is commonly used and is considered synonymous with the term “impulse”.
Variable mass
The application of Newton's second law for variable mass allows impulse and momentum to be used as analysis tools for jet- or rocket-propelled vehicles. In the case of rockets, the impulse imparted can be normalized by unit of propellant expended, to create a performance parameter, specific impulse. This fact can be used to derive the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, which relates the vehicle's propulsive change in velocity to the engine's specific impulse (or nozzle exhaust velocity) and the vehicle's propellant-mass ratio.
See also
Wave–particle duality defines the impulse of a wave collision. The preservation of momentum in the collision is then called phase matching. Applications include:
Compton effect
Nonlinear optics
Acousto-optic modulator
Electron phonon scattering
Dirac delta function, mathematical abstraction of a pure impulse
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Dynamics
Articles containing video clips
Classical mechanics
Vector physical quantities
de:Impuls#Kraftstoß
sv:Rörelsemängd#Impuls
|
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211923
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver%20function%20tests
|
Liver function tests
|
Liver function tests (LFTs or LFs), also referred to as a hepatic panel, are groups of blood tests that provide information about the state of a patient's liver. These tests include prothrombin time (PT/INR), activated Partial Thromboplastin Time (aPTT), albumin, bilirubin (direct and indirect), and others. The liver transaminases aspartate transaminase (AST or SGOT) and alanine transaminase (ALT or SGPT) are useful biomarkers of liver injury in a patient with some degree of intact liver function. Most liver diseases cause only mild symptoms initially, but these diseases must be detected early. Hepatic (liver) involvement in some diseases can be of crucial importance. This testing is performed on a patient's blood sample. Some tests are associated with functionality (e.g., albumin), some with cellular integrity (e.g., transaminase), and some with conditions linked to the biliary tract (gamma-glutamyl transferase and alkaline phosphatase). Because some of these tests do not measure function, it is more accurate to call these liver chemistries or liver tests rather than liver function tests. Several biochemical tests are useful in the evaluation and management of patients with hepatic dysfunction. These tests can be used to detect the presence of liver disease, distinguish among different types of liver disorders, gauge the extent of known liver damage, and monitor the response to treatment. Some or all of these measurements are also carried out (usually about twice a year for routine cases) on those individuals taking certain medications, such as anticonvulsants, to ensure that the medications are not adversely impacting the person's liver.
Standard liver panel
Although example reference ranges are given, these will vary depending on age, gender and his/her health, ethnicity, method of analysis, and units of measurement. Individual results should always be interpreted using the reference range provided by the laboratory that performed the test.
Total bilirubin
Measurement of total bilirubin includes both unconjugated (indirect) and conjugated (direct) bilirubin. Unconjugated bilirubin is a breakdown product of heme (a part of hemoglobin in red blood cells). The liver is responsible for clearing the blood of unconjugated bilirubin, by 'conjugating' it (modified to make it water-soluble) through an enzyme named UDP-glucuronyl-transferase. When the total bilirubin level exceeds 17 μmol/l, it indicates liver disease. When total bilirubin levels exceed 40 μmol/l, bilirubin deposition at the sclera, skin, and mucous membranes will give these areas a yellow colour, thus it is called jaundice.
The increase in predominantly unconjugated bilirubin is due to overproduction, reduced hepatic uptake of the unconjugated bilirubin and reduced conjugation of bilirubin. Overproduction can be due to the reabsorption of a haematoma and ineffective erythropoiesis leading to increased red blood cell destruction. Gilbert's syndrome and Crigler–Najjar syndrome have defects in the UDP-glucuronyl-transferase enzyme, affecting bilirubin conjugation.
The degree of rise in conjugated bilirubin is directly proportional to the degree of hepatocyte injury. Viral hepatitis can also cause the rise in conjugated bilirubin. In parenchymal liver disease and incomplete extrahepatic obstruction, the rise in conjugated bilirubin is less than the complete common bile duct obstruction due to malignant causes. In Dubin–Johnson syndrome, a mutation in multiple drug-resistance protein 2 (MRP2) causes a rise in conjugated bilirubin.
In acute appendicitis, total bilirubin can rise from 20.52 μmol/l to 143 μmol/l. In pregnant women, the total bilirubin level is low in all three trimesters.
The measurement of bilirubin levels in the newborns is done through the use of bilimeter or transcutanoeus bilirubinometer instead of performing LFTs. When the total serum bilirubin increases over 95th percentile for age during the first week of life for high risk babies, it is known as hyperbilirubinemia of the newborn (neonatal jaundice) and requires light therapy to reduce the amount of bilirubin in the blood. Pathological jaundice in newborns should be suspected when the serum bilirubin level rises by more than 5 mg/dL per day, serum bilirubin more than the physiological range, clinical jaundice more than 2 weeks, and conjugated bilirubin (dark urine staining clothes). Haemolytic jaundice is the commonest cause of pathological jaundice. Those babies with Rh hemolytic disease, ABO incompatibility with the mother, Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G-6-PD) deficiency and minor blood group incompatibility are at increased risk of getting haemolytic jaundice.
Alanine transaminase (ALT)
Apart from being found in high concentrations in the liver, ALT is found in the kidneys, heart, and muscles. It catalyses the transamination reaction, and only exists in a cytoplasmic form. Any kind of liver injury can cause a rise in ALT. A rise of up to 300 IU/L is not specific to the liver, but can be due to the damage of other organs such as the kidneys or muscles. When ALT rises to more than 500 IU/L, causes are usually from the liver. It can be due to hepatitis, ischemic liver injury, and toxins that causes liver damage. The ALT levels in Hepatitis C rises more than in Hepatitis A and B. Persistent ALT elevation more than 6 months is known as chronic hepatitis. Alcoholic liver disease, Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), fat accumulation in liver during childhood obesity, steatohepatitis (inflammation of fatty liver disease) are associated with a rise in ALT. Rise in ALT is also associated with reduced insulin response, reduced glucose tolerance, and increased free fatty acids and triglycerides. Bright liver syndrome (bright liver on ultrasound suggestive of fatty liver) with raised ALT is suggestive of metabolic syndrome.
In pregnancy, ALT levels would rise during the second trimester. In one of the studies, measured ALT levels in pregnancy-related conditions such as hyperemesis gravidarum was 103.5 IU/L, pre-eclampsia was 115, HELLP syndrome was 149. ALT levels would reduce by greater than 50% in three days after child delivery. Another study also shows that caffeine consumption can reduce the risk of ALT elevation in those who consume alcohol, overweight people, impaired glucose metabolism, and viral hepatitis.
Aspartate transaminase (AST)
AST exists in two isoenzymes namely mitochondrial form and cytoplasmic form. It is found in highest concentration in the liver, followed by heart, muscle, kidney, brain, pancreas, and lungs. This wide range of AST containing organs makes it a relatively less specific indicator of liver damage compared to ALT. An increase of mitochondrial AST in bloods is highly suggestive of tissue necrosis in myocardial infarction and chronic liver disease. More than 80% of the liver AST activity are contributed by mitochondrial form of the isoenzymes, while the circulating AST in blood are contributed by cytoplasmic form of AST. AST is especially markedly raised in those with liver cirrhosis. AST can be released from a variety of other tissues and if the elevation is less than two times the normal AST then no further workup needs to be performed if a patient is proceeding to surgery.
In certain pregnancy conditions such as hyperemesis gravidarum, AST can reach as high as 73 IU/L, 66 IU/L in pre-eclampsia, and 81 IU/L in HELLP syndrome.
AST/ALT ratio
The AST/ALT ratio increases in liver functional impairment. In alcoholic liver disease, the mean ratio is 1.45, and mean ratio is 1.33 in post necrotic liver cirrhosis. Ratio is greater than 1.17 in viral cirrhosis, greater than 2.0 in alcoholic hepatitis, and 0.9 in non-alcoholic hepatitis. Ratio is greater than 4.5 in Wilson disease or hyperthyroidism.
Alkaline phosphatase (ALP)
Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is an enzyme in the cells lining the biliary ducts of the liver. It can also be found on the mucosal epithelium of the small intestine, proximal convoluted tubule of the kidneys, bone, liver, and placenta. It plays an important role in lipid transposition in small intestines and calcification of bones. 50% of all the serum ALP activities in blood are contributed by bone. Acute viral hepatitis usually has normal or increased ALP. For example, hepatitis A has increased ALP due to cholestasis (impaired bile formation or bile flow obstruction) and would have the feature of prolonged itching. Other causes include: infiltrative liver diseases, granulomatous liver disease, abscess, amyloidosis of the liver and peripheral arterial disease. Mild elevation of ALP can be seen in liver cirrhosis, hepatitis, and congestive cardiac failure. Transient hyperphosphataemia is a benign condition in infants, and can reach normal level in 4 months. In contrast, low levels of ALP is found in hypothyroidism, pernicious anemia, zinc deficiency, and hypophosphatasia.
ALP activity is significantly increased in the third trimester of pregnancy. This is due to increased synthesis from the placenta as well as increased synthesis in the liver induced by large amounts of estrogens. Levels in the third trimester can be as much as 2-fold greater than in non-pregnant women. As a result, ALP is not a reliable marker of hepatic function in pregnant women. In contrast to ALP, levels of ALT, AST, GGT, and lactate dehydrogenase are only slightly changed or largely unchanged during pregnancy. Bilirubin levels are significantly decreased in pregnancy.
In pregnancy conditions such as hyperemesis gravdirum, ALP levels can reach 215 IU/L, meanwhile, in pre-eclampsia, ALP can reach 14 IU/L, and in HELLP syndrome ALP levels can reach 15 IU/L.
Gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT)
GGT is a microsomal enzyme found in hepatocytes, biliary epithelial cells, renal tubules, pancreas, and intestines. It helps in glutathione metabolism by transporting peptides across the cell membrane. Much like ALP, GGT measurements are usually elevated if cholestasis is present. In acute viral hepatitis, the GGT levels can peak at 2nd and 3rd week of illness, and remained elevated at 6 weeks of illness. GGT is also elevated in 30% of the hepatitis C patients. GGT can increase by 10 times in alcoholism. GGT can increase by 2 to 3 times in 50% of the patients with non-alcoholic liver disease. When GGT levels is elevated, the triglyceride level is elevated also. With insulin treatment, the GGT level can reduce. Other causes of elevated GGT are: diabetes mellitus, acute pancreatitis, myocardial infarction, anorexia nervosa, Guillain–Barré syndrome, hyperthyroidism, obesity and myotonic dystrophy.
In pregnancy conditions GGT activity is reduced in 2nd and 3rd trimesters. In hyperemesis gravidarum, GGT level value can reach 45 IU/L, 17 IU/L in pre-eclampsia, and 35 IU/L in HELPP syndrome.
Albumin
Albumin is a protein made specifically by the liver, and can be measured cheaply and easily. It is the main constituent of total protein (the remaining constituents are primarily globulins). Albumin levels are decreased in chronic liver disease, such as cirrhosis. It is also decreased in nephrotic syndrome, where it is lost through the urine. The consequence of low albumin can be edema since the intravascular oncotic pressure becomes lower than the extravascular space. An alternative to albumin measurement is prealbumin, which is better at detecting acute changes (half-life of albumin and prealbumin is about 2 weeks and about 2 days, respectively).
Other tests
Other tests are requested alongside LFT to rule out specific causes.
5' Nucleotidase
5' Nucleotidase (5NT) is a glycoprotein found throughout the body, in the cytoplasmic membrane, catalyzing the conversion to inorganic phosphates from nucleoside-5-phosphate. Its level is raised in conditions such as obstructive jaundice, parenchymal liver disease, liver metastases, and bone disease.
Serum NT levels are higher during 2nd and 3rd trimesters in pregnancy.
Ceruloplasmin
Ceruloplasmin is an acute phase protein synthesized in the liver. It is the carrier of the copper ion. Its levels is increased in infections, rheumatoid arthritis, pregnancy, non-Wilson liver disease and obstructive jaundice. In Wilson disease, the ceruloplasmin level is depressed which lead to copper accumulation in body tissues.
Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)
AFP is significantly expressed in foetal liver. However, the mechanism that led to the suppression of AFP synthesis in adults is not fully known. Exposure of the liver to cancer-causing agents and arrest of liver maturation in childhood can lead to the rise in AFP. AFP can reach until 400–500 μg/L in hepatocellular carcinoma. AFP concentration of more than 400 μg/L is associated with greater tumour size, involvement of both lobes of liver, portal vein invasion and a lower median survival rate.
Coagulation test
The liver is responsible for the production of the vast majority of coagulation factors. In patients with liver disease, international normalized ratio (INR) can be used as a marker of liver synthetic function as it includes factor VII, which has the shortest half life (2–6 hours) of all coagulation factors measured in INR. An elevated INR in patients with liver disease, however, does not necessarily mean the patient has a tendency to bleed, as it only measures procoagulants and not anticoagulants. In liver disease the synthesis of both are decreased and some patients are even found to be hypercoagulable (increased tendency to clot) despite an elevated INR. In liver patients, coagulation is better determined by more modern tests such as thromboelastogram (TEG) or thomboelastrometry (ROTEM).
Prothrombin time (PT) and its derived measures of prothrombin ratio (PR) and INR are measures of the extrinsic pathway of coagulation. This test is also called "ProTime INR" and "INR PT". They are used to determine the clotting tendency of blood, in the measure of warfarin dosage, liver damage, and vitamin K status.
Serum glucose
The serum glucose test, abbreviated as "BG" or "Glu", measures the liver's ability to produce glucose (gluconeogenesis); it is usually the last function to be lost in the setting of fulminant liver failure.
Lactate dehydrogenase
Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is found in many body tissues, including the liver. Elevated levels of LDH may indicate liver damage. LDH isotype-1 (or cardiac) is used for estimating damage to cardiac tissue, although troponin and creatine kinase tests are preferred.
Cholesterol
Urea
↑Urea = acute or chronic kidney disease, urinary tract obstruction, congestive heart failure, recent MI, gastrointestinal bleeding
See also
Reference ranges for blood tests
Elevated transaminases
Liver disorders
Child–Pugh score
References
External links
Liver Function Tests at Lab Tests Online
Overview at Mayo Clinic
Abnormal Liver Function Tests
Overview of liver enzymes
Abnormal Liver Tests Curriculum at AASLD
Further workup of abnormal liver tests: "etiology panel"
Gastroenterology
Hepatology
Blood tests
|
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] |
211929
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumlock%20ANITA%20calculator
|
Sumlock ANITA calculator
|
The ANITA Mark VII and ANITA Mark VIII calculators were launched simultaneously in late 1961 as the world's first all-electronic desktop calculators. Designed and built by the Bell Punch Co. in Britain, and marketed through its Sumlock Comptometer division, they used vacuum tubes and cold-cathode switching tubes in their logic circuits and nixie tubes for their numerical displays.
They were the first of a series of desktop and hand-held electronic calculators that the company was to develop and sell under the ANITA name into the mid-1970s.
History of ANITA calculators
The acronym 'ANITA' was officially proclaimed to be derived from, variously, A New Inspiration To Arithmetic, or A New Inspiration To Accounting, though there have been rumours that this was also the name of the designer's wife.
The Bell Punch Company (named after its first product, a ticket punch with a bell used by tram and bus conductors) had been producing a very successful range of key-driven mechanical calculators of the Comptometer type under the names "Plus" and "Sumlock", since the 1930s. In 1956 the young graduate Norbert Kitz (also known as Norman Kitz), who had worked on the early British Pilot ACE computer project, had a chance meeting with some of the directors of Control Systems Ltd., of which the Bell Punch Company was then a subsidiary. Some years earlier, while researching the introduction to his dissertation, he was looking at the mechanical calculators in the Science Museum, London, United Kingdom, and had realised that the future of calculators lay in electronics. Unfortunately, the major mechanical calculator manufacturers were far away in the US and Germany, and Kitz's idea lay dormant until he raised it at that meeting. The directors were very forward looking and were impressed by Kitz and his idea. They decided to open an Electronics Development Department, and took on Kitz as the leader of a project to develop an electronic version of the company's mechanical calculators. To help confidentiality the project was given the code-name ANITA.
Since the company had production lines capable of manufacturing precision mechanical parts by the thousand, the first experimental models were mechanical and electronic hybrids. However, these proved impractical and a purely electronic design was pursued.
Being the first in the field there were several major technical areas that required considerable development:
The electronic circuits for the four arithmetic functions: add, subtract, multiply, divide.
An electronic circuit which could store numbers being used in the calculation without taking up a lot of space and requiring a lot of power.
A suitable keyboard to enter the numbers of a calculation. This had to have a long life and also give good electrical reliability.
A suitable numerical output to display the results.
However, the main constraint was to be the cost of the calculator. The cheapest electronic computer then cost approximately £50,000 GBP but to be competitive with mechanical calculators the target selling price of the electronic calculator was in the range £350 to £400.
The first all-electronic prototype was demonstrated to the board of the company in December 1958. This prototype was later donated by the company to the Science Museum in London, where Kitz had originally had the idea for the electronic calculator. It has been on display surrounded by the mechanical calculators that it was to make obsolete. There then followed several years of great effort in finding electronic and mechanical components suitable for production, testing them for suitability, and where necessary producing them within the company or finding someone to produce them to their specification.
The great culmination of all the effort was revealed in October 1961, when the world's first all-electronic desktop calculators were launched. These were the ANITA Mk VIII at the Business Efficiency Exhibition in London, United Kingdom, from 2 to 11 October, and the ANITA Mk VII at the Hamburg Business Equipment Fair, Germany, from 10 to 13 October.
Since transistor technology was still in its infancy, these machines used vacuum tubes, cold-cathode tubes, and Dekatrons in their circuits, and cold-cathode Nixie tubes for their displays. This technology was fairly robust and cost effective; the Dekatron counter tube being the equivalent of an integrated circuit counter. The ANITA Mk VII was marketed in continental Europe while the ANITA Mk VIII was marketed in Britain and the rest of the world, both for delivery from early 1962. The Mk VII was a slightly earlier design with a more complicated mode of multiplication and was soon dropped in favour of the simpler Mark VIII version. The logic circuits, although digital, were based on decimal notation rather than binary; as Kitz himself stated at a symposium "no binary stunts here!". Similar to the Comptometer calculating machines of the time, the ANITA had a full keyboard, a feature that was unique to it and the later Sharp CS-10A among electronic calculators. Being silent and very quick in operation, and the only electronic desktop calculator available, the ANITA sold well, reaching nearly 10,000 units per year by 1964.
1961 was a doubly notable year for the Bell Punch Company since it then also amalgamated its calculator division with the British operation of Comptometer Corporation of Chicago, US (formerly the Felt & Tarrant Manufacturing Co.), to form Sumlock Comptometer Ltd. It thus gained the right to use the name "Comptometer" and even manufactured mechanical calculators to be sold by Comptometer Corporation in the US.
Development and some manufacture of the ANITA calculators took place at the Bell Punch Company's headquarters in Uxbridge, about 15 miles (24 km) to the west of London, United Kingdom. However, the main production facility was in Portsmouth, on the south coast, where the company expanded the original site there, opened in 1952 to produce mechanical calculator parts, by acquiring additional buildings. For production of the thousands of circuit boards the company invested in the then new technology of wave soldering.
With the appearance of the ANITA calculators, other calculator manufacturers pressed on with designs for electronic models. In late 1963 and 1964 competition finally arrived with the launch of all-transistor models such as the Friden EC-130, IME 84, and Sharp CS-10A. Initially the competing electronic calculators were no cheaper nor smaller than the ANITA, but Bell Punch responded by opening a new research and development building on its Uxbridge site, and electronics research was increased for the calculators and the other Bell Punch products.
The ANITA name continued to be used for the series of models of desktop calculators that followed, which gradually moved to transistor and integrated circuit technology, and from the early 1970s, the hand-held models.
In 1966 the calculator manufacturing operation of the Bell Punch Company was formed into a separate company, called Sumlock-Anita Electronics, and continued to manufacture both the mechanical and electronic calculators, still marketed by its Sumlock Comptometer division.
There was a major development in 1973 when the Sumlock Anita Electronics division was bought by its main supplier of integrated circuits, Rockwell International of the US. The remainder of the Bell Punch Co. continued manufacturing and selling its other products, such as taximeters.
In 1976 Rockwell decided to exit the calculator market, by which time cheap calculators had markedly reduced the profitability of the industry. Sumlock Anita Electronics was closed down and the ANITA name was sold to a marketing company and soon disappeared. The rest of the Bell Punch Company, which was completely independent of Rockwell, continued in business to about 1986 when it was closed down.
Further information about the early ANITA calculators
The first of the ANITA models was called the Mk VII (i.e. Mark VII) because the development of the mechanism of the Sumlock mechanical calculators made by the company had already gone through design numbers Mk I to Mk VI. So the next number in the series was used for the first electronic design.
The moulded plastic casing of the first ANITA calculators was particularly complicated for the time, and required development of new techniques by the moulding company. Originally moulded in ABS the material was later changed to polycarbonate for improved fire resistance.
Operators converting from mechanical machines to the new electronic ANITA calculators often complained initially that the key stroke was too light and did not give the feel of the mechanical machine. Also, they missed the noise of the mechanism which indicated that the calculation was taking place and went quiet when the calculation was completed.
An article of 1965 on cold cathode tubes from Mullard Ltd. (a British manufacturer of these devices, which also produced a prototype calculator using them) gives an insight into why they were used in these calculators at the time - "... They are an accountant's dream; a typical modern [cold cathode] tube has a life expectancy several thousand times better than the conventional thermionic tube, although they employ voltages of the same order. They are much cheaper than either semiconductor devices or vacuum tubes; they do not require costly materials with a high degree of purity in their manufacture, nor do they need transformers or cooling systems to operate. The tubes require no warm-up period and they can take severe overload."
Known ANITA calculator models
Desktop models
ANITA Mk VII - 1961, cold-cathode tube logic, full keyboard, 12-digit "Nixie"-type tube display.
ANITA Mk VIII (aka Mk 8) - 1961, cold-cathode tube logic, full keyboard, 12-digit "Nixie"-type tube display.
ANITA Mk 9 - 1964, cold-cathode tube logic, full keyboard, 12-digit "Nixie"-type tube display, capable of chain multiplication.
ANITA Mk 10 - 1965, cold-cathode tube logic, full keyboard, 12-digit "Nixie"-type tube display, can display in Decimal or the pre-decimalisation Pound sterling Currency mode.
ANITA Mk 11 - 1968, hybrid cold-cathode tube and transistor logic, 10-key keyboard, 9-digit "Nixie"-type tube display, low cost.
ANITA Mk12 - 1966, hybrid cold-cathode tube and transistor logic, 10-key keyboard, 12-digit "Nixie"-type tube display.
ANITA 410P - details not known.
ANITA 500P - details not known.
ANITA 1000 - 1969, IC & transistor logic, 10-key keyboard, 10-digit "Nixie"-type tube display.
ANITA 1010 - 1969, IC & transistor logic, 10-key keyboard, 10-digit "Nixie"-type tube display, %.
ANITA 1011 - 1969, IC & transistor logic, 10-key keyboard, 10-digit "Nixie"-type tube display, memory.
ANITA 1011P - 1971, IC & transistor logic, 10-key keyboard, printer, memory.
ANITA 1020 - 1970, IC & transistor logic, 10-key keyboard, 10-digit "Nixie"-type tube display, square root.
ANITA 1021 - 1970, IC & transistor logic, 10-key keyboard, memory, 10-digit "Nixie"-type tube display, memory, square root.
ANITA 1000 LSI - 1971, IC logic, 10-key keyboard, 10-digit "Nixie"-type tube display.
ANITA 1000B LSI - c1971, IC logic, 10-key keyboard, 10-digit "Nixie"-type tube display, AC & rechargeable batteries.
ANITA 1011 LSI - 1971, IC logic, 10-key keyboard, 10-digit "Nixie"-type tube display, %, memory.
ANITA 1011B LSI - 1971, IC logic, 10-key keyboard, 10-digit "Nixie"-type tube display, %, memory, AC & rechargeable batteries.
ANITA 1011P - c1971, IC logic (?), 10-key keyboard, printer, %, memory.
ANITA 1021 LSI - details unknown.
ANITA 1041 - details unknown.
ANITA 1211 LSI (aka 1211D) - IC logic, 10-key keyboard, 12-digit "Panaplex" display, %.
ANITA 1211P - 1973, IC logic (?), 10-key keyboard, printer.
ANITA 1212D - 1972, IC logic (?), 10-key keyboard, 10-digit "Nixie"-type tube display, 2 memories.
ANITA 1212P - date unknown, IC logic (?), 10-key keyboard, printer.
ANITA 1233D - 1972, IC logic (?), 10-key keyboard, multiple memories.
ANITA 1233P - 1973, IC logic (?), 10-key keyboard, printer, multiple memories.
Rockwell-ANITA 811 SL - 1974, IC logic, 10-key keyboard, 8-digit "Panaplex II" display, %, memory.
Rockwell-ANITA 1041 - 1975, IC logic, 10-key keyboard, 16-digit "Panaplex II" (10 digits mantissa, 2 digits exponent), scientific functions, memory.
Rockwell-ANITA 1211 - date unknown, IC logic, 10-key keyboard, 12-digit "Panaplex II" display, %, memory.
Rockwell-ANITA 1211 SL - 1974, IC logic, 10-key keyboard, 12-digit "Panaplex II" display, %, memory.
Rockwell-ANITA 1211P - 1973, IC logic, 10-key keyboard, printer.
Rockwell-ANITA 1216 - c1973, IC logic, 10-key keyboard, 12-digit "Panaplex"-type display, %, memory, made in the US,
Rockwell-ANITA 1432 - details unknown.
Hand-held models
ANITA 810 - date unknown, 8-digit red LED display.
ANITA 811 - 1972, 8-digit red LED display, %, memory. The first Anita hand-held calculator.
ANITA 831 - date unknown, 8-digit red LED display, %, memory, square root.
ANITA 841 - date unknown, 8-digit red LED display, Scientific.
ANITA 851 - date unknown, 8-digit red LED display, metric conversion.
ANITA 861 - date unknown, 8-digit red LED display, Financial.
ANITA 8041 - date unknown, 8-digit green Vacuum fluorescent display, scientific, similar to ANITA 841, made in Yugoslavia for Fi-cord International, Didsbury, Manchester, England.
Triumph-Adler 81 - c1972, similar to the ANITA 811. Made by Sumlock-Anita for Triumph-Adler and sold under both the "Triumph" and "Adler" labels.
Rockwell-ANITA 102 - date unknown, 8-digit red LED display, assembled in Mexico.
Rockwell-ANITA 201 - date unknown, 8-digit red LED display, %, memory, assembled in Mexico.
Rockwell-ANITA 202/SR - date unknown, 8-digit green Vacuum fluorescent display, scientific, assembled in Mexico (?).
Sumlock-Anita Electronics also assembled in Britain some of the Rockwell hand-held calculators, including Rockwell models 8R, 10R, 18R, 20R, 21R, 30R, 31R.
The "Panaplex" is a gas-discharge display, using 7 segments to represent each number, within a thin glass "sandwich". The numerals glow amber.
This list of calculator models may not be complete.
Patents
GB patent 868,753 – Improvements in or relating to Calculating Machines – Norbert Kitz, Robert Milburn, Christopher Webb: Bell Punch Company Ltd., 1961 (first application 6 September 1956, filed 6 September 1957), - Electronically controlled key operated office desk type calculating machine capable of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
- Key controlled decimal electronic calculating machine – Norbert Kitz: Bell Punch Company Ltd., 1966 (filed 29 December 1961), - Electromechanical and "space discharge type" electronic calculating machine capable of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
References
External links
Summary of the history of the ANITA calculator
Extensive history of the ANITA calculator
Electronic calculators
English inventions
|
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] |
211930
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Lovelock
|
Jack Lovelock
|
John Edward Lovelock (5 January 1910 – 28 December 1949) was a New Zealand athlete who became the world 1500m and mile record holder and 1936 Olympic champion in the 1500 metres.
Early life
Lovelock was born in the town of Crushington (near Reefton) as the son of English immigrants. From his early days at school he participated and excelled in fields beyond athletics. At Fairlie School (1919–23) he was dux of the primary school, represented the school in rugby, competed in swimming and athletics, and was a prefect. At Timaru Boys' High School, which he attended as a boarder from 1924, he set school athletics records but was also involved in nearly every area of school life. In 1928, his final year, Lovelock was school dux, head prefect, and won the school's boxing championship cup. The following year he went to University of Otago to study medicine. Lovelock showed a talent for sports while at the university, and competed for the university team in the New Zealand championships. In 1931 he became a Rhodes Scholar at Exeter College, Oxford from 1931 to 1934. He graduated with an MB ChB degree as a medical practitioner.
Sports career
In 1932—by then holder of the British Empire record for the mile, at 4:12.0—Lovelock competed in the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, and placed 7th in the final of the 1500 metres event, won by Luigi Beccali of Italy.
The following year, he set a world mile record of 4:07.6 when running at Princeton against its emerging champion Bill Bonthron. Later, in September, he represented New Zealand in the first World Student Games where he renewed his rivalry with Beccali, with Beccali winning. In 1934 Lovelock won the gold medal in the mile (4:13.0) at the British Empire Games. He also lost some races, and believed that he could only make one supreme effort in a season.
The highlight of Lovelock's career came in 1936, when he won the gold medal in the 1500 m at the Berlin Olympics, setting a world record in the final (3:47.8). Lovelock had plotted ever since his defeat at Los Angeles and developed a revolutionary tactic. The race is regarded as one of the finest 1500 m Olympic finals and included one of the finest fields assembled. Hopefuls for the final included a culmination of contenders from the first great era of mile running from 1932–36 in which the world records for the 1500 m and mile had been broken several times. Apart from Lovelock, the potential rivals included the American mile world record holder Glenn Cunningham who had broken Lovelock's world record in 1934, as well as Bonthron, Beccali, and the emerging English champion Sydney Wooderson, all of whom hoped to line up to race in the Berlin Games. Bonthron, who held the world 1500m record, failed to make the US team, while Wooderson was found to have a fracture in his ankle and missed the final. The silver medalist in Los Angeles, John 'Jerry' Cornes, also raced in Berlin along with the Swedish champion Erik Ny, Canadian Phil Edwards, and American Gene Venzke, who had been regarded as the favourite for the 1932 title until injury denied him a place in the US team. In the final, Lovelock beat Cunningham, who came in second, by making the unprecedented break from 300 m out. Lovelock had been regarded as a sprinter in the home straight but cleverly disguised his plan and caught his opponents napping with a brilliantly timed move. Cunningham, who also broke the world record in the race, was considered by many to be the greatest American miler of all time. Beccali was third.
Lovelock, who was the captain of the New Zealand Olympic team, raced once more for the British Commonwealth after Berlin and his last race was back at Princeton en route to a Government-sponsored trip to New Zealand where he was beaten by another of the Olympic finalists, the American Archie San Romani (fourth in Berlin), with Cunningham third, rounding out the cast of a memorable period of middle-distance running. Lovelock maintained his interest in athletics until at least the outbreak of the Second World War as a newspaper contributor.
Later life
Lovelock was a major in the Royal Army Medical Corps during World War II. He married Cynthia James in 1945 and had two daughters. A year later, he began working at Manhattan Hospital in New York City. On 28 December 1949, he had telephoned his wife from work to inform her that he was coming home early because he was not feeling well. He was waiting at the Church Avenue subway station in Brooklyn, New York, when he fell onto the tracks, probably as a result of one of the dizziness attacks to which he was subject after being thrown from a horse in 1940. He was then killed by an oncoming train.
Posthumous commemorations
In 1990 the New Zealand post office issued a set of stamps featuring Lovelock along with George Nēpia.
The New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage refers to a "Lovelock legend", and describes him as having "captured the imagination of New Zealanders and others. Streets, playing fields and sports bars have been named after him. He has inspired books, stamps, a stage play and a film. In 2002 a statue was erected at Timaru Boys High, where much of the memorabilia related to him is stored."
His Victory Oak from the 1936 Olympics was planted at Timaru Boys' High School in New Zealand, and is considered a nationally protected landmark.
The Lovelock Classic is an annual athletics meet held in Timaru, with the men's mile run as the feature event.
Lovelock Place, in the Hamilton suburb of Chartwell, is named in Lovelock's honour.
Bibliography
The Legend of Lovelock by Norman Harris, A.H. & A.W. Reed, Wellington, New Zealand, 1964
Lovelock: New Zealand's Olympic gold miler by Christopher Tobin, Dunedin, 1984
Jack Lovelock - Athlete & Doctor by Dr Graeme Woodfield, Wellington, 2007
As If Running on Air: The Journals of Jack Lovelock edited by David Colquhoun, Wellington 2008
Conquerors of Time by Lynn McConnell, London, 2009
Lovelock by James McNeish
References
External links
Lovelock at NZonScreen (documentary film online)
Extensive biography from the Dictionary of New Zealand
Biography from 1966 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand
Jack Lovelock Athlete & Doctor Latest Biography
Jack Lovelock, photo after Mile of the Century in 1935
1910 births
1949 deaths
Accidental deaths in New York (state)
Alumni of Exeter College, Oxford
Athletes (track and field) at the 1932 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 1934 British Empire Games
Athletes (track and field) at the 1936 Summer Olympics
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for New Zealand
Commonwealth Games medallists in athletics
World record setters in athletics (track and field)
Medalists at the 1936 Summer Olympics
New Zealand expatriate sportspeople in the United States
New Zealand male long-distance runners
New Zealand male middle-distance runners
New Zealand people of English descent
New Zealand Rhodes Scholars
Olympic athletes of New Zealand
Olympic gold medalists in athletics (track and field)
Olympic gold medalists for New Zealand
People educated at Timaru Boys' High School
People from Reefton
Royal Army Medical Corps officers
Railway accident deaths in the United States
University of Otago alumni
20th-century New Zealand medical doctors
British Army personnel of World War II
|
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] |
211931
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A9cs
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Pécs
|
Pécs ( , ; , ; known by alternative names) is the fifth largest city of Hungary, located on the slopes of the Mecsek mountains in the south-west of the country, close to its border with Croatia. It is the administrative and economic centre of Baranya County. Pécs is also the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Pécs.
A city dating back to the ancient times, settled by the Celts and the Romans, it was made an episcopal see in early medieval Hungary. It features the oldest university in the country, and is one of the major cultural centers. Pécs also has a rich heritage from the age of a 150-year-long Ottoman occupation. Pécs was historically a multi-ethnic city where many cultures intermingled, creating a melting pot of different values, the rich result of 2000 years of history. In recent times, the city has been recognized for its cultural heritage, including by being named as one of the European Capital of Culture cities.
Name
The earliest name for the territory was its Roman name of Sopianæ. The name possibly comes from the plural of the Celtic sop meaning "marsh". Contrary to the popular belief, the name did not signify a single city, and there are no traces of an encircling wall from the early Roman era, only from the 4th century.
The medieval city was first mentioned in 871 under the name ("five cathedrals".) The name refers to the fact that when constructing the churches of the city, the builders used material from five old Christian chapels. In later Latin documents the city was mentioned as Quinque Ecclesiae ("five churches", a name identical in meaning to the German name Fünfkirchen and the Slovak name ).
The name Pécs appears in documents in 1235 in the word Pechyut (with modern spelling: pécsi út, meaning "road to/from Pécs"). In Turkish () means 5. The name is first recorded after the Mongol invasion of Europe. In other languages: in Latin, Quinque Ecclesiae; in Croatian, Pečuh; in Serbian, (Pečuj); in Slovak, Päťkostolie; in Czech, ; in Dutch, ; in German, Fünfkirchen; and in Turkish, Peçuy.
Geography
Pécs is located in the Carpathian Basin of Central Europe, in the center of the southern Hungarian county of Baranya. It is bordered by the Mecsek hills to the north, and by a rolling plain to the south. Pécs has a significant mining past. Mecsek dolomitic water is famous for its high density of minerals at constant poise.
The city of Pécs is located near to the border of Croatia. Its southern part is rather flat whereas its northern part clings to the slope of the Mecsek mountains. It has a very favorable climate, and is bordered by a flourishing woody area. During hot summer nights a cooling air streams down from Mecsek to clean the air of the city.
Pécs is bordered by plains to the south (elevation 120–130 m), while the Mecsek mountains rise up to elevations of 400–600 meters behind the city. Jakab-hill, located in the western Mecsek, is 592 m (1942 ft) tall, Tubes, straight above Pécs, is 612 m (2008 ft) tall, and Misina is 535 m (1755 ft) tall. Higher parts of the city climb up to 200–250 m (656 to 820 ft), mainly Pécsbánya, Szabolcsfalu, Vasas and Somogy. Woody areas generally start from elevations of about 300 m (984 ft). The Mecsek hills are marked by numerous valleys which play a key role in ameliorating the climate of the city in the absence of lakes and rivers. Waters coming down from the Mecsek hills flow into the Pécsi stream under the east–west rail road leading them eventually to the Danube.
History
Ancient Roman city
The area has been inhabited since ancient times, with the oldest archaeological findings being 6,000 years old. Before the Roman era the place was inhabited by Celts.
The city of Sopianae was founded by Romans at the beginning of the 2nd century, in an area peopled by Celts and Pannoni tribes. By the 4th century, it became the capital of Valeria province and a significant early Christian center. The early Christian necropolis from that era became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in December 2000.
When Western Hungary was a province of the Roman Empire (named Pannonia), the Romans founded several wine-producing colonies under the collective name of Sopianae where Pécs now stands, in the early 2nd century.
The centre of Sopianae was where the Bishop's Palace now stands. Some parts of the Roman aqueduct are still visible. When Pannonia province was divided into four administrative divisions, Sopianae was the capital of the division named Valeria.
In the first half of the 4th century, Sopianae became an important Christian city. The first Christian cemeteries, dating back to this age, are inscribed on the World Heritage List. By the end of the century, Roman rule weakened in the area, mostly due to attacks by Barbarians and Huns.
Early medieval city
When Charlemagne arrived in the area in 791, it was ruled by the Avars. Charlemagne, after conquering the area, annexed it to the Holy Roman Empire. It belonged to the Diocese of Salzburg.
A document written in Salzburg in 871 is the first document mentioning the early medieval city under the name Quinque Basilicae (see above).) During the 9th century, the city was inhabited by Slavic and Avar peoples and was part of the Balaton Principality, a Frankish vassal state.
The Hungarian city in the Middle Ages
According to György Györffy's theory of place names, after the Hungarians conquered the Carpathian Basin, they retained a semi-nomadic lifestyle, changing pastures between winter and summer. Árpád's winter quarters -clearly after his occupation of Pannonia in 900- were perhaps in Pécs. Later, when the Comitatus of Baranya was established, the capital of the comitatus was not Pécs but a nearby castle, Baranyavár ("Baranya Castle".) Pécs, however, became an important religious centre and episcopal seat. In Latin documents, the city was mentioned as Quinque Ecclesiae. Around 1000, the area was inhabited by the Black Magyars. The Deed of Foundation of the Diocese of Pécs was issued in 1009.
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Pécs was founded in 1009 by Stephen I, and the first university in Hungary was founded in Pécs in 1367 by Louis I the Great. (The largest university still resides in Pécs with about 34,000 students).
Peter Orseolo, the second king of Hungary, was buried in the cathedral in 1046. The location of his grave is unknown. This is because in 1064, when King Solomon made peace with his cousin, the later King Géza I, they celebrated Easter in Pécs. Shortly after the cathedral burnt down. The cathedral that stands today was built after this, in the second half of the 11th century.
Several religious orders settled down in Pécs. The Benedictine order was the first in 1076. In 1181, there was already a hospital in the city. The first Dominican monastery of the country was built in Pécs in 1238.
King Louis the Great founded a university in Pécs in 1367 following the advice of William, the bishop of Pécs, who was also the king's chancellor. It was the first university in Hungary. The founding document is almost word for word identical with that of the University of Vienna, stating that the university has the right to teach all arts and sciences, with the exception of theology.
In 1459, Janus Pannonius, the most important medieval poet of Hungary became the bishop of Pécs. He strengthened the cultural importance of the city.
Pécs was formed into one of the cultural and arts center of the country by bishop Janus Pannonius, great humanist poet.
Pécs under Ottoman rule
After the Battle of Mohács (1526) in which the invading Ottoman army defeated the armies of King Louis II, the armies of Suleiman occupied Pécs.
Not only was a large part of the country occupied by Ottomans, the public opinion of who should be the king of Hungary was divided, too. One party supported Ferdinand of Habsburg, the other party crowned John Zápolya in Székesfehérvár. The citizens of Pécs supported Emperor Ferdinand, but the rest of Baranya county supported King John. In the summer of 1527 Ferdinand defeated the armies of Szapolyai and was crowned king on November 3. Ferdinand favoured the city because of their support, and exempted Pécs from paying taxes. Pécs was rebuilt and fortified.
In 1529, the Ottomans captured Pécs again, and went on a campaign against Vienna. The Ottomans forced Pécs to accept King John (who was allied with them) as their ruler. John died in 1540. In 1541, the Ottomans occupied the castle of Buda, and ordered Isabella, the widow of John to give Pécs to them, since the city was of strategic importance. The citizens of Pécs defended the city against the Ottomans, and swore loyalty to Ferdinand. The emperor helped the city and defended it from further Ottoman attacks, but his advisers persuaded him into focusing more on the cities of Székesfehérvár and Esztergom instead of Pécs. Pécs was preparing for the siege, but a day before, Flemish and Walloon mercenaries fled from the city, and raided the nearby lands. The next day in June 1543 the Bishop himself went to the Ottomans with the keys of the city.
After occupying the city, the Ottomans fortified it and turned it into a real Ottoman city. The Christian churches were turned into mosques; Turkish baths and minarets were built, Qur'an schools were founded, there was a bazaar in place of the market. For a hundred years the city was an island of peace in a land of war. It was a sanjak centre in Budin Eyalet at first and Kanije Eyalet later as "Peçuy".
The Ottoman era resulted in numerous landmarks, such as the mosque of Pasha Qasim the Victorious on Széchenyi square, the Tomb of İdris Baba, and the Yakovalı Hasan Paşa Mosque.
The Ottoman chronicler İbrahim Peçevi (Ibrahim of Pécs), whose work forms the main body of reference for Ottoman history between 1520 and 1640, was a native of the city.
In 1664, Croat-Hungarian nobleman Nicholas Zrínyi arrived in Pécs, with his army. Since the city was well into the Ottoman territories, they knew that even if they occupy it, they could not keep it for long, so they planned only to pillage it. They ravaged and burned the city but could not occupy the castle. Mediaeval Pécs was destroyed forever, except the wall encircling the historical city, a single bastion (Barbakán), the network of tunnels and catacombs beneath the city, parts of which are closed down, other parts are in possession of the famous Litke champagne factory, and can be visited today. Several Turkish artifacts also survived, namely three mosques, two minarets, remnants of a bath over the ancient Christian tombs near the cathedral, and several houses, one even with a stone cannonball embedded in the wall.
After the castle of Buda was wrested from Ottoman rule in 1686, the armies went to capture the rest of Pécs. The advance guards could break into the city and pillaged it. The Ottomans saw that they could not hold the city, and burnt it, and withdrew into the castle. The army led by Louis of Baden occupied the city on 14 October and destroyed the aqueduct leading to the castle. The Ottomans had no other choice but to surrender, which they did on 22 October (see Siege of Pécs).
The city was under martial law under the command of Karl von Thüngen. The Viennese court wanted to destroy the city first, but later they decided to keep it to counterbalance the importance of Szigetvár, which was still under Ottoman rule. Slowly the city started to prosper again, but in the 1690s two plague epidemics claimed many lives. In 1688 German settlers arrived. Only about one-quarter of the city's population was Hungarian, the others were Germans or Southern Slavs. Census of taxpayers from 1698 lists 637 families for which Janja Živković Mandić concludes that 308 were of Croatian nationality (Catholics Croats, Racs, Šokci, Bunjevci, Illyrians, Slavs, Bosniaks) and the remaining 329 were Hungarians, Germans, Serbs or Greeks. According to same census István Tabo mentions 171 Hungarian, 349 Slavs and 79 Germans while Đuro Šarošac mentions that at that time in the city lived 325 Croats, 139 Hungarians, 92 Germans, 53 Vlachs and 28 Serbs. According to 1698 data, South Slavs comprised more than half of the population of the town. Because Hungarians were only a minority of the population, Pécs did not support the revolution against Habsburg rule led by Francis II Rákóczi, and his armies pillaged the city in 1704.
Pécs in early-modern times
A more peaceful era started after 1710. Industry, trade and viticulture prospered, manufactures were founded, a new city hall was built. The feudal lord of the city was the Bishop of Pécs, but the city wanted to free itself from episcopal control. Bishop George Klimó, an enlightened man (who founded the first public library of the country) would have agreed to cede his rights to the city, but the Holy See forbade him to do so. When Klimó died in 1777, Queen Maria Theresa quickly elevated Pécs to free royal town status before the new bishop was elected. This cost the city 83,315 forints.
According to the first census (held in 1787 by the order of Joseph II), there were 1,474 houses and 1,834 families in Pécs, a total of 8,853 residents, of which 133 were priests and 117 were noblemen.
In 1785, the Academy of Győr was moved to Pécs. This academy eventually evolved into a law school. The first stonework theatre of the city was built in 1839.
At that time or Maria Theresia and her son Josef II, the Danube Swabians from Germany was settled in the City.
Pécs during the 19th century and later
The industry developed a lot in the second half of the 19th century. By 1848, there were 1,739 industrial workers. Some of the manufactures were nationally famous. The iron and paper factories were among the most modern ones of the age. Coal mining was relevant. A sugar factory and beer manufactures were built, too. The city had 14,616 residents.
During the revolution in 1848–49, Pécs was occupied by Croatian armies for a short time, but it was freed from them by Habsburg armies in January 1849.
After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 Pécs developed, like all the other cities and towns of the country. From 1867, Pécs is connected to the nearby town Barcs by railway, and since 1882 it is also connected to Budapest. In 1913, a tram system has been founded, but it was extinguished in 1960.
At the end of World War I, Baranya county was occupied by Serbian troops, and it was not until August 1921 that Pécs could be sure that it remains part of Hungary. The University of Pressburg (modern-day Bratislava, Slovakia) was moved to Pécs after Hungary lost Pressburg according to the Treaty of Trianon.
During World War II, Pécs was captured by Soviet troops of the 3rd Ukrainian Front on 29 November 1944 in the course of the Budapest Offensive. The city suffered only minor damages, even though a large tank-battle took place south of the city, close to the Villány area late in the war, when the advancing Red Army fought its way towards Austria. Until the end of World War II, the majority Inhabitants was Danube Swabians. Some of the former German Settlers was expelled to Germany and Austria in 1945-1948, about the Potsdam Agreement. Germans of Hungary are still a minority in the City.
After the war, development became fast again, and the city grew, absorbing several nearby towns. In the 1980s, Pécs already had 180,000 inhabitants.
After the end of Socialist era (1989–1990), Pécs and its county, like many other areas, were hit hard by the changes, the unemployment rate was high, the mines and several factories were closed, and the war in neighboring Yugoslavia in the 1990s affected the tourism.
Pécs was also the centre of the Nordic Support Group (NSG) consisting of units from Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Poland, as part of the IFOR and later SFOR NATO deployments, after the Dayton Agreement and following peace in former Yugoslavia; the first units were deployed to Pécs in late 1995 and early 1996. The NSG handled the relaying of supply, personnel and other logistical tasks between the participating countries and their deployed forces in Bosnia-Herzegovina.
In 1998 Pécs was given the UNESCO prize "Cities for Peace" for maintaining its cultural minorities, and also for its tolerant and helping attitude toward refugees of the Yugoslav Wars.
In 2007 Pécs was third, and in 2008 it was second "Livable City" (The LivCom Awards) in the category of cities between 75,000 and 200,000 inhabitants.
In 2010, Pécs was selected to be the European Capital of Culture alongside Essen and Istanbul. The city motto is "The Borderless City". After receiving the title major renewal started in the city. Renewed public places, streets, squares and neighbourhoods, new cultural centers, a concert hall, a new library and center and a cultural quarter were designed.
Main sights
A good example of the city's history and interesting past can be seen in the main square, where the Gazi Kasim Mosque still stands, and, although consecrated as a church following the retreat of the Ottoman Turks centuries ago, the crescent moon of Islam is still visible on the cupola, surmounted by a cross. Indeed, Pécs is the richest town in Hungary in terms of Turkish architecture, with the ruins of Memi Pasa's Baths and the mausoleum of miracle worker Idris Baba, just two other notable remains. The Yakovalı Hasan Paşa Mosque, dating from the mid-1500s, still functions as an active mosque today. It is open to the public except during Friday services from 2.30 to 3.30 pm.
Necropolis of Sopianae (UNESCO World Heritage Site)
Cella Septichora (4th century)
The Cathedral (11th century, renovated in the 19th century).
Hungarian Bishop's Palace (12th century)
University of Pécs (1367), building of the Faculty of Science and Faculty of Humanities in Ifjúság street. It includes a Botanical Garden.
Klimo Library (1774). The first public library in Hungary, which was founded by bishop George Klimo.
Barbakán "Tower" (15th century)
Ruins in Tettye (1505–1521)
Széchenyi square (main square)
The mosque of pasha Qasim (1543–1546). Originally gothic Church: St. Bertalan Cathedral from the 13th century
Yakovalı Hasan Paşa Mosque (16th century)
Downtown (Houses from the Middle Ages. Baroque, Classicism, Rococo, Art Nouveau Houses)
Nádor Hotel (1846) in Széchenyi Square
County House in Széchenyi Square
City Hall in Széchenyi Square
Synagogue (1869)
Building of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (1884)
National Theatre of Pécs (Nemzeti Színház), inaugurated in 1895.
Eosin glaze of Zsolnay fountain
Posta (Post) Palace
Hungaricum House
Janus Pannonius Museum
Renaissance Museum
Csontváry Museum
Zsolnay Museum
Victor Vasarely Museum
Amerigo Tot Museum
Ethnographic Museum in Pécs
Natural History Museum in Pécs
Szerecsen Chemist's Museum
Gallery of Pécs
Museum Street
Zsolnay Mausoleum
Bóbita (punch and judy show)
Janus (Pannonius) Theatre
Croatian Theatre in Pécs
Third Theatre
Zoological Garden in Pécs
Love padlocks
Magasház (formerly – was deconstructed in 2016)
TV-Tower in Mecsek Mountain (1960)
Demographics
The majority of the citizens with 84.0% are Hungarians according to the 2011 census. The city's Germans are the largest minority with 4.2%. Followed by the Roma (2.0%), the Croats (1.2%) and the Romanians (0.2%).
The largest religious group is the Catholics with 39.7% Roman Catholic and 0.3% Greek Catholic. The second largest denomination is the Calvinists (5.2%), the third the Lutherans (1.3%). 27.8% of the population is non-religious.
Due to the number of international students studying and living in Pécs, a notable diversity of non-permanent citizen could be obviously seen around the city.
Climate
Economy
Historically Pécs was well known in Hungary for its industry with several factories, but after the fall of the Iron Curtain many have not managed the economic transition well and went bankrupt (e.g. Pécsi Kesztyűgyár, Pécsi Bőrgyár, Littke Pezsgőgyár etc.). Until some years ago, it had a coal and uranium mine, now only its sand mine exists and is operated by the Hungarian-owned Quartz mining company.
The nationally (and to a limited extent internationally) famous porcelain factory, the Zsolnay Porcelain is the greatest pride of Pécs. The walls and roofs of several public and private buildings in the city are decorated with the company's porcelains contributing to Pécs's unique cityscape.
The Pécsi Sörfőzde (Pécs Brewery) is one of the four main Hungarian breweries (the others being Dreher Breweries, Borsod Brewery, Heineken Hungária), but the only one of them owned fully by Hungarians. It produces a special beer, that is known for not being strained before bottling.
The Hungarian textilmanufacturer Rovitex Hungária, the American crane manufacturer Terex, the Hungarian scale manufacturer Pécsi Mérlegstúdió, the Hungarian furniture manufacturer Megyeri Bútor, the Hungarian cutting-tool manufacturer FORSZ, the German switchboard manufacturer HB-Kapcsolószekrénygyártó (part of the Bader Gruppe), the Hungarian recycling company Alcufer, the Hungarian agricultural vehiclemanufacturer HIDROT, the Hungarian animal husbandry tool manufacturer Önitató, the tobacco factory Pécsi Dohánygyár (owned by British American Tobacco), the Hungarian automotive spare parts manufacturer Matro, the Hungarian safe manufacturer Strauss Metal, the Hungarian packaging machine manufacturer SOMAPAK, the Hungarian plastics producer Termoplast, the Bocz Printing House, the Hungarian pickles manufacturer Babina, the Hungarian plastic product manufacturer Karsai Pécs, the Hungarian metal manufacturer Riner Metal based there and have their production facilities in the city.
There is a gradual development of modern high-tech industry, with Finnish electronics manufacturing company Elcoteq the largest industrial employer in the city, the Hungarian Z Elektronika electronics manufacturer and the Hungarian TG Netcom IT network manufacturer.
The German transportation company, Dachser has a logistics centre in Pécs.
The Biokom waste management and recycling company (owned by the city) is responsible for the transport and recycling of waste in the whole territory of Pécs and the surrounding areas. The energy used in the settlement is produced mainly by the two biomass power plants of Pannonpower (part of Veolia) which consists of a 49,9 MW woodchip-fired and a 35 MW agricultural by-product-fired powerplants. The country's largest solar cell field is also in Pécs, thanks to the city's southern location and longer sunny hours, which can produce about 10 MW energy a year. The solar power plant is operated by MVM Hungarowind (part of the MVM Group).
The Expo Center Pécs Exhibition and Conference Centre provides place for international exhibitions and conferences.
Education
The University of Pécs was founded by Louis I of Hungary in 1367. It is the oldest university in Hungary, and is among the first European universities. In the recent past it used to be divided in two universities, one for Medicine and Orthodontics (POTE) and a larger one for other studies: JPTE (Janus Pannonius Tudományegyetem). The POTE (Pécs University Medical School, now known as the Medical School) has a large English program for general medicine and dentistry (with students from America, Asia, Africa, and European countries - including many Scandinavians) and a new German program. On 1 January 2000 these universities were combined under the name University of Pécs (acronym: PTE - Pécsi Tudományegyetem - University of Pécs). Nowadays, the University of Pécs has become the most internationalized university in Hungary with around 5000 international students out of the total of approximately 20000 students (around 25%).
Politics
The current mayor of Pécs is Attila Péterffy (Pécs Jövője, Öt Torony).
The local Municipal Assembly, elected at the 2019 local government elections, is made up of 26 members (1 Mayor, 18 Individual constituencies MEPs and 7 Compensation List MEPs) divided into this political parties and alliances:
Fidesz policies in Pécs have included a law making homelessness illegal (2014) and an official call to property owners not to make space available for an NGO supported by OSF (2017).
List of mayors
List of City Mayors from 1990:
Transport
Vehicular traffic
The M6/M60 motorway connects Pécs and Budapest with the driving time between the two cities taking about hours now. The entire route opened on 31 March 2010. Route 6 crosses the city giving it an east–west axle and leaves it towards Barcs by the Croatian border. Secondary routes are:
Route 57: Pécs - Mohács,
Route 58: Pécs - Drávaszabolcs,
Route 66: Pécs - Kaposvár.
Railway
Pécs is connected to Budapest through Pusztaszabolcs, and has direct connections to Mohács, Nagykanizsa.
Designed by Ferenc Pfaff, the main railway station was built in 1900 and became a listed building in 2008. The building itself was built in the style of Renaissance Eclecticism, and it features reliefs depicting James Watt and George Stephenson designed by Klein Ármin and made by Zsolnay factory A mass transit hub -including a bus terminal, a bus stop and a cab rank zone- is situated on the square in front of the railway station.
Mass transport
Volvo and Kravtex-Credo buses provide the only form of public transport in Pécs, though a tram line did operate from 1913 to 1960, when it was shut down due to changing transportation policy. Most of the remnants of this older system have been removed, though a few rails may still be seen around the city.
Airport
A new airport opened in Pécs Pécs-Pogány International Airport in March 2006. Its main traffic is supplied by smaller charter planes.
Sport
Pécsi MFC, football club playing in the Nemzeti Bajnokság II
Pécsi Vasutas SK, football club playing in the Baranya megye (regional) league
PEAC-Pécs first-class women's professional basketball team
Pécsi VSK, men's water polo team
Pécsi Indiánok SK, rugby club
Notable people born in Pécs
Károly Balogh Mankóbüki president of the Royal Court of Pécs.
Marcel Breuer, architect and furniture designer
Pál Dárdai, football player
Petar Dobrović, Serb painter and president of the short-lived Baranya-Baja Republic
József Eötvös (musician), guitarist
Dezső Ernster, Metropolitan Opera bass
Sigismund Ernuszt, bishop of Pécs
Lipót Fejér, mathematician
Alfréd (Fred) Forbát, Bauhaus architect
Zoltán Gera, football player
Leopold Hirschfeld, brewer, founder of the Pécsi Sörfőzde
János Horvay, sculptor
Katinka Hosszú, swimmer, 3 x gold medallist at the 2016 Olympic Games
Zsuzsanna Jakabos, swimmer
Jenő Jandó, pianist
György Klimó, bishop of Pécs, founder of press and public library
Dezső Lauber, sportsman and architect
László Lénárd, neuroscientist, physician
Kató Lomb, interpreter, language master
Maximinus (Praetorian Prefect)
Janus Pannonius, bishop of Pécs
İbrahim Peçevi (Ibrahim of Pécs), Ottoman historian and chronicler
Karl (Freiherr) von Pflanzer-Baltin
Anton von Rosas, ophthalmologist
Joe Rudán, singer
László Sólyom, president of Hungary
Béla Tarr, film director
Olga Tass, Olympic gymnast
Victor Vasarely, artist
Balázs Zamostny (born in 1992), Hungarian footballer
Twin towns – sister cities
Pécs is twinned with:
Arad, Romania
Beyoğlu, Turkey
Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Fellbach, Germany
Graz, Austria
Kraków, Poland
Kütahya, Turkey
Lahti, Finland
Novi Sad, Serbia
Olomouc, Czech Republic
Osijek, Croatia
Seattle, United States
Shiraz, Iran
Shkodër, Albania
Sliven, Bulgaria
Terracina, Italy
Tucson, United States
Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Zagreb, Croatia
The city also has an informal friendship link with Peterborough, England.
Gallery
See also
Love padlocks
Music of Pécs
Pécs Brewery
Lake Pécs
References
History of Pécs
Notes
External links
Official homepage
Baranya County Museums' Directorate
Pécs in 360 panoramic images
Aerial photography: Pécs
Glas Koncila Hrvatska nazočnost u "gradu s pet crkava", Oct 7, 2007 (page about Croats in Pécs)
Mecsek-1956-History
Pécs szállás (accommodation)
Pécs at funiq.hu
Csakis itt Pécsen! – videoclip
County seats in Hungary
Cities with county rights of Hungary
Populated places in Baranya County
World Heritage Sites in Hungary
Baranya (region)
History of Baranya (region)
Hungarian German communities
Roman settlements in Hungary
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] |
211933
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucifer%20%28DC%20Comics%29
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Lucifer (DC Comics)
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Lucifer Samael Morningstar is a character who appears in American comic books published by DC Comics. He is an adaptation of Lucifer—the Biblical fallen angel and devil of Christianity—and is one of the most powerful beings in the DC Universe. Though various versions of the Devil have been presented by DC Comics, this interpretation by Neil Gaiman debuted in The Sandman #4 in 1989. Lucifer appears primarily as a supporting character in The Sandman and as the protagonist of the spin-off Lucifer.
The ongoing Lucifer spin-off series written by Mike Carey depicted his adventures on Earth, Heaven, and in the various other realms of his family's creations and in uncreated voids after abandoning Hell in The Sandman. Lucifer also appears as a supporting character in issues of The Demon, The Spectre, and other DC Universe comics. Two angels, a human, and briefly Superman have taken his place as ruler of Hell.
Lucifer made his live-action debut in the 2005 film Constantine, played by Swedish actor Peter Stormare. An alternate version is played by Welsh actor Tom Ellis in the television series Lucifer. Ellis also made a cameo as the character in the Arrowverse crossover Crisis on Infinite Earths. English actress Gwendoline Christie is set to portray a more comic accurate version in the upcoming television series The Sandman.
Fictional character biography
In the earlier related series The Sandman, written by Neil Gaiman, Lucifer abandoned his lordship over Hell. While Lucifer had previously appeared in various stereotypical guises in earlier DC Comics books, Gaiman's version was premised on English poet and prose writer John Milton's Paradise Lost. At Gaiman's request of the artist, Lucifer looks like David Bowie at the time. In The Sandman, Lucifer had ruled as Lord of Hell for 10 billion years after rebelling three seconds after Creation. Over that time, he had manipulated the various demons of Hell against each other, provided a place for dead mortals to be tormented, and led the war against Heaven.
However, at some point during his rule, he had become bored with his existence. He became tired of the various stereotypes and prejudices that mortals held of the devil, such as the idea that he purchased and traded for souls, which was largely untrue, and that he forced mortals to commit evil acts. He had become tired of his reign over Hell and felt it an unfair punishment that he should have to rule there forever simply because he once rebelled. In The Sandman story "Season of Mists", Lucifer expels all the demons and damned souls from Hell before closing Hell's gates and handing over the key to Hell to Dream of the Endless, the title character of the Sandman series. Eventually, control of Hell was handed over to two angels, Duma (the angel of silence) and Remiel ("set over those who rise"), while Lucifer simply retired to Earth, initially to Perth, Western Australia and later to Los Angeles, California.
By the end of the series, however, it is revealed that Hell was not a punishment but a gift: being the furthest possible place from the throne of light, Lucifer could be separated from God as far as possible. Lucifer never created the physical features of Hell—Hell created itself around him.
Solo series
Lucifer was the main character in an eponymous series that ran for 75 issues and the Lucifer: Nirvana one-shot issue from June 2000 to August 2006, the entire run of which was written by Mike Carey (this series was preceded by Carey's The Sandman Presents: Lucifer miniseries in 1999). To Carey, the essence of the character was:
"We play safe. Most of us do, most of the time... but Lucifer doesn't know the meaning of safe, and he never bothers to look down at the tramlines. He does whatever the hell he likes, picks his fights where he finds them and generally wins... following [his] own will and [his] own instincts to the very end of the line, no matter what the obstacles are.
In the series, Lucifer runs a piano bar (an element introduced in The Sandman story "The Kindly Ones") called "Lux" in Los Angeles. Lucifer is portrayed as a sophisticated and charming man, in accordance with the stereotypical gentleman devil.
The theme of the Lucifer series revolves around the free will problem. Carey's Lucifer is a figure representing the will and individual willpower, who challenges the "tyranny of predestination". While in Heaven's eyes this is blasphemy, Lucifer points out that the rebellion (and indeed all sin) and damnation as consequence were pre-planned by his Creator, God. Lucifer rejects God's rule and moral philosophy as tyrannical and unjust. The violent, aggressive, totalitarian, vengeful, and dictatorial aspects of Heaven's rule are represented mostly by the angel Amenadiel, who has a particular hatred of Lucifer and leads attacks of various kinds against him. The attacks include verbal criticism, marshaling the host of Heaven, as well as challenging him to individual combat—almost all of it without the slightest care for the countless innocent, unwilling and unwitting victims that he is more than willing to sacrifice for his own pride. For his part, Lucifer disdains Amenadiel, treating the latter's emotional outbursts with contempt, and repeatedly defeats Amenadiel's assaults with well-orchestrated, hidden plans. Ironically, however, it is often difficult to discern when Lucifer acts as a slave to predestination, and when he effectively acts according to his own free will.
