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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Omdurman
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Battle of Omdurman
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The Battle of Omdurman was fought during the Anglo-Egyptian conquest of Sudan between a British–Egyptian expeditionary force commanded by British Commander-in-Chief (sirdar) major general Horatio Herbert Kitchener and a Sudanese army of the Mahdist Islamic State, led by Abdullah al-Taashi, the successor to the self-proclaimed Mahdi, Muhammad Ahmad. The battle took place on 2 September 1898, at Kerreri, north of Omdurman in the Sudan.
Following the establishment of the Mahdist Islamic State in Sudan, and the subsequent threat to the regional status quo and to British-occupied Egypt, the British government decided to send an expeditionary force with the task of overthrowing the Khalifa. The commander of the force, Sir Herbert Kitchener, was also seeking revenge for the death of General Gordon, killed when a Mahdist army had captured Khartoum thirteen years earlier. On the morning of 2 September, some 35,000–50,000 Sudanese tribesmen under Abdullah attacked the British lines in a disastrous series of charges; later that morning the 21st Lancers charged and defeated another force that appeared on the British right flank. Among those present was 23-year-old soldier and reporter Winston Churchill as well as a young Captain Douglas Haig.
The victory of the British–Egyptian force was a demonstration of the superiority of a highly disciplined army equipped with modern rifles, machine guns, and artillery over a force twice its size armed with older weapons, and marked the success of British efforts to re-conquer the Sudan. Following the Battle of Umm Diwaykarat a year later, the remaining Mahdist forces were defeated and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was established.
Background
On 13 September 1882, the British established their control over Egypt following the Battle of Tel el Kebir. In 1883 Muhammad Ahmad ibn as-Sayyid Abd Allah who called himself the Mahdi appeared in the Sudan followed by thousands of Islamic warriors known as Dervishes or Ansar. At El Obeid on 3 November 1883, an Egyptian force under General William Hicks, sent by the Egyptian government to put down the uprising, was defeated by the Mahdi’s army during the Battle of Shaykan. Another force, this time sent by the British government, and led by Major General Charles Gordon proceeded to Khartoum where it was besieged by the Mahdists. On 26 January 1885, the Dervishes overcame Gordon’s troops and massacred the entire garrison. After the Mahdi died in 1885, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad known as Khalifa ’Abdullahi' became the new ruler. The Mahdist state, the Mahdia, built on slavery and holy war, enforced a strict Islamic code imposing a reign of terror over the regions of Sudan.
In 1896 to protect British interests, in particular the Suez Canal, and to suppress the slave trade, the British government decided to reconquer the Sudan. An Anglo-Egyptian army under British Commander-in-Chief of Egyptian Army major general Herbert Kitchener marched south from Egypt. Kitchener captured Dongola on 21 September 1896, and Abu Hamed on 7 August 1897. At the Battle of the Atbara River on 7 April 1898 he defeated Mahdist forces led by Osman Dinga and Khalifa Abdullah opening a line of march up the Nile. On 1 September 1898 Kitchener, supported by a powerful flotilla of gunboats, arrived to face the main Mahdist army at Omdurman, near Khartoum.
Battle
The battle took place at Kerreri, north of Omdurman. Kitchener commanded a force of 8,000 British regulars and a mixed force of 17,000 Sudanese and Egyptian troops. He arrayed his force in an arc around the village of Egeiga, close to the bank of the Nile, where a twelve gunboat flotilla waited in support, facing a wide, flat plain with hills rising to the left and right. The British and Egyptian cavalry were placed on either flank.
Abdullah's followers, calling themselves the Ansar and known to the British as Dervish warriors, numbered around 50,000, including some 3,000 cavalry. They were split into five groups—a force of 8,000 under Osman Azrak was arrayed directly opposite the British, in a shallow arc along a mile (1.6 km) of a low ridge leading onto the plain, and the other Mahdist forces were initially concealed from Kitchener's force. Abdullah al-Taashi and 17,000 men were concealed behind Surkab Hill (in older sources often distorted to "Surgham" Hill) to the west and rear of Osman Azrak's force, with 20,000 more positioned to the north-west, close to the front behind the Kerreri hills, commanded by Ali wad Hilu and Osman Sheikh ed-Din. A final force of around 8,000 was gathered on the slope on the right flank of Azrak's force.
The battle began in the early morning, at around 6:00 a.m. After the clashes of the previous day, the 8,000 men under Osman Azrak advanced straight at the waiting British, quickly followed by about 8,000 of those waiting to the northwest, a mixed force of rifle and spear-men. The 52 quick firing guns of the British artillery opened fire at around , inflicting severe casualties on the Mahdist forces before they even came within range of the Maxim guns and volley fire. The frontal attack ended quickly, with around 4,000 Mahdist forces casualties; none of the attackers got closer than 50 m to the British trenches. A flanking move from the Ansar right was also checked, and there were bloody clashes on the opposite flank that scattered the Mahdist forces there.
While the Anglo-Egyptian infantry were able to make use of their superior firepower from behind a zariba barricade without suffering significant casualties, the cavalry and camel corps deployed to the centre-north of the main force found themselves under threat from the Mahadist Green Standard force of about 15,000 warriors. The commander of the Anglo-Egyptian mounted troops Lieutenant Colonel R.G. Broadwood used his cavalry to draw off part of the advancing Ansar attackers under Osman Digna but the slower-moving camel troops, attempting to regain the protection of the zariba, found themselves being closely pursued by Green Standard horsemen. This marked a crucial stage of the battle but Kitchener was able to deploy two gunboats to a position on the river where their cannon and Nordenfelt guns broke up the Mahadist force before it could destroy Broadwood's detachment and possibly penetrate the flank of the Anglo-Egyptian infantry.
Kitchener was anxious to occupy Omdurman before the remaining Mahdist forces could withdraw there. He advanced his army on the city, arranging them in separate columns for the attack. The British light cavalry regiment, the 21st Lancers, was sent ahead to clear the plain to Omdurman. They had a tough time of it. In what has been described as the last operational cavalry charge by British troops, and the largest since the Crimean War, the 400-strong regiment attacked what they thought were only a few hundred dervishes, but in fact there were 2,500 infantry hidden behind them in a depression. After a fierce clash, the Lancers drove them back (resulting in three Victoria Crosses being awarded to Lancers who helped rescue wounded comrades). One of the participants of this fight was Lieutenant Winston Churchill commanding a troop of twenty-five lancers. On a larger scale, the British advance allowed the Khalifa to re-organize his forces. He still had over 30,000 men in the field and directed his main reserve to attack from the west while ordering the forces to the northwest to attack simultaneously over the Kerreri Hills.
Kitchener's force wheeled left in echelon to advance up Surkab ridge and then southwards. To protect the rear, a brigade of 3,000 mainly Sudanese, commanded by Hector MacDonald, was reinforced with Maxims and artillery and followed the main force at around . Curiously, the supplies and wounded around Egeiga were left almost unprotected.
MacDonald was alerted to the presence of around 15,000 enemy troops moving towards him from the west, out from behind Surkab. He wheeled his force and lined them up to face the enemy charge. The Mahdist infantry attacked in two prongs. Lewis's Egyptian Brigade managed to hold its own but MacDonald was forced to repeatedly re-order his battalions. The brigade maintained a punishing fire. Kitchener, now aware of the problem, "began to throw his brigades about as if they were companies". MacDonald's brigade was soon reinforced with flank support and more Maxim guns and the Mahdist forces were forced back; they finally broke and fled or died where they stood. The Mahdist forces to the north had regrouped too late and entered the clash only after the force in the central valley had been routed. They pressed Macdonald's Sudanese brigades hard, but Wauchope's brigade with the Lincolnshire Regiment was quickly brought up and with sustained section volleys repulsed the advance. A final desperate cavalry charge of around 500 Dervish horsemen was utterly destroyed. The march on Omdurman was resumed at about 11:30.
Awards
Four awards were made of the Victoria Cross, all for gallantry shown on 2 September 1898.
Thomas Byrne, Private, 21st Lancers
Raymond de Montmorency, Lieutenant, 21st Lancers
Paul Aloysius Kenna, Captain, 21st Lancers
Nevill Smyth, Captain, 2nd Dragoon Guards (Queen's Bays), attached to the Egyptian Army.
Queen's Sudan Medal, British campaign medal awarded to British and Egyptian forces which took part in the Sudan campaign between 1896 and 1898.
Khedive's Sudan Medal (1897), Egyptian campaign medal awarded to British and Egyptian forces which took part in the Sudan campaign between 1896 and 1898.
Aftermath
Around 12,000 Muslim warriors were killed, 13,000 wounded and 5,000 taken prisoner. Kitchener's force lost 47 men killed and 382 wounded, the majority from MacDonald's command. One eyewitness described the appalling scene:
The battle was the first time that the Mark IV hollow point bullet, made in the arsenal in Dum Dum, was used in a major battle. It was an expanding bullet, and the units that used it considered them to be highly effective.
Controversy over the killing of the wounded after the battle began soon afterwards. The debate was ignited by a highly critical article published by Ernest Bennett (present at the battle as a journalist) in the Contemporary Review, which evoked a fierce riposte and defence of Kitchener by Bennet Burleigh (another journalist also present at the battle). Winston Churchill privately agreed with Bennett that Kitchener was too brutal in his killing of the wounded. This opinion was reflected in his own account of the battle when it was first published in 1899. However, mindful of the effect that patriotic public opinion could have on his political career, Churchill significantly moderated criticism of Kitchener in his book's second edition in 1902. The Khalifa, Abdullah al-Taashi, escaped and survived until 1899, when he was killed in the Battle of Umm Diwaykarat. Several days after the battle, Kitchener was sent to Fashoda, due to the developing Fashoda Incident. Kitchener was ennobled as a baron, Kitchener of Khartoum, for his victory.
Winston Churchill was present at the battle and he rode with the 21st Lancers. He published his account of the battle in 1899 as "The River War: An Account of the Reconquest of the Soudan". Present as a war correspondent for The Times was Colonel Frank Rhodes, brother of Cecil, who was shot and severely wounded in the right arm. For his services during that battle he was restored to the army active list.
The Battle of Omdurman has also lent its name to many streets in British and Commonwealth cities, for example 'Omdurman Road' in Southampton and 'Omdurman Street' in Freshwater, Sydney, Australia.
Cultural depictions
Contemporary responses
The subject of the battle made its appearance in several oil paintings later exhibited in Britain. In particular, the charge of the 21st Lancers held special appeal and several artists portrayed the scene including Stanley Berkeley, Robert Alexander Hillingford, Richard Caton Woodville, William Barnes Wollen, Gilbert S. Wright, Edward Mathew Hale, Capt. Adrian Jones, Major John C. Mathews, and Allan Stewart. The pictorial press covered the campaign extensively and employed several artists to record the events.
Although some among the press corps accompanying the army had film cameras, no footage was shot of the actual fighting. What pretended to be films of the battle, or preparations for it, were in fact spliced footage of barracks training or troop movements far from the front. Such films maintained their popularity for months in Britain and were succeeded by short features such as the fictional How Tommy Won the Victoria Cross: an Incident of the Soudan War (1899) in which English soldiers survive a 'dervish' ambush.
The victory, and especially the cavalry charge of the 21st Lancers, was soon celebrated by songs on the popular stage, including "What Will They Say in England? A Story of the Gallant 21st" by Orlando Powell (1867-1915 ) and Léonard Gautier's "The Heroic Charge of the 21st Lancers at the Battle of Omdurman", published complete with piano score (London: E. Donajowski, 1898). William McGonagall was also among those inspired to doggerel patriotism in a hastily produced broadside, "The battle of Omdurman: a new poem: composed September 1898", soon to be joined by the equally spontaneous verse of Henry Surtees, one of the uniformed participants, in his The March to Khartoum and Fall of Omdurman (1899). In the following year there appeared a more polished performance in Annie Moore's poetry collection, Omdurman and other verses.
In Sudan itself, the Khalifa had poets among his entourage, not all of whom were killed in the fighting, but much of their work was either destroyed by the British during systematic searches after the battle, or even by the poets themselves in fear of reprisal. Nevertheless, as part of the oral tradition there survived a lamentation by Wad Sa’d, who was an eye-witness of the defeat.
Later fiction
It was not long before a fictional account of the British military expedition appeared in G.A. Henty's series of adventure stories for boys. It was titled With Kitchener in the Soudan (1903) and included a description of the battle in chapter 14. The battle also figured as a short episode in the 1972 film Young Winston and included the charge of the 21st Lancers in which Churchill took part. About that period too, Lance Corporal Jones mentions his own participation in the battle during the comedy series Dad's Army.
The battle was later made an incident in a few 21st century novels. The Triumph of the Sun (2005) by Wilbur Smith concentrates mainly on the siege of Khartoum and the fate of the defeated, but carries the story through to Kitchener's campaign. The 2008 novel After Omdurman by John Ferry is also partly set during the 1898 re-conquest of the Sudan, with the book's lead character, Evelyn Winters, playing a peripheral role in the fighting. The main focus of Jake Arnott's The Devil's Paintbrush (2009) is the life of Hector MacDonald but also includes the battle and Kitchener's railway-building drive through Sudan.
See also
Anglo-Egyptian conquest of Sudan
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Brighton, Terry (1998). The Last Charge: the 21st Lancers and the Battle of Omdurman. Marlborough: Crowood.
Featherstone, Donald (1993). Omdurman 1898: Kitchener's Victory in the Sudan. London: Osprey. .
Harrington, Peter, and Frederic A. Sharf (ed.) (1998). Omdurman 1898: The Eyewitnesses Speak. London: Greenhill. .
Meredith, John (1998). Omdurman Diaries 1898: Eyewitness Accounts of the Legendary Campaign. Barnsley: Pen & Sword.
External links
Battle of Omdurman Original reports from The Times
Om Der Man! – an overview of the battle by the War Nerd
Sudanese honour warriors who fell fighting British – A report from battle commemoration, originally by Reuters
Bennet Burleigh, Khartoum Campaign or the Re-conquest of the Soudan, 1898
1898 in Sudan
Conflicts in 1898
Battles of the Mahdist War
Battles involving the United Kingdom
Battles involving Sudan
Battle of Omdurman
Cavalry charges
September 1898 events
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211502
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestinian%20Liberation%20Front
|
Palestinian Liberation Front
|
The Palestinian Liberation Front (, PLF) is a Palestinian political faction. Since 1997, the PLF has been a designated terrorist organization by the United States. The PLF has also been banned in Japan.
Origins
The PLF was founded by Ahmed Jibril and Shafiq al-Hout in 1959, with strong Syrian backing. In 1964, the PLF as a whole was one of the eight constituent groups that had originally formed the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) which was under the chairmanship of Yasser Arafat. In 1967, the PLF merged with the Arab Nationalist Movement-affiliated Heroes of the Return (abtal al-awda) and the Young Avengers, to form the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP).
The PFLP was led by former ANM-leader George Habash, but in April 1968 Jibril split from this group to form the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command (PFLP-GC), which returned to the strongly pro-Syrian position of the former PLF.
This eventually led to a reestablishment of the PLF, as the organization broke apart after Jibril's PFLP-GC had followed Syria into battle against the PLO in 1976, during the Lebanese Civil War. Open fighting between the rival factions ensued, and only after mediation by Yassir Arafat did their relationship stabilize. On April 24, 1977, the PFLP-GC deserters formed the new PLF, under the leadership of Muhammad Zaidan (Abu Abbas) and Tal'at Ya'qub. Sporadic fighting continued between PFLP-GC and PLF, and included the bombing in August 1977 of the PLF headquarters, which killed 200 people.
Terrorist activities
Achille Lauro hijacking
One notorious incident was the hijacking of the Italian cruise ship MS Achille Lauro on 7 October 1985. The hijackers' original aim was to use the ship to slip into Israel. However, crew members discovered them cleaning weapons, and the group then seized control of the ship, murdering an elderly wheelchair-dependent Jewish New Yorker, Leon Klinghoffer.
US fighter planes later forced down the Egyptian aircraft in which Abbas was escaping following a negotiated end of the hijacking, and forced it to land at a USAF base on Sigonella, Sicily. The Italians let Abbas go, but subsequently sentenced him to five life sentences in absentia. Abbas was expelled from Tunisia and established his headquarters in Baghdad, Iraq.
The United States could have brought its own charges against Abbas, although a criminal complaint filed against him in 1986 was dropped a short time later without an indictment.
1990 beach raid
In May 1990, the PLF launched an attack on Israel's Nizanim beach, near Tel Aviv, urged on by Iraq to torpedo the moves towards a negotiated solution between the PLO and Israel. The attackers had intended to kill tourists and Israeli civilians, but this was prevented. However, the action was significant, in that the failure of Yasser Arafat to condemn this attack led to the United States backing out of the American–Palestinian dialogue that had begun in 1988. Despite Arafat's official silence on the issue, the PLF suffered heavy internal criticism within the PLO, and Abu Abbas had to step down from his seat on the executive committee.
PLF in recent years
PLF leaders were active in the PLO with Abu Abbas acting as PLF representative in the PLO's executive committee. During the years after the PLO signed the 1993 Oslo Accords, which the PLF opposes, Abu Abbas agreed to abandon terrorism and acknowledged Israel's right to exist. The movement maintained offices in the Palestinian Territories, Lebanon and Iraq, but its activities dwindled. It has a low level of support in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, and its main strength lies in the Lebanese refugee camps, where it is reported to have coordinated with Fatah against various Syrian-backed factions.
In November 2001, 15 members of a PLF cell were arrested by Israeli authorities. Some of those captured had received military training in Iraq. The cell had been planning attacks in Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, and Ben Gurion airport. The cell had already been involved in other terrorist activities including the murder of Israeli civilian Yuri Gushstein.
During the US-led Operation Iraqi Freedom, Abu Abbas was captured in April 2003 by US forces. He died on 9 March 2004 while in US custody in Iraq, reportedly of natural causes.
See also
1979 Nahariya attack
Palestinian Liberation Front (Abu Nidal Ashqar wing)
Palestinian Liberation Front (Abd ul-Fattah Ghanim wing)
References
Political parties established in 1961
Arab nationalism in the Palestinian territories
Arab nationalist militant groups
Arab Nationalist Movement breakaway groups
Arab nationalist political parties
Factions in the Lebanese Civil War
Factions of the Palestine Liberation Organization
Organisations designated as terrorist by Japan
Organizations designated as terrorist by the United States
Organizations designated as terrorist in Asia
Palestinian militant groups
Palestinian nationalist parties
Socialist parties in the Palestinian territories
Organizations designated as terrorist by Canada
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sepal
|
Sepal
|
A sepal ( or ) is a part of the flower of angiosperms (flowering plants). Usually green, sepals typically function as protection for the flower in bud, and often as support for the petals when in bloom. The term sepalum was coined by Noël Martin Joseph de Necker in 1790, and derived from Greek 'covering'.
Collectively the sepals are called the calyx (plural calyces), the outermost whorl of parts that form a flower. The word calyx was adopted from the Latin , not to be confused with 'cup, goblet'. Calyx is derived from Greek 'bud, calyx, husk, wrapping' ( Sanskrit 'bud'), while is derived from Greek 'cup, goblet', and the words have been used interchangeably in botanical Latin.
After flowering, most plants have no more use for the calyx which withers or becomes vestigial. Some plants retain a thorny calyx, either dried or live, as protection for the fruit or seeds. Examples include species of Acaena, some of the Solanaceae (for example the Tomatillo, Physalis philadelphica), and the water caltrop, Trapa natans. In some species the calyx not only persists after flowering but instead of withering, begins to grow until it forms a bladder-like enclosure around the fruit. This is an effective protection against some kinds of birds and insects, for example in Hibiscus trionum and the Cape gooseberry. In other species, the calyx grows into an accessory fruit.
Morphologically, both sepals and petals are modified leaves. The calyx (the sepals) and the corolla (the petals) are the outer sterile whorls of the flower, which together form what is known as the perianth. Similarly to ordinary leaves, sepals are capable of performing photosynthesis. However, photosynthesis in sepals occurs at a slower rate than in ordinary leaves due to sepals having a lower stomatal density which limits the spaces for gas exchange.
The term tepal is usually applied when the parts of the perianth are difficult to distinguish, e.g. the petals and sepals share the same color or the petals are absent and the sepals are colorful. When the undifferentiated tepals resemble petals, they are referred to as "petaloid", as in petaloid monocots, orders of monocots with brightly colored tepals. Since they include Liliales, an alternative name is lilioid monocots. Examples of plants in which the term tepal is appropriate include genera such as Aloe and Tulipa. In contrast, genera such as Rosa and Phaseolus have well-distinguished sepals and petals.
The number of sepals in a flower is its merosity. Flower merosity is indicative of a plant's classification. The merosity of a eudicot flower is typically four or five. The merosity of a monocot or palaeodicot flower is three, or a multiple of three.
The development and form of the sepals vary considerably among flowering plants. They may be free (polysepalous) or fused together (gamosepalous). Often, the sepals are much reduced, appearing somewhat awn-like, or as scales, teeth, or ridges. Most often such structures protrude until the fruit is mature and falls off.
Examples of flowers with much-reduced perianths are found among the grasses.
In some flowers, the sepals are fused towards the base, forming a calyx tube (as in the family Lythraceae, and Fabaceae). In other flowers (e.g., Rosaceae, Myrtaceae) a hypanthium includes the bases of sepals, petals, and the attachment points of the stamens.
Mechanical cues may be responsible for sepal growth and there is a strong evidence suggesting that microtubules are present and determine the tensile strength and direction of growth at a molecular level.
See also
Plant morphology
References
Plant morphology
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211509
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Vincennes%20%28CA-44%29
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USS Vincennes (CA-44)
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USS Vincennes (CA-44) was a United States Navy , sunk at the Battle of Savo Island in 1942. She was the second ship to bear the name.
She was laid down on 2 January 1934 at Quincy, Massachusetts, by the Bethlehem Shipbuilding Company's Fore River plant, launched on 21 May 1936, sponsored by Miss Harriet Virginia Kimmell (daughter of Joseph Kimmell, mayor of Vincennes, Indiana), and commissioned on 24 February 1937, Captain Burton H. Green in command.
The New Orleans-class cruisers were the last U.S. cruisers built to the specifications and standards of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. Such ships, with a limit of 10,000 tons standard displacement and 8-inch caliber main guns may be referred to as "treaty cruisers." Originally classified a light cruiser when she was authorized, because of her thin armor, Vincennes was reclassified a heavy cruiser, because of her 8-inch guns. The term "heavy cruiser" was not defined until the London Naval Treaty in 1930. This ship and were a slightly improved version of the New Orleans-class design.
Inter-war period
The new cruiser departed from Boston on 19 April 1937 for her shakedown cruise which took her to Stockholm, Sweden; Helsinki, Finland; Le Havre, France; and Portsmouth, England.
Early in January 1938, Vincennes was assigned to Cruiser Division 7 (CruDiv 7), Scouting Force, and steamed through the Panama Canal to San Diego, California. In March, the ship participated in Fleet Problem XIX in the Hawaiian area before returning to San Pedro, California, for operations off the west coast for the remainder of the year.
Following an overhaul at the Mare Island Navy Yard which lasted through April 1939, the cruiser returned east, transited the Panama Canal on 6 June, in company with , , and and anchored in Hampton Roads on the 13th. For the next two months, she operated out of Norfolk in the vicinity of the Chesapeake lightship and the southern drill grounds. On 1 September 1939, the day on which Adolf Hitler's legions marched into Poland and commenced hostilities in Europe, Vincennes lay at anchor off Tompkinsville, New York. She then began conducting Neutrality Patrols off the east coast, ranging into the Caribbean Sea and the Yucatán Channel, and continued these duties through the spring of 1940.
Late in May, as German troops were smashing Allied defenses in France, Vincennes steamed to the Azores and visited Ponta Delgada from 4–6 June 1940 before she proceeded on for French Morocco to load a shipment of gold for transport to the United States. She was delayed in the Azores for three days while her code machine was repaired by Lewis Lee Edwards, an enlisted sailor. For his actions, Edwards was offered a commission as an officer. While at anchor at Casablanca, the ship received word of Italy's declaration of war upon France, the "stab in the back" condemned by President Franklin Roosevelt soon thereafter. Vincennes commanding officer — Captain John R. Beardall (later to become Naval Aide to the President) — noted subsequently in his official report of the cruise that "it was apparent that the French bitterly resented this [the declaration of war] and despised Italy for her actions." After departing North African waters on 10 June, the cruiser returned to the United States to offload her precious metallic cargo and return to the drudgery of Neutrality Patrols.