Elaborate codes of conduct and schemes of entrapment based on these codes are vital elements of the DC/Vertigo magical universe. Lucifer appears as a master of these arts. In an encounter during the first Sandman story arc (around issue #5) a weakened Dream outsmarts Lucifer. Lucifer first swears revenge on Dream, but later comes to accept Dream's critique of his role and project as Lord of Hell. This inspires Lucifer's abdication, a vital element of the Sandman saga, and the point of departure for the Lucifer series.
For Lucifer, his word is his bond. As David Easterman, a character who sees himself as a victim of Lucifer, puts it:
When the Devil wants you to do something, he doesn't lie at all. He tells you the exact, literal truth. And he lets you find your own way to Hell.
Despite his theological title as the "Lord of Lies", the refusal to lie is central to the moral position of the character – he sees himself as a neutral or amoral facilitator of forces within individuals, and Lucifer actively and effectively combats what he regards as corrupting moral codes. While he avoids lying, his morality seldom extends to compassion and Lucifer regards the sacrifice of millions of souls as unimportant collateral damage; there are few, if any, beings that he respects and even fewer for whom he cares.
As the series opened in 2000, Lucifer's "restful" retirement was disturbed by a series of associates from his past. After various catalytic events, he endeavored to create a universe in competition with (and presumably against the wishes of) his father, Yahweh. This puts him on a collision course with several powerful mystical entities that have a vested interest in the new creation and draws the angelic host into the fray – including his brother, the archangel Michael Demiurgos, and his niece, Elaine Belloc.
The series paralleled The Sandman in several ways, with epic fantasy stories being told in arcs separated by one-shot episodes depicting a smaller, more personal tale. Unlike The Sandman, the series has had a consistent art team in Peter Gross and Ryan Kelly, with most of the odd issues illustrated by Dean Ormston. The title's 50th issue was penciled by P. Craig Russell, a homage to The Sandman #50. Structurally, the series mostly follows its own path. Numerous gods appear, with greater focus on Judeo-Christian religion (as viewed by Milton in Paradise Lost), Japanese mythology and Norse mythology than in The Sandman. As for the Endless themselves, Dream, Death, Delirium and Destiny appear, but their appearances are small and rare. Destiny, perhaps, plays the biggest role in so far as he represents predestination, which Lucifer of course finds "offensive as a concept", stating that Lucifer knows Destiny is "really just a SIDE effect of [Lucifer's] FATHER, or rather, his deterministic APPROACH to the act of creation."
Cover artists included Duncan Fegredo, Christopher Moeller, and Michael William Kaluta. The letters are inconsistent, with the first half of the series carrying particularly established fonts of Gaudium, Michael, and God, only to drop almost all of them, save Lucifer's, towards the end with numerous changes in the letterers.
The series ended in June 2006 with issue #75 and has thus far been collected in 11 books, with a one-shot issue (Lucifer: Nirvana) published as a smaller graphic novel. The series' parent title, The Sandman, also ran for 75 issues.
When Lucifer ventures outside Creation, he sees something resembling the comics pages themselves. At the end of the Lucifer story arc, God and the devil are no longer part of the universe, and a former human (Elaine Belloc) is instead presiding over it. New concepts for Heaven and Hell are created, inspired and influenced by other human or superhuman characters in the story. The new situation is described on several occasions by the fallen cherubs Gaudium and Spera. In essence, it is "growing up"; i.e., the need to find one's own truth and values without being directed by parents, elders, teachers, authority figures, etc.
Lucifer himself, his whole identity having been forged by that same motive, scoffs at his Father's final offer: to merge their beings (described by God as a potlatch) so that they can finally understand one another's perspective. As this would be the final expression of God's will (even when delivered from "outside the plan", as he puts it), Lucifer finds the ultimate expression of his own defiant will by refusing the bargain and travelling beyond his Father's influence into the undefined void.
The New 52
In September 2011, The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, Lucifer is much more influenced by traditional Christian theology. He is depicted as a malevolent, sadistic, and cunning fallen angel who is the ruler of Hell and seeks to possess human souls. He is held with great respect and fear by the denizens of Hell, who serve and obey him like a king. Lucifer himself, however, is mostly bored with his existence when the group known as the Demon Knights are captured by him during the early Middle Ages and passes the time by finding small amusements, such as watching the struggles and falls of Etrigan the Demon.
Lucifer made a more physical appearance in I...Vampire #19 after being tipped by John Constantine in destroying Cain. Lucifer immediately sentences Cain and drags him to Hell, though a being claiming to be him has appeared in the Modern Age of DC Comics to the superhero Deadman.
Note: The versions of Lucifer, Michael, Gabriel, Cain and Abel in mainstream New 52 are not of the same continuity as the versions in the previous or later Lucifer comics and are currently noncanonical to the Vertigo Sandman-Lucifer- Hellblazer continuity, in which Lucifer is not ruling Hell and Cain has not been destroyed or banished to Hell. In fact, Cain (restored to his original / New Earth version) appeared in DC's Dark Nights: Metal #2 as a member of the Immortal Men with his brother Abel. Cain, Abel, Gabriel, and Lucifer (the Pre-Flashpoint versions) currently appear in the Sandman Universe Comics from Vertigo. Cain, Abel, Daniel Hall (Dream), and Lucien also appeared in DCs' Dark Nights: Metal in these forms, re-establishing their Pre-New 52 incarnations in both DC and Vertigo.
Volume 2 (2015–2017)
This volume continues from where Lucifer left off before The New 52 (the New 52 version not being canon to this continuity). As this series begins, God is dead and Gabriel has accused Lucifer of His murder. Lucifer had motive and opportunity but claims he can prove his innocence. If Gabriel finds the killer and takes the culprit into custody, his sins will be forgotten, and he will be welcomed back into the Silver City. Despite the fact that Lucifer has just opened a nightclub on Earth and is hiding a mysterious wound, the two brothers set off to solve their Father's murder.
Note: This version is not considered canon to the Lucifer comics starting in late 2018. Those will continue from where the Mike Carey continuity ended.
Powers and abilities
Lucifer is continuously described as a celestial being of incalculable power due to his dominion over the very substance and knowledge of the formation of Creation. Through this understanding, Lucifer can shape the matter and foundation of the creation into anything he can imagine, including matter, energy and more abstract concepts, such as time. He once shaped Big Bang energies released by the death of his brother Michael into a new universe. However, he does have certain limitations, as he is still a creation of God; chiefly, he cannot create something out of nothing, unlike his Creator or brother. In some ways, this makes him the most disadvantaged, though not the weakest, of the higher angelic host. He needs existing matter (and where that is unavailable, the Demiurgic power of the Archangel Michael or that of God Himself) to provide the foundation for him to shape. In certain dimensions for reasons unknown, he is powerless and his mobility is limited without his wings. He is also not unbeatable, as Basanos was able to kill him with probability manipulation. He may choose to temporarily abandon his powers, including his immortality. In the story titled "Lilith", it is logically implied that God could destroy him at His own whim, which makes Lucifer sometimes wonder why He has not dealt with him already. He is so dangerous and unpredictable that even Death does not apply to him. He is also able to draw out a human's deepest desires, but due to his belief in free will, allows them to choose whether or not they should act on them, even if they make the choice on an unconscious level. Lucifer always tells the truth, but much like other trickster deities and spirits, will sometimes conveniently omit key details to fool others into doing something wrong.
He is never without the formidable resources of his brilliant intellect and his unbending will or inner strength, which allowed him to defy and confront his Father, as well as many other formidable opponents, without fear or doubt. Although Lucifer's overt exercise of power is limited in the books, if he is provoked to violence, his preference seems to be to use fire and light as a weapon. His original role was as "God's lamplighter", in which he used his will to condense clouds of hydrogen into star-masses and set them alight. As terrifying as they are brief, battles with Lucifer usually begin and end with him drawing down the flames of a super-heated main sequence star and incinerating to ash anything in the immediate area. However, the true reasons why he favors light and fire are partially explained in the story "Lilith" (from The Wolf Beneath the Tree).
Beyond his godly powers as an archangel, Lucifer possesses the common powers appropriate to an archangel of his position; superhuman strength, superhuman durability, flight, acidic blood (or, rather, he bleeds willpower, as depicted in when he reaches Yggdrasil in The Wolf Beneath the Tree), a devastating sonic cry, telepathy and the power to speak to and understand animals. In addition, he is a psychopomp, able to bring back from death any individual who he himself has slain. As an archangel, his powers are significantly superior to other angels.
In The New 52 reboot, Lucifer is shown to be significantly less powerful, often using Hell's armies to do his bidding, and is susceptible to magic, shown when Excalibur was used to cut off his hand. He has no power over animal souls. He can open and close magical portals to Earth from Hell and back again. He can use this power to either summon or banish demons, as he does with Etrigan. He is clairvoyant, possessing a heightened perception or knowledge of time, even to the extent of being able to know the future.
Other versions
The Unofficial Guide to the DC Universe lists Lucifer as first having appeared in a dream in Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen #65 (1962). He appears when Jimmy Olsen attempts to memorize a devil's food cake recipe with his alleged photographic memory and dreams that he is in France 300 years in the past. Putting on the clothing of a bandit who has ditched them, Jimmy is arrested and sent to rot in the Devil's Island penal colony. A bald man known as Lord L offers five years of freedom for people to escape in exchange for their souls. Convinced that the magic the man uses is technological in nature, assuming him to be an ancestor of Lex Luthor, he asks to be returned whence he came, believing Lord L will be long dead by then and unable to claim him. Lord L shows up at his front door, still bald but now with a goatee, and insists that he is Lucifer and has given him over 300 years extra, but will dine with him before taking him, but disappears when Jimmy serves him cake. Superman wakes Jimmy soon after and reveals that the card he memorized was really for angel food cake, and this is why Lucifer disappeared.
In Weird Mystery Tales #4 (January–February 1973), a story by Jack Oleck and Ruben Yandoc depicts Lucifer, looking much like his present incarnation, save for a few panels in which he appeared as a more traditional devil, held prisoner by an order of monks. It also presents a prisoner switch trick not unlike the one performed in The Sandman: Season of Mists, in addition to being hosted by Destiny, another character later used by Gaiman. In the story, Lucifer gave Philip Burton his form in order to trade places with him and fulfill his wish for immortality. Lucifer walked away in the body of the elderly Burton.
A character called Lucifer the Fallen Angel appears in Blue Devil #31 (the final issue of the series). He has angelic wings and a halo, and his face includes dark facial hair. He does not have horns. Madame Xanadu recognizes that even with a magic book, he is not the real Lucifer. He is simply a washed-up actor who decided to be a costumed criminal for a living. He is dragged into Hell on a train at the end of the issue.
The Unofficial Guide to the DC Universe lists Lucifer's first genuine Pre-Crisis appearance as DC Special Series #8. This character has hair and wings like Lucifer as he appears in The Sandman (vol. 2) #4, but he is red-skinned and has a face like a traditional devil, complete with a goatee, though his horns may be part of a headband. His appearance in the comic is brief, but he is specifically referred to as "Lucifer", rather than by other epithets. He has an advisory board consisting of Guy Fawkes, Benedict Arnold, Adolf Hitler, Jack the Ripper, Nero and Bluebeard. He has an operative, Edward Dirkes, set bombs, while using a bronze Batman statue transported by the Easy Company like a voodoo doll.
Writer Garth Ennis introduced a character intended to be the devil as an antagonist in his run on the Hellblazer comic, however, as the character appeared at the same time as Gaiman's reuse of the Lucifer character, Ennis had to introduce a new back story for his character to distinguish the two. The Hellblazer character was named the First of the Fallen and was ruler of Hell both prior to and after Lucifer's reign. How this fits in with the reigns of the angels and Christopher Rudd has not been clarified, although the First of the Fallen mentions Duma and Remiel ruling Hell during Ennis' run. In the Hellblazer film adaption Constantine, however, Lucifer, portrayed by Peter Stormare, is an antagonist.
Satan has appeared as a distinct figure in numerous DC Comics.
In one of Vertigo's Fables spinoffs, Jack of Fables, the title character made various (unwise) pacts with several devils. One of them is heavily inspired by Milton's Paradise Lost.
Reception
In 2010, IGN's named Lucifer as the 68th Greatest Comic Book Villain of All Time.
Lucifer was ranked 38th by ComicsAlliance for their 50 sexiest male characters in comics.
Collected editions
Paperback
Lucifer, including the Sandman Presents miniseries and the Lucifer: Nirvana one-shot, has been collected together into eleven trade paperbacks:
Reprint editions
Hardcover
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan=5|Deluxe hardcovers
|-
! Title !! Material collected !! Additional material || Publication date !! ISBN
|-
|Lucifer Omnibus Vol. 1 || Lucifer #1–35 ||
The Sandman Presents: Lucifer #1–3
Lucifer: Nirvana #1
| November 5, 2019 ||
|-
|Lucifer Omnibus Vol. 2 || Lucifer #36–75 ||
House of Mystery Halloween Annual #2: Infernal Bargains: Just Say No!
| November 3, 2020 ||
|-
|}
Volume 2
In other media
Television
Lucifer appears in Lucifer, portrayed by Tom Ellis.
Ellis makes a cameo appearance as Lucifer in The Flash episode “Crisis on Infinite Earths: Part Three”, which canonically takes place 5 years before the beginning of Lucifer. He resides on a parallel Earth designated Earth-666. Owing Earth-1 John Constantine a favor relating to Mazikeen, Lucifer gives him, Oliver Queen's daughter Mia Smoak, and John Diggle a card granting them entrance to Purgatory so they can save Oliver's soul.
Lucifer will appear in The Sandman, portrayed by Gwendoline Christie. This version will be more accurate to the comics.
Film
Lucifer appears in Constantine'', portrayed by Peter Stormare. This version of the character wears a pure white suit and has tattoos visible at the sleeves and neckline, implying a full body design, while constantly dripping a black oil from his feet that leaves footprints. In the dénouement of the film, the Archangel Gabriel, who possesses the Spear of Destiny, and Lucifer's own son Mammon, who possesses the body of a psychic named Angela Dodson, are about to bring Hell on Earth. John Constantine summons Lucifer by slitting his wrists, knowing that suicide is a sin that will damn him and believing that Lucifer will come in person to collect his soul. Lucifer appears, stopping time in the process. He gloats over his victory and mocks Constantine's attempts to light a last cigarette, noting that the exorcist can no longer move his fingers properly, from cutting so deep. Constantine convinces Lucifer that Mammon is trying to usurp Lucifer's power. Lucifer reestablishes the flow of time, seizes Angela, with Mammon struggling inside her, and confronts Gabriel. Though Gabriel tries to smite Lucifer with God's power, the demon remains unaffected; God has abandoned Gabriel, allowing Lucifer to banish Mammon back to Hell and to destroy Gabriel's wings. After this, Lucifer returns to Constantine, who offers his own soul in exchange for that of Angela's sister Isabel, a suicide, so that Isabel can be released to Heaven. Seeing it as a fair exchange, Lucifer grabs Constantine and begins to drag him away, but the exorcist's body becomes too heavy for Lucifer to move. God has recognized a selfless sacrifice. Constantine, dying from the slit wrists and suffering from advanced lung cancer, is slowly drawn into a heavenly realm of golden light, Lucifer clutching at his body. Furious at his revenge being denied yet again, Lucifer revives and heals Constantine by reaching into his chest and pulling the cancer out, thereby giving Constantine the chance to prove his soul belongs in Hell after all.
References
External links
2000 comics debuts
Vertigo Comics titles
Fantasy comics
Comics by Mike Carey (writer)
Comics characters introduced in 1962
Comics characters introduced in 1989
Characters created by Neil Gaiman
Mythology in DC Comics
DC Comics angels
DC Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
DC Comics characters who can teleport
DC Comics characters who use magic
DC Comics characters with superhuman strength
DC Comics demons
DC Comics LGBT characters
DC Comics male supervillains
DC Comics cosmic entities
DC Comics fantasy characters
DC Comics telepaths
The Devil in fiction
Comics spin-offs
Fictional characters who can manipulate reality
Fictional characters with immortality
Fictional dictators
Fictional princes
Fictional kings
Fictional LGBT characters in television
Fictional pansexuals
DC Comics television characters
Vertigo Comics characters
Tarot in fiction
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211937
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straddle
|
Straddle
|
In finance, a straddle strategy involves two transactions in options on the same underlying, with opposite positions. One holds long risk, the other short. As a result, it involves the purchase or sale of particular option derivatives that allow the holder to profit based on how much the price of the underlying security moves, regardless of the direction of price movement.
A straddle involves buying a call and put with same strike price and expiration date. If the stock price is close to the strike price at expiration of the options, the straddle leads to a loss. However, if there is a sufficiently large move in either direction, a significant profit will result. A straddle is appropriate when an investor is expecting a large move in a stock price but does not know in which direction the move will be.
A straddle made from the purchase of options is known as a long straddle, bottom straddle, or straddle purchase, while the reverse position, made from the sale of the options, is known as a short straddle, top straddle, or straddle write.
Long straddle
A long straddle involves "going long volatility", in other words purchasing both a call option and a put option on some stock, interest rate, index or other underlying. The two options are bought at the same strike price and expire at the same time. The owner of a long straddle makes a profit if the underlying price moves a long way from the strike price, either above or below. Thus, an investor may take a long straddle position if he thinks the market is more volatile than option prices suggest, but does not know in which direction it is going to move. This position is a limited risk, since the most a purchaser may lose is the cost of both options. At the same time, there is unlimited profit potential.
For example, company XYZ is set to release its quarterly financial results in two weeks. A trader believes that the release of these results will cause a large movement in the price of XYZ's stock, but does not know whether the price will go up or down. He can enter into a long straddle, where he gets a profit no matter which way the price of XYZ stock moves, if the price changes enough either way. If the price goes up enough, he uses the call option and ignores the put option. If the price goes down, he uses the put option and ignores the call option. If the price does not change enough, he loses money, up to the total amount paid for the two options. The risk is limited by the total premium paid for the options, as opposed to the short straddle where the risk is virtually unlimited.
If the options are American, the stock is sufficiently volatile, and option duration is long, the trader could profit from both options. This would require the stock to move both below the put option's strike price and above the call option's strike price at different times before the option expiration date.
Short straddle
A short straddle is a non-directional options trading strategy that involves simultaneously selling a put and a call of the same underlying security, strike price and expiration date. The profit is limited to the premium received from the sale of put and call. The risk is virtually unlimited as large moves of the underlying security's price either up or down will cause losses proportional to the magnitude of the price move. A maximum profit upon expiration is achieved if the underlying security trades exactly at the strike price of the straddle. In that case both puts and calls comprising the straddle expire worthless allowing straddle owner to keep full credit received as their profit. This strategy is called "nondirectional" because the short straddle profits when the underlying security changes little in price before the expiration of the straddle. The short straddle can also be classified as a credit spread because the sale of the short straddle results in a credit of the premiums of the put and call.
The risk to a holder of a short straddle position is unlimited due to the sale of the call and the put options which expose the investor to unlimited losses (on the call) or losses limited to the strike price (on the put), whereas maximum profit is limited to the premium gained by the initial sale of the options. Losses from a short straddle trade placed by Nick Leeson were a key part of the collapse of Barings Bank.
Straps and strips
Straps and strips are modified versions of a straddle. Whereas a straddle consists of one put and one call at the same strike price, a strap consists of two calls and one put at the same strike price, while a strip consists of one call and two puts. Like a straddle, a strap or a strip allows the trader to profit from a large move in either direction, but while a straddle is directionally neutral, a strap is more bullish (used by a trader who considers an increase more likely than a decrease), and a strip is more bearish (used by a trader who considers a decrease more likely than an increase).
See also
Butterfly (options)
Strangle (options)
References
Further reading
Options (finance)
|
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211941
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%20cell
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B cell
|
B cells, also known as B lymphocytes, are a type of white blood cell of the lymphocyte subtype. They function in the humoral immunity component of the adaptive immune system. B cells produce antibody molecules; however, these antibodies are not secreted. Rather, they are inserted into the plasma membrane where they serve as a part of B-cell receptors. When a naïve or memory B cell is activated by an antigen, it proliferates and differentiates into an antibody-secreting effector cell, known as a plasmablast or plasma cell. Additionally, B cells present antigens (they are also classified as professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs)) and secrete cytokines. In mammals, B cells mature in the bone marrow, which is at the core of most bones. In birds, B cells mature in the bursa of Fabricius, a lymphoid organ where they were first discovered by Chang and Glick, which is why the 'B' stands for bursa and not bone marrow as commonly believed.
B cells, unlike the other two classes of lymphocytes, T cells and natural killer cells, express B cell receptors (BCRs) on their cell membrane. BCRs allow the B cell to bind to a foreign antigen, against which it will initiate an antibody response.
Development
B cells develop from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) that originate from bone marrow. HSCs first differentiate into multipotent progenitor (MPP) cells, then common lymphoid progenitor (CLP) cells. From here, their development into B cells occurs in several stages (shown in image to the right), each marked by various gene expression patterns and immunoglobulin H chain and L chain gene loci arrangements, the latter due to B cells undergoing V(D)J recombination as they develop.
B cells undergo two types of selection while developing in the bone marrow to ensure proper development, both involving B cell receptors (BCR) on the surface of the cell. Positive selection occurs through antigen-independent signaling involving both the pre-BCR and the BCR. If these receptors do not bind to their ligand, B cells do not receive the proper signals and cease to develop. Negative selection occurs through the binding of self-antigen with the BCR; If the BCR can bind strongly to self-antigen, then the B cell undergoes one of four fates: clonal deletion, receptor editing, anergy, or ignorance (B cell ignores signal and continues development). This negative selection process leads to a state of central tolerance, in which the mature B cells do not bind self antigens present in the bone marrow.
To complete development, immature B cells migrate from the bone marrow into the spleen as transitional B cells, passing through two transitional stages: T1 and T2. Throughout their migration to the spleen and after spleen entry, they are considered T1 B cells. Within the spleen, T1 B cells transition to T2 B cells. T2 B cells differentiate into either follicular (FO) B cells or marginal zone (MZ) B cells depending on signals received through the BCR and other receptors. Once differentiated, they are now considered mature B cells, or naive B cells.
Activation
B cell activation occurs in the secondary lymphoid organs (SLOs), such as the spleen and lymph nodes. After B cells mature in the bone marrow, they migrate through the blood to SLOs, which receive a constant supply of antigen through circulating lymph. At the SLO, B cell activation begins when the B cell binds to an antigen via its BCR. Although the events taking place immediately after activation have yet to be completely determined, it is believed that B cells are activated in accordance with the kinetic segregation model , initially determined in T lymphocytes. This model denotes that before antigen stimulation, receptors diffuse through the membrane coming into contact with Lck and CD45 in equal frequency, rendering a net equilibrium of phosphorylation and non-phosphorylation. It is only when the cell comes in contact with an antigen presenting cell that the larger CD45 is displaced due to the close distance between the two membranes. This allows for net phosphorylation of the BCR and the initiation of the signal transduction pathway. Of the three B cell subsets, FO B cells preferentially undergo T cell-dependent activation while MZ B cells and B1 B cells preferentially undergo T cell-independent activation.
B cell activation is enhanced through the activity of CD21, a surface receptor in complex with surface proteins CD19 and CD81 (all three are collectively known as the B cell coreceptor complex). When a BCR binds an antigen tagged with a fragment of the C3 complement protein, CD21 binds the C3 fragment, co-ligates with the bound BCR, and signals are transduced through CD19 and CD81 to lower the activation threshold of the cell.
T cell-dependent activation
Antigens that activate B cells with the help of T-cell are known as T cell-dependent (TD) antigens and include foreign proteins. They are named as such because they are unable to induce a humoral response in organisms that lack T cells. B cell responses to these antigens takes multiple days, though antibodies generated have a higher affinity and are more functionally versatile than those generated from T cell-independent activation.
Once a BCR binds a TD antigen, the antigen is taken up into the B cell through receptor-mediated endocytosis, degraded, and presented to T cells as peptide pieces in complex with MHC-II molecules on the cell membrane. T helper (TH) cells, typically follicular T helper (TFH) cells recognize and bind these MHC-II-peptide complexes through their T cell receptor (TCR). Following TCR-MHC-II-peptide binding, T cells express the surface protein CD40L as well as cytokines such as IL-4 and IL-21. CD40L serves as a necessary co-stimulatory factor for B cell activation by binding the B cell surface receptor CD40, which promotes B cell proliferation, immunoglobulin class switching, and somatic hypermutation as well as sustains T cell growth and differentiation. T cell-derived cytokines bound by B cell cytokine receptors also promote B cell proliferation, immunoglobulin class switching, and somatic hypermutation as well as guide differentiation. After B cells receive these signals, they are considered activated.
Once activated, B cells participate in a two-step differentiation process that yields both short-lived plasmablasts for immediate protection and long-lived plasma cells and memory B cells for persistent protection. The first step, known as the extrafollicular response, occurs outside lymphoid follicles but still in the SLO. During this step activated B cells proliferate, may undergo immunoglobulin class switching, and differentiate into plasmablasts that produce early, weak antibodies mostly of class IgM. The second step consists of activated B cells entering a lymphoid follicle and forming a germinal center (GC), which is a specialized microenvironment where B cells undergo extensive proliferation, immunoglobulin class switching, and affinity maturation directed by somatic hypermutation. These processes are facilitated by TFH cells within the GC and generate both high-affinity memory B cells and long-lived plasma cells. Resultant plasma cells secrete large amounts of antibody and either stay within the SLO or, more preferentially, migrate to bone marrow.
T cell-independent activation
Antigens that activate B cells without T cell help are known as T cell-independent (TI) antigens and include foreign polysaccharides and unmethylated CpG DNA. They are named as such because they are able to induce a humoral response in organisms that lack T cells. B cell response to these antigens is rapid, though antibodies generated tend to have lower affinity and are less functionally versatile than those generated from T cell-dependent activation.
As with TD antigens, B cells activated by TI antigens need additional signals to complete activation, but instead of receiving them from T cells, they are provided either by recognition and binding of a common microbial constituent to toll-like receptors (TLRs) or by extensive crosslinking of BCRs to repeated epitopes on a bacterial cell. B cells activated by TI antigens go on to proliferate outside lymphoid follicles but still in SLOs (GCs do not form), possibly undergo immunoglobulin class switching, and differentiate into short-lived plasmablasts that produce early, weak antibodies mostly of class IgM, but also some populations of long-lived plasma cells.
Memory B cell activation
Memory B cell activation begins with the detection and binding of their target antigen, which is shared by their parent B cell. Some memory B cells can be activated without T cell help, such as certain virus-specific memory B cells, but others need T cell help. Upon antigen binding, the memory B cell takes up the antigen through receptor-mediated endocytosis, degrades it, and presents it to T cells as peptide pieces in complex with MHC-II molecules on the cell membrane. Memory T helper (TH) cells, typically memory follicular T helper (TFH) cells, that were derived from T cells activated with the same antigen recognize and bind these MHC-II-peptide complexes through their TCR. Following TCR-MHC-II-peptide binding and the relay of other signals from the memory TFH cell, the memory B cell is activated and differentiates either into plasmablasts and plasma cells via an extrafollicular response or enter a germinal center reaction where they generate plasma cells and more memory B cells. It is unclear whether the memory B cells undergo further affinity maturation within these secondary GCs.
B cell types
Plasmablast A short-lived, proliferating antibody-secreting cell arising from B cell differentiation. Plasmablasts are generated early in an infection and their antibodies tend to have a weaker affinity towards their target antigen compared to plasma cell. Plasmablasts can result from T cell-independent activation of B cells or the extrafollicular response from T cell-dependent activation of B cells.
Plasma cell A long-lived, non-proliferating antibody-secreting cell arising from B cell differentiation. There is evidence that B cells first differentiate into a plasmablast-like cell, then differentiate into a plasma cell. Plasma cells are generated later in an infection and, compared to plasmablasts, have antibodies with a higher affinity towards their target antigen due to affinity maturation in the germinal center (GC) and produce more antibodies. Plasma cells typically result from the germinal center reaction from T cell-dependent activation of B cells, though they can also result from T cell-independent activation of B cells.
Lymphoplasmacytoid cell A cell with a mixture of B lymphocyte and plasma cell morphological features that is thought to be closely related to or a subtype of plasma cells. This cell type is found in pre-malignant and malignant plasma cell dyscrasias that are associated with the secretion of IgM monoclonal proteins; these dyscrasias include IgM monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance and Waldenström's macroglobulinemia.
Memory B cell Dormant B cell arising from B cell differentiation. Their function is to circulate through the body and initiate a stronger, more rapid antibody response (known as the anamnestic secondary antibody response) if they detect the antigen that had activated their parent B cell (memory B cells and their parent B cells share the same BCR, thus they detect the same antigen). Memory B cells can be generated from T cell-dependent activation through both the extrafollicular response and the germinal center reaction as well as from T cell-independent activation of B1 cells.
B-2 cell FO B cells and MZ B cells.
Follicular (FO) B cell (also known as a B-2 cell) Most common type of B cell and, when not circulating through the blood, is found mainly in the lymphoid follicles of secondary lymphoid organs (SLOs). They are responsible for generating the majority of high-affinity antibodies during an infection.
Marginal-zone (MZ) B cell Found mainly in the marginal zone of the spleen and serves as a first line of defense against blood-borne pathogens, as the marginal zone receives large amounts of blood from the general circulation. They can undergo both T cell-independent and T cell-dependent activation, but preferentially undergo T cell-independent activation.
B-1 cell Arises from a developmental pathway different from FO B cells and MZ B cells. In mice, they predominantly populate the peritoneal cavity and pleural cavity, generate natural antibodies (antibodies produced without infection), defend against mucosal pathogens, and primarily exhibit T cell-independent activation. A true homologue of mouse B-1 cells has not been discovered in humans, though various cell populations similar to B-1 cells have been described.
Regulatory B (Breg) cell An immunosuppressive B cell type that stops the expansion of pathogenic, pro-inflammatory lymphocytes through the secretion of IL-10, IL-35, and TGF-β. Also, it promotes the generation of regulatory T (Treg) cells by directly interacting with T cells to skew their differentiation towards Tregs. No common Breg cell identity has been described and many Breg cell subsets sharing regulatory functions have been found in both mice and humans. It is currently unknown if Breg cell subsets are developmentally linked and how exactly differentiation into a Breg cell occurs. There is evidence showing that nearly all B cell types can differentiate into a Breg cell through mechanisms involving inflammatory signals and BCR recognition.
B cell-related pathology
Autoimmune disease can result from abnormal B cell recognition of self-antigens followed by the production of autoantibodies. Autoimmune diseases where disease activity is correlated with B cell activity include scleroderma, multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, type 1 diabetes, post-infectious IBS, and rheumatoid arthritis.
Malignant transformation of B cells and their precursors can cause a host of cancers, including chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), hairy cell leukemia, follicular lymphoma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, Hodgkin's lymphoma, and plasma cell malignancies such as multiple myeloma, Waldenström's macroglobulinemia, and certain forms of amyloidosis.
Epigenetics
A study that investigated the methylome of B cells along their differentiation cycle, using whole-genome bisulfite sequencing (WGBS), showed that there is a hypomethylation from the earliest stages to the most differentiated stages. The largest methylation difference is between the stages of germinal center B cells and memory B cells. Furthermore, this study showed that there is a similarity between B cell tumors and long-lived B cells in their DNA methylation signatures.
See also
A20 cells
References
B cells
Lymphocytes
Human cells
Immunology
Immune system
|
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] |
211943
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C.%20H.%20B.%20Kitchin
|
C. H. B. Kitchin
|
Clifford Henry Benn Kitchin (17 October 1895 – 4 April 1967) was a British novelist of the early twentieth century.
Biography
The elder son of Clifford Kitchin (1860–1913), a barrister, young Kitchin attended Clifton College and Exeter College, Oxford and, like his father before him, became a barrister. He was a gifted chess player, bridge player and pianist.
In the 1920s and 1930s Kitchin owned a house in Chiddingly, East Sussex.
Kitchin led a varied and colourful life. He was born into wealth and increased his wealth through investment in the stock market. He used his wealth to take part in many different fields, including the breeding and racing of greyhounds, in which he was briefly an important figure. He was homosexual, and was living with his lover Clive Bertram Preen until Preen's death in 1944.
He was best known for his four mystery novels featuring the sleuth Malcolm Warren (Death of My Aunt, Crime at Christmas, Death of His Uncle, and The Cornish Fox), but his other novels were also highly regarded, especially by other writers. His best-known novels are The Auction Sale, Streamers Waving, and Mr. Balcony. He was one of Francis King's two mentors, the other being J. R. Ackerley. His other works include The Book of Life, Ten Pollitt Place and Jumping Joan. Five of his novels with gay themes—The Sensitive One, Birthday Party, Ten Pollitt Place, The Book of Life, and A Short Walk in Williams Park—have been reprinted by Valancourt Books.
Works
Curtains. Oxford: B.H. Blackwell, 1919. (poetry)
Winged Victory. Oxford: B.H. Blackwell, 1920. (poetry)
Streamers Waving. London: Hogarth Press, 1925.
Mr. Balcony. London: Hogarth Press, 1927.
The Sensitive One. London: Hogarth Press, 1931.
Olive E.. London: Constable & Co, 1937.
The Birthday Party. London: Constable & Co, 1938.
The Auction Sale. London: Secker & Warburg, 1949.
Jumping Joan and other stories. London: Secker & Warburg, 1954.
The Secret River. London: Secker & Warburg, 1956.
Ten Pollitt Place. London: Secker & Warburg, 1957.
The Book of Life. London: Peter Davies, 1960.
A Short Walk in Williams Park. London: Chatto & Windus, 1971.
Malcolm Warren series
Death of My Aunt. London: Hogarth Press, 1929.
Crime at Christmas. London: Hogarth Press, 1934.
Death of His Uncle. London: Constable & Co, 1939.
The Cornish Fox. London: Secker & Warburg, 1949.
References
External links
via knitting circle
Valancourt Books biography
1895 births
1967 deaths
20th-century British male writers
20th-century British novelists
British male novelists
British mystery writers
English gay writers
English LGBT novelists
People educated at Clifton College
People from Chiddingly
20th-century LGBT people
|
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] |
211947
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytotoxic%20T%20cell
|
Cytotoxic T cell
|
A cytotoxic T cell (also known as TC, cytotoxic T lymphocyte, CTL, T-killer cell, cytolytic T cell, CD8+ T-cell or killer T cell) is a T lymphocyte (a type of white blood cell) that kills cancer cells, cells that are infected by intracellular pathogens (such as viruses or bacteria), or cells that are damaged in other ways.
Most cytotoxic T cells express T-cell receptors (TCRs) that can recognize a specific antigen. An antigen is a molecule capable of stimulating an immune response and is often produced by cancer cells, viruses, bacteria or intracellular signals. Antigens inside a cell are bound to class I MHC molecules, and brought to the surface of the cell by the class I MHC molecule, where they can be recognized by the T cell. If the TCR is specific for that antigen, it binds to the complex of the class I MHC molecule and the antigen, and the T cell destroys the cell.
In order for the TCR to bind to the class I MHC molecule, the former must be accompanied by a glycoprotein called CD8, which binds to the constant portion of the class I MHC molecule. Therefore, these T cells are called CD8+ T cells.
The affinity between CD8 and the MHC molecule keeps the TC cell and the target cell bound closely together during antigen-specific activation. CD8+ T cells are recognized as TC cells once they become activated and are generally classified as having a pre-defined cytotoxic role within the immune system. However, CD8+ T cells also have the ability to make some cytokines, such as TNF-α and IFN-γ, with antitumour and antimicrobial effects.
Development
The immune system must recognize millions of potential antigens. There are fewer than 30,000 genes in the human body, so it is impossible to have one gene for every antigen. Instead, the DNA in millions of white blood cells in the bone marrow is shuffled to create cells with unique receptors, each of which can bind to a different antigen. Some receptors bind to tissues in the human body itself, so to prevent the body from attacking itself, those self-reactive white blood cells are destroyed during further development in the thymus, in which iodine is necessary for its development and activity.
TCRs have two parts, usually an alpha and a beta chain. (Some TCRs have a gamma and a delta chain. They are inherent to act against stress and form part of the epithelial barrier). Hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow migrate into the thymus, where they undergo V(D)J recombination of their beta-chain TCR DNA to form a developmental form of the TCR protein, known as pre-TCR. If that rearrangement is successful, the cells then rearrange their alpha-chain TCR DNA to create a functional alpha-beta TCR complex. This highly-variable genetic rearrangement product in the TCR genes helps create millions of different T cells with different TCRs, helping the body's immune system respond to virtually any protein of an invader. The vast majority of T cells express alpha-beta TCRs (αβ T cells), but some T cells in epithelial tissues (like the gut) express gamma-delta TCRs (gamma delta T cells), which recognize non-protein antigens. The latter are characterised by their ability to recognise antigens that are not presented. In addition, they can recognise microbial toxic shock proteins and self-cell stress proteins. T γδ cells possess a wide functional plasticity after recognising infected or transformed cells, as they are able to produce cytokines (IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-17) and chemokines (IP-10, lymphotactin), trigger cytolysis of target cells (perforins, granzymes...), and interact with other cells, such as epithelial cells, monocytes, dendritic cells, neutrophils and B cells. In some infections, such as human cytomegalovirus, there is a clonal expansion of peripheral γδ T cells that have specific TCRs, indicating the adaptive nature of the immune response mediated by these cells.
T cells with functionally stable TCRs express both the CD4 and CD8 co-receptors and are therefore termed "double-positive" (DP) T cells (CD4+CD8+). The double-positive T cells are exposed to a wide variety of self-antigens in the thymus and undergo two selection criteria:
positive selection, in which those double-positive T cells that bind to foreign antigen in the presence of self MHC. They will differentiate into either CD4+ or CD8+ depending on which MHC is associated with the antigen presented (MHC1 for CD8, MHC2 for CD4). In this case, the cells would have been presented antigen in the context of MHC1. Positive selection means selecting those TCRs capable of recognizing self MHC molecules.
negative selection, in which those double-positive T cells that bind too strongly to MHC-presented self antigens undergo apoptosis because they could otherwise become autoreactive, leading to autoimmunity.
Only those T cells that bind to the MHC-self-antigen complexes weakly are positively selected. Those cells that survive positive and negative selection differentiate into single-positive T cells (either CD4+ or CD8+), depending on whether their TCR recognizes an MHC class I-presented antigen (CD8) or an MHC class II-presented antigen (CD4). It is the CD8+ T-cells that will mature and go on to become cytotoxic T cells following their activation with a class I-restricted antigen.
Activation
T cells go through different stages, depending on the number of times they have been in contact with the antigen. In the first place, naïve T-lymphocytes are those cells that have not yet encounter an antigen in the thymus. Then, T-lymphocytes become memory T cells. These type of T cells are those that have been in contact with the antigen at least once but have returned subsequently to a quiescent or inactive state, ready to respond again to the antigen against which they were stimulated. Finally, when the specific immune response is triggered, these naive and memory T cells are activated, giving rise to effector T cells that are with the capacity to kill pathogens or tumour cells.
The threshold for activation of these cells is very high, and the process can occur via two pathways: thymus-independent (by infected APCs) or thymodependent (by CD4+ T cells). In the thymus-dependent pathway, because the APC is infected, it is highly activated and expresses a large number of co-receptors for coactivation. If APCs are not infected, CD4 cells need to be involved: either to activate the APC by co-stimulation (more common) or to directly activate the Tc cell by secreting IL-2.
If activation occurs, the lymphocyte polarises its granules towards the site of the synapse and releases them, producing a "lethal hit". At this point, it separates from the target cell, and can move on to another to another. The target cell dies in about 6 hours, usually by apoptosis.
Class I MHC is expressed by all host cells, except for non-nucleated ones, such as erythrocytes. When these cells are infected with a intracellular pathogen, the cells degrade foreign proteins via antigen processing. These result in peptide fragments, some of which are presented by MHC Class I to the T cell antigen receptor (TCR) on CD8+ T cells.
The activation of cytotoxic T cells is dependent on several simultaneous interactions between molecules expressed on the surface of the T cell and molecules on the surface of the antigen-presenting cell (APC). For instance, consider the two signal model for TC cell activation.
A simple activation of naive CD8+ T cells requires the interaction with professional antigen-presenting cells, mainly with matured dendritic cells. To generate longlasting memory T cells and to allow repetitive stimulation of cytotoxic T cells, dendritic cells have to interact with both, activated CD4+ helper T cells and CD8+ T cells. During this process, the CD4+ helper T cells "license" the dendritic cells to give a potent activating signal to the naive CD8+ T cells.
Furthermore, maturation of CD8+ T cells is mediated by CD40 signalling. Once the naïve CD8+ T cell is bound to the infected cell, the infected cell is triggered to release CD40. This CD40 release, with the aid of helper T cells, will trigger differentiation of the naïve CD8+ T cells to mature CD8+ T cells.
While in most cases activation is dependent on TCR recognition of antigen, alternative pathways for activation have been described. For example, cytotoxic T cells have been shown to become activated when targeted by other CD8 T cells leading to tolerization of the latter.
Once activated, the TC cell undergoes clonal expansion with the help of the cytokine interleukin 2 (IL-2), which is a growth and differentiation factor for T cells. This increases the number of cells specific for the target antigen that can then travel throughout the body in search of antigen-positive somatic cells.
Effector functions
When exposed to infected/dysfunctional somatic cells, TC cells release the cytotoxins perforin, granzymes, and granulysin. Through the action of perforin, granzymes enter the cytoplasm of the target cell and their serine protease function triggers the caspase cascade, which is a series of cysteine proteases that eventually lead to apoptosis (programmed cell death). This is called a "lethal hit” and allows to observe a wave-like death of the target cells. Due to high lipid order and negatively charged phosphatidylserine present in their plasma membrane, TC cells are resistant to the effects of their perforin and granzyme cytotoxins.
A second way to induce apoptosis is via cell-surface interaction between the TC and the infected cell. When a TC is activated it starts to express the surface protein FAS ligand (FasL)(Apo1L)(CD95L), which can bind to Fas (Apo1)(CD95) molecules expressed on the target cell. However, this Fas-Fas ligand interaction is thought to be more important to the disposal of unwanted T lymphocytes during their development or to the lytic activity of certain TH cells than it is to the cytolytic activity of TC effector cells. Engagement of Fas with FasL allows for recruitment of the death-induced signaling complex (DISC).
The Fas-associated death domain (FADD) translocates with the DISC, allowing recruitment of procaspases 8 and 10. These caspases then activate the effector caspases 3, 6, and 7, leading to cleavage of death substrates such as lamin A, lamin B1, lamin B2, PARP (poly ADP ribose polymerase), and DNA-PKcs (DNA-activated protein kinase). The final result is apoptosis of the cell that expressed Fas.
The transcription factor Eomesodermin is suggested to play a key role in CD8+ T cell function, acting as a regulatory gene in the adaptive immune response. Studies investigating the effect of loss-of-function Eomesodermin found that a decrease in expression of this transcription factor resulted in decreased amount of perforin produced by CD8+ T cells.
Role in disease pathogenesis
Unlike antibodies, which are effective against both viral and bacterial infections, cytotoxic T cells are mostly effective against viruses.
During hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection cytotoxic T cells kill infected cells and produce antiviral cytokines capable of purging HBV from viable hepatocytes. They also play an important pathogenic role, contributing to nearly all of the liver injury associated with HBV infection. Platelets have been shown to facilitate the accumulation of virus-specific cytotoxic T cells into the infected liver. In some studies with mice, the injection with CXCR5+CD8+T cells show a significative decrease of HBsAg. Also, an increase of CXCL13 levels facilitated the recruitment of intrahepatic CXCR5+CD8+T cells and, these types of cells produced high levels of HBV-specific interferon (IFN)-γ and IL-21, which can help to improve the control of chronic HVB infection.
Cytotoxic T cells have been implicated in the progression of arthritis. The main involvement of rheumatoid arthritis is its joint involvement, the synovial membrane is characterised by hyperplasia, increased vascularity and infiltrate of inflammatory cells, mainly CD4+ T lymphocytes, which are the main organiser of cell-mediated immune responses. In different studies, rheumatoid arthritis is strongly linked to major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II antigens. The only cells in the body that express MHC class II antigens are constitutive antigen-presenting cells. This strongly suggests that rheumatoid arthritis is caused by unidentified arthritogenic antigens. The antigen could be any exogenous antigen, such as viral proteins, or an endogenous protein. Recently, a number of possible endogenous antigens have been identified, for example, human cartilage glycoprotein 39, heavy chain binding protein and citrullinated protein. Activated CD4+ T lymphocytes stimulate monocytes, macrophages and synovial fibroblasts to elaborate the cytokines interleukin-1, interleukin-6 and tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFa), and to secrete metalloproteinases. The first three of which are key in driving inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis. These activated lymphocytes also stimulate B cells to produce immunoglobulins, including rheumatoid factor. Their pathogenic role is unknown, but may be due to complement activation through immune complex formation. Moreover, several animal studies suggest that cytotoxic T cells may have a predominantly proinflammatory effect in the disease. It is also studied that the production of cytokines by the CD8+ cells may accelerate the progresses of the arthritis disease.
CD8+ T cells have been found to play a role in HIV infection. HIV over time has developed many strategies to evade the host cell immune system. For example, HIV has adopted very high mutation rates to allow them to escape recognition by CD8+ T cells. They are also able to down-regulate expression of surface MHC Class I proteins of cells that they infect, in order to further evade destruction by CD8+ T cells. If CD8+ T cells cannot find, recognize and bind to infected cells, the virus will not be destroyed and will continue to grow.
Furthermore, CD8+ T cells may be involved in Type 1 diabetes. Studies in a diabetic mouse model showed that CD4+ cells are responsible for the massive infiltration of mononuclear leukocytes into pancreatic islets. However, CD8+ cells have been shown to play an effector role, responsible for the ultimate destruction of islet beta cells. However, in studies with NOD mice carrying a null mutation at the beta 2-microglobulin (beta 2-mu) locus and thus lacking major histocompatibility complex class I molecules and CD8+ T cells, it was found that they did not develop diabetes.
CD8+ T cells may be necessary to resolve chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN). Mice without CD8+ T cells show prolonged CIPN compared to normal mice and injection of educated CD8+ T cells resolve or prevent CIPN.
Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes have been implicated in the development of various diseases and disorders, for example in transplant rejection (cytotoxic T-lymphocytes attack the new organ after detecting it as foreign, due to HLA variation between donor and recipient); in excessive cytokine production in severe sars-cov-2 infection (due to an exaggerated lymphocyte response, a large amount of pro-inflammatory cytokines are generated, damaging the subject); inflammatory and degenerative diseases of the central nervous system, such as multiple sclerosis (T cells become sensitised to certain proteins, such as myelin, attacking healthy cells and recruiting more immune cells, aggravating the disease).
See also
CTL-mediated cytotoxicity
CD4+ T cells
References
External links
T-cell Group - Cardiff University
T cells
Human cells
Immunology
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] |
211948
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trademark%20law%20of%20China
|
Trademark law of China
|
The system of trademark law in mainland China is administered by the China National Intellectual Property Administration CNIPA (with an appeal function administered by the Trademark Review and Adjudication Board and the courts). Both are divisions of the State Administration for Industry & Commerce (SAIC).
The two principal pieces of legislation forming the trademark system are the Trademark Law, and the Unfair Competition Law.
Only registered trade and service marks are protected in the PRC: there is no common law protection for unregistered trademarks (except for "well-known" marks, as detailed below).
Amendments to the PRC's Trademark Law on October 27, 2001 allows three-dimensional trademarks and colours to be registered as trade marks. Collective and certification trademarks can also now be registered in China. are also now recognised under Chinese law (the courts and administrative bodies will take into account the level of knowledge of the trademark by relevant consumers, the length of use of the trademark, the amount of publicity given to the mark in China, and the history of the mark).
Trademark piracy is a rampant problem for trademark owners in China, despite the highly effective and speedy administrative raid procedure available to trademark owners under the auspices of the State Administration for Industries and Commerce.
See also
Intellectual property
Law in the People's Republic of China
Chinese law
Hong Kong trademark law
Further reading
Alford, William P.,To Steal a Book Is an Elegant Offense: Intellectual Property Law in Chinese Civilization, Stanford, Calif. : Stanford University Press, 1995.
Paul Kossof, "Chinese Trademark Law: The New Chinese Trademark Law of 2014," (Carolina Academic Press, Durham, North Carolina 2014). .
Paul Kossof, Mini-Series on Chinese Trademark Law: Welcome to The New Chinese Trademark Law of 2014, available at http://www.asialawportal.com/2014/03/29/mini-series-on-chinese-trademark-law-welcome-to-the-new-chinese-trademark-law-of-2014/
External links
State Administration for Industry and Commerce (SAIC)
Trademark law by jurisdiction
People's Republic of China intellectual property law
China Trademark Law
|
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] |
211949
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%20helper%20cell
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T helper cell
|
The T helper cells (Th cells), also known as CD4+ cells or CD4-positive cells, are a type of T cell that play an important role in the immune system, particularly in the adaptive immune system. As their name suggests, they "help" the activity of other immune cells by releasing cytokines, small protein mediators that alter the behavior of target cells that express receptors for those cytokines. These cells help to polarize the immune response into the appropriate kind depending on the nature of the immunological insult (virus vs. extracellular bacterium vs. intracellular bacterium vs. helminth vs. fungus vs. protist). They are generally considered essential in B cell antibody class switching, breaking cross-tolerance in dendritic cells, in the activation and growth of cytotoxic T cells, and in maximizing bactericidal activity of phagocytes such as macrophages and neutrophils.
Mature Th cells express the surface protein CD4 and are referred to as CD4+ T cells. Such CD4+ T cells are generally treated as having a pre-defined role as helper T cells within the immune system. For example, when an antigen-presenting cell displays a peptide antigen on MHC class II proteins, a CD4+ cell will aid those cells through a combination of cell to cell interactions (e.g. CD40 (protein) and CD40L) and through cytokines.
CD154, also called CD40 ligand or CD40L, is a cell surface protein that mediates T cell helper function in a contact-dependent process and is a member of the TNF superfamily of molecules. It binds to CD40 on antigen-presenting cells (APC), which leads to many effects depending on the target cell type. CD154 acts as a costimulatory molecule and is particularly important on a subset of T cells called T follicular helper cells (TFH cells). On TFH cells, CD154 promotes B cell maturation and function by engaging CD40 on the B cell surface and therefore facilitating cell-cell communication. A defect in this gene results in an inability to undergo immunoglobulin class switching and is associated with hyper IgM syndrome. Absence of CD154 also stops the formation of germinal centers and therefore prohibits antibody affinity maturation, an important process in the adaptive immune system that allows for the generation of high-affinity antibodies that protect against future challenge by pathogens.
The importance of helper T cells collectively can be seen from HIV, a virus that primarily infects CD4+ T cells (but is capable of infecting other important cells of the immune system, like macrophages that express CD4). In the advanced stages of HIV infection, loss of functional CD4+ T cells leads to the symptomatic stage of infection known as the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). When HIV is detected early in blood or other bodily fluids, proper adherence to antiretroviral therapy will prevent the progression of HIV into AIDS and allow the body to naturally restore its own CD4 cell count (a small proportion of individuals is able to achieve prolonged control of viral load without significant decline in T cell levels over time without the aid of antiretroviral therapy, who are termed "elite controllers" or "long-term nonprogressors"). HIV is an example of a secondary immunodeficiency disorder. Primary immunodeficiencies are genetic conditions which result in immunological defects that prevent adequate clearance of infections and T cell deficiencies are particularly devastating. One example is SCID (severe combined immunodeficiency) which has many causes and varies in its precise phenotype depending on the cause. While most forms of SCID result in absence of both T and B cell lineages, atypical SCID is characterized (in part) by a normal level of B cells but profound T cell deficiency. However, because of the deficiency of helper T cells, the B cells have profoundly impaired function.
It is critical to understand that viewing Th cells as a monolithic immunological entity is fallacious because they are extremely diverse in terms of function and their interaction with partner cells (this is elaborated upon below). In general, mature naive T cells (those which have passed through the checkpoints of development in the thymus but have not yet encountered their cognate antigen) are stimulated by professional antigen presenting cells to acquire an effector module. These are defined by the presence of a lineage-determining (or lineage-specifying) transcription factor (also called master regulator, though the term has been criticized for being too reductive). The loss of function in a lineage specifying transcription factor results in the absence of the corresponding class of helper T cell which can be devastating for the health of the host. For example, conventional, regulatory T cells (Treg cells) are defined by the expression of FoxP3 (Forkhead Box P3) and the loss of function of this transcription factor results in a condition called IPEX (immunodysregulation polyendocrinopathy enteropathy X-linked) syndrome which is characterized by out-of-control immune responses that cause severe tissue damage as well as fulminant autoimmune disease (note that this is autoimmune disease and not merely the presence of autoreactivity) because this population of helper T cells is not present to dampen them. In some cases, a loss-of-function mutation can occur more upstream of the lineage-specifying transcription factor. For example, in Hyper IgE syndrome there is a mutation in the STAT3 gene which is responsible for inducing the RORγT transcription factor in response to the combination of TGF-β and either IL-6 or IL-21 which specifies TH17 cells. As a result of the absence of these cells patients have severe fungal infections and have difficulty responding to pyogenic bacterial pathogens (though they also have other immunological defects because STAT3 is involved in other signaling pathways as well). STAT3 deficiency also compromises the ability to generate TFH cells.
Activation of naive helper T cells
Following T cell development in the thymus, these cells (termed recent thymic emigrants (RTE)) egress from the thymus and home to secondary lymphoid organs (SLO; spleen and lymph nodes). Of note, only a very small minority of T cells egresses from the thymus (estimates commonly range from 1-5% but some experts feel even this is generous). Maturation of RTE in SLO results in the generation of mature naive T cells (naïve meaning they have never been exposed to the antigen that they are programmed to respond to), but naive T cells now lack or have downregulated (reduced) expression of the RTE-related surface markers, such as CD31, PTK7, Complement Receptor 1 and 2 (CR1, CR2) and the production of interleukin 8 (IL-8). Like all T cells, they express the T cell receptor-CD3 complex. The T cell receptor (TCR) consists of both constant and variable regions. The variable region determines what antigen the T cell can respond to. CD4+ T cells have TCRs with an affinity for Class II MHC, and CD4 is involved in determining MHC affinity during maturation in the thymus. Class II MHC proteins are generally only found on the surface of professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Professional antigen-presenting cells are primarily dendritic cells, macrophages and B cells, although dendritic cells are the only cell group that expresses MHC Class II constitutively (at all times). Some APCs also bind native (or unprocessed) antigens to their surface, such as follicular dendritic cells (these are not the same type of cells as the dendritic cells of the immune system but rather have a non-hematopoietic origin, and in general lack MHC Class II, meaning they are not true professional antigen-presenting cells; however, follicular dendritic cells may acquire MHC Class II proteins via exosomes that become attached to them). T cells require antigens to be processed into short fragments which form linear epitopes on MHC Class II (in the case of helper T cells because they express CD4) or MHC class I (in the case of cytotoxic T cells which express CD8). MHC Class II binding pockets are flexible with respect to the length of the peptides they hold. Generally, there are 9 core amino acid residues with several flanking amino acids which form a length of about 12-16 amino acids total but have been known to hold as many as 25 amino acids. By comparison, MHC Class I proteins are usually 9-10 peptides long. The activation of naive T cells is commonly explained in terms of the 3-signal model, elaborated upon below.
Activation (signal 1)
During an immune response, professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs) endocytose antigens (typically bacteria or viruses), which undergo processing, then travel from the infection site to the lymph nodes. Typically, the APC responsible is a dendritic cell. If the antigen expresses appropriate molecular patterns (sometimes known as signal 0), it can induce maturation of the dendritic cell which results in enhanced expression of costimulatory molecules needed to activate T cells (see signal 2) and MHC Class II. Once at the lymph nodes, the APCs begin to present antigen peptides that are bound to Class II MHC, allowing CD4+ T cells that express the specific TCRs against the peptide/MHC complex to activate.
When a Th cell encounters and recognizes the antigen on an APC, the TCR-CD3 complex binds strongly to the peptide-MHC complex present on the surface of professional APCs. CD4, a co-receptor of the TCR complex, also binds to a different section of the MHC molecule. It is estimated that approximately 50 of these interactions are required for the activation of a helper T cell and assemblies known as microclusters have been observed forming between the TCR-CD3-CD4 complexes of the T cell and the MHC Class II proteins of the dendritic cell at the zone of contact. When these all come together, the CD4 is able to recruit a kinase called Lck which phosphorylates immunotyrosine activation motifs (ITAMs) present on the CD3 gamma, delta, epsilon, and zeta chains. The protein ZAP-70 can bind these phosphorylated ITAMs via its SH2 domain and then itself becomes phosphorylated, wherein it orchestrates the downstream signaling required for T cell activation. Lck activation is controlled by the opposing actions of CD45 and Csk. CD45 activates Lck by dephosphorylating a tyrosine in its C-terminal tail, while Csk phosphorylates Lck at that site. The loss of CD45 produces a form of SCID because failure to activate Lck prevents appropriate T cell signaling. Memory T cells also make use of this pathway and have higher levels of Lck expressed and the function of Csk is inhibited in these cells.
The binding of the antigen-MHC to the TCR complex and CD4 may also help the APC and the Th cell adhere during Th cell activation, but the integrin protein LFA-1 on the T cell and ICAM on the APC are the primary molecules of adhesion in this cell interaction.
It is unknown what role the relatively bulky extracellular region of CD45 plays during cell interactions, but CD45 has various isoforms that change in size depending on the Th cell's activation and maturation status. For example, CD45 shortens in length following Th activation (CD45RA+ to CD45RO+), but whether this change in length influences activation is unknown. It has been proposed that the larger CD45RA may decrease the accessibility of the T cell receptor for the antigen-MHC molecule, thereby necessitating an increase in the affinity (and specificity) of the T cell for activation. However, once the activation has occurred, CD45 shortens, allowing easier interactions and activation as an effector T helper cell.
Survival (signal 2)
Having received the first TCR/CD3 signal, the naïve T cell must activate a second independent biochemical pathway, known as Signal 2. This verification step is a protective measure to ensure that a T cell is responding to a foreign antigen. If this second signal is not present during initial antigen exposure, the T cell presumes that it is auto-reactive. This results in the cell becoming anergic (anergy is generated from the unprotected biochemical changes of Signal 1). Anergic cells will not respond to any antigen in the future, even if both signals are present later on. These cells are generally believed to circulate throughout the body with no value until they undergo apoptosis.
The second signal involves an interaction between CD28 on the CD4+ T cell and the proteins CD80 (B7.1) or CD86 (B7.2) on the professional APCs. Both CD80 and CD86 activate the CD28 receptor. These proteins are also known as co-stimulatory molecules.
Although the verification stage is necessary for the activation of naïve helper T cells, the importance of this stage is best demonstrated during the similar activation mechanism of CD8+ cytotoxic T cells. As naïve CD8+ T cells have no true bias towards foreign sources, these T cells must rely on the activation of CD28 for confirmation that they recognise a foreign antigen (as CD80/CD86 is only expressed by active APC's). CD28 plays an important role in decreasing the risk of T cell auto-immunity against host antigens.
Once the naïve T cell has both pathways activated, the biochemical changes induced by Signal 1 are altered, allowing the cell to activate instead of undergoing anergy. The second signal is then obsolete; only the first signal is necessary for future activation. This is also true for memory T cells, which is one example of learned immunity. Faster responses occur upon reinfection because memory T cells have already undergone confirmation and can produce effector cells much sooner.
Differentiation (signal 3)
Once the two-signal activation is complete the T helper cell (Th) then allows itself to proliferate. It achieves this by releasing a potent T cell growth factor called interleukin 2 (IL-2) which acts upon itself in an autocrine fashion. Activated T cells also produce the alpha sub-unit of the IL-2 receptor (CD25 or IL-2R), enabling a fully functional receptor that can bind with IL-2, which in turn activates the T cell's proliferation pathways.
The autocrine or paracrine secretion of IL-2 can bind to that same Th cell or neighboring Th's via the IL-2R thus driving proliferation and clonal expansion. The Th cells receiving both signals of activation and proliferation will then become Th0 cells (T helper 0) cell that secrete IL-2, IL-4 and interferon gamma (IFN-γ). The Th0 cells will then differentiate into Th1 or Th2 cells depending on cytokine environment. IFN-γ drives Th1 cell production while IL-10 and IL-4 inhibit Th1 cell production. Conversely, IL-4 drives Th2 cell production and IFN-γ inhibits Th2 cells. These cytokines are pleiotropic and carry out many other functions of the immune response.
Effector function
In 1991, three groups reported discovering CD154, which is the molecular basis of T cell helper function. Seth Lederman at Columbia University generated a murine monoclonal antibody, 5c8 that inhibited contact-dependent T cell helper function in human cells which characterized the 32 kDa surface protein transiently expressed on CD4+ T cells. Richard Armitage at Immunex cloned a cDNA encoding CD154 by screening an expression library with CD40-Ig. Randolph Noelle at Dartmouth Medical School generated an antibody that bound a 39 kDa protein on murine T cells and inhibited helper function.
Determination of the effector T cell response
Helper T cells are capable of influencing a variety of immune cells, and the T cell response generated (including the extracellular signals such as cytokines) can be essential for a successful outcome from infection. In order to be effective, helper T cells must determine which cytokines will allow the immune system to be most useful or beneficial for the host. Understanding exactly how helper T cells respond to immune challenges is currently of major interest in immunology, because such knowledge may be very useful in the treatment of disease and in increasing the effectiveness of vaccination.
Th1/Th2 model
Proliferating helper T cells that develop into effector T cells differentiate into two major subtypes of cells known as Th1 and Th2 cells (also known as Type 1 and Type 2 helper T cells, respectively).
Th1 helper cells lead to an increased cell-mediated response (primarily by macrophages and cytotoxic T cells), typically against intracellular bacteria and protozoa. They are triggered by the polarising cytokine IL-12 and their effector cytokines are IFN-γ and IL-2. The main effector cells of Th1 immunity are macrophages as well as CD8 T cells, IgG B cells, and IFN-γ CD4 T cells. The key Th1 transcription factors are STAT4 and T-bet. IFN-γ secreted by CD4 T cells can activate macrophages to phagocytose and digest intracellular bacteria and protozoa. In addition, IFN-γ can activate iNOS (inducible nitric oxide synthase) to produce nitric oxide free radicals to directly kill intracellular bacteria and protozoa. Th1 overactivation against autoantigens will cause Type IV or delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction. Tuberculin reaction or Type 1 diabetes belong to this category of autoimmunity.
Th2 helper cells lead to a humoral immune response, typically against extracellular parasites such as helminths. They are triggered by the polarising cytokines IL-4 and IL-2, and their effector cytokines are IL-4, IL-5, IL-9, IL-10, IL-13 and IL-25. The main effector cells are eosinophils, basophils, and mast cells as well as B cells, and IL-4/IL-5 CD4 T cells. The key Th2 transcription factors are STAT6 and GATA3. IL-4 is the positive feedback cytokine for Th2 cells differentiation. Besides, IL-4 stimulates B-cells to produce IgE antibodies, which in turn stimulate mast cells to release histamine, serotonin, and leukotriene to cause broncho-constriction, intestinal peristalsis, gastric fluid acidification to expel helminths. IL-5 from CD4 T cells will activate eosinophils to attack helminths. IL-10 suppresses Th1 cells differentiation and function of dendritic cells. Th2 overactivation against antigen will cause Type I hypersensitivity which is an allergic reaction mediated by IgE. Allergic rhinitis, atopic dermatitis, and asthma belong to this category of overactivation . In addition to expressing different cytokines, Th2 cells also differ from Th1 cells in their cell surface glycans (oligosaccharides), which makes them less susceptible to some inducers of cell death.