Overhauling at Norfolk Navy Yard, Portsmouth, Virginia, into the first week of January 1941, Vincennes departed Hampton Roads on 7 January, in company with , , and , bound for Guantánamo Bay, Cuba. Operating once again in the Caribbean, the heavy cruiser fired battle practice and gunnery exercises in company with Wichita through 18 January, when the two cruisers proceeded for Portland Bight, Jamaica. Conducting Neutrality Patrols from this port, Vincennes patrolled in company with other ships safeguarding neutral waters and America's recently acquired Caribbean bases.
Vincennes joined other Fleet units for landing exercises at Culebra, Puerto Rico, on 4 February 1941 and sent her boats to assist in unloading and troop debarkation drills. She assisted transports and in landing men and material before taking station with Fire Support Group II. The cruiser then fired simulated gunfire support operations with her main and secondary batteries in exercises which foreshadowed her future combat role in the South Pacific.
For the remainder of February, the ship continued her landing support operations with Transport Divisions 2 and 7 (TransDivs 2 and 7), anchoring on occasion at Mayagüez or Guayanilla, Puerto Rico. Conducting operations out of Puerto Rican waters, Vincennes called at Pernambuco, Brazil, on 17 March and got underway for Cape Town, South Africa, on the 20th. Arriving to a warm welcome nine days later, the ship took on a large shipment of gold bullion to pay for arms purchased in the United States by the United Kingdom and then headed home on the 30th. En route to New York, she conducted exercises. After a brief post-voyage period of repairs, the heavy cruiser sailed for the Virginia Capes, where she rendezvoused with and , proceeded on to Bermuda, and dropped anchor in Grassy Bay on 30 April. She patrolled in the Caribbean and off the Atlantic coast of the United States through June.
After continuing her duties with the Neutrality Patrol into the autumn as American naval forces in the North Atlantic found themselves engaged in a de facto war with Germany, Vincennes undertook another mission to South African waters. She left the east coast late in November with Convoy WS-12, American transports carrying British troops. On 7 December 1941, the cruiser fought its way through heavy seas. Walls of water mercilessly pounded the ships of the convoy, and waves battered Vincennes, smashing a motor whaleboat to pieces and ripping a SOC Seagull floatplane from its "moorings" on the storm-lashed well-deck amidships. The plane was battered against the catapult silos and into the hangar doors before it was swept over the ship's side. By that evening, however, the ship learned that she was not only at war with the elements but with Japan as well. Japanese naval air forces had struck Pearl Harbor and plunged the United States into war.
World War II
After having safely convoyed her charges to Cape Town, where she arrived on 9 December, Vincennes departed South African waters on the 16th, bound, via Trinidad, for Hampton Roads. Following her arrival at Norfolk on 4 January 1942, she shifted to New York four days later to be outfitted for war. Late in the month, she joined as the carrier conducted her shakedown training off the east coast of the United States.
Vincennes sailed from New York on 4 March, bound for the Pacific. She transited the Panama Canal on 11 March and, proceeded to San Francisco.
Doolittle Raid
The heavy cruiser, now a part of TF 18, built around Hornet, departed San Francisco on 2 April. The carrier bore a strange deck cargo, 16 Army B-25 Mitchell medium bombers slated to strike at Japan's heart. TF 18 rendezvoused with TF 16, built around , and with the combined might of the two task forces, struck out westward across the Pacific, headed toward Japanese home waters.
On the morning of 18 April, when the American warships were still some from the planned launch point, an unexpected hitch developed. Japanese trawlers sighted and reported the task force. Vice Admiral William Halsey decided to fly off the bombers immediately. Accordingly, all 16 of the heavily loaded Mitchells, laden with bombs and extra fuel, rose from Hornets spray-slicked flight deck and climbed unsteadily into the leaden gray skies. Although the raid inflicted only minimal materiel damage upon the Japanese homeland, it nevertheless packed a powerful morale building "punch". When queried as to the base from whence the bombers had come, President Roosevelt said "from Shangri-La".
The combined Enterprise and Hornet task force retired eastward and made Pearl Harbor on 25 April. Departing again five days later, the ships, still screened by Vincennes, bent on speed toward the Coral Sea. However, they were too late to take part in the Battle of the Coral Sea.
Battle of Midway
Vincennes''' task force returned to Pearl Harbor on 26 May but got underway again on the 29th, bound for waters off Midway Island, which, according to American intelligence reports, a Japanese invasion force was approaching. By 4 June, the heavy cruiser had joined TF16 and was steaming north of Midway.
After American air attacks had crippled three of the four Japanese carriers the Vincennes, together with the cruiser Pensacola and destroyers Benham and Balch was sent over to TF17 to reinforce the carrier Yorktown after it had suffered damage in a dive bombing attack.
At 1640, a group of Nakajima B5N "Kate" torpedo bombers from approached from the north. TF 17's radar soon picked them up out, and launched planes to intercept as her screen deployed to bring an optimum concentration of anti-aircraft fire to bear upon the approaching enemy. Three minutes after the first plane was spotted, Grumman F4F Wildcats from the carrier hit a "Kate". The Japanese torpedo plane spiraled from the sky trailing a long streamer of smoke before crashing into the sea.Vincennes opened fire at 1644 with her /25 cal, 20 mm, and anti-aircraft batteries. Increasing her speed to and slowly turning to starboard, Vincennes kept her port guns trained on the enemy. While combing torpedo tracks, Vincennes hit a "Kate" and it went into the sea off her port bow.
The sharp, bitter action ended as quickly as it had begun. The Japanese had been driven off, but at a high cost for the Americans. Yorktown, mortally hit and listing to port, slowed to a halt. Vincennes followed Astoria around the carrier, screening from further air attacks. However, on 6 June, slipped through a screen of six destroyers and torpedoed Yorktown and , sinking the latter. The carrier went down early on the 7th.
Returning to Pearl Harbor, Vincennes entered the navy yard for repairs and alterations which lasted until early July. She then conducted tactical exercises off the island of Hawaii with other ships of TF 11 before departing Hawaiian waters on 14 July to rendezvous with TFs 16, 18, and 62.
Guadalcanal Campaign
Screening for transport squadron "X-ray", slated to participate in the Guadalcanal landings, Vincennes, in company with and Quincy, joined TF 62 on 26 July. On the 27th, the cruiser conducted approach exercises for landing practice and simulated bombardment drills off Koro Island in the Fiji group. As flagship for Task Group 62.3 (TG 62.3), Vincennes remained on station in the covering force in the transport area before undertaking further approach and landing exercise support drills.
Following replenishing, the heavy cruiser formed up with the American armada making its way to the Solomon Islands. Vincennes, screening transport division "Yoke", arrived off Guadalcanal on 7 August. At daybreak, beneath overcast skies, the ship catapulted her scout planes and then unlimbered her main and secondary batteries to commence shore bombardment. While the thunder of the supporting ships' gunfire reverberated across the waters, Marines disembarked from their landing craft and stormed ashore to meet initially light resistance on the island.
Shortly after 1320, Japanese planes launched a counterstrike. To sunward of the transports, Vincennes found herself in a favorable position to combat the attack and tracked the opposing planes, being among the first ships to open fire on the attackers. Forced to jettison their deadly loads prematurely, the Japanese retired without doing any damage, but not before Vincennes had bagged two of them. After sunset, Vincennes, Quincy, and Astoria, in company with and , retired to conduct screening patrols.
Returning to her covering duties at daylight, Vincennes arrived at transport area "X-ray", off Guadalcanal by daybreak. Two minutes before noon, Japanese bombers, intent on avenging their losses of the day before and disrupting the American landing, swooped down from Rabaul. 27 Mitsubishi G4M "Betty" bombers swept in, in a low-level torpedo attack and ran a gauntlet of gunfire from the transports and their escorting cruisers and destroyers. from the transports, Vincennes, as in the previous day's action, was again in favorable firing position and opened up with every gun in her battery, from to 20 mm, that could bear on the attackers.
During the ensuing melee, the cruiser used her guns effectively, helping to down at least seven "Bettys" which flew at an altitude of only . The shell splashes from the main battery caused Japanese pilots to fly into walls of water or forced them to drastically alter their approaches. Vincennes dodged one torpedo which passed beneath her stern and evaded a bomb which fell off her port quarter. Jarvis, adjacent to the cruiser, took one torpedo hit which ultimately proved fatal to the ship.
Later, during the afternoon hours, aerial reconnaissance reported a Japanese surface force coming down from the base at Rabaul. These flights noted what was thought to be three Japanese cruisers, three destroyers and two gunboats or seaplane tenders steaming south. While Jarvis limped away from Lunga Point, Vincennes and her sisters Quincy and Astoria steamed, as the northern escort force, to a position off Savo Island to screen the vulnerable transports which were still unloading off the invasion beaches. Captain Frederick Lois Riefkohl of Vincennes assumed that the enemy ships reportedly en route from Rabaul were going to launch and support another air attack early the following morning. He accordingly issued orders to be especially vigilant during the midwatch and fully expected an air attack at daybreak.
Loss at the Battle of Savo Island
At about midnight on 8 August, Riefkohl retired to his sea cabin, adjacent to the pilothouse, after having been on the bridge continuously since 0445 that morning. Turning in at 0050 on 9 August, he left his ship in the hands of the executive officer, Commander W. E. A. Mullan.
Nearly an hour later, at about 0145, lookouts spotted flares and star shells to the southward, accompanied by the low rumble of gunfire. The sound of the general quarters alarm soon rang throughout the ship and stirred her to action. Vincennes' lookouts were seeing the elimination of the southern escort group, based around and . Unbeknownst to the men manning the ships to the northward, a powerful enemy force was heading in their direction. Six cruisers and one destroyer under the command of Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa had turned north and were steaming directly towards Vincennes and her two sisters.
The first Japanese cruiser searchlight beams illuminated Vincenness shortly after 0155, and the American cruiser opened fire with her main battery at the troublesome lights. Within a minute, however, Japanese shells bracketed the ship and Vincennes shuddered under the impact of Japanese eight-inch armor-piercing shells. The bridge, carpenter shop, "battle II," and radio antenna trunks all were hit by the first salvo.
Altering course to port, Riefkohl, who had come to the bridge at the alarm, rang down for increased speed. With the ship and internal communications disrupted, it is doubtful that the order was received. Still moving at , the heavy cruiser reeled under the impact of another group of direct hits.
Some of the shells in this group set fire to the volatile aircraft in Vincennes hangar space, and the resultant flames became uncontrollable. A direct hit knocked the aft antiaircraft director overboard. At 0200, Vincennes heeled to starboard in an attempt to evade enemy gunfire, only to be hit by Japanese torpedoes. One or two "Long Lance" torpedoes ripped into the ship's number 4 fireroom and put it out of action. In moments the report came "Both engine rooms are black and dead."
Having lost power and all steering control five minutes later, Vincennes was dead in the water within minutes. The glare of burning fires attracted additional incoming shells which quickly put the ship's own guns out of action. Vincennes shuddered to a halt. Hit at least 85 times by and shells, the ship gradually began to list.
At 0210, the Japanese retired, leaving Savo Island and the burning hulks of three American cruisers in their wakes. As Vincennes list increased to port, Riefkohl issued the order to abandon ship at 0230. Serviceable life jackets and rafts were broken out, and the crew began abandoning ship. At 0240, the captain went down to the main deck and jumped into the waters of what would come to be known as Ironbottom Sound. 332 crewmen did not survive and are officially recorded as killed in action in the loss of Vincennes.
Riefkohl subsequently wrote: "The magnificent Vincennes, which we were all so proud of, and which I had the honor to command since 23 April 1941, rolled over and then sank at about 0250, 9 August 1942, about 2½ miles east of Savo Island … Solomons Group, in some 500 fathoms [910 m] of water."
Rediscovery
The wreck of USS Vincennes was discovered in early 2015 during a sonar mapping project of Iron Bottom Sound led by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen.
Awards Vincennes'' earned two battle stars for her World War II service.
Commanding officers
Captain Burton H. Green – February 1937 – January 1938
Captain Lemuel M. Stevens – January 1938 – July 1939
Captain John D. Beardall – July 1939 – April 1941
Captain Frederick Lois Riefkohl – April 1941 – August 1942
See also
List of U.S. Navy losses in World War II
References
Bibliography
Roll of Honor
Account of the gold transfer is in December 1985 issue of USNI Proceedings
External links
Navy photographs of Vincennes
New Orleans-class cruisers
Ships built in Quincy, Massachusetts
1936 ships
World War II cruisers of the United States
Shipwrecks in Ironbottom Sound
United States Navy Indiana-related ships
Maritime incidents in August 1942
Shipwreck discoveries by Paul Allen
2015 archaeological discoveries
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20monument%20%28United%20States%29
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National monument (United States)
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In the United States, a national monument is a protected area that can be created from any land owned or controlled by the federal government by proclamation of the President of the United States or an act of Congress. National monuments protect a wide variety of natural and historic resources, including sites of geologic, marine, archaeological, and cultural importance.
The 129 national monuments are managed by several federal agencies: the National Park Service, United States Forest Service, United States Fish and Wildlife Service, the Bureau of Land Management, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (in the case of marine national monuments). Historically, some national monuments were managed by the War Department.
The Antiquities Act of 1906 gives presidents the power to proclaim national monuments by executive action. President Theodore Roosevelt used the act to declare Devils Tower in Wyoming as the first U.S. national monument.
History
The Antiquities Act authorized permits for legitimate archaeological investigations and penalties for taking or destroying antiquities without permission. Additionally, it authorized the president to proclaim "historic landmarks, historic and prehistoric structures, and other objects of historic or scientific interest" on federal lands as national monuments, "the limits of which in all cases shall be confined to the smallest area compatible with the proper care and management of the objects to be protected."
Presidents have used the Antiquities Act's proclamation authority not only to create new national monuments but to enlarge existing ones. For example, Franklin D. Roosevelt significantly enlarged Dinosaur National Monument in 1938. Lyndon B. Johnson added Ellis Island to Statue of Liberty National Monument in 1965, and Jimmy Carter made major additions to Glacier Bay and Katmai National Monuments in 1978.
Early 20th century origin
The Antiquities Act of 1906 resulted from concerns about protecting mostly prehistoric Native American ruins and artifacts (collectively termed "antiquities") on federal lands in the American West.
The reference in the act to "objects of ... scientific interest" enabled President Theodore Roosevelt to make a natural geological feature, Devils Tower in Wyoming, the first national monument three months later. Among the next three monuments he proclaimed in 1906 was Petrified Forest in Arizona, another natural feature. In 1908, Roosevelt used the act to proclaim more than of the Grand Canyon as a national monument.
In response to Roosevelt's declaration of the Grand Canyon monument, a putative mining claimant sued in federal court, claiming that Roosevelt had overstepped the Antiquities Act authority by protecting an entire canyon. In 1920, the United States Supreme Court ruled unanimously that the Grand Canyon was indeed "an object of historic or scientific interest" and could be protected by proclamation, setting a precedent for the use of the Antiquities Act to preserve large areas. Federal courts have since rejected every challenge to the president's use of Antiquities Act preservation authority, ruling that the law gives the president exclusive discretion over the determination of the size and nature of the objects protected.
Mid-20th century
In 1918, President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed Katmai National Monument in Alaska, comprising more than . Katmai was later enlarged to nearly by subsequent Antiquities Act proclamations and for many years was the largest national park system unit.
Petrified Forest, Grand Canyon, and Great Sand Dunes, among several other national parks, were also originally proclaimed as national monuments and later designated as national parks by Congress.
Substantial opposition did not materialize until 1943, when President Franklin D. Roosevelt proclaimed Jackson Hole National Monument in Wyoming. He did this to accept a donation of lands acquired by John D. Rockefeller, Jr., for addition to Grand Teton National Park after Congress had declined to authorize this park expansion. Roosevelt's proclamation unleashed a storm of criticism about use of the Antiquities Act to circumvent Congress. A bill abolishing Jackson Hole National Monument passed Congress but was vetoed by Roosevelt, and Congressional and court challenges to the proclamation authority were mounted. In 1950, Congress finally incorporated most of the monument into Grand Teton National Park, but the act doing so barred further use of the proclamation authority in Wyoming except for areas of 5,000 acres or less.
Late 20th century and early 21st century
The most substantial use of the proclamation authority came in 1978, when President Jimmy Carter proclaimed 17 new national monuments in Alaska after Congress had adjourned without passing a major Alaska lands bill. Congress passed a revised version of the bill in 1980 incorporating most of these national monuments into national parks and preserves, but the act also curtailed further use of the proclamation authority in Alaska.
Carter's 1978 proclamations included Misty Fjords and Admiralty Island National Monuments in the U.S. Forest Service and Becharof and Yukon Flats National Monuments in the Fish and Wildlife Service, the first to be created outside of the National Park Service. The latter two became national wildlife refuges in 1980.
The proclamation authority was not used again anywhere until 1996, when President Bill Clinton proclaimed the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument in Utah. This was the first national monument managed by the Bureau of Land Management. This action was unpopular in Utah, and bills were introduced to further restrict the president's authority, none of which have been enacted. Most of the 16 national monuments created by President Clinton are managed not by the National Park Service, but by the Bureau of Land Management as part of the National Landscape Conservation System.
President George W. Bush created four marine national monuments in the Pacific Ocean, the largest in the system. They are managed by the Fish and Wildlife Service, with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration overseeing the fisheries. President Barack Obama significantly expanded two of them and added a fifth in the Atlantic Ocean.
On June 24, 2016, President Barack Obama designated the Stonewall Inn and surrounding areas in Greenwich Village, New York as the Stonewall National Monument, the first national monument commemorating the movement for LGBT rights in the United States. Obama's establishments included several others recognizing civil rights history, including the César E. Chávez, Belmont–Paul Women's Equality, Freedom Riders, and Birmingham Civil Rights National Monuments.
In December 2017, President Donald Trump substantially reduced the sizes of Bears Ears and Grand Staircase–Escalante National Monuments, removing protections on about 2.8 million acres of land where mining could resume. Three lawsuits challenging the legality of this action are pending in federal court, though President Joe Biden has signaled he will reverse the changes.
List of national monuments
See also
List of U.S. National Forests
List of areas in the United States National Park System (includes list of NPS-managed national monuments)
List of U.S. wilderness areas
Protected areas of the United States
List of proposed national monuments of the United States
References
External links
National monument proclamations under the Antiquities Act (public domain text)
Congressional Research Service (CRS) reports regarding national monuments
National Monument
National Monument
Monuments and memorials in the United States
United States Department of Agriculture
United States Department of the Interior
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] |
211517
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulpecula
|
Vulpecula
|
Vulpecula is a faint constellation in the northern sky. Its name is Latin for "little fox", although it is commonly known simply as the fox. It was identified in the seventeenth century, and is located in the middle of the Summer Triangle (an asterism consisting of the bright stars Deneb, Vega, and Altair).
Features
Stars
There are no stars brighter than 4th magnitude in this constellation. The brightest star in Vulpecula is Alpha Vulpeculae, a magnitude 4.44m red giant at a distance of 297 light-years. The star is an optical binary (separation of 413.7") that can be split using binoculars. The star also carries the traditional name Anser, which refers to the goose the little fox holds in its jaws.
23 Vulpeculae is the second brightest star in the constellation.
In 1967, the first pulsar, PSR B1919+21, was discovered in Vulpecula by Jocelyn Bell, supervised by Antony Hewish, in Cambridge. While they were searching for scintillation of radio signals of quasars, they observed pulses which repeated with a period of 1.3373 seconds. Terrestrial origin of the signal was ruled out because the time it took the object to reappear was a sidereal day instead of a solar day. This anomaly was finally identified as the signal of a rapidly rotating neutron star. Fifteen years after the first pulsar was discovered, the first millisecond pulsar, PSR B1937+21, was also discovered in Vulpecula, only a few degrees in the sky away from PSR B1919+21.
Vulpecula is also home to HD 189733 b, one of the closest extrasolar planets studied by the now-retired Spitzer Space Telescope. On 12 July 2007 the Financial Times (London) reported that the chemical signature of water vapour was detected in the atmosphere of this planet. Although HD 189733b with atmospheric temperatures rising above 1,000 °C is far from being habitable, this finding increases the likelihood that water, an essential component of life, would be found on a more Earth-like planet in the future.
Also located in Vulpecula is soft gamma repeater SGR 1935+2154. In 2020 it emitted a fast radio burst, the first one to be observed in the Milky Way.
Deep-sky objects
The Dumbbell Nebula (M27), is a large, bright planetary nebula which was discovered by the French astronomer Charles Messier in 1764 as the very first object of its kind. It can be seen with good binoculars in a dark sky location, appearing as a dimly glowing disk approximately 6 arcminutes in diameter. A telescope reveals its double-lobed shape, similar to that of an hourglass. Brocchi's Cluster (Collinder 399) is an asterism formerly thought to be an open cluster. It is also called "the Coathanger" because of its distinctive star pattern when viewed with binoculars or a low power telescope.
NGC 7052 is an elliptical galaxy in Vulpecula at a distance of 214 million light-years from Earth. It has a central dusty disk with a diameter of 3700 light-years; there is a supermassive black hole with a mass of 300 million solar masses in its nucleus. Astronomers surmise that the disk is the remnant of a smaller galaxy that merged with NGC 7052. Jets can be seen emanating from the galaxy, and it has very strong radio emissions. This means that it is also classified as a radio galaxy.
The eastern part of Vulpecula is occupied by the Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall. It is a galaxy filament, with the length of 3,000 megaparsecs, making it the largest structure in the universe.
History
In the late 17th century, the astronomer Johannes Hevelius created Vulpecula. It was originally known as Vulpecula cum ansere ("the little fox with the goose") or Vulpecula et Anser ("the little fox and the goose"), and was illustrated with a goose in the jaws of a fox. Hevelius did not regard the fox and the goose to be two separate constellations, but later the stars were divided into a separate Anser and Vulpecula. Today, they have been merged again under the name of the fox, but the goose is remembered by the name of the star α Vulpeculae: Anser.
See also
3C 433
Vulpecula (Chinese astronomy)
References
Sources
also available from Princeton University Press, Princeton: .
Footnotes
External links
The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Vulpecula
Vulpecula page at SEDS (Students for the Exploration and Development of Space)
M-27 page at SEDS
Star Tales - Vulpecula
Northern constellations
Mythological foxes
Constellations listed by Johannes Hevelius
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren%20Buffett
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Warren Buffett
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Warren Edward Buffett ( ; born August 30, 1930) is an American business magnate, investor, and philanthropist. He is currently the chairman and CEO of Berkshire Hathaway. He is considered one of the most successful investors in the world and has a net worth of over $114 billion as of February 2022, making him the world's eighth-wealthiest person.
Buffett was born in Omaha, Nebraska. He developed an interest in business and investing in his youth, eventually entering the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania in 1947 before transferring to and graduating from the University of Nebraska at 19. He went on to graduate from Columbia Business School, where he molded his investment philosophy around the concept of value investing pioneered by Benjamin Graham. He attended New York Institute of Finance to focus his economics background and soon after began various business partnerships, including one with Graham. He created Buffett Partnership, Ltd in 1956 and his firm eventually acquired a textile manufacturing firm called Berkshire Hathaway, assuming its name to create a diversified holding company. In 1978, Charlie Munger joined Buffett as vice-chairman.
Buffett has been the chairman and largest shareholder of Berkshire Hathaway since 1970. He has been referred to as the "Oracle" or "Sage" of Omaha by global media. He is noted for his adherence to value investing, and his personal frugality despite his immense wealth. Research published at the University of Oxford characterizes Buffett's investment methodology as falling within "founder centrism", defined by a deference to managers with a founder's mindset, an ethical disposition towards the shareholder collective, and an intense focus on exponential value creation. Essentially, Buffett's concentrated investments shelter managers from the short-term pressures of the market.
Buffett is a notable philanthropist, having pledged to give away 99 percent of his fortune to philanthropic causes, primarily via the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. He founded The Giving Pledge in 2009 with Bill Gates, whereby billionaires pledge to give away at least half of their fortunes.
Buffett was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2009.
Early life and education
Buffett was born in 1930 in Omaha, Nebraska, the second of three children and the only son of Leila (née Stahl) and Congressman Howard Buffett. He began his education at Rose Hill Elementary School. In 1942, his father was elected to the first of four terms in the United States Congress, and after moving with his family to Washington, D.C., Warren finished elementary school, attended Alice Deal Junior High School and graduated from Woodrow Wilson High School in 1947, where his senior yearbook picture reads: "likes math; a future stockbroker." After finishing high school and finding success with his side entrepreneurial and investment ventures, Buffett wanted to skip college to go directly into business but was overruled by his father.