While we know about the types of cytokine patterns helper T cells tend to produce, we understand less about how the patterns themselves are decided. Various evidence suggests that the type of APC presenting the antigen to the T cell has a major influence on its profile. Other evidence suggests that the concentration of antigen presented to the T cell during primary activation influences its choice. The presence of some cytokines (such as the ones mentioned above) will also influence the response that will eventually be generated, but our understanding is nowhere near complete.
Th17 helper cells
Th17 helper cells are a subset of T helper cells developmentally distinct from Th1 and Th2 lineages producing interleukin 17 (IL-17).
Th cells produce IL-17 which is a pro inflammatory substance. This means it is especially good at fighting extracellular pathogens and fungi.
THαβ helper cells
THαβ helper cells provide the host immunity against viruses. Their differentiation is triggered by IFN α/β or IL-10. Their key effector cytokine is IL-10. Their main effector cells are NK cells as well as CD8 T cells, IgG B cells, and IL-10 CD4 T cells. The key THαβ transcription factors are STAT1 and STAT3 as well as IRFs. IL-10 from CD4 T cells activate NK cells' ADCC to apoptose virus-infected cells and to induce host as well as viral DNA fragmentation. IFN alpha/beta can suppress transcription to avoid virus replication and transmission. Overactivation of THαβ against autoantigen will cause type 2 antibody-dependent cytotoxic hypersensitivity. Myasthenia gravis or Graves' disease belong to this category.
Limitations to the Th1/Th2 model
The interactions between cytokines from the Th1/Th2 model can be more complicated in some animals. For example, the Th2 cytokine IL-10 inhibits cytokine production of both Th subsets in humans. Human IL-10 (hIL-10) suppresses the proliferation and cytokine production of all T cells and the activity of macrophages, but continues to stimulate plasma cells, ensuring that antibody production still occurs. As such, hIL-10 is not believed to truly promote the Th2 response in humans, but acts to prevent over-stimulation of helper T cells while still maximising the production of antibodies.
There are also other types of T cells that can influence the expression and activation of helper T cells, such as natural regulatory T cells, along with less common cytokine profiles such as the Th3 subset of helper T cells. Terms such as "regulatory" and "suppression" have become ambiguous after the discovery that helper CD4+ T cells are also capable of regulating (and suppressing) their own responses outside of dedicated regulatory T cells.
One major difference between regulatory T cells and effector T cells is that regulatory T cells typically serve to modulate and deactivate the immune response, while effector T cell groups usually begin with immune-promoting cytokines and then switch to inhibitory cytokines later in their life cycle. The latter is a feature of Th3 cells, which transform into a regulatory subset after its initial activation and cytokine production.
Both regulatory T cells and Th3 cells produce the cytokine transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) and IL-10. Both cytokines are inhibitory to helper T cells; TGF-β suppresses the activity of most of the immune system. There is evidence to suggest that TGF-β may not suppress activated Th2 cells as effectively as it might suppress naive cells, but it is not typically considered a Th2 cytokine.
The novel characterisation of another T helper subtype, T helper 17 cells (Th17) has cast further doubt on the basic Th1/Th2 model. These IL-17 producing cells were initially described as a pathogenic population implicated in autoimmunity but are now thought to have their own distinct effector and regulatory functions. Of note, recent evidence suggest that functional plasticity is an intrinsic capacity of T helper cells. Indeed, a study in mice demonstrated that Th17 cells transform into Th1 cells in vivo. A subsequent study furthermore showed that extensive T helper cell plasticity is also prominent in man.
Many of the cytokines in this article are also expressed by other immune cells (see individual cytokines for details), and it is becoming clear that while the original Th1/Th2 model is enlightening and gives insight into the functions of helper T cells, it is far too simple to define its entire role or actions. Some immunologists question the model completely, as some in vivo studies suggest that individual helper T cells usually do not match the specific cytokine profiles of the Th model, and many cells express cytokines from both profiles. That said, the Th model has still played an important part in developing our understanding of the roles and behaviour of helper T cells and the cytokines they produce during an immune response.
Recent scientific studies by Stockinger et al. revealed that another T helper subset may exist. Th9 cells are claimed to be an IL9 (interleukin 9)–producing T cell subset focused on defending helminth infections.
Memory T cell
Historically, memory T cells were thought to belong to either the effector or central memory subtypes, each with their own distinguishing set of cell surface markers. Central memory T cells reside in the lymph nodes while effector memory T cells lack the C-C chemokine receptor type 7 (CCR7) and L-selectin (CD62L) receptors, which prevents them from trafficking to the lymph nodes.
Additional populations of memory T cells are now known to exist. These include tissue-resident memory T (Trm) cells and virtual memory T cells. The single unifying theme for all memory T cell subtypes is that they are long-lived and can expand quickly to large numbers of effector T cells upon encountering their cognate antigen. By this mechanism they provide the immune system with "memory" against previously encountered pathogens.
Role in disease
Considering the diverse and important role helper T cells play in the immune system, it is not surprising that these cells often influence the immune response against disease. They also appear to make occasional mistakes, or generate responses that would be politely considered non-beneficial. In the worst-case scenario, the helper T cell response could lead to a disaster and the death of the host. Fortunately this is a very rare occurrence.
Antitumor immunity
Hypersensitivity
The immune system must achieve a balance of sensitivity in order to respond to foreign antigens without responding to the antigens of the host itself. When the immune system responds to very low levels of antigen that it usually shouldn't respond to, a hypersensitivity response occurs. Hypersensitivity is believed to be the cause of allergy and some auto-immune disease.
Hypersensitivity reactions can be divided into four types:
Type 1 hypersensitivity includes common immune disorders such as asthma, allergic rhinitis (hay fever), eczema, urticaria (hives) and anaphylaxis. These reactions all involve IgE antibodies, which require a Th2 response during helper T cell development. Preventive treatments, such as corticosteroids and montelukast, focus on suppressing mast cells or other allergic cells; T cells do not play a primary role during the actual inflammatory response. It's important to note that the numeral allocation of hypersensitivity "types" does not correlate (and is completely unrelated) to the "response" in the Th model.
Type 2 and Type 3 hypersensitivity both involve complications from auto-immune or low affinity antibodies. In both of these reactions, T cells may play an accomplice role in generating these auto-specific antibodies, although some of these reactions under Type 2 hypersensitivity would be considered normal in a healthy immune system (for example, Rhesus factor reactions during child-birth is a normal immune response against child antigens). The understanding of the role of helper T cells in these responses is limited but it is generally thought that Th2 cytokines would promote such disorders. For example, studies have suggested that lupus (SLE) and other auto-immune diseases of similar nature can be linked to the production of Th2 cytokines.
Type 4 hypersensitivity, also known as delayed type hypersensitivity, are caused via the over-stimulation of immune cells, commonly lymphocytes and macrophages, resulting in chronic inflammation and cytokine release. Antibodies do not play a direct role in this allergy type. T cells play an important role in this hypersensitivity, as they activate against the stimulus itself and promote the activation of other cells; particularly macrophages via Th1 cytokines.
Other cellular hypersensitivities include cytotoxic T cell mediated auto-immune disease, and a similar phenomenon; transplant rejection. Helper T cells are required to fuel the development of these diseases. In order to create sufficient auto-reactive killer T cells, interleukin-2 must be produced, and this is supplied by CD4+ T cells. CD4+ T cells can also stimulate cells such as natural killer cells and macrophages via cytokines such as interferon-gamma, encouraging these cytotoxic cells to kill host cells in certain circumstances.
The mechanism that killer T cells use during auto-immunity is almost identical to their response against viruses, and some viruses have been accused of causing auto-immune diseases such as Type 1 diabetes mellitus. Cellular auto-immune disease occurs because the host antigen recognition systems fail, and the immune system believes, by mistake, that a host antigen is foreign. As a result, the CD8+ T cells treat the host cell presenting that antigen as infected, and go on to destroy all host cells (or in the case of transplant rejection, transplant organ) that express that antigen.
Some of this section is a simplification. Many auto-immune diseases are more complex. A well-known example is rheumatoid arthritis, where both antibodies and immune cells are known to play a role in the pathology. Generally the immunology of most auto-immune diseases is not well understood.
HIV infection
Perhaps the best example of the importance of CD4+ T cells is demonstrated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. HIV mainly targets lymphoid CD4+ T cells, but can infect other cells that express CD4 such as macrophages and dendritic cells (both groups express CD4 at low levels).
It has been proposed that during the non-symptomatic phase of HIV infection, the virus has a relatively low affinity towards T cells (and has a higher affinity for macrophages), resulting in a slow kill rate of CD4+ T cells by the immune system. This is initially compensated for via the production of new helper T cells from the thymus (originally from the bone marrow). Once the virus becomes lymphotropic (or T-tropic) however, it begins to infect CD4+ T cells far more efficiently (likely due to a change in the co-receptors it binds to during infection), and the immune system is overwhelmed. Of note, recent studies suggest that only ~5% of the lymphoid-derived CD4 T cells targeted by HIV are permissive and become productively infected with the virus. More than 95% of the CD4 T cells that die are resting and are unable to support productive infection. These cells undergo abortive infection with HIV. Cell death is triggered when the host cell detects HIV foreign DNA intermediates and initiates a suicidal death pathway in an attempt to protect the host, leading to caspase-1 activation in inflammasomes, thus causing pyroptosis (a highly inflammatory form of programmed cell death).
At this point chronic inflammation ensues, and functional CD4+ T cell levels begin to decrease, eventually to a point where the CD4+ T cell population is too small to recognize the full range of antigens that could potentially be detected. The depletion of CD4 T cells and the development of chronic inflammation are signature processes in HIV pathogenesis that propel progression to acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). CD4 T cell depleted to the cell count of less than 200cell/μL in blood during AIDS allows various pathogens to escape T cell recognition, thus allowing opportunistic infections that would normally elicit a helper T cell response to bypass the immune system. While these complete bypass situations only occur when the helper T cell response is absolutely necessary for infection clearance, most infections increase in severity and/or duration because the immune system's helper T cells provide less efficient immune response.
Two components of the immune system are particularly affected in AIDS, due to its CD4+ T cell dependency:
CD8+ T cells are not stimulated as effectively during the AIDS stage of HIV infection, making AIDS patients very susceptible to most viruses, including HIV itself. This decline in killing of CD4+ T cells results in the virus being produced for a longer period (the infected CD4+ T cells are not killed as quickly), increasing the proliferation of the virus, and accelerating the development of the disease.
Antibody class switching declines significantly once helper T cell function fails. The immune system loses its ability to improve the affinity of their antibodies, and are unable to generate B cells that can produce antibody groups such as IgG and IgA. These effects are primarily due to the loss of any helper T cell that can interact with the B lymphocyte correctly. Another symptom of AIDS is the reduction in antibody levels due to a decrease in Th2 cytokines (and less interactions by helper T cells). All of these complications result in an increased susceptibility to aggressive bacterial infections, especially in areas of the body not accessible by IgM antibodies.
If the patient does not respond to (or does not receive) HIV treatment they will succumb usually to either cancers or infections; the immune system finally reaches a point where it is no longer coordinated or stimulated enough to deal with the disease.
Inhibition of CD4 T-cell expansion during HIV infection may occur due to microbial translocation in an IL-10-dependent way. Triggering PD-1 expressed on activated monocytes by its ligand PD-L1, induces IL-10 production which inhibits CD4 T-cell function.
COVID-19
In coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) B cell, natural killer cell, and total lymphocyte counts decline, but both CD4+ and CD8+ cells decline to a far greater extent. Low CD4+ predicted greater likelihood of intensive care unit admission, and CD4+ cell count was the only parameter that predicted length of time for viral RNA clearance. Despite the reduced levels of CD4+, COVID-19 patients with severe disease had higher levels of Th1 CD4+ cells than patients with moderate disease.
See also
CD4+/CD8+ ratio
CD4+ T cells and antitumor immunity
CD8+ T cells
Cancer vaccine targeting CD4+ T cells
References
Further reading
External links
Helper
Human cells
Phagocytes
Cell biology
Immune system
Lymphatic system
Infectious diseases
Cell signaling
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] |
211950
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major%20histocompatibility%20complex
|
Major histocompatibility complex
|
The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a large locus on vertebrate DNA containing a set of closely linked polymorphic genes that code for cell surface proteins essential for the adaptive immune system. These cell surface proteins are called MHC molecules.
This locus got its name because it was discovered via the study of transplanted tissue compatibility. Later studies revealed that tissue rejection due to incompatibility is an experimental artifact masking the real function of MHC molecules: binding an antigen derived from self-proteins, or from pathogens, and bringing the antigen presentation to the cell surface for recognition by the appropriate T-cells. MHC molecules mediate the interactions of leukocytes, also called white blood cells (WBCs), with other leukocytes or with body cells. The MHC determines donor compatibility for organ transplant, as well as one's susceptibility to autoimmune diseases.
In a cell, protein molecules of the host's own phenotype or of other biologic entities are continually synthesized and degraded. Each MHC molecule on the cell surface displays a small peptide (a molecular fraction of a protein) called an epitope. The presented self-antigens prevent an organism's immune system from targeting its own cells. The presentation of pathogen-derived proteins results in the elimination of the infected cell by the immune system.
Diversity of an individual's self-antigen presentation, mediated by MHC self-antigens, is attained in at least three ways: (1) an organism's MHC repertoire is polygenic (via multiple, interacting genes); (2) MHC expression is codominant (from both sets of inherited alleles); (3) MHC gene variants are highly polymorphic (diversely varying from organism to organism within a species). Sexual selection has been observed in male mice making mate choices of females with different MHCs and thus demonstrating sexual selection. Also, at least for MHC I presentation, there has been evidence of antigenic peptide splicing, which can combine peptides from different proteins, vastly increasing antigen diversity.
Discovery
The first descriptions of the MHC were made by British immunologist Peter Gorer in 1936. MHC genes were first identified in inbred mice strains. Clarence Little transplanted tumors across differing strains and found rejection of transplanted tumors according to strains of host versus donor. George Snell selectively bred two mouse strains, attained a new strain nearly identical to one of the progenitor strains, but differing crucially in histocompatibility—that is, tissue compatibility upon transplantation—and thereupon identified an MHC locus. Later Jean Dausset demonstrated the existence of MHC genes in humans and described the first human leucocyte antigen, the protein which we call now HLA-A2. Some years later Baruj Benacerraf showed that polymorphic MHC genes not only determine an individual’s unique constitution of antigens but also regulate the interaction among the various cells of the immunological system. These three scientists have been awarded the 1980 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries concerning “genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions”.
The first fully sequenced and annotated MHC was published for humans in 1999 by a consortium of sequencing centers from the UK, USA and Japan in Nature. It was a "virtual MHC" since it was a mosaic from different individuals. A much shorter MHC locus from chickens was published in the same issue of Nature. Many other species have been sequenced and the evolution of the MHC was studied, e.g. in the gray short-tailed opossum (Monodelphis domestica), a marsupial, MHC spans 3.95 Mb, yielding 114 genes, 87 shared with humans. Marsupial MHC genotypic variation lies between eutherian mammals and birds, taken as the minimal MHC encoding, but is closer in organization to that of nonmammals. The IPD-MHC Database was created which provides a centralised repository for sequences of the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) from a number of different species. The database contains 77 species for the release from 2019-12-19.
Genes
The MHC locus is present in all jawed vertebrates, it is assumed to have arisen about 450 million years ago. Despite the difference in the number of genes included in the MHC of different species, the overall organization of the locus is rather similar. Usual MHC contains about a hundred genes and pseudogenes, not all of them are involved in immunity. In humans, the MHC region occurs on chromosome 6, between the flanking genetic markers MOG and COL11A2 (from 6p22.1 to 6p21.3 about 29Mb to 33Mb on the hg38 assembly), and contains 224 genes spanning 3.6 megabase pairs (3 600 000 bases). About half have known immune functions. The human MHC is also called the HLA (human leukocyte antigen) complex (often just the HLA). Similarly, there is SLA (Swine leukocyte antigens), BoLA (Bovine leukocyte antigens), DLA for dogs, etc. However, historically, the MHC in mice is called the Histocompatibility system 2 or just the H-2, in rats - RT1, and in chicken - B-locus.
The MHC gene family is divided into three subgroups: MHC class I, MHC class II, and MHC class III. Among all those genes present in MHC, there are two types of genes coding for the proteins MHC class I molecules and MHC class II molecules that are directly involved in the antigen presentation. These genes are highly polymorphic, 19031 alleles of class I HLA, and 7183 of class II HLA are deposited for human in the IMGT database.
Proteins
MHC class I
MHC class I molecules are expressed in all nucleated cells and also in platelets—in essence all cells but red blood cells. It presents epitopes to killer T cells, also called cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). A CTL expresses CD8 receptors, in addition to T-cell receptors (TCR)s. When a CTL's CD8 receptor docks to a MHC class I molecule, if the CTL's TCR fits the epitope within the MHC class I molecule, the CTL triggers the cell to undergo programmed cell death by apoptosis. Thus, MHC class I helps mediate cellular immunity, a primary means to address intracellular pathogens, such as viruses and some bacteria, including bacterial L forms, bacterial genus Mycoplasma, and bacterial genus Rickettsia. In humans, MHC class I comprises HLA-A, HLA-B, and HLA-C molecules.
The first crystal structure of Class I MHC molecule, human HLA-A2, was published in 1989. The structure revealed that MHC-I molecules are heterodimers, they have polymorphic heavy α-subunit whose gene occurs inside the MHC locus and small invariant β2 microglobulin subunit whose gene is located usually outside of it. Polymorphic heavy chain of MHC-I molecule contains N-terminal extra-cellular region composed by three domains, α1, α2, and α3, transmembrane helix to hold MHC-I molecule on the cell surface and short cytoplasmic tail. Two domains, α1 and α2 form deep peptide-binding groove between two long α-helices and the floor of the groove formed by eight β-strands. Immunoglobulin-like domain α3 involved in the interaction with CD8 co-receptor. β2 microglobulin provides stability of the complex and participates in the recognition of peptide-MHC class I complex by CD8 co-receptor. The peptide is non-covalently bound to MHC-I, it is held by the several pockets on the floor of the peptide-binding groove. Amino acid side-chains that are most polymorphic in human alleles fill up the central and widest portion of the binding groove, while conserved side-chains are clustered at the narrower ends of the groove.
Classical MHC molecules present epitopes to the TCRs of CD8+ T lymphocytes. Nonclassical molecules (MHC class IB) exhibit limited polymorphism, expression patterns, and presented antigens; this group is subdivided into a group encoded within MHC loci (e.g., HLA-E, -F, -G), as well as those not (e.g., stress ligands such as ULBPs, Rae1, and H60); the antigen/ligand for many of these molecules remain unknown, but they can interact with each of CD8+ T cells, NKT cells, and NK cells. The evolutionary oldest nonclassical MHC class I lineage in human was deduced to be the lineage that includes the CD1 and PROCR (alias EPCR) molecules, and this lineage may have been established before the origin of tetrapod species. However, the only nonclassical MHC class I lineage for which evidence exists that it was established before the evolutionary separation of Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) and Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish plus tetrapods) is lineage Z of which members are found, together in each species with classical MHC class I, in lungfish and throughout ray-finned fishes; why the Z lineage was well conserved in ray-finned fish but lost in tetrapods is not understood.
MHC class II
MHC class II can be conditionally expressed by all cell types, but normally occurs only on "professional" antigen-presenting cells (APCs): macrophages, B cells, and especially dendritic cells (DCs). An APC takes up an antigenic protein, performs antigen processing, and returns a molecular fraction of it—a fraction termed the epitope—and displays it on the APC's surface coupled within an MHC class II molecule (antigen presentation). On the cell's surface, the epitope can be recognized by immunologic structures like T-cell receptors (TCRs). The molecular region which binds to the epitope is the paratope.
On surfaces of helper T cells are CD4 receptors, as well as TCRs. When a naive helper T cell's CD4 molecule docks to an APC's MHC class II molecule, its TCR can meet and bind the epitope coupled within the MHC class II. This event primes the naive T cell. According to the local milieu, that is, the balance of cytokines secreted by APCs in the microenvironment, the naive helper T cell (Th0) polarizes into either a memory Th cell or an effector Th cell of phenotype either type 1 (Th1), type 2 (Th2), type 17 (Th17), or regulatory/suppressor (Treg), as so far identified, the Th cell's terminal differentiation.
MHC class II thus mediates immunization to—or, if APCs polarize Th0 cells principally to Treg cells, immune tolerance of—an antigen. The polarization during primary exposure to an antigen is key in determining a number of chronic diseases, such as inflammatory bowel diseases and asthma, by skewing the immune response that memory Th cells coordinate when their memory recall is triggered upon secondary exposure to similar antigens. B cells express MHC class II to present antigens to Th0, but when their B cell receptors bind matching epitopes, interactions which are not mediated by MHC, these activated B cells secrete soluble immunoglobulins: antibody molecules mediating humoral immunity.
Class II MHC molecules are also heterodimers, genes for both α and β subunits are polymorphic and located within MHC class II subregion. Peptide-binding groove of MHC-II molecules is forms by N-terminal domains of both subunits of the heterodimer, α1 and β1, unlike MHC-I molecules, where two domains of the same chain are involved. In addition, both subunits of MHC-II contain transmembrane helix and immunoglobulin domains α2 or β2 that can be recognized by CD4 co-receptors. In this way MHC molecules chaperone which type of lymphocytes may bind to the given antigen with high affinity, since different lymphocytes express different T-Cell Receptor (TCR) co-receptors.
MHC class II molecules in humans have five to six isotypes. Classical molecules present peptides to CD4+ lymphocytes. Nonclassical molecules, accessories, with intracellular functions, are not exposed on cell membranes, but in internal membranes, assisting with the loading of antigenic peptides onto classic MHC class II molecules. The important nonclassical MHC class II molecule DM is only found from the evolutionary level of lungfish, although also in more primitive fishes both classical and nonclassical MHC class II are found.
MHC class III
Class III molecules have physiologic roles unlike classes I and II, but are encoded between them in the short arm of human chromosome 6. Class III molecules include several secreted proteins with immune functions: components of the complement system (such as C2, C4, and B factor), cytokines (such as TNF-α, LTA, and LTB), and heat shock proteins.
Function
MHC is the tissue-antigen that allows the immune system (more specifically T cells) to bind to, recognize, and tolerate itself (autorecognition). MHC is also the chaperone for intracellular peptides that are complexed with MHCs and presented to T cell receptors (TCRs) as potential foreign antigens. MHC interacts with TCR and its co-receptors to optimize binding conditions for the TCR-antigen interaction, in terms of antigen binding affinity and specificity, and signal transduction effectiveness.
Essentially, the MHC-peptide complex is a complex of auto-antigen/allo-antigen. Upon binding, T cells should in principle tolerate the auto-antigen, but activate when exposed to the allo-antigen. Disease states occur when this principle is disrupted.
Antigen presentation: MHC molecules bind to both T cell receptor and CD4/CD8 co-receptors on T lymphocytes, and the antigen epitope held in the peptide-binding groove of the MHC molecule interacts with the variable Ig-Like domain of the TCR to trigger T-cell activation
Autoimmune reaction: Having some MHC molecules increases the risk of autoimmune diseases more than having others. HLA-B27 is an example. It is unclear how exactly having the HLA-B27 tissue type increases the risk of ankylosing spondylitis and other associated inflammatory diseases, but mechanisms involving aberrant antigen presentation or T cell activation have been hypothesized.
Tissue allorecognition: MHC molecules in complex with peptide epitopes are essentially ligands for TCRs. T cells become activated by binding to the peptide-binding grooves of any MHC molecule that they were not trained to recognize during positive selection in the thymus.
Antigen processing and presentation
Peptides are processed and presented by two classical pathways:
In MHC class II, phagocytes such as macrophages and immature dendritic cells take up entities by phagocytosis into phagosomes—though B cells exhibit the more general endocytosis into endosomes—which fuse with lysosomes whose acidic enzymes cleave the uptaken protein into many different peptides. Via physicochemical dynamics in molecular interaction with the particular MHC class II variants borne by the host, encoded in the host's genome, a particular peptide exhibits immunodominance and loads onto MHC class II molecules. These are trafficked to and externalized on the cell surface.
In MHC class I, any nucleated cell normally presents cytosolic peptides, mostly self peptides derived from protein turnover and defective ribosomal products. During viral infection, intracellular microorganism infection, or cancerous transformation, such proteins degraded in the proteosome are as well loaded onto MHC class I molecules and displayed on the cell surface. T lymphocytes can detect a peptide displayed at 0.1%-1% of the MHC molecules.
T lymphocyte recognition restrictions
In their development in the thymus, T lymphocytes are selected to recognize MHC molecules of the host, but not recognize other self antigens. Following selection, each T lymphocyte shows dual specificity: The TCR recognizes self MHC, but only non-self antigens.
MHC restriction occurs during lymphocyte development in the thymus through a process known as positive selection. T cells that do not receive a positive survival signal — mediated mainly by thymic epithelial cells presenting self peptides bound to MHC molecules — to their TCR undergo apoptosis. Positive selection ensures that mature T cells can functionally recognize MHC molecules in the periphery (i.e. elsewhere in the body).
The TCRs of T lymphocytes recognise only sequential epitopes, also called linear epitopes, of only peptides and only if coupled within an MHC molecule. (Antibody molecules secreted by activated B cells, though, recognize diverse epitopes—peptide, lipid, carbohydrate, and nucleic acid—and recognize conformational epitopes, which have three-dimensional structure.)
In sexual mate selection
MHC molecules enable immune system surveillance of the population of protein molecules in a host cell, and greater MHC diversity permits greater diversity of antigen presentation. In 1976, Yamazaki et al demonstrated a sexual selection mate choice by male mice for females of a different MHC. Similar results have been obtained with fish. Some data find lower rates of early pregnancy loss in human couples of dissimilar MHC genes.
MHC may be related to mate choice in some human populations, a theory that found support by studies by Ober and colleagues in 1997, as well as by Chaix and colleagues in 2008. However, the latter findings have been controversial. If it exists, the phenomenon might be mediated by olfaction, as MHC phenotype appears strongly involved in the strength and pleasantness of perceived odour of compounds from sweat. Fatty acid esters—such as methyl undecanoate, methyl decanoate, methyl nonanoate, methyl octanoate, and methyl hexanoate—show strong connection to MHC.
In 1995, Claus Wedekind found that in a group of female college students who smelled T-shirts worn by male students for two nights (without deodorant, cologne, or scented soaps), by far most women chose shirts worn by men of dissimilar MHCs, a preference reversed if the women were on oral contraceptives. In 2005 in a group of 58 subjects, women were more indecisive when presented with MHCs like their own, although with oral contraceptives, the women showed no particular preference. No studies show the extent to which odor preference determines mate selection (or vice versa).
Evolutionary diversity
Most mammals have MHC variants similar to those of humans, who bear great allelic diversity, especially among the nine classical genes—seemingly due largely to gene duplication—though human MHC regions have many pseudogenes. The most diverse loci, namely HLA-A, HLA-B, and HLA-C, have roughly 6000, 7200, and 5800 known alleles, respectively. Many HLA alleles are ancient, sometimes of closer homology to a chimpanzee MHC alleles than to some other human alleles of the same gene.
MHC allelic diversity has challenged evolutionary biologists for explanation. Most posit balancing selection (see polymorphism (biology)), which is any natural selection process whereby no single allele is absolutely most fit, such as frequency-dependent selection and heterozygote advantage. Pathogenic coevolution, as a type of balancing selection, posits that common alleles are under greatest pathogenic pressure, driving positive selection of uncommon alleles—moving targets, so to say, for pathogens. As pathogenic pressure on the previously common alleles decreases, their frequency in the population stabilizes, and remain circulating in a large population. Genetic drift is also a major driving force in some species. It is possible that the combined effects of some or all of these factors cause the genetic diversity.
MHC diversity has also been suggested as a possible indicator for conservation, because large, stable populations tend to display greater MHC diversity, than smaller, isolated populations. Small, fragmented populations that have experienced a population bottleneck typically have lower MHC diversity. For example, relatively low MHC diversity has been observed in the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber), and giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). In 2007 low MHC diversity was attributed a role in disease susceptibility in the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii), native to the isolated island of Tasmania, such that an antigen of a transmissible tumor, involved in devil facial tumour disease, appears to be recognized as a self antigen. To offset inbreeding, efforts to sustain genetic diversity in populations of endangered species and of captive animals have been suggested.
In ray-finned fish like rainbow trout, allelic polymorphism in MHC class II is reminiscent of that in mammals and predominantly maps to the peptide binding groove. However, in MHC class I of many teleost fishes, the allelic polymorphism is much more extreme than in mammals in the sense that the sequence identity levels between alleles can be very low and the variation extends far beyond the peptide binding groove. It has been speculated that this type of MHC class I allelic variation contributes to allograft rejection, which may be especially important in fish to avoid grafting of cancer cells through their mucosal skin.
The MHC locus (6p21.3) has 3 other paralogous loci in the human genome, namely 19pl3.1, 9q33-q34, and 1q21-q25. It is believed that the loci arouse from the two-round duplications in vertebrates of a single ProtoMHC locus, and the new domain organizations of the MHC genes were a result of later cis-duplication and exon shuffling in a process termed "the MHC Big Bang." Genes in this locus are apparently linked to intracellular intrinsic immunity in the basal Metazoan Trichoplax adhaerens.
In transplant rejection
In a transplant procedure, as of an organ or stem cells, MHC molecules themselves act as antigens and can provoke immune response in the recipient, thus causing transplant rejection. MHC molecules were identified and named after their role in transplant rejection between mice of different strains, though it took over 20 years to clarify MHC's role in presenting peptide antigens to cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs).
Each human cell expresses six MHC class I alleles (one HLA-A, -B, and -C allele from each parent) and six to eight MHC class II alleles (one HLA-DP and -DQ, and one or two HLA-DR from each parent, and combinations of these). The MHC variation in the human population is high, at least 350 alleles for HLA-A genes, 620 alleles for HLA-B, 400 alleles for DR, and 90 alleles for DQ. Any two individuals who are not identical twins will express differing MHC molecules. All MHC molecules can mediate transplant rejection, but HLA-C and HLA-DP, showing low polymorphism, seem least important.
When maturing in the thymus, T lymphocytes are selected for their TCR incapacity to recognize self antigens, yet T lymphocytes can react against the donor MHC's peptide-binding groove, the variable region of MHC holding the presented antigen's epitope for recognition by TCR, the matching paratope. T lymphocytes of the recipient take the incompatible peptide-binding groove as nonself antigen.
Transplant rejection has various types known to be mediated by MHC (HLA):
Hyperacute rejection occurs when, before the transplantation, the recipient has preformed anti-HLA antibodies, perhaps by previous blood transfusions (donor tissue that includes lymphocytes expressing HLA molecules), by anti-HLA generated during pregnancy (directed at the father's HLA displayed by the fetus), or by previous transplantation;
Acute cellular rejection occurs when the recipient's T lymphocytes are activated by the donor tissue, causing damage via mechanisms such as direct cytotoxicity from CD8 cells.
Acute humoral rejection and chronic disfunction occurs when the recipient's anti-HLA antibodies form directed at HLA molecules present on endothelial cells of the transplanted tissue.
In all of the above situations, immunity is directed at the transplanted organ, sustaining lesions. A cross-reaction test between potential donor cells and recipient serum seeks to detect presence of preformed anti-HLA antibodies in the potential recipient that recognize donor HLA molecules, so as to prevent hyperacute rejection. In normal circumstances, compatibility between HLA-A, -B, and -DR molecules is assessed. The higher the number of incompatibilities, the lower the five-year survival rate. Global databases of donor information enhance the search for compatible donors.
The involvement in allogeneic transplant rejection appears to be an ancient feature of MHC molecules, because also in fish associations between transplant rejections and (mis-)matching of MHC class I and MHC class II were observed.
HLA biology
Human MHC class I and II are also called human leukocyte antigen (HLA). To clarify the usage, some of the biomedical literature uses HLA to refer specifically to the HLA protein molecules and reserves MHC for the region of the genome that encodes for this molecule, but this is not a consistent convention.
The most studied HLA genes are the nine classical MHC genes: HLA-A, HLA-B, HLA-C, HLA-DPA1, HLA-DPB1, HLA-DQA1, HLA-DQB1, HLA-DRA, and HLA-DRB1. In humans, the MHC gene cluster is divided into three regions: classes I, II, and III. The A, B and C genes belong to MHC class I, whereas the six D genes belong to class II.
MHC alleles are expressed in codominant fashion. This means the alleles (variants) inherited from both parents are expressed equally:
Each person carries 2 alleles of each of the 3 class-I genes, (HLA-A, HLA-B and HLA-C), and so can express six different types of MHC-I (see figure).
In the class-II locus, each person inherits a pair of HLA-DP genes (DPA1 and DPB1, which encode α and β chains), a couple of genes HLA-DQ (DQA1 and DQB1, for α and β chains), one gene HLA-DRα (DRA1), and one or more genes HLA-DRβ (DRB1 and DRB3, -4 or -5). That means that one heterozygous individual can inherit six or eight functioning class-II alleles, three or more from each parent. The role of DQA2 or DQB2 is not verified. The DRB2, DRB6, DRB7, DRB8 and DRB9 are pseudogenes.
The set of alleles that is present in each chromosome is called the MHC haplotype. In humans, each HLA allele is named with a number. For instance, for a given individual, his haplotype might be HLA-A2, HLA-B5, HLA-DR3, etc... Each heterozygous individual will have two MHC haplotypes, one each from the paternal and maternal chromosomes.
The MHC genes are highly polymorphic; many different alleles exist in the different individuals inside a population. The polymorphism is so high, in a mixed population (nonendogamic), no two individuals have exactly the same set of MHC molecules, with the exception of identical twins.
The polymorphic regions in each allele are located in the region for peptide contact. Of all the peptides that could be displayed by MHC, only a subset will bind strongly enough to any given HLA allele, so by carrying two alleles for each gene, each encoding specificity for unique antigens, a much larger set of peptides can be presented.
On the other hand, inside a population, the presence of many different alleles ensures there will always be an individual with a specific MHC molecule able to load the correct peptide to recognize a specific microbe. The evolution of the MHC polymorphism ensures that a population will not succumb to a new pathogen or a mutated one, because at least some individuals will be able to develop an adequate immune response to win over the pathogen. The variations in the MHC molecules (responsible for the polymorphism) are the result of the inheritance of different MHC molecules, and they are not induced by recombination, as it is the case for the antigen receptors.
Because of the high levels of allelic diversity found within its genes, MHC has also attracted the attention of many evolutionary biologists.
See also
Cell-mediated immunity
Disassortative sexual selection
Humoral immunity
MHC multimer
Pheromone
Streptamer
Transplant rejection
Notes and references
Bibliography
External links
Molecular Individuality—German online book (2012)
NetMHC 3.0 server—predicts binding of peptides to a number of different MHC (HLA) alleles
T-cell Group—Cardiff University
The story of 2YF6: A Chicken MHC
RCSB Protein Data Bank: Molecule of the Month—Major Histocompatibility Complex
dbMHC Home, NCBI's database of the Major Histocompatibility Complex
Gene families
Glycoproteins
Immune system
Single-pass transmembrane proteins
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211952
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentameter
|
Pentameter
|
Pentameter (, 'measuring five (feet)') is a poetic meter. А poem is said to be written in a particular pentameter when the lines of the poem have the length of five feet, where a 'foot' is a combination of a particular number (1 or 2) of unstressed (or weak) syllables and a stressed (or strong) syllable. Depending on the pattern of feet, pentameter can be iambic (one of three two-syllable meters alongside trochaic and spondaic) or dactylic (one of two three-syllable meters alongside anapestic).
Poetic form
|
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211955
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural%20killer%20cell
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Natural killer cell
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Natural killer cells, also known as NK cells or large granular lymphocytes (LGL), are a type of cytotoxic lymphocyte critical to the innate immune system that belong to the rapidly expanding family of innate lymphoid cells (ILC) and represent 5–20% of all circulating lymphocytes in humans. The role of NK cells is analogous to that of cytotoxic T cells in the vertebrate adaptive immune response. NK cells provide rapid responses to virus-infected cell and other intracellular pathogens acting at around 3 days after infection, and respond to tumor formation. Typically, immune cells detect the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) presented on infected cell surfaces, triggering cytokine release, causing the death of the infected cell by lysis or apoptosis. NK cells are unique, however, as they have the ability to recognize and kill stressed cells in the absence of antibodies and MHC, allowing for a much faster immune reaction. They were named "natural killers" because of the notion that they do not require activation to kill cells that are missing "self" markers of MHC class 1. This role is especially important because harmful cells that are missing MHC I markers cannot be detected and destroyed by other immune cells, such as T lymphocyte cells.
NK cells can be identified by the presence of CD56 and the absence of CD3 (CD56+, CD3−). NK cells (belonging to the group of innate lymphoid cells) are one of the three kinds of cells differentiated from the common lymphoid progenitor, the other two being B and T lymphocytes. NK cells are known to differentiate and mature in the bone marrow, lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, and thymus, where they then enter into the circulation. NK cells differ from natural killer T cells (NKTs) phenotypically, by origin and by respective effector functions; often, NKT cell activity promotes NK cell activity by secreting interferon gamma. In contrast to NKT cells, NK cells do not express T-cell antigen receptors (TCR) or pan T marker CD3 or surface immunoglobulins (Ig) B cell receptors, but they usually express the surface markers CD16 (FcγRIII) and CD57 in humans, NK1.1 or NK1.2 in C57BL/6 mice. The NKp46 cell surface marker constitutes, at the moment, another NK cell marker of preference being expressed in both humans, several strains of mice (including BALB/c mice) and in three common monkey species.
In addition to natural killer cells being effectors of innate immunity, both activating and inhibitory NK cell receptors play important functional roles, including self tolerance and the sustaining of NK cell activity. NK cells also play a role in the adaptive immune response: numerous experiments have demonstrated their ability to readily adjust to the immediate environment and formulate antigen-specific immunological memory, fundamental for responding to secondary infections with the same antigen. The role of NK cells in both the innate and adaptive immune responses is becoming increasingly important in research using NK cell activity as a potential cancer therapy.
Early History
In early experiments on cell-mediated cytotoxicity against tumor target cells, both in cancer patients and animal models, investigators consistently observed what was termed a "natural" reactivity; that is, a certain population of cells seemed to be able to lyse tumor cells without having been previously sensitized to them. The first published study to assert that untreated lymphoid cells were able to confer a natural immunity to tumors was performed by Dr. Henry Smith at the University of Leeds School of Medicine in 1966, leading to the conclusion that the "phenomenon appear[ed] to be an expression of defense mechanisms to tumor growth present in normal mice." Other researchers had also made similar observations, but as these discoveries were inconsistent with the established model at the time, many initially considered these observations to be artifacts.
By 1973, 'natural killing' activity was established across a wide variety of species, and the existence of a separate lineage of cells possessing this ability was postulated. The discovery that a unique type of lymphocyte was responsible for "natural" or spontaneous cytotoxicity was made in the early 1970s by doctoral student Rolf Kiessling and postdoctoral fellow Hugh Pross, in the mouse, and by Hugh Pross and doctoral student Mikael Jondal in the human. The mouse and human work was carried out under the supervision of professors Eva Klein and Hans Wigzell, respectively, of the Karolinska Institute, Stockholm. Kiessling's research involved the well-characterized ability of T lymphocytes to lyse tumor cells against which they had been previously immunized. Pross and Jondal were studying cell-mediated cytotoxicity in normal human blood and the effect of the removal of various receptor-bearing cells on this cytotoxicity. Later that same year, Ronald Herberman published similar data with respect to the unique nature of the mouse effector cell.
The human data were confirmed, for the most part, by West et al. using similar techniques and the same erythroleukemic target cell line, K562. K562 is highly sensitive to lysis by human NK cells and, over the decades, the K562 51chromium-release assay has become the most commonly used assay to detect human NK functional activity. Its almost universal use has meant that experimental data can be compared easily by different laboratories around the world.
Using discontinuous density centrifugation, and later monoclonal antibodies, natural killing ability was mapped to the subset of large, granular lymphocytes known today as NK cells. The demonstration that density gradient-isolated large granular lymphocytes were responsible for human NK activity, made by Timonen and Saksela in 1980, was the first time that NK cells had been visualized microscopically, and was a major breakthrough in the field.
NK cell subsets
NK cells can be classified as CD56bright or CD56dim. CD56bright NK cells are similar to T helper cells in exerting their influence by releasing cytokines. CD56bright NK cells constitute the majority of NK cells, being found in bone marrow, secondary lymphoid tissue, liver, and skin. CD56dim NK cells are primarily found in the peripheral blood, and are characterized by their cell killing ability. CD56dim NK cells are always CD16 positive (CD16 is the key mediator of antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). CD56bright can transition into CD56dim by acquiring CD16.
NK cells can eliminate virus-infected cells via CD16-mediated ADCC. All coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients show depleted CD56bright NK cells, but CD56dim is only depleted in patients with severe COVID-19.
NK cell receptors
NK cell receptors can also be differentiated based on function. Natural cytotoxicity receptors directly induce apoptosis (cell death) after binding to Fas ligand that directly indicate infection of a cell. The MHC-independent receptors (described above) use an alternate pathway to induce apoptosis in infected cells. Natural killer cell activation is determined by the balance of inhibitory and activating receptor stimulation. For example, if the inhibitory receptor signaling is more prominent, then NK cell activity will be inhibited; similarly, if the activating signal is dominant, then NK cell activation will result.
NK cell receptor types (with inhibitory, as well as some activating members) are differentiated by structure, with a few examples to follow:
Activating receptors
Ly49 (homodimers), relatively ancient, C-type lectin family receptors, are of multigenic presence in mice, while humans have only one pseudogenic Ly49, the receptor for classical (polymorphic) MHC I molecules.
NCR (natural cytotoxicity receptors), type 1 transmembrane proteins of the immunoglobulin superfamily, upon stimulation mediate NK killing and release of IFNγ. They bind viral ligands such as hemagglutinins and hemagglutinin neuraminidases, some bacterial ligands and cellular ligands related to tumour growth such as PCNA.
CD16 (FcγIIIA) plays a role in antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity; in particular, they bind Immunoglobulin G.
Inhibitory receptors
Killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIRs) belong to a multigene family of more recently evolved Ig-like extracellular domain receptors; they are present in nonhuman primates, and are the main receptors for both classical MHC I (HLA-A, HLA-B, HLA-C) and nonclassical Mamu-G (HLA-G) in primates. Some KIRs are specific for certain HLA subtypes. Most KIRs are inhibitory and dominant. Regular cells express MHC class 1, so are recognised by KIR receptors and NK cell killing is inhibited.
CD94/NKG2 (heterodimers), a C-type lectin family receptor, is conserved in both rodents and primates and identifies nonclassical (also nonpolymorphic) MHC I molecules such as HLA-E. Expression of HLA-E at the cell surface is dependent on the presence of nonamer peptide epitope derived from the signal sequence of classical MHC class I molecules, which is generated by the sequential action of signal peptide peptidase and the proteasome. Though indirect, this is a way to survey the levels of classical (polymorphic) HLA molecules.
ILT or LIR (immunoglobulin-like receptor) — are recently discovered members of the Ig receptor family.
Ly49 (homodimers) have both activating and inhibitory isoforms. They are highly polymorphic on the population level; though they are structurally unrelated to KIRs, they are the functional homologues of KIRs in mice, including the expression pattern. Ly49s are receptor for classical (polymorphic) MHC I molecules.
Function
Cytolytic granule mediated cell apoptosis
NK cells are cytotoxic; small granules in their cytoplasm contain proteins such as perforin and proteases known as granzymes. Upon release in close proximity to a cell slated for killing, perforin forms pores in the cell membrane of the target cell, creating an aqueous channel through which the granzymes and associated molecules can enter, inducing either apoptosis or osmotic cell lysis. The distinction between apoptosis and cell lysis is important in immunology: lysing a virus-infected cell could potentially release the virions, whereas apoptosis leads to destruction of the virus inside. α-defensins, antimicrobial molecules, are also secreted by NK cells, and directly kill bacteria by disrupting their cell walls in a manner analogous to that of neutrophils.
Antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC)
Infected cells are routinely opsonized with antibodies for detection by immune cells. Antibodies that bind to antigens can be recognised by FcγRIII (CD16) receptors expressed on NK cells, resulting in NK activation, release of cytolytic granules and consequent cell apoptosis. This is a major killing mechanism of some monoclonal antibodies like rituximab (Rituxan), ofatumumab (Azzera), and others. The contribution of antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity to tumor cell killing can be measured with a specific test that uses NK-92, an immortal line of NK-like cells licensed to NantKwest, Inc.: the response of NK-92 cells that have been transfected with a high-affinity Fc receptor are compared to that of the "wild type" NK-92 which does not express the Fc receptor.
Cytokine-induced NK and Cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) activation
Cytokines play a crucial role in NK cell activation. As these are stress molecules released by cells upon viral infection, they serve to signal to the NK cell the presence of viral pathogens in the affected area. Cytokines involved in NK activation include IL-12, IL-15, IL-18, IL-2, and CCL5. NK cells are activated in response to interferons or macrophage-derived cytokines. They serve to contain viral infections while the adaptive immune response generates antigen-specific cytotoxic T cells that can clear the infection. NK cells work to control viral infections by secreting IFNγ and TNFα. IFNγ activates macrophages for phagocytosis and lysis, and TNFα acts to promote direct NK tumor cell killing. Patients deficient in NK cells prove to be highly susceptible to early phases of herpes virus infection.
Missing 'self' hypothesis
For NK cells to defend the body against viruses and other pathogens, they require mechanisms that enable the determination of whether a cell is infected or not. The exact mechanisms remain the subject of current investigation, but recognition of an "altered self" state is thought to be involved. To control their cytotoxic activity, NK cells possess two types of surface receptors: activating receptors and inhibitory receptors, including killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptors. Most of these receptors are not unique to NK cells and can be present in some T cell subsets, as well.
The inhibitory receptors recognize MHC class I alleles, which could explain why NK cells preferentially kill cells that possess low levels of MHC class I molecules. This mode of NK cell target interaction is known as "missing-self recognition", a term coined by Klas Kärre and co-workers in the late 90s. MHC class I molecules are the main mechanism by which cells display viral or tumor antigens to cytotoxic T cells. A common evolutionary adaptation to this is seen in both intracellular microbes and tumors: the chronic down-regulation of MHC I molecules, which makes affected cells invisible to T cells, allowing them to evade T cell-mediated immunity. NK cells apparently evolved as an evolutionary response to this adaptation (the loss of the MHC eliminates CD4/CD8 action, so another immune cell evolved to fulfill the function).
Tumor cell surveillance
Natural killer cells often lack antigen-specific cell surface receptors, so are part of innate immunity, i.e. able to react immediately with no prior exposure to the pathogen. In both mice and humans, NKs can be seen to play a role in tumor immunosurveillance by directly inducing the death of tumor cells (NKs act as cytolytic effector lymphocytes), even in the absence of surface adhesion molecules and antigenic peptides. This role of NK cells is critical to immune success particularly because T cells are unable to recognize pathogens in the absence of surface antigens. Tumor cell detection results in activation of NK cells and consequent cytokine production and release.
If tumor cells do not cause inflammation, they will also be regarded as self and will not induce a T cell response. A number of cytokines are produced by NKs, including tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), IFNγ, and interleukin (IL-10). TNFα and IL-10 act as proinflammatory and immunosuppressors, respectively. The activation of NK cells and subsequent production of cytolytic effector cells impacts macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils, which subsequently enables antigen-specific T and B cell responses. Instead of acting via antigen-specific receptors, lysis of tumor cells by NK cells is mediated by alternative receptors, including NKG2D, NKp44, NKp46, NKp30, and DNAM. NKG2D is a disulfide-linked homodimer which recognizes a number of ligands, including ULBP and MICA, which are typically expressed on tumor cells. The role of dendritic cell—NK cell interface in immunobiology have been studied and defined as critical for the comprehension of the complex immune system.
NK cells, along with macrophages and several other cell types, express the Fc receptor (FcR) molecule (FC-gamma-RIII = CD16), an activating biochemical receptor that binds the Fc portion of IgG class antibodies. This allows NK cells to target cells against which a humoral response has been gone through and to lyse cells through antibody-dependant cytotoxicity (ADCC). This response depends on the affinity of the Fc receptor expressed on NK cells, which can have high, intermediate, and low affinity for the Fc portion of the antibody. This affinity is determined by the amino acid in position 158 of the protein, which can be phenylalanine (F allele) or valine (V allele). Individuals with high-affinity FcRgammRIII (158 V/V allele) respond better to antibody therapy. This has been shown for lymphoma patients who received the antibody Rituxan. Patients who express the 158 V/V allele had a better antitumor response. Only 15–25% of the population expresses the 158 V/V allele. To determine the ADCC contribution of monoclonal antibodies, NK-92 cells (a "pure" NK cell line) has been transfected with the gene for the high-affinity FcR.
Clearance of senescent cells
Natural killer cells (NK cells) and macrophages play a major role in clearance of senescent cells. Natural killer cells directly kill senescent cells, and produce cytokines which activate macrophages which remove senescent cells.
Natural killer cells can use NKG2D receptors to detect senescent cells, and kill those cells using perforin pore-forming cytolytic protein. CD8+ cytotoxic T-lymphocytes also use NKG2D receptors to detect senescent cells, and promote killing similar to NK cells.
Adaptive features of NK cells—"memory-like", "adaptive" and memory NK cells
The ability to generate memory cells following a primary infection and the consequent rapid immune activation and response to succeeding infections by the same antigen is fundamental to the role that T and B cells play in the adaptive immune response. For many years, NK cells have been considered to be a part of the innate immune system. However, recently increasing evidence suggests that NK cells can display several features that are usually attributed to adaptive immune cells (e.g. T cell responses) such as dynamic expansion and contraction of subsets, increased longevity and a form of immunological memory, characterized by a more potent response upon secondary challenge with the same antigen.
In mice, the majority of research was carried out with murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) and in models of hapten-hypersensitivity reactions. Especially, in the MCMV model, protective memory functions of MCMV-induced NK cells were discovered
and direct recognition of the MCMV-ligand m157 by the receptor Ly49 was demonstrated to be crucial for the generation of adaptive NK cell responses.
In humans, most studies have focused on the expansion of an NK cell subset carrying the activating receptor NKG2C (KLRC2). Such expansions were observed primarily in response to human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), but also in other infections including Hantavirus, Chikungunya virus, HIV, or viral hepatitis. However, whether these virus infections trigger the expansion of adaptive NKG2C+ NK cells or whether other infections result in re-activation of latent HCMV (as suggested for hepatitis
), remains a field of study. Notably, recent research suggests that adaptive NK cells can use the activating receptor NKG2C (KLRC2) to directly bind to human cytomegalovirus-derived peptide antigens and respond to peptide recognition with activation, expansion, and differentiation, a mechanism of responding to virus infections that was previously only known for T cells of the adaptive immune system.
NK cell function in pregnancy
As the majority of pregnancies involve two parents who are not tissue-matched, successful pregnancy requires the mother's immune system to be suppressed. NK cells are thought to be an important cell type in this process. These cells are known as "uterine NK cells" (uNK cells) and they differ from peripheral NK cells. They are in the CD56bright NK cell subset, potent at cytokine secretion, but with low cytotoxic ability and relatively similar to peripheral CD56bright NK cells, with a slightly different receptor profile. These uNK cells are the most abundant leukocytes present in utero in early pregnancy, representing about 70% of leukocytes here, but from where they originate remains controversial.
These NK cells have the ability to elicit cell cytotoxicity in vitro, but at a lower level than peripheral NK cells, despite containing perforin. Lack of cytotoxicity in vivo may be due to the presence of ligands for their inhibitory receptors. Trophoblast cells downregulate HLA-A and HLA-B to defend against cytotoxic T cell-mediated death. This would normally trigger NK cells by missing self recognition; however, these cells survive. The selective retention of HLA-E (which is a ligand for NK cell inhibitory receptor NKG2A) and HLA-G (which is a ligand for NK cell inhibitory receptor KIR2DL4) by the trophoblast is thought to defend it against NK cell-mediated death.
Uterine NK cells have shown no significant difference in women with recurrent miscarriage compared with controls. However, higher peripheral NK cell percentages occur in women with recurrent miscarriages than in control groups.
NK cells secrete a high level of cytokines which help mediate their function. NK cells interact with HLA-C to produce cytokines necessary for trophoblastic proliferation. Some important cytokines they secrete include TNF-α, IL-10, IFN-γ, GM-CSF and TGF-β, among others. For example, IFN-γ dilates and thins the walls of maternal spiral arteries to enhance blood flow to the implantation site.
NK cell evasion by tumor cells
By shedding decoy NKG2D soluble ligands, tumor cells may avoid immune responses. These soluble NKG2D ligands bind to NK cell NKG2D receptors, activating a false NK response and consequently creating competition for the receptor site. This method of evasion occurs in prostate cancer. In addition, prostate cancer tumors can evade CD8 cell recognition due to their ability to downregulate expression of MHC class 1 molecules. This example of immune evasion actually highlights NK cells' importance in tumor surveillance and response, as CD8 cells can consequently only act on tumor cells in response to NK-initiated cytokine production (adaptive immune response).
Excessive NK cells
Experimental treatments with NK cells have resulted in excessive cytokine production, and even septic shock. Depletion of the inflammatory cytokine interferon gamma reversed the effect.
Applications
Anticancer therapy
Tumor-infiltrating NK cells have been reported to play a critical role in promoting drug-induced cell death in human triple-negative breast cancer. Since NK cells recognize target cells when they express nonself HLA antigens (but not self), autologous (patients' own) NK cell infusions have not shown any antitumor effects. Instead, investigators are working on using allogeneic cells from peripheral blood, which requires that all T cells be removed before infusion into the patients to remove the risk of graft versus host disease, which can be fatal. This can be achieved using an immunomagnetic column (CliniMACS). In addition, because of the limited number of NK cells in blood (only 10% of lymphocytes are NK cells), their number needs to be expanded in culture. This can take a few weeks and the yield is donor-dependent. A simpler way to obtain high numbers of pure NK cells is to expand NK-92 cells whose cells continuously grow in culture and can be expanded to clinical grade numbers in bags or bioreactors. Clinical studies have shown it to be well tolerated and some antitumor responses have been seen in patients with lung cancer, melanoma, and lymphoma. However, there are significant limitations associated with NK-92 immunotherapy, as the cell line was derived from a patient with non-Hodgkin lymphoma and thus must be irradiated prior to infusion, thus limiting persistence in vivo. Furthermore, NK-92 cells lack CD-16, making them unable to perform ADCC, preventing this therapy from being used in combination with monoclonal antibody therapies. They can, however, be engineered to include CD16 thus enabling ADCC function and expanding their potential therapeutic utility.
Infusions of T cells engineered to express a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) that recognizes an antigen molecule on leukemia cells could induce remissions in patients with advanced leukemia. Logistical challenges are present for expanding T cells and investigators are working on applying the same technology to peripheral blood NK cells and NK-92. NK-92 cells can be engineered to include both CD16 and CARs to allow them to perform both ADCC mediated killing via IgG1 antibodies and CAR mediated killing from the same cell. One such NK-92 derived cell line called t-haNK has been engineered with both CD16 and an anti-PD-L1 CAR and is currently in clinical development for oncology indications. NK-92.
In a study at Boston Children's Hospital, in coordination with Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, in which immunocompromised mice had contracted lymphomas from EBV infection, an NK-activating receptor called NKG2D was fused with a stimulatory Fc portion of the EBV antibody. The NKG2D-Fc fusion proved capable of reducing tumor growth and prolonging survival of the recipients. In a transplantation model of LMP1-fueled lymphomas, the NKG2D-Fc fusion proved capable of reducing tumor growth and prolonging survival of the recipients.
In Hodgkin lymphoma, in which the malignant Hodgkin Reed-Sternberg cells are typically HLA class I deficient, immune evasion is in part mediated by skewing towards an exhausted PD-1hi NK cell phenotype, and re-activation of these NK cells appears to be one mechanism of action induced by checkpoint-blockade.
New findings
Innate resistance to HIV
Recent research suggests specific KIR-MHC class I gene interactions might control innate genetic resistance to certain viral infections, including HIV and its consequent development of AIDS. Certain HLA allotypes have been found to determine the progression of HIV to AIDS; an example is the HLA-B57 and HLA-B27 alleles, which have been found to delay progression from HIV to AIDS. This is evident because patients expressing these HLA alleles are observed to have lower viral loads and a more gradual decline in CD4+ T cells numbers. Despite considerable research and data collected measuring the genetic correlation of HLA alleles and KIR allotypes, a firm conclusion has not yet been drawn as to what combination provides decreased HIV and AIDS susceptibility.
NK cells can impose immune pressure on HIV, which had previously been described only for T cells and antibodies. HIV mutates to avoid NK cell detection.
Tissue-resident NK cells
Most of our current knowledge is derived from investigations of mouse splenic and human peripheral blood NK cells. However, in recent years tissue-resident NK cell populations have been described. These tissue-resident NK cells share transcriptional similarity to tissue-resident memory T cells described previously. However, tissue-resident NK cells are not necessarily of the memory phenotype, and in fact, majority of the tissue-resident NK cells functionally immature. These specialized NK-cell subsets can play a role in organ homeostasis. For example, NK cells are enriched in the human liver with a specific phenotype and take part in the control of liver fibrosis. Tissue-resident NK cells have also been identified in sites like bone marrow, spleen and more recently, in lung, intestines and lymph nodes. In these sites, tissue-resident NK cells may act as reservoir for maintaining immature NK cells in humans throughout life.
See also
Active hexose correlated compound
Granzymes
Hematopoiesis
Immune system
Interleukin
Lymphatic system
References
Further reading
Perera Molligoda Arachchige A. S. (2021). Human NK cells: From development to effector functions. Innate immunity, 17534259211001512. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F17534259211001512
Cellular and Molecular Immunology by Abul K. Abbas & Andrew Lichtman Saunders Copyright 2003
How the Immune System Works, 2nd edition, by Lauren Sompayrac, PhD Blackwell Publishing 2003
Immunobiology: The Immune System In Health And Disease by Janeway, Travers, Walport & Shlomchik Churchchill Livingstone Copyright 2005
Kuby Immunology, 6th edition, by Thomas J. Kindt, Richard A. Goldsby, and Barbara A. Osborne, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York
External links
Video of natural killer cell
CopeWithCytoKines Portal to definitions of NK-Cells and closely related topics
https://web.archive.org/web/20100122025038/http://www.hfea.gov.uk/fertility-treatment-options-reproductive-immunology.html Reproductive immunology and fertility treatment
http://www.cambridgenetwork.co.uk/news/article/default.aspx?objid=58465
Binns C (June 19, 2006), Natural Body Guards: How Your Killer Cells Get Motivated. Livescience.com. Retrieved on 2007-10-20.
Nkcells.info - MediaWiki-based information platform specializing on natural killer cells
Large granular lymphocyte entry in the public domain NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms
Human cells
Immune system
Lymphocytes
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0.6848723292350769,
0.3788284361362457,
-0.48168429732322693,
0.09719204157590866,
0.42595022916793823
] |
211957
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sh%C5%ABsaku
|
Shūsaku
|
Shūsaku, Shusaku or Shuusaku is a masculine Japanese given name. Notable people with the name include:
, Japanese swordsman
, Japanese professional Go player
, Japanese artist and architect
, Japanese author
, Japanese footballer
, Japanese footballer
, Japanese Paralympic swimmer
, Japanese footballer
Japanese masculine given names
|
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211960
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement
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Reinforcement
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In behavioral psychology, reinforcement is a consequence applied that will strengthen an organism's future behavior whenever that behavior is preceded by a specific antecedent stimulus. This strengthening effect may be measured as a higher frequency of behavior (e.g., pulling a lever more frequently), longer duration (e.g., pulling a lever for longer periods of time), greater magnitude (e.g., pulling a lever with greater force), or shorter latency (e.g., pulling a lever more quickly following the antecedent stimulus).
The model of self regulation which has three main aspects of human behavior which are self awareness, self reflection and self regulation. Reinforcements traditionally align with self regulation. The behavior is determined by the consequence but behavior also needs antecedents. There are four types of reinforcement. Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction, and punishment. Positive reinforcement is the application of a positive reinforcer. Negative reinforcement states that if you do not reach the residents goal, something will happen. Achieve the goal or else.
Extinction involves a behavior that requires no contingent consequence. If something (good or bad) is not reinforced it should in theory disappear. Lastly, punishment is an imposition of aversive consequence upon undesired behavior. Punishment by removal is a common example or removing a benefit following poor performance. While Reinforcement does not require an individual to consciously perceive an effect elicited by the stimulus, it still requires conscious effort to work towards a desired goal.
Rewarding stimuli, which are associated with "wanting" and "liking" (desire and pleasure, respectively) and appetitive behavior, function as positive reinforcers; the converse statement is also true: positive reinforcers provide a desirable stimulus. Reinforcement does not require an individual to consciously perceive an effect elicited by the stimulus. Thus, reinforcement occurs only if there is an observable strengthening in behavior. However, there is also negative reinforcement, which is characterized by taking away an undesirable stimulus. Changing someone's job might serve as a negative reinforcer to someone who suffers from back problems, i.e. Changing from a labourers job to an office position for instance.
In most cases, the term "reinforcement" refers to an enhancement of behavior, but this term is also sometimes used to denote an enhancement of memory; for example, "post-training reinforcement" refers to the provision of a stimulus (such as food) after a learning session in an attempt to increase the retained breadth, detail, and duration of the individual memories or overall memory just formed. The memory-enhancing stimulus can also be one whose effects are directly rather than only indirectly emotional, as with the phenomenon of "flashbulb memory," in which an emotionally highly intense stimulus can incentivize memory of a set of a situation's circumstances well beyond the subset of those circumstances that caused the emotionally significant stimulus, as when people of appropriate age are able to remember where they were and what they were doing when they learned of the assassination of John F. Kennedy or September 11 terrorist attacks.
Reinforcement is an important part of operant or instrumental conditioning.
Terminology
In the behavioral sciences, the terms "positive" and "negative" refer when used in their strict technical sense to the nature of the action performed by the conditioner rather than to the responding operant's evaluation of that action and its consequence(s). "Positive" actions are those that add a factor, be it pleasant or unpleasant, to the environment, whereas "negative" actions are those that remove or withhold from the environment a factor of either type. In turn, the strict sense of "reinforcement" refers only to reward-based conditioning; the introduction of unpleasant factors and the removal or withholding of pleasant factors are instead referred to as "punishment," which when used in its strict sense thus stands in contradistinction to "reinforcement." Thus, "positive reinforcement" refers to the addition of a pleasant factor, "positive punishment" refers to the addition of an unpleasant factor, "negative reinforcement" refers to the removal or withholding of an unpleasant factor, and "negative punishment" refers to the removal or withholding of a pleasant factor.
This usage is at odds with some non-technical usages of the four term combinations, especially in the case of the term "negative reinforcement," which is often used to denote what technical parlance would describe as "positive punishment" in that the non-technical usage interprets "reinforcement" as subsuming both reward and punishment and "negative" as referring to the responding operant's evaluation of the factor being introduced. By contrast, technical parlance would use the term "negative reinforcement" to describe encouragement of a given behavior by creating a scenario in which an unpleasant factor is or will be present but engaging in the behavior results in either escaping from that factor or preventing its occurrence, as in Martin Seligman's experiments involving dogs' learning processes regarding the avoidance of electric shock.