Buffett displayed an interest in business and investing at a young age. He was inspired by a book he borrowed from the Omaha public library at age seven, One Thousand Ways to Make $1000. Much of Buffett's early childhood years were enlivened with entrepreneurial ventures. In one of his first business ventures, Buffett sold chewing gum, Coca-Cola bottles, and weekly magazines door to door. He worked in his grandfather's grocery store. While still in high school, he made money delivering newspapers, selling golf balls and stamps, and detailing cars, among other means. On his first income tax return in 1944, Buffett took a $35 deduction for the use of his bicycle and watch on his paper route. In 1945, as a high school sophomore, Buffett and a friend spent $25 to purchase a used pinball machine, which they placed in the local barber shop. Within months, they owned several machines in three different barber shops across Omaha. They sold the business later in the year for $1,200 to a war veteran.
Buffett's interest in the stock market and investing dated to schoolboy days he spent in the customers' lounge of a regional stock brokerage near his father's own brokerage office. On a trip to New York City at age ten, he made a point to visit the New York Stock Exchange. At 11, he bought three shares of Cities Service Preferred for himself, and three for his sister Doris Buffett (who also became a philanthropist). At 15, Warren made more than $175 monthly delivering Washington Post newspapers. In high school, he invested in a business owned by his father and bought a 40-acre farm worked by a tenant farmer. He bought the land when he was 14 years old with $1,200 of his savings. By the time he finished college, Buffett had accumulated $9,800 in savings (about $ today).
In 1947, Buffett entered the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. He would have preferred to focus on his business ventures, but his father pressured him to enroll. Warren studied there for two years and joined the Alpha Sigma Phi fraternity. He then transferred to the University of Nebraska where at 19, he graduated with a Bachelor of Science in Business Administration. After being rejected by Harvard Business School, Buffett enrolled at Columbia Business School of Columbia University upon learning that Benjamin Graham taught there. He earned a Master of Science in Economics from Columbia in 1951. After graduating, Buffett attended the New York Institute of Finance.
Investment career
Early business career
Buffett worked from 1951 to 1954 at Buffett-Falk & Co. as an investment salesman; from 1954 to 1956 at Graham-Newman Corp. as a securities analyst; from 1956 to 1969 at Buffett Partnership, Ltd. as a general partner; and from 1970 as Chairman and CEO of Berkshire Hathaway Inc.
In 1951, Buffett discovered that Graham was on the board of GEICO insurance. Taking a train to Washington, D.C. on a Saturday, he knocked on the door of GEICO's headquarters until a janitor admitted him. There he met Lorimer Davidson, GEICO's vice president, and the two discussed the insurance business for hours. Davidson would eventually become Buffett's lifelong friend and a lasting influence, and would later recall that he found Buffett to be an "extraordinary man" after only fifteen minutes. Buffett wanted to work on Wall Street but both his father and Ben Graham urged him not to. He offered to work for Graham for free, but Graham refused.
Buffett returned to Omaha and worked as a stockbroker while taking a Dale Carnegie public speaking course. Using what he learned, he felt confident enough to teach an "Investment Principles" night class at the University of Nebraska-Omaha. The average age of his students was more than twice his own. During this time he also purchased a Sinclair gas station as a side investment but it was unsuccessful.
In 1952, Buffett married Susan Thompson at Dundee Presbyterian Church. The next year they had their first child, Susan Alice. In 1954, Buffett accepted a job at Benjamin Graham's partnership. His starting salary was $12,000 a year (about $ today). There he worked closely with Walter Schloss. Graham was a tough boss. He was adamant that stocks provide a wide margin of safety after weighing the trade-off between their price and their intrinsic value. That same year the Buffetts had their second child, Howard Graham. In 1956, Benjamin Graham retired and closed his partnership. At this time Buffett's personal savings were over $174,000 (about $ million today) and he started Buffett Partnership Ltd.
In 1957, Buffett operated three partnerships. He purchased a five-bedroom stucco house in Omaha, where he still lives, for $31,500. In 1958 the Buffetts' third child, Peter Andrew, was born. Buffett operated five partnerships that year. In 1959, the company grew to six partnerships and Buffett met future partner Charlie Munger. By 1960, Buffett operated seven partnerships. He asked one of his partners, a doctor, to find ten other doctors willing to invest $10,000 each in his partnership. Eventually, eleven agreed, and Buffett pooled their money with a mere $100 original investment of his own.
In 1961, Buffett revealed that 35% of the partnership's assets were invested in the Sanborn Map Company. He explained that Sanborn stock sold for only $45 per share in 1958, but the company's investment portfolio was worth $65 per share. This meant that Sanborn's map business was being valued at "minus $20." Buffett eventually purchased 23% of the company's outstanding shares as an activist investor, obtaining a seat for himself on the Board of Directors, and allied with other dissatisfied shareholders to control 44% of the shares. To avoid a proxy fight, the Board offered to repurchase shares at fair value, paying with a portion of its investment portfolio. 77% of the outstanding shares were turned in. Buffett had obtained a 50% return on investment in just two years.
Assuming Berkshire
In 1962, Buffett became a millionaire because of his partnerships, which in January 1962 had an excess of $7,178,500, of which over $1,025,000 belonged to Buffett. He merged these partnerships into one. Buffett invested in and eventually took control of a textile manufacturing firm, Berkshire Hathaway. He began buying shares in Berkshire from Seabury Stanton, the owner, whom he later fired. Buffett's partnerships began purchasing shares at $7.60 per share. In 1965, when Buffett's partnerships began purchasing Berkshire aggressively, they paid $14.86 per share while the company had working capital of $19 per share. This did not include the value of fixed assets (factory and equipment). Buffett took control of Berkshire Hathaway at a board meeting and named a new president, Ken Chace, to run the company. In 1966, Buffett closed the partnership to new money. He later claimed that the textile business had been his worst trade. He then moved the business into the insurance sector, and, in 1985, the last of the mills that had been the core business of Berkshire Hathaway was sold.
In a second letter, Buffett announced his first investment in a private business — Hochschild, Kohn and Co, a privately owned Baltimore department store. In 1967, Berkshire paid out its first and only dividend of 10 cents. In 1969, Buffett liquidated the partnership and transferred their assets to his partners including shares of Berkshire Hathaway. In 1970, Buffett began writing his now-famous annual letters to shareholders. He lived solely on his salary of $50,000 per year and his outside investment income.
In 1973, Berkshire began to acquire stock in the Washington Post Company. Buffett became close friends with Katharine Graham, who controlled the company and its flagship newspaper and joined its board. In 1974, the SEC opened a formal investigation into Buffett and Berkshire's acquisition of Wesco Financial, due to possible conflict of interest. No charges were brought. In 1977, Berkshire indirectly purchased the Buffalo Evening News for $32.5 million. Antitrust charges started, instigated by its rival, the Buffalo Courier-Express. Both papers lost money until the Courier-Express folded in 1982.
In 1979, Berkshire began to acquire stock in ABC. Capital Cities announced a $3.5 billion purchase of ABC on March 18, 1985, surprising the media industry, as ABC was four times bigger than Capital Cities at the time. Buffett helped finance the deal in return for a 25% stake in the combined company. The newly merged company, known as Capital Cities/ABC (or CapCities/ABC), was forced to sell some stations due to U.S. Federal Communications Commission ownership rules. The two companies also owned several radio stations in the same markets.
In 1987, Berkshire Hathaway purchased a 12% stake in Salomon Inc., making it the largest shareholder and Buffett a director. In 1990, a scandal involving John Gutfreund (former CEO of Salomon Brothers) surfaced. A rogue trader, Paul Mozer, was submitting bids in excess of what was allowed by Treasury rules. When this was brought to Gutfreund's attention, he did not immediately suspend the rogue trader. Gutfreund left the company in August 1991. Buffett became Chairman of Salomon until the crisis passed.
In 1988, Buffett began buying The Coca-Cola Company stock, eventually purchasing up to 7% of the company for $1.02 billion. It would turn out to be one of Berkshire's most lucrative investments and one which it still holds.
As a billionaire
Buffett became a billionaire when Berkshire Hathaway began selling class A shares on May 29, 1990, with the market closing at $7,175 a share. In 1998 he acquired General Re (Gen Re) as a subsidiary in a deal that presented difficulties—according to the Rational Walk investment website, "underwriting standards proved to be inadequate," while a "problematic derivatives book" was resolved after numerous years and a significant loss. Gen Re later provided reinsurance after Buffett became involved with Maurice R. Greenberg at AIG in 2002.
During a 2005 investigation of an accounting fraud case involving AIG, Gen Re executives became implicated. On March 15, 2005, the AIG board forced Greenberg to resign from his post as chairman and CEO after New York state regulators claimed that AIG had engaged in questionable transactions and improper accounting. On February 9, 2006, AIG agreed to pay a $1.6 billion fine. In 2010, the U.S. government agreed to a $92 million settlement with Gen Re, allowing the Berkshire Hathaway subsidiary to avoid prosecution in the AIG case. Gen Re also made a commitment to implement "corporate governance concessions," which required Berkshire Hathaway's Chief Financial Officer to attend General Re's audit committee meetings and mandated the appointment of an independent director.
In 2002, Buffett entered in $11 billion worth of forward contracts to deliver U.S. dollars against other currencies. By April 2006, his total gain on these contracts was over $2 billion. In 2006, Buffett announced in June that he gradually would give away 85% of his Berkshire holdings to five foundations in annual gifts of stock, starting in July 2006—the largest contribution would go to the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.
In 2007, in a letter to shareholders, Buffett announced that he was looking for a younger successor, or perhaps successors, to run his investment business.
2007–08 financial crisis
Buffett ran into criticism during the subprime mortgage crisis of 2007 and 2008, part of the Great Recession starting in 2007, that he had allocated capital too early resulting in suboptimal deals. "Buy American. I am." he wrote for an opinion piece published in the New York Times in 2008. Buffett called the downturn in the financial sector that started in 2007 "poetic justice". Buffett's Berkshire Hathaway suffered a 77% drop in earnings during Q3 2008 and several of his later deals suffered large mark-to-market losses.
Berkshire Hathaway acquired 10% perpetual preferred stock of Goldman Sachs. Some of Buffett's put options (European exercise at expiry only) that he wrote (sold) were running at around $6.73 billion mark-to-market losses as of late 2008. The scale of the potential loss prompted the SEC to demand that Berkshire produce, "a more robust disclosure" of factors used to value the contracts. Buffett also helped Dow Chemical pay for its $18.8 billion takeover of Rohm & Haas. He thus became the single largest shareholder in the enlarged group with his Berkshire Hathaway, which provided $3 billion, underlining his instrumental role during the crisis in debt and equity markets.
In 2008, Buffett became the richest person in the world, with a total net worth estimated at $62 billion by Forbes and at $58 billion by Yahoo, overtaking Bill Gates, who had been number one on the Forbes list for 13 consecutive years. In 2009, Gates regained the top position on the Forbes list, with Buffett shifted to second place. Both of the men's values dropped, to $40 billion and $37 billion respectively—according to Forbes, Buffett lost $25 billion over a 12-month period during 2008/2009.
In October 2008, the media reported that Buffett had agreed to buy General Electric (GE) preferred stock. The operation included special incentives: He received an option to buy three billion shares of GE stock, at $22.25, over the five years following the agreement, and Buffett also received a 10% dividend (callable within three years). In February 2009, Buffett sold some Procter & Gamble Co. and Johnson & Johnson shares from his personal portfolio.
In addition to suggestions of mistiming, the wisdom in keeping some of Berkshire's major holdings, including The Coca-Cola Company, which in 1998 peaked at $86, raised questions. Buffett discussed the difficulties of knowing when to sell in the company's 2004 annual report:
That may seem easy to do when one looks through an always-clean, rear-view mirror. Unfortunately, however, it's the windshield through which investors must peer, and that glass is invariably fogged.
In March 2009, Buffett said in a cable television interview that the economy had "fallen off a cliff ... Not only has the economy slowed down a lot, but people have really changed their habits like I haven't seen". Additionally, Buffett feared that inflation levels that occurred in the 1970s—which led to years of painful stagflation—might re-emerge.
A capitalized Berkshire
On August 14, 2014, the price of Berkshire Hathaway's shares hit $200,000 a share for the first time, capitalizing the company at $328 billion. While Buffett had given away much of his stock to charities by this time, he still held 321,000 shares worth $64.2 billion. On August 20, 2014, Berkshire Hathaway was fined $896,000 for failing to report December 9, 2013, purchase of shares in USG Corporation as required.
In 2009, Buffett invested $2.6 billion as a part of Swiss Re's campaign to raise equity capital. Berkshire Hathaway already owned a 3% stake, with rights to own more than 20%. Also in 2009, Buffett acquired Burlington Northern Santa Fe Corp. for $34 billion in cash and stock. Alice Schroeder, author of Snowball, said that a key reason for the purchase was to diversify Berkshire Hathaway from the financial industry. Measured by market capitalization in the Financial Times Global 500, Berkshire Hathaway was the eighteenth largest corporation in the world as of June 2009.
In 2009, Buffett divested his failed investment in ConocoPhillips, saying to his Berkshire investors,
I bought a large amount of ConocoPhillips stock when oil and gas prices were near their peak. I in no way anticipated the dramatic fall in energy prices that occurred in the last half of the year. I still believe the odds are good that oil sells far higher in the future than the current $40–$50 price. But so far I have been dead wrong. Even if prices should rise, moreover, the terrible timing of my purchase has cost Berkshire several billion dollars.
The merger with the Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railway (BNSF) closed upon BNSF shareholder approval during Q1 of 2010. This deal was valued at approximately $44 billion (with $10 billion of outstanding BNSF debt) and represented an increase of the previously existing stake of 22%.
In June 2010, Buffett defended the credit-rating agencies for their role in the US financial crisis, claiming:
Very, very few people could appreciate the bubble. That's the nature of bubbles – they're mass delusions.
On March 18, 2011, Goldman Sachs was given Federal Reserve approval to buy back Berkshire's preferred stock in Goldman. Buffett had been reluctant to give up the stock, which averaged $1.4 million in dividends per day, saying:
I'm going to be the Osama bin Laden of capitalism. I'm on my way to an unknown destination in Asia where I'm going to look for a cave. If the U.S. Armed forces can't find Osama bin Laden in 10 years, let Goldman Sachs try to find me.
In November 2011, it was announced that over the course of the previous eight months, Buffett had bought 64 million shares of International Business Machine Corp (IBM) stock, worth around $11 billion. This unanticipated investment raised his stake in the company to around 5.5 percent—the largest stake in IBM alongside that of State Street Global Advisors. Buffett had said on numerous prior occasions that he would not invest in technology because he did not fully understand it, so the move came as a surprise to many investors and observers. During the interview, in which he revealed the investment to the public, Buffett stated that he was impressed by the company's ability to retain corporate clients and said, "I don't know of any large company that really has been as specific on what they intend to do and how they intend to do it as IBM."
In May 2012, Buffett's acquisition of Media General, consisting of 63 newspapers in the south-eastern U.S., was announced. The company was the second news print purchase made by Buffett in one year.
Interim publisher James W. Hopson announced on July 18, 2013, that the Press of Atlantic City would be sold to Buffett's BH Media Group by ABARTA, a private holding company based in Pittsburgh, U.S. At the Berkshire shareholders meeting in May 2013, Buffett explained that he did not expect to "move the needle" at Berkshire with newspaper acquisitions, but he anticipates an annual return of 10 percent. The Press of Atlantic City became Berkshire's 30th daily newspaper, following other purchases such as Virginia, U.S.' Roanoke Times and The Tulsa World in Oklahoma, U.S.
During a presentation to Georgetown University students in Washington, D.C. in late September 2013, Buffett compared the U.S. Federal Reserve to a hedge fund and stated that the bank is generating "$80 billion or $90 billion a year probably" in revenue for the U.S. government. Buffett also advocated further on the issue of wealth equality in society:
We have learned to turn out lots of goods and services, but we haven't learned as well how to have everybody share in the bounty. The obligation of a society as prosperous as ours is to figure out how nobody gets left too far behind.
After the difficulties of the economic crisis, Buffett managed to bring its company back to its pre-recession standards: in Q2 2014, Berkshire Hathaway made $6.4 billion in net profit, the most it had ever made in a three-month period.
COVID-19 pandemic
In a June 2021 interview with CNBC, Buffet said that the economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic has increased economic inequality and bemoaned that most people are unaware that "hundreds of thousands or millions" of small businesses have been negatively impacted. He also stated that the markets and the economy will likely be unpredictable well into the post-pandemic recovery period, even with the Biden administration and the United States Federal Reserve having a plan in place. He said the unpredictability and the effects of COVID-19 are far from over.
Investment philosophy
Warren Buffett's writings include his annual reports and various articles. Buffett is recognized by communicators as a great story-teller, as evidenced by his annual letters to shareholders. He has warned about the pernicious effects of inflation:
In his article, "The Superinvestors of Graham-and-Doddsville", Buffett rebutted the academic efficient-market hypothesis, that beating the S&P 500 was "pure chance", by highlighting the results achieved by a number of students of the Graham and Dodd value investing school of thought. In addition to himself, Buffett named Walter J. Schloss, Tom Knapp, Ed Anderson (Tweedy, Browne LLC), William J. Ruane (Sequoia Fund), Charlie Munger (Buffett's partner at Berkshire), Rick Guerin (Pacific Partners Ltd.), and Stan Perlmeter (Perlmeter Investments). In his November 1999 Fortune article, he warned of investors' unrealistic expectations:
Index funds vis-à-vis active management
Buffett has been a supporter of index funds for people who are either not interested in managing their own money or don't have the time. Buffett is skeptical that active management can outperform the market in the long run, and has advised both individual and institutional investors to move their money to low-cost index funds that track broad, diversified stock market indices. Buffett said in one of his letters to shareholders that "when trillions of dollars are managed by Wall Streeters charging high fees, it will usually be the managers who reap outsized profits, not the clients." In 2007, Buffett made a bet with numerous managers that a simple S&P 500 index fund will outperform hedge funds that charge exorbitant fees. By 2017, the index fund was outperforming every hedge fund that made the bet against Buffett.
Personal life
In 1949, Buffett was infatuated with a young woman whose boyfriend had a ukulele. In an attempt to compete, he bought one of the instruments and has been playing it ever since. Though the attempt was unsuccessful, his music interest was a key part of his becoming a part of Susan Thompson's life and led to their marriage. Buffett often plays the instrument at stockholder meetings and other opportunities. His love of the instrument led to the commissioning of two custom Dairy Queen ukuleles by Dave Talsma, one of which was auctioned for charity.
Buffett married Susan Buffett (born Thompson) in 1952. They had three children, Susie, Howard and Peter. The couple began living separately in 1977, although they remained married until Susan Buffett's death in July 2004. Their daughter, Susie, lives in Omaha, is a national board member of Girls, Inc., and does charitable work through the Susan A. Buffett Foundation.
In 2006, on his 76th birthday, Buffett married his longtime companion, Astrid Menks, who was then 60 years old—she had lived with him since his wife's departure to San Francisco in 1977. Susan had arranged for the two to meet before she left Omaha to pursue her singing career. All three were close and Christmas cards to friends were signed "Warren, Susie and Astrid". Susan briefly discussed this relationship in an interview on the Charlie Rose Show shortly before her death, in a rare glimpse into Buffett's personal life.
Buffett disowned his son Peter's adopted daughter, Nicole, in 2006 after she participated in the Jamie Johnson documentary The One Percent about the growing economic inequality between the wealthy and the average citizen in the United States. Although his first wife referred to Nicole as one of her "adored grandchildren", Buffett wrote her a letter stating, "I have not emotionally or legally adopted you as a grandchild, nor have the rest of my family adopted you as a niece or a cousin."
His 2006 annual salary was about $100,000, which is small compared to senior executive remuneration in comparable companies. In 2008, he earned a total compensation of $175,000, which included a base salary of just $100,000. He continued to live in the same house in the central Dundee neighborhood of Omaha that he bought in 1958 for $31,500, a fraction of today's value. He also owns a $4 million house in Laguna Beach, California. In 1989, after spending nearly $6.7 million of Berkshire's funds on a private jet, Buffett named it "The Indefensible". This act was a break from his past condemnation of extravagant purchases by other CEOs and his history of using more public transportation.
Buffett is an avid bridge player, which he plays with fellow fan Gates—he allegedly spends 12 hours a week playing the game. In 2006, he sponsored a bridge match for the Buffett Cup. Modeled on the Ryder Cup in golf—held immediately before it in the same city—the teams are chosen by invitation, with a female team and five male teams provided by each country.
He is a dedicated, lifelong follower of Nebraska football, and attends as many games as his schedule permits. He supported the hire of Bo Pelini, following the 2007 season, stating, "It was getting kind of desperate around here". He watched the 2009 game against Oklahoma from the Nebraska sideline, after being named an honorary assistant coach.
Buffett worked with Christopher Webber on an animated series called "Secret Millionaires Club" with chief Andy Heyward of DiC Entertainment. The series features Buffett and Munger and teaches children healthy financial habits.
Buffett was raised as a Presbyterian, but has since described himself as agnostic. In December 2006, it was reported that Buffett did not carry a mobile phone, did not have a computer at his desk, and drove his own automobile, a Cadillac DTS. In contrast to that, at the 2018 Berkshire Hathaway's shareholder meeting, he stated he uses Google as his preferred search engine. In 2013 he had an old Nokia flip phone and had sent one email in his entire life. In February 2020, Buffett revealed in a CNBC interview that he had traded in his flip phone for an iPhone 11. Buffett reads five newspapers every day, beginning with the Omaha World Herald, which his company acquired in 2011.
Buffett's speeches are known for mixing business discussions with humor. Each year, Buffett presides over Berkshire Hathaway's annual shareholder meeting in the Qwest Center in Omaha, Nebraska, an event drawing over 20,000 visitors from both the United States and abroad, giving it the nickname "Woodstock of Capitalism". Berkshire's annual reports and letters to shareholders, prepared by Buffett, frequently receive coverage by the financial media. Buffett's writings are known for containing quotations from sources as varied as the Bible and Mae West, as well as advice in a folksy, Midwestern style and numerous jokes.
In April 2017, Buffett (an avid Coca-Cola drinker and shareholder in the company) agreed to have his likeness placed on Cherry Coke products in China. Buffett was not compensated for this advertisement.
Health
On April 11, 2012, Buffett was diagnosed with stage I prostate cancer during a routine test. He announced he would begin two months of daily radiation treatment from mid-July. In a letter to shareholders, Buffett said he felt "great – as if I were in my normal excellent health – and my energy level is 100 percent." On September 15, 2012, Buffett announced that he had completed the full 44-day radiation treatment cycle, saying "it's a great day for me" and "I am so glad to say that's over."
Wealth and philanthropy
In 2008, Buffett was ranked by Forbes as the richest person in the world with an estimated net worth of approximately $62 billion. In 2009, after donating billions of dollars to charity, he was ranked as the second richest man in the United States with a net worth of $37 billion with only Bill Gates ranked higher than Buffett. His net worth had risen to $58.5 billion as of September 2013.
In 1999, Buffett was named the top money manager of the Twentieth Century in a survey by the Carson Group, ahead of Peter Lynch and John Templeton. In 2007, he was listed among Time 100 Most Influential People in the world. In 2011, President Barack Obama awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Buffett, along with Bill Gates, was named the most influential global thinker in Foreign Policy's 2010 report.
Buffett has written several times of his belief that, in a market economy, the rich earn outsized rewards for their talents. His children will not inherit a significant proportion of his wealth. He once commented, "I want to give my kids just enough so that they would feel that they could do anything, but not so much that they would feel like doing nothing".
Buffett had long stated his intention to give away his fortune to charity, and in June 2006, he announced a new plan to give 83% of it to the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF). He pledged about the equivalent of 10 million Berkshire Hathaway Class B shares to the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (worth approximately $30.7 billion as of June 23, 2006), making it the largest charitable donation in history, and Buffett one of the leaders of philanthrocapitalism. The foundation will receive 5% of the total each July, beginning in 2006. The pledge is conditional upon three requirements:
Bill or Melinda Gates must be alive and active in BMGF
BMGF must continue to qualify as a charity
Each year BMGF must give away an amount equal to the prior year's Berkshire gift plus the additional 5% of net assets as required of all US foundations
Buffett joined the Gates Foundation's board, but did not plan to be actively involved in the foundation's investments. Buffett announced his resignation as a trustee of the Gates Foundation on June 23, 2021.