Introduction
B.F. Skinner was a well-known and influential researcher who articulated many of the theoretical constructs of reinforcement and behaviorism. Skinner defined reinforcers according to the change in response strength (response rate) rather than to more subjective criteria, such as what is pleasurable or valuable to someone. Accordingly, activities, foods or items considered pleasant or enjoyable may not necessarily be reinforcing (because they produce no increase in the response preceding them). Stimuli, settings, and activities only fit the definition of reinforcers if the behavior that immediately precedes the potential reinforcer increases in similar situations in the future; for example, a child who receives a cookie when he or she asks for one. If the frequency of "cookie-requesting behavior" increases, the cookie can be seen as reinforcing "cookie-requesting behavior". If however, "cookie-requesting behavior" does not increase the cookie cannot be considered reinforcing.
The sole criterion that determines if a stimulus is reinforcing is the change in probability of a behavior after administration of that potential reinforcer. Other theories may focus on additional factors such as whether the person expected a behavior to produce a given outcome, but in the behavioral theory, reinforcement is defined by an increased probability of a response.
The study of reinforcement has produced an enormous body of reproducible experimental results. Reinforcement is the central concept and procedure in special education, applied behavior analysis, and the experimental analysis of behavior and is a core concept in some medical and psychopharmacology models, particularly addiction, dependence, and compulsion.
Brief history
Laboratory research on reinforcement is usually dated from the work of Edward Thorndike, known for his experiments with cats escaping from puzzle boxes. A number of others continued this research, notably B.F. Skinner, who published his seminal work on the topic in The Behavior of Organisms, in 1938, and elaborated this research in many subsequent publications. Notably Skinner argued that positive reinforcement is superior to punishment in shaping behavior. Though punishment may seem just the opposite of reinforcement, Skinner claimed that they differ immensely, saying that positive reinforcement results in lasting behavioral modification (long-term) whereas punishment changes behavior only temporarily (short-term) and has many detrimental side-effects.
A great many researchers subsequently expanded our understanding of reinforcement and challenged some of Skinner's conclusions. For example, Azrin and Holz defined punishment as a “consequence of behavior that reduces the future probability of that behavior,” and some studies have shown that positive reinforcement and punishment are equally effective in modifying behavior. Research on the effects of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment continue today as those concepts are fundamental to learning theory and apply to many practical applications of that theory.
Operant conditioning
The term operant conditioning was introduced by B. F. Skinner to indicate that in his experimental paradigm the organism is free to operate on the environment. In this paradigm the experimenter cannot trigger the desirable response; the experimenter waits for the response to occur (to be emitted by the organism) and then a potential reinforcer is delivered. In the classical conditioning paradigm the experimenter triggers (elicits) the desirable response by presenting a reflex eliciting stimulus, the Unconditional Stimulus (UCS), which he pairs (precedes) with a neutral stimulus, the Conditional Stimulus (CS).
Reinforcement is a basic term in operant conditioning. For the punishment aspect of operant conditioning – see punishment (psychology).
Positive reinforcement
Positive reinforcement occurs when a desirable event or stimulus is presented as a consequence of a behavior and the chance that this behavior will manifest in similar environments increases.
Example: Whenever a rat presses a button, it gets a treat. If the rat starts pressing the button more often, the treat serves to positively reinforce this behavior.
Example: A father gives candy to his daughter when she tidies up her toys. If the frequency of picking up the toys increases, the candy is a positive reinforcer (to reinforce the behavior of cleaning up).
Example: A company enacts a rewards program in which employees earn prizes dependent on the number of items sold. The prizes the employees receive are the positive reinforcement if they increase sales.
Example: A teacher praises his student when he receives a good grade. The praise the student receives is the positive reinforcement in case the student's grades improve.
Example: A supervisor attaches a monetary reward for the employee who exceeds expectations the most. The monetary reward is the positive reinforcement of the good behavior: exceeding expectations.
The High Probability Instruction (HPI) treatment is a behaviorist psychological treatment based on the idea of positive reinforcement.
Negative reinforcement
Negative reinforcement occurs when the rate of a behavior increases because an aversive event or stimulus is removed or prevented from happening.
Example: A child cleans their room, and this behavior is followed by the parent stopping "nagging" or asking the child repeatedly to do so. Here, the nagging serves to negatively reinforce the behavior of cleaning because the child wants to remove that aversive stimulus of nagging.
Example: A company has a policy that if an employee completes their assigned work by Friday, they can have Saturday off. Working Saturday is the aversive stimulus; the employees have incentive to increase productivity to avoid the aversive stimulus.
Example: An individual leaves early for work to beat traffic and avoid arriving late. The behavior is leaving early for work, and the aversive stimulus the individual wishes to remove is being late to work.
Extinction
Extinction can be intentional or unintentional and happens when an undesired behavior is ignored.
Example (Intended): A young child ignores bullies making fun of them. The bullies do not get a reaction from the child and lose interest in bullying them.
Example (Unintended): A worker has not received any recognition for their above and beyond hard work. They then stop working as hard.
Example (Intended): A cat kept meowing for food in the night. The owners would not feed the cat so the cat stopped meowing through the night.
Reinforcement versus punishment
Reinforcers serve to increase behaviors whereas punishers serve to decrease behaviors; thus, positive reinforcers are stimuli that the subject will work to attain, and negative reinforcers are stimuli that the subject will work to be rid of or to end. The table below illustrates the adding and subtracting of stimuli (pleasant or aversive) in relation to reinforcement vs. punishment.
For example, offering a child candy if he cleans his room is positive reinforcement. Spanking a child if he breaks a window is positive punishment. Taking away a child's toys for misbehaving is negative punishment. Giving a child a break from his chores if he performs well on a test is negative reinforcement. "Positive and negative" do not carry the meaning of "good and bad" in this usage.
Further ideas and concepts
Distinguishing between positive and negative can be difficult and may not always be necessary; focusing on what is being removed or added and how it is being removed or added will determine the nature of the reinforcement.
Negative reinforcement is not punishment. The two, as explained above, differ in the increase (negative reinforcement) or decrease (punishment) of the future probability of a response. In negative reinforcement, the stimulus removed following a response is an aversive stimulus; if this stimulus were presented contingent on a response, it may also function as a positive punisher.
The form of a stimulus is separate from its function in terms of whether it will reinforce or punish behavior. An event that may punish behavior for some may serve to reinforce behavior for others. Example: A child is repeatedly given detention for acting up in school, but the frequency of the bad behavior increases. Thus, the detention may be a reinforcer (could be positive or negative); perhaps the child now gets one-on-one attention from a teacher or perhaps they now avoid going home where they are often abused.
Some reinforcement can be simultaneously positive and negative, such as a drug addict taking drugs for the added euphoria (a positive feeling) and eliminating withdrawal symptoms (which would be a negative feeling). Or, in a warm room, a current of external air serves as positive reinforcement because it is pleasantly cool and as negative reinforcement because it removes uncomfortable hot air.
Reinforcement in the business world is essential in driving productivity. Employees are constantly motivated by the ability to receive a positive stimulus, such as a promotion or a bonus. Employees are also driven by negative reinforcement. This can be seen when employees are offered Saturdays off if they complete the weekly workload by Friday.
Though negative reinforcement has a positive effect in the short term for a workplace (i.e. encourages a financially beneficial action), over-reliance on a negative reinforcement hinders the ability of workers to act in a creative, engaged way creating growth in the long term.
Both positive and negative reinforcement increase behavior. Most people, especially children, will learn to follow instruction by a mix of positive and negative reinforcement.
Limited resources can cause a person to not be able to provide constant reinforcement.
Primary and secondary reinforcers
A primary reinforcer, sometimes called an unconditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus that does not require pairing with a different stimulus in order to function as a reinforcer and most likely has obtained this function through the evolution and its role in species' survival. Examples of primary reinforcers include food, water, and sex. Some primary reinforcers, such as certain drugs, may mimic the effects of other primary reinforcers. While these primary reinforcers are fairly stable through life and across individuals, the reinforcing value of different primary reinforcers varies due to multiple factors (e.g., genetics, experience). Thus, one person may prefer one type of food while another avoids it. Or one person may eat much food while another eats very little. So even though food is a primary reinforcer for both individuals, the value of food as a reinforcer differs between them.
A secondary reinforcer, sometimes called a conditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus or situation that has acquired its function as a reinforcer after pairing with a stimulus that functions as a reinforcer. This stimulus may be a primary reinforcer or another conditioned reinforcer (such as money). An example of a secondary reinforcer would be the sound from a clicker, as used in clicker training. The sound of the clicker has been associated with praise or treats, and subsequently, the sound of the clicker may function as a reinforcer. Another common example is the sound of people clapping – there is nothing inherently positive about hearing that sound, but we have learned that it is associated with praise and rewards.
When trying to distinguish primary and secondary reinforcers in human examples, use the "caveman test." If the stimulus is something that a caveman would naturally find desirable (e.g., candy) then it is a primary reinforcer. If, on the other hand, the caveman would not react to it (e.g., a dollar bill), it is a secondary reinforcer. As with primary reinforcers, an organism can experience satisfaction and deprivation with secondary reinforcers.
Other reinforcement terms
A generalized reinforcer is a conditioned reinforcer that has obtained the reinforcing function by pairing with many other reinforcers and functions as a reinforcer under a wide-variety of motivating operations. (One example of this is money because it is paired with many other reinforcers).
In reinforcer sampling, a potentially reinforcing but unfamiliar stimulus is presented to an organism without regard to any prior behavior.
Socially-mediated reinforcement (direct reinforcement) involves the delivery of reinforcement that requires the behavior of another organism.
The Premack principle is a special case of reinforcement elaborated by David Premack, which states that a highly preferred activity can be used effectively as a reinforcer for a less-preferred activity.
Reinforcement hierarchy is a list of actions, rank-ordering the most desirable to least desirable consequences that may serve as a reinforcer. A reinforcement hierarchy can be used to determine the relative frequency and desirability of different activities, and is often employed when applying the Premack principle.
Contingent outcomes are more likely to reinforce behavior than non-contingent responses. Contingent outcomes are those directly linked to a causal behavior, such a light turning on being contingent on flipping a switch. Note that contingent outcomes are not necessary to demonstrate reinforcement, but perceived contingency may increase learning.
Contiguous stimuli are stimuli closely associated by time and space with specific behaviors. They reduce the amount of time needed to learn a behavior while increasing its resistance to extinction. Giving a dog a piece of food immediately after sitting is more contiguous with (and therefore more likely to reinforce) the behavior than a several minute delay in food delivery following the behavior.
Noncontingent reinforcement refers to response-independent delivery of stimuli identified as reinforcers for some behaviors of that organism. However, this typically entails time-based delivery of stimuli identified as maintaining aberrant behavior, which decreases the rate of the target behavior. As no measured behavior is identified as being strengthened, there is controversy surrounding the use of the term noncontingent "reinforcement".
Natural and artificial
In his 1967 paper, Arbitrary and Natural Reinforcement, Charles Ferster proposed classifying reinforcement into events that increase frequency of an operant as a natural consequence of the behavior itself, and events that are presumed to affect frequency by their requirement of human mediation, such as in a token economy where subjects are "rewarded" for certain behavior with an arbitrary token of a negotiable value.
In 1970, Baer and Wolf created a name for the use of natural reinforcers called "behavior traps". A behavior trap requires only a simple response to enter the trap, yet once entered, the trap cannot be resisted in creating general behavior change. It is the use of a behavioral trap that increases a person's repertoire, by exposing them to the naturally occurring reinforcement of that behavior. Behavior traps have four characteristics:
They are "baited" with virtually irresistible reinforcers that "lure" the student to the trap
Only a low-effort response already in the repertoire is necessary to enter the trap
Interrelated contingencies of reinforcement inside the trap motivate the person to acquire, extend, and maintain targeted academic/social skills
They can remain effective for long periods of time because the person shows few, if any, satiation effects
As can be seen from the above, artificial reinforcement is in fact created to build or develop skills, and to generalize, it is important that either a behavior trap is introduced to "capture" the skill and utilize naturally occurring reinforcement to maintain or increase it. This behavior trap may simply be a social situation that will generally result from a specific behavior once it has met a certain criterion (e.g., if you use edible reinforcers to train a person to say hello and smile at people when they meet them, after that skill has been built up, the natural reinforcer of other people smiling, and having more friendly interactions will naturally reinforce the skill and the edibles can be faded).
Intermittent reinforcement schedules
Much behavior is not reinforced every time it is emitted, and the pattern of intermittent reinforcement strongly affects how fast an operant response is learned, what its rate is at any given time, and how long it continues when reinforcement ceases. The simplest rules controlling reinforcement are continuous reinforcement, where every response is reinforced, and extinction, where no response is reinforced. Between these extremes, more complex "schedules of reinforcement" specify the rules that determine how and when a response will be followed by a reinforcer.
Specific schedules of reinforcement reliably induce specific patterns of response, irrespective of the species being investigated (including humans in some conditions). However, the quantitative properties of behavior under a given schedule depend on the parameters of the schedule, and sometimes on other, non-schedule factors. The orderliness and predictability of behavior under schedules of reinforcement was evidence for B.F. Skinner's claim that by using operant conditioning he could obtain "control over behavior", in a way that rendered the theoretical disputes of contemporary comparative psychology obsolete. The reliability of schedule control supported the idea that a radical behaviorist experimental analysis of behavior could be the foundation for a psychology that did not refer to mental or cognitive processes. The reliability of schedules also led to the development of applied behavior analysis as a means of controlling or altering behavior.
Many of the simpler possibilities, and some of the more complex ones, were investigated at great length by Skinner using pigeons, but new schedules continue to be defined and investigated.
Simple schedules
Ratio schedule – the reinforcement depends only on the number of responses the organism has performed.
Continuous reinforcement (CRF) – a schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of the instrumental response (desired response) is followed by the reinforcer.
Lab example: each time a rat presses a bar it gets a pellet of food.
Real-world example: each time a dog defecates outside its owner gives it a treat; each time a person puts $1 in a candy machine and presses the buttons they receive a candy bar.
Simple schedules have a single rule to determine when a single type of reinforcer is delivered for a specific response.
Fixed ratio (FR) – schedules deliver reinforcement after every nth response. An FR 1 schedule is synonymous with a CRF schedule.
Example: FR 2 = every second desired response the subject makes is reinforced.
Lab example: FR 5 = rat's bar-pressing behavior is reinforced with food after every 5 bar-presses in a Skinner box.
Real-world example: FR 10 = Used car dealer gets a $1000 bonus for each 10 cars sold on the lot.
Variable ratio schedule (VR) – reinforced on average every nth response, but not always on the nth response.
Lab example: VR 4 = first pellet delivered on 2 bar presses, second pellet delivered on 6 bar presses, third pellet 4 bar presses (2 + 6 + 4 = 12; 12 / 3= 4 bar presses to receive pellet).
Real-world example: slot machines (because, though the probability of hitting the jackpot is constant, the number of lever presses needed to hit the jackpot is variable).
Fixed interval (FI) – reinforced after n amount of time.
Example: FI 1-s = reinforcement provided for the first response after 1 second.
Lab example: FI 15-s = rat's bar-pressing behavior is reinforced for the first bar press after 15 seconds passes since the last reinforcement.
Real-world example: FI 30-min = a 30-minute washing machine cycle.
Variable interval (VI) – reinforced on an average of n amount of time, but not always exactly n amount of time.
Example: VI 4-min = first pellet delivered after 2 minutes, second delivered after 6 minutes, third is delivered after 4 minutes (2 + 6 + 4 = 12; 12 / 3 = 4). Reinforcement is delivered on the average after 4 minutes.
Lab example: VI 10-s = a rat's bar-pressing behavior is reinforced for the first bar press after an average of 10 seconds passes since the last reinforcement.
Real-world example: VI 30-min = Going fishing—you might catch a fish after 10 minutes, then have to wait an hour, then have to wait 20 minutes.
Fixed time (FT) – Provides a reinforcing stimulus at a fixed time since the last reinforcement delivery, regardless of whether the subject has responded or not. In other words, it is a non-contingent schedule.
Lab example: FT 5-s = rat gets food every 5 seconds regardless of the behavior.
Real-world example: FT 30-d = a person gets an annuity check every month regardless of behavior between checks
Variable time (VT) – Provides reinforcement at an average variable time since last reinforcement, regardless of whether the subject has responded or not.
Simple schedules are utilized in many differential reinforcement procedures:
Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) - A conditioning procedure in which an undesired response is decreased by placing it on extinction or, less commonly, providing contingent punishment, while simultaneously providing reinforcement contingent on a desirable response. An example would be a teacher attending to a student only when they raise their hand, while ignoring the student when he or she calls out.
Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) – Also known as omission training procedures, an instrumental conditioning procedure in which a positive reinforcer is periodically delivered only if the participant does something other than the target response. An example would be reinforcing any hand action other than nose picking.
Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI) – Used to reduce a frequent behavior without punishing it by reinforcing an incompatible response. An example would be reinforcing clapping to reduce nose picking
Differential reinforcement of low response rate (DRL) – Used to encourage low rates of responding. It is like an interval schedule, except that premature responses reset the time required between behavior.
Lab example: DRL 10-s = a rat is reinforced for the first response after 10 seconds, but if the rat responds earlier than 10 seconds there is no reinforcement and the rat has to wait 10 seconds from that premature response without another response before bar pressing will lead to reinforcement.
Real-world example: "If you ask me for a potato chip no more than once every 10 minutes, I will give it to you. If you ask more often, I will give you none."
Differential reinforcement of high rate (DRH) – Used to increase high rates of responding. It is like an interval schedule, except that a minimum number of responses are required in the interval in order to receive reinforcement.
Lab example: DRH 10-s/FR 15 = a rat must press a bar 15 times within a 10-second increment to get reinforced.
Real-world example: "If Lance Armstrong is going to win the Tour de France he has to pedal x number of times during the y-hour race."
Effects of different types of simple schedules
Fixed ratio: activity slows after reinforcer is delivered, then response rates increase until the next reinforcer delivery (post-reinforcement pause).
Variable ratio: rapid, steady rate of responding; most resistant to extinction.
Fixed interval: responding increases towards the end of the interval; poor resistance to extinction.
Variable interval: steady activity results, good resistance to extinction.
Ratio schedules produce higher rates of responding than interval schedules, when the rates of reinforcement are otherwise similar.
Variable schedules produce higher rates and greater resistance to extinction than most fixed schedules. This is also known as the Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect (PREE).
The variable ratio schedule produces both the highest rate of responding and the greatest resistance to extinction (for example, the behavior of gamblers at slot machines).
Fixed schedules produce "post-reinforcement pauses" (PRP), where responses will briefly cease immediately following reinforcement, though the pause is a function of the upcoming response requirement rather than the prior reinforcement.
The PRP of a fixed interval schedule is frequently followed by a "scallop-shaped" accelerating rate of response, while fixed ratio schedules produce a more "angular" response.
fixed interval scallop: the pattern of responding that develops with fixed interval reinforcement schedule, performance on a fixed interval reflects subject's accuracy in telling time.
Organisms whose schedules of reinforcement are "thinned" (that is, requiring more responses or a greater wait before reinforcement) may experience "ratio strain" if thinned too quickly. This produces behavior similar to that seen during extinction.
Ratio strain: the disruption of responding that occurs when a fixed ratio response requirement is increased too rapidly.
Ratio run: high and steady rate of responding that completes each ratio requirement. Usually higher ratio requirement causes longer post-reinforcement pauses to occur.
Partial reinforcement schedules are more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement schedules.
Ratio schedules are more resistant than interval schedules and variable schedules more resistant than fixed ones.
Momentary changes in reinforcement value lead to dynamic changes in behavior.
Compound schedules
Compound schedules combine two or more different simple schedules in some way using the same reinforcer for the same behavior. There are many possibilities; among those most often used are:
Alternative schedules – A type of compound schedule where two or more simple schedules are in effect and whichever schedule is completed first results in reinforcement.
Conjunctive schedules – A complex schedule of reinforcement where two or more simple schedules are in effect independently of each other, and requirements on all of the simple schedules must be met for reinforcement.
Multiple schedules – Two or more schedules alternate over time, with a stimulus indicating which is in force. Reinforcement is delivered if the response requirement is met while a schedule is in effect.
Example: FR4 when given a whistle and FI6 when given a bell ring.
Mixed schedules – Either of two, or more, schedules may occur with no stimulus indicating which is in force. Reinforcement is delivered if the response requirement is met while a schedule is in effect.
Example: FI6 and then VR3 without any stimulus warning of the change in schedule.
Concurrent schedules – A complex reinforcement procedure in which the participant can choose any one of two or more simple reinforcement schedules that are available simultaneously. Organisms are free to change back and forth between the response alternatives at any time.
Real-world example: changing channels on a television.
Concurrent-chain schedule of reinforcement – A complex reinforcement procedure in which the participant is permitted to choose during the first link which of several simple reinforcement schedules will be in effect in the second link. Once a choice has been made, the rejected alternatives become unavailable until the start of the next trial.
Interlocking schedules – A single schedule with two components where progress in one component affects progress in the other component. In an interlocking FR 60 FI 120-s schedule, for example, each response subtracts time from the interval component such that each response is "equal" to removing two seconds from the FI schedule.
Chained schedules – Reinforcement occurs after two or more successive schedules have been completed, with a stimulus indicating when one schedule has been completed and the next has started
Example: On an FR 10 schedule in the presence a red light, a pigeon pecks a green disc 10 times; then, a yellow light indicates an FR 3 schedule is active; after the pigeon pecks a yellow disc 3 times, a green light to indicates a VI 6-s schedule is in effect; if this were the final schedule in the chain, the pigeon would be reinforced for pecking a green disc on a VI 6-s schedule; however, all schedule requirements in the chain must be met before a reinforcer is provided.
Tandem schedules – Reinforcement occurs when two or more successive schedule requirements have been completed, with no stimulus indicating when a schedule has been completed and the next has started.
Example: VR 10, after it is completed the schedule is changed without warning to FR 10, after that it is changed without warning to FR 16, etc. At the end of the series of schedules, a reinforcer is finally given.
Higher-order schedules – completion of one schedule is reinforced according to a second schedule; e.g. in FR2 (FI10 secs), two successive fixed interval schedules require completion before a response is reinforced.
Superimposed schedules
The psychology term superimposed schedules of reinforcement refers to a structure of rewards where two or more simple schedules of reinforcement operate simultaneously. Reinforcers can be positive, negative, or both. An example is a person who comes home after a long day at work. The behavior of opening the front door is rewarded by a big kiss on the lips by the person's spouse and a rip in the pants from the family dog jumping enthusiastically. Another example of superimposed schedules of reinforcement is a pigeon in an experimental cage pecking at a button. The pecks deliver a hopper of grain every 20th peck, and access to water after every 200 pecks.
Superimposed schedules of reinforcement are a type of compound schedule that evolved from the initial work on simple schedules of reinforcement by B.F. Skinner and his colleagues (Skinner and Ferster, 1957). They demonstrated that reinforcers could be delivered on schedules, and further that organisms behaved differently under different schedules. Rather than a reinforcer, such as food or water, being delivered every time as a consequence of some behavior, a reinforcer could be delivered after more than one instance of the behavior. For example, a pigeon may be required to peck a button switch ten times before food appears. This is a "ratio schedule". Also, a reinforcer could be delivered after an interval of time passed following a target behavior. An example is a rat that is given a food pellet immediately following the first response that occurs after two minutes has elapsed since the last lever press. This is called an "interval schedule".
In addition, ratio schedules can deliver reinforcement following fixed or variable number of behaviors by the individual organism. Likewise, interval schedules can deliver reinforcement following fixed or variable intervals of time following a single response by the organism. Individual behaviors tend to generate response rates that differ based upon how the reinforcement schedule is created. Much subsequent research in many labs examined the effects on behaviors of scheduling reinforcers.
If an organism is offered the opportunity to choose between or among two or more simple schedules of reinforcement at the same time, the reinforcement structure is called a "concurrent schedule of reinforcement". Brechner (1974, 1977) introduced the concept of superimposed schedules of reinforcement in an attempt to create a laboratory analogy of social traps, such as when humans overharvest their fisheries or tear down their rainforests. Brechner created a situation where simple reinforcement schedules were superimposed upon each other. In other words, a single response or group of responses by an organism led to multiple consequences. Concurrent schedules of reinforcement can be thought of as "or" schedules, and superimposed schedules of reinforcement can be thought of as "and" schedules. Brechner and Linder (1981) and Brechner (1987) expanded the concept to describe how superimposed schedules and the social trap analogy could be used to analyze the way energy flows through systems.
Superimposed schedules of reinforcement have many real-world applications in addition to generating social traps. Many different human individual and social situations can be created by superimposing simple reinforcement schedules. For example, a human being could have simultaneous tobacco and alcohol addictions. Even more complex situations can be created or simulated by superimposing two or more concurrent schedules. For example, a high school senior could have a choice between going to Stanford University or UCLA, and at the same time have the choice of going into the Army or the Air Force, and simultaneously the choice of taking a job with an internet company or a job with a software company. That is a reinforcement structure of three superimposed concurrent schedules of reinforcement.
Superimposed schedules of reinforcement can create the three classic conflict situations (approach–approach conflict, approach–avoidance conflict, and avoidance–avoidance conflict) described by Kurt Lewin (1935) and can operationalize other Lewinian situations analyzed by his force field analysis. Other examples of the use of superimposed schedules of reinforcement as an analytical tool are its application to the contingencies of rent control (Brechner, 2003) and problem of toxic waste dumping in the Los Angeles County storm drain system (Brechner, 2010).
Concurrent schedules
In operant conditioning, concurrent schedules of reinforcement are schedules of reinforcement that are simultaneously available to an animal subject or human participant, so that the subject or participant can respond on either schedule. For example, in a two-alternative forced choice task, a pigeon in a Skinner box is faced with two pecking keys; pecking responses can be made on either, and food reinforcement might follow a peck on either. The schedules of reinforcement arranged for pecks on the two keys can be different. They may be independent, or they may be linked so that behavior on one key affects the likelihood of reinforcement on the other.
It is not necessary for responses on the two schedules to be physically distinct. In an alternate way of arranging concurrent schedules, introduced by Findley in 1958, both schedules are arranged on a single key or other response device, and the subject can respond on a second key to change between the schedules. In such a "Findley concurrent" procedure, a stimulus (e.g., the color of the main key) signals which schedule is in effect.
Concurrent schedules often induce rapid alternation between the keys. To prevent this, a "changeover delay" is commonly introduced: each schedule is inactivated for a brief period after the subject switches to it.
When both the concurrent schedules are variable intervals, a quantitative relationship known as the matching law is found between relative response rates in the two schedules and the relative reinforcement rates they deliver; this was first observed by R.J. Herrnstein in 1961. Matching law is a rule for instrumental behavior which states that the relative rate of responding on a particular response alternative equals the relative rate of reinforcement for that response (rate of behavior = rate of reinforcement). Animals and humans have a tendency to prefer choice in schedules.
Shaping
Shaping is reinforcement of successive approximations to a desired instrumental response. In training a rat to press a lever, for example, simply turning toward the lever is reinforced at first. Then, only turning and stepping toward it is reinforced. The outcomes of one set of behaviours starts the shaping process for the next set of behaviours, and the outcomes of that set prepares the shaping process for the next set, and so on. As training progresses, the response reinforced becomes progressively more like the desired behavior; each subsequent behaviour becomes a closer approximation of the final behaviour.
Chaining
Chaining involves linking discrete behaviors together in a series, such that each result of each behavior is both the reinforcement (or consequence) for the previous behavior, and the stimuli (or antecedent) for the next behavior. There are many ways to teach chaining, such as forward chaining (starting from the first behavior in the chain), backwards chaining (starting from the last behavior) and total task chaining (in which the entire behavior is taught from beginning to end, rather than as a series of steps). An example is opening a locked door. First the key is inserted, then turned, then the door opened.
Forward chaining would teach the subject first to insert the key. Once that task is mastered, they are told to insert the key, and taught to turn it. Once that task is mastered, they are told to perform the first two, then taught to open the door. Backwards chaining would involve the teacher first inserting and turning the key, and the subject then being taught to open the door. Once that is learned, the teacher inserts the key, and the subject is taught to turn it, then opens the door as the next step. Finally, the subject is taught to insert the key, and they turn and open the door. Once the first step is mastered, the entire task has been taught. Total task chaining would involve teaching the entire task as a single series, prompting through all steps. Prompts are faded (reduced) at each step as they are mastered.
Persuasive communication and the reinforcement theory
Persuasive communication
Persuasion influences any person the way they think, act and feel. Persuasive skill tells about how people understand the concern, position and needs of the people. Persuasion can be classified into informal persuasion and formal persuasion.
Informal persuasion
This tells about the way in which a person interacts with colleagues and customers. The informal persuasion can be used in team, memos as well as e-mails.
Example: "I noticed that you helped out Joe while your equipment was being serviced by the maintenance crew." OR
"I overheard your explanation to that last customer about how to obtain, use, and the advantages of having a credit card. I think we may be adding her to our business."
Formal persuasion
This type of persuasion is used in writing customer letter, proposal and also for formal presentation to any customer or colleagues.
Process of persuasion
Persuasion relates how you influence people with your skills, experience, knowledge, leadership, qualities and team capabilities. Persuasion is an interactive process while getting the work done by others. Here are examples for which you can use persuasion skills in real time. Interview: you can prove your best talents, skills and expertise. Clients: to guide your clients for the achievement of the goals or targets. Memos: to express your ideas and views to coworkers for the improvement in the operations. Resistance identification and positive attitude are the vital roles of persuasion.
Persuasion is a form of human interaction. It takes place when one individual expects some particular response from one or more other individuals and deliberately sets out to secure the response through the use of communication. The communicator must realize that different groups have different values.
In instrumental learning situations, which involve operant behavior, the persuasive communicator will present his message and then wait for the receiver to make a correct response. As soon as the receiver makes the response, the communicator will attempt to fix the response by some appropriate reward or reinforcement.
In conditional learning situations, where there is respondent behavior, the communicator presents his message so as to elicit the response he wants from the receiver, and the stimulus that originally served to elicit the response then becomes the reinforcing or rewarding element in conditioning.
Mathematical models
A lot of work has been done in building a mathematical model of reinforcement. This model is known as MPR, short for mathematical principles of reinforcement. Peter Killeen has made key discoveries in the field with his research on pigeons.
Criticisms
The standard definition of behavioral reinforcement has been criticized as circular, since it appears to argue that response strength is increased by reinforcement, and defines reinforcement as something that increases response strength (i.e., response strength is increased by things that increase response strength). However, the correct usage of reinforcement is that something is a reinforcer because of its effect on behavior, and not the other way around. It becomes circular if one says that a particular stimulus strengthens behavior because it is a reinforcer, and does not explain why a stimulus is producing that effect on the behavior. Other definitions have been proposed, such as F.D. Sheffield's "consummatory behavior contingent on a response", but these are not broadly used in psychology.
Increasingly, understanding of the role reinforcers play is moving away from a "strengthening" effect to a "signalling" effect. That is, the view that reinforcers increase responding because they signal the behaviours that are likely to result in reinforcement. While in most practical applications, the effect of any given reinforcer will be the same regardless of whether the reinforcer is signalling or strengthening, this approach helps to explain a number of behavioural phenomenon including patterns of responding on intermittent reinforcement schedules (fixed interval scallops) and the differential outcomes effect.
History of the terms
In the 1920s Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov may have been the first to use the word reinforcement with respect to behavior, but (according to Dinsmoor) he used its approximate Russian cognate sparingly, and even then it referred to strengthening an already-learned but weakening response. He did not use it, as it is today, for selecting and strengthening new behaviors. Pavlov's introduction of the word extinction (in Russian) approximates today's psychological use.
In popular use, positive reinforcement is often used as a synonym for reward, with people (not behavior) thus being "reinforced", but this is contrary to the term's consistent technical usage, as it is a dimension of behavior, and not the person, which is strengthened. Negative reinforcement is often used by laypeople and even social scientists outside psychology as a synonym for punishment. This is contrary to modern technical use, but it was B.F. Skinner who first used it this way in his 1938 book. By 1953, however, he followed others in thus employing the word punishment, and he re-cast negative reinforcement for the removal of aversive stimuli.
There are some within the field of behavior analysis who have suggested that the terms "positive" and "negative" constitute an unnecessary distinction in discussing reinforcement as it is often unclear whether stimuli are being removed or presented. For example, Iwata poses the question: "... is a change in temperature more accurately characterized by the presentation of cold (heat) or the removal of heat (cold)?" Thus, reinforcement could be conceptualized as a pre-change condition replaced by a post-change condition that reinforces the behavior that followed the change in stimulus conditions.
Applications
Reinforcement and punishment are ubiquitous in human social interactions, and a great many applications of operant principles have been suggested and implemented. Following are a few examples.
Addiction and dependence
Positive and negative reinforcement play central roles in the development and maintenance of addiction and drug dependence. An addictive drug is intrinsically rewarding; that is, it functions as a primary positive reinforcer of drug use. The brain's reward system assigns it incentive salience (i.e., it is "wanted" or "desired"), so as an addiction develops, deprivation of the drug leads to craving. In addition, stimuli associated with drug use – e.g., the sight of a syringe, and the location of use – become associated with the intense reinforcement induced by the drug. These previously neutral stimuli acquire several properties: their appearance can induce craving, and they can become conditioned positive reinforcers of continued use. Thus, if an addicted individual encounters one of these drug cues, a craving for the associated drug may reappear. For example, anti-drug agencies previously used posters with images of drug paraphernalia as an attempt to show the dangers of drug use. However, such posters are no longer used because of the effects of incentive salience in causing relapse upon sight of the stimuli illustrated in the posters.
In drug dependent individuals, negative reinforcement occurs when a drug is self-administered in order to alleviate or "escape" the symptoms of physical dependence (e.g., tremors and sweating) and/or psychological dependence (e.g., anhedonia, restlessness, irritability, and anxiety) that arise during the state of drug withdrawal.
Animal training
Animal trainers and pet owners were applying the principles and practices of operant conditioning long before these ideas were named and studied, and animal training still provides one of the clearest and most convincing examples of operant control. Of the concepts and procedures described in this article, a few of the most salient are: availability of immediate reinforcement (e.g. the ever-present bag of dog yummies); contingency, assuring that reinforcement follows the desired behavior and not something else; the use of secondary reinforcement, as in sounding a clicker immediately after a desired response; shaping, as in gradually getting a dog to jump higher and higher; intermittent reinforcement, reducing the frequency of those yummies to induce persistent behavior without satiation; chaining, where a complex behavior is gradually put together.
Child behaviour – parent management training
Providing positive reinforcement for appropriate child behaviors is a major focus of parent management training. Typically, parents learn to reward appropriate behavior through social rewards (such as praise, smiles, and hugs) as well as concrete rewards (such as stickers or points towards a larger reward as part of an incentive system created collaboratively with the child). In addition, parents learn to select simple behaviors as an initial focus and reward each of the small steps that their child achieves towards reaching a larger goal (this concept is called "successive approximations"). They may also use indirect rewards such through progress charts. Providing positive reinforcement in the classroom can be beneficial to student success. When applying positive reinforcement to students, it's crucial to make it individualized to that student's needs. This way, the student understands why they are receiving the praise, they can accept it, and eventually learn to continue the action that was earned by positive reinforcement. For example, using rewards or extra recess time might apply to some students more, whereas others might accept the enforcement by receiving stickers or check marks indicating praise.
Economics
Both psychologists and economists have become interested in applying operant concepts and findings to the behavior of humans in the marketplace. An example
is the analysis of consumer demand, as indexed by the amount of a commodity that is purchased. In economics, the degree to which price influences consumption is called "the price elasticity of demand." Certain commodities are more elastic than others; for example, a change in price of certain foods may have a large effect on the amount bought, while gasoline and other essentials may be less affected by price changes. In terms of operant analysis, such effects may be interpreted in terms of motivations of consumers and the relative value of the commodities as reinforcers.
Gambling – variable ratio scheduling
As stated earlier in this article, a variable ratio schedule yields reinforcement after the emission of an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule typically generates rapid, persistent responding. Slot machines pay off on a variable ratio schedule, and they produce just this sort of persistent lever-pulling behavior in gamblers. Because the machines are programmed to pay out less money than they take in, the persistent slot-machine user invariably loses in the long run. Slots machines, and thus variable ratio reinforcement, have often been blamed as a factor underlying gambling addiction.
Managing behavior in organizations
An alternative to traditional pay for performance incentive schemes that is rooted in reinforcement theory, known as the O.B. Mod Approach, has been proposed as a practical approach to managing the performance-related behaviors of an organization's members. . O.B. Mod. and its "reinforce-for-performance" basis has been shown empirically to yield performance improvements in both manufacturing and service organizations, though improvements varied by type of reinforcer in both contexts.
Nudge theory
Nudge theory (or nudge) is a concept in behavioural science, political theory and economics which argues that positive reinforcement and indirect suggestions to try to achieve non-forced compliance can influence the motives, incentives and decision making of groups and individuals, at least as effectively – if not more effectively – than direct instruction, legislation, or enforcement.
Praise
The concept of praise as a means of behavioral reinforcement in humans is rooted in B.F. Skinner's model of operant conditioning. Through this lens, praise has been viewed as a means of positive reinforcement, wherein an observed behavior is made more likely to occur by contingently praising said behavior. Hundreds of studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of praise in promoting positive behaviors, notably in the study of teacher and parent use of praise on child in promoting improved behavior and academic performance, but also in the study of work performance. Praise has also been demonstrated to reinforce positive behaviors in non-praised adjacent individuals (such as a classmate of the praise recipient) through vicarious reinforcement. Praise may be more or less effective in changing behavior depending on its form, content and delivery. In order for praise to effect positive behavior change, it must be contingent on the positive behavior (i.e., only administered after the targeted behavior is enacted), must specify the particulars of the behavior that is to be reinforced, and must be delivered sincerely and credibly.
Acknowledging the effect of praise as a positive reinforcement strategy, numerous behavioral and cognitive behavioral interventions have incorporated the use of praise in their protocols. The strategic use of praise is recognized as an evidence-based practice in both classroom management and parenting training interventions, though praise is often subsumed in intervention research into a larger category of positive reinforcement, which includes strategies such as strategic attention and behavioral rewards.
Manipulation
Braiker identified the following ways that manipulators control their victims:
Positive reinforcement: includes praise, superficial charm, superficial sympathy (crocodile tears), excessive apologizing, money, approval, gifts, attention, facial expressions such as a forced laugh or smile, and public recognition.
Negative reinforcement: may involve removing one from a negative situation
Intermittent or partial reinforcement: Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt. Partial or intermittent positive reinforcement can encourage the victim to persist – for example in most forms of gambling, the gambler is likely to win now and again but still lose money overall.
Punishment: includes nagging, yelling, the silent treatment, intimidation, threats, swearing, emotional blackmail, the guilt trip, sulking, crying, and playing the victim.
Traumatic one-trial learning: using verbal abuse, explosive anger, or other intimidating behavior to establish dominance or superiority; even one incident of such behavior can condition or train victims to avoid upsetting, confronting or contradicting the manipulator.
Traumatic bonding
Traumatic bonding occurs as the result of ongoing cycles of abuse in which the intermittent reinforcement of reward and punishment creates powerful emotional bonds that are resistant to change.
The other source indicated that
'The necessary conditions for traumatic bonding are that one person must dominate the other and that the level of abuse chronically spikes and then subsides. The relationship is characterized by periods of permissive, compassionate, and even affectionate behavior from the dominant person, punctuated by intermittent episodes of intense abuse. To maintain the upper hand, the victimizer manipulates the behavior of the victim and limits the victim's options so as to perpetuate the power imbalance. Any threat to the balance of dominance and submission may be met with an escalating cycle of punishment ranging from seething intimidation to intensely violent outbursts. The victimizer also isolates the victim from other sources of support, which reduces the likelihood of detection and intervention, impairs the victim's ability to receive countervailing self-referent feedback, and strengthens the sense of unilateral dependency ... The traumatic effects of these abusive relationships may include the impairment of the victim's capacity for accurate self-appraisal, leading to a sense of personal inadequacy and a subordinate sense of dependence upon the dominating person. Victims also may encounter a variety of unpleasant social and legal consequences of their emotional and behavioral affiliation with someone who perpetrated aggressive acts, even if they themselves were the recipients of the aggression.
Video games
Most video games are designed around some type of compulsion loop, adding a type of positive reinforcement through a variable rate schedule to keep the player playing the game, though this can also lead to video game addiction.
As part of a trend in the monetization of video games in the 2010s, some games offered "loot boxes" as rewards or purchasable by real-world funds that offered a random selection of in-game items, distributed by rarity. The practice has been tied to the same methods that slot machines and other gambling devices dole out rewards, as it follows a variable rate schedule. While the general perception that loot boxes are a form of gambling, the practice is only classified as such in a few countries as gambling and otherwise legal. However, methods to use those items as virtual currency for online gambling or trading for real-world money has created a skin gambling market that is under legal evaluation.
Workplace culture of fear
Ashforth discussed potentially destructive sides of leadership and identified what he referred to as petty tyrants: leaders who exercise a tyrannical style of management, resulting in a climate of fear in the workplace. Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt. When employees get the sense that bullies are tolerated, a climate of fear may be the result.
Individual differences in sensitivity to reward, punishment, and motivation have been studied under the premises of reinforcement sensitivity theory and have also been applied to workplace performance.
See also
References
Further reading
External links
An On-Line Positive Reinforcement Tutorial
Scholarpedia Reinforcement
scienceofbehavior.com
Behavior therapy
Behavioral concepts
Behaviorism
Addiction
et:Sarrus
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] |
211962
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon%20Klinghoffer
|
Leon Klinghoffer
|
Leon Klinghoffer (September 24, 1916 – October 8, 1985) was an American man who was shot, killed and thrown overboard from the cruise ship Achille Lauro by members of the Palestinian Liberation Front who hijacked the ship in 1985.
Personal life
Klinghoffer grew up on Suffolk Street in the Lower East Side neighborhood of New York City. Among his close friends was Jack Kirby, who became a major figure in the history of comic books.
Klinghoffer married Marilyn (born Windwehr), the daughter of a haberdasher, in September 1949. The couple had two daughters. Klinghoffer suffered two strokes later in his life that left him in a wheelchair.
Career
While he was growing up, Klinghoffer worked in his family's hardware store, Klinghoffer Supply Company. In 1942, he joined the Army Air Force and was trained as a navigator. He flew missions in B-24 Liberator bombers with the 93rd Bombardment Group in the European theater of World War II.
After his honorable discharge from the army in January 1944, Klinghoffer and his brother Albert took over the store and began to invent appliances. A few years later, the two brothers founded the Roto-Broil Corporation of America. Their feature item was the Roto-Broil Rotisserie Oven or Roto-Broil 400, a common kitchen appliance in the 1950s.
Hijacking and shooting
In 1985, Klinghoffer (then 69, retired, and in a wheelchair) was on a cruise on the Achille Lauro with his wife Marilyn to celebrate their 36th wedding anniversary. On October 7, four hijackers from the Palestine Liberation Front (PLF) took control of the liner off Egypt as it was sailing from Alexandria to Port Said, Egypt. Holding the passengers and crew hostage, they ordered the captain to sail to Tartus, Syria, and demanded the release of 50 Palestinians, then in Israeli prisons, including the Lebanese prisoner Samir Kuntar, who had been responsible for the murder of five civilians in a terrorist attack in 1979.
If the prisoners were not released, Molqi said they would begin killing hostages, "We will start executing at 3:00 p.m. sharp." Syria, having consulted with the U.S. and Italian governments, did not respond to any of the demands.
As 3:00 p.m. neared, the terrorists began to decide who to kill by shuffling the U.S., British, and Austrian hostages' passports. They selected Leon Klinghoffer to be killed first. Several reasons have been put forward that may have contributed to why Klinghoffer was chosen. Earlier in the hijacking, he had refused to be silent when gunmen took his watch and cigarettes, becoming brusque and complaining in his slurred speech; this antagonized some of the hijackers, though one of them gave Klinghoffer his possessions back. Additionally, Klinghoffer was Jewish and American, and his wheelchair made him both difficult to move around the ship and an absence less likely to trigger a chain reaction of resistance among the surviving hostages. One of the hijackers, Molqi, later gave a statement on why he was chosen: "I and Bassm [al-Ashker] agreed that the first hostage to be killed had to be an American. I chose Klinghoffer, an invalid, so that they would know that we had no pity for anyone, just as the Americans, arming Israel, do not take into consideration that Israel kills women and children of our people."
Molqi ordered Manuel De Souza, a Portuguese waiter, to accompany him and push Klinghoffer outside onto the open deck. Klinghoffer was taken back along the entire deck of the ship to the stern. Molqi ordered De Souza to return into the ship. The other terrorists moved the rest of the hostages back down into the lounge. Marilyn Klinghoffer noticed that Leon was not there and began to weep. Molqi shot Leon Klinghoffer once in the head and again in the chest. He died instantly, toppling onto his face. Molqi then went in and ordered De Souza to throw the body over the side of the ship. When De Souza was unable to do the task alone, Molqi found Italian hairdresser Ferruccio Alberti and forced the two of them at gunpoint to throw the body and then the wheelchair into the sea.
Several of the hostages heard the shots and splashes, including Marilyn Klinghoffer. She pleaded with the hijackers to let her see her husband in the infirmary, but they refused. She feared the worst but remained hopeful. She learned the truth only after the hijackers left the ship at Port Said. Molqi, with blood splattered clothing, returned to the other terrorists and told them "I have killed the American." He and Bassam al-Ashker then went to the bridge. Handing Klinghoffer's passport to Captain De Rosa, he raised a finger and said "boom, boom."
Molqi ordered De Rosa to tell the Syrians that a passenger had been killed and that they were prepared to kill another. The Syrians responded by telling Molqi to "go back where you came from." Finding no help in Syria, Molqi ordered De Rosa to sail for Libya. Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) Foreign Secretary Farouq Qaddumi said that perhaps the terminally ill Marilyn had killed her husband for insurance money. However, the PLF leader Muhammad Abbas said in 1996 that the hijack was a mistake and apologized for killing Klinghoffer.
Initially, the hijackers were granted safe passage to Tunisia, but U.S. President Ronald Reagan ordered a U.S. fighter plane to intercept the getaway plane, forcing it to land at Naval Air Station Sigonella in Italy. After an extradition dispute, Italian authorities arrested and tried the Palestinian terrorists but decided that there was insufficient evidence to link Abu Abbas to the hijacking.
Klinghoffer's body was found by Syrians on October 14 or 15, and it was returned to the United States around October 20. His funeral, with 800 mourners in attendance, was held at Temple Shaaray Tefila in New York City. Klinghoffer was buried at Beth David Memorial Park in Kenilworth, New Jersey. On February 9, four months after his death, his wife (1926–1986) died of colon cancer. They were survived by two daughters, Ilsa and Lisa Klinghoffer.
Aftermath
Five days after the murder, Rabbi Morris Gordon and a group of student activists led a mock Jewish funeral service for Leon Klinghoffer in front of the Palestinian Liberation Organization's Washington, D.C., office to call attention to the group's role in the killing of an American military veteran.
Following the death of their parents, the Klinghoffers' daughters established the Leon and Marilyn Klinghoffer Memorial Foundation with the Anti-Defamation League. The foundation combats terrorism through educational, political, and legal means. The foundation is funded by an undisclosed settlement paid by the PLO to the Klinghoffers to settle a lawsuit seeking damages for the PLO's role in the hijacking (Klinghoffer v. PLO, 739 F. Supp. 854 (S.D.N.Y. 1990) and Klinghoffer v. PLO, 937 F.2d 44, 50 (2d Cir. 1991). This lawsuit spurred passage of the Antiterrorism Act of 1990, which made it easier for victims of terrorism to sue terrorists and collect civil damages for losses incurred.
PLF leader Muhammad Zaidan, a.k.a. Abu Abbas, was freed by the Italian government in the aftermath of the Achille Lauro affair, but was continually sought by the United States government. The Clinton administration, aware of Abbas' resurfacing in Gaza, neither asked for his extradition nor requested he be turned over to Italy who had found him guilty in absentia. The U.S. Senate passed a resolution 99–0 asking President Bill Clinton to request Abbas' extradition to the US. He was captured in Iraq in 2003 by U.S. forces during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and he died in custody a year later of heart disease, according to the U.S. government.
The ship involved in the hijacking, the Achille Lauro, returned to cruise duty until she was caught on fire off the coast of Somalia on November 30, 1994. After evacuating the ship of passengers, the crew could not control the fire, and the abandoned ship sank on December 2. Two people died.
Portrayals
The hijacking was made into a television movie in 1990, Voyage of Terror: The Achille Lauro Affair starring Burt Lancaster and Eva Marie Saint.
Klinghoffer was portrayed by Karl Malden in the 1989 television film The Hijacking of the Achille Lauro.
The concept of the opera The Death of Klinghoffer originated with theatre director Peter Sellars, who was a major collaborator, as was choreographer Mark Morris. It was American composer John Adams' second opera, based on the events of 1985. It opened to great controversy in 1991. It featured a libretto by Alice Goodman. In the opera, Klinghoffer sings two arias, one shortly before he is killed and one after his death. The Los Angeles Opera shared in the work's commission but never presented it. The opera has since drawn controversy, including allegations by some (including Klinghoffer's two daughters) that the opera is antisemitic and glorifies terrorism. The work's creators and others have disputed these criticisms. A Prix Italia-winning television version of the opera, starring Sanford Sylvan and Christopher Maltman, and directed by Penny Woolcock, was screened by United Kingdom's Channel 4 in 2003.
Klinghoffer (and his supposed travel diary) play a minor role in Philip Roth's 1993 novel Operation Shylock.
Klinghoffer is also mentioned in the graphic novel Palestine by Joe Sacco.
See also
Alex Odeh
References
External links
CNN report by David Ensor
Klinghoffer Family Papers at the American Jewish Historical Society, New York
Mitchell Cohen, "Going Under with Klinghoffer", Jewish Review of Books, Spring 2015
1916 births
1985 deaths
20th-century American businesspeople
American businesspeople in retailing
American manufacturing businesspeople
Jewish American military personnel
American people murdered abroad
American people with disabilities
American terrorism victims
Antisemitic attacks and incidents
Businesspeople from New York City
Deaths by firearm in Syria
MS Achille Lauro
Murdered American Jews
People from the Lower East Side
People murdered in Syria
Terrorism deaths in Syria
20th-century American Jews
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II
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211963
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underlying
|
Underlying
|
In finance, the underlying of a derivative is an asset, basket of assets, index, or even another derivative, such that the cash flows of the (former) derivative depend on the value of this underlying. There must be an independent way to observe this value to avoid conflicts of interest.
According to the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB)'s Statement of Financial Accounting Standards No. 133 (FAS 133) - Accounting for Derivative Instruments and Hedging Activities, an underlying is a specified interest rate, security price, commodity price, foreign exchange rate, index of prices or rates, or other variable (including the occurrence or nonoccurrence of a specified event such as a scheduled payment under a contract). An underlying may be a price or rate of an asset or liability but is not the asset or liability.
Examples
For example, in a stock option to buy 100 shares of Nokia at EUR 50 in April 2011, the underlying is a Nokia share. In a futures contract to buy EUR 10 million 10-year German Government bonds, the underlying are the German Government bonds. Other examples are stock market indexes such as the Dow Jones Industrial Average and Nikkei 225, for which the underlying are the common stocks of 30 large U.S. companies and 225 Japanese companies, respectively.
Options on futures derivatives are an example of derivatives whose underlying is also a derivative. For example, Euro-Bund options (OGBL) are traded on Eurex and their underlying is the Euro-Bund futures contract (FGBL).
Derivatives (finance)
|
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] |
211964
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Astoria
|
USS Astoria
|
Four ships of the United States Navy have been named Astoria, after the town of Astoria, Oregon.
, was laid down in 1867, but renamed Omaha prior to her commissioning.
, a cargo ship, was seized by US Customs at the outbreak of World War I.
, was a heavy cruiser commissioned in 1934 and lost in the Battle of Savo Island in 1942.
, was a light cruiser commissioned in 1944, and decommissioned in 1949.
Sources
United States Navy ship names
|
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] |
211968
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Orleans-class%20cruiser
|
New Orleans-class cruiser
|
The New Orleans-class cruisers were a class of seven heavy cruisers built for the United States Navy (USN) in the 1930s.
These ships participated in the heaviest surface battles of the Pacific War. Astoria, Quincy, and Vincennes were all sunk in the Battle of Savo Island, and three others were heavily damaged in subsequent battles in the Guadalcanal campaign.
Only Tuscaloosa, which spent most of the war in the Atlantic, got through the war without being damaged. Collectively, ships of the class earned 64 battle stars. The four surviving ships were laid up immediately after the end of the war, and sold for scrap in 1959.
Design
The New Orleans-class design was a test bed for innovations in cruiser design, which is why there were three distinct designs within this class.
Design #1: New Orleans, Astoria, and Minneapolis.
Design #2: Tuscaloosa and San Francisco.
Design #3: Quincy and Vincennes.
This class was the direct ancestor for all subsequent USN gun cruisers. From them came the , , , and the cruisers. While the Washington Naval Treaty was still being observed, new technology was implemented in the New Orleans class because the USN knew that if and when war came, they would need this knowledge to build ships (which were already in the planning stage) beyond the treaty limits. The USN came to the conclusion that no 10,000-ton cruiser could adequately perform the roles given.
Originally was the lead ship of this class, but , and , laid down as ships, were reordered to the Tuscaloosa design in 1930; and were being built in civilian rather than Navy yards and were completed as originally designed.
Three ships of the class (Astoria, Quincy, and Vincennes) were lost in the Battle of Savo Island in 1942. Immediately following the Guadalcanal campaign the remaining ships of the class went through major overhauls in order to lessen top heaviness due to new electrical and radar systems (as well as more anti-aircraft weaponry) which was being added as technology advanced. In doing so, the ships took on a new appearance, most notably in the bridge area and became known as the New Orleans class. The four survivors were decommissioned shortly after the war ended, and scrapped in 1959–1961.
Armor
The New Orleans class was the last series of US cruisers completed to the limitations of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. As completed, the single ship Wichita class (and subsequent heavy cruisers) exceeded the 10,000-ton standard.
Design of these ships began in early 1929, based on the three preceding classes: The , the and the Portland classes. All of the cruisers of the New Orleans class were outwardly similar but the displacement among these ships varied by some 600 tons. The Bureau of Construction and Repair authorized a contemporary gun cruiser design of smaller size, but one which allocated considerably more tonnage towards protection. The New Orleans class was noteworthy for its protection. The hull was shorter than a Northampton, with a shorter armor belt that protected only the machinery and other internal spaces, allowing its thickness to be increased to . The machinery bulkheads were given and the deck armor was strengthened to . For the first time in US cruisers, barbette and turret armor was sufficient to withstand 8-inch shellfire. The turrets were faced with 8 inches of armor, on the sides and on the roof. The barbettes were protected with 5 inches of armor on all ships except , whose barbettes were fitted with of armor.
Magazine protection was increased to . Magazine protection was further increased by placing them well below the waterline. Otherwise only an internal splinter belt and the armor deck protected the magazines. While this allowed an exceptional degree of armored protection for the vitals against shellfire, there was little protected hull volume, and the deep magazines were more exposed to underwater damage ( learned this the hard way at the Battle of Tassafaronga). Protection represented approximately 15% of normal displacement as opposed to the only 5.6% in the Pensacolas and 6% in the Northampton and Portland classes. Unfortunately, fuel bunkerage had to be reduced, which resulted in a smaller operational range.
Armament
The main armament on the class centered on nine 8 in/55 caliber Mark 14 guns (Mark 9 guns until replaced in World War II), mounted in triple turrets. New Orleans was fitted with Mark 14 Mod 0 guns, Minneapolis with the Mark 15 Mod 1 guns and the remaining ships of the class received Mark 12 Mod 0 guns. The turret face configurations were also different with the Mark 14 guns being housed in rounded face turrets and the Mark 12 and 15 guns in a flat faced turret. The 8 in guns had a range of with a muzzle velocity of . The armor-piercing round weighed and could penetrate five inches of armor plating at .
Secondary armament for the class consisted of eight 5 in/25 caliber dual purpose guns, which could be used against surface and aerial targets, as well as .50 caliber water-cooled machine guns to augment the 5 in guns. When the US entered the war in December 1941, the New Orleans class and other "Treaty" cruisers were rushed into battle with little modification and lacking in air defense. The Japanese proved at Pearl Harbor and with the sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse off Malaya that this war would be decided with air power. As soon as available, the quadruple 1.1 in machine guns and the Swiss-designed 20 mm Oerlikon cannon (which would replace the .50 caliber guns) were fitted, as well as early radar units and fire control directors. As the war progressed, developments in radar abilities gave the Allies an increasingly decisive advantage over the enemy. In late 1942, the arrival of the 40 mm Bofors (in twin and quadruple mountings), replaced the quadruple 1.1-inch autocannons, which had proved ineffective.
By late 1945, even after the removal of many non-essential items (half of their spotter planes as well as a crane and a catapult became non-essential due to advances in radar) the ships became dangerously over weight because of new weaponry and electrical and radar equipment. The threat from the air was so intense this condition had to be tolerated.
Appearance and performance
Outwardly, the New Orleans ships had a distinctive appearance and were considered very good-looking vessels, though the 1942–43 refits of the surviving ships changed the appearance substantially. The forward superstructure had the bridge wings cut back, and all of the large size windows were plated in with just a few port holes taking their place. The open bridge above the wheel house was enlarged by 100 percent by extending it forward. In addition several gun tubs were created for the 40 mm Bofors mounts both around the main mast, and aft. The forecastle deck extended back to the second funnel and the main superstructure was constructed without the ungainly tripod mast seen on the previous cruisers. The bow was a raked type, similar to those of British cruisers. The two funnels were situated closer together with a large search light tower in between. Aircraft handling facilities were moved further aft and a larger second conning station erected above the hangar. A single mainmast was erected there, between two huge pedestal cranes which handled both spotter planes and small craft. The main 8-inch turrets, although armored, were actually smaller with a more effective angular faceplate. By enlarging the forecastle deck, the secondary battery of 5-inch guns were mounted closer together, facilitating a more efficient ammunition delivery.
Power was provided by eight Babcock & Wilcox steam boilers that produced for the four Westinghouse gearing steam turbines. The turbines were shafted to four screws, giving this class a rated speed of . The cruisers' range – using of bunker oil – was approximately at or at . Their range could be extended by refueling from an oiler or another ship fitted to transfer oil while underway.
The New Orleans cruisers performed peacetime exercises well with no serious shortcomings being found. While many changes were implemented to improve their performance and especially their protection, the 10,000-ton limit of the Washington Naval Treaty was not exceeded. The new cruisers were considered successful in their own right but could not be considered equal to some foreign contemporaries, which were often considerably larger.
Ships in class
World War II
For almost four years, the ships of the New Orleans class were assigned to the most urgent of front line duties, becoming involved in much deadly action. Astoria, Quincy and Vincennes were sunk in the Battle of Savo Island, 8–9 Aug 1942. Although three of their number were lost, the ships proved to be well designed. New Orleans, Minneapolis and San Francisco were also seriously damaged in early war engagements in the Pacific. These engagements included the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, in which San Francisco engaged enemy ships at point blank range, and the Battle of Tassafaronga where Minneapolis and New Orleans took heavy damage and losses from Long Lance torpedoes. Damage control work and skillful seamanship kept these ships afloat to continue to fight through the end of the war.
New Orleans-class cruisers were found at every major naval skirmish of World War II in the Pacific despite the fact there were only four of the seven units remaining after the first year of war. They were some of the most used and hardest fought ships of the US Navy during the war. Three ships of this class were among the most decorated US ships of World War II. San Francisco earned 17 Battle Stars and a Presidential Unit Citation, New Orleans earned 17 Battle Stars, and Minneapolis earned 17 Battle Stars as well. As a class, they earned a total of 64 Battle Stars and a Presidential Unit Citation.
See also
List of cruisers of the United States Navy
References
External links
Global Security.org – New Orleans class cruiser
Global Security.org – New Orleans class cruiser specifications
Cruiser classes
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] |
211971
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernburg%20%28district%29
|
Bernburg (district)
|
Bernburg was a district in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. It is bounded by (from the north and clockwise) the districts of Schönebeck, Köthen, Saalkreis, Mansfelder Land and Aschersleben-Staßfurt.
History
There was an independent principality called Anhalt-Bernburg following the subdivision of the principality of Anhalt in 1603. This mini state was elevated to the rank of a duchy in 1806, and merged once more with the other parts to form a united duchy of Anhalt again in 1863.
Geography
The small district of Bernburg is located in the historical region of Anhalt. The Saale River crosses the district from south to north.
Coat of arms
Towns and municipalities
External links
Official website (German)
2007 disestablishments in Germany
|
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211974
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian%20cuisine
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Belgian cuisine
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Belgian cuisine is widely varied with significant regional variations while also reflecting the cuisines of neighbouring France, Germany and the Netherlands. It is sometimes said that Belgian food is served in the quantity of German cuisine but with the quality of French food. Outside the country, Belgium is best known for its chocolate, waffles, fries and beer.
Though Belgium has many distinctive national dishes, many internationally popular foods like hamburgers and spaghetti bolognese are also popular in Belgium, and most of what Belgians eat is also eaten in neighbouring countries. “Belgian cuisine” therefore usually refers to dishes of Belgian origin, or those considered typically Belgian.
Belgian cuisine traditionally prizes regional and seasonal ingredients. Ingredients typical in Belgian dishes include potatoes, leeks, grey shrimp, white asparagus, Belgian endives and local beer, in addition to common European staples including meat, cheese and butter. Belgians typically eat four meals a day, with a light breakfast, medium lunch, a snack, and a large dinner.
Belgium has a plethora of dishes and products that are local to a specific area. Examples include waterzooi from Ghent, couque biscuit from the town of Dinant, and tarte au riz from Verviers. While their local origins are acknowledged, most such dishes are enjoyed throughout Belgium.
History
Belgian cuisine was influenced by that of the Roman Empire, and later that of France, Germany and the Netherlands.
Little is known about early Belgian cuisine. It can only be assumed that it was similar to that of other early European tribes. The ancient Belgians probably foraged, kept animals like sheep and cattle, grew root vegetables, hunted for animals such as the wild boar, fished and foraged for berries and herbs. Beer was brewed as well, although not with hops (that was a later discovery). It was probably brewed with barley instead.
Later, under the Roman Empire, many more foods were presumably introduced to Belgium, such as cabbage and other brassicas, as well as many fruits such as apples, pears and grapes. Belgium was known to be a large supplier of ham and pork for many cities in the Roman Empire.
During the Middle Ages, pottage was consumed by peasants.
Belgian cuisine
Appetizers
Tartines/Boterhammen: Slices of rustic bread and an uncovered spread, often pâté or soft cheese, served on a cutting board. Typical spreads include Americain, pâté, saucisson.
/ Ardeense ham: particularly smoked ham and pâté, often made of game such as wild boar. The forested Ardennes region in the south of Belgium is renowned for this type of food.
/ Luikse salade: a potato salad with green beans, bacon, onions and vinegar. It is usually associated with Liège.
Croquettes aux crevettes[fr] / garnaalkroketten: a traditional Belgian dish, these croquettes have a thick and creamy bechamel filling mixed with grey shrimps. Often served with a slice of lemon and fried parsley.
/ tomaat-garnaal: a Belgian culinary specialty, composed of a hollow, unhunted tomato stuffed with peeled grey shrimps and mixed with mayonnaise.
Savory dishes
Moules-frites / mosselen met friet: mussels cooked or steamed with onions and celery served with fries. The recipe has often been referred to as the country's national dish but is also popular in the neighboring Nord region of France.