This represented a significant shift from Buffett's previous statements, to the effect that most of his fortune would pass to his Buffett Foundation. The bulk of the estate of his wife, valued at $2.6 billion, went there when she died in 2004. He also pledged $50 million to the Nuclear Threat Initiative, in Washington, where he began serving as an adviser in 2002.
In 2006, he auctioned his 2001 Lincoln Town Car on eBay to raise money for Girls, Inc. In 2007, he auctioned a luncheon with himself that raised a final bid of $650,100 for the Glide Foundation. Later auctions raised $2.1 million $1.7 million and $3.5 million. The winners traditionally dine with Buffett at New York's Smith and Wollensky steak house. The restaurant donates at least $10,000 to Glide each year to host the meal.
In 2009, Ralph Nader wrote the book Only the Super Rich Can Save Us, a novel about "a movement of billionaires led by Warren Buffett and featuring, among others, Ted Turner, George Soros and Barry Diller, who use their fortunes to clean up America." On C-SPAN BookTV, Nader said Buffett invited him to breakfast after the book came out and was "quite intrigued by the book." He also told Nader of his plan to get "billionaires all over the world to donate 50% of their estate to charity or good works." On December 9, 2010, Buffett, Bill Gates, and Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg signed a promise they called the "Gates-Buffett Giving Pledge", in which they promise to donate to charity at least half of their wealth, and invite other wealthy people to follow suit. In 2018, after making almost $3.4 billion donations, Buffett was ranked 3rd in the Forbes' List of Billionaire 2018.
Warren Buffett continues to help fund and support his family's individual foundations which include Susan Buffett's Susan Thompson Buffett Foundation, Susan Alice Buffett's Sherwood Foundation, Howard Graham Buffett's Howard G. Buffett Foundation, and Peter Buffett's NoVo Foundation. Warren Buffett was also supportive of his sister Doris Buffett's Letters Foundation and Learning By Giving Foundation.
Political and public policy views
In addition to political contributions over the years, Buffett endorsed and made campaign contributions to Barack Obama's presidential campaign. On July 2, 2008, Buffett attended a $28,500 per plate fundraiser for Obama's campaign in Chicago. Buffett intimated that John McCain's views on social justice were so far from his own that McCain would need a "lobotomy" for Buffett to change his endorsement. During the second 2008 U.S. presidential debate, McCain and Obama, after being asked first by presidential debate mediator Tom Brokaw, both mentioned Buffett as a possible future Secretary of the Treasury. Later, in the third and final presidential debate, Obama mentioned Buffett as a potential economic advisor. Buffett was also a financial advisor to Republican candidate Arnold Schwarzenegger during the 2003 California gubernatorial election.
On December 16, 2015, Buffett endorsed Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton for president. On August 1, 2016, Buffett challenged Donald Trump to release his tax returns. On October 10, 2016, after a reference to him in the second presidential debate, Buffett released his own tax return. He said he had paid $1.85 million in federal income taxes in 2015 on an adjusted gross income of $11.6 million, meaning he had an effective federal income tax rate of around 16 percent. Buffett also said he had made more than $2.8 billion worth of donations last year. In response to Trump saying he was unable to release his tax information due to being under audit, Buffett said, "I have been audited by the IRS multiple times and am currently being audited. I have no problem in releasing my tax information while under audit. Neither would Mr. Trump — at least he would have no legal problem."
Buffett has said he would judge President Donald Trump by his results on national safety, economic growth and economic participation when deciding if he would vote for him in the 2020 presidential election.
Health care
Buffett described the health care reform under President Barack Obama as insufficient to deal with the costs of health care in the US, though he supports its aim of expanding health insurance coverage. Buffett compared health care costs to a tapeworm, saying that they compromise US economic competitiveness by increasing manufacturing costs. Buffett thinks health care costs should head towards 13 to 14% of GDP. Buffett said "If you want the very best, I mean if you want to spend a million dollars to prolong your life 3 months in a coma or something then the US is probably the best", but he also said that other countries spend much less and receive much more in health care value (visits, hospital beds, doctors and nurses per capita).
Buffett faults the incentives in the United States medical industry, that payers reimburse doctors for procedures (fee-for-service) leading to unnecessary care (overutilization), instead of paying for results. He cited Atul Gawande's 2009 article in the New Yorker as a useful consideration of US health care, with its documentation of unwarranted variation in Medicare expenditures between McAllen, Texas and El Paso, Texas. Buffett raised the problem of lobbying by the medical industry, saying that they are very focused on maintaining their income.
Curbing population growth
Buffett has been reported to have concerns about unchecked population growth. In 2009, he met with several other billionaires to discuss healthcare, education and slowing population growth. Called "The Good Club" by an insider, the billionaires had given away $45 billion to philanthropic causes and included well known names such as Oprah Winfrey, Michael Bloomberg and David Rockefeller, Jr. The meeting has drawn criticism from some right-wing blogs, with some believing the group to be a part of a secret sterilization society.
Buffett is a long time supporter of family planning. The Buffett Foundation has given over $1.5 billion to abortion research to include $427 million to Planned Parenthood.
Taxes
Buffett stated that he only paid 19 percent of his income for 2006 ($48.1 million) in total federal taxes (due to their source as dividends and capital gains), while his employees paid 33 percent of theirs, despite making much less money. "How can this be fair?" Buffett asked, regarding how little he pays in taxes compared to his employees. "How can this be right?" He also added, "There's class warfare, all right, but it's my class, the rich class, that's making war, and we're winning." After Donald Trump accused him of taking "massive deductions," Buffett countered, "I have copies of all 72 of my returns and none uses a carryforward."
Buffett favors the inheritance tax, saying that repealing it would be like "choosing the 2020 Olympic team by picking the eldest sons of the gold-medal winners in the 2000 Olympics". In 2007, Buffett testified before the Senate and urged them to preserve the estate tax so as to avoid a plutocracy. Some critics argued that Buffett (through Berkshire Hathaway) has a personal interest in the continuation of the estate tax, since Berkshire Hathaway benefited from the estate tax in past business dealings and had developed and marketed insurance policies to protect policy holders against future estate tax payments.
Buffett believes government should not be in the business of gambling, or legalizing casinos, calling it a tax on ignorance.
Dollar and gold
The trade deficit induced Buffett to enter the foreign currency market for the first time in 2002. He substantially reduced his stake in 2005 as changing interest rates increased the costs of holding currency contracts. Buffett remained bearish on the dollar, stating that he was looking to acquire companies with substantial foreign revenues. Buffett has been critical of gold as an investment, with his critique being based primarily on its non-productive nature. In a 1998 address at Harvard, Buffett said:
It gets dug out of the ground in Africa, or someplace. Then we melt it down, dig another hole, bury it again and pay people to stand around guarding it. It has no utility. Anyone watching from Mars would be scratching their head.
In 1977, about stocks, gold, farmland and inflation, he stated:
Stocks are probably still the best of all the poor alternatives in an era of inflation – at least they are if you buy in at appropriate prices.
China
Buffett invested in PetroChina Company Limited and in a rare move, posted a commentary on Berkshire Hathaway's website stating why he would not divest over its connection with the Sudanese civil war that caused Harvard to divest. He sold this stake soon afterwards, sparing him the billions of dollars he would have lost had he held on to the company in the midst of the steep drop in oil prices beginning in the summer of 2008.
In October 2008, Buffett invested $230 million for 10% of battery maker BYD Company (), which runs a subsidiary of electric automobile manufacturer BYD Auto. In less than one year, the investment reaped over 500% return.
In May 2018, BYD's shares had a substantial fall with a total net investment loss of $9 billion. This was Buffett's worst investment in China.
Tobacco
During the RJR Nabisco, Inc. hostile takeover fight in 1987, Buffett was quoted as telling John Gutfreund:
Speaking at Berkshire Hathaway Inc.'s 1994 annual meeting, Buffett said investments in tobacco are:
Coal
In 2007, Buffett's PacifiCorp, a subsidiary of his MidAmerican Energy Company, canceled six proposed coal-fired power plants. These included Utah's Intermountain Power Project Unit 3, Jim Bridger Unit 5, and four proposed plants previously included in PacifiCorp's Integrated Resource Plan. The cancellations came in the wake of pressure from regulators and citizen groups.
Renewable energy
Native American tribes and salmon fishermen sought to win support from Buffett for a proposal to remove four hydroelectric dams from the Klamath River owned by PacifiCorp which is a Berkshire Hathaway company. David Sokol responded on Buffett's behalf, stating that the FERC would decide the question.
Expensing of stock options
He has been a strong proponent of stock option expensing on corporate income statements. At the 2004 annual meeting, he lambasted a bill before the United States Congress that would consider only some company-issued stock options compensation as an expense, likening the bill to one that was almost passed by the Indiana House of Representatives to change the value of Pi from 3.14159 to 3.2 through legislative fiat.
When a company gives something of value to its employees in return for their services, it is clearly a compensation expense. And if expenses don't belong in the earnings statement, where in the world do they belong?
Technology
In May 2012, Buffett said he had avoided buying stock in new social media companies such as Facebook and Google because it is hard to estimate future value. He also stated that initial public offering (IPO) of stock are almost always bad investments. Investors should be looking to companies that will have good value in ten years.
Bitcoin and cryptocurrencies
In an interview with CNBC in January 2018, Buffett said that the recent craze over Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies won't end well, adding that "when it happens or how or anything else, I don't know." But he said he would not take a short position on bitcoin futures.
In terms of cryptocurrencies, generally, I can say with almost certainty that they will come to a bad ending.
Film and television
Aside from countless television appearances on various news programs, Buffett has appeared in numerous films and TV programs, both documentary, and fiction. Some film and television cameos he has made include Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps (2010), The Office (U.S.), All My Children, and Entourage (2015). He has been a guest 10 times on Charlie Rose, and was the subject of the HBO documentary feature Becoming Warren Buffett (2017) and the BBC production The World's Greatest Money Maker (2009).
See also
Buffett indicator
List of University of Nebraska-Lincoln people
List of Columbia University alumni
List of University of Pennsylvania people
Bibliography
Books about Buffett
In October 2008, USA Today reported at least 47 books were in print with Buffett's name in the title. The article quoted the CEO of Borders Books, George Jones, as saying that the only other living persons named in as many book titles were U.S. presidents, world political figures and the Dalai Lama. Buffett said that his own personal favorite is a collection of his essays called The Essays of Warren Buffett, which he described as "a coherent rearrangement of ideas from my annual report letters".
Books or publications by Buffett:
The Essays of Warren Buffett : Lessons for Corporate America, Warren Buffett and Lawrence A. Cunningham, The Cunningham Group; revised edition (April 11, 2001),
The Essays of Warren Buffett: Lessons for Corporate America, Second Edition, Warren E. Buffett and Lawrence A. Cunningham, The Cunningham Group; 2nd edition (April 14, 2008),
Some best-selling, or otherwise notable, books about Buffett:
Carol J. Loomis, Tap Dancing to Work: Warren Buffett on Practically Everything, 1966-2012: A Fortune Magazine Book.
Preston Pysh, Warren Buffett's Three Favorite Books. (An interactive book that references Buffett's Books for online videos)
Roger Lowenstein, Buffett, Making of an American Capitalist
Robert Hagstrom, The Warren Buffett Way.
Alice Schroeder, The Snowball: Warren Buffett and the Business of Life. (Written with Buffett's cooperation.)
Mary Buffett and David Clark, Buffettology and four subsequent books. (Combined sales of more than 1.5 million copies.)
Janet Lowe, Warren Buffett Speaks: Wit and Wisdom from the World's Greatest Investor.
John Train, The Midas Touch: The Strategies That Have Made Warren Buffett 'America's Preeminent Investor'.
Andrew Kilpatrick, Of Permanent Value: The Story of Warren Buffett. (The longest of the books about Buffett, with 330 chapters, 1,874 pages and 1,400 photos, weighing 10.2 pounds.)
John P. Reese, "The Guru Investor: How to Beat the Market Using History's Best Investment Strategies". (Includes step-by-step stock-picking method based on Buffett's approach)
References
Further reading
External links
Berkshire Hathaway official website
The Buffett
Buffett Partnership Letters
Forbes Profile
Berkshire Hathaway SEC 13F Filings
Articles containing video clips
1930 births
20th-century American businesspeople
21st-century American businesspeople
21st-century philanthropists
American agnostics
American billionaires
American businesspeople in insurance
American chief executives of financial services companies
American financial analysts
American financial company founders
American financiers
American investors
American money managers
American philanthropists
American stockbrokers
American stock traders
American venture capitalists
Berkshire Hathaway employees
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation people
Warren
Businesspeople from Omaha, Nebraska
Columbia Business School alumni
Chief executives in the finance industry
Directors of Berkshire Hathaway
Directors of The Coca-Cola Company
Equity securities
Giving Pledgers
Grinnell College people
Living people
Nebraska Democrats
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Stock and commodity market managers
Technical analysts
The Washington Post people
University of Nebraska–Lincoln alumni
Woodrow Wilson High School (Washington, D.C.) alumni
Members of the American Philosophical Society
American chief executives of Fortune 500 companies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamal%20Jumblatt
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Kamal Jumblatt
|
Kamal Fouad Jumblatt (; 6 December 1917 – 16 March 1977) was a Lebanese politician who founded the Progressive Socialist Party. He led the National Movement during the civil war against the Lebanese Front. He was a major ally of the Palestine Liberation Organization until his assassination in 1977. He has authored more than 40 books centered on various political, philosophical, literary, religious, medical, social, and economic topics. In September 1972, Kamal Jumblatt received the International Lenin Peace Prize. He is the father of the Lebanese Druze leader Walid Jumblatt and the son in law of the Arab writer and politician Shakib Arslan.
Early life and education
Kamal Jumblatt was born on 6 December 1917 in Moukhtara. He was born into the prestigious Jumblatt family, who were traditional leaders of the Lebanese Druze community. His father Fouad Joumblatt, the powerful Druze chieftain and director of the Chouf District, was murdered in an ambush on 6 August 1921. Kamal was just four years old when his father was killed. After his father’s death, his mother Nazira played a significant political role in the Druze community during the following two decades.
In 1926, Kamal Jumblatt joined the Lazarus Fathers Institute in Aintoura, where he completed his elementary studies in 1928. He achieved his high school diploma, having studied French, Arabic, science and literature, in 1936, and a philosophy diploma in 1937.
Jumblatt then pursued higher studies in France, where he attended the Faculty of Arts at the Sorbonne University and obtained a degree in psychology and civil education, and another one in sociology. He returned to Lebanon in 1939, after the outbreak of World War II and continued his studies at Saint Joseph University where he obtained a law degree in 1945.
Early political career
Kamal Jumblatt practiced law in Lebanon from 1941 to 1942 and was designated the Official State Lawyer for the Lebanese Government. In 1943, at the young age of twenty-six years and following the unexpected death of Hikmat Joumblatt, he became the leader of the Jumblatt clan, bringing him into the Lebanese political scene. Despite his influential political role, throughout his career, he was in a rivalry over the political leadership over the Lebanese Druze with Majid Arslan. Arslan was often preferred to represent the Druze faction and the longest serving Minister in Lebanese politics and served 22 terms as the Lebanese Defense Minister. In September 1943 Kamal Jumblatt was elected to the National Assembly for the first time, as a deputy of Mount Lebanon. He joined the National Bloc led by Émile Eddé, thus opposing the rule of the Constitutional Bloc, headed by the then-President, Bechara El Khoury. On 8 November 1943, however, he signed the constitutional amendment (which abolished the articles referring to the Mandate) demanded by the Constitutional Bloc. On 14 December 1946, he was appointed minister for the first time, for the portfolio of economy, in Riad Al Solh's cabinet. His term was from 14 December 1946 to 7 June 1947, and he replaced Saadi Al Munla. Sleiman Nawfal replaced Jumblatt as economy minister.
In 1947, in spite of his own election for the second time as deputy, he thought of resigning from the government. He began to believe that change through the Lebanese political system was impossible.
Kamal Jumblatt officially founded the Progressive Socialist Party (PSP) on 1 May 1949. The PSP was a socialist party espousing secularism and officially opposed to the sectarian character of Lebanese politics. In practice, it has been led and largely supported since its foundation by various segments of Lebanese society, especially members of the Druze community, and the Jumblatt clan in particular. In 1949, Jumblatt firmly opposed the execution of political leader Antoun Saadeh and held the government responsible for his assassination. In the name of the PSP, Jumblatt called the first convention of the Arab Socialist Parties, was held in Beirut in May 1951. Prior to the 1952 elections, Jumblatt declared the formation of the opposition salvation front electoral list in a rally on 18 March 1951 in the village of Barouk, Mount Lebanon. Clashes between Jumblatt's supporters and Lebanese security forces led to the death of four, three of them were PSP supporters. After this incident he gave his famous speech:"Today, our party was baptized with blood". In the same year, he was reelected for the third time as Deputy of Mount Lebanon.
In 1952, he represented Lebanon at the Cultural Freedom Conference held in Switzerland. In August 1952, he organized a National Conference at Deir El Kamar, in the name of the National Socialist Front, calling for the resignation of President Bechara El Khoury. Due mainly to these pressures, the President resigned the same year.
The 1958 revolt
In 1952, after the resignation of Bechara El Khoury Jumblatt's bloc nominated Camille Chamoun for presidency. Chamoun was elected president in September 1952.
In 1953, Jumblatt was re-elected Deputy for the fourth time. He founded the Popular Socialist Front in the same year and led the opposition against the new President, Camille Chamoun. During his presidency, the pro-Western President Chamoun tied Lebanon to the policies of the United States and the United Kingdom, who were at that time involved in the creation of the Baghdad Pact, comprising Hashemite Iraq, Turkey and Pakistan. This was seen by pan-Arabists as an imperialist coalition, and it was strongly opposed by the influential Nasserist movement. Jumblatt supported Egypt against an attack by Israel, France, and the United Kingdom in the Suez War of 1956, while Chamoun and parts of the Maronite Christian elite in Lebanon tacitly supported the invasion. The sectarian tensions of Lebanon greatly increased in this period, and both sides began to brace for violent conflict.
In 1957, Jumblatt failed for the first time in the parliamentary elections, complaining of electoral gerrymandering and election fraud by the authorities. A year later, he was the main leader of a major political uprising against Camille Chamoun's Maronite-dominated government, which soon escalated into street fights and guerilla attacks. While the revolt reflected a number of political and sectarian conflicts, it had a pan-Arabist ideology, and was heavily supported through Syria by the newly formed United Arab Republic. The uprising ended after the United States intervened on the side of the Chamoun government and sent the U.S. Marine Corps to occupy Beirut. A political settlement followed by which Jumblatt's candidate Fuad Chehab was appointed new President of the Republic.
Uniting the opposition
Jumblatt chaired the Afro-Asian People’s Conference in 1960 and founded the same year, the National Struggle Front (NSF) (جبهة النضال الوطني), a movement which gathered a large number of nationalist deputies. That same year, he was reelected Deputy for the fifth time and the NSF won 11 seats within the Lebanese Parliament. From 1960 to 1961 he was Minister for the second time, for the National Education portfolio and then in 1961 he was appointed Minister of Public Work and Planning. From 1961 to 1964 he served as Interior Minister.
On 8 May 1964, he won at the parliamentary elections for the sixth time. In 1965, he began joining together Arab nationalist and progressivist politicians into a Nationalist Personalities Front. In 1966 he was appointed Minister of Public Work and Minister of PTT. He also represented Lebanon at the Congress of Afro-Asian Solidarity, and presided over the parliamentary and popular delegation to the People’s Republic of China in 1966.
He supported the Palestinians in their struggle against Israel for ideological reasons, but also to garner support from the Palestinian fedayeen based in Lebanon's refugee camps. The presence in Lebanon of large numbers of Palestinian refugees was resented by most Christians, but Jumblatt strived to build a hard core of opposition around the Arab nationalist slogans of the Palestinian movement. Demanding a new Lebanese order based on secularism, socialism, Arabism and an abolition of the sectarian system, Jumblatt began gathering disenchanted Sunnis, Shi'a and leftist Christians into an embryonic national opposition movement.
Build-up to civil war
On 9 May 1968, Jumblatt was reelected Deputy for the seventh time. In 1970, he was once again appointed Minister of the Interior, a reward for his last-minute switch of allegiance in the presidential election that year, which resulted in Suleiman Franjieh's victory by one vote over Elias Sarkis. His support of Franjieh, whose presidency 1970-1976 is regarded as egregiously corrupt, from a sometime supporter of the Chebab reforms, was crucial. As Interior Minister, he legalized the Communist Party (LCP) and the Syrian Social Nationalist Party (SSNP). In 1972, Jumblatt was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize by the Soviet Union. The same year, he was reelected Deputy for the eighth time. The following year, he was unanimously elected Secretary General of the Arab Front, a movement supportive of the Palestinian revolution.
The 1970s in Lebanon were characterized by rapidly building tension between the Christian-dominated government and Muslim and leftist opposition forces, demanding better representation in the government apparatus and a stronger Lebanese commitment to the Arab world. The conflict took place more or less along the same sectarian and political lines as the 1958 rebellion.
Both the opposition and their mainly Christian opponents organized armed militias, and the risk of armed conflict increased steadily. Jumblatt had organized his own PSP into an armed force, and made it the backbone of the Lebanese National Movement (LNM), a coalition of 12 left-wing parties and movements. He also headed this coalition. The LNM demanded the abolition of the sectarian quota system that permeated Lebanese politics, which discriminated against Muslims. The LNM was further joined by Palestinian radicals of the Rejectionist Front, and maintained good relations with the officially non-committal Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). The Palestinian presence in the ranks of the opposition was a new development compared to the 1958 conflict.
The Lebanese Civil War
In April 1975, a series of tit-for-tat killings culminating in a Phalangist massacre of Palestinian civilians, prompted full-blown fighting in Beirut. In August 1975, Jumblatt declared a program for reform of the Lebanese political system, and the LNM openly challenged the government's legitimacy. In October 1975, a new round of fighting broke out, and quickly spread throughout the country: the Lebanese Civil War had begun.
During the period between 1975 and 1976, Jumblatt acted as the main leader of the Lebanese opposition in the war, and with the aid of the PLO the LNM rapidly gained control over nearly 80% of Lebanon. They were on the verge of military decisiveness and putting the civil war into an end. Jumblatt paid a visit to Hafez al-Assad in March 1976, during which it was made clear that the Syrian position is very contrary to the one of the LNM. This prompted an end of the political relationship between the two political leaders. The Syrian intervened militarily on the 1 of June 1976, since the Syrian government claimed fearing a collapse of the Christian-dominated order and a subsequent Israeli invasion in order to aid the Christians and control the country, thus furthering Israel's influence in the region. However this claim proved to be wrong for Israelis invaded Southern Lebanon in 1978 under the pretext of defending its northern borders from any possible Syrian aggression. Some 40,000 Syrian soldiers invaded Lebanon in 1976 and quickly smashed the LNM's favorable position; a truce was declared and the fighting subsided. During a pan-Arabic conference in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia in the same year, an agreement was signed which included the presence of a Syrian military peace keeping force under the auspices of the Arab League.
Jumblatt's son Walid Jumblatt was kidnapped by Christian militants during the civil war and released after the intervention of former president Camille Chamoun. Kamal Jumblatt was the target of an assassination attempt during the same period. Although he survived, his sister Linda was killed by a group of armed men who burst into their apartment in 1976.
Personal life
Born in the Druze faith, Kamal Jumblatt adopted Christian teachings while at his alma mater, the Lazarus Fathers Institute in Aintoura. He would regularly attend mass with his fellow students, and was found reciting Catholic prayers several years later over his cousin Hikmat Joumblatt's death bed.
On 1 May 1948, Jumblatt married May Arslan, daughter of Prince Shakib Arslan (the Arslans being the other prominent Lebanese Druze family), in Geneva. Their only son, Walid Jumblatt, was born on 7 August 1949. Magid Arslan
Kamal Jumblatt lectured extensively and wrote more than 1200 editorials in both Arabic and French. He is described as a socialist idealist under the influence of the European left movement. He published his memoires under the title I Speak for Lebanon.
Death
On 16 March 1977, Kamal Jumblatt was gunned down in his car near the village of Baakline in the Chouf mountains by unidentified gunmen. His bodyguard and driver also died in the attack.
Prime suspects include the Ba'ath Party. In June 2005, former secretary general of the Lebanese Communist Party George Hawi claimed in an interview with Al Jazeera, that Rifaat al-Assad, brother of Hafez al Assad and uncle of Syria's current President Bashar al-Assad, had been behind the killing of Jumblatt.
His son Walid Jumblatt immediately succeeded him as the main Druze leader of Lebanon and as head of the PSP. He was elected leader of the PSP on 1 May 1977. In 2015, Walid Jumblatt accused two Syrian officers, Ibrahim al-Hiwaija and Mohammed al-Khauli, as being responsible of killing his father.
Kamal Jumblatt Centennial (1917-2017)
On the centennial anniversary for the birth of Kamal Jumblatt, the Leadership of the Progressive Socialist Party launched the "centennial of Kamal Jumblatt", A small bust of Kamal Jumblatt with a small certificate signed by the PSP chief Walid Joumblatt with a yellow pin of the People's Liberation Army, that have been awarded to more than 22,000 PSP, PLA and National Movement supporters, veterans and henchmen across all over Lebanon.
See also
List of assassinated Lebanese politicians
List of unsolved murders
Notes
References
External links
Podcast on Kamal Jumblatt's political life and legacy by The Lebanese Politics Podcast.
Christopher Solomon, A look back at Kamal Jumblatt and the Progressive Socialist Party, 16 March 2019, Syria Comment
1917 births
1977 deaths
Assassinated Lebanese politicians
Deaths by firearm in Lebanon
Druze people of Lebanese nationality
Interior ministers of Lebanon
Kamal
Lebanese Arab nationalists
Lebanese democracy activists
Lebanese philosophers
Lebanese politicians of Kurdish descent
Lebanese socialists
Lenin Peace Prize recipients
Male murder victims
People from Chouf District
People of the Lebanese Civil War
Progressive Socialist Party politicians
Saint Joseph University alumni
University of Paris alumni
Unsolved murders
|
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] |
211525
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cernaysia
|
Cernaysia
|
Cernaysia is an extinct genus of mammal from the Paleocene of France and the United States. It existed in the age immediately following the extinction of the last dinosaurs. This animal was a member of the extinct order Multituberculata within the suborder Cimolodonta and family Neoplagiaulacidae.
The genus Cernaysia ("from Cernay") was named by Vianey-Liaud M. in 1986 based on two species. It has also been known as Carnaysia.
Fossil remains of the species Cernaysia davidi (Vianey-Liaud M. 1986) were found in Puercan (Lower Paleocene) strata of the San Juan Basin of New Mexico, (United States). Remains of the species Cernaysia manueli (Vianey-Liaud M. 1986) were found in Upper Paleocene strata from Cernay, France.
References
Vianey-Liaud (1986), Les Multituberculés Thanétiens de France, et leurs rapports avec les Multituberculés Nord-Américains. Palaeontogr. Abt. A: Paläozool. Stratigr. 191 p. 85-171, 3 plates.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS: Ptilodontoidea, an Internet directory.
Ptilodontoids
Paleocene mammals
Paleocene genus extinctions
Fossils of France
Prehistoric mammal genera
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nighthawk
|
Nighthawk
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The nighthawk is a nocturnal bird of the subfamily Chordeilinae, within the nightjar family, Caprimulgidae, native to the western hemisphere. The term "nighthawk", first recorded in the King James Bible of 1611, was originally a local name in England for the European nightjar. Its use in the Americas refers to members of the genus Chordeiles and related genera was first recorded in 1778.
Nighthawks are medium-sized birds with long wings, short legs, and very short bills. They usually nest on the ground. They feed on flying insects. The least nighthawk, at and , is the smallest of all Caprimulgiformes.
Nightjars are sometimes referred to as goatsuckers from the mistaken belief that they suck milk from goats (the Latin for goatsucker is Caprimulgus).
In October 2018, the University of Alberta published research on the common nighthawk revealing that it travels 20,000 kilometres every year during migration between the rainforests and savannas of Brazil and its breeding grounds in northern Alberta.
Nighthawks have small feet, of little use for walking, and long pointed wings. Their soft plumage is cryptically coloured to resemble bark or leaves. Some species perch facing along a branch, rather than across it as birds usually do. This helps to conceal them during the day. The female lays two patterned eggs directly onto bare ground.
They are mostly active in the late evening and early morning or at night and feed on moths and other large flying insects. The bill opens very wide and has a slightly hooked upper tip.
Nighthawks are similar in most respects to the nightjars, but have shorter bills and plumage that is less soft. Nighthawks are less strictly nocturnal than many nightjars and may be seen hunting when there is still light in the sky.
Taxonomy and systematics
References
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Vincennes%20%281826%29
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USS Vincennes (1826)
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|Ship speed=18.5 knots (rated)<ref>Philbrick, Nathaniel [http://www.nathanielphilbrick.com/seaofglory/index.html Book: Sea of Glory: America’s Voyage of Discovery : The U.S. Exploring Expedition, 1838–1842 ] . New York : Viking, 2003.. Retrieved 2009-09-09</ref>
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USS Vincennes (1826) was a 703-ton Boston-class sloop of war in the United States Navy from 1826 to 1865. During her service, Vincennes patrolled the Pacific, explored the Antarctic, and blockaded the Confederate Gulf coast in the Civil War. Named for the Revolutionary War Battle of Vincennes, she was the first U.S. warship to circumnavigate the globe.
Built in BrooklynVincennes—the first American ship to be so named—was one of ten sloops of war whose construction was authorized by Congress on 3 March 1825. She was laid down at New York in 1825, launched on 27 April 1826, and commissioned on 27 August 1826, with Master Commandant William Compton Bolton in command.
First world cruise
The ship set sail for the first time on 3 September 1826, from New York bound for the Pacific by way of Cape Horn. She cruised extensively in that ocean, visiting the Hawaiian islands in 1829 and made her way to Macau by 1830, under Commander William B. Finch. Her return voyage was made by way of China, the Philippines, the Indian Ocean, and the Cape of Good Hope. Ship chaplain Charles Samuel Stewart published a book about the voyage. After nearly four years, Vincennes arrived back in New York on 8 June 1830, becoming the first U.S. Navy ship to circumnavigate the Earth. Two days later the ship was decommissioned.
West Indies and Guam operations
Following repairs and recommissioned, Vincennes then operated in the West Indies and the Gulf of Mexico as part of the West Indies Squadron in 1831–32. After a long bout of yellow fever, she was decommissioned again for a time in 1833 before sailing once more.
She departed for a second Pacific deployment in 1833, becoming the first American warship to call at Guam. She again sailed around the globe to return to the U.S. East Coast in June 1836.
Supporting the Wilkes Expedition
Decommissioned once again in 1836, while she underwent remodeling, she was refitted with a light spar deck and declared the flagship of the South Sea Surveying and Exploring Expedition to the Antarctic region.
Commanded by Lieutenant Charles Wilkes, the expedition sailed from Hampton Roads in August 1838, and made surveys along the South American coast before making a brief survey of Antarctica in early 1839. Entering into the South Pacific in August and September 1839, her cartographers drafted charts of that area that are still used today.
Following survey operations and other scientific work along the west coast of South America and in the South Pacific during the rest of the year, in late 1839 Vincennes arrived at Sydney, Australia, her base for a pioneering cruise to Antarctica. She unintentionally exposed the lack of defences and security at Sydney Harbour when she slipped unnoticed into Sydney Harbour on 30 November 1839 under the cover of darkness. Between mid-January and mid-February 1840, she operated along the icy coast of the southernmost continent. The coast along which the ship sailed is today known as Wilkes Land, a name given on maps as early as 1841.
The remainder of her deployment included visits to the islands of the South Pacific, Hawaii, the Columbia River area, Puget Sound, California, Wake Island, the Philippines and South Africa. This third voyage around the world ended at New York in June 1842.
1842–1847 operationsVincennes was next assigned to the Home Squadron and placed under the command of Commander Franklin Buchanan, a distinguished officer destined to become the first Superintendent of the United States Naval Academy. She sailed to the West Indies and cruised off the Mexican coast until the summer of 1844. Though this duty proved relatively uneventful, Vincennes did rescue two grounded English brigs off the coast of Texas and received the thanks of the British government for this service. Buchanan was also ordered to prevent any attempted invasion by Mexico of the new Republic of Texas. This eventuality never materialized; and Vincennes returned to Hampton Roads on 15 August to enter dry dock.
On 4 June 1845, Vincennes sailed for the Far East under command of Captain Hiram Paulding. She was accompanied by the ship-of-the-line , under the command of Captain Thomas Wyman; and the two vessels formed a little squadron under the command of Commodore James Biddle, who carried a letter from Secretary of State John C. Calhoun to Caleb Cushing, American commissioner in China, authorizing Cushing to make the first official contact with the Japanese Government.
The squadron sailed for Macau by way of Rio de Janeiro and the Cape of Good Hope. Commodore Biddle arrived safely in Macau only to find that Cushing had already left for home and that his successor, Alexander H. Everett, was too ill to make the trip. Therefore, Biddle determined to conduct the negotiations himself.
Accordingly, Vincennes and Columbus sailed for Japan on 7 July 1846 and anchored off Uraga on 19 July. The Japanese surrounded the vessels and allowed no one to land. Otherwise the visitors were treated with courtesy. However, Commodore Biddle's attempts to force the opening of feudal Japan to multinational trade were politely rebuffed, and the vessels weighed anchor on 29 July. Columbus returned to the United States by way of Cape Horn, but Vincennes remained on the China Station for another year before returning to New York on 1 April 1847. Here, she was decommissioned on the 9th, dry-docked, and laid up.
1849–1860 operationsVincennes remained in ordinary until 1849. Recommissioned on 12 November 1849, she sailed from New York exactly one month later, bound for Cape Horn and the west coast of South America. On 2 July 1850, while lying off Guayaquil, Ecuador, she harbored the Ecuadoran revolutionary General Elizalde for three days during one of that country's frequent civil disturbances. Sailing on to San Francisco, California, the vessel lost 36 members of her crew to the gold fever sweeping California at the time. Turning south, Vincennes cruised off South America until late 1851, closely monitoring the activities of revolutionaries ashore.
She made a courtesy call to the Hawaiian Islands at the end of the year and proceeded thence to Puget Sound where she arrived on 2 February 1852. She anchored briefly there and returned via San Francisco and the Horn to New York where she arrived on 21 September and was decommissioned on the 24th.
Following repairs and a period in ordinary, Vincennes was recommissioned on 21 March 1853 and sailed into Norfolk, Virginia on 13 May to join her second exploratory expedition, serving as flagship to Commander Cadwalader Ringgold's survey of the China Sea, the North Pacific, and the Bering Strait. Comdr. Ringgold was a veteran of the Wilkes expedition. The squadron stood out of Norfolk on 11 June 1853, rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and charted numerous islands and shoals in the Indian Ocean before arriving in China in March 1854. Here Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry relieved Ringgold for medical reasons and gave command of the expedition to Lt. John Rodgers.Vincennes sailed on to survey the Bonin and Ladrone Islands and returned to Hong Kong in February 1855. The expedition sailed again in March and surveyed the islands between the Ryūkyū chain and Japan, and then the Kurils. Vincennes left the squadron at Petropavlovsk, Russia, and entered the Bering Strait, sailing through to the northwest towards Wrangel Island. Ice barriers prevented the vessel from reaching this destination, but she came closer than any other previous ship. Vincennes returned to San Francisco in early October and later sailed for the Horn and New York, where she arrived on 13 July 1856 to complete yet another circumnavigation of the globe.Vincennes operated with the African Squadron in 1857–1860.
American Civil War service
After the outbreak of the American Civil War in April 1861, Vincennes was recommissioned on 29 June and assigned to duty in the Gulf Blockading Squadron. She arrived off Fort Pickens, Florida, on 3 September, and was ordered to assist in the occupation of Head of Passes, Mississippi River, and remain there on blockade duty. Though the Federal warships did successfully deploy, on 12 October 1861 the Confederate metal-sheathed ram and armed steamers and drove the Union blockaders from Head of Passes in the Battle of the Head of Passes, forcing the Screw sloop-of-war and Vincennes aground. Vincennes was ordered abandoned and destroyed to prevent her capture, and her engineer set a slow match to the vessel's magazine while her men took refuge on other ships. However, her engineer cut the burning fuse and threw it overboard before the magazine could explode and, after the Confederate vessels withdrew early in the afternoon, Vincennes was refloated.
After the Confederate attack, the Union sloop-of-war continued on blockade duty off the Passes of the Mississippi, capturing the blockade-running British bark Empress, aground at North East Pass with a large cargo of coffee on 27 November. On 4 March 1862, she was ordered to proceed to Pensacola, Florida, to relieve and spent the next six months shuttling between Pensacola and Mobile, Alabama, performing routine patrol and reconnaissance duty. On 4 October, she was ordered to assume command of the blockade off Ship Island, Mississippi, and to guard the pass out of Mississippi Sound. While so deployed, boat crews from the vessel and captured the barge H. McGuin in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, on 18 July 1863. Vincennes also reported the capture of two boats laden with food on 24 December.
End-of-war service and decommissioningVincennes'' remained off Ship Island for the remainder of the war and was laid up in ordinary at the Boston Navy Yard on 28 August 1865. The veteran world traveler was decommissioned in August 1865 and sold at public auction at Boston on 5 October 1867 for approximately $5,000.00, completing a career that made her one of the Navy's most widely traveled ships.
See also
Mexican–American War
European and American voyages of scientific exploration
Union Navy
List of United States Navy ships
References
External links
USS Vincennes (1826–1867)
Vincennes
Transactions Growing out of the Visit of the U.S. ship Vincennes to the Principal Islands in the Pacific Ocean, 1829-1830, MS 143 held by Special Collections & Archives, Nimitz Library at the United States Naval Academy
Ships of the Union Navy
Ships built in Brooklyn
Mexican–American War ships of the United States
Sloops of the United States Navy
Exploration ships
United States Navy Indiana-related ships
History of Antarctica
United States and the Antarctic
1826 ships
Ships of the United States Exploring Expedition
Maritime incidents in October 1861
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Vincennes%20%28CG-49%29
|
USS Vincennes (CG-49)
|
USS Vincennes (CG-49) was a guided missile cruiser outfitted with the Aegis combat system that was in service with the United States Navy from July 1985 to June 2005. She was one of 27 ships of the Ticonderoga class constructed for the United States Navy, and one of five equipped with the Mark 26 Guided Missile Launching System.
Vincennes was commissioned in 1985, and saw service in the Pacific before being dispatched to the Persian Gulf in 1988 in support of Operation Earnest Will during the Iran–Iraq War. Operating in this capacity the cruiser shot down Iran Air Flight 655 over the Persian Gulf, killing 290 passengers and sparking an international incident between Iran and the United States. Following the cessation of hostilities, Vincennes returned to the Pacific Fleet where she remained for the rest of her active career.
Vincennes was decommissioned in 2005 after attempts to retrofit the cruiser with the Mark 41 Vertical Launching System failed, and was initially laid up in a reserve fleet at the Naval Inactive Ship Maintenance Facility at Naval Base Kitsap, in Bremerton, Washington. In 2010 the vessel was towed to Texas for scrapping, which was completed in 2011.
History
1980s
Vincennes was launched on 14 April 1984 and sponsored by Marilyn Quayle, wife of Indiana Senator Dan Quayle. Vincennes was named for the Battle of Vincennes during the American Revolutionary War, while the previous Vincennes heavy cruiser and Vincennes light cruiser were named for the city of Vincennes, Indiana. The cruiser was commissioned at Pascagoula on 6 July 1985, Captain George N. Gee in command. The ship normally carried guided missiles, rapid-fire cannons, and two Seahawk LAMPS helicopters for anti-submarine and anti-ship warfare, personnel transfers, and other purposes.
Vincennes was the first of the Ticonderoga-class cruisers to enter the Pacific Fleet. Upon commissioning in 1985, Vincennes helped test the SM-2 Block II surface-to-air missile. In May 1986, Vincennes participated in the multinational exercise RIMPAC 86, coordinating the anti-aircraft warfare efforts of two aircraft carriers and more than 40 ships from five nations. Vincennes was deployed in August 1986 to the Western Pacific and Indian Oceans. The ship served as anti-air warfare commander with the and battle groups, operated with the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force and the Royal Australian Navy, and steamed more than in waters from the Bering Sea to the Indian Ocean.
Iran–Iraq War
During the Iran–Iraq War the United States took active measures in the Persian Gulf to protect shipping, mainly oil tankers, that were being threatened by both countries.
Operation Earnest Will
On 14 April 1988, the guided missile frigate hit a mine in the Persian Gulf during Operation Earnest Will. Six days later, Vincennes was re-deployed from Fleet Exercise 88–2, sent back to San Diego, California and told to prepare for a six-month deployment. The reason for the haste: Navy leaders decided that they needed an Aegis ship to protect the exit of the damaged Samuel B. Roberts through the Strait of Hormuz. One month later, the cruiser entered the Persian Gulf, and in early July, stood guard in the Strait as the damaged frigate was borne out on the heavy-lift ship Mighty Servant 2. The ship made 14 Hormuz transits during its Earnest Will operations.
Iran Air Flight 655
On 3 July 1988, Vincennes, under the command of Captain Will Rogers III, was on patrol when it was reported that Iranian Revolutionary Guard gun boats had attacked a Pakistani merchant vessel. Vincennes deployed one of her helicopters to investigate. Shortly thereafter Rogers ordered his ship to move off station to the north. The destroyer flotilla commander ordered Vincennes to return to her original station. Vincenness helicopter had followed the Revolutionary Guard gunboats into Iranian waters, and while maintaining contact with the boats, came under gunfire from the Iranians.
The helicopter crew reported that they had come under fire and with that report, Rogers turned his ship around and, with the frigate , moved to intercept the gunboats. By doing so, Vincennes crossed into Iranian waters herself. As the US ships approached, the Iranian gunboats maneuvered, in what Rogers claimed was a threatening fashion. Rogers requested permission to fire and permission was granted by command, without knowing that Vincennes had crossed into Iranian waters. Vincennes and Elmer Montgomery commenced fire upon the gunboats at 9:43 a.m., scoring several hits on the gunboats, sinking two and damaging another.
While Vincennes was firing on the Iranian gunboats, confusion reigned aboard the ship as the tracking of aircraft in the area had become muddled, between Vincennes and other U.S. ships, and on Vincennes itself. Crucially, Vincennes misidentified an Iran Air Airbus A300 civilian airliner, Iran Air Flight 655, as an attacking F-14 Tomcat fighter aircraft. The Iran Air Flight 655 was climbing at the time, and her IFF transponder was on the Mode III civilian code rather than on the purely military Mode II, as recorded by Vincenness own shipboard Aegis Combat System. After issuing multiple radio challenges and receiving no response from the aircraft, Vincennes fired two radar-guided missiles and shot down the Iranian civilian airliner over Iranian airspace in the Strait of Hormuz, killing all 290 passengers and crew on board.
The Iranian government has maintained that Vincennes knowingly shot down the civilian aircraft. Iran Air Flight IR655 flew every day out of Bandar Abbas—a civil as well as military airport—on a scheduled passenger flight to Dubai using established air lanes. The Italian navy and another U.S. warship, the frigate , confirmed that the plane was climbing—not diving to attack—at the time of the missile strike. The U.S. radio warnings were only broadcast on 121.5 MHz, not air traffic control frequencies and mistakenly identified the altitude and position of the plane, so the Airbus crew, if they were monitoring "guard," could have misinterpreted the warnings as referring to another aircraft. Captain David Carlson of Sides later said that the destruction of the airliner "marked the horrifying climax to Rogers' aggressiveness".
1990s
In February 1990, Vincennes was deployed on a third six-month tour of the western Pacific and Indian oceans, with SH-60 helicopters from HSL-45 Detachment 13. The ship coordinated all battle group air events and served as the command-and-control flagship during Harpoon-Ex-90. In July 1990, Vincennes returned home after steaming nearly .
In August 1991, Vincennes departed for a fourth western Pacific deployment. Steaming with the aircraft carrier , Vincennes performed duties as the anti-air warfare commander for Battle Group Delta until detaching to participate as the United States representative in MERCUBEX 91, a joint United States and Republic of Singapore Navy exercise. Over the next three months, Vincennes participated in the bilateral exercise Valiant Blitz with the South Korean Navy, the bilateral exercise Annualex 03G with the Japanese Maritime Self Defense Force, and ASWEX 92-1K with the South Korean Navy before reaching Hong Kong to act as the U.S. representative for the Navy Days ceremonies. Vincennes returned from deployment on 21 December 1991.
In June 1994, Vincennes departed on a fifth western Pacific deployment with the Battle Group. Vincennes performed duties as anti-air warfare commander for the battle group. During deployment, Vincennes conducted an anti-submarine exercise, PASSEX 94–2, with the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force, the bilateral exercise MERCUB 94–2, a joint U.S. and Singaporean Navy exercise of the Malaysian peninsula, the bilateral exercise Keen Edge, with the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force, and Tandem Thrust, a larger-scale joint exercise which Vincennes participated as the area air defense coordinator for the entire joint operating area. Vincennes returned from this deployment on 22 December 1994.
In August 1997, Vincennes changed homeport from San Diego to Yokosuka, Japan, with SH-60B helicopters from HSL-49 Detachment 8G embarked, then steamed to the South Pacific and took part in Exercise Valiant Usher 98–1 with the amphibious ready group and the Royal Australian Navy destroyer . The combined exercise took place near Townsend Island, Australia.
Vincennes also took part in the U.S. Seventh Fleet's Fleet Battle Experiment Delta (FBE-D) from 24 October 1998, to 2 November 1998, in conjunction with the exercise, Foal Eagle, a regularly scheduled exercise that simulates the military defense of South Korea. Sponsored by the Navy Warfare Development Command, FBE-D was the fourth in a series of experiments that tested new combat systems and procedures at sea.
2000s
On 12 August 2000, Vincennes completed Sharem 134, a bilateral exercise with several Japanese ships and other U.S. participants. The exercise included a week of undersea warfare training and data collection in the South China Sea. The ship tested her submarine detection, sonar range testing, and use of sonobuoys, and developed new submarine prosecution procedures. The final Sharem events included a "freeplay", which allowed the cruiser to detect and prosecute other submarines, combining many of the tactics and systems tested during Sharem.
In mid-November 2000, the cruiser fired missile batteries at remote-controlled aerial drones provided by Fleet Activities Okinawa during MISSILEX 01–1.
Vincennes took part in a 23 August 2001 to 27 August 2001, military training exercise called Multi-Sail, which was designed to provide U.S. and Japanese forces interoperability training in multiple warfare areas.
Vincennes departed from Yokosuka on 17 September 2001, to conduct operations in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. The ship returned on 18 December 2001 after more than three months at sea.
In March 2003, Vincennes was assigned to Destroyer Squadron 15.
Decommissioning
While there had been several proposals through the 1990s to retrofit the vertical launch system into Vincennes and her four sister ships to extend their service life, none were funded, and all five ships were instead decommissioned; Vincennes herself on 29 June 2005 at San Diego, California and was stricken later that day. She was mothballed at the Naval Inactive Ship Maintenance Facility in Naval Base Kitsap, in Bremerton, Washington. In 2008, Vincennes was slated for scrapping within the next five years along with her sister ships and .
On 9 July 2010, a contract to scrap Vincennes was issued to International Shipbreaking, Brownsville, Texas.
On 21 November 2010, Vincennes arrived via the Panama Canal to International Shipbreaking in Brownsville, Texas, and was completely scrapped by 23 November 2011.
Awards and decorations
Vincennes has been awarded the Combat Action Ribbon (3 July 1988),
Navy Meritorious Unit Commendation (16 January 2 February 1987)
Battle Efficiency "E" three times (1990, 1993, 2001)
National Defense Service Medal
Vincennes also received a Meritorious Unit Commendation, along with the entire Kitty Hawk battle group, for 9 July 1994 9 December 1994.
Vincennes also received two Armed Forces Expeditionary Medals for Persian Gulf service, 22 May 1988 21 August 1988 and 5 May 1990 1 June 1990.
Image gallery
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
WebArchive.org – Archive of Official ship's history page from 2005
Nayvsite.de – USS Vincennes page
dod.mil – Investigation Report for the downing of Iran Air 655
Ticonderoga-class cruisers
Ships built in Pascagoula, Mississippi
1984 ships
Cold War cruisers of the United States
United States Navy Indiana-related ships
|
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] |
211544
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne%20de%20Mortimer
|
Anne de Mortimer
|
Anne de Mortimer, also known as Anne Mortimer (27 December 138822 September 1411), was a medieval English noblewoman who became an ancestor to the royal House of York, one of the parties in the fifteenth-century dynastic Wars of the Roses. It was her line of descent which gave the Yorkist dynasty its claim to the throne. Anne was the mother of Richard, Duke of York, and thus grandmother of kings Edward IV and Richard III.