Carbonade flamande / Vlaamse karbonaden/stoofvlees: a Belgian beef stew, similar to the French Beef Bourguignon, but made with beer instead of red wine. Served with bread or fries and mustard. Usually accompanied by a beer. This is also considered one of the national dishes, along with moules-frites.
Steak-frites / biefstuk met friet: a very common and popular dish served in brasseries throughout Europe consisting of steak paired with French fries.
Waterzooi: a rich stew and soup of chicken or fish, vegetables, cream, and eggs, usually associated with the town of Ghent.
Chicons au gratin / gegratineerd witloof: Belgian endives au gratin in béchamel sauce with cheese. Often the endives are wrapped with ham.
Kip met frieten en appelmoes: (chicken, fries, and compote), which is very common around Brussels.
Konijn in geuze: rabbit in gueuze, which is a spontaneously fermented beer from the area around Brussels.
Filet américain: Very finely minced ground beef eaten raw and cold. It is spread on a sandwich or bread with and sometimes topped with a sauce, usually with sauce américaine, and served with fries. When served as a dinner, it is mixed with onions and capers like steak tartare, but it retains the name américain.
Paling in 't groen: Eel in a green sauce of mixed herbs (including chervil and parsley). Served with bread or fries. Usually accompanied by a beer or (sometimes) an Alsace wine.
: halved canned or fresh peaches stuffed with a mix of tuna and mayonnaise, i.e. tuna salad.
Boudin / pens: a type of sausage in which the meat, or blood, is mixed with fine breadcrumbs that is often eaten with potatoes and apple sauce, sometimes eaten raw or barbecued.
Stoemp: a potato that is mashed with vegetables (usually carrots or cabbages), often served with sausages.
Vol-au-vent: a small hollow case of puff pastry filled with chicken, mushrooms, small meatballs cooked in a white sauce, and typically served with fries.
Boulets liégeois / Luikse balletjes: two big meatballs into a sweet and sour sauce called sauce lapin, served with Belgian Fries.
Lokerse paardenworst: minced horse sausages with peeled tomatoes, onion, celery, herbs, originally from Lokeren
Sweet dishes and desserts
Gaufres / wafels: Belgian waffles, sometimes eaten as a street snack and sold by ice-cream vans. Among the better-known styles are the Gaufre de Liège or Liège waffle, Brussels waffle, and the stroopwafel.
Speculoos: a shortcrust cinnamon biscuit, traditionally baked for consumption on or just before Sinterklaas in the Netherlands (December 5), Belgium (December 6), and around Christmas in Germany.
Croustillons / smoutebollen: deep-fried balls of sweet dough, eaten at fairgrounds or on special occasions like the October fair.
Rijstevlaai: a pie with a filling based on rice pudding, native to Verviers.
Sirop de Liège / Luikse siroop: a jam or jelly-like spread made of evaporated fruit juices.
Cuberdon: a cone-shaped purple candy made of gum arabic originally from Ghent.
Lacquements: thin wafer, made from wheat, cut in two horizontally, filled and coated with sugar candy syrup flavoured with orange blossom. Generally eaten during the October fair in Liège and the Sinksenfoor in Antwerp.
Aalsterse vlaai: a regional pie from the city of Aalst, with well-known variations in the area around Aalst, such as Wetteren (Wetterse vlaai) and Kalken (Kalkense vlaai). A key ingredient are mastellen, a type of sandwich local to Aalst.
Belgian fries
Fries, deep-fried chipped potatoes, are very popular in Belgium, where they are thought to have originated. The earliest evidence of the dish comes from a book entitled Curiosités de la table dans les Pays-Bas-Belgiques written in 1781, which described how inhabitants of Namur, Dinant and Andenne around the river Meuse had eaten fried potatoes since around 1680. Though they are usually known as "french fries" in the United States, it is argued that American soldiers during the First World War called them "french fries" because the Belgian soldiers who introduced them to the dish spoke French.
In Belgium, fries are sold at fast-food stands or in dedicated fast-food restaurants called friteries, frietkot, or frituur (loosely: “fry shack”). They are often served with a variety of sauces and eaten either on their own or in the company of other snacks. Traditionally, they are served in a cornet de frites (French) or (Flemish), a cone-shaped white piece of thick paper then wrapped in a piece of thin (and coloured) paper, with the sauce on the top. Larger portions are often served in cardboard trays for practicality's sake. Other street foods like frikandel, gehaktbal or kroket are sold alongside. In some cases, the fries are served in the form of a baguette sandwich along with their sauce and meat; this is known as a mitraillette. In areas with immigration, the same combination is also available in a wrap called a dürüm instead of on a baguette.
The vast majority of Belgian households have a deep fryer, allowing them to make their own fries and other deep-fried foods at home. Supermarkets sell a range of liquid and solid animal- and plant-based fats for use in home deep fryers; beef fat is particularly prized.
In June 2017 the European Commission issued a recommendation to limit the chemical acrylamide—a natural result of frying some foods at high temperatures—from reaching consumers, due to its alleged carcinogenic properties. The document proposed a change in the preparation of Belgian fries to prevent the formation of acrylamide, by blanching them before frying, as opposed to the traditional method of double frying. This led to a wave of protests from several Belgian politicians, who viewed it as an assault on the country's culture and gastronomical tradition.
Sauces
Mayonnaise and ketchup are the sauces traditionally eaten with fries in Belgium. Friteries and other fast-food establishments tend to offer a number of different sauces for the fries and meats, including aïoli and Sauce Américaine but also much more elaborate varieties, including Béarnaise sauce. There are frequently over a dozen options, and most of them are mayonnaise-based, so the varieties include:
Aïoli / Looksaus—(garlic mayonnaise).
Sauce andalouse—mayonnaise with tomato paste and peppers.
Sauce Americaine—mayonnaise with tomato, chervil, onions, capers, crustacean stock, and celery.
Bicky sauce—a commercial brand made from mayonnaise, white cabbage, tarragon, dough, cucumber, onion, mustard, and dextrose.
Brazilian sauce—mayonnaise with pureed pineapple, tomato, and spices.
Cocktail sauce—one of several types of cold or room temperature sauces often served as part of the dish(es) referred to as a seafood cocktail or as a condiment with other seafood.
Curry ketchup—a spiced variant on ketchup and a common sauce in Belgium, Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands.
Curry mayonnaise—mayonnaise with either turmeric, cumin, ginger, and fresh or dried hot chili peppers.
Joppiesaus—a commercial brand made from mayonnaise, spices, onion, and curry powder.
Ketchup—a sweet and tangy sauce typically made from tomatoes, sweetener, and vinegar with assorted seasonings and spices.
Mammoet sauce—mayonnaise with tomato, onion, glucose, garlic, and soy sauce.
Mayonnaise—a thick cold sauce or dressing usually used in sandwiches and composed salads.
Pepper sauce—mayonnaise or hot sauce with black pepper.
Relish—a cooked and pickled product made of chopped vegetables, fruits, or herbs, and is a food item typically used as a condiment, in particular, to enhance a staple.
Sauce lapin— A sauce made from Sirop de Liège, cooked with raisins, onions, prunes, and cloves, typically served with Boulets à la Liégeoise.
Sauce Riche—a pink, tartar-based sauce.
Samurai sauce—mayonnaise with Tunisian chili, spices, tomatoes, and bell peppers.
Tartar sauce - a mayonnaise or aïoli-based sauce of French origin, and is typical of a rough consistency due to the addition of diced gherkins or other varieties of pickles.
Zigeuner sauce—a "gypsy" sauce of tomatoes, paprika, and chopped bell peppers, borrowed from Germany.
Occasionally, warm sauces are offered by friteries, including Hollandaise sauce, Provençale sauce, Béarnaise sauce, or even a carbonade flamande. Most of the sauces above are also readily available in supermarkets. The use of these sauces is not limited to fries; they are used on a variety of other dishes as well.
Beer
For a comparatively small country, Belgium produces a very large number of beers in a range of different styles—in fact, it has more distinct types of beer per capita than anywhere else in the world. In 2011, there were 1,132 different varieties of beer being produced in the country. The brewing tradition in Belgium can be traced back to the early Middle Ages and 6 Trappist Monasteries still produce beer, which was initially used to fund their upkeep.
On average, Belgians drink 157 litres of beer each year, down from around 260 each year in 1900. Most beers are bought or served in bottles, rather than cans, and almost every style of beer has its own particular, uniquely shaped glass or other drinking-vessel. Using the correct glass is considered to improve its flavour.
The varied nature of Belgian beers makes it possible to match them against each course of a meal, for instance:
Wheat beer with seafood or fish.
Blonde or Tripel beers with eel, chicken or white meat
Dubbel or other dark beers with dark meat
Fruit Lambics with dessert
A number of traditional Belgian dishes use beer as an ingredient. One is carbonade, a stew of beef cooked in beer, similar to beef bourguignon. The beer used is typically the regional speciality: lambic in Brussels, De Koninck in Antwerp, so that the taste of the dish varies. Another is rabbit in gueuze. The Trappist monastery at Chimay also manufactures cheese that is "washed" with beer to enhance its flavour.
Jenever
Jenever, also known as genièvre, genever, peket or Dutch gin, is the national spirit of Belgium from which gin evolved. While beer may be Belgium's most famous alcoholic beverage, jenever has been the country's traditional and national spirit for over 500 years. Jenever is a "Protected Product of Origin", having received eleven different appellations or AOCs from the European Union, and can only be crafted in Belgium, the Netherlands and a few areas in France and Germany. Most of the jenever AOC's are exclusive to Belgium making Belgian jenever (Belgian genever) one of the best-kept secrets in the liquor industry.
For centuries jenever has been bottled in jugs handcrafted from clay. Its iconic shape is recognizable and unique to jenever. Traditionally the Belgians serve jenever in completely full shot glasses that have just been pulled from the freezer. The first step to drinking the jenever properly is to keep the glass on the table, bend down and take the first sip without holding the glass. Once this traditional first sip is completed one can drink the rest of the drink normally.
Chocolate
Belgium is famed for its high quality chocolate and over 2,000 chocolatiers, both small and large. Belgium's association with chocolate goes back as far as 1635 when the country was under Spanish occupation. By the mid-18th century, chocolate had become extremely popular in upper and middle class circles, particularly in the form of hot chocolate, including with Charles-Alexander of Lorraine, the Austrian governor of the territory. From the early 20th century, the country was able to import large quantities of cocoa from its African colony, the Belgian Congo. Both the chocolate bar and praline are inventions of the Belgian chocolate industry. Today, chocolate is very popular in Belgium, with 172,000 tonnes produced each year, and widely exported.
The composition of Belgian chocolate has been regulated by law since 1884. In order to prevent adulteration of the chocolate with low-quality fats from other sources, a minimum level of 35% pure cocoa was imposed. Adherence to traditional manufacturing techniques also serves to increase the quality of Belgian chocolate. In particular, vegetable-based fats are not used. Many firms produce chocolates by hand, which is laborious and explains the prevalence of small, independent chocolate outlets, which are popular with tourists. Famous chocolate companies, like Neuhaus and Guylian, strictly follow traditional (and sometimes secret) recipes for their products.
Seafood pralines (pralines shaped like sea shells or fish) are popular with tourists and are sold all over Belgium.
Famous Belgian chocolatiers are Côte d'or, Leonidas, Guylian, Neuhaus, ...
Gallery
Appetizers and light fare
Main dishes
Cheese cheese cheese
Sweet dishes and desserts
See also
Belgian beer
Guylian
Chicory
French fries
French cuisine
Friterie
Mussel
Pierre Wynants - chef
Stoemp
Waffle
Waterzooi
Chocolatier Neuhaus
Leonidas Chocolatier
References
Further reading
Analysis and context
Recipes
External links
Traditional Belgian cuisine and beer pairing from BeerTourism.com
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211978
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transsylvania%20Phoenix
|
Transsylvania Phoenix
|
Transsylvania Phoenix (also known as Phoenix in Romania) is a Romanian rock band formed in 1962 in Timișoara by guitarists Nicu Covaci and Kamocsa Béla. Guitarist Claudiu Rotaru, vocalist Florin "Moni" Bordeianu and drummer Ioan "Pilu" Ștefanovici completed the early lineup. The group became famous in Romania in the 1970s when it started fusing their 1960s rock and roll sound with traditional folk music, thus pioneering the "ethno rock" subgenre.
After gaining popularity in Romania during the so-called British invasion in the mid-60s, the group changed its style to integrate Romanian folklore elements after vocalist Florin "Moni" Bordeianu emigrated to the United States. A new LP was released in 1972 and the band represented Romania in various Eastern Bloc music festivals throughout the 1970s. The group disbanded in 1977, when they illegally fled to West Germany. Latter attempts to regroup the members, both in West Germany and in Romania after 1990, failed to achieve the original success. They have been estimated to have sold over 2 million albums in Romania.
History
Origins
Phoenix was launched in the cosmopolitan city of Timișoara in 1962 by a pair of schoolboys: Nicu Covaci and Béla Kamocsa, under the name of Sfinții (The Saints). In their first years, together with Florin "Moni" Bordeianu (born 1948), they performed in school contests and at local clubs, covering Western music hits from The Rolling Stones, The Beatles, The Who, etc., and they quickly became very popular amongst the youth. In 1965 the Communist authorities demanded that the band stop performing under the name The Saints, because of the religious innuendo that the name carried. Forced to comply, the band took the name Phoenix. Nicu Covaci also changed the composition of the band, around 1963, by adding Claudiu Rotaru, Ioan "Pilu" Ștefanovici (born 1946) and Günther "Spitzly" Reininger (born 1950) to the lineup.
In 1965 they had their first big concert in Bucharest. Their performance brought a collaboration with Cornel Chiriac to record some of their songs. The first songs they recorded were "Știu că mă iubesti și tu" ("I Know You Love Me Too"), "Dunăre, Dunăre" ("Danube, Danube") and "Bun e vinul ghiurghiuliu" ("Good is the Red Wine"). The same year also marked the beginning of their collaboration with Victor Suvagau, who went on to write many of their most famous songs, such as "Vremuri" ("Old Times"), "Și totuși ca voi sunt" ("And Yet I Am Like You"), "Nebunul cu ochii închiși" ("The Fool with Eyes Closed"), "Floarea stîncilor" ("Mountain Flower") and "Canarul" ("Canary").
In December 1967 Phoenix had their first major series of concerts in many western cities, capped off by two huge concerts in Timișoara. After winning a few prizes in national students' contests, held at Iași the following year, in 1968 they recorded their first EP, Vremuri, containing two original songs, Vremuri and Canarul, and two covers (Lady Madonna - The Beatles and Friday on My Mind - The Easybeats). A second EP would follow one year later, named Floarea stîncilor (The Flower of the Rocks), with all four songs being original compositions. Both albums sport a sound reminiscent of the beat style popular in those days.
They then started working on a rock theater play "Omul 36/80" (The Man 36/80) which won several prizes for originality.
In 1969 Ioan "Pilu" Ștefanovici was replaced by Dorel "Baba" Vintilă Zaharia (born 1943). For the next year the band became more and more popular, frequently visiting Bucharest and being invited onto talk shows about music.
The 1970s
In 1970, Moni Bordeianu emigrated to the United States. 1970 was the blues period of the band. The band was Nicu Covaci, guitar, Günther "Spitzly" Reininger, piano and vocals, Zoltán Kovács, bass guitar and Liviu Butoi, oboe and flute. Phoenix was born again the next year, with Covaci, Josef Kappl, Mircea Baniciu, Costin Petrescu (replaced in 1974 by Ovidiu Lipan, nicknamed "Țăndărică") and Valeriu Sepi.
But the Communist officials were not very comfortable with the Western-style music that they were singing, and kept creating problems for them. So Phoenix abandoned beat and turned to Romanian folklore, pagan rituals, mystic animals and old traditions. In this same year, Phoenix started a collaboration with the Institute of Ethnography and Folklore and the Folklore section of Timișoara University on an ambitious project, a rock poem that combined traditional wooden instruments with modern sounds. During this project the band also started collaborating with Valeriu Sepi (born 1947), who eventually joined the band. The first outcome would be the 1972 LP Cei ce ne-au dat nume (Those Who Gave Us a Name) - the second LP to be recorded in Romania by a Romanian band. Two years later, Mugur de fluier (Flute Bud) followed. Both albums underwent severe censorship.
In 1973 Phoenix represented Romania at the "Golden Harp" festival in Bratislava (Slovakia), and then at the "Disc festival" in Sopot (Poland). Also, they wanted to record a new rock-opera, named "Meșterul Manole", but the communist officials censored it all, by "losing" the unique book with costume sketches and lyrics given to them for official approval. The result was only an EP with an extract from the opera, Meșterul Manole, uvertură (Master Manole, overture) and two older songs, Mamă, Mamă (Mother, Mother) and Te întreb pe tine, soare... (I'm asking you, sun...).
On Monday, 19 November 1973, Phoenix held a concert in Bucharest, presenting their new hits "Andrii Popa", "Pavel Cneazul", "Mica Țiganiadă" and "Strunga" which composed the new disc "Mugur de fluier". The new songs were still influenced by folklore yet had a new style. This style was the result of the collaboration with new songwriters Andrei Ujică and Șerban Foarță. Based on those new songs Nicu Covaci created a new show "Introducere la un concert despre muzica veche la români" ("Introduction to a concert about old Romanian music") in which he introduced violins, flutes, archaic percussion and other traditional instruments. The show was never finished due to a new collaboration with "Cenaclul Flacăra". This period is considered the peak for Phoenix.
Every winter the members of the band would retreat to Mount Semenic and plan their upcoming songs. That winter the show "Zoosophia", a title that would later change to "Cantafabule", was created. The show began by "calling" all mythic animals and continued by dedicating a song to each of them, finishing with the Phoenix, the band's symbol. The year 1975 brought a newcomer to the band, Ovidiu Lipan "Țăndărică" (born 1953). The "Cantafabule" show was first presented in Timișoara in February 1975. The disc was recorded in a short time and was published the same year with a misspelling in the title: "Cantofabule."
By this time, Phoenix had become quite popular, both for the songs and the thinly-veiled allusions to the Communist regime. The band members, especially Nicu Covaci, were increasingly harassed by the Securitate. Covaci married a Dutch woman and left the country in 1976. He returned in 1977, bringing in relief aid for those struck by the powerful earthquake on 4 March. After two grandiose concerts in Constanța and Tulcea, Covaci left the country again, this time with all the band members (except Baniciu) hidden inside their Marshall speakers: at the time it was extremely difficult to obtain approval to travel abroad and illegal border crossing was punished by imprisonment.
The 1980s
After fleeing Communist Romania in 1977 via Yugoslavia and after ultimately arriving in West Germany, Phoenix shortly thereafter disbanded. Kappl and a few other members (i.e. Erlend Krauser and Ovidiu Lipan) formed a new band called Madhouse and released a less successful album entitled From The East. In 1981, Covaci co-opted Neumann and Lipan and English bassist Tom Buggie, under the name Transsylvania Phoenix (since a band named Phoenix already existed) and released an LP named Transsylvania, containing two old Phoenix songs translated into English to target the Western audience and five new ones. Covaci together with Kappl also released two EPs and one maxi single as Transsylvania-Phoenix.
Comeback
In 1990, Phoenix made a modest comeback to Romania. Although they were expected to sing their first song in their hometown Timișoara, the city that sparked the Romanian Revolution of 1989 that eventually led to the downfall of the Communist regime, their first post-1989 concert took place in Bucharest, the capital of Romania. Internal conflicts, especially between Covaci and Baniciu, were making headlines in the media.
A new studio album was released in 2000, the first original album after their 1990 comeback attempt; with the exception of Covaci, the lineup comprised none of the members from the '70s.
In 2002, the 40th anniversary of the band brought together some of the former members.
At the end of 2005 the band released a new album, named Baba Novak, in its classic gold lineup.
As of 2010, the band still performed at live events.
In 2014, they recorded the album called "Vino, Țepeș!".
Band members
For more details on this topic, see List of Transsylvania Phoenix band members:
Nicu Covaci - rhythm and lead guitar, lead and backing vocals (1962–present)
Costin Adam - lead vocals (2014–present)
Dan Albu - rhythm guitar, backing vocals (2014–present)
Dzidek Marcinkiewicz - keyboards, backing vocals (1983, 1985-1999, 2008–present)
Marc Alexandru Tinț - lead guitar (2014–present)
Volker Vaessen - bass guitar (1992–1993, 1999–2000, 2002–2005, 2008–present)
Flavius Hosu - drums (2014–present)
Current touring musicians
Sergiu Corbu Boldor - violin (2014–present)
Andrei Cerbu - guitar (2014–present)
Discography
Vremuri (Old Times), 1968, EP
Floarea stîncilor (The Flower of the Rocks), 1969, EP
Cei ce ne-au dat nume (Those Who Gave Us a Name), 1972, LP (re-edited on CD in 1999)
Meșterul Manole, 1973, EP
Mugur de fluier (Flute Bud), 1974, LP (re-edited on CD in 1999)
Cantofabule (Fablesongs), 1975, 2LP
Transsylvania, 1981, LP
Ballade For You/The Lark, 1987, single
Tuareg/Mr. G's Promises, 1988, single
Tuareg, 1988, maxi-single
Ciocîrlia/Perestroika (The Lark/Perestroika), 1990, single
Remember Phoenix, 1991, LP
SymPhoenix/Timișoara, 1992, CD/MC/2LP
Evergreens, 1993, CD/MC
Cantafabule - Bestiar, 1996, CD
Anniversare 35 (35th Anniversary), 1997, CD/MC
Vremuri, anii '60... (Old Times, The 60s), 1998, CD/MC
În umbra marelui urs, 2000
Baba Novak, 2005
Back to the Future, 2008
Vino, Țepeș!, 2014
References
External links
Phoenix's official website
Old Phoenix's official website
Nicu Covaci's personal website
Farfarello homepage
Transsylvania Phoenix - Cantafabule promo download
Musical groups established in 1962
Romanian rock music groups
1962 establishments in Romania
|
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] |
211982
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddie%20Money
|
Eddie Money
|
Edward Joseph Mahoney (March 21, 1949 – September 13, 2019), known professionally as Eddie Money, was an American singer and songwriter who, in the 1970s and 1980s, had eleven Top 40 songs, including "Baby Hold On", "Two Tickets to Paradise", "Think I'm in Love", "Shakin'", "Take Me Home Tonight", "I Wanna Go Back", "Walk on Water", and "The Love in Your Eyes". Critic Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times called him a working-class rocker and Kristin Hall of the Associated Press stated he had a husky voice. In 1987, he was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance for "Take Me Home Tonight".
Early life
Edward Joseph Mahoney was born in Brooklyn, New York City on March 21, 1949, to a large family of Irish Catholics. His parents were Dorothy Elizabeth (née Keller), a homemaker, and Daniel Patrick Mahoney, a police officer. He grew up in Levittown, New York, but spent some teenage years in Woodhaven, Queens. Money was a street singer since the age of 11. As a teenager, he played in rock bands, in part to get dates from cheerleaders. He was thrown out of one high school for forging a report card. In 1967, he graduated from Island Trees High School.
At the age of 18, he tried to follow in the footsteps of his grandfather, father, and brother as a New York City Police Department trainee. However, after working as a clerk and typist, he left in 1968 to pursue a career in music, as the police did not allow him to grow his hair long. "I couldn't see myself in a police uniform for 20 years of my life, with short hair," he later said. His bandmates also fired him because they did not want a police officer in the group. His father was not happy with the decision to play music and tore the Jimi Hendrix posters from his wall.
In 1968, Money moved to Berkeley, California. There, he studied with vocal coach Judy Davis, and took on the stage name Eddie Money, dropping a few letters from his name and sarcastically referencing the fact that he was always broke.
Career
Music career
Money became a regular performer at clubs in the San Francisco Bay Area. After gaining the attention of Bill Graham, he secured a recording contract with Columbia Records, releasing his debut album in 1977. He charted with singles such as "Baby Hold On" and "Two Tickets to Paradise", about visiting his girlfriend despite not having money.
In 1978, Money opened for Santana at Boston's Music Hall. The following year, he sang backing vocals on the bridge section on "I'm Alright", a song written and performed by Kenny Loggins. In 2014, Money claimed that Loggins never gave him credit for his contribution.
In 1982, Money took advantage of the MTV music video scene with his humorous narrative videos for "Think I'm in Love", performed at The Mission Inn Hotel & Spa, and "Shakin'". In the early 1980s, he appeared on The Midnight Special, Fridays, and Solid Gold. In 1978 and 1984, he appeared on American Bandstand.
Money's career began to decline following an unsuccessful 1983 album (Where's the Party?) and struggles with drug addiction. However, he made a comeback in 1986 with the album Can't Hold Back, which received a music recording certification of platinum. "Take Me Home Tonight", a single from the album, peaked at No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the United States. Money only agreed to perform the song—which included a line from "Be My Baby", a song Ronnie Spector performed as part of The Ronettes—after Spector agreed to sing the line herself. In 1987, Money was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance for "Take Me Home Tonight". "I Wanna Go Back" and "Endless Nights"—two other singles from the Can't Hold Back album—peaked at No. 14 and No. 21, respectively.
In 1988, Money released Nothing to Lose, which featured the Top 10 hit "Walk on Water" and the Top 40 hit "The Love in Your Eyes".
Beginning in 1992, Money opened the summer concert season for the Pine Knob (now the DTE Energy Music Theatre) in Clarkston, Michigan. In 1996, he wrote the theme music to Quack Pack, a Disney cartoon.
Money was inducted into the Long Island Music Hall of Fame in 2008. In January 2010, he performed a medley of his hit singles during the halftime performance at the Liberty Bowl.
Money wrote and performed original songs for the films Americathon (1979), Over the Top, Back to the Beach (both 1987), and Kuffs (1992), along with the television series Hardball (1989–1990).
On May 10, 2019, Money released the track "Brand New Day" as the lead single from his album of the same name. It was originally set to be released on July 19, 2019, but was postponed following the announcement of Money's illness and subsequent death. On April 17, 2020, Brand New Day, was released as a 5-song EP. A second EP containing the remaining six songs from the intended album will be released at a later date according to Money's wife Laurie who said "These will be his last recordings. The other half is a little more vintage. There's a big difference so they needed to be separated."
In the three days following Money's death, fans streamed "Take Me Home Tonight" more than 3.1 million times, which was an increase of 349% compared to the previous three-day period. Fans also streamed his other songs by 931% more than the three previous days.
Television, film, and radio career
Money made several screen appearances.
In 1997, he appeared in Wonderland, a documentary film about Levittown, New York, where Money went to high school. In the film, he said if he had "two tickets to paradise, I'd probably get back to Levittown".
Money played a fictionalized version of himself on a 1999 episode of season 5 of The Drew Carey Show. In the episode, he had been Mimi's first husband early in his career and they never made their divorce official. In May 2002, he played himself on an episode of the sitcom The King of Queens.
In October 2011, Money became the host of "Money in the Morning", a radio show on WSRV. The gig lasted about three months. He appeared in a 2012 GEICO insurance commercial in which he is depicted as a travel agency owner who sings "Two Tickets to Paradise" to a family that wants tickets for a vacation.
In January 2016, Money partnered with Howard Perl Entertainment, MTV VJ Nina Blackwood, and Hard Rock Rocksino to produce "Money for the Animals", a show designed to raise funds and adopt rescue animals in need.
In 2018, Money appeared in episode 6 of The Kominsky Method as a fictionalized version of himself who is indebted to the Internal Revenue Service and portrays the character Freddie Money in an eponymous tribute act at a casino to avoid further tax problems.
On April 8, 2018, Real Money, a reality television series about Money and his family, debuted on AXS TV. An episode sharing his cancer diagnosis aired on AXS TV the day before he died. The show's second season was expected to follow Money's "journey as he tells his family about the disease and undergoes treatment."
In late April 2018, Weekly Alibi's August March interviewed Money, who waxed poetic about his career, his family and his new television show.
Personal life and death
In 1980, after drinking vodka, Money overdosed on a synthetic barbiturate that he mistook for cocaine. He suffered damage to the sciatic nerve on his left leg, was unable to walk for months, and had a permanent limp thereafter.
On Valentine's Day 1984 in Moraga, California, Money married Margo Lee Walker, a student from Los Angeles. He and his bride tried to keep the wedding private, "but a crowd of screaming teenage fans showed up."
Money married Laurie Harris in 1989. Together, they had five children: Zachary, Jessica, Joseph, Julian, and Desmond. They were married for 30 years and had renewed their vows three months prior to his death.
In March 2000, Money purchased a home in Westlake Village, California, where he lived with his family. At one point in the early 2000s, Money also had a home in Island Estates, a gated community in Palm Coast, Florida, which he called "my place to play golf, be creative, go fishing, go surfing and have fun".
In 2001, Money joined a 12-step program to deal with his drinking and made a promise to his wife and children that he would change. In 2003, he reported that he was clean and sober.
In July 2019, Money underwent heart valve surgery and contracted pneumonia, causing him to cancel tour dates. He had been a cigarette smoker for years. On August 24, 2019, he revealed that he had been diagnosed with stage 4 esophageal cancer. Complications from the cancer resulted in his death at Keck Hospital of USC in Los Angeles on September 13, 2019, at age 70. A year later, his family filed a lawsuit alleging wrongful death against the hospital, with an additional allegation of medical malpractice.
Discography
Studio albums
Eddie Money (1977)
Life for the Taking (1978)
Playing for Keeps (1980)
No Control (1982)
Where's the Party? (1983)
Can't Hold Back (1986)
Nothing to Lose (1988)
Right Here (1991)
Love and Money (1995)
Ready Eddie (1999)
Wanna Go Back (2007)
References
External links
1949 births
2019 deaths
20th-century American singers
20th-century American male singers
21st-century American singers
21st-century American male singers
American people of Irish descent
American rock guitarists
American rock singers
Deaths from cancer in California
Deaths from esophageal cancer
Guitarists from New York (state)
Musicians from Brooklyn
Participants in American reality television series
People from Seaford, New York
|
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] |
211983
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics%20of%20firearms
|
Physics of firearms
|
From the viewpoint of physics (dynamics, to be exact), a firearm, as for most weapons, is a system for delivering maximum destructive energy to the target with minimum delivery of energy on the shooter. The momentum delivered to the target, however, cannot be any more than that (due to recoil) on the shooter. This is due to conservation of momentum, which dictates that the momentum imparted to the bullet is equal and opposite to that imparted to the gun-shooter system.
Firearm energy efficiency
From a thermodynamic point of view, a firearm is a special type of piston engine, or in general heat engine where the bullet has a function of a piston. The energy conversion efficiency of a firearm strongly depends on its construction, especially on its caliber and barrel length.
However, for illustration, here is the energy balance of a typical small firearm for .300 Hawk ammunition:
Barrel friction 2%
Projectile motion 32%
Hot gases 34%
Barrel heat 30%
Unburned propellant 1%.
which is comparable with a typical piston engine.
Higher efficiency can be achieved in longer barrel firearms because they have better volume ratio. However, the efficiency gain is less than corresponding to the volume ratio, because the expansion is not truly adiabatic and burnt gas becomes cold faster because of exchange of heat with the barrel. Large firearms (such as cannons) achieve smaller barrel-heating loss because they have better volume-to-surface ratio.
High barrel diameter is also helpful because lower barrel friction is induced by sealing compared to the accelerating force. The force is proportional to the square of the barrel diameter while sealing needs are proportional to the perimeter by the same pressure.
Force
According to Newtonian mechanics, if the gun and shooter are at rest initially, the force on the bullet will be equal to that on the gun-shooter. This is due to Newton's third law of motion (For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction). Consider a system where the gun and shooter have a combined mass g and the bullet has a mass b. When the gun is fired, the two masses move away from one another with velocities g and b respectively. But the law of conservation of momentum states that the magnitudes of their momenta must be equal, and as momentum is a vector quantity and their directions are opposite:
In technical mathematical terms, the derivative of momentum with respect to time is force, which implies the force on the bullet will equal the force on the gun, and the momentum of the bullet/shooter can be derived via integrating the force-time function of the bullet or shooter. This is mathematically written as follows:
Where represent the gun, bullet, time, mass, velocity and force respectively.
Gunshot victims frequently fall or collapse when shot; this is less a result of the momentum of the bullet pushing them over, but is primarily caused by physical damage or psychological effects, perhaps combined with being off balance. This is not the case if the victim is hit by heavier projectiles such as 20 mm cannon shell, where the momentum effects can be enormous; this is why very few such weapons can be fired without being mounted on a weapons platform or involve a recoilless system (e.g. a recoilless rifle).
Example:
A .44 Remington Magnum with a jacketed bullet is fired at at a target. What velocity is imparted to the target (assume the bullet remains embedded in the target and thus practically loses all its velocity)?
Let and stand for the mass and velocity of the bullet, the latter just before hitting the target, and let and stand for the mass and velocity of the target after being hit.
Conservation of momentum requires
= .
Solving for the target's velocity gives
= / = 0.016 kg × 360 m/s / 77 kg = 0.07 m/s = 0.17 mph.
This example shows the target barely moves at all. That's not to say one couldn't stop a train by firing bullets at it, it's just completely impractical.
Velocity
From Eq. 1 we can write for the velocity of the gun/shooter: V = mv/M. This shows that despite the high velocity of the bullet, the small bullet-mass to shooter-mass ratio results in a low recoil velocity (V) although the force and momentum are equal.
Kinetic energy
However, the smaller mass of the bullet, compared to that of the gun-shooter system, allows significantly more kinetic energy to be imparted to the bullet than to the shooter. The kinetic energy for the two systems are for the gun-shooter system and for the bullet. The energy imparted to the shooter can then be written as:
For the ratio of these energies we have:
The ratio of the kinetic energies is the same as the ratio of the masses (and is independent of velocity). Since the mass of the bullet is much less than that of the shooter there is more kinetic energy transferred to the bullet than to the shooter. Once discharged from the weapon, the bullet's energy decays throughout its flight, until the remainder is dissipated by colliding with a target (e.g. deforming the bullet and target).
Transfer of energy
When the bullet strikes, its high velocity and small frontal cross-section means that it will exert highly focused stresses in any object it hits. This usually results in it penetrating any softer material, such as flesh. The energy is then dissipated along the wound channel formed by the passage of the bullet. See terminal ballistics for a fuller discussion of these effects.
Bulletproof vests work by dissipating the bullet's energy in another way; the vest's material, usually Aramid (Kevlar or Twaron), works by presenting a series of material layers which catch the bullet and spread its imparted force over a larger area, hopefully bringing it to a stop before it can penetrate into the body behind the vest. While the vest can prevent a bullet from penetrating, the wearer will still be affected by the momentum of the bullet, which can produce contusions.
See also
Ballistics
Internal ballistics
External ballistics
Table of handgun and rifle cartridges
References
Firearms
Applied and interdisciplinary physics
Classical mechanics
de:Innenballistik
|
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] |
211991
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C4%ABgatne
|
Līgatne
|
Līgatne (; ) is a town in Līgatne Parish, Cēsis Municipality in the Vidzeme region of Latvia. It is situated on the Gauja River. The village of Līgatne was built around the paper mill, still extant, on the River Līgatne in the 19th century.
Līgatne Nature Trails
The reserve known as the Līgatne Nature Trails is also located here, in the Gauja National Park, in the forest on the left bank of the Gauja River downstream from the paper mill. There are extensive paths through the nature reserve both for walking and for cycling, and there is a separate route for cars. There are also facilities for horse-riding and camping.
The reserve was set up in 1975 for the protection and display of the diversity of species, both plant and animal, which are characteristic of Latvia.
The animals here have been rescued from all over Latvia, either because they were injured, or because they had been tamed and could not survive on their own in the wild. The reserve contains bear, lynx, elk, European bison, roe deer and red deer.
The Gauja river valley contains distinctive geological formations, forests and meadow plants. Particularly significant places are Jumpraviezis rock, Katriniezis rock, Gudu cliffs and one of the country's rare sandstone canyons: Paparzu Glen ("Fern Glen"), known for its ferns.
Ligatne has numerous caves in vertical sandstone banks, that were dug as cellars for paper mill workers in tsarist time.
Nearby places of interest
Ferry across the Gauja River (closed in winter).
Līgatne village, with peculiar 19th century wooden architecture (30 unique row dwelling houses for paper mill workers).
Līgatne paper mill, in operation since 1816.
Zvartes rock, forest trail and Witches' Meadow on the banks of the Amata River.
Kempji village church and water mill.
Skalupe nature trails.
The Park of Vienkoci.
References
External links
Gauja National Park website
Towns in Latvia
Populated places established in 1993
Cēsis Municipality
Vidzeme
|
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] |
211997
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baguazhang
|
Baguazhang
|
Baguazhang or Pakua chang () is one of the three main Chinese martial arts of the Wudang school, the other two being T'ai chi and Xing Yi Quan. It is more broadly grouped as an internal practice (or neijia quan). Bāguà zhǎng literally means "eight trigram palm", referring to the bagua "trigrams" of the I Ching (Yijing), one of the canons of Taoism.
History
The creation of Baguazhang as a formalized martial art, is attributed to Dong Haichuan (), who is said to have learned from Taoist and Buddhist masters in the mountains of rural China during the early 19th century. Many Chinese authorities do not accept the Buddhist origin, instead maintaining that those teachers were purely Taoist in origin, the evidence lying in Baguazhang's frequent reference to core concepts central to Taoism, such as Yin and Yang theory, I Ching and Taoism's most distinctive paradigm, the Bagua diagram. The attribution to Buddhist teachers came from the 2nd generation teachers, i.e. Dong Haichuan's students, some of whom were Buddhist. There is evidence to suggest a synthesis of several pre-existing martial arts taught and practised in the region in which Dong Haichuan lived, combined with Taoist circle walking. Through his work as a servant in the Imperial Palace he impressed the emperor with his graceful movements and fighting skill, and became an instructor and a bodyguard to the court. Dong Haichuan taught for many years in Beijing, eventually earning patronage by the Imperial court.
Famous disciples of Dong Haichuan to become teachers were Yin Fu (), Cheng Tinghua (), Ma Gui (), Song Changrong (), Liu Fengchun (), Ma Weiqi (), Liu Baozhen (), Liang Zhenpu () and Liu Dekuan (). Although they were all students of the same teacher, their methods of training and expressions of palm techniques differed. The Cheng and Liu styles are said to specialize in "pushing" the palms, Yin style is known for "threading" the palms, Song's followers practice "Plum Flower" ( Mei Hua) palm technique and Ma style palms are known as "hammers." Some of Dong Haichuan's students, including Cheng Tinghua, participated in the Boxer Rebellion. In general, most bagua exponents today practice either the Yin (), Cheng (), or Liang () styles, although Fan (), Shi (), Liu (), Fu (), and other styles also exist. (The Liu style is a special case, in that it is rarely practiced alone, but as a complement to other styles). In addition, there are sub-styles of the above methods as well, such as the Sun (), Gao (), and Jiang () styles, which are sub-styles of Cheng method.
Modern styles
Yin Style: Yin Fu ()
Cheng Style: Cheng Tinghua ()
Liang Style: Liang Zhenpu ()
Gao Style: Gao Yisheng ()
Yin Sect Gao Style: Gao Ziying ()
Jiang Style: Jiang Rong Qiao ()
Shi Style: Shi Jidong ()
Song Style: Song Changrong and Song Yongxiang ()
Fan Family Style: Fan Zhiyong ()
Liu Style: Liu Baozhen ()
Ma Style: Ma Weiqi ()
Ma Gui Style: Ma Gui ()
Gong Baotian Style: Gong Baotian ()
Sun Style: Sun Lutang ()
Fu Style: Fu Zhensong ()
Yin Yang Style (Tian Style): Tian Hui ()
Ho Ho Choy Baguazhang: He Kecai ()
Lu Style: Lu Shui-Tian (盧水田)
Common aspects
The practice of circle walking, or "turning the circle", as it is sometimes called, is Baguazhang's characteristic method of stance and movement training. All forms of Baguazhang utilize circle walking as an integral part of training. Practitioners walk around the edge of the circle in various low stances, facing the center, and periodically change direction as they execute forms. For a beginner, the circle is six to twelve feet in diameter. Students first learn flexibility and proper body alignment through the basic exercises, then move on to more complex forms and internal power mechanics. Although the internal aspects of Baguazhang are similar to those of Xingyiquan and Taijiquan, they are distinct in nature.
Many distinctive styles of weapons are contained within Baguazhang; some use concealment, like the "judge's pen" () or a pair of knives (the most elaborate, which are unique to the style, are the crescent-shaped deer horn knives (). Baguazhang is also known for practicing with extremely large weapons, such as the bāguà jian (), or bagua sword, and the bāguà dāo (), or bagua broadsword. Other, more conventional weapons are also used, such as the staff (gun), spear (qiang), cane (guai), hook sword (gou) and the straight, double-edged sword (jian). Baguazhang practitioners are also known for being able to use anything as a weapon using the principles of their art.
Baguazhang contains an extremely wide variety of techniques as well as weapons, including various strikes (with palm, fist, elbow, fingers, etc.), kicks, joint locks, throws, and distinctively evasive circular footwork. As such, Baguazhang is considered neither a purely striking nor a purely grappling martial art. Baguazhang practitioners are known for their ability to "flow" in and out of the way of objects. This is the source of the theory of being able to fight multiple attackers. Baguazhang's evasive nature is also shown by the practice of moving behind an attacker, so that the opponent cannot harm the practitioner.
Although the many branches of Baguazhang are often quite different from each other (some, like Cheng style, specialize in close-in wrestling and joint locks, while others, like some of the Yin styles, specialize in quick, long-range striking), all have circle walking, spiraling movement, and certain methods and techniques (piercing palms, crashing palms, etc.) in common.
Baguazhang's movements employ the whole body with smooth coiling and uncoiling actions, utilizing hand techniques, dynamic footwork, and throws. Rapid-fire movements draw energy from the center of the abdomen. The circular stepping pattern also builds up centripetal force, allowing the practitioner to maneuver quickly around an opponent.
See also
Bagua—the eight trigrams, used as guiding principles for Baguazhang.
I Ching—the Chinese Classic relied on by Taoist thinking.
Feng Shui—the metaphysical system of interior design based on the Bagua.
T'ai chi ch'uan-a similar Neijia.
Notes
References
Robert W. Smith, Chinese Boxing,
Bok Nam, Park & Dan Miller, The Fundamentals of Pa Kua Chang: The Methods of Lu Shui-T'ien As Taught by Park Bok Nam,
Shou-Yu, Liang, Baguazhang : Emei Baguazhang Theory and Applications,
O'Brien, Jess, Nei Jia Quan: Internal Martial Arts Teachers of Tai Ji Quan, Xing Yi Quan, and Ba Gua Zhang,
Frantzis, Bruce Kumar, The Power of Internal Martial Arts: Combat Secrets of Ba Gua, Tai Chi, and Hsing-I,
Wang Shujin, Bagua Linked Palms - Translated by Kent Howard and Chen Hsiao-Yen, (1-58394-264-5)
Wang Shujin, Bagua Swimming Body Palms - Translated by Kent Howard and Chen Hsiao-Yen, (1-58394-245-9)
External links
The Pa Kua Chang Journal
ChinaFromInside.com presents... BAGUAZHANG
Qiang Shan Ba Gua Zhang Association
Chinese swordsmanship
Neijia
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Astoria%20%28CA-34%29
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USS Astoria (CA-34)
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The second USS Astoria (CL/CA-34) was a of the United States Navy that participated in both the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway, but was then sunk in August 1942, at the Battle of Savo Island. Astoria was the first Astoria-class cruiser to be laid down but launched after and received a hull number higher than , which the class was renamed for after Astoria sunk.
Immediately after the months-long Guadalcanal campaign ended in February 1943, the remaining ships of the class would go through major overhauls to lessen top-heaviness due to new electrical and radar systems and advanced anti-aircraft weaponry. In doing so the ships took on a new appearance, most notably in the bridge.
Construction and commissioning
Astoria was laid down on 1 September 1930, at the Puget Sound Navy Yard. Such ships, with a limit of 10,000 tons standard displacement and 8-inch calibre main guns may be referred to as "treaty cruisers." Originally classified a light cruiser, because of her thin armor, she was reclassified, after being laid down, a heavy cruiser, because of her 8-inch guns. The term "heavy cruiser" was not defined until the London Naval Treaty in 1930. Launched on 16 December 1933, sponsored by Miss Leila C. McKay (a descendant of Alexander McKay, a member of the John Jacob Astor expedition that founded Astoria, Oregon), and commissioned on 28 April 1934, Captain Edmund S. Root in command.
During the summer of 1934, Astoria conducted a lengthy shakedown cruise, in the course of which she voyaged extensively in the Pacific. In addition to the Hawaiian Islands, the heavy cruiser also visited American Samoa; Fiji; Sydney, Australia; and Nouméa on the island of New Caledonia. She returned to San Francisco on 26 September 1934.
Inter-war period
Between the fall of 1934 and February 1937, she operated as a unit of Cruiser Division 7 (CruDiv 7), Scouting Force, based at San Pedro, California. In February 1937, the warship was reassigned to CruDiv 6, though she continued to serve as an element of Scouting Force based at San Pedro. In both assignments, she carried out normal peacetime maneuvers, the culmination of which came in the annual fleet problem that brought the entire United States Fleet together in a single, vast exercise.
Special duty: Hiroshi Saito's ashes
At the beginning of 1939, Fleet Problem XX concentrated the fleet in the West Indies, and at its conclusion Astoria, Richmond Kelly Turner commanding, made a hasty departure from Culebra Island on 3 March 1939 and headed for Chesapeake Bay. After taking on a capacity load of stores and fuel at Norfolk, Virginia, the heavy cruiser proceeded north to Annapolis, Maryland, where she embarked the remains of the former Japanese Ambassador to the United States, the late Hiroshi Saito, for the voyage to Japan, a gesture that expressed America's gratitude to the Japanese for returning the body of the late United States Ambassador to Japan, Edgar Bancroft, in the cruiser in 1926. Astoria sailed from Annapolis on 18 March 1939, accompanied by Naokichi Kitazawa, Second Secretary of the Japanese Embassy in Washington.
Arriving in the Panama Canal Zone soon thereafter, where "various high officials and a delegation from the Japanese colony in Panama paid their respects to Saito's ashes," Astoria got underway for Hawaii on 24 March. She moored at Honolulu on 4 April, the same day that Madame Saito and her two daughters arrived on board the passenger liner . Two days later, the heavy cruiser proceeded westward across the Pacific.
Accompanied by the destroyers , , , Astoria steamed slowly into Yokohama harbor on 17 April, United States ensign at half-staff and the Japanese flag at the fore. The warship fired a 21-gun salute which was returned by the light cruiser . American sailors carried the ceremonial urn ashore that afternoon, and funeral ceremonies took place the following morning.
After the solemn state funeral, the Japanese showered lavish hospitality on the visiting cruiser and her men. Captain Turner, for his part, pleased Ambassador to Japan Joseph C. Grew by his diplomatic role in the proceedings; the naval attaché in Tokyo, Captain Harold Medberry Bemis, later recorded that the choice of Turner for that delicate mission was "particularly fortunate...." In grateful appreciation of American sympathy and courtesy a pagoda was later presented by Hirosi Saito's wife and child. That pagoda is located in front of Luce Hall at the United States Naval Academy.
Astoria sailed for Shanghai, China, on 26 April, and reached her destination on the morning of the 29th. She remained at Shanghai until 1 May. After receiving Admiral Harry E. Yarnell, Commander in Chief, Asiatic Fleet, on board for a courtesy call that morning, Astoria put to sea for Hong Kong in the afternoon. Following the visit to Hong Kong, Astoria stopped briefly in the Philippines before continuing on to Guam. When she arrived at Guam early on the morning of 21 May, the heavy cruiser was called upon to assist and in their successful effort to refloat the grounded Army transport . Soon thereafter, Astoria joined the search for the noted author and adventurer Richard Halliburton, and the companions with whom he had attempted the voyage from Hong Kong to San Francisco in his Chinese junk, Sea Dragon. The cruiser combed more than of the Pacific, without success, before she discontinued the search on 29 May.
Reassigned to Pearl Harbor
Assigned to the Hawaiian Detachment in October 1939, Astoria changed home ports from San Pedro to Pearl Harbor. The following spring, she participated in Fleet Problem XXI, the last of those major annual exercises that brought the entire United States Fleet together to be conducted before World War II engulfed the United States. The maneuvers took place in Hawaiian waters, and, instead of returning to the west coast at their conclusion, the bulk of the fleet joined Astoria and the Hawaiian Detachment in making Pearl Harbor its base of operations.
On 2 April 1941, Astoria departed Pearl Harbor for the west coast of the United States. She reached Long Beach, California, on 8 April and entered the Mare Island Navy Yard on the 13th. During her refit, she received quadruple-mount /75 cal anti-aircraft guns and a pedestal fitted at her foremast in anticipation of the imminent installation of the new air-search radar. Emerging from the yard on 11 July 1941, the heavy cruiser sailed for Long Beach on the 16th. Later shifting to San Pedro, Astoria sailed for Pearl Harbor on 24 July 1941.
Following her return to Hawaii on 31 July, Astoria operated between Oahu and Midway through early September. That autumn, the specter of German raiders on the prowl in the Pacific prompted the Navy to convoy its ships bound for Guam and the Philippines. Astoria escorted to Manila and thence to Guam, before returning to Pearl Harbor on 29 October. Local patrols and training, alternated with upkeep in port, occupied Astoria during the final five weeks of peace.
World War II
After rising tensions in the Pacific intensified his concern over the defenses of his outlying bases at the beginning of December 1941, Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, Commander in Chief, Pacific Fleet/United States Fleet, ordered reinforcements, in the form of Marine Corps planes, to be ferried to Wake Island and Midway. Astoria put to sea on 5 December in the screen of Rear Admiral John H. Newton's Task Force 12 (TF 12) built around . Once the task force reached open sea, Lexingtons air group and the 18 Vought SB2U-3 Vindicators from Marine Scout Bombing Squadron 231 (VMSB-231) bound for Midway landed on the carrier's flight deck.
When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on the morning of 7 December, Astoria was some west of Hawaii steaming toward Midway with TF 12. At 0900 the following day, the heavy cruiser , flagship of Vice Admiral Wilson Brown, Commander, Scouting Force, joined up with TF 12, and Brown assumed command. Its ferry mission canceled, TF 12 spent the next few days searching an area to the southwest of Oahu, "with instructions to intercept and destroy any enemy ship in the vicinity of Pearl Harbor...."
The cruiser reentered Pearl Harbor with the Lexington force on 13 December, but she returned to sea on the 16th to rendezvous with and screen a convoy, the oiler and the seaplane tender – the abortive Wake Island relief expedition. When that island fell to the Japanese on 23 December, however, the force was recalled. Astoria remained at sea until the afternoon of 29 December, when she arrived back at Oahu. When Astoria was moored in Pearl Harbor, she had about 40 sailors from the battleship transferred to her ranks. They were survivors of 7 December, when California was sunk at Berth F4 on Battleship Row.
Astoria departed Pearl Harbor again on the morning of 31 December with TF 11, formed around , and remained at sea into the second week of January 1942. On 11 January, the Japanese submarine I-6 torpedoed the carrier, forcing her retirement to Pearl Harbor. Astoria and her colleagues in the task force saw the crippled carrier safely into port on the morning of 13 January 1942.
After a brief respite at Pearl Harbor, Astoria returned to sea on 19 January with TF 11 – the carrier Lexington, escorted by heavy cruisers and , and nine destroyers – to "conduct an offensive patrol northeast of the Kingman Reef-Christmas Island line." On the afternoon of the 21st, however, TF 11 received orders to rendezvous with Neches, and then to conduct an air raid on Wake Island, followed by a surface bombardment "if practicable." Dispatches intercepted on the 23rd, however, revealed that Neches had fallen victim to a Japanese submarine, identified later as . Without the oiler's precious cargo of fuel, TF 11 could not execute the planned strike. Ordered back to Oahu, the task force reentered Pearl Harbor on the morning of 24 January.
Southwestern Pacific cruise: TF 17 (USS Yorktown)
On 16 February, Astoria put back to sea for what proved to be an extended cruise in the southwestern Pacific with TF 17, built around the carrier and comprising the heavy cruiser , destroyers , , and , and the oiler , all under the command of Rear Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher. Initially, TF 17's orders called for operations in the vicinity of Canton Island. However, after the Japanese discovered TF 11 on its way to attack their important new base at Rabaul and sent a determined raid which hit the Lexington task force off Bougainville on 20 February, Vice Admiral Brown asked for a second carrier to strengthen his force for another crack at Rabaul. Accordingly, TF 17 received orders to aid Brown in that attempt, and Astoria steamed with Yorktown to a rendezvous with TF 11 that took place southwest of the New Hebrides on 6 March.
The combined force, under Brown, stood toward Rabaul until the Japanese landings at Lae and Salamaua, New Guinea prompted a change of plans. Late on 8 March, Brown and his staff decided to shift objectives and attack the two new enemy beachheads by launching planes from the Gulf of Papua in the south and sending them across the width of New Guinea to the targets on the northern coast. Astoria, meanwhile, joined a surface force made up of heavy cruisers Chicago, Louisville, and , and destroyers Anderson, Hammann, , and Sims under the command of Rear Admiral John G. Crace, that Brown detached to operate in the waters off Rossel Island in the Louisiade Archipelago. The heavy cruiser and the other warships of that force carried out a threefold mission. They secured the carriers' right flank during their operations in the Gulf of Papua; they shielded Port Moresby from any new enemy thrust; and they covered the arrival of Army troops at Nouméa.
The raids on Lae and Salamaua, conducted by 104 planes from Yorktown and Lexington on 10 March 1942 proved devastating to the Japanese, causing heavy damage to their already depleted amphibious forces by sinking three transports and a minesweeper, as well as damaging a light cruiser, a large minelayer, three destroyers and a seaplane carrier. More importantly, the attack delayed the Japanese timetable for conquest in the Solomons and prompted them to send aircraft carriers to cover the operation. The delay, which also allowed the United States Navy time to marshal its forces, coupled with the dispatch of Japanese carriers led to the confrontation in the Coral Sea.
Battle of the Coral Sea
Astoria rejoined TF 17 on 14 March and patrolled the Coral Sea for the rest of March. At sea continuously since 16 February, Astoria began to run low on provisions, so Rear Admiral Fletcher detached her to replenish from at Nouméa along with , Hughes and Walke. Arriving on 1 April, the cruiser remained there only briefly, returning to sea the following day. The warship marched and counter-marched across the Coral Sea for two weeks before TF 17 headed for Tongatapu, where she and the Yorktown force spent the week of 20–27 April.
About this time, intelligence reports convinced Admiral Chester Nimitz that the enemy sought to take Port Moresby, on the southeastern coast of New Guinea, and he resolved to thwart those designs. He sent TF 11, built around a refurbished Lexington and led by a new commander, Rear Admiral Aubrey W. Fitch, to join Fletcher's TF 17 in the Coral Sea. Astoria returned to sea with TF 17 on 27 April to rendezvous with TF 11. The two carrier task forces met in the eastern Coral Sea early on the morning of 1 May.
Late in the afternoon of 3 May, Rear Admiral Fletcher received word of the Japanese occupation of Tulagi in the Solomons. Astoria screened Yorktown the following day as the carrier launched three raids on the enemy ships off Tulagi. Admiral Fletcher first considered sending Astoria and to finish off the crippled ships at Tulagi with surface gunnery, but demurred and kept his force concentrated in anticipation of further action.
Next came a two-day lull on 5–6 May, during which TF 17 fueled in preparation for the impending battle. Astoria screened Yorktown on the 7th as her planes joined those from Lexington in searches and strikes that located and sank the Japanese carrier . Japanese planes, however, located and sank the oiler and her escort, Sims.
Fletcher's carriers launched aircraft again early on the morning of 8 May, while Astoria and the other units of the screen prepared their antiaircraft batteries to meet the retaliation expected from Japanese carriers and . Enemy planes found TF 17 just before 1100 that morning and quickly charged to the attack. Almost simultaneously, planes from Yorktown and Lexington deployed to attack the enemy task force.
The Japanese aviators concentrated almost exclusively on the American carriers as the two drew apart with their respective screening ships, ultimately putting some of ocean between them by the end of the battle. Torpedo bombers opened the first phase of the attack, while torpedo and dive bombers coordinated attacks in the second phase.
The battle action on 8 May, as Astorias executive officer, Commander Chauncey R. Crutcher, recounted, "was short and was accompanied by intense anti-aircraft fire against a determined enemy...." Astoria assisted in putting up a protective barrage over Lexington at the outset, and after the task forces separated, she shifted to the anti-aircraft umbrella over Yorktown. Her gunners claimed to have splashed at least four enemy planes in the attack that "seemed to end as suddenly as it had started."
At about 1245, Lexington – heavily damaged though apparently in satisfactory condition afloat and underway – suffered severe internal explosions that rang her death knell. Fires raged out of control and, by 1630, her engines stopped. Ninety minutes later, Captain Frederick C. Sherman ordered the ship abandoned. Once rescue operations were completed, and Lexingtons end was hastened by torpedoes from , TF 17 began a slow retirement from the Coral Sea, having suffered heavy losses but also having inflicted a decisive strategic defeat on the Japanese by barring the Port Moresby invasion.
Astoria set course for Nouméa along with Minneapolis, , Anderson, Hammann, , and . That force reached its destination on 12 May but remained only overnight. On the 13th, she and the other warships got underway for Pearl Harbor, via Tongatapu, and arrived at Oahu on 27 May.
Battle of Midway
The heavy cruiser remained in Pearl Harbor only until the 30th. On that day, she returned to sea with the hastily repaired Yorktown to prepare to meet yet another major thrust by the Japanese fleet – this one aimed at Midway. Air searches from that island spotted the enemy's Midway Occupation Force – made up of transports, minesweepers, and two seaplane carriers – early on 3 June, but the enemy carrier force eluded detection until early in the morning of the 4th. The heavy cruiser screened Yorktown as the carrier began launching strike aircraft at about 0840. While the planes droned off to make their contribution to the destruction of the Japanese carrier force, Astoria and her colleagues prepared for the inevitable Japanese reply.
The counterstroke, however, did not come until a few minutes before noon as Yorktowns victorious aviators began to return to their ship. 18 Aichi D3A1 "Val" dive bombers came in to attack the carrier. Grumman F4F-4 Wildcat fighters from Fighting Squadron 3 (VF-3) accounted for 10 of the intruders, but the remaining eight managed to penetrate the combat air patrol (CAP). Astoria teamed up with Portland and the screening destroyers to splash another two of the attackers. The remaining six, however, succeeded in attacking Yorktown, and three of those scored hits. One of the three hit the carrier's stack, causing fires in her uptakes that literally smoked Rear Admiral Fletcher and his staff out of flag plot. At about 1310, he shifted his flag to Astoria.
Yorktowns damage control parties worked feverishly, and by 1340 she was again underway under her own power, albeit at only . At about 1430, the second attack – composed of 10 Nakajima B5N2 "Kate" torpedo bombers escorted by six Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters – came in and eluded the weak CAP. Astoria and the other ships of the screen attempted to discourage attacks from four different directions by bringing every gun to bear and firing them into the sea to throw curtains of water into the path of the attackers. Nevertheless, four of the "Kates" made good their attack and released their torpedoes within . Yorktown dodged two, but the other two scored hits which stopped the ship again. By 1500, the order to abandon ship went out. Astoria called away lifeboats to assist in the rescue of Yorktowns survivors. That night, the heavy cruiser retired east ward with the rest of the task force to await dawn, while a single destroyer, Hughes, stood by the stricken carrier.
The following day broke with Yorktown still afloat, and efforts began to salvage the battered warship. Though the Japanese had abandoned the Midway attack and had begun retiring toward Japan, submarine had been given orders to sink Yorktown. After a 24-hour search, the enemy submarine found her quarry on the 6th and attacked with a spread of four torpedoes. One torpedo missed completely, two passed under destroyer Hammann alongside the carrier and detonated in Yorktowns hull, while the fourth broke Hammanns back. The destroyer sank in less than four minutes. The carrier remained afloat until early on the morning of the 7th. At about dawn, she finally rolled over and sank.
Astoria remained as flagship for TF 17, as it operated north of Midway, until shortly after midday on 8 June when TF 11 arrived on the scene, and Rear Admiral Fletcher transferred his flag to Saratoga, On 11 June, Admiral Nimitz – satisfied that the major Japanese thrust had been thwarted – ordered his carrier task forces back to Hawaii, and Astoria reentered Pearl Harbor with them on 13 June. During the early summer of 1942, she completed repairs and alterations at the Pearl Harbor Navy Yard and carried out training in the Hawaiian operating area.
The Solomons (Battle of Savo Island)
By the beginning of August, Astoria had been reassigned to Task Group 62.3 (TG 62.3), Fire Support Group L, to cover the Guadalcanal-Tulagi landings. Early on the morning of 7 August, the heavy cruiser entered the waters between Guadalcanal and Florida Islands in the southern Solomons. Throughout the day, she supported the Marines as they landed on Guadalcanal and several smaller islands nearby. The Japanese launched air counterattacks on the 7th–8th, and Astoria helped to defend the transports from those attacks.
On the night of 8/9 August, a Japanese force of seven cruisers and a destroyer under Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa sneaked by Savo Island and attacked the American ships. At the time, Astoria had been patrolling to the east of Savo Island in column behind and . The Japanese came through the channel to the west of Savo Island and opened fire on Chicago – force first at about 0140 on the morning of the 9th, hitting both cruisers with torpedoes and shells. They then divided – inadvertently – into two separate groups and turned generally northeast, passing on either side of Astoria and her two consorts. The enemy cruisers began firing on that force at about 0150, and the heavy cruiser began return fire immediately. She ceased fire briefly because her commanding officer temporarily mistook the Japanese force for friendly ships but soon resumed shooting. Astoria took no hits in the first four Japanese salvoes, but the fifth ripped into her superstructure, turning her into an inferno amidships. In quick succession, enemy shells put her No. 1 turret out of action and started a serious fire in the plane hangar that burned brightly and provided the enemy with a self-illuminated target.
From that moment on, deadly accurate Japanese gunfire pounded her unmercifully, and she began to lose speed. Turning to the right to avoid Quincys fire at about 0201, Astoria reeled as a succession of enemy shells struck her aft of the foremast. Soon thereafter, Quincy veered across Astorias bow, blazing fiercely from bow to stern. Astoria put her rudder over hard left and avoided a collision while her battered sister ship passed aft, to starboard. As the warship turned, s searchlight illuminated her, and men on deck passed the order to No. 2 turret to shoot out the offending light. When the turret responded with Astorias 12th and final salvo, the shells missed Kinugasa but struck the No. 1 turret of .
Astoria lost steering control on the bridge at about 0225, shifted control to central station, and began steering a zig-zag course south. Before she made much progress, though, the heavy cruiser lost all power. Fortunately, the Japanese chose that exact instant to withdraw. By 0300, nearly 400 men, including about 70 wounded and many dead, were assembled on the forecastle deck.
Suffering from the effects of at least 65 hits, Astoria fought for her life. A bucket brigade battled the blaze on the gun deck and the starboard passage forward from that deck, and the wounded were moved to the captain's cabin, where doctors and corpsmen proceeded with their care. Eventually, however, the deck beneath grew hot and forced the wounded back to the forecastle. The bucket brigade made steady headway, driving the fire aft on the starboard side of the gun deck, while a gasoline handy-billy rigged over the side pumped a small stream into the wardroom passage below.
came alongside Astorias starboard bow and, by 0445, took all of the wounded off the heavy cruiser's forecastle. At that point, a small light flashed from Astorias stern, indicating survivors on that part of the ship. Signaling the men on the heavy cruiser's stern that they had been seen, Bagley got underway and rescued men on rafts – some Vincennes survivors – and men who had been driven overboard by the fires blazing aboard Astoria.