Early life
Born on 27 December 1388, Anne Mortimer was the eldest of the four children of Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March (1374–1398), and Eleanor Holland (1370–1405). She had two brothers, Edmund, 5th Earl of March (1391–1425), and Roger (1393–1413?), as well as a sister, Eleanor.
Anne's father was a grandson of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, second surviving son of King Edward III of England, an ancestry which made Mortimer a potential heir to the throne during the reign of the childless King Richard II. Upon Roger Mortimer's death in 1398, this claim passed to his son and heir, Anne's brother Edmund, Earl of March. In 1399, Richard II was deposed by Henry IV, of the House of Lancaster, making Edmund Mortimer a dynastic threat to the new king, who in turn placed both Edmund and his brother Roger under royal custody.
Anne and her sister Eleanor remained in the care of their mother, Countess Eleanor, who, not long after her first husband's death, married Lord Edward Charleton of Powys. Following their mother's death in 1405, the sisters fared less well than their brothers and were described as "destitute", needing £100 per annum for themselves and their servants.
Marriage and issue
Around early 1408 (probably after 8 January), Anne married Richard of Conisburgh (1385–1415), the second son of Edmund, Duke of York (fourth son of King Edward III). The marriage was undertaken secretly and probably with haste, without the knowledge of her nearest relatives, and was validated on 23 May 1408 by papal dispensation.
Anne Mortimer and Richard of Conisburgh had two sons and a daughter:
Isabel of York (1409 – 2 October 1484), who in 1412, at three years of age, was betrothed to Sir Thomas Grey, son and heir of Sir Thomas Grey of Heaton (1384–1415), by whom she had one son. Isabel married secondly, before 25 April 1426 (the marriage being later validated by papal dispensation), Henry Bourchier, 1st Earl of Essex, by whom she had issue.
Henry of York
Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York (22 September 1411 – 30 December 1460), Yorkist claimant to the English throne, and father of kings Edward IV and Richard III
Anne Mortimer died soon after the birth of her son Richard on 22 September 1411. She was probably buried at Kings Langley, Hertfordshire, once the site of Kings Langley Palace, perhaps in the conventual church that houses the tombs of her husband's parents Edmund of Langley and Isabella of Castile.
Ancestry
References
Bibliography
External links
The Cambridge conspiracy in The History of Sir John Oldcastle
1388 births
1411 deaths
14th-century English women
14th-century English people
15th-century English women
15th-century English people
Anne Mortimer
Anne
Deaths in childbirth
Daughters of British earls
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe%20acute%20respiratory%20syndrome%E2%80%93related%20coronavirus
|
Severe acute respiratory syndrome–related coronavirus
|
Severe acute respiratory syndrome–related coronavirus (SARSr-CoV or SARS-CoV) is a species of virus consisting of many known strains phylogenetically related to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 1 (SARS-CoV-1) that have been shown to possess the capability to infect humans, bats, and certain other mammals. These enveloped, positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses enter host cells by binding to the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor. The SARSr-CoV species is a member of the genus Betacoronavirus and of the subgenus Sarbecovirus (SARS Betacoronavirus).
Two strains of the virus have caused outbreaks of severe respiratory diseases in humans: severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 1 (SARS-CoV or SARS-CoV-1), which caused the 2002–2004 outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which is causing the ongoing pandemic of COVID-19. There are hundreds of other strains of SARSr-CoV, which are only known to infect non-human species: bats are a major reservoir of many strains of SARSr-CoV; several strains have been identified in palm civets, which were likely ancestors of SARS-CoV-1.
The SARS-related coronavirus was one of several viruses identified by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2016 as a likely cause of a future epidemic in a new plan developed after the Ebola epidemic for urgent research and development before and during an epidemic towards diagnostic tests, vaccines and medicines. This prediction came to pass with the COVID-19 pandemic.
Classification
SARS-related coronavirus is a member of the genus Betacoronavirus (group 2) and monotypic of the subgenus Sarbecovirus (subgroup B). Sarbecoviruses, unlike embecoviruses or alphacoronaviruses, have only one papain-like proteinase (PLpro) instead of two in the open reading frame ORF1ab. SARSr-CoV was determined to be an early split-off from the betacoronaviruses based on a set of conserved domains that it shares with the group.
Bats serve as the main host reservoir species for the SARS-related coronaviruses like SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2. The virus has coevolved in the bat host reservoir over a long period of time. Only recently have strains of SARS-related coronavirus been observed to have evolved into having been able to make the cross-species jump from bats to humans, as in the case of the strains SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2. Both of these strains descended from a single ancestor but made the cross-species jump into humans separately. SARS-CoV-2 is not a direct descendant of SARS-CoV-1.
Genome
The SARS-related coronavirus is an enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus. Its genome is about 30 kb, which is one of the largest among RNA viruses. The virus has 14 open reading frames which overlap in some cases. The genome has the usual 5′ methylated cap and a 3′ polyadenylated tail. There are 265 nucleotides in the 5'UTR and 342 nucleotides in the 3'UTR.
The 5' methylated cap and 3' polyadenylated tail allows the positive-sense RNA genome to be directly translated by the host cell's ribosome on viral entry. SARSr-CoV is similar to other coronaviruses in that its genome expression starts with translation by the host cell's ribosomes of its initial two large overlapping open reading frames (ORFs), 1a and 1b, both of which produce polyproteins.
The functions of several of the viral proteins are known. ORFs 1a and 1b encode the replicase/transcriptase polyprotein, and later ORFs 2, 4, 5, and 9a encode, respectively, the four major structural proteins: spike (S), envelope (E), membrane (M), and nucleocapsid (N). The later ORFs also encode for eight unique proteins (orf3a to orf9b), known as the accessory proteins, many with no known homologues. The different functions of the accessory proteins are not well understood.
SARS coronaviruses have been genetically engineered in several laboratories.
Phylogenetics
Phylogenetic analysis showed that the evolutionary branch composed of Bat coronavirus BtKY72 and BM48-31 was the base group of SARS–related CoVs evolutionary tree, which separated from other SARS–related CoVs earlier than SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2.
SARS-CoV-1 related
SARS-CoV-2 related
Morphology
The morphology of the SARS-related coronavirus is characteristic of the coronavirus family as a whole. The viruses are large pleomorphic spherical particles with bulbous surface projections that form a corona around the particles in electron micrographs. The size of the virus particles is in the 80–90 nm range. The envelope of the virus in electron micrographs appears as a distinct pair of electron dense shells.
The viral envelope consists of a lipid bilayer where the membrane (M), envelope (E) and spike (S) proteins are anchored. The spike proteins provide the virus with its bulbous surface projections, known as peplomers. The spike protein's interaction with its complement host cell receptor is central in determining the tissue tropism, infectivity, and species range of the virus.
Inside the envelope, there is the nucleocapsid, which is formed from multiple copies of the nucleocapsid (N) protein, which are bound to the positive-sense single-stranded (~30 kb) RNA genome in a continuous beads-on-a-string type conformation. The lipid bilayer envelope, membrane proteins, and nucleocapsid protect the virus when it is outside the host.
Life cycle
SARS-related coronavirus follows the replication strategy typical of all coronaviruses.
Attachment and entry
The attachment of the SARS-related coronavirus to the host cell is mediated by the spike protein and its receptor. The spike protein receptor binding domain (RBD) recognizes and attaches to the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor. Following attachment, the virus can enter the host cell by two different paths. The path the virus takes depends on the host protease available to cleave and activate the receptor-attached spike protein.
The first path the SARS coronavirus can take to enter the host cell is by endocytosis and uptake of the virus in an endosome. The receptor-attached spike protein is then activated by the host's pH-dependent cysteine protease cathepsin L. Activation of the receptor-attached spike protein causes a conformational change, and the subsequent fusion of the viral envelope with the endosomal wall.
Alternatively, the virus can enter the host cell directly by proteolytic cleavage of the receptor-attached spike protein by the host's TMPRSS2 or TMPRSS11D serine proteases at the cell surface. In the SARS coronavirus, the activation of the C-terminal part of the spike protein triggers the fusion of the viral envelope with the host cell membrane by inducing conformational changes which are not fully understood.
Genome translation
After fusion the nucleocapsid passes into the cytoplasm, where the viral genome is released. The genome acts as a messenger RNA, and the cell's ribosome translates two-thirds of the genome, which corresponds to the open reading frame ORF1a and ORF1b, into two large overlapping polyproteins, pp1a and pp1ab.
The larger polyprotein pp1ab is a result of a -1 ribosomal frameshift caused by a slippery sequence (UUUAAAC) and a downstream RNA pseudoknot at the end of open reading frame ORF1a. The ribosomal frameshift allows for the continuous translation of ORF1a followed by ORF1b.
The polyproteins contain their own proteases, PLpro and 3CLpro, which cleave the polyproteins at different specific sites. The cleavage of polyprotein pp1ab yields 16 nonstructural proteins (nsp1 to nsp16). Product proteins include various replication proteins such as RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), RNA helicase, and exoribonuclease (ExoN).
The two SARS-CoV-2 proteases (PLpro and 3CLpro) also interfere with the immune system response to the viral infection by cleaving three immune system proteins. PLpro cleaves IRF3 and 3CLpro cleaves both NLRP12 and TAB1. "Direct cleavage of IRF3 by NSP3 could explain the blunted Type-I IFN response seen during SARS-CoV-2 infections while NSP5 mediated cleavage of NLRP12 and TAB1 point to a molecular mechanism for enhanced production of IL-6 and inflammatory response observed in COVID-19 patients."
Replication and transcription
A number of the nonstructural replication proteins coalesce to form a multi-protein replicase-transcriptase complex (RTC). The main replicase-transcriptase protein is the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). It is directly involved in the replication and transcription of RNA from an RNA strand. The other nonstructural proteins in the complex assist in the replication and transcription process.
The protein nsp14 is a 3'-5' exoribonuclease which provides extra fidelity to the replication process. The exoribonuclease provides a proofreading function to the complex which the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase lacks. Similarly, proteins nsp7 and nsp8 form a hexadecameric sliding clamp as part of the complex which greatly increases the processivity of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. The coronaviruses require the increased fidelity and processivity during RNA synthesis because of the relatively large genome size in comparison to other RNA viruses.
One of the main functions of the replicase-transcriptase complex is to transcribe the viral genome. RdRp directly mediates the synthesis of negative-sense subgenomic RNA molecules from the positive-sense genomic RNA. This is followed by the transcription of these negative-sense subgenomic RNA molecules to their corresponding positive-sense mRNAs.
The other important function of the replicase-transcriptase complex is to replicate the viral genome. RdRp directly mediates the synthesis of negative-sense genomic RNA from the positive-sense genomic RNA. This is followed by the replication of positive-sense genomic RNA from the negative-sense genomic RNA.
The replicated positive-sense genomic RNA becomes the genome of the progeny viruses. The various smaller mRNAs are transcripts from the last third of the virus genome which follows the reading frames ORF1a and ORF1b. These mRNAs are translated into the four structural proteins (S, E, M, and N) that will become part of the progeny virus particles and also eight other accessory proteins (orf3 to orf9b) which assist the virus.
Recombination
When two SARS-CoV genomes are present in a host cell, they may interact with each other to form recombinant genomes that can be transmitted to progeny viruses. Recombination likely occurs during genome replication when the RNA polymerase switches from one template to another (copy choice recombination). Human SARS-CoV appears to have had a complex history of recombination between ancestral coronaviruses that were hosted in several different animal groups.
Assembly and release
RNA translation occurs inside the endoplasmic reticulum. The viral structural proteins S, E and M move along the secretory pathway into the Golgi intermediate compartment. There, the M proteins direct most protein-protein interactions required for assembly of viruses following its binding to the nucleocapsid.
Progeny viruses are released from the host cell by exocytosis through secretory vesicles.
See also
Bat SARS-like coronavirus WIV1 (SL-CoV-WIV1)
Bat SARS-like coronavirus RsSHC014
Bat coronavirus RaTG13
Civet SARS-CoV
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
WHO press release identifying and naming the SARS virus
The SARS virus genetic map
Science special on the SARS virus (free content: no registration required)
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) SARS home
World Health Organization on alert
|
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] |
211549
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krauseia
|
Krauseia
|
Krauseia is an extinct genus of small mammal from the Paleocene of North America. It was a member of the extinct order Multituberculata and is within the suborder of Cimolodonta, family Neoplagiaulacidae. The genus was nemed by Vianey-Liaud M. in 1986, and has also partly been known under the name Parectypodus.
The species Krauseia clemensi was named by Sloan R.E. in 1981, and is klso known as Parectypodus clemensi. Fossil remains of members of this species have been found in the Torrejonian (Paleocene)-age strata of the San Juan Basin of New Mexico and Wyoming. An approximate weight comparison for P. clemensi is the weight of one standard mouse, around 25 g.
References
Sloan (1981), "Systematics of Paleocene multituberculates from the San Juan Basin, New Mexico", p. 127-160, in Lucas et al. (eds), Advances in San Juan Basin paleontology. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z. & Hurum J.H. (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Vianey-Liaud (1986), "Les Multituberculés Thanétiens de France, et leurs rapports avec les Multituberculés Nord-Américains". Palaeontogr. Abt. A: Paläozool. Stratigr. 191 p. 85-171, 3 plates.
Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS; Ptilodontoidea, an Internet directory.
Ptilodontoids
Paleocene mammals
Paleocene genus extinctions
Cenozoic animals of North America
Prehistoric mammal genera
|
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211551
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3DNow%21
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3DNow!
|
3DNow! is a deprecated extension to the x86 instruction set developed by Advanced Micro Devices (AMD). It adds single instruction multiple data (SIMD) instructions to the base x86 instruction set, enabling it to perform vector processing of floating-point vector-operations using Vector registers, which improves the performance of many graphic-intensive applications. The first microprocessor to implement 3DNow was the AMD K6-2, which was introduced in 1998. When the application was appropriate, this raised the speed by about 2–4 times.
However, the instruction set never gained much popularity, and AMD announced on August 2010 that support for 3DNow would be dropped in future AMD processors, except for two instructions (the PREFETCH and PREFETCHW instructions). The two instructions are also available in Bay-Trail Intel processors.
History
3DNow was developed at a time when 3D graphics were becoming mainstream in PC multimedia and games. Realtime display of 3D graphics depended heavily on the host CPU's floating-point unit (FPU) to perform floating-point calculations, a task in which AMD's K6 processor was easily outperformed by its competitor, the Intel Pentium II.
As an enhancement to the MMX instruction set, the 3DNow instruction-set augmented the MMX SIMD registers to support common arithmetic operations (add/subtract/multiply) on single-precision (32-bit) floating-point data. Software written to use AMD's 3DNow instead of the slower x87 FPU could execute up to 4x faster, depending on the instruction-mix.
Versions
3DNow
The first implementation of 3DNow technology contains 21 new instructions that support SIMD floating-point operations. The 3DNow data format is packed, single-precision, floating-point. The 3DNow instruction set also includes operations for SIMD integer operations, data prefetch, and faster MMX-to-floating-point switching. Later, Intel would add similar (but incompatible) instructions to the Pentium III, known as SSE (Streaming SIMD Extensions).
3DNow floating-point instructions are the following:
PI2FD Packed 32-bit integer to floating-point conversion
PF2ID Packed floating-point to 32-bit integer conversion
PFCMPGE Packed floating-point comparison, greater or equal
PFCMPGT Packed floating-point comparison, greater
PFCMPEQ Packed floating-point comparison, equal
PFACC Packed floating-point accumulate
PFADD Packed floating-point addition
PFSUB Packed floating-point subtraction
PFSUBR Packed floating-point reverse subtraction
PFMIN Packed floating-point minimum
PFMAX Packed floating-point maximum
PFMUL Packed floating-point multiplication
PFRCP Packed floating-point reciprocal approximation
PFRSQRT Packed floating-point reciprocal square root approximation
PFRCPIT1 Packed floating-point reciprocal, first iteration step
PFRSQIT1 Packed floating-point reciprocal square root, first iteration step
PFRCPIT2 Packed floating-point reciprocal/reciprocal square root, second iteration step
3DNow integer instructions are the following:
PAVGUSB Packed 8-bit unsigned integer averaging
PMULHRW Packed 16-bit integer multiply with rounding
3DNow performance-enhancement instructions are the following:
FEMMS Faster entry/exit of the MMX or floating-point state
PREFETCH/PREFETCHW Prefetch at least a 32-byte line into L1 data cache (this is the non-deprecated instruction)
3DNow extensions
There is little or no evidence that the second version of 3DNow was ever officially given its own trade name. This has led to some confusion in documentation that refers to this new instruction set. The most common terms are Extended 3DNow, Enhanced 3DNow and 3DNow+. The phrase "Enhanced 3DNow" can be found in a few locations on the AMD website but the capitalization of "Enhanced" appears to be either purely grammatical or used for emphasis on processors that may or may not have these extensions (the most notable of which references a benchmark page for the K6-III-P that does not have these extensions).
This extension to the 3DNow instruction set was introduced with the first-generation Athlon processors. The Athlon added 5 new 3DNow instructions and 19 new MMX instructions. Later, the K6-2+ and K6-III+ (both targeted at the mobile market) included the 5 new 3DNow instructions, leaving out the 19 new MMX instructions. The new 3DNow instructions were added to boost DSP. The new MMX instructions were added to boost streaming media.
The 19 new MMX instructions are a subset of Intel's SSE1 instruction set. In AMD technical manuals, AMD segregates these instructions apart from the 3DNow extensions. In AMD customer product literature, however, this segregation is less clear where the benefits of all 24 new instructions are credited to enhanced 3DNow technology. This has led programmers to come up with their own name for the 19 new MMX instructions. The most common appears to be Integer SSE (ISSE). SSEMMX and MMX2 are also found in video filter documentation from the public domain sector. ISSE could also refer to Internet SSE, an early name for SSE.
3DNow extension DSP instructions are the following:
PF2IW Packed floating-point to integer word conversion with sign extend
PI2FW Packed integer word to floating-point conversion
PFNACC Packed floating-point negative accumulate
PFPNACC Packed floating-point mixed positive-negative accumulate
PSWAPD Packed swap doubleword
MMX extension instructions (Integer SSE) are the following:
MASKMOVQ Streaming (cache bypass) store using byte mask
MOVNTQ Streaming (cache bypass) store
PAVGB Packed average of unsigned byte
PAVGW Packed average of unsigned word
PMAXSW Packed maximum signed word
PMAXUB Packed maximum unsigned byte
PMINSW Packed minimum signed word
PMINUB Packed minimum unsigned byte
PMULHUW Packed multiply high unsigned word
PSADBW Packed sum of absolute byte differences
PSHUFW Packed shuffle word
PEXTRW Extract word into integer register
PINSRW Insert word from integer register
PMOVMSKB Move byte mask to integer register
PREFETCHNTA Prefetch using the NTA reference
PREFETCHT0 Prefetch using the T0 reference
PREFETCHT1 Prefetch using the T1 reference
PREFETCHT2 Prefetch using the T2 reference
SFENCE Store fence
3DNow Professional
3DNow Professional is a trade name used to indicate processors that combine 3DNow technology with a complete SSE instructions set (such as SSE1, SSE2 or SSE3). The Athlon XP was the first processor to carry the 3DNow Professional trade name, and was the first product in the Athlon family to support the complete SSE1 instruction set (for the total of: 21 original 3DNow instructions; five 3DNow extension DSP instructions; 19 MMX extension instructions; and 52 additional SSE instructions for complete SSE1 compatibility).
3DNow and the Geode GX/LX
The Geode GX and Geode LX added two new 3DNow instructions which are currently absent in all the other processors.
3DNow "professional" instructions unique to the Geode GX/LX are the following:
PFRSQRTV Reciprocal square root approximation for a pair of 32-bit floats
PFRCPV Reciprocal approximation for a pair of 32-bit floats
Advantages and disadvantages
One advantage of 3DNow is that it is possible to add or multiply the two numbers that are stored in the same register. With SSE, each number can only be combined with a number in the same position in another register. This capability, known as horizontal in Intel terminology, was the major addition to the SSE3 instruction set.
A disadvantage with 3DNow is that 3DNow instructions and MMX instructions share the same register-file, whereas SSE adds 8 new independent registers (XMM0–XMM7).
Because MMX/3DNow registers are shared by the standard x87 FPU, 3DNow instructions and x87 instructions cannot be executed simultaneously. However, because it is aliased to the x87 FPU, the 3DNow and MMX register states can be saved and restored by the traditional x87 F(N)SAVE and F(N)RSTOR instructions. This arrangement allowed operating systems to support 3DNow with no explicit modifications, whereas SSE registers required explicit operating system support to properly save and restore the new XMM registers (via the added FXSAVE and FXRSTOR instructions.)
The FX* instructions are an upgrade to the older x87 save and restore instructions because these could save not only SSE register states but also those x87 register states (hence which meant that it could save MMX and 3DNow registers too).
On AMD Athlon XP and K8-based cores (i.e. Athlon 64), assembly programmers have noted that it is possible to combine 3DNow and SSE instructions to reduce register pressure, but in practice it is difficult to improve performance due to the instructions executing on shared functional units.
Processors supporting 3DNow
All AMD processors after K6-2 based on K6, Athlon, Athlon 64 and Phenom architecture families. Not supported in Bulldozer, Bobcat and Zen architecture processors and their derivates.
The last AMD APU processor supporting 3DNow is the A8-3870K.
National Semiconductor Geode, later AMD Geode.
VIA C3 (also known as Cyrix III) "Samuel", "Samuel 2" "Ezra", and "Eden ESP" cores.
IDT Winchip 2
References
Further reading
Case, Brian (1 June 1998). "3DNow Boosts Non-Intel 3D Performance". Microprocessor Report.
Oberman, S.; Favor, G.; Weber, F. (March 1999). "AMD 3DNow technology: architecture and implementations". IEEE Micro.
External links
3DNow Technology Partners, archived from the original (removed from AMD's website in early 2001)
AMD 3DNow Instruction Porting Guide (PDF), archived from the original (removed from AMD's website in 2014)
3DNow Technology Manual
AMD Extensions to the 3DNow and MMX Instruction Sets Manual
AMD Geode LX Processors Data Book
Explaining the new 3DNow Professional Technology (archived)
Advanced Micro Devices technologies
SIMD computing
X86 architecture
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio%20%28LL%20Cool%20J%20album%29
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Radio (LL Cool J album)
|
Radio is the debut album by American rapper LL Cool J. It was released on November 18, 1985, by Def Jam Recordings and Columbia Records. It was also Def Jam's first full-length album release.
The album was recorded at Chung King House of Metal in New York City with producer Rick Rubin, who provided a sparse, minimal production style. The album also features a sound punctuated by DJ scratching, often brief samples, and emphasis of the downbeat. LL Cool J's aggressive b-boy lyrics explored themes of inner city culture, teenage promiscuity, and braggadocio raps.
A significant sales success for a hip hop record at the time, Radio became a Billboard chart hit and sold over 500,000 copies within its first five months of release. By 1989, it had been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for sales surpassing one million copies in the United States. Initial reception of the album was generally positive, with praise given to LL Cool J's lyricism and Rubin's production. It has since been recognized by critics as LL Cool J's best album.
Radio belonged to a pivotal moment in hip hop's culture and history, reflecting the new school and ghettoblaster subculture in the United States during the mid-1980s. The album's success contributed to the displacement of the old school with the new school form and to the genre's mainstream success during this period. It was also a career breakthrough for LL Cool J and Rick Rubin. Radio has been recognized by music journalists as one of the first artistically cohesive and commercially successful hip hop albums.
Background
In March 1984, when NYU student Rick Rubin and promoter-manager Russell Simmons founded the then-independent Def Jam label, 16 year–old St. Albans, Queens native James Todd Smith was creating demo tapes in his grandparents' home. His grandfather, a jazz saxophonist, purchased him $ 2,000 worth of stereo equipment, including two turntables, an audio mixer and an amplifier. Smith later discussed his childhood background and rapping, stating that "By the time I got that equipment, I was already a rapper. In this neighborhood, the kids grow up in rap. It's like speaking Spanish if you grow up in an all-Spanish house. I got into it when I was about 9, and since then all I wanted was to make a record and hear it on the radio." By using the mixing table he had received from his grandfather, Smith produced and mixed his own demos and sent them to various record companies throughout New York City, including Simmons' and Rubin's own Def Jam Recordings.