With daylight, Bagley returned to the heavy cruiser and came alongside her starboard quarter. Since it appeared that the ship could be saved, a salvage crew of about 325 able-bodied men went back aboard Astoria. Another bucket brigade attacked the fires while the ship's first lieutenant investigated all accessible lower decks. A party of men collected the dead and prepared them for burial. came up to assist in the salvage effort at about 0700. After securing a towline, Hopkins proceeded ahead, swinging Astoria around in an effort to tow her to the shallow water off Guadalcanal. A second gasoline-powered handy-billy, transferred from Hopkins, promptly joined the struggle against the fires. soon arrived on the scene, coming alongside the cruiser at about 0900 to pump water into the fire forward. Called away at 1000, Hopkins and Wilson departed, but the heavy cruiser received word that was on the way to assist in battling the fires and that was coming to tow the ship.
Sinking
Nevertheless, the fire below decks increased steadily in intensity, and those topside could hear explosions. Her list increased, first to 10° and then 15°. Her stern lowered in the dark waters, and her bow was distinctly rising. All attempts to shore the shell holes – by then below the waterline due to the increasing list – proved ineffective, and the list increased still more. Buchanan arrived at 11:30, but could not approach due to the heavy port list. Directed to stand off the starboard quarter, she stood by while all hands assembled on the stern, which was now wet with seawater. With the port waterway awash at noon, Commodore William G. Greenman gave the order to abandon ship.
Astoria turned over on her port beam, rolled slowly, and settled by the stern, disappearing completely by 12:16. Buchanan lowered two motor whaleboats and, although interrupted by a fruitless hunt for a submarine, came back and assisted the men in the water. Alchiba, which arrived on the scene just before Astoria sank, rescued 32 men. Not one man from the salvage crew lost his life. Officially, 219 men were reported missing or killed.
Rediscovery
The wreck of USS Astoria was discovered in early 2015 during a sonar mapping project of Iron Bottom Sound led by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen. The wreck lies upright in roughly of water with its bow missing and "A" turret pointing aft.
Awards
Astoria earned three battle stars during World War II.
See also
See List of U.S. Navy losses in World War II for other Navy ships lost in World War II.
References/further information
Roll of Honor
Notes
External links
Navy photographs of Astoria (CA-34)
Website dedicated to USS Astoria
New Orleans-class cruisers
Ships built in Bremerton, Washington
1933 ships
World War II cruisers of the United States
Shipwrecks in Ironbottom Sound
United States Navy Oregon-related ships
Maritime incidents in August 1942
Shipwreck discoveries by Paul Allen
2015 archaeological discoveries
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] |
212011
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20antibiotics
|
Timeline of antibiotics
|
This is the timeline of modern antimicrobial (anti-infective) therapy.
The years show when a given drug was released onto the pharmaceutical
market. This is not a timeline of the development of the antibiotics themselves.
1911 – Arsphenamine a.k.a. Salvarsan
1912 – Neosalvarsan
1935 – Prontosil (an oral precursor to sulfanilamide), the first sulfonamide
1936 – Sulfanilamide
1938 – Sulfapyridine (M&B 693)
1939 – sulfacetamide
1940 – sulfamethizole
1942 – benzylpenicillin, the first penicillin
1942 – gramicidin S, the first peptide antibiotic
1942 – sulfadimidine
1943 – sulfamerazine
1944 – streptomycin, the first aminoglycoside
1947 – sulfadiazine
1948 – chlortetracycline, the first tetracycline
1949 – chloramphenicol, the first amphenicol
1949 – neomycin
1950 – oxytetracycline
1950 – penicillin G procaine
1952 – erythromycin, the first macrolide
1954 – benzathine penicillin
1955 – spiramycin
1955 – tetracycline
1955 – thiamphenicol
1955 – vancomycin, the first glycopeptide
1956 – phenoxymethylpenicillin
1958 – colistin, the first polymyxin
1958 – demeclocycline
1959 – virginiamycin
1960 – methicillin
1960 – metronidazole, the first nitroimidazole
1961 – ampicillin
1961 – spectinomycin
1961 – sulfamethoxazole
1961 – trimethoprim, the first dihydrofolate reductase inhibitor
1962 – oxacillin
1962 – cloxacillin
1962 – fusidic acid
1963 – fusafungine
1963 – lymecycline
1964 – gentamicin
1964 – cefalotin, the first cephalosporin
1966 – doxycycline
1967 – carbenicillin
1967 – rifampicin
1967 – nalidixic acid, the first quinolone
1968 – clindamycin, the second lincosamide
1970 – cefalexin
1971 – cefazolin
1971 – pivampicillin
1971 – tinidazole
1972 – amoxicillin
1972 – cefradine
1972 – minocycline
1972 – pristinamycin
1973 – fosfomycin
1974 – talampicillin
1975 – tobramycin
1975 – bacampicillin
1975 – ticarcillin
1976 – amikacin
1977 – azlocillin
1977 – cefadroxil
1977 – cefamandole
1977 – cefoxitin
1977 – cefuroxime
1977 – mezlocillin
1977 – pivmecillinam
From 1978
1979 – cefaclor
1980 – cefmetazole
1980 – cefotaxime
1980 – piperacillin
1981 – co-amoxiclav (amoxicillin/clavulanic acid)
1981 – cefoperazone
1981 – cefotiam
1981 – cefsulodin
1981 – latamoxef
1981 – netilmicin
1982 – ceftriaxone
1982 – micronomicin
1983 – cefmenoxime
1983 – ceftazidime
1983 – ceftizoxime
1983 – norfloxacin
1984 – cefonicid
1984 – cefotetan
1984 – temocillin
1985 – cefpiramide
1985 – imipenem/cilastatin, the first carbapenem
1985 – ofloxacin
1986 – mupirocin
1986 – aztreonam
1986 – cefoperazone/sulbactam
1986 – co-ticarclav (ticarcillin/clavulanic acid)
1987 – ampicillin/sulbactam
1987 – cefixime
1987 – roxithromycin
1987 – sultamicillin
1987 – ciprofloxacin, the first 2nd-gen fluoroquinolone
1987 – rifaximin, the first ansamycin
1988 – azithromycin
1988 – flomoxef
1988 – isepamycin
1988 – midecamycin
1988 – rifapentine
1988 – teicoplanin
1989 – cefpodoxime
1989 – enrofloxacin
1989 – lomefloxacin
1989 – moxifloxacin
1990 – arbekacin
1990 – cefodizime
1990 – clarithromycin
1991 – cefdinir
1992 – cefetamet
1992 – cefpirome
1992 – cefprozil
1992 – ceftibuten
1992 – fleroxacin
1992 – loracarbef
1992 – piperacillin/tazobactam
1992 – rufloxacin
1993 – brodimoprim
1993 – dirithromycin
1993 – levofloxacin
1993 – nadifloxacin
1993 – panipenem/betamipron
1993 – sparfloxacin
1994 – cefepime
1996 – meropenem
1999 – quinupristin/dalfopristin
2000 – linezolid, the first oxazolidinone
2001 – telithromycin, the first ketolide
2003 – daptomycin
2005 – tigecycline, the first glycylcycline
2005 – doripenem
2009 – telavancin, the first Lipoglycopeptide
2010 – ceftaroline
2011 – fidaxomicin
2012 – bedaquiline
2013 – telavancin
2014 – tedizolid
2014 – dalbavancin
2014 – ceftolozane/tazobactam
2015 – ceftazidime/avibactam
2017 - meropenem/vaborbactam
2019 - imipenem/cilastatin/relebactam
2019 - cefiderocol
See also
Timeline of medicine and medical technology
List of antibiotics, grouped by class
References
Antibiotics
Antibiotics
History of pharmacy
Antibiotics, timeline
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest%20raven
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Forest raven
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The forest raven (Corvus tasmanicus), also commonly known as the Tasmanian raven, is a passerine bird in the family Corvidae native to Tasmania and parts of southern Victoria, such as Wilsons Promontory and Portland. Populations are also found in parts of New South Wales, including Dorrigo and Armidale. Measuring in length, it has all-black plumage, beak and legs. As with the other two species of raven in Australia, its black feathers have grey bases. Adults have white irises; younger birds have dark brown and then hazel irises with an inner blue rim. New South Wales populations are recognised as a separate subspecies C. tasmanicus boreus, but appear to be nested within the Tasmanian subspecies genetically.
The forest raven lives in a wide variety of habitats in Tasmania but is restricted to more closed forest on mainland Australia. Breeding takes place in spring and summer, occurring later in Tasmania than in New South Wales. The nest is a bowl-shaped structure of sticks sited high in a tree. An omnivorous and opportunistic feeder, it eats a wide variety of plant and animal material, as well as food waste from urban areas and roadkill. It has been blamed for killing lambs and poultry and raiding orchards in Tasmania, and is unprotected under Tasmanian legislation. The forest raven is sedentary, with pairs generally bonding for life and establishing permanent territories.
Taxonomy and naming
John Latham described the "South-Seas raven" in 1781, with loose throat feathers and found in "the Friendly Isles" in the South Seas, but did not give a binomial name. Although "the Friendly Isles" refers to Tonga, the specimen resembles what is now known as the forest raven and was collected by ships' surgeon William Anderson on the third voyage of James Cook in January 1777. Of the species, he had written, "Crows, nearly the same as ours in England". Tasked as the expedition's naturalist, Anderson collected many bird specimens but had died of tuberculosis in 1778 before the return home. Many collection localities were incorrect, and notes were lost or pieced together many years later. German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin gave the species the name Corvus australis in the 13th edition of Systema naturae in 1788.
Since Australia was settled by Europeans, all species of crows and ravens have been colloquially known as crows by the general population and are difficult to distinguish. In his 1865 Handbook to the Birds of Australia, John Gould noted a single species of corvid in Australia, Corvus australis, which he called the white-eyed crow. He used Gmelin's 1788 name, which took precedence by virtue of its age over Vigors and Horsfield's description. In 1912 Scottish naturalist William Robert Ogilvie-Grant clarified the species as C. coronoides (raven, and incorporating little and Australian ravens) and C. cecilae (Torresian crow). Subsequently, French-American ornithologist Charles Vaurie acted as First Revisor under Article 24 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) Code and discarded C. australis as a junior homonym—in 1788, Gmelin had used the same binomial name to describe the black nunbird—to preserve the stability of the name. This has been followed by later authors.
Gregory Mathews described the forest raven as a distinct subspecies—Corvus marianae tasmanicus—of the Australian raven in 1912, its species name derived from Tasmania, the type locality. Rowley raised the forest raven to species rank in 1970, noting there were no intermediate forms between it and the little raven (its closest relative) and that it was clearly larger with a much more massive bill. He described a second subspecies—Corvus tasmanicus boreus—the same year, observing that C. tasmanicus from Tasmania and southern Victoria has a very short tail compared with individuals from the northern New South Wales population. The term "crow" is colloquially applied to any or all species of Australian corvid. In 1970 Rowley gave the species name "forest raven", which was later designated the official name by the International Ornithologists' Union (IOC).
Preliminary genetic analysis of the genus using mitochondrial DNA showed the three raven species to belong to one lineage and the two crows to another, and that the two lineages are not closely related. The genetic separation between species is small and there was a suggestion the forest raven may be conspecific with the Australian raven. Subsequent multigene analysis using nuclear DNA by Jønsson and colleagues in 2012 clarified that the forest and little raven are each other's closest relative. The northern subspecies boreus turned out to be nested in the Tasmanian tasmanicus, indicating the populations separated very recently. It is still recognised as a distinct subspecies by the International Ornithological Committee.
Ian Rowley proposed that the common ancestor of the five species diverged into a tropical crow and temperate raven sometime after entering Australia from the north. The raven diverged into the ancestor of the forest and little ravens in the east and Australian raven in the west. As the climate was cooler and drier, the aridity of central Australia split them entirely as the habitat between became inhospitable. Furthermore, the eastern diverged into nomadic little ravens and, in forested refuges, forest ravens. As the climate eventually became warmer, the western ravens spread eastwards and outcompeted forest ravens on mainland Australia, as evidenced by the forest ravens' being found only in closed forest refuges on the mainland but in a wider variety of habitats in Tasmania.
Description
The largest of the Australian corvids, the adult forest raven is in length with a wingspan between and weight of approximately . There is no seasonal variation in plumage, which is entirely glossy black with a blue or green sheen visible on the upperparts. The wings are long and broad, with the largest of its ten primary feathers (usually the seventh but occasionally the eighth) almost reaching the end of the tail when at rest. The tail is rounded or wedge-shaped. It is quite short in Tasmanian populations but longer in northern New South Wales. The beak is a similar shape to that of the little raven, though more massive and heavy-set. The upper mandible, including the nares and nasal groove, is covered with bristles. The mouth and tongue are black, as are the powerful legs and feet. The tibia is fully feathered and the tarsus is long.
Sexes have identical plumage; the male is generally larger, but there is considerable overlap in size between individuals. The forest raven can be distinguished from the two species of crow occurring in Australia by the grey base of the feathers, which is white in the latter species. The demarcation between pale and black regions on the feather is gradual in the ravens and sharply delineated in the crows. Feather bases are not normally visible when observing birds in the field, but can sometimes be seen on a windy day if the feathers are ruffled. The three species of raven are more heavily set with a broader chest than the two crow species, with the forest raven the stockiest of all. Relative size is useful only when two species can be seen side by side, as the overlap in size is large and the difference in size small. In Tasmania, the forest raven could be confused with the black currawong, though the latter species has more slender wings with white markings, a longer tail and a very different call.
Juveniles (birds up to a year old) have a shorter, shallower bill, which is dark grey with some pink at the base. The gape is pink. The plumage is softer and fluffier and often has a brown tint. It generally lacks the glossy sheen of adult birds, though a blue-purple sheen can be seen sometimes on mantle and shoulders plumage. Birds between one and two years old closely resemble adults but retain juvenile feathers on wings and tail and have smaller bills. Birds between two and three years have adult plumage but lack the adult eye colour. Eye colour varies with age: nestlings up to four months old have blue-grey eyes, juveniles aged from four to fourteen months have brown eyes, and immature birds have hazel eyes with blue eyerings around the pupil until age two years and ten months.
Vocalization
The call is considered the most reliable means of identification in areas where the forest raven's range overlaps with other corvids. It is a deep and husky "korr-korr-korr-korr" with a similarly drawn out last note to the Australian raven. It can also utter a barking alarm call. The calls of juveniles have a higher pitch than those of adult birds. Mated pairs greet each other with a specific return-home call; a long extended descending call, and characteristic flapping flight with reduced-amplitude wingbeats.
Distribution and habitat
The only member of the corvid family that has a permanent population in Tasmania, the forest raven is the most widely distributed bird species in the state. There are three populations in southern Victoria: from the vicinity of Lakes Entrance west across Gippsland to Wilsons Promontory, the Otway Ranges from west of Torquay to Port Campbell, and lastly in the Grampians and Millicent Plain extending into south-east South Australia. Isolated records suggest the latter two populations may actually be continuous. There are two disjunct populations in northern New South Wales. A coastal population is found from Tea Gardens north to Yuraygir National Park, while a more montane population is found along the Great Dividing Range and New England Tableland from Gloucester Tops in the south to Tenterfield in the north. The gap between the two populations is around , shrinking to at Dorrigo.
The forest raven inhabits a wide range of habitat within Tasmania such as woods, open interrupted forest, mountains, coastal areas, farmland and town and city fringes. A survey of Mount Wellington found it to be one of the few birds that remained in open and marshland habitat at higher elevations over the winter. Additionally, research within Tasmania found that ravens were 30% more likely to be observed in farmland habitat than in non-agricultural forested or urban areas. On mainland Australia it appears to be more confined to forests: wet and dry sclerophyll forest and cool temperate rainforest, as well as pine plantations in Victoria. Populations in Victoria and New South Wales are possibly expanding, with the species more evident in towns such as Forster-Tuncurry and Port Macquarie, and along segments of the Oxley Highway between Wauchope and Walcha, and Thunderbolts Way between Gloucester and Nowendoc, most likely due to roadkill from increased vehicular traffic. It is unclear whether records since the 1970s in areas where the forest raven was unknown are the result of range expansion or improved field observations and identification.
Forest ravens fly from Tasmania and the mainland to islands well offshore in Bass Strait and may even traverse the strait entirely. First recorded on King Island in Bass Strait in 1979, the forest raven has become more numerous and flocks of several hundred birds were recorded by 1997. The island was previously inhabited by little ravens.
Conservation
Its large range and abundance means the bird is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List; some decrease has been noted but it is of insufficient size or duration to change classification. The populations of northern New South Wales have been classified as Near Threatened in 2000 by Garnett and Crowley and were estimated at the time to number about 10,000 breeding pairs.
Behaviour
Sedentary and territorial, the forest raven is similar in breeding and feeding habits to the Australian raven. A single breeding pair and their brood occupy a territory of variable size—areas of have been recorded—and remains there year-round, though groups of ravens may enter this area to forage. In northern New South Wales, forest ravens have been recorded nesting near Australian ravens and Torresian crows. They were observed warding off the Australian ravens but to a degree permitting the crows to pass through their territories. Forest ravens will defend their territory by chasing and mobbing intruding birds of prey as large as wedge-tailed eagles and white-bellied sea eagles. Agonistic displays to ward off potential intruders include flying to a high perch and calling loudly with head extended and hackles raised. Forest ravens will give their wings a flick on the upward wingbeat when flying to the perch and may continue flicking their wings after landing. Subadult and nonbreeding forest ravens form flocks that move around, though they may use the same roosting site for a few months at a time. Forest ravens generally walk when moving around on the ground, though do hop when hurrying, such as when trying to avoid an oncoming car on a road.
Breeding
Forest ravens breed after at least three years, and form monogamous pairs. Birds breed later in Tasmania than mainland Australia, though the species has been little-studied. Eggs have been recorded from July to September and nestlings in September and October in New South Wales, while nestlings have been noted from September to December in Victoria. In Tasmania, the breeding season appears to take place from August to January. Forest ravens generally nest in forks in tall trees, usually eucalypts, below the canopy line. They have been recorded nesting on the ground on some Bass Strait Islands. Breeding success rates were impacted severely by droughts in New South Wales.
The nest is a bowl-shaped structure of twigs lined with available materials such as leaves, wool, grass, bark, feathers, or occasionally horse manure or hair from cattle. The sticks are generally thick. Nests are sometimes renovated from previous years. A clutch can comprise up to six eggs, though usually four or five are laid. Measuring 45 by 31 mm ( × in), eggs are green-cream and splotched with brown and grey markings. Eggs are laid every one to two days. Eggs are quite variable, and thus which Australian corvid laid them cannot be reliably identified. Incubation of the eggs is done solely by the female. The chicks are altricial and nidicolous; that is, they are born helpless, naked and blind, and remain in the nest for an extended period. Both parents feed the young.
Feeding
The forest raven is an omnivore, though it eats more meat than smaller corvids. Its diet includes a wide range of foods such as insects, carrion, fruit, grain and earthworms. It has been known to attack and eat birds as large as the little penguin, though many birds and mammals are already dead when encountered. In general, a significant proportion of its food appears to come from habitats in or near water. Forest ravens observed on the beach at Wilson's Promontory would glean the sand and turn over or disturb pieces of seaweed and debris for insect prey. They have also been reported taking crabs from sandbars and raiding seabird colonies for eggs and young.
Forest ravens forage in pairs or groups of up to ten birds, though they may gather in much larger numbers if there is an abundant food source, such as a large carcass, rubbish or insect swarm. The species is attracted to areas where people have discarded excess food, such as rubbish tips, picnic grounds, parks, gardens and roads. Forest ravens sometimes forage in mixed-species flocks with Torresian crows, little and Australian ravens. In these situations, the more abundant species may exclude the less abundant. In Tasmania, forest ravens have been recorded foraging with Pacific and silver gulls, and black currawongs. Foraging takes place in the early morning or late afternoon; birds rest in the hotter part of the day. Food is taken mainly from the ground, birds either finding objects while walking along and looking, and turning over objects with their bills as they go. Forest ravens often fly above the ground over marshland, heath or beaches looking for food. Nests of various birds, including domestic chickens and burrowing seabirds have been raided for eggs and young. Forest ravens have been observed attempting to raid the nest of ospreys on the New South Wales north coast.
The species is often observed scavenging, particularly on roadkill. Across much of Tasmania, forest ravens have benefited from the disease-driven decline of the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) due to greater access to carrion. Additionally, forest ravens appear to scavenge heavily on roadkill throughout the entire year on the Bass Strait islands where mammalian scavengers, like devils and quolls, are now absent. In contrast, forest ravens within Tasmania appear to only scavenge heavily on roadkill during Autumn, when other resources, like invertebrates and fruit, are sparse.
Forest ravens cache food items for later consumption, generally using trees to evade other scavengers. Field observations in Nambucca showed that they built stick-like platforms in diameter high in the canopies of trees as places to store and eat food. They were recorded storing food in tree forks above the ground and within the folds of the bark of paperbark trees. In another field study, a forest raven stole a cape barren goose egg and hid it in a grassy tussock to consume later.
Alongside Australian ravens, forest ravens have been blamed for damaging orchards and killing lambs and poultry. This is not supported by fieldwork. They most often scavenge for afterbirth and newborn lamb faeces, which are highly nutritious. They are thought to have a beneficial role in cleaning up carcasses and consuming insect pests. Forest ravens prey on the larvae of the pasture beetle Scitala sericans. The beetle can damage pastures and is an agricultural pest; the raven may uproot plants when digging out the grubs.
Parasites
The mite Knemidocoptes intermedius has been isolated from the forest raven. Infestation results in crusty (hyperkeratotic) grey lesions around their tibiotarsal joints, the mites living in tunnels under the skin. The channel-billed cuckoo (Scythrops novaehollandiae) has been recorded as a brood parasite.
Relationship with humans
Like the Australian raven on mainland Australia, the Forest raven in Tasmania has a history of being shot or poisoned—generally by farmers as it is perceived to be a threat to livestock and orchard crops. It is not protected under Tasmania's Nature Conservation Act 2002 and no permit is required if landowners seek to kill them. Larger numbers of forest ravens (alongside swamp harriers and brown falcons) were killed in 1958 as rabbit populations dwindled due to myxomatosis and predatory birds were thought to have turned their attention to poultry and livestock. Studies on corvids elsewhere in Australia showed that the killing of healthy lambs was rare, but that sick animals were predisposed to being attacked, and hence their poor reputation was unjustified. Forest ravens may do more good than harm by preying on insects and removing carrion. Research within Tasmania has found that forest ravens are six times more likely to observed in areas of high roadkill density compared to areas of no roadkill. Despite their fondness for roadkill, forest ravens are rarely hit by vehicles.
Notes
References
Cited text
External links
forest raven
forest raven
Birds of New South Wales
Birds of Victoria (Australia)
Birds of Tasmania
Endemic birds of Australia
forest raven
forest raven
|
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212024
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shugart%20Associates
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Shugart Associates
|
Shugart Associates (later Shugart Corporation) was a computer peripheral manufacturer that dominated the floppy disk drive market in the late 1970s and is famous for introducing the -inch "Minifloppy" floppy disk drive. In 1979 it was one of the first companies to introduce a hard disk drive form factor compatible with a floppy disk drive, the SA1000 form factor compatible with the 8-inch floppy drive form factor.
Founded in 1973, Shugart Associates was purchased in 1977 by Xerox, which then exited the business in 1985 and 1986, selling the brand name and the 8-inch floppy product line (in March 1986) to Narlinger Group, which ultimately ceased operations circa 1991.
History
Beginnings
Alan Shugart, after a distinguished career at IBM and a few years at Memorex, decided to strike out on his own in 1973; after gathering venture capital, he started Shugart Associates. The original business plan was to build a small-business system (similar to the IBM 3740) dealing with the development of various major components, including floppy disk drives and printers. After two years, Shugart had exhausted his startup money and had no product to show for it. The board then wanted to focus on the floppy disk drive, but Shugart wished to continue the original plan. Official company documents state that Shugart quit, but he himself claims that he was fired by the venture capitalists. Shugart went on with Finis Conner to found Shugart Technology in 1979, which was later renamed to Seagate Technology in response to a legal challenge by Xerox.
The -inch floppy disk drive was introduced by Shugart in September 1976 as the Shugart SA-400 Minifloppy (Shugart's trademarked brand name) at an OEM price of $390 for the drive and $45 for ten diskettes. The SA-400 and related models became the company's best selling products, with shipments of up to 4000 drives per day.
The original SA-400 was single-sided and supported 35-track formatting. It could be used on either hard- or soft-sector floppy controllers and was rated at 85 kB (with a single-density controller) or 110 kB (with a double-density controller). The drive became the basis of the disk system on the Radio Shack TRS-80 Model I, Apple II, and many other early microcomputers.
Late 1970s
Xerox announced acquisition of Shugart Associates in August 1977 and completed its purchase that December at a price of about $41 million.
In 1979, Shugart Associates introduced the "Shugart Associates System Interface" (SASI) to the computing world; the interface subsequently evolved into SCSI (Small Computer System Interface). The first standard process completed in 1986 with ANSI standard X3.131-1986 (popularly known as SCSI-1) as the result. Larry Boucher led the SASI engineering team; he and several of the engineers who worked on SASI left in 1981 to found host adapter maker Adaptec.
Also in 1979, Shugart Associates introduced the SA-1000, a series of hard disk drives that kept as many mechanical, electrical and formatting similarities as possible with its floppy-drive counterparts. Their physical dimensions, including mounting holes, were the same as an 8-inch floppy drive, making them some of the earliest hard drives compatible with a floppy drive form factor. By 1983, Shugart Associates had shipped over 100,000 such drives.
1980s
In the early 1980s, in order to avoid development and start-up costs, the company turned to Matsushita Communications Inc., a subsidiary of Panasonic Corporation (then known as Matsushita Electric Industrial Co., Ltd), for its half-height -inch drives, sending that company on its way to becoming the largest floppy drive manufacturer in the world. In 1985, in order to resolve an inventory accumulation and as part of its exit strategy, Xerox gave up Shugart's exclusive rights to the Matsushita half-height -inch floppy drives. Shugart's eventual downfall came about partially as a result of the company failing to develop a reliable 80-track disk drive.
In 1983 the company changed its name to Shugart Corporation.
In late 1983, Shugart announced a "production-quantity optical drive", the Optimem 1000, offering 1 GB of storage on 12-inch disks using a laser-based recording technology, taking advantage of a substantially increased track density compared to contemporary magnetic recording technologies. The process of recording involved focusing the laser beam on the metal layer of the disk, this causing a "decomposable polymer" layer underneath to generate "gaseous components" and to push up on the metal layer, forming a bubble. This deformation would cause a change in the intensity of the reflected light from a laser reading the disk, thus providing a means of data storage. Initial OEM pricing for the drive was given as $6,000 per unit in 250-unit quantities with disks priced about $ each (UK price). Disks with capacities of up to 3 GB were reportedly being developed. Optimem was sold to Cipher Data in 1986 who then discontinued operations in 1991.
Shugart's operating losses in 1984 along with Xerox's own troubles led Xerox to conclude in 1985 that Shugart businesses were no longer strategically important, resulting in a decision to close down Shugart rather than invest in recovery.
Most of Shugart's businesses were shut down afterwards; however its floppy disk drive business was sold in March 1986 to Narlinger, which promptly rebranded itself as Shugart Corporation
Under the management of Narlinger, Shugart acquired several discontinued product lines such as Tandon's 8-inch floppy drives in 1986 and in 1988 bought the Optotech 5984 Write Once Read Many (WORM) drive and its manufacturing facility for less than US$4-million. It ceased operations around 1991.
See also
History of the floppy disk
References
External links
1977 mergers and acquisitions
American companies established in 1973
American companies disestablished in 1977
Companies based in Sunnyvale, California
Computer companies established in 1973
Computer companies disestablished in 1977
Computer storage companies
Defunct computer companies of the United States
Defunct computer hardware companies
Technology companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian%20golden%20oriole
|
Eurasian golden oriole
|
The Eurasian golden oriole (Oriolus oriolus) also called golden oriole, is the only member of the Old World oriole family of passerine birds breeding in Northern Hemisphere temperate regions. It is a summer migrant in Europe and Palearctic and spends the winter season in central and southern Africa.
Golden orioles have an extremely large range with large populations that are apparently stable. Therefore, they are evaluated as least concern by BirdLife International.
Taxonomy and systematics
The Eurasian golden oriole was described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae and given the binomial name Coracias oriolus.
The Eurasian golden oriole and the Indian golden oriole were formerly considered as conspecific, but in 2005 they were treated as separate species by the ornithologists Pamela Rasmussen and John Anderton in the first edition of their Birds of South Asia. Support for this split was provided by a molecular phylogenetic study published in 2010, and most ornitholists now treat the Indian golden oriole as a separate species. Alternate names for the Eurasian golden oriole include the European golden oriole and western Eurasian golden oriole. The species is monotypic.
Etymology
The name "oriole" was first used in the 18th century and is an adaptation of the scientific Latin genus name, which is derived from the Classical Latin "aureolus" meaning golden. Various forms of "oriole" have existed in Romance languages since the 12th and 13th centuries. Albertus Magnus used the Latin form oriolus in about 1250 and erroneously stated that it was onomatopoeic because of the golden oriole's song. In medieval England its name, derived from the song, was the woodwele.
Description
The male is striking in the typical oriole black and yellow plumage, but the female is a drabber green bird. Orioles are shy, and even the male is remarkably difficult to see in the dappled yellow and green leaves of the canopy. In flight they look somewhat like a thrush, strong and direct with some shallow dips over longer distances. The New World orioles are similar in appearance to the Oriolidae, but are icterids and unrelated to the Old World birds.
The male of the Indian golden oriole (Oriolus ) has the black eye-stripe extending behind the eye, has a longer and paler red bill and has more yellow in the plumage.
Their call is a screech like a jay, but the song is a beautiful fluting weela-wee-ooo or or-iii-ole, unmistakable once heard.
Distribution and habitat
The breeding range of this species spans from western Europe and Scandinavia east to China. They winter in central and southern Africa. They generally migrate during the night, but may travel during the day in the spring migration. During the autumn migration they migrate via the Eastern Mediterranean where they feed on fruit; they are often considered a pest in this region because of this.
Though not resident, Eurasian golden orioles are regularly recorded as summer passage migrants in Great Britain, and occur in small numbers on the South Coast of England and in East Anglia. On average, around 85 birds are recorded in Great Britain annually.
The Eurasian golden oriole inhabits a range of habitats. In Western Europe they prefer open broadleaf forests and plantations, copses, riverine forest, orchards, large gardens; in Eastern Europe they may inhabit more continuous forest as well as mixed or coniferous forests. They generally avoid treeless habitats but may forage there. In their wintering habitat they are found in semi-arid to humid woodland, tall forests, riverine forest, woodland/savanna mosaic and savanna.
Behaviour and ecology
Breeding
Eurasian golden orioles may delay breeding until they are 2 or 3 years of age. Males usually arrive at breeding area several days before the females. The fidelity to a territory or even to a specific nest site suggests that the pair-bond may continue from one breeding season to the next. The nest is placed high in a tree towards the edge of the crown. The deep cup-shaped nest is suspended below a horizontal fork of thin branches. It is built by the female, but the male will sometimes gather some of the material. The nest is held in place by plant fibres up to in length and lined with fine grass, feathers and wool. The clutch is usually between 3 and 5 eggs. These are laid at daily intervals early in the morning. The eggs are on average with a calculated weight of . They can be white, cream or very pale pink and are decorated with black marks which are sometimes concentrated at the larger end. The eggs are mainly incubated by the female but the male will incubate for short periods to allow the female to feed. The eggs hatch after 16–17 days. The young are fed by both parents but are mostly brooded by the female. The young fledge after 16–17 days. The clutch is only rarely lost to predators as the parents vigorously defend their nest.
The greatest recorded age for a Eurasian golden oriole is 10 years and 1 month for a male that was ringed in Lincolnshire in 1986 and seen alive in Cambridgeshire in 1996.
Feeding
They feed on insects and fruit, using their bills to pick insects out of crevices.
References
Sources
External links
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 5.3 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
Internet Bird Collection: Golden Oriole videos, photos and sounds
(European =) Eurasian golden oriole - Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds.
Listen to an oriole singing
Xeno-canto: audio recordings of the Eurasian golden oriole
Eurasian golden oriole
Birds of Eurasia
Birds of Africa
Eurasian golden oriole
Eurasian golden oriole
|
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] |
212030
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beck%27s%20Futures
|
Beck's Futures
|
Beck's Futures was a British art prize founded by London's Institute of Contemporary Arts and sponsored by Beck's beer given to contemporary artists.
Prior to the establishment of the prize in 2000, Beck's had sponsored several exhibitions of contemporary art in Britain by providing free beer. Together with Artangel, they had also commissioned a number of works by artists, including Rachel Whiteread's House and Water Tower and pieces by Douglas Gordon and Tony Oursler.
Although it does not receive as much publicity as the Turner Prize, the prize fund is larger - in 2003, it was £65,000 to the Turner Prize's £20,000. Of this, £20,000 went to the winner, who also took a share of the £40,000 divided between all the shortlisted artists. The remaining £5,000 was allocated to the Student Prize for Film and Video, with £2,000 of that going to the winner.
For the first three years of the prize a call for nominations was made to curators and critics around the UK. This proved controversial as unlike the Turner Prize artists knew they had been nominated even if they did not make the final shortlist. The open call was replaced with an anonymous nominations panel.
Winners
2000 - Roderick Buchanan
2001 - Tim Stoner
2002 - Toby Paterson
2003 - Rosalind Nashashibi
2004 - Saskia Olde Wolbers
2005 - Christina Mackie
2006 - Matt Stokes
The 2003 prize, presented by Wim Wenders, was awarded on 29 April at the Institute of Contemporary Arts. As well as Nashashibi, the shortlisted artists were Bernd Behr, Nick Crowe, Alan Currall, Inventory, David Sherry, Lucy Skaer, Francis Upritchard and Carey Young. The panel of judges was chaired by the artist Michael Landy, and also included the curators Russell Ferguson, Maria Lind and Hans Ulrich Obrist.
The 2004 prize was awarded on 27 April to Saskia Olde Wolbers. The other shortlisted artists were Haluk Akakçe, Tonico Lemos Auad, Simon Bedwell, Ergin Çavusoglu, Andrew Cross, Susan Philipsz, Imogen Stidworthy, Hayley Tompkins and Nicoline Van Harskamp.
The 2005 prize, presented by Richard Hamilton, was awarded on 26 April to Christina Mackie. The other shortlisted artists were Lali Chetwynd, Luke Fowler, Ryan Gander, Daria Martin, and Donald Urquhart.
The 2006 prize was awarded to Matt Stokes by a panel made-up of Jake and Dinos Chapman, Martin Creed, Cornelia Parker, Yinka Shonibare and Gillian Wearing. There was also a public vote, the outcome of which was added as an extra vote in the judging panels final count. Shortlisted for the prize were Blood ‘n’ Feathers (Jo Robertson & Lucy Stein, Pablo Bronstein, Stefan Brüggemann, Richard Hughes, Flávia Müller Medeiros, Seb Patane, Olivia Plender, Simon Popper, Jamie Shovlin, Daniel Sinsel, Matt Stokes, Sue Tompkins, Bedwyr Williams. This was to be the Beck's sponsored prize's last year.
See also
List of European art awards
External links
A review of the 2003 prize show by Adrian Searle in The Guardian
British art awards
Visual arts awards
Awards established in 2000
|
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212031
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Paul%20Getty%20Jr.
|
John Paul Getty Jr.
|
Sir Paul Getty (; born Eugene Paul Getty; 7 September 1932 – 17 April 2003), known widely as John Paul Getty Jr., was a British philanthropist and book collector. He was the third of five sons born to J. Paul Getty (1892–1976), one of the richest men in the world at the time. His mother was J. Paul Getty's fourth wife, Ann Rork. The Getty family's wealth was the result of the oil business founded by George Franklin Getty. One of his sons, Mark Getty, co-founded the visual media company Getty Images.
At birth, he was given the name Eugene Paul Getty, but in later life, he adopted other names, including Paul Getty, John Paul Getty, Jean Paul Getty Jr. and John Paul Getty II. In 1973, his son John Paul Getty III was held captive in Italy, as J. Paul Getty refused to pay a ransom. In 1986, he was awarded an honorary knighthood for services to causes ranging from cricket, to art and to the Conservative Party. His honorary knighthood would eventually become substantive upon the required acquisition of British citizenship. A long-time Anglophile, he became a British citizen in 1997. In 1998 he changed his name by deed poll when he renounced the first name Eugene and wished to be known as Sir Paul Getty, KBE.
Early life
John Paul Jr. was born on board ship in the waters near Genoa, Italy, on 7 September 1932, while his parents Ann and J. Paul Getty were travelling. His birth was registered at La Spezia with the name Eugenio Paul Getty, when the Italian notary misheard the name John. He would legally alter his name with the Italian authorities to John Paul in 1958.
He was initially raised in Los Angeles, California, United States. His parents' marriage was troubled by J. Paul's long absences abroad and his emotional distance. Ann Getty divorced J. Paul Getty Sr. in 1936 in Reno, Nevada, claiming emotional cruelty and neglect. She was awarded $1,000 per month in child support for each of her sons, Paul Jr. and Gordon.
In 1938, Ann married her third husband, Joseph Stanton McInerney, and the family moved to San Francisco. Paul Jr. attended St. Ignatius College Preparatory and the University of San Francisco, both Jesuit schools. Throughout his adolescence, he showed a great interest in reading and music, encouraged by his mother. In 1950 he was drafted to serve in the Korean War, spending the duration working at the American headquarters in Seoul, South Korea. After he was discharged he met Abigail Harris, the daughter of a prominent San Franciscan federal judge, and the two were married in early 1956. His first child, John Paul Getty III was born in November 1956. The following year he approached his brother Gordon, vice-president of the Getty subsidiary Tidewater Petroleum, asking for a job. His brother gave him a job pumping gas at a Tidewater gas station in Marin County. After a year, his father, whom he had not seen in 12 years, was favourably impressed enough to invite his family and him to Paris, where he offered Paul Jr. a job as president of Getty Oil's Italian subsidiary, Getty Oil Italiana, in Rome.
Marriages
His first marriage was to Abigail "Gail" Harris, a former water polo champion. They divorced in 1964, having had four children including John Paul Getty III and Mark Getty.
His second marriage was to the Dutch actress, model and style icon Talitha Pol, stepdaughter of painter Augustus John's daughter Poppet, on 10 December 1966. The two posed for an iconic photograph on a roof-top in Marrakesh, Morocco in January 1969. The photo, taken by Patrick Lichfield, shows Talitha Getty crouched down leaning on a wall and her husband in the background in a hooded djellaba and sunglasses. The photo appeared in American Vogue and again in the September 1999 issue of American Vogue and is part of the collection of the National Portrait Gallery in London. Two and a half years after the photo was taken, Talitha died of a heroin overdose on 11 July 1971. She was survived by her son with Getty, Tara Gabriel Gramophone Galaxy Getty (born June 1968), an ecological conservationist in Africa. In 1994, he married for the third time to Victoria Holdsworth.
Personal problems
After he married Talitha in 1966, the couple became immersed in the counterculture of the 1960s, living among Rome, Italy, and Marrakesh, Morocco. During a trip to Thailand, the couple developed serious heroin addictions. When Getty Sr., who abhorred taking drugs of any kind, heard of his son's addiction, he insisted on his becoming sober. Paul Jr. refused and tendered his resignation from Getty Oil Italiana. The couple lived off his income from the family trust, which amounted to $100,000 a year. In 1969, he and Talitha separated as she decided to focus on becoming sober. He purchased No. 16 Cheyne Walk in Chelsea, London, where the Victorian artist Dante Gabriel Rossetti had lived in the 1860s, for Talitha and their son, Tara, to live in, while he remained in Rome.
Death of Talitha
After living apart for several years, Talitha, who was sober at the time, asked Paul Jr. for a divorce in early 1971. Still in love with his wife, he insisted that she come to Rome and try for a reconciliation. When her lawyer advised her that divorce proceedings would be easier if she could show that she had attempted reconciliation with Paul, she left for Rome on 9 July. On the morning of 11 July 1971, she was found dead in the Getty apartment in Piazza d'Aracoeli. The autopsy ruled that she had alcohol and barbiturates in her system, but rumours flared up that she had suffered a heroin relapse while spending time with Getty, who was still embroiled in his addiction.
In December 1971, Italian authorities announced that an inquest would be held into Talitha's death the following March. They requested Getty meet with investigators to describe the circumstances surrounding her death. Afraid his own drug addiction would result in his being indicted and potentially imprisoned, Getty left for England. He ignored a subsequent request by an Italian judge to return to Italy for the inquest. Neither an arrest warrant nor an extradition request was ever issued since Getty was not a suspect in Talitha's death, but he never returned to Italy for fear of being detained.
Son's kidnapping
After his second wife's death, Getty became reclusive for a time and his heroin addiction worsened, fueled by guilt over his wife's death.
In Rome on 10 July 1973, 'Ndrangheta kidnappers abducted Getty's 16-year-old son, John Paul Getty III, and demanded a $17 million (equivalent to $ in ) payment for his safe return. However, the family suspected a ploy by the rebellious teenager to extract money from his miserly grandfather. Getty Jr. asked his father J. Paul Getty for the money, but was refused, arguing that his 13 other grandchildren could also become kidnap targets if he paid.
In November 1973, an envelope containing a lock of hair and a human ear arrived at a daily newspaper. The second demand had been delayed three weeks by an Italian postal strike. The demand threatened that Paul would be further mutilated unless the victims paid $3.2 million. The demand stated "This is Paul's ear. If we don't get some money within 10 days, then the other ear will arrive. In other words, he will arrive in little bits."
When the kidnappers finally reduced their demands to $3 million, J. Paul Getty agreed to pay no more than $2.2 million (equivalent to $ in ), the maximum that would be tax-deductible. He lent Getty Jr. the remaining $800,000 at four percent interest. Getty's grandson was found alive on December 15, 1973, in a Lauria filling station, in the province of Potenza, shortly after the ransom was paid. Nine people associated with 'Ndrangheta were later arrested for the kidnapping, but only two were convicted. Getty III was permanently affected by the trauma and became a drug addict. After a stroke brought on by a cocktail of drugs and alcohol in 1981, Getty III was rendered speechless, nearly blind and partially paralyzed for the rest of his life. He died on February 5, 2011, at the age of 54.
Nine of the kidnappers were apprehended, including Girolamo Piromalli and Saverio Mammoliti, high-ranking members of the 'Ndrangheta, a Mafia organization in Calabria. Two of the kidnappers were convicted and sent to prison; the others were acquitted for lack of evidence, including the 'Ndrangheta bosses. Most of the ransom money was never recovered.
Later life
Following his father's death in 1976, Getty spent the next decade suffering from depression and checked himself into The London Clinic in 1984. While there, he received a visit from Margaret Thatcher, who at the time was Prime Minister, to thank him for large donations to the National Gallery. During a low period in the 1970s, Getty was cheered up by former England cricketer and later president of the MCC, Gubby Allen, having previously been introduced to the game by Mick Jagger of the Rolling Stones.
Paul III struggled with PTSD from his kidnapping and with alcohol and drugs. In April 1981, he suffered a drug overdose which left him paralyzed and almost blind. The following November, his mother Gail sued her ex-husband for $25,000 per month to support their son's medical expenses. Despite earning more than $20 million a year from his family trust, Paul II refused to pay for the treatment, leaving his brother, Gordon, to pay his nephew's expenses. The litigation judge who allowed the case to go to trial scolded Paul Jr.: "Mr. Getty should be ashamed of himself spending far more money on court obligations than living up to his moral duties." Claiming that he doubted the severity of his son's debilitation, Getty sent his lawyer to Los Angeles to confirm it and finally agreed to pay the costs.
Wormsley Park
During his nine-month stint in The London Clinic, Getty purchased a dilapidated country estate west of London, Wormsley Park, on the advice of his close friend Christopher Gibbs. After his release in March 1986, he devoted himself to remodeling the 18th-century mansion and restoring the 3,000 acres of parkland. This included the creation of a deer park, the reforestation of 1,500 acres of beechwood forest, and the dredging of a man-made four-acre lake with water tapped from an aquifer 400 feet below ground. Along with the restoration of the Georgian mansion house, Getty added a castle-like addition made of local flint built to house his extensive library, an indoor heated pool, and a replica of The Oval cricket ground. To house his disabled son, he had an accessible cottage built near the pool, from where he could do his water rehabilitation exercises. The six-year project cost an estimated £60 million.
At Wormsley, Getty hosted his estranged family and improved his relations with his children and ex-wife. To inaugurate his professional cricket ground, Getty hosted a match in September 1992 captained by Cricketing legends Imran Khan and Bob Wyatt, with the Prime Minister, John Major and Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother as his guests of honour. His eponymous cricket eleven comprised cricketing stars of both past and present assembled by his honorary cricket managers, Brian Johnston (1992-1993) and Colin Ingleby-Mackenzie (1994-2006).
Philanthropy
Getty donated more than £140m to artistic and cultural causes from which the National Gallery received £50m. He was appointed Knight of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) in 1987, but as a foreign national could not use the title "Sir". In December 1997, Getty was granted British citizenship and renounced his US nationality. The Queen reportedly commented: "Now you can use your title. Isn't that nice?"
Getty served as president of Surrey County Cricket Club and gave money to Lord's Cricket Ground to build a new stand. He combined his loves of cricket and books when he purchased the ownership of Wisden, the famous publishers of the cricketing almanack. Getty built an extraordinary library at Wormsley, collecting such treasures as a first edition of Chaucer, Ben Jonson's annotated copy of Spenser, and Shakespeare Folios. He was a notable member of the exclusive Roxburghe Club, famous among book collectors.
His personal fortune was estimated at £1.6 billion. His donations included support for the National Gallery, the British Museum, the British Film Institute, Hereford Cathedral, St Paul's Cathedral, the Imperial War Museum, and St. James Catholic Church. Some of his donations, including contributions toward the purchases of Canova's The Three Graces by The National Galleries of Scotland and the Madonna of the Pinks by Raphael, foiled acquisition efforts by the J. Paul Getty Museum endowed by his father. In June 2001, Getty gave £5 million to the Conservative Party. He endowed a £20 million charitable trust to support the arts, conservation and social welfare.
Death
Getty died at age 70 on 17 April 2003, having been admitted for treatment to The London Clinic for a chest infection.
Media portrayals
Getty Jr. is portrayed by Andrew Buchan in the action film All the Money in the World and by Michael Esper in the television series Trust, both of which dramatize Getty III's kidnapping.
References
External links
BBC News obituary for Paul Getty
New York Times obituary of J Paul Getty
Sir Paul Getty – Daily Telegraph obituary
Getty family genealogy; page last updated on 6 September 2000.
American emigrants to England
English billionaires
English philanthropists
Paul
Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Place of death missing
People associated with the National Gallery, London
Place of birth missing
Presidents of Surrey County Cricket Club
University of San Francisco alumni
1932 births
2003 deaths
American philanthropists
American billionaires
People from California
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
|
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] |
212032
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permit%20to%20travel
|
Permit to travel
|
In the ticketing system of the British rail network, a Permit to Travel provisionally allows passengers to travel on a train when they have not purchased a ticket in advance and the ticket office of the station they are travelling from is closed, without incurring a penalty fare.
Because some rail passengers may travel without having their tickets checked at any point of their journey, particularly at off-peak times when stations are less likely to be staffed, the obligation to possess a Permit to Travel allows the collection of at least some revenue from passengers who would otherwise travel for free. Most train operating companies (TOCs) have altered their penalty fare policies and have removed many permit to travel machines. PERTIS machines at larger stations have also in recent years given way to more sophisticated self-service ticket machines.
History
The system, known officially as PERTIS (Permit to Travel Issuing System ), was first introduced by Network SouthEast in November 1988 on the LTS route between London Fenchurch Street and Shoeburyness. The machines, which closely resemble those found in pay and display car parks, were manufactured by Almex Control Systems. Machines were given the designation AS-9 (wall-mounted) or AS-88 (mounted on a metal base), but internal workings and tickets were identical in each case.
Penalty fare schemes spread across Network SouthEast in subsequent years, with AS-88 machines being used exclusively. Railway stations in the West Midlands and West Yorkshire passenger transport executive areas subsequently had schemes put in place, and machines were installed accordingly.
Use and operation
The front panel of the machine has two LCD displays; one shows the current time, while the other displays the amount paid when coins have been fed in. A button is pressed to print the permit, which shows a serial number, the station name, the date and time. The passenger is supposed to insert coins as near to the value of the fare as possible (if they know the fare and have enough coins), and some machines have a list of common local single and return fares.
Permits to travel bear the warning that they are not fare tickets and must be exchanged for one at the first opportunity. The record of the station of issue means that passengers who travel using it cannot claim that they just boarded the train (allowing them to travel on a cheaper fare) if they are not reached by a ticket inspector until a few stops after boarding. Permits to travel are in any case valid for only two hours from the time shown on them.
If holders of a permit to travel are asked to present their ticket by an inspector, they will be asked where they are travelling to and issued with the appropriate ticket and will be charged the difference between the balance already paid, as stated on the permit and the full cost of the ticket for their journey. If they have already paid the full price of the ticket, it will be exchanged for the permit and no money will change hands.
Because any amount of money on a valid permit to travel will ensure that a passenger cannot be charged a penalty fare, it is entirely possible (if the passenger is not encountered by an inspector, who will sell a full ticket) to make a two-hour train journey for as little as five pence (the lowest denomination coin the machine will accept) without breaching any fare regulations.
When a station is staffed and its ticket office open, the machine will usually be deactivated, with a light illuminated to indicate that proper tickets should be purchased.
Within train operating companies, a distinction is made between ticket inspectors and "Revenue Protection Inspectors" or "Authorised Penalty Fare Officers". Only the latter have the authority to issue penalty fares where a ticket or permit is not held.
Other countries
A similar ticket is known in Germany as Fahrkarte Anfangsstrecke. It can be acquired at older Deutsche Bahn ticket machines and is priced at €15.00.
References
Fare collection systems in the United Kingdom
de:Fahrkarte#Fahrkartenarten
|
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212034
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinhard%20Selten
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Reinhard Selten
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Reinhard Justus Reginald Selten (; 5 October 1930 – 23 August 2016) was a German economist, who won the 1994 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (shared with John Harsanyi and John Nash). He is also well known for his work in bounded rationality and can be considered one of the founding fathers of experimental economics.
Biography
Selten was born in Breslau (Wrocław) in Lower Silesia, now in Poland, to a Jewish father, Adolf Selten (blind bookseller; d. 1942), and Protestant mother, Käthe Luther. Reinhard Selten was raised as Protestant.
After a brief family exile in Saxony and Austria, Selten returned to Hesse, Germany after the war and, in high school, read an article in Fortune magazine about game theory by the business writer John D. McDonald. He recalled later, he would occupy his "mind with problems of elementary geometry and algebra" while walking back and forth to school during that time. He studied mathematics at Goethe University Frankfurt and obtained his diploma in 1957. He then worked as scientific assistant to Heinz Sauermann until 1967. In 1959, he married with Elisabeth Langreiner. They had no children. In 1961, he also received his doctorate in Frankfurt in mathematics with a thesis on the evaluation of n-person games.
He was a visiting professor at Berkeley and taught from 1969 to 1972 at the Free University of Berlin and, from 1972 to 1984, at the University of Bielefeld. He then accepted a professorship at the University of Bonn. There he built the BonnEconLab, a laboratory for experimental economic research, where he was active even after his retirement.
Selten was professor emeritus at the University of Bonn, Germany, and held several honorary doctoral degrees. He had been an Esperantist since 1959 and met his wife through the Esperanto movement. He was a member and co-founder of the International Academy of Sciences San Marino.
For the 2009 European Parliament election, he was the top candidate for the German wing of Europe – Democracy – Esperanto.
Work
For his work in game theory, Selten won the 1994 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (shared with John Harsanyi and John Nash). Selten was Germany's first and, at the time of his death, only Nobel winner for economics.
He is also well known for his work in bounded rationality, and can be considered one of the founding fathers of experimental economics. With Gerd Gigerenzer he edited the book Bounded Rationality: The Adaptive Toolbox (2001). He developed an example of a game called Selten's Horse because of its extensive form representation. His last work was "Impulse Balance Theory and its Extension by an Additional Criterion".
He is noted for his publishing in non-refereed journals to avoid being forced to make unwanted changes to his work.
Bibliography
Preispolitik der Mehrproduktenunternehmung in der statischen Theorie, Berlin-Heidelberg-New York: Springer-Verlag, 1970, - in German
General Equilibrium with Price-Making Firms (with Thomas Marschak), Lecture Notes in Economics and Mathematical Systems, Berlin-Heidelberg-New York: Springer-Verlag, 1974, ISBN 978-3-662-07369-8
A General Theory of Equilibrium Selection in Games (with John C. Harsanyi), Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT-Press. (1988)
Models of Strategic Rationality, Theory and Decision Library, Series C: Game Theory, Mathematical Programming and Operations Research, Dordrecht-Boston-London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (1988)
Game Equilibrium Models IV, Berlin, New York, Springer Verlag, 1991, ISBN 978-3-662-07369-8.
Rational Interaction - Essays in Honor of John C. Harsanyi, Berlin, New York, Springer-Verlag, 1992, ISBN 978-3-642-08136-1.
Enkonduko en la Teorion de Lingvaj Ludoj – Ĉu mi lernu Esperanton? (with Jonathan Pool), Berlin-Paderborn: Akademia Libroservo, Institut für Kybernetik. (1995) – in Esperanto
Game Theory and Economic Behavior: Selected Essays, 2. vol Cheltenham-Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing. (1999)
New edition of: Models of Strategic Rationality (1988), with a Chinese Introduction. Outstanding Academic Works on Economics by Nobel Prize Winners. Dordrecht-Boston-London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (2000)
Chinese Translation of: Models of Strategic Rationality (1988). Outstanding Academic Works on Economics by Nobel Prize Winners. Dordrecht-Boston-London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (2000)
Russian Translation of: A General Theory of Equilibrium Selection in Games (with John C. Harsanyi), Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT-Press. (2000)
Gigerenzer, G., & Selten, R. (Eds.). (2001). Bounded rationality: The adaptive toolbox. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Impulse Balance Theory and its Extension by an Additional Criterion. BoD. (2015)
See also
Subgame perfect Nash equilibrium
References
External links
Laboratory for Experimental Economics, at the University of Bonn, Germany
IDEAS/RePEc
Economista alemán, nacido en Breslau (actualmente Wroclaw, en Polonia).
1930 births
2016 deaths
Nobel laureates in Economics
German Nobel laureates
Game theorists
German economists
German Esperantists
20th-century German mathematicians
Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Members of the Order of Merit of North Rhine-Westphalia
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Technical University of Berlin faculty
University of Bonn faculty
Free University of Berlin faculty
Goethe University Frankfurt alumni
German people of Jewish descent
People from the Province of Lower Silesia
Writers from Wrocław
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Members of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts
Fellows of the Econometric Society
Nancy L. Schwartz Memorial Lecture speakers
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] |
212035
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis%20Norden
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Denis Norden
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Denis Mostyn Norden (6 February 1922 – 19 September 2018) was an English comedy writer and television presenter. After an early career working in cinemas, he began scriptwriting during the Second World War. From 1948 to 1959, he co-wrote the BBC Radio comedy programme Take it from Here! with Frank Muir. Muir and Norden remained associated for more than 50 years, appearing regularly together on the radio panel programmes My Word! and My Music after they stopped collaborating on scripts. He also wrote scripts for Hollywood films. He presented television programmes on ITV for many years, including the nostalgia quiz Looks Familiar and blooper shows It'll be Alright on the Night and Laughter File.
Early life and career
Norden was born into a Jewish family in Mare Street, Hackney, in London's East End, and was educated at Craven Park Elementary School and the City of London School where he was a contemporary of Kingsley Amis. Upon leaving school, he worked as a stagehand, moved into cinema management by the age of 17 and quickly progressed to be the manager of a cinema in Watford. He also organised variety shows. He joined the Royal Air Force during the Second World War and was a wireless operator with a signals unit. His writing career began in the Royal Air Force when he wrote for troop shows. Whilst preparing for one of these shows in 1945, Norden, accompanied by fellow performers Eric Sykes and Ron Rich, went to a nearby prison camp in search of stage lighting; the camp turned out to be the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, which had recently been liberated by the Allies. Norden, Sykes and Rich organised a food collection amongst their comrades to feed the starving camp inmates.
After the war, Norden wrote material for comedian Dick Bentley, before meeting Frank Muir (who wrote for comic actor Jimmy Edwards) in 1947; they were brought together by producer Ted Kavanagh. Muir and Norden's first joint venture was a radio show for both performers, Take it from Here!, which they scripted from 1948 to 1959. They went on to write many successful radio and television scripts, including Whack-O! (1956–1960) and three series of Faces of Jim (1961–1963) which were vehicles for Jimmy Edwards. They also wrote the satirical sketch Balham, Gateway to the South for the BBC Third Programme. The sketch, which had originally been broadcast in 1948 as part of a comedy series called The Third Division and which featured actor Robert Beatty, was later performed by Peter Sellers for his LP, The Best of Sellers (1959). In the early 1960s, Muir and Norden wrote the sitcom Brothers in Law, an early series featuring Richard Briers, and its spin-off Mr Justice Duncannon.
In 1964, their writing partnership ended, as Muir moved into management with the BBC. Over the next several years, Norden, who had long had a fascination with Hollywood, wrote the scripts for several films, including Buona Sera, Mrs. Campbell! and The Bliss of Mrs. Blossom. Although he was no longer writing with Muir, the two regularly appeared together on panel shows My Word! (1956–1990) and My Music (1966–1993), first on radio then television. In 1965, he wrote, narrated and starred in a featurette jointly made by the James Bond producers and the Ford Motor Company. The colour short, entitled A Child's Guide to Blowing up a Motor Car, went behind the scenes of an exploding car stunt being filmed for Thunderball. Norden takes a young relative on a day out to a film set, where they meet several stars and production team members, but not Sean Connery. Lost for many years, it is now available on the 'Ultimate Edition' DVD of Thunderball, as released in late 2006.
ITV presenter
Norden was also later well known to television audiences for his ITV shows: Looks Familiar, It'll Be Alright on the Night and Laughter File. It'll Be Alright on the Night, which he hosted from 1977 until 2006, consisted of out-takes from film and television linked by witty comments. Much of the material from the early episodes was used on Dick Clark's "Bloopers" specials which aired on NBC a few years later. A couple of mid-1980s editions featured several home video clips: with the increasing private ownership of domestic camcorders, clips were spun off into the long-running You've Been Framed! (1990–). Laughter File, first broadcast in 1991, showed spoof adverts, real foreign adverts, practical jokes, live television mistakes and other various "oddities", which Norden said, "tickled our fancies, just when they needed tickling". These items included virtually everything discovered during research for material suitable for It'll be Alright on the Night that was not eligible for that show.
Retirement and legacy
Norden announced his retirement from his two long-running ITV shows It'll Be Alright on the Night and Laughter File on 21 April 2006. He was then 84 years old and suffering from macular degeneration, which made it difficult for him to read an autocue. A special show was recorded on 14 May 2006 as a 'farewell tour' to all his shows over the years, called All the Best from Denis Norden, which was shown on 2 January 2007. As the show's closing credits were shown, the studio audience gave Norden a standing ovation, which was followed by him then placing his trademark clipboard on his desk, which the camera zoomed in on to as the credits ended. He has since been succeeded on It'll Be Alright on the Night by Griff Rhys Jones and later by David Walliams.
For years, he was resistant to producing an autobiography, saying that much of his life and career had already been well covered by Frank Muir's A Kentish Lad and that a book called The Bits Frank Left Out would be too brief. Nevertheless, in October 2008, a book containing a sequence of autobiographical sketches was published entitled Clips from a Life. He continued to make occasional television and radio appearances. He contributed to a BBC Four season about the history of satire, and he appeared as a guest on The One Show on 2 October 2008 to talk about his life and career as well as his book. He was interviewed in a one-off documentary called Der Sommer 1939 ("The Summer of 1939"), which was broadcast on 12 August 2009 on the Franco-German television station Arte. Norden also appeared as part of a contribution of show business friends, writers and performers in the BBC documentary The Secret Life of Bob Monkhouse in January 2011.
Personal life
Norden and his wife Avril, whom he married in 1943, had a son, Nick, an architect, and a daughter, Maggie, a radio personality and lecturer at the London College of Fashion. Maggie was a presenter on London's Capital Radio in its earlier days and presented the Sunday afternoon programme Hullabaloo. Affected by macular degeneration, Norden joined Peter Sallis and Eric Sykes in 2009 as a patron of the Macular Society, after becoming a member in 2004.
Death
Norden died at the Royal Free Hospital in Hampstead, London on 19 September 2018, aged 96, two months after the death of his wife.
Bibliography
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References
External links
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1922 births
2018 deaths
People from Hackney Central
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
English male comedians
English Jewish writers
Jewish English comedians
English radio personalities
English television personalities
English television presenters
English television writers
People educated at the City of London School
Royal Air Force airmen
Royal Air Force personnel of World War II
British male television writers
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] |
212042
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seagate
|
Seagate
|
Seagate or Sea Gate may refer to:
Sea gate, a channel or waterway which gives access to the ocean
Sea-gate, a castle drawbridge
Locations
In the United States
Sea Gate, Brooklyn, a gated community in New York
SeaGate Convention Centre in Toledo, Ohio
Seagate (Manatee County, Florida), a historic estate built in Florida in 1929
Seagate, North Carolina, a community in North Carolina
One SeaGate, a building in Toledo, Ohio
In Scotland
Seagate bus station, a station in Dundee
Seagate Castle, a castle North Ayrshire
Business
Seagate Technology, a data storage company
Sea Gate Distributors, a defunct comic book distributor
Seagate Software, a software company
See also
Watergate (architecture)
Gate (water transport)
Gate (disambiguation)
Sea (disambiguation)
Oceangate (disambiguation)
Watergate (disambiguation)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loei%20province
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Loei province
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Loei (Thai: เลย, ), is one of the more sparsely populated provinces (changwat) of Thailand. It lies in the Isan region of upper northeastern Thailand. Neighboring provinces are (from east clockwise) Nong Khai, Udon Thani, Nong Bua Lamphu, Khon Kaen, Phetchabun, and Phitsanulok. In the north it borders Xaignabouli and Vientiane province of Laos.
, the provincial governor is Chaiwat Chuenkosum. The province was allocated 225.6 million baht in the FY2019 Thailand budget.
Geography
The province is mountainous. The seat of provincial government, Loei, is in a fertile basin surrounded by mountains whose summits are covered by fog and abundant varied flora. The best known mountains in the province are Phu Kradueng, Phu Luang, and Phu Ruea. The Loei River, which flows through the province, is a tributary of the Mekong, which forms part of the northern boundary of the province with neighboring Laos. Phu Thap Buek, the highest mountain of the Phetchabun Range, is in the province.
The mountain Phu Kradueng is in Phu Kradueng National Park (อุทยานแห่งชาติภูกระดึง).
Other national parks include Phu Hin Rong Kla, Phu Ruea (อุทยานแห่งชาติภูเรือ), Phu Pha Man, and Phu Suan Sai (อุทยานแห่งชาติภูสวนทราย) (also known as Na Haeo). The total forested area is or 32.2 percent of the province. The Phu Luang Wildlife Sanctuary is in the province.
The western part of the province reaches the southern end of the Luang Prabang Range of the Thai highlands.