Under his new stage name, LL Cool J (an acronym for "Ladies Love Cool James"), Smith was signed by Def Jam, which led to the release of his first official record, the 12-inch single "I Need a Beat" (1984). The single was a hard-hitting, streetwise b-boy song with spare beats and ballistic rhymes. Smith later discussed his search for a label, stating "I sent my demo to many different companies, but it was Def Jam where I found my home." That same year, Smith made his professional debut concert performance at Manhattan Center High School. In a later interview, LL Cool J recalled the experience, stating "They pushed the lunch room tables together and me and my DJ, Cut Creator, started playing. ... As soon as it was over there were girls screaming and asking for autographs. Right then and there I said 'This is what I want to do'." LL's debut single sold over 100,000 copies and helped establish both Def Jam as a label and Smith as a rapper. The commercial success of "I Need a Beat" – along with the Beastie Boys' "Rock Hard" (1984) – helped Def Jam to a distribution deal with Columbia Records the following year.
LL dropped out of Andrew Jackson High School in Queens to record his first studio album, also the first LP to be issued by Def Jam. Recording sessions for the album took place at Chung King Studios in Manhattan's Chinatown under Rubin's direction. "There were no expectations," the producer recalled. "Everything was done through trial and error. As long as it sounded good, it didn't matter how technically wrong it might be."
Notable among the personnel was LL's DJ Jay Philpot, better known as "Cut Creator". A Queens native and former trombonist, Philpot met LL at a block party and they began performing together. The audio mastering was handled by engineer Herb Powers at 130 West 42nd Street in the Frankford Wayne Mastering Labs and the album was set for release as Radio in November 1985, containing a dedication in the liner notes to LL's mother and grandparents. The album's release had been anticipated by many rap fans following LL's appearance in the hip hop movie Krush Groove, which was based on the beginnings of the Def Jam label and featured the single "I Can't Live Without My Radio" from Radio.
Music and lyrics
The album's production, handled entirely by Rick Rubin with a remix by DJ Jazzy Jay, has been noted by critics and music writers for Rubin's minimalist style and stripped-down aggressiveness. Steve Huey of AllMusic described the production for Radio as "bare-bones" and "skeletal", while calling the instrumentation "basically just a cranked-up beatbox." The sound of Radio is mostly punctuated by DJ scratching and features occasional brief samples, which emphasize a downbeat. In summing up the musical style of Radio, Huey stated "The result is rap at its most skeletal, with a hard-hitting, street-level aggression that perfectly matches LL's cocksure teenage energy."
The lyrical themes regarding the culture and the way of life of inner city youth that surface in Radio, including the growing and popular b-boy attitude ("I Can't Live Without My Radio", "Rock the Bells") and teenage promiscuity ("Dear Yvette"), along with LL's "teenage energy", as described by writer Nelson George, helped appeal to a younger music audience and were essential in the album's commercial success. LL Cool J's lyricism on Radio is highlighted by clever disses, playful boasts and braggadocio raps. Columnist Stephen Holden of The New York Times described LL Cool J as "a brawny young giant with the animal magnetism and amiable self-assurance of the young Muhammad Ali." "I Want You" and "I Can Give You More" have been recognized by listeners of hip hop as the first hip-hop ballads, and have been cited likewise by several music writers and critics.
Author of the 1985 book Fresh: Hip Hop Don't Stop, writer Nelson George further elaborated on the appeal of Radio to listeners at the time, describing LL Cool J as a "minimalist homeboy who knows his beats", and stating "You can call it rap, hip hop or street, but it really is a way of hearing music—and partying hard—that expresses the experiences and attitudes of a great many inner city kids. L.L. Cool J is one of the best young talkologists around, because he speaks directly to and about his generation over large beats that recall Run-D.M.C., Trouble Funk, James Brown, and funky little bits of AC/DC and Yes ... This teenage music is built around beats, but not just any old beats. It is all about a beat with style, with personality, and L.L. Cool J has plenty of both."
Release and reception
Released November 18, 1985, on Def Jam Recordings in the United States, Radio earned a significant amount of commercial success and sales for a hip hop record at the time. It sold over 500,000 copies in its first five months, eventually selling over 1 million copies by 1988, according to the Recording Industry Association of America. Radio peaked at number 6 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart and at number 46 on the Billboard 200 albums chart. It entered the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart on December 28, 1985, and remained there for forty-seven weeks, while also entering the Pop Albums chart on January 11, 1986. Radio remained on the chart for thirty-eight weeks. By 1989, the album had earned platinum status from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), after earning a gold certification in the United States on April 14, 1986, with sales exceeding one million copies.
Radio received positive reviews from both "street and dance music" aficionados and mainstream music critics, including Robert Christgau from The Village Voice, who described it in a January 1986 article as "the most engaging and original rap album of the year". LL Cool J's aggressive rapping and Rick Rubin's stripped-down production were praised by critics who also agreed that LL's lyrics set a new standard for MC's at the time. The songs' lyrics were favored by critics who described LL's songwriting as clever and fun. Connie Johnson of the Los Angeles Times said that he is an integral artist of hip hop's "second generation" because of his "razor-sharp wit". Rolling Stone magazine's Debby Bull was impressed by his songwriting and how its originality lies in the ballads, even though "it's the sassier, dance-worthy songs that make this record such an irresistible party." The critical success of the album would later result in its comparison to other LL Cool J albums, which were not as critically successful as Radio. In his review for the Trouser Press, Ira Robbins called the album a "primary classic of hip-hop's original commercial surge" and went on to write:
Since its initial reception, Radio has been viewed by fans and critics as LL Cool J's greatest work, as well as one of hip hop's best albums. In retrospect, some critics and music writers have given more praise to producer Rick Rubin's contributions to Radio, as well as note the importance of his production on the album. Yahoo! Music's Frank Meyer said that the album was "one of the earliest records, along with Run-DMC, to combine the vocal approach of rap with the musical arrangements and riffing of rock 'n' roll. 'I Can't Live Without My Radio' is a hip-hop classic and this album set the standard for East Coast rap for a long time."
Radio was later ranked at number 2 on ego trip magazine's "Hip Hop's 25 Greatest Albums (1980–98)", number 69 on Rolling Stone's "100 Best LPs of the 80s", and number 71 on Blender's "100 Greatest American Albums of All Time" list. In 2003, Rolling Stone ranked the album number 478 on its list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time; it was ranked number 470 in a revised list in 2012. The album was also included in Rolling Stone magazine's 1997 issue of "The Essential 200 Rock Records". In 1998, Radio was selected as one of The Source magazine's "100 Best Rap Albums".
Legacy and influence
With the breakthrough success of his hit single "I Need a Beat" and the Radio LP, LL Cool J became one of the first hip-hop acts to achieve mainstream success along with Kurtis Blow and Run-D.M.C. Gigs at larger venues were offered to LL as he would join the 1986–'87 Raising Hell tour, opening for Run-D.M.C. and the Beastie Boys. Another milestone of LL's popularity was his appearance on American Bandstand as the first hip hop act on the show.
The album's success also helped in contributing to Rick Rubin's credibility and repertoire as a record producer. Radio, along with Raising Hell (1986) and Licensed to Ill (1986), would form a trilogy of New York City-based, Rubin-helmed albums that helped to diversify hip-hop. Rubin's production credit on the back cover reads "REDUCED BY RICK RUBIN", referring to his minimalist production style, which gave the album its stripped-down and gritty sound. This style would serve as one of Rubin's production trademarks and would have a great impact on future hip-hop productions. Rubin's early hip hop production work, before his exit from Def Jam to Los Angeles, helped solidify his legacy as a hip hop pioneer and establish his reputation in the music industry.
Radios release coincided with the growing new school scene and subculture, which also marked the beginning of hip-hop's "golden age" and the replacement of old school hip hop. This period of hip hop was marked by the end of the disco rap stylings of old school, which had flourished prior to the mid-80s, and the rise of a new style featuring "ghetto blasters". Radio served as one of the earliest records, along with Run-D.M.C.'s debut album, to combine the vocal approach of hip hop and rapping with the musical arrangements and riffing sound of rock music, pioneering the rap rock hybrid sound.
The emerging new school scene was initially characterized by drum machine-led minimalism, often tinged with elements of rock, as well as boasts about rapping delivered in an aggressive, self-assertive style. In image as in song, the artists projected a tough, cool, street b-boy attitude. These elements contrasted sharply with the 1970s P-Funk and disco-influenced outfits, live bands, synthesizers and party rhymes of acts prevalent in 1984, rendering them old school. In contrast to the lengthy, jam-like form predominant throughout early hip hop ("King Tim III", "Rapper's Delight", "The Breaks"), new school artists tended to compose shorter songs that would be more accessible and had potential for radio play, and conceive more cohesive LPs than their old school counterparts; the style typified by LL Cool J's Radio. A leading example of the new school sound is the song "I Can't Live Without My Radio", a loud, defiant declaration of public loyalty to his boom box, which The New York Times described as "quintessential rap in its directness, immediacy and assertion of self". It was featured in the film Krush Groove (1985), which was based on the rise of Def Jam and new school acts such as Run-D.M.C. and the Fat Boys.
The energy and hardcore delivery and musical style of rapping featured on Radio, as well as other new school recordings by artists such as Run-D.M.C., Schooly D, T La Rock and Steady B, proved to be influential to hip hop acts of the "golden age" such as Boogie Down Productions and Public Enemy. The decline of the old school form of hip hop also led to the closing of Sugar Hill Records, one of the labels that helped contribute to early hip-hop and that, coincidentally, rejected LL's demo tape. As the album served as an example of an expansion of hip hop music's artistic possibilities, its commercial success and distinct sound soon led to an increase in multi-racial audiences and listeners, adding to the legacy of the album and hip hop as well.
Track listing
All tracks produced by Rick Rubin, except "I Need a Beat", produced by Rubin and Jazzy Jay.
Personnel
Musicians
James Todd Smith – Vocals (Credited as L.L. Cool J)
Jay Philpot – DJ (Credited as DJ Cut Creator)
Russell Rush – Guest vocals track 9
Production
Rick Rubin – Producer
Jazzy Jay – Producer on track 8
Steve Ett – Recording engineer
Steve Byram – Album cover design
Nelson George – Liner notes
Herb Powers Jr. – Mastering engineer
Josh Cheuse, Janette Beckman – Liner photography (Credited on the reissue)
Charts
Certifications
See also
Album era
New school hip hop
References
Bibliography
External links
Radio at Discogs
Lyrics at Yahoo! Music
LL Cool J on Soul Train at YouTube
1985 debut albums
LL Cool J albums
Def Jam Recordings albums
Boombox culture
Albums produced by Jazzy Jay
Albums produced by Rick Rubin
Albums recorded at Chung King Studios
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211554
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred%20Fisher
|
Fred Fisher
|
Fred Fisher (born Alfred Breitenbach, September 30, 1875 – January 14, 1942) was a German-born American songwriter and Tin Pan Alley music publisher.
Biography
Fisher was born in Cologne, Germany. His parents were Max and Theodora Breitenbach. After visiting the United States in 1892, he immigrated in 1900, where he adopted the name Fred Fischer. He founded the Fred Fischer Music Publishing Company in 1907. During World War I he changed his surname to Fisher to make it seem less Germanic.
In 1914, Fred Fisher married Ana Fisher ( Davidovitch, later anglicized as Davis; born 1896). Their children – Daniel ("Danny"; 1920–2001), Marvin (1916–1993), and Doris (1915–2003) – also wrote songs professionally. Fisher died in Manhattan, New York, and was interred at Maimonides Cemetery in Brooklyn.
In 1970, Fred Fisher was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame. The Ripley's "Believe It or Not" column credited him with writing more Irish songs than anyone else.
Selected compositions
"If the Man in the Moon Were a Coon," by Fred Fischer, Will Rossiter (1867–1954) (pub) (1905) (this was his first hit; it combined two then-popular song themes, Moon songs and Coon songs)
"Come Josephine In My Flying Machine," by Fred Fischer, Shapiro (pub) (1910)
"Peg O' My Heart, words by Alfred Bryan, music by Fred Fisher, Leo Feist (pub) (1913)
"Who paid the rent for Mrs. Rip Van Winkle?" words by Alfred Bryan, music by Fred Fischer, Leo Feist (pub) (1914)
"Lorraine (My Beautiful Alsace Lorraine)" lyrics by Alfred Bryan, music by Fred Fisher, McCarthy & Fisher (pub) (1917)
"They Go Wild, Simply Wild, Over Me," words by Joseph McCarthy (1885–1943), music by Fred Fisher, McCarthy & Fisher (pub) (1917)
"The Popular Wobbly," parody of "They Go Wild, Simply Wild, Over Me," words by T-Bone Slim (1880–1942), Industrial Workers of the World (pub) (1920)
"Dardanella," words by Fred Fisher, music by Felix Bernard (1897–1944) & Johnny S. Black (1895–1936), McCarthy & Fisher Inc. (1919)
"Chicago," by Fred Fisher, Fred Fisher (pub) (1922)
"That's When Your Heartaches Begin," by William Raskin, George Brown (Billy Hill), and Fred Fisher, Fred Fisher Music Co. (1940) (an Ink Spots tune recorded in 1957 by Elvis)
"Your Feet's Too Big," by Ada Benson, Fred Fisher, The Four Ink Spots (1936)
"I'd Rather Be Blue," words by Billy Rose, music by Fred Fisher, Irving Berlin (pub) (1928)
"Whispering Grass," words by Fred Fisher, music by Doris Fisher, Mills Music Inc. (pub) (1940)
Some of his other songs are;
1917 "Pull the Cork Out of Erin Let the River Shannon Flow". L: Addison Burkhardt
1918 "Come Across, Yankee Boy, Come Across". L: Alfred Bryan
1918 "In the Harbor of My Mother's Arms". L: Monty Brice
1918 "Little Blue Bonnet Girl"
1918 "Mister McAdoo". L:Joseph McCarthy & Alfred Bryan
1918 "Oui, Oui, Marie". L: Alfred Bryan
1918 "Sink All Your Ships in the Ocean Blue". L: Jack Glogau
1918 "Wee, Wee, Marie (Will You Do Zis for Me)". L: Joseph McCarthy & Alfred Bryan
1918 "We're All Comrades Now". L: Joseph McCarthy
1918 "When Yankee Doodle Sails Upon the Good Ship Home Sweet Home". L: Addison Burkhardt
Filmography
My Man (1928) – Fanny Brice sings I'd Rather Be Blue, a Fisher-Billy Rose collaboration that was later covered by Barbra Streisand.
Oh, You Beautiful Doll (1949) – This film is a fictionalized Hollywood biography featuring many of Fisher's songs. A Tin Pan Alley promoter (Mark Stevens) turns serious composer Fred Breitenbach (S.Z. Sakall) into songwriter Fred Fisher.
Gallery
References
General references
Source Citation:
American National Biography. 24 volumes. Edited by John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999
American Popular Songs. From the Revolutionary War to the present. Edited by David Ewen. New York: Random House, 1966
American Songwriters. By David Ewen. New York: H.W. Wilson Co., 1987
The ASCAP Biographical Dictionary. Third edition. New York: American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers, 1966
ASCAP Biographical Dictionary. Fourth edition. Compiled for the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers by Jaques Cattell Press. New York: R.R. Bowker, 1980
Biographical Dictionary of American Music. By Charles Eugene Claghorn. West Nyack, NY: Parker Publishing Co., 1973
Biography Index. A cumulative index to biographical material in books and magazines. Volume 1: January 1946 – July 1949. New York: H.W. Wilson Co., 1949
Biography Index. A cumulative index to biographical material in books and magazines. Volume 6: September 1961 – August 1964. New York: H.W. Wilson Co., 1965
Biography Index. A cumulative index to biographical material in books and magazines. Volume 15: September 1986 – August 1988. New York: H.W. Wilson Co., 1988
Biography Index. A cumulative index to biographical material in books and magazines. Volume 16: September 1988 – August 1990. New York: H.W. Wilson Co., 1990
The Complete Encyclopedia of Popular Music and Jazz, 1900–1950. Three volumes. By Roger D. Kinkle. New Rochelle, NY: Arlington House Publishers, 1974. Biographies are located in Volumes 2 and 3
Dictionary of Pseudonyms. Third edition. By Adrian Room. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 1998
The Encyclopedia of Popular Music. Third edition. Eight volumes. Edited by Colin Larkin. London: MUZE, 1998. Grove's Dictionaries, New York, 1998
The Heritage Encyclopedia of Band Music. Composers and their music. Supplement. By William H. Rehrig. Westerville, OH: Integrity Press, 1996
The New American Dictionary of Music. By Philip D. Morehead with Anne MacNeil. New York: Dutton, 1991
The New Grove Dictionary of American Music. Four volumes. Edited by H. Wiley Hitchcock and Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan Press, 1986
Notable Names in the American Theatre. Clifton, NJ: James T. White & Co., 1976. Earlier edition published as The Biographical Encyclopaedia and Who's Who of the American Theatre
The Oxford Companion to Popular Music. By Peter Gammond. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1991
Popular American Composers. From Revolutionary times to the present. A biographical and critical guide. First edition. Compiled and edited by David Ewen. New York: H.W. Wilson Co., 1962
Songwriters. A biographical dictionary with discographies. By Nigel Harrison. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 1998
Sweet and Lowdown. America's popular song writers. By Warren Craig. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1978. Biographies appear in the 'After Tin Pan Alley' section, beginning on page 91
Tin Pan Alley. An encyclopedia of the golden age of American song. By David A. Jasen. New York: Routledge, 2003
Inline citations
External links
Fred Fisher recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.
Fred Fisher at the Sheet Music Consortium
Articles
Fred Fisher at AllMusic
Streaming audio
Fred Fisher on Victor Records
1875 births
1942 deaths
American male songwriters
German emigrants to the United States
19th-century German Jews
Jewish American songwriters
Music publishers (people)
|
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211555
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred%20Bryan%20%28lyricist%29
|
Alfred Bryan (lyricist)
|
Alfred Bryan (September 15, 1871 – April 1, 1958) was a Canadian lyricist.
Bryan was born in Brantford, Ontario. He worked as an arranger in New York and wrote lyrics for many Broadway shows in the late 1910s and early 1920s. In the 1920s he moved to Hollywood to write lyrics for screen musicals.
Bryan worked with several composers during his career. Among his collaborators were Henriette Blanke-Belcher, Fred Fischer, Al Sherman, Larry Stock and Joe McCarthy. Perhaps his most successful song was "I Didn't Raise My Boy to Be a Soldier" (1915), with music by Al Piantadosi. The song sold 650,000 copies during the first three months and became one of 1915's top-selling songs in the United States. Although Bryan himself was not a committed pacifist, he described the American public's anti-war sentiments in his lyrics.
He died in Gladstone, New Jersey, aged 86.
Songs
1904 We'll Be Together When the Clouds Roll By (music by Kerry Mills)
1906 Everybody Gives Me Good Advice (music by James kendis and Herman Paley)
1909 I'll Do Anything But (music by Henriette Blanke-Belcher)
1910 Put Your Head Upon my Shoulder (music by Henriette Blanke-Belcher)
1910 Come Josephine in My Flying Machine (music by Fred Fisher)
1911 My Irish Girl (music by Henriette Blanke-Belcher)
1913 Peg o' My Heart (music by Fred Fisher)
1913 I'm On My Way to Mandalay (music by Fred Fisher)
1914 Who Paid The Rent For Mrs. Rip Van Winkle? (music by Fred Fischer)
1914 Down in Waterloo. (m: Albert Gumble & Jack Wells)
1914 When It's Night-Time Down in Burgundy. (m: Herman Paley)
1915 I Didn't Raise My Boy to Be a Soldier. (m: Al. Piantadosi)
1915 When Our Mothers Rule the World. (m: Jack Wells)
1916 Don't Cry Dolly Grey. (m: Herman Paley)
1916 I Wouldn't Steal the Sweetheart of a Soldier Boy. (m: Herman Paley)
1917 Buy a Red Cross Rossie. (m: Harry Tierney)
1917 Chimes of Normandy. (m: Jack Wells)
1917 Cleopatra. (m: Harry Tierney)
1917 Don't Try to Steal the Sweetheart of a Soldier. (m: Van and Schenack)
1917 For One Sweet Day. (m: Harry Tierney)
1917 Get a Girl to Lead the Army. (m: Harry Tierney)
1917 God Save Us all. (m: Harry Tierney)
1917 I Want a Good Girl and I Want Her Bad. (m: Harry Tierney)
1917 If You'll Be a Soldier I'll Be a Red Cross Nurse. (m: Harry Tierney)
1917 I'm Crazy Over Every Girl in France. (m: Pete Wendling & Jack Wells)
1917 It's Time for Every Boy to Be a Soldier. (m: Harry Tierney)
1917 Lorraine (My Beautiful Alsace Lorraine). (m: Fred Fisher)
1917 My Yokohama Girl. (m: Harry Tierney)
1917 Over the Top with Jack Wells and Pete Wendling
1917 Sweet Little Buttercup. (m: Herman Paley)
1917 There's a Vacant Chair in Every Home Tonight. (m: Ernest Breuer)
1917 Universal Peace Song God Save Us All. (m: Harry Tierney)
1917 Vegetable Song. (m: Harry Tierney)
1918 Big Chief Killahun with Edgar Leslie. (m: Maurice Abrahams)
1918 Cheer Up Father, Cheer Up Mother. (m: Herman Paley)
1918 Come Across, Yankee Boy, Come Across. (m: Fred Fisher)
1918 Comprenez-Vous Papa. (m: Ray Lawrence)
1918 Girls of France with Edgar Leslie & Harry Ruby
1918 Joan of Arc They Are Calling You with Willie Weston. (m: Jack Wells)
1918 Mister McAdoo with Joseph McCarthy. (m: Fred Fisher)
1918 Oui, Oui, Marie with Joe McCarthy. (m: Fred Fisher)
1918 Wee, Wee, Marie (Will You Do Zis for Me) with Joe McCarrthy. (m: Fred Fisher)
1918 When Alexander Takes His Ragtime Band to France with Cliff Hess & Edgar Leslie
1918 When the Boys from Dixie Eat the Melon on the Rhine. (m: Ernest Breuer)
1918 When They Do the Hula Hula on the Boulevard. (m: Ray Lawrence)
1918 White House Is the Light House of the World with Irving Caesar
1919 I'm Going to Break That Mason-Dixie Line Until I Get to That Gal of Mine. (m: Jean Schwartz)
1919 On the Road to Calais. (m: Al Jolson)
Notes
References
External links
Sheet music for his song "We'll Be Together When the Clouds Roll By" from the collection at University of Oregon Libraries
Alfred Bryan recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.
1871 births
1958 deaths
Canadian songwriters
People from Brantford
Canadian anti-war activists
American anti-war activists
Activists from New Jersey
|
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211556
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructions%20per%20cycle
|
Instructions per cycle
|
In computer architecture, instructions per cycle (IPC), commonly called instructions per clock is one aspect of a processor's performance: the average number of instructions executed for each clock cycle. It is the multiplicative inverse of cycles per instruction.
Explanation
While early generations of CPUs carried out all the steps to execute an instruction sequentially modern CPUs can do many things in parallel. As it is impossible to just keep doubling the speed of the clock, instruction pipelining and superscalar processor design have evolved so CPUs can use a variety of execution units in parallel - looking ahead through the incoming instructions in order to optimise them. This leads to the instructions per cycle completed being much higher than 1 and is responsible for much of the speed improvements in subsequent CPU generations.
Calculation of IPC
The calculation of IPC is done through running a set piece of code, calculating the number of machine-level instructions required to complete it, then using high-performance timers to calculate the number of clock cycles required to complete it on the actual hardware. The final result comes from dividing the number of instructions by the number of CPU clock cycles.
The number of instructions per second and floating point operations per second for a processor can be derived by multiplying the number of instructions per cycle with the clock rate (cycles per second given in Hertz) of the processor in question. The number of instructions per second is an approximate indicator of the likely performance of the processor.
The number of instructions executed per clock is not a constant for a given processor; it depends on how the particular software being run interacts with the processor, and indeed the entire machine, particularly the memory hierarchy. However, certain processor features tend to lead to designs that have higher-than-average IPC values; the presence of multiple arithmetic logic units (an ALU is a processor subsystem that can perform elementary arithmetic and logical operations), and short pipelines. When comparing different instruction sets, a simpler instruction set may lead to a higher IPC figure than an implementation of a more complex instruction set using the same chip technology; however, the more complex instruction set may be able to achieve more useful work with fewer instructions. As such comparing IPC figures between different instruction sets (for example x86 vs ARM) is usually meaningless.
Factors governing IPC
A given level of instructions per second can be achieved with a high IPC and a low clock speed (like the AMD Athlon and early Intel's Core Series), or from a low IPC and high clock speed (like the Intel Pentium 4 and to a lesser extent the AMD Bulldozer). Both are valid processor designs, and the choice between the two is often dictated by history, engineering constraints, or marketing pressures. However, a high IPC with a high frequency will always give the best performance.