History
It is thought that Loei was founded by people from Chiang Saen, the capital of Lan Na. Khun Pha Muang founded the village of Dan-kwa, and Bang Klang Hao founded Dan Sai. Drought and disease later led to the villagers move to the site of present-day Loei. In 1907 King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) created Loei province. The Loei Cultural Centre (ศูนย์วัฒนธรรมจังหวัดเลย) displays Loei's history, religions, and traditions.
Symbols
The seal of the province shows the stupa at Phra That Si Song Rak, which was built in 1560 by King Maha Chakrapat of the Ayutthaya Kingdom and King Chai Chetha of Lan Xang as a symbol of friendship between the two kingdoms. The provincial tree is the Khasi pine (Pinus kesiya).
The provincial slogan is "city of the sea of mountains, coldest place in Siam, with beautiful flowers of three seasons."
Economy
Agriculture drives Loei's economy. Macadamia nuts, passion fruit, and Arabica coffee are grown in the highlands; bananas, sesame, and rubber on the plains. Loei is an ecotourism destination due to its natural environment and amalgam of northern and northeastern cultures.
Wang Saphung District is the site of a large open pit gold mine that employs many locals. The locality has been the site of a long-standing dispute as well as physical conflict between the villagers of Ban Na Nong Bong and its environs and Tungkum Limited, a subsidiary of Tongkah Harbour PCL. Tungkum's gold mining operation has been accused in the courts of environmental destruction.
Administrative divisions
Provincial government
The province is divided into 14 districts (amphoe). The districts are further divided into 89 subdistricts (tambons) and 839 villages (mubans).
Local government
As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Loei Provincial Administration Organisation () and 29 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Loei with Wang Saphung have town (thesaban mueang) status. There are a further 27 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 71 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations, SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon).
Transport
Route 201 leads from Chiang Khan in the north on the border with Laos, through Loei, to Non Sa-at near Chum Phae. Route 203 leads west to the vicinity of Phu Ruea, and then turns south to Lom Sak.
Loei is served by Loei Airport.
Human achievement index 2017
Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at the provincial level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index measuring eight key areas of human development. The National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.
Gallery
References
External links
Provincial website
Local website of Loei (Thai version) : Outloei.com
Isan
Provinces of Thailand
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] |
212051
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loei
|
Loei
|
Loei (; ) is a town (thesaban mueang) in northeast Thailand. Loei covers the whole tambon of Mueang Loei District and is the capital of Loei Province. In 2017, Loei had a population of 21,013. Loei lies 545 km north-northeast of Bangkok, 150 km west of Udon Thani.
Geography
Loei is in the fertile valley of the Loei River, which runs from south to north through the eastern part of the town. A range of hills lies to the east, including Phu Bo Bit Forest Park, about from the town centre.
Climate
Loei has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification Aw). Winters are quite dry and very warm. Temperatures rise until April, which is hot with the average daily maximum at . The monsoon season is from late April to October, with heavy rain and somewhat cooler temperatures during the day, although nights remain warm.
Transportation
Route 201 leads from Chiang Khan in the north on the border with Laos, through Loei, to Non Sa-at near Chum Phae. Route 203 leads west to the vicinity of Phu Ruea, and then turns south to Lom Sak.
Loei is served by Loei Airport.
References
External links
Populated places in Loei province
Cities and towns in Thailand
Isan
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little%20raven
|
Little raven
|
The little raven (Corvus mellori) is a species of the family Corvidae that is native to southeastern Australia. An adult individual is about in length, with completely black plumage, beak, and legs; as with all Australian species of Corvus, the black feathers have a grey base, and the iris of the adult bird is white (typical also of some related species from islands to the north of Australia).
Although the little raven was first named by Gregory Mathews in 1912, it was only in 1967 that there was consensus to separate it from the Australian raven (C. coronoides) as a distinct species.
Taxonomy
In the 1960s, the CSIRO were intensively studying Australian raven populations and their relationship to lambing and sheep in southeastern Australia. It became evident that there was a smaller species of raven living alongside the Australian raven. These birds lived in smaller trees, had smaller throat hackles and lacked the bare skin of their larger relative. They were also nomadic and made different calls. Ian Rowley investigated old scientific names assigned to type specimens and concluded that they matched Corvus mellori as described by Gregory Mathews in 1912. The type specimen was collected from Angas Plains in South Australia in 1901. It disappeared in transit in 1966.
The little raven is closely related to the other four species of Australian corvid, which include the Torresian crow and little crow as well as the forest raven and Australian raven. Initial single gene genetic analysis of the genus using mitochondrial DNA showed the three raven species to belong to one lineage and the two crows to another. The genetic separation between species is small and there was a suggestion the little raven may be nested within the Australian raven, though the authors conceded more genetic work was needed. Subsequent multigene analysis using nuclear DNA by Jønsson and colleagues in 2012 showed the forest and little raven are each other's closest relatives, with the Australian raven an earlier offshoot.
Rowley proposed that the common ancestor of the five species diverged into a tropical crow and temperate raven sometime after entering Australia from the north. The raven diverged into the ancestor of the forest and little ravens in the east and Australian raven in the west. As the climate was cooler and drier, the aridity of central Australia split them entirely. Furthermore, the eastern diverged into nomadic little ravens as the climate became dryer and, in forested refuges, forest ravens. As the climate eventually became warmer, the western ravens spread eastwards and outcompeted forest ravens on mainland Australia but coexisted with little ravens.
Rowley proposed the name "little raven" for the new species, conceding it was generic but noting it was demonstrative, and that "little crow" had been adopted over "Bennett's crow" for Corvus bennettii. The name has since been designated the official name by the International Ornithologists' Union (IOC). The term "crow" is colloquially applied to any or all species of Australian corvid.
Description
The little raven is, at about 48–50 cm in length on average, somewhat smaller than the Australian raven (though sizes do overlap between both species), the little raven's beak is slightly smaller. The little raven is a somewhat more sociable species than the Australian raven, often forming large flocks that roam freely over wide areas in search of food.
Eye colour varies with age: nestlings up to three months old have blue-grey eyes, juveniles aged from three to eleven months have brown eyes, and immature birds have hazel eyes with blue eyerings around the pupil until age one year and eleven months. The eyes turn white when the birds mature into adults.
Vocalisations
Its call is a harsh, guttural "kar-kar-kar-karrr" or "ark-ark-ark-arrk" with a similarly drawn-out call to the Australian and forest raven. Like all species of raven in Australia (with the exception of the forest raven) the little raven sometimes stretches or flicks its wings outward slightly when calling. Like all corvids, the little raven is capable of vocal mimicry, but this behavior is mostly recorded in captivity and only rarely in the wild.
Distribution and habitat
The little raven ranges over southeastern Australia from southern South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales. Also in Kangaroo Island (S.A) and King Island (Bass Strait).
Living within scrub, agricultural areas, grazing pasture, woodlands to treeless plains, coasts, and suburbs.
Little ravens are absent from west Gippsland, where the land is dominated by forest ravens
Its large range, abundance and stable population mean it is classified as least concern on the IUCN Red List.
The little raven appears to have become more abundant and widespread in Melbourne since the 1980s, spreading northwards and westwards, adapting well to its urban surrounds. Meanwhile, the Australian raven has only been rarely recorded in the city's outer fringes. The opposite phenomenon has taken place in Canberra and Sydney, where it is the Australian raven that has adapted and become common while the little raven has remained uncommon.
Behaviour
Breeding
Little ravens often nest in a loose colony of up to fifteen pairs, with nests few metres apart. They are closer together as the territories are for breeding only and not feeding, which is more communal. They have often been recorded as having several nests within the nesting territory of a single Australian raven which, presumably due to different food preferences, does not seem to consider them a threat to its own food resources. Cover does not appear to be important as dead trees with bare branches are used.
The nest is a thin cup of sticks with a layer of bark, grass and wool to create a thick mat. Nests are commonly low to the ground (under 10 meters), often in a forked branch in the outer canopy of a tree. Nests in urban Melbourne have been increasingly found at greater distances above the ground, as have nests in areas where Australian ravens do not occur, suggesting that the lower nests eventuated when the little raven was in competition with its larger relative. Nests on the ground have been reported. Building the nest is often time-consuming initially as the birds try (and often fail) to wedge sticks into the tree fork to make a platform. Thinner sticks and rootlets are used to make the bowl before the bowl is lined with feathers. Both birds build the nest, with the female taking over the lining of the nest while the male brings her material. New nests are built each year generally, as the re-use of old ones might spread disease or parasites—nests become caked with faeces as the nestlings grow and the parents cannot keep up with its removal. Old nests often disintegrate within twelve months anyway due to their exposed locations.
A clutch can comprise up to six eggs, though usually four or five are laid, with four being the commonest number. Eggs are quite variable and cannot be reliably identified as to which Australian corvid laid them, however the colouration of the two crow species eggs is different from the three ravens. Ravens' eggs are a light turquoise with brown blotches, but crows' eggs are a dirty white with brown speckles.
They leave the nest at 33–41 days of age.
Feeding
Little ravens eat more insects than C. coronoides and feed mainly on the ground, but they are probably omnivorous to a similar extent to other Corvus species when opportunity arises. Common invertebrates eaten include spiders, millipedes, centipedes (which ravens behead before eating), grasshoppers, cicadas and caterpillars (especially of the family Noctuidae), which are important in feeding nestlings.
Little ravens are intelligent birds, and have been recorded using tools as well as having innovative methods of seeking out food.
Notes
References
External Image Links
Skull of Little Raven (Without beak sheath)
little raven
little raven
Birds of South Australia
Birds of New South Wales
Birds of Victoria (Australia)
Birds of Tasmania
little raven
little raven
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalasin%20province
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Kalasin province
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Kalasin (, ) is one of Thailand's seventy-six provinces (changwat) lies in upper northeastern Thailand also called Isan. The province was established by the Act Establishing Changwat Kalasin, BE 2490 (1947), and it came into existence on 1 October 1947.
Neighboring provinces are (from north clockwise) Sakon Nakhon, Mukdahan, Roi Et, Maha Sarakham, Khon Kaen, and Udon Thani.
Geography
Most of the province is covered by hilly landscape. The town of Kalasin is at an elevation of . In the north is the Lam Pao Dam built from 1963 to 1968. It stores 1,430 million m3 of water for flood prevention and agriculture. The Lam Pao reservoir effectively cuts the northern part of the province in half, but there are car ferries connecting the district of Sahatsakhan in the east with the district Nong Kung Si in the west, saving up to one hour off the journey by road. On the northwestern creek of the reservoir, a road bridge connects the village of Ban Dong Bang in the west with the district town of Wang Sam Mo in the east. Although the bridge was constructed several years ago (pre-2000), it is not featured (2006) on any commercially available road maps.
The Phu Phan mountain range marks the border with Sakhon Nakhon province, part of which is preserved as a national park. The total forest area is or 10.9 percent of provincial area.
Kalasin is known for the dinosaur fossils found at Phu Kum Khao (Sahatsakhan District), the largest dinosaur site in Thailand. Most of the fossils are sauropods from 120 million years ago.
Economy
Kalasin is an agricultural province producing sticky rice and other cash crops such as manioc (cassava) and sugar cane. Families are generally poor in this essentially rural area and make ends meet by producing baskets and the silk for which the region is renowned.
History
Archaeological excavations show that the Lawa tribe lived in the area some 1,600 years ago. The first official town was founded in 1793.
During the Thesaphiban reforms in the reign of King Rama V at the beginning of the 20th century, the town (mueang) was upgraded to a province. In 1932, when the country experienced the great economic depression, the province was demoted and absorbed as a district by Maha Sarakham province to reduce the financial burden on the country, Kalasin was dependent on Maha Sarakham for 16 years. After the great recession and World War II, it once again became a province in 1947.
Symbols
The seal of the province shows a pond in front of the Phu Phan Mountains which form the boundary of the province. The water in the pond is black, as the name Kalasin means "black water". The big clouds as well as the water symbolize the fertility of the province.
The provincial logo and landmark is the Phra That Yakhu, an octagonal-shaped chedi, made of bricks.
The provincial flower is payorm or sweet shorea (Shorea roxburghii), and the provincial tree is sa-mae-san (Cassia garrettiana).
The provincial slogan is Fa Daet Song Yang ancient city, Pong Lang folk music, Phu Thai culture, Phrae Wa silk, Pha Saweoi Phu Phan, Lam Pao River, and million-year dinosaurs.
Administrative divisions
Provincial government
The province is divided into 18 districts (amphoes). The districts are further divided into 134 subdistricts (tambons) and 1,509 villages (mubans).
Local government
As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Kalasin Provincial Administration Organisation () and 79 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Kalasin and Bua Khao have town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 77 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 71 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon).
Human achievement index 2017
Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.
References
External links
Provincial website (Thai)
Kalasin, Tourist Authority of Thailand
Isan
Provinces of Thailand
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] |
212057
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foot%20Loose%20%26%20Fancy%20Free
|
Foot Loose & Fancy Free
|
Foot Loose & Fancy Free is Rod Stewart's eighth album, released in November 1977 on Riva Records in the UK and Warner Bros in the US.
The album is the final album in a string of Stewart's acclaimed 1970s albums, beginning with Atlantic Crossing and including the platinum-selling A Night on the Town. The album contains elements of hard rock ("Hot Legs"), funk rock ("You're Insane"), and progressive rock via Motown ("You Keep Me Hanging On"), as well as Stewart's usual ballads ("You're in My Heart"). "I Was Only Joking", a tale about regret and the care-free minds of the young, has become one of Stewart's most loved compositions.
Track listing
Side one (Fast Side)
"Hot Legs" (Rod Stewart, Gary Grainger) – 5:14
"You're Insane" (Stewart, Phil Chen) – 4:48
"You're in My Heart (The Final Acclaim)" (Stewart) – 4:30
"Born Loose" (Stewart, Grainger, Jim Cregan) – 6:02
Side two (Slow Side)
"You Keep Me Hangin' On" (Brian Holland, Lamont Dozier, Eddie Holland) – 7:28
"(If Loving You Is Wrong) I Don't Want to Be Right" (Homer Banks, Carl Hampton, Raymond Jackson) – 5:23
"You Got a Nerve" (Stewart, Grainger) – 4:59
"I Was Only Joking" (Stewart, Grainger) – 6:07
Personnel
The Rod Stewart Group
Rod Stewart – lead and backing vocals
Gary Grainger – guitar, backing vocals
Jim Cregan – guitar, backing vocals
Phil Chen – bass guitar, backing vocals
Carmine Appice – drums, backing vocals
Billy Peek – guitar, backing vocals
John Barlow Jarvis – keyboards, backing vocals
Additional Musicians-
Fred Tackett - Acoustic guitar (A3)
Steve Cropper – guitar
David Foster – keyboards
Nicky Hopkins – synthesizer
Roger Bethelmy – drums (B2)
Paulinho Da Costa, Tommy Vig – percussion
John Mayall – harmonica on "Born Loose"
Phil Kenzie – saxophone
Richard Greene – violin
Mark Stein – background vocals on "You Keep Me Hangin' On"
Andy Johns – background vocals, engineering and mixing
Wally Heider – engineering
John Naslen – engineering
Sy Potma – engineering
Lee Hulko – mastering
Design and Art Director - Kosh
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
References
1977 albums
Riva Records albums
Rod Stewart albums
Albums produced by Tom Dowd
Warner Records albums
|
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] |
212058
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foma
|
Foma
|
Foma may refer to:
FOMA (Freedom of Mobile Multimedia Access), a Japanese mobile telecommunications service.
Foma, a term meaning "harmless untruths" from the fictional religion Bokononism in Kurt Vonnegut's novel Cat's Cradle
Foma, the narrator of Nikolai Gogol's short story "A Bewitched Place"
Foma, Russian male given name of Hebrew origin
Foma (album), by The Nixons
foma (software), an open-source compiler, programming language, and C library for constructing finite-state automata and transducers compatible with Xerox lexc and twolc
Foma Bohemia, a manufacturer of photographic and industrial films, papers and chemicals in the Czech republic
|
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212061
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Night%20on%20the%20Town%20%28Rod%20Stewart%20album%29
|
A Night on the Town (Rod Stewart album)
|
A Night on the Town is Rod Stewart's seventh album, released in 1976. The cover art is based on Pierre-Auguste Renoir's painting Bal du moulin de la Galette, with Stewart inserted in the centre in period costume. On 30 June 2009, Rhino reissued the album as a two-disc CD with bonus tracks. A Night on the Town was Stewart's last UK number-one studio album until Time in 2013.
The album is regarded as one of Stewart's finest. "The Killing Of Georgie" is one of Stewart's most hard hitting set of lyrics, a melancholic tale of a gay friend who is cast out by his family and becomes a sensation in the New York nightlife, only to be murdered by a New Jersey gang during an attempted robbery. Controversial "Tonight's the Night" was a No. 1 hit but was banned by some radio stations due to the very obvious lyrics about sex and loss of virginity. A cover of Cat Stevens' "The First Cut Is the Deepest" was also a success and has since become one of Stewart's signature songs.
Track listing
Original release
2009 re-release
Personnel
Rod Stewart – vocals
Donald Dunn, Bob Glaub, David Hood, Willie Weeks, Lee Sklar – bass guitar
Steve Cropper, Billy Peek, Joe Walsh, Jesse Ed Davis, David Lindley, Fred Tackett – guitar
John Barlow Jarvis, David Foster, Barry Beckett, J. Smith – keyboards
Roger Hawkins, Andy Newmark, Al Jackson Jr., Rick Shlosser – drums
Tommy Vig, Joe Lala – percussion
Jimmy Horowitz, Mel Lewis, Arif Mardin – string arrangements
Tower of Power horn section – French horn
Jerry Jumonville, Plas Johnson – tenor saxophone
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
References
Rod Stewart albums
Riva Records albums
1976 albums
Albums produced by Tom Dowd
Albums recorded at Muscle Shoals Sound Studio
Warner Records albums
|
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212062
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalasin
|
Kalasin
|
Kalasin () is a town (thesaban mueang) in northeast Thailand, the capital of Kalasin Province. As of 2015, it has a population of 34,429 It covers the whole tambon Kalasin of the Mueang Kalasin District, an area of . Kalasin lies north-northeast of Bangkok by road.
Geography
Climate
References
External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20100731063711/http://www.kalasin-mu.go.th/ Official website
Populated places in Kalasin province
Cities and towns in Thailand
Isan
|
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] |
212064
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic%20Crossing
|
Atlantic Crossing
|
Atlantic Crossing is the sixth studio album by the English singer-songwriter Rod Stewart, released on 15 August 1975. It peaked at number one in the UK (his fifth solo album to do so), and number nine on the Billboard Top Pop Albums chart.
The title indicated Stewart's new commercial and artistic direction, referring to both his crossing over to Warner Brothers and on his departure to escape the 83 per cent top rate of income tax introduced by British Labour Prime Minister Harold Wilson for the jet-set lifestyle in Los Angeles (where he had applied for American citizenship at this time). The album was divided into a slow side and a fast side, apparently at the suggestion of Stewart's then-girlfriend, Swedish actress Britt Ekland. Stewart would repeat the format for his next two albums.
The album contained two of Stewart's most popular songs, "Sailing" and "I Don't Want to Talk About It”, and classic rock favorites "Three Time Loser" and "Stone Cold Sober".
With Atlantic Crossing, Stewart ended his association with Ronnie Wood, Ian McLagan and the stable of musicians who had been his core collaborators on his classic run of albums for Mercury Records, fusing soul and folk. Instead, he used a group of session musicians, including The Memphis Horns and three-quarters of Booker T. and the MG's. The album was produced by Tom Dowd, the famous engineer and producer on records by so many of Stewart's heroes during Dowd's time on staff at Atlantic Records. The only song performed from this album on The Faces' final US tour in autumn 1975 was "Three Time Loser", and the rest of the group heavily disliked Stewart's change in musical direction on this album. Following the success of the album, and his move to the U.S., Stewart announced his exit from the Faces by the end of the year.
"Sailing" was a number one hit in the UK in September 1975, and returned to the UK Top 3 a year later when it was used as the theme for the BBC series Sailor; both acoustic and electric guitars in the song were played by Pete Carr. In 1977, almost two years after the album was released, Stewart scored another UK number one from the album with the double A-side single "I Don't Want to Talk About It" and "The First Cut Is the Deepest" (from the album A Night on the Town - 1976).
In 2009, Rhino Records released a two-disc version of the album with bonus tracks.
Track listing
Fast Side (Side One)
"Three Time Loser" (Rod Stewart) – 4:03
"Alright for an Hour" (Stewart, Jesse Ed Davis) – 4:17
"All in the Name of Rock 'N' Roll" (Stewart) – 5:02
"Drift Away" (Mentor Williams) – 3:43
"Stone Cold Sober" (Stewart, Steve Cropper) – 4:12
Slow Side (Side Two)
"I Don't Want to Talk About It" (Danny Whitten) – 4:47
"It's Not The Spotlight" (Barry Goldberg, Gerry Goffin) – 4:21
"This Old Heart of Mine" (Lamont Dozier, Brian Holland, Eddie Holland, Sylvia Moy) – 4:04
"Still Love You" (Stewart) – 5:08
"Sailing" (Gavin Sutherland) – 4:37
2009 two disc re-release
Disc one
Track 1 – 10 features the original album.
"Skye Boat Song (The Atlantic Crossing Drum & Pipe Band)" (Harold Boulton, Annie MacLeod) 4:13
Disc two
"To Love Somebody" (Barry Gibb, Robin Gibb) – 4:12
"Holy Cow" (Allen Toussaint) – 3:16
"Return to Sender" (Otis Blackwell, Scott Winfield) – 3:42
"Three Time Loser" [Alternate Version] (Stewart) – 4:40
"Alright for an Hour" [Alternate Version] (Stewart, Davis) – 4:36
"All in the Name of Rock 'n' Roll" [Alternate Version] (Stewart) – 5:00
"Drift Away" [Alternate Version] (Williams) – 3:58
"Too Much Noise" [Early Version of "Stone Cold Sober"] (Stewart, Cropper) – 3:24
"I Don't Want to Talk About It" [Alternate Version] (Whitten) – 4:56
"It's Not the Spotlight" [Alternate Version] (Goldberg, Goffin) – 4:27
"This Old Heart of Mine" [Alternate Version] (Holland-Dozier-Holland, Moy) – 3:54
"Still Love You" [Alternate Version] (Stewart) 4:57
"Sailing" [Alternate Version] (Sutherland) 4:39
"Skye Boat Song (The Atlantic Crossing Drum & Pipe Band)" [Alternate Version] (Boulton, MacLeod) 4:20
Personnel
Rod Stewart – vocals
Pete Carr – acoustic guitar and electric guitar on Sailing
Jesse Ed Davis – guitars
Steve Cropper – guitars
Fred Tackett – guitars
Jimmy Johnson – guitars
Barry Beckett – keyboards
Albhy Galuten – keyboards
Booker T. Jones – Hammond organ
Donald "Duck" Dunn – bass
Lee Sklar – bass
Bob Glaub – bass
David Hood – bass
David Lindley – mandolin, violin
Al Jackson, Jr. – drums, percussion
Roger Hawkins – drums, percussion
Nigel Olsson – drums, percussion
Willie Correa – drums, percussion
The Memphis Horns – trumpet, trombone, saxophone
Cindy & Bob Singers, The Pets & The Clappers – backing vocals
String arrangements by Arif Mardin and James Mitchell
Album designer and art direction Kosh illustrator by Peter Lloyd
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
References
1975 albums
Riva Records albums
Rod Stewart albums
Albums produced by Tom Dowd
Warner Records albums
Albums recorded at Muscle Shoals Sound Studio
Albums recorded at Wally Heider Studios
|
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] |
212067
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blondes%20Have%20More%20Fun
|
Blondes Have More Fun
|
Blondes Have More Fun is Rod Stewart's ninth album, released in November 1978. As was the popular musical trend at the time, it is Stewart's foray into disco music. The album was commercially successful, reaching number 3 in the UK and number 1 in the US, but was critically divisive. The lead single "Da Ya Think I'm Sexy" became one of Stewart's biggest hits, peaking at No.1 in both the UK and US.
Overview
After carving a highly successful career throughout the 1970s as a rock singer, Stewart elected to follow the disco trend that was at its peak in 1978 for some tracks of this album. The first single was "Da Ya Think I'm Sexy" which became a number one hit in the UK, US, Australia and a number of other countries. Many critics panned the direction of song towards disco, but it nevertheless became one of his biggest hits. Stewart has since defended the song commenting that Paul McCartney and The Rolling Stones had also dabbled with disco music by this time. The second single was "Ain't Love a Bitch", which became a No.11 hit in the UK and No.22 in the US. The third and final single "Blondes (Have More Fun)" peaked at 63 in the UK, his lowest-charting single there at this time, but performed better in Ireland at No.23.
The album itself peaked at No.3 in the UK, being certified platinum by Christmas and was a No.1 hit in the US, where it went double platinum. It also charted within the top ten in a host of other countries.
Track listing
Side one
Side two
Stewart has acknowledged that the song inadvertently incorporates the melody from the song "Taj Mahal" by Jorge Ben Jor, although Ben Jor was not given a writing credit.
Personnel
ROD STEWART BAND:
Rod Stewart - vocals
Gary Grainger, Billy Peek – guitar
Jim Cregan – guitar, backing vocals
Phil Chen – bass guitar, backing vocals
Carmine Appice – drums, backing vocals
INVITED GUESTS:
Fred Tackett - acoustic guitars
Nicky Hopkins – piano
Duane Hitchings – keyboards, synthesizer
Roger Bethelmy – drums
Paulinho Da Costa, Tommy Vig – percussion
Gary Herbig – flute
Phil Kenzie, Tom Scott – tenor saxophone
Steve Madaio – trumpet
Mike Finnigan – background vocals
Max Carl Gronenthal – background vocals
Linda Lewis – vocals
Catherine Allison – piano, background vocals
Del Newman – string arrangements
Production
Tom Dowd – producer, mixing
Andy Johns – engineer, mixing
George Tutko, David Gerts – assistant engineers
Mixed at Smoke Tree and Cherokee Studios.
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications and sales
References
1978 albums
Riva Records albums
Rod Stewart albums
Albums produced by Tom Dowd
Warner Records albums
Disco albums by British artists
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario%20Argento
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Dario Argento
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Dario Argento (; born 7 September 1940) is an Italian film director, producer, screenwriter, actor and critic. His influential work in the horror genre during the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in the subgenre known as giallo, has led him to being referred to as the "Master of the Thrill" and the "Master of Horror".
His films as director include his "Animal Trilogy", consisting of The Bird with the Crystal Plumage (1970), The Cat o' Nine Tails (1971) and Four Flies on Grey Velvet (1971); his "Three Mothers" trilogy, consisting of Suspiria (1977), Inferno (1980) and The Mother of Tears (2007); and his stand-alone films Deep Red (1975), Tenebrae (1982), Phenomena (1985), and Opera (1987). He co-wrote the screenplay for Sergio Leone's Once Upon a Time in the West (1968) and served as George A. Romero's script consultant on Dawn of the Dead (1978), for which he also composed the soundtrack with his long-time collaborators Goblin.
Early life
Argento was born in Rome, the son of a Sicilian film producer and executive Salvatore Argento (1914–1987) and a Brazilian photographer Elda Luxardo, who was of Italian ancestry. He began his career in film as a critic, writing for magazines while still attending high school. Argento did not attend college, electing rather to take a job as a columnist at the newspaper Paese Sera. While working at the newspaper, Argento also began working as a screenwriter. His most notable work was for Sergio Leone, Bernardo Bertolucci and his collaboration on the story for the Sergio Leone Spaghetti Western Once Upon a Time in the West.
Career
1970s
Argento began work on his directorial debut, the giallo film The Bird with the Crystal Plumage (L'uccello dalle piume di cristallo, 1970), which was a major hit in Italy. Argento continued to concentrate largely on the giallo genre, directing two more successful thrillers, The Cat o' Nine Tails (Il gatto a nove code, 1971) and Four Flies on Grey Velvet (4 mosche di velluto grigio, 1972). Along with The Bird with the Crystal Plumage, these three films are frequently referred to as Argento's "Animal Trilogy". The director then turned his attention away from giallo movies, filming two Italian TV dramas and a period comedy, The Five Days (Le cinque giornate, 1973). Argento returned to thrillers with Deep Red (1975), frequently cited by many critics as the best giallo ever made. The film made Argento known internationally and inspired other directors to work in the genre. John Carpenter has frequently referred to the influence Argento's early work had on Halloween (1978).
Argento's next film was Suspiria (1977), a supernatural horror. Argento planned for Suspiria to be the first of a trilogy about "The Three Mothers", three ancient witches residing in three different modern cities. The second film of the trilogy was 1980's Inferno. The Mother of Tears (2007) concluded the trilogy.
In 1978, Argento collaborated with George A. Romero on Dawn of the Dead, earning a producer credit and also providing soundtrack work for the zombie film. Argento oversaw the European release of the film, where it was titled Zombi, which was much shorter and featured more of the score written and performed by Goblin.
1980s
After Inferno, Argento returned to the more conventional giallo style with Tenebrae (1982). He then attempted to combine giallo and supernatural fantasy in 1985's Phenomena, also known as Creepers, which was one of Jennifer Connelly's earliest movies. Phenomena also showed Argento's predilection for using new technology, as evidenced by the film's several prowling Steadicam shots. Both films received a lukewarm reception upon their release (although each has been positively reappraised since).
Argento subsequently took a break from directing to write two screenplays for Mario Bava's son, Lamberto Bava: Dèmoni (1985) and Dèmoni 2 (1986).
Opera followed in 1987. Set in Parma's Regio Theatre during a production of Verdi's Macbeth, the production was beset by real-life misfortunes that Argento suspected were caused by the supposed traditional "curse" on the Shakespearean play. Argento's father died during its production, Vanessa Redgrave quit the project before filming began, he had problems working with his former long-time girlfriend and collaborator Daria Nicolodi on-set, and the cast and crew were plagued by several minor accidents and mishaps.
In 1987–88, Argento produced a TV series called Turno di Notte, which had 15 episodes. Nine of the shows were directed by Luigi Cozzi, the other six by Lamberto Bava. Daria Nicolodi and Asia Argento starred in several of the episodes.
Argento later produced and wrote the screenplays for two horror films directed by Michele Soavi, The Church (1989) and The Sect (1991).
1990s
In 1990, Argento co-directed Two Evil Eyes with George Romero, a two-story anthology film inspired by the works of Edgar Allan Poe.
In 1992, Argento filmed Trauma, starring his daughter Asia Argento, in Minneapolis, MN. It is largely a traditional giallo, but in an American setting. Like many of Argento's films, it contains an optical illusion witnessed by a character stumbling upon a murder, but he or she, like the audience, misinterprets the nature of the crime. This cinematic sleight-of-hand is one of Argento's recurring motifs.
His 1996 film The Stendhal Syndrome, in which a policewoman (played by Argento's daughter, Asia) who suffers from Stendhal syndrome is trapped by a serial killer in an abandoned warehouse, was the first Italian film to use computer-generated imagery. Moreover, the film's opening scene was shot in Florence at Italy's famed Uffizi Gallery. Argento is the only director ever granted permission to shoot there. The Stendhal Syndrome was distributed in the U.S. by cult B-movie distribution company Troma Entertainment.
In the early 1990s, Argento was interested in collaborating with Italian director Lucio Fulci on a horror film. Due to financial setbacks, the project was repeatedly postponed. In 1996, Argento was able to gather the funding, but was unable at that point to collaborate with Fulci who died in March of that year. The film was later directed by Sergio Stivaletti as Wax Mask, with Argento and Fulci both receiving co-screenwriting credits.
Argento later directed 1998's The Phantom of the Opera and 2001's Sleepless.
2000s and 2010s
2004's The Card Player, a giallo about a killer whose murders are conducted during Internet poker matches with the Rome police, earned a mixed reception; some fans appreciated the techno music score composed by ex-Goblin member Claudio Simonetti, but felt the film was too mainstream, with little of Argento's usual flourish.
In the 2005 TV broadcast of Argento's Do You Like Hitchcock?, the director paid homage to Alfred Hitchcock after decades of being compared to him by critics. Later that year, he directed an episode of Masters of Horror, a Showtime television series, called "Jenifer". For season two of the series, Argento directed "Pelts", an adaption of the F. Paul Wilson short story of the same name.
In 2007, Argento finished the final film of his Three Mothers trilogy, The Mother of Tears, which is set in Rome and centers on the titular "third mother", Mater Lacrimarum. Argento and Jace Anderson share writing credits for the film. Asia Argento was cast as the lead player, along with her mother and frequent Argento collaborator Daria Nicolodi in a supporting role. Udo Kier, who appeared in Argento's Suspiria, and Coralina Cataldi-Tassoni, who appeared in three of his previous films, both have pivotal roles in the final Mothers chapter.
On 26 June 2009, Giallo premiered at the Edinburgh Film Festival. The following month, he announced that he had started working on a 3D remake of Deep Red, but subsequently this project was shelved due to the commercial failure of Giallo in Italian cinemas. He then announced his decision to write a new screenplay . On 4 March 2011, it was announced that Rutger Hauer had signed on to play Van Helsing in Argento's Dracula 3D, which began shooting in Budapest later in the year. It was released on 19 May 2012, and is the last film he directed.
Unfinished projects
In 2014, Argento was slated to direct The Sandman, which had Iggy Pop attached to star and a script by David Tully. The film successfully raised over $195,000 from over 1,000 backers on Indiegogo in December 2014. However, filming has not commenced as of 2019, and the project producers have not updated the film's status to backers since August 2017.
Italian director Luca Guadagnino helmed Suspiria (2018), a remake of Argento's 1977 film. The American screenplay is based on the original script Argento wrote with Daria Nicolodi, his former long-term partner.
In 2019, Argento announced that he was developing a female-led serial movie, consisting of eight episodes, for a streaming service.
Other work
He is involved in operating a horror memorabilia store located at Via dei Gracchi 260 in Rome named Profondo Rosso, after his classic film Deep Red. In the cellar is a collection of his movies. The store is managed by his long-time collaborator and friend Luigi Cozzi.
He has contributed in the development of the survival horror video game Dead Space, and also in the dubbing of the Dr. Kyne character in the Italian version of the game.
He is acting as an artistic director on Clod Studio's upcoming video game Dreadful Bond.
Personal life
Between 1968 and 1972, Argento was married to Marisa Casale, the great-granddaughter of Italian composer, pianist, and conductor Alfredo Casella. Argento and Casale had one child, actress and costume designer Fiore Argento (born in 1970).
Argento had a professional and romantic relationship with Italian actress and screenwriter Daria Nicolodi; they met in 1974 during casting for Deep Red, and their daughter Asia Argento was born in 1975. Nicolodi co-wrote Argento's Suspiria (1977) and appeared in Argento's Deep Red (1975), Inferno (1980), Tenebrae (1982), Phenomena (1985), Opera (1987), and The Mother of Tears (2007). Argento and Nicolodi separated in 1985.
An actress and director, Asia Argento's earliest screen appearances includes roles in her father's productions Demons 2 (1986) and The Church (1989) before being directed by her father in the films Trauma (1993), The Stendahl Syndrome (1996), The Phantom of the Opera (1998), The Mother of Tears (2007), and Dracula 3D (2012).
Works and criticism
Maitland McDonagh wrote about Argento in her book Broken Mirrors/Broken Minds: The Dark Dreams of Dario Argento (1991). Argento is also the subject of Art of Darkness, a collection of critical essays, reviews, promotional stills, and poster art edited by Chris Gallant. British journalist Alan Jones published Profondo Argento, a compendium of set reports, interviews, and biographical detail. English sound designer, writer, and musician Heather Emmett published Sounds to Die For: Speaking the Language of Horror Film Sound, which includes the first in-depth study of the use of sound in Argento's films.
In 2012, Argento was highlighted in the retrospective Argento: Il Cinema Nel Sangue at the Museum of Arts and Design in New York City. The retrospective celebrated the influence of the Argento family on filmmaking in Italy and around the world. It highlighted Dario's contribution, as well as that of his father (Salvatore), brother (Claudio), ex-wife (Daria Nicolodi) and daughter (Asia).
Critical decline
With the exceptions of The Stendhal Syndrome and Sleepless, all of Argento's films since the "golden age" of the 1970s and 1980s have been generally poorly received by critics and fans alike, including Argento scholars such as Maitland McDonagh. Fangoria wrote in 2010, "over the last decade, standards have slipped. For a filmmaker who was always so precise in his construction and cutting, his later films such as The Phantom of the Opera and The Card Player are sloppy, stitched together so carelessly that they leak vital fluid. Gradually, the kaleidoscopic style that once characterized his films has slowly blanched away."
Filmography
Film
Television
Documentary
1993 – The King of Ads (director)
Awards
Life time achievement award
2021 – Lifetime Achievement Award at 74th Locarno Film Festival, Switzerland
References
Further reading
Xavier Mendik. "From the Monstrous Mother to the 'Third' Sex: Female Abjection in the Films of Dario Argento" in Andy Black (ed), Necronomicon: The Journal of Horror and Erotic Cinema: Book Two, London: creation Books, 1998, pp. 110–133.
"Fear: The Autobiography", October 2019, by Dario Argento. Fab Press Limited, .
External links
1940 births
Giallo film directors
Horror film directors
Italian people of Brazilian descent
Living people
People of Sicilian descent
Film directors from Rome
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Irish%20Constabulary
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Royal Irish Constabulary
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The Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC, ; simply called the Irish Constabulary 1836–67) was the police force in Ireland from 1822 until 1922, when all of the country was part of the United Kingdom. A separate civic police force, the unarmed Dublin Metropolitan Police (DMP), patrolled the capital and parts of County Wicklow, while the cities of Derry and Belfast, originally with their own police forces, later had special divisions within the RIC. For most of its history, the ethnic and religious makeup of the RIC broadly matched that of the Irish population, although Anglo-Irish Protestants were over-represented among its senior officers.
The RIC was under the authority of the British administration in Ireland. It was a quasi-military police force. Unlike police elsewhere in the United Kingdom, RIC constables were routinely armed (including with carbines) and billeted in barracks, and the force had a militaristic structure. It policed Ireland during a period of agrarian unrest and Irish nationalist agitation. It was used to quell civil unrest during the Tithe War, the Young Irelander Rebellion, the Fenian Rising, the Land War, and the Irish revolutionary period. During the Irish War of Independence, the RIC faced mass public boycotts and attacks by the Irish Republican Army (IRA). It was reinforced with recruits from Britain—the Black and Tans and Auxiliaries—who became notorious for police brutality and attacks on civilians. The Ulster Special Constabulary (USC) was formed to reinforce the RIC in most of the northern province of Ulster.
In consequence of the Anglo-Irish Treaty and partition of Ireland, the RIC was disbanded in 1922 and was replaced by in the Irish Free State and the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) in Northern Ireland.
The RIC's system of policing influenced the armed Canadian North-West Mounted Police (predecessor of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police), the armed Victoria Police force in Australia, and the armed Royal Newfoundland Constabulary in Newfoundland.
History
The first organised police forces in Ireland came about through Dublin Police Act 1786, which was a slightly modified version of the failed London and Westminster Police Bill 1785 drafted by John Reeves at the request of Home Secretary Lord Sydney following the Gordon Riots of 1780. A force of 400 armed policemen and 40 mounted petty constables, all full-time and uniformed, headed by three commissioners, four divisional judges and two clerks, was viewed as oppressive by local elites and became a strain on the city budget (population of Dublin was under 300,000 at the time, which makes a very high rate), and the latter was used as a pretext by Irish nationalist MP Henry Grattan and short-lived Lord Lieutenant of Ireland William Fitzwilliam, 4th Earl Fitzwilliam, to essentially abolish the Dublin Police in 1795 (even despite some success with fighting the crime), downsizing it to two inspectors and 50 constables headed by superintendend magistrate and two divisional justices and even temporarily moving it under Dublin Corporation.
The Peace Preservation Act in 1814 for which Sir Robert Peel (1788–1850) was largely responsible (the colloquial names "Bobby" and "Peeler" derive from his name Robert and Peel), and the Irish Constabulary Act in 1822 formed the provincial constabularies. The 1822 Act established a force in each province with chief constables and inspectors general under the UK civil administration for Ireland controlled by the Dublin Castle administration. By 1841 this force numbered over 8,600 men. The original force had been reorganised under The Act of 1836, and the first constabulary code of regulations was published in 1837. The discipline was strict and the pay low. The police faced civil unrest among the Irish rural poor, and was involved in bloody confrontations during the period of the Tithe War. Other deployments were against organisations like the Ribbonmen, which attacked landlords, their property and stock.
The new constabulary first demonstrated its efficiency against civil agitation and Irish separatism during Daniel O'Connell's 1843 "monster meetings" to urge repeal of the Act of Parliamentary Union, and the Young Ireland campaign led by William Smith O'Brien in 1848, although it failed to contain violence at the so-called "Battle of Dolly's Brae" in 1849 (which provoked a Party Processions Act to regulate sectarian demonstrations). This was followed by a period of relative calm.
The advent of the Irish Republican Brotherhood, founded in 1858, brought a plan for an armed uprising. Direct action began with the Fenian Rising of 1867. Fenians attacked on the more isolated police barracks and smaller stations. This rebellion was put down with ruthless efficiency. The police had infiltrated the Fenians with informers. The success of the Irish Constabulary during the outbreak was rewarded by Queen Victoria who granted the force the prefix 'Royal' in 1867 and the right to use the insignia of the Most Illustrious Order of St Patrick in their motif. The RIC presided over a marked decline in general crime around the country. The unstable rural unrest of the early nineteenth century characterised by secret organisations and unlawful armed assembly was effectively controlled. Policing generally became a routine of controlling misdemeanours such as moonshine distilling, public drunkenness, minor theft, and wilful property crimes.
A Land War broke out in the 1879–82 Depression period, causing some general unrest.
In Belfast, with its industrial boom, the working population mushroomed, growing fivefold in fifty years. Much of the increase arose from Catholic migration and there were serious sectarian riots in 1857, 1864, 1872 and 1886. As a result, the small Belfast Town Police civic force was disbanded and responsibility for policing passed to the RIC. Likewise in 1870, the RIC took over the duties of the Londonderry Borough Police.
During the 1907 Belfast Dock strike which was called by trade union leader Jim Larkin, a portion of the RIC went on strike after Constable William Barrett was suspended for his refusal to escort a traction engine driven by a blackleg carter. About 70% of the police force in Belfast declared their support of the strikers and were encouraged by Larkin to carry out their own strike for higher wages and a better pension. It never came to fruition, however, as dissident policemen were transferred out of Belfast four days before the strike was to begin. Barrett and six other constables were dismissed and extra British Army troops were deployed to Belfast. The dock strike ended on 28 August 1907.
The RIC's existence was increasingly troubled by the rise of the Home Rule campaign in the early twentieth century period prior to World War I. Sir Neville Chamberlain was appointed Inspector-General in 1900. His years in the RIC coincided with the rise of a number of political, cultural and sporting organisations with the common aim of asserting Ireland's separateness from England. The potential success of the third Home Rule Bill in 1912 introduced serious tensions: opponents of the Bill organised the Ulster Volunteer Force in January 1913 while supporters formed the Irish Volunteers in response. These two groups had over 250,000 members, organised as effective private armies. In reports to the Chief Secretary for Ireland, Augustine Birrell, and the Under-Secretary, Sir Matthew Nathan, Chamberlain warned that the Irish Volunteers were preparing to stage an insurrection and proclaim Irish independence. However, in April 1916 when Nathan showed him a letter from the army commander in the south of Ireland telling of an expected landing of arms on the southwest coast and a rising planned for Easter, they were both 'doubtful whether there was any foundation for the rumour'. The Easter Rising began on Easter Monday, 24 April 1916 and lasted for six days, ending only when much of O'Connell Street had been destroyed by artillery fire. Although the Royal Commission on the 1916 Rebellion cleared the RIC of any blame for the Rising, Chamberlain had already resigned his post, along with Birrell and Nathan.
Characteristics
During the early 19th century in the United Kingdom, both the idea of police and the word itself were "disliked as a symbol of foreign oppression". Accordingly, the state was later than its European neighbours in developing organised police services: the London Metropolitan Police being established seven years after the RIC. The RIC was as a result pulled in two directions. To some extent it had a quasi-military or gendarmerie ethos: barracks and carbines; a marked class distinction between officers and men; jurisdiction over rural districts lacking a population density to warrant their own civilian police force; obligatory service outside of one's region of origin; plus a dark green uniform with black buttons and insignia, resembling that of the rifle regiments of the British Army. At the time of the RIC's disbanding the debate over its very nature was ongoing: a paramilitary police in the gendarme-style, or merely an armed version of the English-style civilian police? A delegation of prominent Irish-Americans led by former Illinois governor Edward F. Dunne, returned with the following impression:"The Constabulary is a branch of the Military forces. They are armed with rifles, as well as small side-arms; engage in regular drills as well as small warfare"; the authorities in Dublin Castle conceded that the Constabulary was armed and drilled, but considered that its operational independence from the ministry of war rendered it not a true gendarme force (note, however, that this was true of gendarmeries of other European countries, which also operated under the aegis of their national Interior ministry rather than their War ministry, other than in periods of invasion). French military observers similarly reported on the "Royal Irish Constabulary (the Irish gendarmerie)".
However, the RIC also followed civic police forces in the rest of the UK in using non-military ranks such as "constable" and "inspector"; and there was a gesture towards "policing by consent" through attempts to match postings to the religious affiliation of the communities affected.
The RIC was an all-male police force. For most of its history, its ethnic and religious makeup broadly matched that of the Irish population (about three-quarters Catholic and one-quarter Protestant), although Anglo-Irish Protestants were over-represented among its senior officers.
Ranks
Historical development
Enforcement of eviction orders in rural Ireland caused the RIC to be widely distrusted by the poor Catholic population as the mid 19th century approached, but the relative calm of the late Victorian and Edwardian periods brought it increasing, if grudging, respect. From the 1850s the RIC performed a range of civil and local government duties together with their policing, integrating the constables with their local communities. In rural areas their attention was largely on minor problems such as distilling, cockfighting, drunk and disorderly behaviour, and unlicensed dogs or firearms, with only occasional attendance at evictions or on riot duty; and arrests tended to be relatively rare events. Despite their status as an armed force, constables seldom carried guns, only waist belt, handcuffs and baton. Often, along with the priest, they would have an informal leadership role in the community, and being literate would be appealed to by people needing help with forms and letters. While "barracks" in cities resembled those of the British Army, the term was also used for small country police stations consisting of a couple of ordinary houses with a day-room and a few bedrooms; premises would be rented by the authorities from landowners and might be changed between different sites in a village. Their pay was low, it being assumed by the authorities that they would get milk, eggs, butter and potatoes as gifts from local people. By 1901 there were around 1,600 barracks and some 11,000 constables.
The majority of constables in rural areas were drawn from the same social class, religion and general background as their neighbours. Measures were taken, not always successfully, to maintain an arms-length relationship between police and public. Constables in charge of police stations were required to make regular reports to their superiors, and would from time to time be moved around the district to prevent acquaintanceships from developing too closely. A constable was not permitted to marry until he had been in the force for some years, and was not supposed to serve in his home county, nor in that of his wife.
During the 1913 Lockout RIC were brought in to support the Dublin Metropolitan Police in guarding blacklegs and controlling public meetings. On 31 August 1913 at 1.30pm the DMP and RIC rioted in O'Connell Street, attacking what they thought was a crowd come to hear the Trade unionist Jim Larkin speak. Their intelligence was flawed; although Larkin did arrive, smuggled into the Imperial Hotel owned by the main Lockout employer by Nellie Gifford, and some ITGWU union supporters were present, the crowd waiting for Larkin was 2 kilometres away in Croydon Park; the people they baton-charged were mainly those returning home from Mass. Two trade unionists, John Byrne and James Nolan, were beaten to death and from 400 to 600 people were injured. The RIC and the formerly respected DMP largely lost the support of the middle classes when photographs of the streets were published and police actions were revealed in the subsequent inquiry, in which MP Handel Booth said that the police, "behaved like men possessed".
Irish War of Independence
The Sinn Féin triumph in the general election of 1918 (the coupon election), winning 73 out of the 105 Irish seats, was followed by the Sinn Féin members' decision to convene themselves as the First Dáil, a new parliament. This body first met at the Mansion House, Dublin, on 21 January 1919, and announced a unilateral declaration of independence. This created a dramatically new political reality in Ireland. Of the 17,000 policemen in Ireland, 513 were killed by the IRA between 1919-21 while 682 were wounded. The vast majority of the men serving in the RIC in 1919 were Irish-born and raised. Of the RIC's senior officers in 1919, 60% were Irish Protestants and rest Catholic while 70% of the rank and file of the RIC were Roman Catholic with the rest Protestant. The RIC was trained for police work, not war, and was woefully ill-prepared to take on the counter-insurgency duties that were required in 1919.
On the day the new parliament first met, two RIC constables, James McDonnell and Patrick O'Connell, were killed when the Soloheadbeg Ambush was carried out by a group of volunteers from the Third Tipperary Brigade of the Irish Republican Army, while on duty guarding gelignite in transit to the local mines in South Tipperary. This event marked the beginning of the Irish War of Independence. The Irish Republican Army under the leadership of Michael Collins began systematic attacks on British government forces. While the British Army controlled the cities of Ireland, the RIC bore the brunt of such assaults in the provinces. The RIC were especially targeted because of their role as local representatives of and intelligence gatherers for the British administration.
From the autumn of 1919 onwards, the RIC was forced to abandon its smaller barracks in isolated areas. A national personal boycott of members of the force was declared by the IRA. The Dáil Courts and alternative legal enforcement units were set up by republicans. RIC members were threatened, and many were attacked, leading to substantial resignations from the force (see figures below). In October 1920, RIC wages were increased to compensate for increased hardship and cost of living increases. In rural areas, many small shopkeepers refused to serve the RIC, forcing them to obtain their food and other necessities from miles away.
By October 1920, according to UK government sources, 117 RIC members had been killed and 185 wounded. Over a three-month period during the same year, 600 RIC men resigned from the force of 9,500. In the first quarter of 1920, 500 police barracks and huts in outlying areas were evacuated. The IRA had destroyed over 400 of these by the end of June to prevent their subsequent reuse.
The consequence of this was the removal of RIC authority in many outlying areas. This allowed the IRA to assert political control over these areas. Large houses were burned, often to punish their owners for allowing them to be used for policing or military purposes or as revenge for the government-backed burning of republican homes. Much of the country's rich architectural heritage was destroyed.
To reinforce the much reduced and demoralised police the United Kingdom government recruited returned World War I veterans from English and Scottish cities. They were sent to Ireland in 1920, to form a police reserve unit which became known as the "Black and Tans" and the Auxiliary Division of the Royal Irish Constabulary. Paddy O'Shea, the son of a regular RIC sergeant, described these reinforcements as being "both a plague and a Godsend. They brought help but frightened even those they had come to help". Some regular RIC men resigned in protest at the often brutal and undisciplined behaviour of the new recruits; others suffered crises of conscience which troubled them for the rest of their lives.
Some RIC officers co-operated with the IRA, either out of political conviction, fear for their lives and welfare, or a combination of both. A raid on an RIC barracks in Cookstown, County Tyrone, in June 1920, was carried out with the help of sympathetic RIC men. The barracks in Schull, County Cork, was captured with similar inside aid. The IRA even had spies within the upper echelon at Dublin Castle.
The Government of Ireland Act, enacted in December 1920, came into force on 3 May 1921, partitioning Ireland into Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland. However, continuing unrest led to the Anglo-Irish Treaty and the establishment of the Irish Free State.
Disbandment
In January 1922 the British and Irish delegations agreed to disband the RIC. Phased disbandments began within a few weeks with RIC personnel both regular and auxiliary being withdrawn to six centres in southern Ireland. On 2 April 1922 the force formally ceased to exist, although the actual process was not completed until August that year. The RIC was replaced by the Civic Guard (renamed as the Garda Síochána the following year) in the Irish Free State and by the Royal Ulster Constabulary in Northern Ireland.
According to a parliamentary answer in October 1922 1,330 ex-RIC men joined the new RUC in Northern Ireland. This resulted in an RUC force that was 21% Roman Catholic at its inception in 1922. As the former RIC members retired over the subsequent years this proportion steadily fell.
Just 13 men transferred to the Garda Síochána. These included men who had earlier assisted IRA operations in various ways. Some retired, and the Irish Free State paid their pensions as provided for in the terms of the Anglo-Irish Treaty agreement. Others, still faced with threats of violent reprisals, emigrated with their families to Great Britain or other parts of the Empire, most often to police forces in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Southern Rhodesia. A number of these men joined the Palestine Gendarmerie, which was recruiting in the UK at this time.
Members
On 26 August 1873, RIC Sub-Inspector Thomas Hartley Montgomery became the only police officer in Irish history to be executed for murder.
See also
British Gendarmerie
Garda Museum, which features exhibits on the RIC
Notes
References
External links
Article on RIC casualties 1919–1922
1822 establishments in Ireland
1922 disestablishments in Ireland
History of Ireland (1801–1923)
Defunct police forces of the United Kingdom
Defunct law enforcement agencies of Ireland
Organizations established in 1822
Gendarmerie
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danegeld
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Danegeld
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Danegeld (; "Danish tax", literally "Dane yield" or tribute) was a tax raised to pay tribute to the Viking raiders to save a land from being ravaged. It was called the geld or gafol in eleventh-century sources. It was characteristic of royal policy in both England and Francia during the ninth through eleventh centuries, collected both as tributary, to buy off the attackers, and as stipendiary, to pay the defensive forces. The term danegeld did not appear until the late eleventh century. In Anglo-Saxon England tribute payments to the Danes was known as gafol and the levy raised to support the standing army, for the defense of the realm, was known as heregeld (army-tax).
England
In England, a hide was notionally an area of land sufficient to support one family; however their true size and economic value varied enormously. The hide's purpose was as a unit of assessment and was the basis for the land-tax that became known as Danegeld. Initially it was levied as a tribute to buy off Viking invaders but after the Danish Conquest of 1016 it was retained as a permanent land-tax to pay for the realm's defence.
The Viking expeditions to England were usually led by the Danish kings, but they were composed of warriors from all over Scandinavia, and they eventually brought home more than 100 tonnes of silver.
Although the term Danegeld is generally held to have been the name of the tribute payments made to the Vikings, prior to the Norman Conquest, the payments were actually referred to as gafol. In 1012 Æthelred the Unready introduced an annual land tax to pay for a force of Scandinavian mercenaries, led by Thorkell the Tall, to defend the realm. Following Æthelred the kings of England used the same tax collection method to fund their own standing armies, this was known as heregeld (army-tax). Heregeld was abolished by Edward the Confessor in 1051. It was actually the Norman administration who referred to the tax as Danegeld.
Anglo-Saxon era
An English payment of 10,000 Roman pounds (3,300 kg) of silver was first made in 991 following the Viking victory at the Battle of Maldon in Essex, when Æthelred was advised by Sigeric the Serious, Archbishop of Canterbury, and the aldermen of the south-western provinces to buy off the Vikings rather than continue the armed struggle. One manuscript of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle said Olav Tryggvason led the Viking forces.
In 994 the Danes, under King Sweyn Forkbeard and Olav Tryggvason, returned and laid siege to London. They were once more bought off, and the amount of silver paid impressed the Danes with the idea that it was more profitable to extort payments from the English than to take whatever booty they could plunder.
Further payments were made in 1002, and in 1007 Æthelred bought two years peace with the Danes for 36,000 troy pounds (13,400 kg) of silver. In 1012, following the capture and murder of the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the sack of Canterbury, the Danes were bought off with another 48,000 troy pounds (17,900 kg) of silver.
In 1016 Sweyn Forkbeard's son, Canute, became King of England. After two years he felt sufficiently in control of his new kingdom to the extent of being able to pay off all but 40 ships of his invasion fleet, which were retained as a personal bodyguard, with a huge Danegeld of 72,000 troy pounds (26,900 kg) of silver collected nationally, plus a further 10,500 pounds (3,900 kg) of silver collected from London.
This kind of extorted tribute was not unique to England: according to Snorri Sturluson and Rimbert, Finland, Estonia and Latvia (see also Grobin, now Grobiņa) paid the same kind of tribute to the Swedes. In fact, the Primary Chronicle relates that the regions paying protection money extended east towards Moscow, until the Finnic and Slavic tribes rebelled and drove the Varangians overseas. Similarly, the Sami peoples were frequently forced to pay tribute in the form of pelts. A similar procedure also existed in Iberia, where the contemporary Christian states were largely supported on tribute gold from the taifa kingdoms.
It is estimated that the total amount of money paid by the Anglo-Saxons amounted to some sixty million pence. More Anglo-Saxon pennies of this period have been found in Sweden than in England, and at the farm where the runestone Sö 260 talks of a voyage in the West, a hoard of several hundred English coins was found.
Norman era
In southern England the danegeld was based on hidages, an area of agricultural land sufficient to support a family, with the exception of Kent, where the unit was a sulung of four yokes, the amount of land that could be ploughed in a season by a team of oxen; in the north the typical unit was the carucate, or ploughland, equivalent to Kent's sulung; and East Anglia was assessed by the hundred. Everywhere the tax was farmed (collected) by local sheriffs. Records of assessment and income pre-date the Norman conquest, indicating a system which James Campbell describes as "old, but not unchanging". According to David Bates, it was "a national tax of a kind unknown in western Europe"; indeed, asserts that the national system of land taxation developed to raise the Danegeld was the first to reappear in Western Europe since the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. It was used by William the Conqueror as the principal tool for underwriting continental wars, as well as providing for royal appetites and the costs of conquest, rather than for buying-off the Viking menace. He and his successors levied the geld more frequently than the Anglo-Saxon kings, and at higher rates; the six-shilling geld of 1084 is infamous, and the geld in Ely of 1096, for example, was double its normal rate. Judith Green states that from 1110, war and the White Ship calamity led to further increases in taxation efforts. By 1130 Henry I was taxing the danegeld annually, at two shillings on the hide. That year, according to the chronicle of John of Worcester the king promised to suspend the danegeld for seven years, a promise renewed by Stephen at his coronation but which was afterwards broken. Henry II revived the danegeld in 1155–1156, but 1161–1162 marks the last year the danegeld was recorded on a pipe roll, and the tax fell into disuse.
The importance of the danegeld to the Exchequer may be assessed by its return of about £2400 in 1129–1130, which was about ten per cent of the total (about £23,000) paid that year.
Judged by an absolute rather than a contemporary standard, there is much to criticise in the collection of the danegeld by the early 12th century: it was based on ancient assessments of land productivity, and there were numerous privileged reductions or exemptions, granted as marks of favour that served to cast those left paying it in an "unfavoured" light: "Exemptions were very much a matter of royal favour, and were adjusted to meet changing circumstances ... in this way danegeld was a more flexible instrument of taxation than most historians have been prepared to allow." Henry I granted tax liberties to London in 1133, and exempted the city from taxes such as scot, danegeld, and murdrum.
From the late twelfth century, a levy on moveables, which required the consent of parliament, replaced the geld. The principle of 'no consent, but exemption', gave way to that of 'consent, but no exemption'.
Francia
Brittany
That a country-wide danegeld was ever collected in the Duchy of Brittany is uncertain. Certainly they were paid off on more than one occasion, and such payouts may have included money (besides other valuables), but the imposition of a tax on the people to pay either a stipend or a tribute is not recorded in the sources, although it is possible that some monies were raised this way. It is more likely that purely local danegeld were raised in times of emergency. In 847 the Breton leader Nominoe was defeated three times by some Danish Vikings before finally opening negotiations with their leaders and enticing them to leave by offering them gifts, as recorded in the contemporary Annales Bertiniani:
The possibility that the Danes were bought off by methods other than the raising of cash is raised by an incident in 869, recorded in the aforementioned Annales and by Regino of Prüm. In that year Salomon, King of Brittany, put an end to some pagan raids by payment of five hundred heads of cattle.
The more local type of danegeld is exemplified by two chronologically close events in the County of Vannes. According to a record in the cartulary of Redon Abbey, the bishop Courantgenus was ransomed from Viking captivity in 854. His ransom was quite probably raised on a local level. In 855 the monks of Redon had to ransom the count, Pascwet, from a similar captivity by handing over a chalice and a paten, weighing together sixty-seven solidi in gold. Sometime later Pascwet managed to redeem the sacred vessels from the pagans, and this payment too may have been raised as a sort of danegeld. Certainly, according to Regino of Prüm, Pascwet later (in 873) paid a stipendiary danegeld of an undisclosed amount to hire as mercenaries some Vikings with which to harass his opponent for the ducal throne of Brittany, Vurfand, Count of Rennes.
East Francia
The most important danegeld raised in East Francia was that used by Charles the Fat to end the Siege of Elsloo and convert the Viking leader Godfrid into a Christian and a Duke of Frisia (882). Local danegeld may have been raised in the Eastern kingdom as needed, such as by one Evesa to ransom her son, Count Eberhard, at a "very great price" in 880, according to Regino of Prüm.
Frisia
The first danegeld ever raised was collected in Frisia in 810. In that year a Danish fleet of some two hundred vessels landed in Frisia, harassing first all the coastal islands and then the mainland before defeating the Frisians in three battles. The victorious Danes then demanded a large tribute from the conquered. Soon after, a report was sent to Charlemagne, then at Aachen contemplating a campaign against the Danish king, Godfred, stating that the Frisians had already collected through taxation and paid a sum of one hundred pounds of silver. These events are recorded in the Annales regni Francorum and the Vita Karoli Magni, both works of Charlemagne's court historian, Einhard, and in the separate Reichsannalen called the Annales Mettenses and the Annales Maximiniani, as well as the work of the so-called "Poeta Saxo". The total sum paid out is unknown, but it was without doubt raised through taxes, as Einhard in his Vita explicitly says: "And the victorious Danes imposed a tribute on the vanquished, by means of taxes one hundred pounds of silver from the Frisians is already released" (Danosque victores tributum victis inposuisse, et vectigalis nomine centum libras argenti a Frisionibus iam esse solutas).
No further danegeld was collected in Frisia until late in the reign of Louis the Pious (died 840). In 836 some Northmen, having burnt Antwerp and the marketplace at Wintla, agreed to leave on the payment of some tribute, the amount of which the Annales Fuldenses do not specify. In 837, either because the Frisians were unprepared or defected from their Frankish overlords, some Vikings managed to land on Walcheren, capture several counts and other leading men and kill them or hold them for ransom. They then proceeded to exact a census wherever they could, funnelling an "infinite" amount of money "of diverse kinds" into their coffers. They then moved to the mainland, where they assaulted Dorestad and extorted a tribute from the population of the region before leaving. This event is recorded in the Annales Fuldenses, Annales Bertiniani, Annales Xantenses, and the Vita Hludowici imperatoris of Thegan of Trier. In 846, during the reign of Louis's son Lothair I, the Vikings compelled the Frisians to collect a census to pay them off. The Bertiniani and Xantenses annals record how Lothair, though aware of the outrage, was unable to stop it, and the Vikings left Frisia laden with booty and captives.
The last recorded danegeld raised by the Frisians was paid in 852. In that year 252 Viking ships laid anchor off the Frisian coast and demanded tribute (of what kind we do not know), which was procured. Their demands met, the Vikings left without devastating the territory, as recorded in the Annales Bertiniani and the Miracula sancti Bavonis, a life of Saint Bavo. That these various Viking impositions were paid by the taxation of the Frisians is made evident in a record of events in 873. In that year, according to the annals Fuldenses, Bertiniani, and Xantenses, the Viking leader Rodulf sent messengers to the Ostergau calling for tribute. The Frisians replied that they owed taxes only to their king, Louis the German, and his sons (Carloman, Louis, and Charles), and a battle ensued, in which Rodulf was killed and his troops routed. One later, tenth-century source, Dudo of Saint-Quentin's De moribus et actis primorum Normanniae ducum, records that Rollo forced the Frisians to pay tribute, but this is unlikely. All the various Frisian danegeld was purely local in nature, raised by the local leaders and the people without royal aid or approval.
Lotharingia
In Lotharingia the danegeld was only collected once. In 864 Lothair II exacted four denarii from every mansus in the kingdom, as well as large number of cattle and much flour, wine, and beer. The whole amount is not recorded, nor whether it was paid as a stipend or as a tribute, but it was paid to a Viking band led by one Rodulf. It has been suggested that Lothair was imitating the example set by Charles the Bald in 860, when he hired the Vikings of Weland to attack those encamped on the island of Oscellus in the Seine. Neither the reason for Lothair's payment nor the result is recorded in the only source to mention it, the contemporary Annales Bertiniani:
Hlotharius, Hlotharii filius, de omni regno suo quattuor denarios ex omni manso colligens, summam denariorum cum multa pensione farinae atque pecorum necnon vini ac sicerae Rodulfo Normanno, Herioldi filio, ac suis locarii nomine tribuit.
There is also a story told by Dudo of Saint-Quentin in his De moribus et actis primorum Normanniae ducum of how Reginar Langhals was ransomed by his wife in 880 for all the gold in Hainault, but this is probably a legend.
West Francia
The first payment of the danegeld to the Vikings in West Francia took place in 845 when, under Ragnar Lothbrok, they tried to attack Paris. The Viking army was bought off from destroying the city by a massive payment of nearly six tons of silver and gold bullion. In November 858 a danegeld was being collected, probably to pay off Bjørn (Berno), who had ravaged the Seine and its district for the whole previous year (857).
In 862 two groups of Vikings—one the larger of two fleets recently forced out of the Seine by Charles the Bald, the other a fleet returning from a Mediterranean expedition—converged on Brittany, where one (the Mediterranean group) was hired by the Breton duke Salomon to ravage the Loire valley. Robert the Strong, Margrave of Neustria, captured twelve of their ships, killing all on board save a few who fled. He then opened negotiations with the former Seine Vikings, and hired them against Salomon for 6,000 pounds of silver. The purpose of this was doubtless to prevent them from entering the service of Salomon. Probably Robert had to collect a large amount in taxes to finance what was effectively a non-tributary Danegeld designed to keep the Vikings out of Neustria. The treaty between the Franks and the Vikings did not last more than a year: in 863 Salomon made peace and the Vikings, deprived of an enemy, ravaged Neustria.
Russia
In Russia during the rule of the Swedish Rus (from where the name Russia derives), the Slavs had to pay an annual tribute to the Vikings known as the dan from at least 859 onward. Prince Oleg, who was a relative of Rurik the Viking, after moving to Kiev, imposed a dan on the people of Novgorod of 300 griveni/per year "for the preservation of peace". The payments to Kiev continued until 1054 with the death of Prince Jaroslav of Kiev. When Prince Oleg made his expedition against Constantinople in 907, he demanded that the Romans "pay tribute to his men on his 2, 000 ships at the rate of 12 griveni per man, 40 men reckoned to a ship". The treaty negotiated between Oleg and the Roman Emperor Leo VI the Wise committed the emperor to pay 1 grivna to every man on Oleg's ships in exchange for going away. According to the Russian chronicles, the followers of Prince Igor in 945 : ... said to him "The servants of Sveiald are adored with weapons and fine raiment, but we are naked. Go forth with us, oh Prince, that you and we may profit thereby". Igor heeded their words and attacked Dereva in search of tribute (dan). He demanded the previous tribute and collected by violence from the people with the assistance of his followers...
Legacy
In literature
William Shakespeare made reference to Danish tribute in Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, Act 3, scene 1 (King Claudius is talking of Prince Hamlet's insanity):
Danegeld is the subject of the poem "Dane-geld" by Rudyard Kipling, whose most famous lines are "once you have paid him the Danegeld/ You never get rid of the Dane." The poem ends thus:
Kipling's poem was set to music by filk musician Leslie Fish on her 1991 album, The Undertaker's Horse.
In politics
In the United Kingdom, the term "Danegeld" has come to refer to a general warning and a criticism of any coercive payment, whether in money or kind. For example, as mentioned in the British House of Commons during the debate on the Belfast Agreement:
To emphasise the point, people often quote Kipling's poem "Dane-Geld", especially its two most famous lines. For example, journalist Tony Parsons quoted the poem in The Daily Mirror, when criticising the Rome daily La Repubblica for writing "Ransom was paid and that is nothing to be ashamed of", in response to the announcement that the Italian government paid $1 million for the release of two hostages in Iraq in October 2004.
In Britain the phrase is often coupled with the experience of Chamberlain's appeasement of Hitler. On 22 July 1939, two British newspapers, The Daily Telegraph and the News Chronicle, reported that Robert Hudson of the Department of Overseas Trade had visited the German Embassy in London two days before, to meet the German Ambassador Herbert von Dirksen and Helmuth Wohlthat of the Four Year Plan Organisation, to offer Germany a huge loan worth hundreds of millions of pound sterling in exchange for not attacking Poland. The media reaction to Hudson's proposed loan was overwhelmingly negative with the newspapers calling Hudson's plan "paying the Danegeld". Much to Hudson's humiliation, Chamberlain announced in the House of Commons that Hudson was acting on his own, and Britain would not offer Germany any such loan as a solution to the Danzig crisis.
See also
Appeasement
Ransom
Notes
Citations
Further reading
Anglo-Saxon society
Anglo-Norse England
Medieval economics
History of taxation
Abolished taxes
Extortion
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20U.S.%20government%20and%20military%20acronyms
|
List of U.S. government and military acronyms
|
List of initialisms, acronyms ("words made from parts of other words, pronounceable"), and other abbreviations used by the government and the military of the United States. Note that this list is intended to be specific to the United States government and military—other nations will have their own acronyms.
0–9
0K – Zero Killed (pronounced OK, as the expression that everything is okay)
1LT – First Lieutenant (U.S. Army) (USMC uses "1stLt" and USAF uses "1st Lt")
2LT – Second Lieutenant (U.S. Army) (USMC uses "2ndLt" and USAF uses "2d Lt")
2IC – Second In Command
1SG – First Sergeant (E-8 Army)
777 – (Pronounced triple 7) Refers to the M777 howitzer. A towed 155 mm artillery weapon. It succeeded the M198 howitzer in the United States Marine Corps and United States Army in 2005. The M777 is also used by the ground forces of Australia, Canada, India and Saudi Arabia. It made its combat debut in the War in Afghanistan.
A
A – Analog
A1C – Airman First Class (USAF E-3)
A2C2 – Army Airspace Command And Control
A-3 – (Operations Directorate (COMAFFOR))
A-5 – (Plans Directorate (COMAFFOR))
AA – Anti-Aircraft
AA – Armed Forces America
AA – Assembly Area
AA – Assessment Agent
AA – Avenue Of Approach
AAA – Army Audit Agency
AAA – Antiaircraft Artillery
AAA – Arrival And Assembly Area
AAA – Assign Alternate Area
AAAD – Airborne Anti-Armor Defense
AAAS – Amphibious Aviation Assault Ship
AABB – American Association of Blood Banks
AABWS – Amphibious Assault Bulk Water System
AAC – Activity Address Code
AACG – Arrival Airfield Control Group
AADC – Area Air Defense Commander
AADP – Area Air Defense Plan
AA&E – Arms, Ammunition, And Explosives
AAEC – Aeromedical Evacuation Control Team
AAFC – Australian Air Force Cadets (Australia)
AAFES – Army and Air Force Exchange Service
AAFIF – Automated Air Facility Information File
AAFS – Amphibious Assault Fuel System
AAFSF – Amphibious Assault Fuel Supply Facility
AAGS – Army Air-Ground System
AAI – Air-To-Air Interface
AAM – Air-To-Air Missile
AAMDC – US Army Air And Missile Defense Command
AAOE – Arrival And Assembly Operations Element
AAOG – Arrival And Assembly Operations Group
AAP – Allied Administrative Publication
AAP – Assign Alternate Parent
AAR – After Action Report
AAR – After Action Review
AAS – Army Apprentice School (Australia)
AAST – Aeromedical Evacuation Administrative Support Team
AAT – Automatic Analog Test
AAT – Aviation Advisory Team
AAU – Analog Applique Unit
AAV – Amphibious Assault Vehicle
AAW – Antiair Warfare
AB – Airbase
AB – Airman Basic (USAF E-1)
ABCA – American, British, Canadian, Australian Armies Program
ABCS – Army Battle Command System
ABD – Airbase Defense
ABU – Airman Battle Uniform (U.S. Air Force)
ABV – Assault Breacher Vehicle (U.S. Army)
ABFC – Advanced Base Functional Component
ACU – Army Combat Uniform (U.S. Army)
ADOS – Active Duty, Operational Support
ADSW – Active Duty, Special Work
AE – Armed Forces Europe
AEW&C – Airborne Early Warning And Control
AFI – Awaiting Further Instruction/Air Force Instruction (requirement guide)
AFMC – Armed Forces Medical College
AFOQT – Air Force Officer Qualifying Test
AFOSI – United States Air Force Office of Special Investigations
AFSC – Air Force Specialty Code
AHA – Ammunition Holding Area
AIM – Airborne Intercept Missile (U.S. Military)
AIP - Assignment Incentive Pay
AIPD – Army Institute For Professional Development
AIS – Automated Information System
AIT – Advanced Individual Training (U.S. Army)
Amn – Airman (USAF E-2)
ALCON – All Concerned (U.S. Military)
AMU – Aircraft Maintenance Unit
AMXG – Aircraft Maintenance Group
AMXS – Aircraft Maintenance Squadron
ANG – Air National Guard (USAF)
AOC – Air Operations Center
AOL – Absent Over Leave (U.S. Navy)
AO – Area Of Operations
AOR – Area of responsibility
A&P – Administrative And Personnel
AP – Armed Forces Pacific
AP – Armor-Piercing
APC – Armored Personnel Carrier
APFSDS – Armor-Piercing Fin-Stabilized Discarding Sabot
APFT – Army Physical Fitness Test (U.S. Army)
APFU – Army Physical Fitness Uniform (U.S. Army)
APO – Army Post Office; See Also FPO
APPN – Appropriation Number (U.S. Military)
APRT – Army Physical Readiness Test (U.S. Army)
ARCENT/TUSA – US Army Forces Central Command (CENTCOM)/Hq Third US Army (TUSA)
ARPANET – Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (e.g., 1969 to 1989; antecedent of the information superhighway; now DARPA)
ARM – Anti-Radar Missile
ARM – Anti-Radiation Missile
ARMS – Automated Recruit Management System (U.S. Military)
ARMS – Aviation Resource Management System (USAF)
ARNG – Army National Guard (U.S. Army)
ARS – Air Refueling Store
ART – Alarm Response Team (USAF)
ARVN – Army Of The Republic Of (South) Viet Nam (U.S. Military)
ASAP – Army Substance Abuse Program (U.S. Military)
ASAP – As Soon As Possible
ASEAN – Association Of South East Asian Nations
ASM – Air-to-Surface Missile
ASCM – Anti-Ship Cruise Missile
ASROC – Anti-Submarine ROCket
ASV – Anti-Surface Vessel (airborne radar)
ASVAB – Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery
ASW – Anti-Submarine Warfare
ATC – Air Training Corps
ATC – Air Traffic Control
ATFU – Ate The Fuck Up (not squared away)
ATO – Air Tasking Order
ATO – Antiterrorism Officer
ATRRS – Army Training Requirements And Resources System
AWACS – Airborne Warning and Control System
AWOL – Absent Without Leave
B
BAH – Basic Allowance for Housing
BAMCIS – Begin planning Arrange Recon Make the plan Complete the plan Issue the order Supervise (U.S. Marine Corps)
BAR – Browning Automatic Rifle
BAU – Behavioral Analysis Unit
BCD – Battlefield Coordination Detachment
BCD – Bad Conduct Discharge (aka Big Chicken Dinner)
BCG – Birth Control Glasses (U.S. military slang)
BCT – Basic Combat Training (U.S. Army)
BCT – Brigade Combat Team
BDA – Battle Damage Assessment
BDE – Brigade (U.S. Army)
BDF – Barbados Defence Force (Barbados)
BDU – Battle Dress Uniform (U.S. military)
Be – Beriev (Russian)
BEA – Budget Execution Authority (U.S. Navy)
BEQ – Batchelor Enlisted Quarters (U.S. military)
BFT – Blue Force Tracker (U.S. military)
BG – Bodyguard
BGHR – By God He's Right (U.S. military)
BLUF – Bottom Line Up Front (U.S. military)
BMNT – Begin Morning Nautical Twilight (U.S. Army)
BMOW – Boatswain's Mate Of The Watch (U.S. Coast Guard)
BN – Battalion (U.S. Army)
BOHICA – Bend Over Here It Comes Again (U.S. military slang)
BRAC – Base Realignment And Closure
BRAT (American) – Born Raised And Transferred (American usage, refers to dependent children of military personnel) Usually pronounced "Military Brat" (Or "Air Force BRAT", or Army "Brat", Navy "Brat" etc.).
BRAT (British) – British Regiment Attached Traveler (British military usage, may have been the original usage, which was later adapted to the American military: Means "child that travels with a soldier"), or "Born, Raised and Trapped". Usually pronounced "Military Brat" or "Base Brat".
BUB – Battle Update Brief
BVR – Beyond Visual Range (USAF)
BX – Base Exchange (USAF)
BZ – spoken "Bravo Zulu", meaning "congratulations, job well done"
C
C1 – Command
C2 – Command And Control
C3 – Command Control And Communication
C4IR – Command Control Communication Computers Intelligence And Recognition
CAC – Common Access Card (U.S. DoD, pron. "cac")
CAG – Commander, Air Group (U.S. Navy, pron. "cag")
CAG – Civil Affairs Group. Term used for military members assigned to assist civilian governments with restoring infrastructure (All U.S. branches, pron. "cag")
CAGE – Commercial and Government Entity
CALL – Center for Army Lessons Learned
CAPT – Captain (U.S. Navy, USCG O-6)
Capt – Captain (USMC O-3)
CPT – Captain (U.S. Army, USAF O-3)
CAS – Close Air Support
CASEX – Coordinated Anti-Submarine EXercise
CASEVAC – Casualty Evacuation
CAT – Combat Application Tourniquets
CBRN – Chemical Biological Radiological Nuclear
CBU – Cluster Bomb Unit
CCIP – Continually Calculated Impact Point (USAF/USMC Aviation)
CCIR – Commanders Critical Information Requirements
CCP – Casualty Collection Point
CCRP – Continually Calculated Release Point (USAF/USMC Aviation)
CDAT – Computerized Dumb Ass Tanker (M1 Abrams Crewmen)
CDIAC – Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center
CDRUSPACOM – Commander United States Pacific Command
CENTCOM – Central Command (U.S. Military)
CF – Cluster Fuck (always pronounced phonetically "Charlie Foxtrot")
CHU – Containerized Housing Unit
Chief – Chief Warrant Officer
CIA – Central Intelligence Agency
CIB – Combat Infantry Badge
CIC – Command Intelligence Center (U.S. Navy)
CINCLANT – Commander-in-chief, Atlantic Forces (U.S. Navy before 2002)
CINCLANTFLT – Commander-in-chief, Atlantic Fleet (U.S. Navy before 2002)
CINCPAC – Commander-in-chief, Pacific Forces (U.S. Navy before 2002)
CIWS – Close-In Weapon System
CJOTUS – Chief Justice of the United States
CMSgt – Chief Master Sergeant (USAF E-9; highest AF enlisted rank)
CMSAF – Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force (USAF E-9 – Senior Enlisted Member)
CO – Commanding Officer
COA – Course of Action
COB – Chief Of the Boat (Chief Petty Officer in charge of the Boat usually a Master Chief (USN Submariner Terminology))
CoB – Close of Business (End of the duty day)
COCOM – Combatant Commander
CODELS – Congressional Delegations
COL – Colonel
COMINT – Communications Intelligence
COMPACFLT – Commander, Pacific Fleet (U.S. Navy)
COMSEC – Communication Security
CONUS – Continental United States (U.S. military, pron. "cone-us")
CONUSA – Continental United States Army (numbered Armies of U.S. military)
CORDS – (U.S. military, Vietnam era)
COP – Combat Out Post
CoS – Chief of Staff
COT – Commissioned Officer Training
CPL – Corporal (U.S. Army and Marine Corps E-4)
CPO – Chief Petty Officer (USCG/USN E-7)
CPT – Captain (U.S. Army O-3)
CP – Check Point (Usually Numbered i.e. "CP1")
CPX – Command Post Exercise
CQB – Close Quarters Battle
CRC – CONUS Replacement Center (a military processing center at Fort Benning, Georgia, US)
CSM – Command Sergeant Major (U.S. Army E-9 highest Army enlisted rank))
CSAR – Combat Search And Rescue
CT – Counter-terrorism Team
CTA – Common Table of Allowances
CTR – Close Target Reconnaissance
CUB – Commander Update Brief
CVN – Nuclear-powered Aircraft Carrier (NOTE: the V comes from the expression "heavier than air flying machine")
CWO – Chief Warrant Officer
CZN – Nuclear-powered Airship Carrier (NOTE: the Z comes from the use of the word Zeppelin although non-Zeppelin airships would also be transported on a CZN)
D
DA – Defence Attaché
DAC – Department of the Army Civilian
DAGO – Department of the Army General Officer
DAGR – Defense Advanced GPS Receiver
DARPA – Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (U.S. Military)
DASA – Division Artillery Security Area
DAT – Dumb Ass Tanker
DC3 – Department of Defense Cyber Crime Center
DCAA – Defense Contract Audit Agency
DCMA – Defense Contract Management Agency
DD-214 – Certificate of Release or Discharge from Active Duty
DEROS – Date Estimated Return From Overseas
DEVGRU – the United States naval special warfare DEVelopment GRoUp
DFAC – Dining Facility (U.S. Military)
DFAS – Defense Finance and Accounting Service (U.S. Military)
DIA – Defense Intelligence Agency
DINFAC – Dining Facility (U.S. Military)
DISA – Defense Information Systems Agency
DLA – Defense Logistics Agency
DLB – Dead Letter Box
DMDC – Defense Manpower Data Center
DME – Depot Maintenance Enterprise (U.S. Military)
DMEA – Defense Microelectronics Activity
DMS – Defense Message System (U.S. Military)
DMZ – Demilitarized Zone
DOA – Dead on Arrival
DoDAAC – Department of Defense Activity Address Code (U.S. Military)
DoDAF – Department of Defense Architectural Framework (U.S. Military)
DoDIC – Department of Defense Identification Code (U.S. Military)
DOEHRS – Defense Occupational and Environmental Health Readiness System (U.S. Military)
DOP – Drop-Off Point
DPMs – Disruptive Pattern M
DRT – Dead Right There; wounded in such a way as to indicate immediate and/or unavoidable death; often used as a sarcastic form of the civilian acronym DOA (Dead On Arrival)
DTO – Daily Tasking Order
DTRA – Defense Threat Reduction agency
DZ – Drop Zone
E
E&E – Escape and Evade
EA – Electronic Attack
ECP – Entry Control Point
EDCSA – Effective Date of Change of Strength Accountability (obsolete for U. S. Army)
EHRS – Electronic Health Records (Software)
EI – Engineering and Installation
EIS – Engineering and Installation Squadron, Environmental Impact Statement
EIB – Expert Infantry Badge
EI SIT – Engineering and Installation Site Implementation Team
EKIA – Enemy Killed in Action
ELINT – Electronic Intelligence
EMI – Extra Military Instruction
ENS – Ensign (U.S. Navy junior officer rank, O-1)
EOD – Explosive Ordnance Disposal
EOS – End of Service
EP – Electronic Protection
EPR − Enlisted Performance Report
EPW – Enemy Prisoner of War
ERV – Emergency Rendezvous
ESSENCE – Electronic Surveillance System for Early Notification of Community-based Epidemics (U.S. Military)
ETA – Estimated time of arrival
ETS – Estimated Termination of Service
EUCOM – European Command (U.S. Military)
EW – Electronic Warfare (comprises EA, EP)
Exfil – Exfiltration (Opposite of infiltration; exiting undetected)
F
FA – Field Artillery
FAK – First Aid Kit
FAR – Federal Acquisition Regulation
FBCB2 – Force XXI Battlefield Command Brigade and Below
FBI – Federal Bureau of Investigation
FEBA – Forward Edge of the Battle Area
FFE – Fire for effect
FIDO – FIre Direction Officer
FIGMO – Fuck It, Got My Orders
FIST – Fire Support Team
FISTer – Member of a Fire Support Team
FIST-V – Fire Support Team Vehicle
FISINT – Foreign Instrumentation Signals Intelligence
FISHDO – Fuck It, Shit Happens, Drive On
FitRep – Fitness Report
FLOT – Forward Line of Troops
FLOTUS – First Lady of the United States (U.S. – see POTUS)
FM – Field Marshal; more commonly "Field Manual"
FMC – Fully Mission Capable
FMTV – Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles (U.S. Army)
FNG – Fucking New Guy
FO – Forward Observer
FO – Foxtrot Oscar (i.e. Fuck Off) (US/UK Forces)
FOB – Forward Operating Base
FOD – Foreign Object Damage (U.S.)
FOD – Foreign Object Debris (U.S.)
FOI – Field of Imaging
FPO – Fleet Post Office; See also APO
FRACU – Flame-Resistant Army Combat Uniform (U.S. Army)
FSA – Force Structure Allowance
FSTE – Foreign Service Tour Extension
FTG – Fleet Training Group (U.S. Navy) or Fuck The Guard (U.S. Coast Guard)
FTUS – Full Time Unit Specialist
– Fouled Up Beyond All Recognition or Fucked Up Beyond All Repair
FYSA – For Your Situational Awareness
FYI – For Your Information
G
G1 – General Staff Level office for Personnel and Manpower (Division and Above)
G2 – General Staff Level office for Military Intelligence (Division and Above)
G3 – General Staff Level office for Operations and Plans (Division and Above)
G4 – General Staff Level office for Logistics (Division and Above)
G5 – General Staff Level office for Military/Civil Affairs (Division and Above)
G6 – General Staff Level office for Signal and Communication (Division and Above)
G7 – General Staff Level office for Training and Exercises (Division and Above)
G8 – General Staff Level office for Force Development and Analysis (Division and Above)
G9 – General Staff Level office for Civil Operations (Division and Above)
GBU – Guided Bomb Unit
GEN – General
GI – Government Issue
GIG – Global Information Grid
GIGO – Garbage In Garbage Out
GM – Gone Mersault
GO – General Officer
GOCO – Government owned, contractor operated
GPMG – General Purpose Machine Gun
GPS – Global Positioning System
GS – General Schedule
H
HALO – High Altitude Low Opening (Airborne)
HAHO – High Altitude High Opening
HAAMS – High Altitude Airdrop Missions
HBL – Holiday Block Leave (U.S. Army)
HE – High Explosive
HEAT – High Explosive Anti-Tank warhead
HEP – High Explosive, Plastic (U.S. usage for HESH)
HESH – High-explosive squash head (British anti-tank and anti-fortification round)
HIMARS – High Mobility Artillery Rocket System
HMAS – Her Majesty's Australian Ship (Australia)
HMCS – Her Majesty's Canadian Ship (Canada)
HMFIC – Head Motherfucker In Charge – colloquialism for the highest-ranking person present; more commonly used by NCO's than by officers (United States Armed Forces)
HMMWV – High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (U.S. Military) (Pronounced Humvee)
HMNZS – Her Majesty's New Zealand Ship (New Zealand)
HMS – Hans Majestäts Skepp (His Majesty's ship, Sweden)
HMS – Her Majesty's Ship (Royal Navies such as British Royal Navy) (His Majesty's Ship if King)
Hr.Ms – His/Her Dutch Majesty's Ship (Dutch Royal Navy ship)
HOMSEC – Homeland Security
HRAP – Hometown Recruiter Assistance Program
HQ – Headquarters
HHB – Headquarters and Headquarters Battery (artillery units)
HHC – Headquarters and Headquarters Company
HHT – Headquarters and Headquarters Troop (cavalry units)
HUMINT – Human Intelligence (intelligence gathering)
HVI – High Value Individual
HVT – High Value Target
HYT – High Year Tenure
I
IAF – Indian Air Force
IAF – Israeli Air Force
IAVA – Information Assurance Vulnerability Alert (U.S. Military)
ICBM – Intercontinental ballistic missile
ICE – Individual Carrying Equipment, e.g. All-purpose Lightweight Individual Carrying Equipment
ID – IDentification
IED – Improvised explosive device
IFAK – Individual First aid kit
IFF – Identification Friend or Foe
IFF – Introduction to Fighter Fundamentals (USAF)
IG – Inspector General (U.S. Military)
IFV – Infantry Fighting Vehicle
Il – Ilyushin, Russian aircraft company
IN – Infantry
INSCOM – United States Army Intelligence and Security Command
Interpol – International Criminal Police Organization
IOC – Initial Operational Capability
ISO – Inter School Course
ISR – Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance
IYAAYAS –" If You Ain't AMMO, You Ain't Shit"
J
JA – Judge Advocate [General]
JAFO – Just Another Fucking Observer
JAG – Judge Advocate General
JDAM – Joint Direct Attack Munition
JSF – Joint Strike Fighter program
JATO – Jet-assisted Take Off
JETDS – Joint Electronics Type Designation System
JNN – Joint Network Node (U.S. Army)
JSAM – Joint Service Achievement Medal
JSTARS – Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System
JSOC – Joint Special Operations Command
JTF – Joint Task Force
JTAC - Joint Terminal Air Controller
JEEP – "Just Enough Essential Parts"
K
KATUSA – Korean Augmentation Troops to the United States Army (also known by lower ranking U.S. soldiers as "Koreans Aggravating The U.S. Army")
KIA – Killed In Action
KFOR – Kosovo Force
KISS – Keep It Simple, Stupid – USAF
KO – Contracting Officer, Navy
KP – Kitchen Police or Kitchen Patrol
KBO – Keep Buggering On
L
LAAD – Low Altitude Air Defense
LAAT – Low Altitude Assault Transport
LAV – Light Armored Vehicle
LCDR – Lieutenant Commander (U.S. Navy)
LCpl – Lance Corporal (U.S. Marines)
LES – Leave and Earnings Statement
LIC – Low Intensity Conflict
LP – Listening Post
LP/OP – Listening Post Observation Post
LPC – Leather Personnel Carrier (boot)
LGOP – Little Group Of Paratroopers
LMTV – Light Medium Tactical Vehicle (U.S. Army)
LPO – Leading Petty Officer (U.S. Navy)
LT – Lieutenant
LTC or Lt Col or LtCol– Lieutenant Colonel (U.S. Army, U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Air Force)
LTG or Lt Gen or LtGen – Lieutenant General (U.S. Army, U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Air Force)
LTJG – Lieutenant, Junior Grade (U.S. Navy)
LRIP – Low-Rate Initial Production
LUP – Lying-Up Point
LZ – Landing Zone
M
MACV/SOG – Military Assistance Command Vietnam / Studies and Observation Group
MAJ – Major
MARCORSYSCOM – MARine CORps SYStems COMmand (U.S. Military)
MARCENT Marine Corps Central Command
MARFORRES – MARine FORces REServe (U.S. Marine Corps)
MARSOC – Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command
MAV – Micro Air Vehicle
MAW – Maximum Allowable Weight
MBT – Main battle tank
MC 326/2 – ″NATO Medical Support Principles and Policies″, approved by Military Committee, second revision.
MCCS – Marine Corps Community Services (also known by the humorous backronym "Marine Corps Crime Syndicate")
MCEN – Marine Corps Enterprise Network (U.S. Military)
MCEITS – Marine Corps Enterprise Information Technology Service (U.S. Military)
MCPO – Master Chief Petty Officer (USCG/USN E-9)
MCPOCG – Master Chief Petty Officer of the Coast Guard (U.S. Coast Guard E-9 – Senior Enlisted Member)
MedEvac – Medical evacuation
MFA – Ministry of Foreign Affairs
MG – Machine gun
MG – Major general
MI – Military Intelligence
Mi – Mil Moscow Helicopter Plant (Russian)
MIA – Missing in action
MICAP – Mission Impaired Capability Awaiting Parts
MICV – Mechanized Infantry Combat Vehicle ( an Infantry fighting vehicle)
MiG – Mikoyan-Gurevich (Russian)
MILCON – Military Construction
MK – Mark
MK – Machinery Technician (U.S. Coast Guard rating)
MLRS – Multiple Launch Rocket System
MMFD – Miles and Miles of F...ing Desert (unofficial report in Gulf War)
MOA – Military Operating Area (USAF Airspace)
MOAB – Massive Ordnance Air Blast bomb, also known as "Mother Of All Bombs".
MOAC – Mother of All Coffee (Green Bean Coffee)
MOB – Main Operating Base
MOBCOM – MOBile COMmand
MOPP – Mission Oriented Protective Posture
MOS – Military Occupation Specialty
MOUT – Military Operations in Urban Terrain
MPDS – Military Planning Data Allowance
MRAP – Mine-Resistant Ambush Protected
MRE – Meal, Ready-to-Eat (U.S. Military)
MRX – Mission Rehearsal Exercise
MSG – Master Sergeant (US Army E-8)
MSgt – Master Sergeant (USAF E-7)
MSO – Marine Safety Office (U.S. Coast Guard)
MTOE – Modified Table Of Organizational Equipment
MTS+ – Movement Tracking System Plus
MTV – Medium Tactical Vehicle (U.S. Army)
MSDC+ – Marine Science Diving Club (Diving Club Of Hasanudin University)
MSR – Main Supply Route
MSR – Major Supply Route
MWR – Morale Welfare Recreation
N
NAFTA – North American Free Trade Agreement
NAS – Naval Air Station
NATO – North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
NCIS – Naval Criminal Investigative Service (U.S. Navy)
NAVAIR – Naval Air Systems Command
NAVCENT – Naval Forces Central Command (U.S. Navy)
NAVOCEANO – Naval Oceanographic Office
NBACC – National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center
NCI – National Cancer Institute
NCO – Non-Commissioned Officer
NCOIC – Non-Commissioned Officer in Charge
NCOES – Non-Commissioned Officer Education System
ND – Negligent Discharge
NDP – Night Defensive Position
NEFF – New Equipment Fielding Facility
NIBC National Interagency Biodefense Campus
NICBR – National Interagency Confederation for Biological Research
NLT – No Later Than
NMC – Not Mission Capable
NME – Non-Mission Essential
NMCI – Naval Marine Corps Intranet (U.S. Navy)
NNMSA – Non-Nuclear Munitions Storage Area
NOC -Non Official Cover
NORAD – North American Aerospace Defense Command
NPDES – National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
NS – Network Services
NSA – National Security Agency
NSW – Naval Special Warfare
NSWDG – Naval Special Warfare Development Group
NUB – Non-Useful Body / Nuclear Unqualified Bitch (U.S. Nuclear Navy)
O
OBE – Overcome/Overrun By Events
OCONUS – Outside Continental United States
OCP – Operational Camouflage Pattern (U.S. Army, U.S. Air Force)
OCS – Officer Candidate School
ODA – Operational Detachment-Alpha (the standard 12-man team composed of U.S. Army Special Forces operators)
ODU – Operational Dress Uniform (U.S. Coast Guard)
OIC – Officer in Charge
OIG – Office of Inspector General
OM – On the Move (Normally just spelled out Oscar Mike)
O&M, MC – Operations & Maintenance, Marine Corps (U.S. Navy)
O&M, N – Operations & Maintenance, Navy (U.S. Navy)
OODA – Observe, Orient, Decide, and Act
OP – Observation Post
OPR – Officer Performance Report
OPT – Operational Planning Team
ORM – Operational Risk Management
Oscar – Man overboard
OSM – Oh Shit Moment (U.S. Marine Corps)
OSP – On Site Procurement
OSP – Orbital Services Program
OPORD – Operations Order
OPSEC – Operations Security
OTF – Out There Flapping (Airborne)
OTS – Officer Training School
OTV – Outer Tactical Vest
P
PACOM – Pacific Command
PACAF – Pacific Air Forces
PAQ – PALACE Acquire
PCS – Permanent Change of Station
PDS – Permanent Duty Station (U.S. Military)
PDT – Pre-Deployment Training
PE – Plastic Explosive
PFC – Private First Class (U.S. Military)
PFM – Pure Fuckin Magic (U.S. Military)
PFT – Physical Fitness Test
PII – Personally Identifiable Information or Personal Identity Information
PL – Platoon Leader (U.S. Army)
PLL – Prescribed Load List (U.S. Army)
PLT – Platoon (U.S. Army)
PMC – Partially Mission Capable
PME – Professional Military Education
PMS – Planned Maintenance Schedule (U.S. Navy)
PNG – Passive Night Goggles
PO – Post Office
PO1 – Petty Officer 1st Class (USCG/USN E-6)
PO2 – Petty Officer 2nd Class (USCG/USN E-5)
PO3 – Petty Officer 3rd Class (USCG/USN E-4)
POBCAK – Problem Occurs Between Chair And Keyboard
POL – Petroleum Oil & Lubricants (U.S. Air Force)
POC – Point Of Contact
POTUS – President of the United States
POG – Person Other than Grunt (All non-combat arms job fields i.e. any MOS or CMF other than infantry, cavalry, armor, and artillery; among infantrymen, refers to anyone other than infantry or Special Forces)
POW – Prisoner Of War
POV – Privately Owned Vehicle
PPG – PT Parade Games
PPPPPPP, (the Seven P's) – Proper Prior Planning Prevents Pitifully (colloquially "Piss") Poor Performance
PRP – Personnel ReliabilityProgram
PRP – Pretty Retarded Program
PRT – Provincial Reconstruction Team
PRT – Physical Readiness Training (U.S. Army)
PT – Physical Training
PTB – Powers That Be
PV2 – Private 2nd class (U.S. Army E-2)
PVT – Private (U.S. Army and Marine Corps E-1)
PX – Post Exchange (U.S. Army)
R
RAAF – Royal Australian Air Force
RAF – Royal Air Force (UK)
RAN – Royal Australian Navy
RATELO – Radiotelephone Operator
RATO – Rocket Assisted Take Off
RCSC – Royal Canadian Sea Cadets (Canada)
REMF – Rear Echelon Mother Fucker
RFL – Response Force Leader
RMC – Royal Military College of Canada
RN – Royal Navy (UK)
ROE – Rules Of Engagement
ROMA Data, Right Out of My Ass Data. Unverifiable created data (different from SWAG)
ROWPU – Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Unit
RNZAF – Royal New Zealand Air Force
ROZ – Restricted Operating Zone
RPG – Rocket-propelled grenade
RPM – Rounds per minute (Rate of fire)
RS – RatShit (Australia – related to U.S. – Unserviceable)
RSS – Regional Security System (Caribbean)
RTB – Return To Base
RV – rendezvous
RTO – Radiotelephone Operator
S
SA – Seaman Apprentice (USCG/USN E-2)
SA – Situation Awareness
SAAS – Standard Army Ammunition System (U.S. Army)
SAM – Surface-to-Air Missile
SAR – Search and Rescue (U.S. Coast Guard)
SARS – Search and Rescue Swimmer
SARSS – Standard Army Retail Supply System (U.S. Army)
SAS – Special Air Service (British special forces)
SBS – Special Boat Service (British special forces)
SCIF – Sensitive Compartmented Information Facility
SCO – Squadron Commander (Squadron as used in the U.S. Army Regimental System)
SCOTUS – Supreme Court of the United States
SCPO – Senior Chief Petty Officer (USCG/USN E-8)
SD – "Status Destroyed" or "Salty Dog". (Equipment that is written off as unrepairable and unsalvageable. )
SDD – Solution Delivery Division (Military Health)
SEAC – Senior Enlisted Advisor to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
SFAS – Special Forces Assessment Selection
SEAL – Sea, Air and Land (U.S. Navy SEALs)
SERE – Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape
SFC – Sergeant First Class (U.S. Army E-7)SFOD-A – United States Army Special Forces Operational Detachment Alpha – U.S. Special Forces team (see ODA)
SFOD-B – Special Forces Operational Detachment Bravo – U.S. Special Forces support group
SFOD-C – Special Forces Operational Detachment Charlie – U.S. Special Forces command groupSFOD-D – Special Forces Operational Detachment Delta (U.S. Army counter-terrorism unit)
SGM – Sergeant Major (U.S. Army E-9 – Sometimes referred to as Staff Sergeant Major)
SGT – Sergeant (U.S. Army E-5) (U.S. Marines uses Sgt)
SHORAD – Short Range Air Defense
SITREP – Situation Report
SJA – Staff Judge Advocate
SLAM – Standoff Land Attack Missile
SLBM – Submarine-launched ballistic missile
SLOTUS – Second Lady of the United States
SMA – Sergeant Major of the Army (U.S. Army E-9 – Senior Enlisted Member)
SMEAC – Situation Mission Execution Admin/logistics Command/signal (U.S. Marine Corps basic knowledge)
SMSgt – Senior Master Sergeant (USAF E-8)
SN – Seaman (USCG/USN E-3)
SNAFU – Situation Normal: All Fucked/Fouled Up
SOCCENT – Special Operations Command CENTCOM
SOCOM – United States Special Operations Command
SOFA – Status of Forces Agreement
SOL – Shit Out of Luck (U.S. Army)
SOLJWF – Shit Out of Luck and Jolly Well Fucked (U.S. Marines)
SOP – Standard Operating Procedures
SOS – Shit On a Shingle, or creamed chipped beef on toast.
SPC – Specialist (U.S. Army E-4)
SPORTS – Slap, Pull, Observe, Release, Tap, Shoot.
SR – Seaman Recruit (USCG/USN E-1)
SrA – Senior Airman (USAF E-4)
SRBM – United States Army Special Forces
SRR – Special Reconnaissance Regiment (British special Forces)
SSBN – Nuclear-Powered Ballistic missile submarine
SSDD – Same Shit Different Day
SSDDBS – Same Shit Different Day Bigger Shovel
SSG – Staff Sergeant (U.S. Army E-6)
SSGN – Nuclear-Powered Cruise missile submarine
SSgt – Staff Sergeant (U.S. Air Force E-5) (U.S. Marines E-6)
SSN – Nuclear-powered attack submarine
STOVL – Short Takeoff, Vertical Landing
SUSFU – Situation Unchanged, Still Fucked Up
SWAG – Scientific Wild Ass Guess
SWAK – Sealed With A Kiss
T
TACP – Tactical Air Control Party (USAF)
TAD – Temporary Additional Duty (U.S. Military)
TAO – Tactical Action Officer (U.S. Military)
TBD – To Be Determined
TC3 – Tactical Combat Casualty Care
TCCC – Tactical Combat Casualty Care
TDPFO – Temporary Duty Pending Further Orders (U.S. Military)
TDY – Temporary Duty (U.S. Military)
TEL – Transporter Erector Launcher
TF – Task Force
TFOA – Things Falling Off Aircraft
TG6 – Task Group 6 (group designation for NZ SAS – NZ Army)
TOC – Tactical Operations Center
TIC – Troops In Contact
TSgt – Technical Sergeant (USAF E-6)
TU – Tits Up (dead, inoperable), a.k.a. "Tango Uniform"
TARFU – Things Are Really Fucked Up, or Totally And Royally Fucked Up
TRADOC- U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command
U
UA – Unauthorized Absence
UAS – Unmanned Aerial System
UAV – Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
UCP – Universal Camouflage Pattern (U.S. Army)
UCAV – Unmanned Combat Air Vehicle
ULLS – Unit Level Logisitics System (U.S. Army)
UMA – Unit Mobilization Assistor
UN – United Nations
US – Unserviceable
USS – United States Ship
USSS – United States Secret Service
USAF – United States Air Force
USAFA – the United States Air Force Academy at Colorado Springs, Colorado
USAFE – United States Air Forces in Europe
USAMRICD – United States Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense
USAMRIID – United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Disease
USAMRMC – United States Army Medical Research and Materiél Command
USAMRAA – United States Army Medical Research Acquisition Activity
USA PATRIOT Act – Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act
USAREC – US Army REcruiting Command
USAREUR – U.S. Army European Command
USASOC – U.S. Army Special Operations Command
USFK - United States Forces Korea
USCG – United States Coast Guard
USCGC – United States Coast Guard Cutter
USMA – the United States Military Academy (U.S. Army) at West Point, New York
USMC – United States Marine Corps
USN – United States Navy
USNA – the United States Naval Academy (U.S. Navy) at Annapolis, Maryland
USO – United Service Organizations (U.S. Military)
USR – Unit Status Report
UUV – Unmanned Underwater Vehicle
UXB – Unexploded Bomb (bomb disposal; British)
UXO – Unexploded Ordnance
V
VBIED – Vehicle-Borne Improvised Explosive Device
VDM – Visual Distinguishing Mark
VFD – Volunteer Fire Department
VFR – Volunteer Fire and Rescue (or in Aviation Visual Flight Rules)
VPOTUS – Vice President of the United States
W
WIA – Wounded In Action
WO1 – Warrant Officer 1
WSA – Weapons Storage Area
WMD – Weapons of Mass Destruction
WILCO – Will Comply
WCS – Worst Case Scenario
WORM – War operating ready material
X
XO – Executive Officer
Y
YGBSM''' – You Gotta Be Shitting Me
See also
Military slang
List of acronyms
List of government and military acronyms
List of U.S. Air Force acronyms and expressions
List of U.S. Marine Corps acronyms and expressions
List of U.S. Navy acronyms
References
External links
AcronymFinder – Military and Government
Abbreviation.com – Military Abbreviations
All Acronyms – Military Acronyms
Acronyms List – US Military Acronyms
U.S. Government
Government-related lists
United States military-related lists
United States-related lists
Military terminology of the United States
United States
|
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212087
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stunt
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Stunt
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A stunt is an unusual and difficult physical feat or an act requiring a special skill, performed for artistic purposes usually on television, theaters, or cinema. Stunts are a feature of many action films. Before computer generated imagery special effects, these effects were limited to the use of models, false perspective and other in-camera effects, unless the creator could find someone willing to jump from car to car or hang from the edge of a skyscraper: the stunt performer or stunt double.
Types of stunt effects
Practical effects
One of the most-frequently used practical stunts is stage combat. Although contact is normally avoided, many elements of stage combat, such as sword fighting, martial arts, and acrobatics required contact between performers in order to facilitate the creation of a particular effect, such as noise or physical interaction. Stunt performances are highly choreographed and may be rigorously rehearsed for hours, days and sometimes weeks before a performance. Seasoned professionals will commonly treat a performance as if they have never done it before, since the risks in stunt work are high, every move and position must be correct to reduce risk of injury from accidents. Examples of practical effects include tripping and falling down, high jumps, extreme sporting moves, acrobatics and high diving, spins, gainer falls, "suicide backflips," and other martial arts stunts. Stunt airbags (or "stunt mats"), large deep airbags that may be the size of a small swimming pool, are typically used by professional stunt performers to cushion their landings from staged falls from heights.
Mechanical effects
A physical stunt is usually performed with help of mechanics. For example, if the plot requires the hero to jump to a high place, the film crew could put the actor in a special harness, and use aircraft high tension wire to pull them up. Piano wire is sometimes used to fly objects, but an actor is never suspended from it as it is brittle and can break under shock impacts. Hero (2003) and House of Flying Daggers (2004) are examples of wuxia films that use kung-fu and are heavily reliant on wire stunts. The Matrix is an example of extensive wire and rigging work in Western cinema.
Vehicular stunts
Performers of vehicular stunts require extensive training and may employ specially adapted vehicles. Stunts can be as simple as a handbrake turn, also known as the bootleg turn, or as advanced as car chases, jumps and crashes involving dozens of vehicles. Rémy Julienne is a well known pioneering automotive stunt performer and coordinator. A Guinness Book of World Records holder stunt driver, Bobby Ore, performed in numerous movies and events and holds a world record for longest distance driven on two wheels in a London double decker bus (810 feet).
Aviation stunts go back to those performed in balloons in the 18th century. After the advent of powered aircraft in 1903, barnstorming and aerobatics came into existence. Ormer Locklear invented or helped develop many of the basic tricks of stunt flying, which included wing walking and transferring between airplanes in mid-air. Hollywood and the public's fascination with aviation made great demands on stunt pilots, resulting in many injuries and fatalities.
Computer-generated effects
In the late 20th century stunt men were often placed in dangerous situations less and less as filmmakers turned to relatively inexpensive (and much safer) computer graphics effects using harnesses, fans, blue- or green screens, and a huge array of other devices and digital effects. The Matrix (1999) is an example of a film that extensively enhanced real stunts through CGI post production. The Lord of the Rings film series and the Star Wars prequel films often display stunts that are entirely computer generated. Examples of computer-generated effects include face replacement and wire removal.
Hong Kong action cinema
In 1982, Jackie Chan began experimenting with elaborate stunt action sequences in Dragon Lord, which featured a pyramid fight scene that holds the record for the most takes required for a single scene, with 2900 takes, and the final fight scene where he performs various stunts, including one where he does a back flip off a loft and falls to the lower ground. In 1983, Project A saw the official formation of the Jackie Chan Stunt Team and added elaborate, dangerous stunts to the fights and slapstick humor (at one point, Chan falls from the top of a clock tower through a series of fabric canopies).
Police Story (1985) contained many large-scale action scenes, including an opening sequence featuring a car chase through a shanty town, Chan stopping a double-decker bus with his service revolver and a climactic fight scene in a shopping mall. This final scene earned the film the nickname "Glass Story" by the crew, due to the huge number of panes of sugar glass that were broken. During a stunt in this last scene, in which Chan slides down a pole from several stories up, the lights covering the pole had heated it considerably, resulting in Chan suffering second-degree burns, particularly to his hands, as well as a back injury and dislocation of his pelvis upon landing. Chan performed similarly elaborate stunts in numerous other films, such as several Police Story sequels, Project A Part II, the Armor of God series, Dragons Forever, Drunken Master II, Rumble in the Bronx, and the Rush Hour series, among others.
Other Hong Kong action movie stars who became known for performing elaborate stunts include Chan's Peking Opera School friends Sammo Hung and Yuen Biao, as well as "girls with guns" stars such as Michelle Yeoh and Moon Lee. Other Asian cinema stars also known for performing elaborate stunts including Thai actor Tony Jaa, Indonesian actors Iko Uwais and Yayan Ruhian, and Indian actors Jayan, Akshay Kumar, Vidyut Jammwal and Tiger Shroff.
Stunts that have gone wrong
Recognition of stunt performers
Films such as Hooper and The Stunt Man and the 1980s television show The Fall Guy sought to raise the profile of the stunt performer and debunk the myth that film stars perform all their own stunts. Noted stunt coordinators Hal Needham, Craig R. Baxley, and Vic Armstrong went on to direct the action films The Cannonball Run, Action Jackson, and Joshua Tree. Vic Armstrong became the first stuntman to win both an Academy Award (for developing a descender rig as a safe alternative to airbags) and a BAFTA award (for lifetime achievement in film). But the status of stuntmen in Hollywood is still low; despite the fact that few films of any genre or type could be made without them, stunt performers are still perceived as working mainly in action films. Repeated campaigns for a "Best Stunts" Academy Award have been rejected.
In 2001, the first "World Stunt Awards" were presented in Los Angeles by actor Alec Baldwin. The event had A-list stars presenting the statues to Hollywood's unsung heroes. Arnold Schwarzenegger was presented with the first "Lifetime Achievement" award. He presented the awards in 2001. The awards show hands out eight awards: Best Fight, Best Fire Stunt, Best High Work, Best Overall Stunt by a Stunt Man, Best Overall Stunt by a Stunt Woman, Best Speciality Stunt, Best Work with a Vehicle and Best Stunt Coordinator or 2nd Unit Director.
Equality in stunts
In past Hollywood films it was common for men to double for women and white American stunt performers to double for African American performers, in a practice known as "wigging". Veteran stunt man Dave Sharpe, a man of shorter than average height, often doubled for women in film serials of the 1930s and '40s. Veteran stunt performer Jeannie Epper, who doubled for Lynda Carter in Wonder Woman, explained that the situation improved in the 1970's as actresses did not want to be doubled by men, and could be more convincingly doubled by a woman. SAG-AFTRA union rules for stunt performers say that that to double an actor of a different gender or race the stunt must be so dangerous that there are no volunteers available of the appropriate gender or race. For example, in A View to a Kill, stuntman B.J. Worth doubled for the black Jamaican actress Grace Jones whose character parachuted off the Eiffel Tower.
The future of stunt work
A backlash against dangerous stunts followed the fatal 42-foot backward fall of Sonja Davis off a building on the set of Vampire in Brooklyn. Despite speculation that developments in computer-generated imagery (CGI) would make stunts unnecessary and reduce stunt performers to the status of body doubles, stunt work has increasingly been made safer and enhanced by CGI effects; nevertheless, stunt performers remain essential to provide a human quality to the action.
See also
Stunt coordinator
Stunt performer
Stunt double
Motorcycle stunt riding
Notes
Further reading
Gene Scott Freese, 2014, Hollywood Stunt Performers, 1910s-1970s: A Biographical Dictionary, 2nd ed. illustr. rev., McFarland, , see , accessed 16 April 2015.
External links
Taurus World Stunt Awards
Photos from competition and international gathering stuntriders in Minsk (Belarus)
Cinematic techniques
Special effects
Theatrical combat
|
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212090
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young%20Bess
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Young Bess
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Young Bess is a 1953 Technicolor biographical film made by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer about the early life of Elizabeth I, from her turbulent childhood to the eve of her accession to the throne of England. It stars Jean Simmons and Stewart Granger as Thomas Seymour, with Charles Laughton as Elizabeth's father, Henry VIII, a part he had played twenty years before in The Private Life of Henry VIII. The film was directed by George Sidney and produced by Sidney Franklin, from a screenplay by and Arthur Wimperis based on the novel of the same title by Margaret Irwin (1944).
Plot
Following the execution of her mother, Anne Boleyn (Elaine Stewart), for infidelity, King Henry VIII (Charles Laughton) exiles the child Elizabeth (Noreen Corcoran) to Hatfield House, after declaring her illegitimate and removing her from eligible succession to the throne. Over the years, her position rises and falls according to the whims of her father. The child is periodically summoned to return to London to become acquainted with each of Henry's latest spouses. When Henry marries his last wife, Catherine Parr (Deborah Kerr), the now-teenage Elizabeth (Jean Simmons) rebels against her latest summons but is persuaded by the handsome, tactful Lord Admiral Thomas Seymour (Stewart Granger) to change her mind. She meets Catherine, and the two become good friends. Meanwhile, Henry is impressed and amused by the resolute defiance of his daughter, and he declares her once again a legitimate heiress to the crown.
When Henry dies, Thomas's scheming brother Ned (Guy Rolfe) takes over as Lord Protector and guardian of King Edward VI (Rex Thompson), overriding Henry's dying wish that Thomas raise the boy. Ned's fear of his brother's ambition grows with each of Thomas's naval triumphs. In the meantime, Elizabeth realizes she is in love with Thomas, but graciously persuades her brother, King Edward, to issue a royal decree sanctioning the marriage of Thomas and Catherine. Despite the union, Thomas grows close to Elizabeth without realizing it until he witnesses Elizabeth being kissed by Barnaby, a courtier. Prompted by jealousy, Thomas kisses Elizabeth, who declares her love for him. Catherine, who has noticed the closeness between her husband and Elizabeth, asks Elizabeth to make a choice, and the princess moves back to Hatfield.
Soon after, Catherine sickens and dies. After months of Thomas being away at sea, he returns and finally sees Elizabeth. Ned has him arrested and charged with treason. He also accuses Elizabeth of plotting with Thomas to overthrow her brother, the king. She goes to see Edward, but is too late to save Thomas from execution. The film then shifts forward to 1558. Having survived the perils of her early life, and with Edward deceased and her elder sister Mary dying, Elizabeth is about to become Queen of England.
Cast
Production
Original novel
The novel was published in 1944 in Britain and in 1945 in the US. It became a best seller.
Development
MGM bought the rights to the novel in February 1945. Katherine Anne Porter and Jan Lustig signed to write the script and Sidney Franklin was producer. Eventually a script by Lustig and Arthur Wimperis was finished in 1946 and Franklin said "we were full of enthusiasm for it." In May 1947 Deborah Kerr was tested for the lead role.
In March 1948 MGM announced they would make the film in Britain. It was to be the second in a series of films made there, following Edward, My Son. In May 1948 MGM said that Deborah Kerr and Errol Flynn were "definite" for the film. However filming did not proceed.
In August 1948 Walter Pidgeon and Janet Leigh were reportedly tested for lead roles. Elizabeth Taylor was considered for the title role as was Deborah Kerr (if it was going to be the latter the character would be aged up). In November 1948 MGM put the film on its schedule for the following year. However, filming kept being postponed. In April 1949 MGM announced they were negotiating a contract with James Mason, whom they wanted to put in Young Bess and Robinson Crusoe.
In December 1950 Jean Simmons emerged as a favorite to play the title role. This was partly at the behest of J. Arthur Rank who had Simmons under contract and thought the role would be perfect for her. In February 1951 MGM announced Simmons would co star with her husband, Stewart Granger. Filming continued to be pushed back in part because Simmons became enmeshed in a contractual dispute with Howard Hughes. In October 1951 Charles Laughton signed to play Henry VIII. In August 1952 Deborah Kerr wound up joining the cast as Catherine Parr.
Filming
Filming took place in Hollywood starting in October 1952. Producer Sidney Franklin said:
We're telling an intimate story against a background of sixteenth century court life, as opposed to a historical pageant about royal intrigues. We feel the love story between the Princess and Seymour – actually he was 25 years older than Elizabeth – will be more valid to audiences than a lot of historical detail which has no relation to our customers lives.
The musical score was composed by Miklós Rózsa, who was becoming known for his research on historical subjects. It incorporates tunes from the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book and other Tudor sources.
Reception
Contemporary reviews were positive. A. H. Weiler of The New York Times wrote in a favorable review that "if faint strains of soap opera occasionally filter through the pomp and circumstance, Elizabeth of England and some of the storied figures who crowd this beautiful Technicolored tapestry, emerge as human beings." Variety called it "a remarkably engrossing motion picture" and "a human story, sensitively written, directed and played." "A strong romantic costume drama", declared Harrison's Reports. "The direction is faultless, the production values lavish, and the color photography exquisite." John McCarten of The New Yorker wrote that the plot "may sound like a Madison Avenue concept of history, but as directed by George Sidney, the piece doesn't churn up too much sudsy bathos to be intolerable, and, indeed, the cast goes about its work with such sincerity that you can enjoy the thing as a handsome costume exercise even though you're skeptical about Miss Irwin's history."
The film was Stewart Granger's favourite of all those he made for MGM "for the costumes, the cast, the story."
Box office
According to MGM records, the film earned $1,645,000 in North America and $2,450,000 elsewhere, leading to a loss of $272,000.
In France, the film recorded admissions of 1,465,207.
Awards
The film was nominated for two Academy Awards; for Best Costume Design and Best Art Direction (Cedric Gibbons, Urie McCleary, Edwin B. Willis, Jack D. Moore).
See also
Anne Boleyn in popular culture
References
Further reading
External links
ZReview of film at Variety
1953 films
1950s biographical drama films
1953 romantic drama films
American films
American biographical drama films
American romantic drama films
English-language films
Cultural depictions of Edward VI of England
Cultural depictions of Anne Boleyn
Films directed by George Sidney
Films set in Tudor England
Films about Elizabeth I
Films about Henry VIII
Films scored by Miklós Rózsa
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistics
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Ballistics
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Ballistics is the field of mechanics concerned with the launching, flight behavior and impact effects of projectiles, especially ranged weapon munitions such as bullets, unguided bombs, rockets or the like; the science or art of designing and accelerating projectiles so as to achieve a desired performance.
A ballistic body is a free-moving body with momentum which can be subject to forces such as the forces exerted by pressurized gases from a gun barrel or a propelling nozzle, normal force by rifling, and gravity and air drag during flight.
A ballistic missile is a missile that is guided only during the relatively brief initial phase of powered flight and the trajectory is subsequently governed by the laws of classical mechanics; in contrast to (for example) a cruise missile which is aerodynamically guided in powered flight like a fixed-wing aircraft.
History and prehistory
The earliest known ballistic projectiles were stones and spears, and the throwing stick.
The oldest evidence of stone-tipped projectiles, which may or may not have been propelled by a bow (c.f. atlatl), dating to c. 64,000 years ago, were found in Sibudu Cave, present day-South Africa.
The oldest evidence of the use of bows to shoot arrows dates to about 10,000 years ago; it is based on pinewood arrows found in the Ahrensburg valley north of Hamburg. They had shallow grooves on the base, indicating that they were shot from a bow. The oldest bow so far recovered is about 8,000 years old, found in the Holmegård swamp in Denmark.
Archery seems to have arrived in the Americas with the Arctic small tool tradition, about 4,500 years ago.
The first devices identified as guns appeared in China around 1000 AD, and by the 12th century the technology was spreading through the rest of Asia, and into Europe by the 13th century.
After millennia of empirical development, the discipline of ballistics was initially studied and developed by Italian mathematician Niccolò Tartaglia in 1531, although he continued to use segments of straight-line motion, conventions established by Avicenna and Albert of Saxony, but with the innovation that he connected the straight lines by a circular arc. Galileo established the principle of compound motion in 1638, using the principle to derive the parabolic form of the ballistic trajectory. Ballistics was put on a solid scientific and mathematical basis by Isaac Newton, with the publication of Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687. This gave mathematical laws of motion and gravity which for the first time made it possible to successfully predict trajectories.
The word ballistics comes from the Greek , meaning "to throw".
Projectiles
A projectile is any object projected into space (empty or not) by the exertion of a force. Although any object in motion through space (for example a thrown baseball) is a projectile, the term most commonly refers to a ranged weapon. Mathematical equations of motion are used to analyze projectile trajectory.
Examples of projectiles include balls, arrows, bullets, artillery shells, wingless rockets, etc.
Projectile launchers
Throwing
Throwing is the launching of a projectile by hand. Although some other animals can throw, humans are unusually good throwers due to their high dexterity and good timing capabilities, and it is believed that this is an evolved trait. Evidence of human throwing dates back 2 million years. The 90 mph throwing speed found in many athletes far exceeds the speed at which chimpanzees can throw things, which is about 20 mph. This ability reflects the ability of the human shoulder muscles and tendons to store elasticity until it is needed to propel an object.
Sling
A sling is a projectile weapon typically used to throw a blunt projectile such as a stone, clay or lead "sling-bullet".
A sling has a small cradle or pouch in the middle of two lengths of cord. The sling stone is placed in the pouch. The middle finger or thumb is placed through a loop on the end of one cord, and a tab at the end of the other cord is placed between the thumb and forefinger. The sling is swung in an arc, and the tab released at a precise moment. This frees the projectile to fly to the target.
Bow
A bow is a flexible piece of material which shoots aerodynamic projectiles called arrows. A string joins the two ends and when the string is drawn back, the ends of the stick are flexed. When the string is released, the potential energy of the flexed stick is transformed into the velocity of the arrow. Archery is the art or sport of shooting arrows from bows.
Catapult
A catapult is a device used to launch a projectile a great distance without the aid of explosive devices — particularly various types of ancient and medieval siege engines. The catapult has been used since ancient times, because it was proven to be one of the most effective mechanisms during warfare. The word "catapult" comes from the Latin , which in turn comes from the Greek (), itself from (), "against” and (), "to toss, to hurl". Catapults were invented by the ancient Greeks.
Gun
A gun is a normally tubular weapon or other device designed to discharge projectiles or other material. The projectile may be solid, liquid, gas, or energy and may be free, as with bullets and artillery shells, or captive as with Taser probes and whaling harpoons. The means of projection varies according to design but is usually effected by the action of gas pressure, either produced through the rapid combustion of a propellant or compressed and stored by mechanical means, operating on the projectile inside an open-ended tube in the fashion of a piston. The confined gas accelerates the movable projectile down the length of the tube imparting sufficient velocity to sustain the projectile's travel once the action of the gas ceases at the end of the tube or muzzle. Alternatively, acceleration via electromagnetic field generation may be employed in which case the tube may be dispensed with and a guide rail substituted.
A weapons engineer or armourer who applies the scientific principles of ballistics to design cartridges are often called a ballistician.
Rocket
A rocket is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle that obtains thrust from a rocket engine. Rocket engine exhaust is formed entirely from propellants carried within the rocket before use. Rocket engines work by action and reaction. Rocket engines push rockets forward simply by throwing their exhaust backwards extremely fast.
While comparatively inefficient for low speed use, rockets are relatively lightweight and powerful, capable of generating large accelerations and of attaining extremely high speeds with reasonable efficiency. Rockets are not reliant on the atmosphere and work very well in space.
Rockets for military and recreational uses date back to at least 13th century China. Significant scientific, interplanetary and industrial use did not occur until the 20th century, when rocketry was the enabling technology for the Space Age, including setting foot on the Moon. Rockets are now used for fireworks, weaponry, ejection seats, launch vehicles for artificial satellites, human spaceflight, and space exploration.
Chemical rockets are the most common type of high performance rocket and they typically create their exhaust by the combustion of rocket propellant. Chemical rockets store a large amount of energy in an easily released form, and can be very dangerous. However, careful design, testing, construction and use minimizes risks.
Subfields
Ballistics is often broken down into the following four categories:
Internal ballistics the study of the processes originally accelerating projectiles
Transition ballistics the study of projectiles as they transition to unpowered flight
External ballistics the study of the passage of the projectile (the trajectory) in flight
Terminal ballistics the study of the projectile and its effects as it ends its flight
Internal ballistics
Internal ballistics (also interior ballistics), a sub-field of ballistics, is the study of the propulsion of a projectile.
In guns internal ballistics covers the time from the propellant's ignition until the projectile exits the gun barrel. The study of internal ballistics is important to designers and users of firearms of all types, from small-bore rifles and pistols, to high-tech artillery.
For rocket propelled projectiles, internal ballistics covers the period during which a rocket engine is providing thrust.
Transitional ballistics
Transitional ballistics, also known as intermediate ballistics, is the study of a projectile's behavior from the time it leaves the muzzle until the pressure behind the projectile is equalized, so it lies between internal ballistics and external ballistics.
External ballistics
External ballistics is the part of the science of ballistics that deals with the behaviour of a non-powered projectile in flight.
External ballistics is frequently associated with firearms, and deals with the unpowered free-flight phase of the bullet after it exits the gun barrel and before it hits the target, so it lies between transitional ballistics and terminal ballistics.
However, external ballistics is also concerned with the free-flight of rockets and other projectiles, such as balls, arrows etc.
Terminal ballistics
Terminal ballistics is the study of the behavior and effects of a projectile when it hits its target.
Terminal ballistics is relevant both for small caliber projectiles as well as for large caliber projectiles (fired from artillery). The study of extremely high velocity impacts is still very new and is as yet mostly applied to spacecraft design.
Applications
Forensic ballistics
Forensic ballistics involves analysis of bullets and bullet impacts to determine information of use to a court or other part of a legal system. Separately from ballistics information, firearm and tool mark examinations ("ballistic fingerprinting") involve analyzing firearm, ammunition, and tool mark evidence in order to establish whether a certain firearm or tool was used in the commission of a crime.
Astrodynamics
Astrodynamics is the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. The motion of these objects is usually calculated from Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation. It is a core discipline within space mission design and control.
See also
Notes
References
, κατά πάλλω
.
External links
Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners
Ballistic Trajectories by Jeff Bryant, The Wolfram Demonstrations Project
Forensic Firearms and Tool Marks Time Line
International Ballistics Society
The Bullet's Flight from Powder to Target—Franklin Weston Mann
Articles containing video clips
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