Computer speed
The useful work that can be done with any computer depends on many factors besides the processor speed. These factors include the instruction set architecture, the processor's microarchitecture, and the computer system organization (such as the design of the disk storage system and the capabilities and performance of other attached devices), the efficiency of the operating system, and the high-level design of application software.
For computer users and purchasers, application benchmarks, rather than instructions per cycle, are typically a much more useful indication of system performance. However, IPC does provide an example of why clock speed is not the only factor relevant to computer performance.
See also
Instructions per second
Cycles per instruction
FLOPS
Megahertz myth
Benchmark (computing)
References
Instruction processing
Clock signal
Rates
Computer performance
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doggystyle
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Doggystyle
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Doggystyle is the debut studio album by American rapper Snoop Dogg, then known as Snoop Doggy Dogg. It was released on November 23, 1993, by Death Row Records and Interscope Records. The album was recorded and produced following Snoop's appearances on Dr. Dre's debut solo album The Chronic (1992), to which Snoop contributed significantly. The West Coast style in hip-hop that he developed from Dre's first album continued on Doggystyle. Critics have praised Snoop Dogg for the lyrical "realism" that he delivers on the album and for his distinctive vocal flow.
Despite some mixed criticism of the album initially upon its release, Doggystyle earned recognition from many music critics as one of the most significant albums of the 1990s, as well as one of the most important hip-hop albums ever released. Much like The Chronic, the distinctive sounds of Doggystyle helped introduce the hip-hop subgenre of G-Funk to a mainstream audience, bringing forward West Coast hip hop as a dominant force in the early-mid 1990s.
Doggystyle debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard 200, selling 806,858 copies in its first week alone in the United States, which was the record for a debuting artist and the fastest-selling hip-hop album ever. Doggystyle was included on The Source magazine's list of the 100 Best Rap Albums; as well as Rolling Stone magazine's list of Essential Recordings of the '90s. About.com placed the album in No. 17 of the greatest hip hop/rap albums of all time. The album was certified 4x Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). By November 2015, the album had sold 7 million copies in the United States, and over 11 million copies worldwide.
Conception
Background
In 1992, Snoop Doggy Dogg came to attention of the music industry through his vocal contributions on Dr. Dre's The Chronic. That album is considered to have "transformed the entire sound of West Coast rap" by its development of what later became known as the "G-funk" sound. The Chronic expanded gangsta rap with profanity, anti-authoritarian lyrics and multi-layered samples taken from 1970's P-Funk records. Snoop Doggy Dogg contributed vocals to Dre's solo single, "Deep Cover", which led to a high degree of anticipation among hip hop for the release of his own solo album.
Doggystyle and The Chronic are associated with each other mainly because each prominently featured Snoop Dogg and because both contain G-funk style production from Dr. Dre. The two releases are linked by the high number of vocal contributions from Death Row Records artists, including Tha Dogg Pound, RBX, The Lady of Rage, while both contain a high density of misogynistic lyrics and profanity in their lyrics. In addition, the two albums are each viewed by critics as early "G-funk classics", and have been described as "joined at the hip". 'Doggystyle' also marked the debut of Death Row vocalist, Nanci Fletcher - the daughter of jazz legend Sam Fletcher.
Gangsta rap has been criticized for its extreme lyrics, which are often accused of glamorizing gang violence and black-on-black crime. The Gangsta rappers responded that they were simply describing the realities of life in places such as Compton, California, and Long Beach, California. Describing Doggystyle in 1993, Snoop Doggy Dogg likewise points to the album's realism, and the extent to which it is based on his personal experience. He said, "I can't rap about something I don't know. You'll never hear me rapping about no bachelor's degree. It's only what I know and that's that street life. It's all everyday life, reality." Explaining his intentions, Snoop Doggy Dogg claims he feels he is a role model to many young black men, and that his songs are designed to relate to their concerns. "For little kids growing up in the ghettos," he said, "it's easy to get into the wrong types of things, especially gangbanging and selling drugs. I've seen what that was like, and I don't glorify it, but I don't preach. I bring it to them rather than have them go find out about it for themselves." He further explained the "dream" that he would pursue after making the album: "I'm going to try to eliminate the gang violence. I'll be on a mission for peace. I know I have a lot of power. I know if I say, 'Don't kill', niggas won't kill".
Recording
Doggystyle was recorded in early 1993 at Death Row Studios. It was produced in a style similar to The Chronic; some critics called it a "carbon copy". Snoop Doggy Dogg collaborated with two music groups, 213 and Tha Dogg Pound. Daz Dillinger, of the latter group, accused Dr. Dre of taking sole recognition for producing the album and alleged that Warren G and himself contributed substantially to the production of the project. Death Row Records co-founder Marion "Suge" Knight stated in 2013 that, "Daz pretty much did the whole album", and that credit was signed over to Dr. Dre for a fee. Snoop Doggy Dogg said Dr. Dre was capable of making beats without the help of collaborators and addressed the issues with Warren G and Daz, stating "They made beats, Dre produced that record". He discussed the track "Ain't No Fun", mentioning that Daz and Warren G brought Dr. Dre the beat but "Dre took that muthafucka to the next level!" Bruce Williams, closely affiliated with Dr. Dre, discussed the recording process during Dre's time at Death Row Records, stating:
Williams said the album was never finished and because of the demand for the record, the distributors insisted the album be completed, otherwise they would cancel the album's orders. This resulted in Dr. Dre mixing the album and inserting the skits within 48 hours, which enabled the album to be released. Rolling Stone writer Jonathan Gold described how Dr. Dre produced a beat from scratch to complete instrumental: "Dre may find something he likes from an old drum break, loop it and gradually replace each part with a better tom-tom sound, a kick-drum sound he adores, until the beat bears the same relationship to the original that the Incredible Hulk does to Bill Bixby". Gold also described how the track progressed with other musicians adding to the song, stating "A bass player wanders in, unpacks his instrument and pops a funky two-note bass line over the beat, then leaves to watch CNN, though his two notes keep looping into infinity. A smiling guy in a striped jersey plays a nasty one-fingered melody on an old Minimoog synthesizer that's been obsolete since 1982, and Dre scratches in a sort of surfadelic munching noise, and then from his well-stocked Akai MPC60 samples comes a shriek, a spare piano chord, an ejaculation from the first Beastie's record—'Let me clear my throat'—and the many-layered groove is happening, bumping, breathing, almost loud enough to see."
While recording Doggystyle with Dr. Dre in August 1993, Snoop Dogg was arrested in connection with the death of Phillip Woldermarian, a member of a rival gang who was shot and killed in a gang fight. According to the charges, the rapper's bodyguard, McKinley Lee, shot Woldermarian as Snoop Dogg drove the vehicle; the rapper claimed it was self-defense, alleging the victim was stalking him. He spent most of 1995 preparing the case which went to trial in late 1995. He was cleared of all charges in February 1996 when he began working on his second album, Tha Doggfather.
Title significance
The album's title alludes to the doggy style sex position and is a reference to the musician's name. The artwork, which was done by artist Joe Cool, represents the themes covered in the album and the style of implementation of those ideas. Some critics believe the artwork portrays a woman merely as a hole to be filled by the man, which they believe adheres to the narcissistic and sexist lyrical themes Snoop Dogg covers. In this interpretation, the cover art and lyrics convey what they refer to as the self-indulgent "gangsta" lifestyle, drugs, cars, sex, and money. The artwork uses several quotes from the 1982 George Clinton single "Atomic Dog". The quotes come from the dogs at the top of the brick wall on the album cover, which say, "Why must I feel like dat?", "Why must I chase da cat?" and "Nuttin' but da dogg in me".
Music
Production
Dre's handling of the production was praised by critics. AllMusic writer Stephen Erlewine stated: "Dre realized that it wasn't time to push the limits of G-funk, and instead decided to deepen it musically, creating easy-rolling productions that have more layers than they appear". He added that the beats were "laid-back funky, continuing to resonate after many listens". Rolling Stone writer Touré noted "The Chronics slow, heavy beats were a sonic representation of angry depression as accurate as Cobain's feedback blasts; Doggystyle is leaner, with its high-tempo Isaac Hayes and Curtis Mayfield-derived tracks". He went on to say that "Most of Dre's hooks and nearly all his beats refuse to linger, as if the songs themselves are nervous, fearful of exposure, restless to get offscreen." Entertainment Weekly magazine's David Browne mentioned that "The mix of samples and live music on Dre's latest, The Chronic, gave it texture and depth, and he continues his knob-turning growth on Doggystyle, fluidly weaving together a gaggle of background singers and rappers, quirky samples, his trademark horror-flick keyboard lines". The Source magazine columinst wrote: "Dre's brand of G-funk may be common now, but it is still painstakingly well-produced".
Lyrics
Snoop Doggy Dogg's lyrics were generally praised by critics, although they caused some controversy. He was acclaimed for the realism in his rhymes and his harmonious flow. AllMusic's Stephen Erlewine commended Snoop Doggy Dogg, saying: "he's one of hip-hop's greatest vocal stylists with this record" and he "takes his time, playing with the flow of his words, giving his rhymes a nearly melodic eloquence. Snoop is something special, with unpredictable turns of phrase, evocative imagery, and a distinctive, addictive flow". Time magazine's Christopher John Farley noted "Snoop's rapping isn't flashy, but it is catchy" and stated "His relaxed vocal style is a perfect match for Dre's bass-heavy producing. Snoop's voice is lithe enough to snake its way around the big beats," said Farley on November 29, 1993. The ideas put forward through the lyrics include Snoop Doggy Dogg's adolescent urges, as he freely talks of casual sex, smoking marijuana and gunning down rival gang members. Time magazine remarked that the notions "are often unnecessarily graphic; at some points they're downright obscene" and that "the album would have been stronger if such misgivings about the criminal life, as well as Snoop's touches of introspection, had been applied to some of the cruder songs". The album also covered gun play, drug dealing and pimping. The New York Times said that the lyrical concepts were delivered in "crudest, rudest terms".
Some critics said Snoop Doggy Dogg was "obsessed with being a 'G', a gangster, a lawbreaker who smokes dope and kills with impunity" and that his lyrics depict the black-on-black crime in the inner-cities. The lyrics involve many derogatory terms against women, with expressions such as "bitches" and "hoes" being used throughout, which illustrates the feeling of sexism and oppression within American society. In certain tracks Snoop Doggy Dogg and Tha Dogg Pound casually speak of group sex, illustrating the demeaning of women. Snoop Doggy Dogg's lyrics depict drugs, alcohol, sex, and money as methods of escape from oppression, but they also show an underside of the "gangsta" lifestyle and the results of following this lifestyle. The lyrics' violent representations, including murder and aggressive behaviour, have also generated controversy. C. DeLores Tucker of the National Political Congress of Black Women named gangsta rap "a profane and obscene glorification of murder and rape", which can be attributed to Doggystyle.
Content
"Who Am I (What's My Name)?" was the first single released from the album, on October 30, 1993. It peaked at No. 8 on the Billboard Hot 100 and Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks charts, and reached No. 1 on the Hot Rap Singles. It is largely recognised as the album's 'leading single', and the RIAA certified it Gold on February 8, 1994. It was certified Platinum later the same year. It reached No. 20 on the UK Singles Chart in 1994 and re-entered the chart in 2004, reaching No. 100. In terms of critical reception and the volume of sales, it is Snoop's most successful single to date. "Gin and Juice" was the second single released on January 15, 1994. Like the previous single, it was a hit on multiple charts. It reached No. 8 on the Billboard Hot 100, No. 13 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks, No. 1 on Hot Rap Singles, and No. 39 on the UK Singles Chart. The RIAA certified it Platinum on April 6, 1994. The song was nominated at the 1995 Grammy Awards for Best Rap Solo Performance, but lost to Queen Latifah's "U.N.I.T.Y.". "Doggy Dogg World" was released as a Europe-only single during June 1994. Even though the single was not officially released in the U.S., it received some radio airplay which resulted in position 19 on the Rhythmic Top 40 chart. A music video was produced for the single, which gained American video TV-play and won the 1994 MTV Video Music Award for Best Rap Video. It reached No. 32 on the UK Singles Chart.
"Lodi Dodi" and "Murder Was the Case" were not official singles, but they received radio airplay and charted in Rhythmic Top 40. An 18-minute music video was shot for the two songs, with an accompanying Murder Was the Case soundtrack. The video won the 1995 Video of the Year award at The Source Hip-Hop Music Awards. "Gin and Juice" was nominated at the 1995 Grammy Awards for Best Rap Solo Performance. A bonus track, "Gz Up, Hoes Down", was included in the album's first pressing, but not in later versions because of sample clearance issues. Snoop Doggy Dogg could not gain the rights to use the beats because the record company was not willing to pay license fees for using the samples. "Gz Up, Hoes Down" was later released on the Death Row compilation "15 Years on Death Row". "Tha Next Episode" was listed on the cover, but not included in any pressing. It is considered the original material used for the 2000 Dr. Dre single "The Next Episode" but bears no resemblance to the later song. It was 4 minutes and 36 seconds (4:36) long. "Tha Next Episode" was later released on the Dr. Dre mixtape Pretox under the name "Chronic Unreleased Studio Session", but only 1:10 long. "Doggystyle" featuring George Clinton was a 5:26 long outtake from the album sessions. It is a singing melody with vocals dominating the song and it extensively samples "Oh I" by Funkadelic from their album The Electric Spanking of War Babies. Jewell & The Brides of Funkenstein are featured on the chorus. The song was released on Death Row: The Lost Sessions Vol. 1 amongst other songs recorded by Snoop Doggy Dogg during his tenure at Death Row.
Legacy and influence
Hip-hop music
Doggystyle is seen by many hip hop pundits as a "classic" and an "essential" album. It is credited with defining West Coast hip hop; shifting the emphasis to more melodious, synth-driven, and funk-induced beats. About.com stated during the period the album was released, "Gangsta rap never sounded so sweet." The album is credited for further establishment of the slurred "lazy drawl" that sacrificed lyrical complexity for clarity and rhythmic cadence on Doggystyle and The Chronic. The album is considered one of the first G-funk albums the style of which many rappers duplicated in later years.
Hip-hop culture
It has been suggested by some writers and publications that Doggystyle has considerably affected African-American culture. Some publications have held the rap genre responsible for social problems such as sexual violence and sexism, which has been blamed on Snoop Doggy Dogg and other rappers for calling their controversial lyrics "keeping it real." The problems of sexual violence and sexism are attributed to lyrics degrading women such as "bitches" and "ho's," which some believe have influenced black males. Snoop Doggy Dogg and other hip hop artists, including N.W.A, especially Eazy-E, Dr. Dre and Ice Cube (due to their success) and 2Pac, have been held accountable for developing the gangsta rap form; a genre which articulated the rage of the urban underclass and its sense of intense oppression and defiant rebellion, which has been attained through the ability to communicate free of censorship, and has allowed hip hop culture to become a dominant style and ethos throughout the world. Mariah Carey sampled the song "Ain't No Fun (If the Homies Can't Have None)" in her 1999 album Rainbow for the remix of Heartbreaker which featured Missy Elliott and Da Brat.
The writers of Enculturation, Steven Best and Douglas Kellner, have noted that Snoop Doggy Dogg and other rappers only condemn violence when it is directed against them, otherwise "they celebrate it, internalize it, and embrace it as an ethos and means of self expression," which some believe has an effect on the black-on-black crime. The release of music videos from Doggystyle and The Chronic has enabled the artists to add visual illustrations to their lyrics, which generally involve Dr. Dre and Snoop Doggy Dogg driving around South Central, Los Angeles in a lowrider (a vehicle with lowered suspension). This imagery of the "gangsta lifestyle" is thought to have influenced young black males into trying to live the same lifestyle and it is also noted by T. Denean, writer of Pimps Up, Ho's Down: Hip Hop's Hold on Young Black Women, that the videos highlight the representation of class, race and Black masculinity within contemporary urban America.
Subsequent work
Doggystyle is generally considered Snoop Dogg's best album, in addition to being his highest charting and best-selling album as his later albums were certified double Platinum, Platinum or Gold although Da Game Is to Be Sold, Not to Be Told was certified double Platinum making it his second best selling album and also his only other one to be certified multi Platinum. It differs from following albums as his later work featured production from multiple individuals, such as The Neptunes, Timbaland and Daz Dillinger, with reduced input from Dr. Dre, which shows a shift from G-funk production. Snoop Doggy Dogg's follow-up album, Tha Doggfather (1996), did not involve Dr. Dre, as he left Death Row Records. As a result, DJ Pooh was the main beat-maker for the album. Tha Doggfather followed the methods of a G-funk record and initially sold well, but received mixed reviews and failed to produce a major hit single. In 1998, Snoop Dogg left Death Row and joined No Limit Records, changing his stage name from Snoop Doggy Dogg to Snoop Dogg. During his tenure at the label, he continued several of the themes from Doggystyle with follow-ups to earlier songs, such as "Gin & Juice II" (1998) and "Snoop Dogg (What's My Name II)" (2000).
Subsequent studio albums such as Paid tha Cost to Be da Boss (2002) and R&G (Rhythm & Gangsta): The Masterpiece (2004) exhibited a more mainstream, pop-oriented theme with new sounds, but remained "hardcore throughout" and featured "plenty of street and commercial appeal". These releases included three hit singles, "Beautiful", "Drop It Like It's Hot" and "Signs". Snoop Dogg was credited for returning to his G-funk roots in 2006, which was established with his eighth studio album, Tha Blue Carpet Treatment (2006). The album was noted for being a "hard and very G-Funk record".
Critical reception
Doggystyle was released to widespread critical acclaim. Rolling Stone writer Touré mentioned "Doggystyle is filled with verbal and vocal feats that meet its high expectations. It speeds through 55 minutes of constant talk as if on a suicide hot line". David Browne of Entertainment Weekly noted "It is the most limber, low-rider gangsta album to date" and went on to say "Doggystyle is a grim, bleak-faced record. It's set in a dead-end, no-tomorrow world of cheap thrills". Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic stated "Doggystyle and The Chronic stand proudly together as the twin pinnacles of West Coast G-funk hip-hop of the early '90s" Stylus magazine presented "The Chronic vs. Doggystyle" article, and stated a strong point of Doggystyle compared to Dre's album was its follow-up singles and that "some of the album tracks are more famous than the singles". Vibe magazine expressed that "Snoop is no ordinary gangsta; that's impossible for an artist this playful. On his debut, with Dre riding shotgun anthems abound as often as gin-soaked debauchery". The Source magazine gave the album a 4/5 mic rating. It said Snoop Doggy Dogg emerged as a rapper who lived up to all the advance hype which came from his work on The Chronic, and discussed songs on the record, stating "If 'Murder Was The Case' is a stroke of near genius, then 'Lodi Dodi' is an example of total genius." NME magazine called the lead single "a pinnacle he conquered effortlessly" and went on to name the record a "benchmark album".
The album also received some negative criticism. Erlewine of AllMusic mentioned the album did not "surprise or offer anything that wasn't already on The Chronic". Christopher John Farley noted Snoop Doggy Dogg had little examination over his emotions and feelings. David Browne spoke of "Ain't No Fun", stating it was an example of how "musically artful, yet lyrically repellent, this album can be" and went on to say "It's easy to be impressed one moment and appalled the next". Renowned rock critic Robert Christgau gave the album a "dud" rating, which signifies "a bad record whose details rarely merit further thought. At the upper level it may merely be overrated, disappointing, or dull. Down below it may be contemptible." Q'''s Danny Kelly observed: "Snoop Doggy Dogg's record is more or less a 19-track homage to/gleeful rip off of George Clinton's 'Atomic Dog' ... It's inclined to become a touch unimaginative; a tad, let's be honest, dull ... And the sleeve competes with The Waterboys' Dream Harder and Billy Joel's River of Dreams as the worst attached to a recent release."
Despite the initial mixed criticism, critical perception of the album later improved, as Doggystyle has earned several accolades and rankings on critics' "best album" lists. A review of the album's reissue upped Q's rating from three to four stars out of five. "A modern classic," observed reviewer Tom Doyle. The Source magazine later gave the album a classic five-mic rating. In 2020, "Doggystyle" placed 340 in Rolling Stone's Top 500 Albums of All Time.
Accolades
The information regarding accolades attributed to Doggystyle is adapted from AcclaimedMusic.net.
Commercial performance Doggystyle debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200, powered by spectacular first week sales of 806,000 copies. As of November 2015, the album had sold seven million copies in the United States, and over eleven million copies worldwide. It was certified four times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America on May 31, 1994. It is Snoop Doggy Dogg's most successful album; his following albums were certified single or double platinum. Doggystyle first appeared on music charts in 1993, peaking on the Billboard 200 and Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums at No. 1. It re-peaked at number one on the Billboard 200 in January 1994, when it was already certified three times platinum by the RIAA. The record was mildly successful in Europe, reaching No. 18 in Sweden, No. 21 in Germany and No. 35 in Austria. It also peaked at No. 25 on the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand album chart. At the end of 1994, the album was No. 3 on the Billboard Year-End Top Albums Chart and No. 1 on the Billboard Year-End Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums Chart.Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums 1994 . Billboard. Retrieved April 16, 2008. It re-entered the charts in 2003, peaking on the Ireland Albums Top 75 at No. 70. , it had spent a total of 74 nonconsecutive weeks on the Billboard 200 album chart.
Track listing
All songs produced by Dr. Dre.
Notes
"Gz Up, Hoes Down" is only included on the very first pressings of the album. It was later omitted due to sample clearance issues. It was later re-released on the 2006 Death Row Records compilation, 15 Years on Death Row.
On the U.S. original release's back cover "Gz Up, Hoes Down" is erroneously listed after "Pump Pump" instead of immediately before.
Original pressings in Europe features track names for all interludes - the interlude track names listed above are taken from the said European release. "W Balls" was the only interlude listed on the original American release. All interludes, including "W Balls" were later omitted from all track listings.
The original pressings of the album, which contains "Gz Up, Hoes Down", list an outro track titled, "Tha Next Episode", but does not feature on any pressings of the album. A low-quality recording of the song later leaked online sometime in the late 2000s.
Cut tracks
"Gz Up, Hoes Down", only included on original pressings of the album. Omitted due to sample clearance issues.
"Tha Next Episode", produced by and featuring Dr. Dre, was listed on the track listing provided to retailers before the album's release, but does not feature on any pressings of the album. A similar instrumental (i.e., it used the same sample as its main melody) was later used for Warren G's track "Runnin' Wit No Breaks" from his 1994 debut album, Regulate...G Funk Era Snoop Dogg and Dr. Dre later recorded a track titled "The Next Episode" for Dre's second studio album, 2001, which is completely different from the original.
"Doggystyle", featuring Jewell and George Clinton) was recorded during the album sessions but remained unreleased until its inclusion on the compilation album Death Row: The Lost Sessions Vol. 1 "The Root of All Evil (Outro)", featuring Teena Marie, was recorded during the album sessions but remained unreleased until its inclusion on the compilation album Death Row: The Lost Sessions Vol. 1. The instrumental was later significantly reworked and used for the remix of "California Love", by 2Pac featuring Dr. Dre.
"Every Single Day", featuring Kurupt, Jewell and Nate Dogg, was recorded during the album sessions, remaining unreleased until an alternate version was released on Tha Dogg Pound compilation album 2002''.
Personnel
Snoop Doggy Dogg – lead vocals
Dr. Dre – producer, vocals
Daz Dillinger – vocals, performer
Sam Sneed - performer, inspiration
Ulrich Wild – engineer
Tha Dogg Pound – performer
Warren G – performer
The D.O.C. – performer
The Lady of Rage – performer
RBX – performer
Kurupt – performer
Nate Dogg – performer
The Dramatics – performer
Emanuel Dean – producer
Chris "The Glove" Taylor – songwriter, mixing
Suge Knight – executive producer
Bernie Grundman – mastering
Chi Modu – photography
Nanci Fletcher – performer, vocals (featured and background)
Dan Winters – photography
Kimberly Holt – artwork
Kimberly Brown – project coordinator
Joe Cool – cover artwork
Lasheena Denty - performer, vocals (featured)
Charts
Weekly charts
Catalog charts
Year-end charts
Decade-end charts
Certifications
Release history
See also
List of number-one albums of 1993 (U.S.)
List of number-one albums of 1994 (U.S.)
List of number-one R&B albums of 1993 (U.S.)
List of number-one R&B albums of 1994 (U.S.)
Billboard Year-End
References
1993 debut albums
Death Row Records albums
Albums produced by Dr. Dre
Interscope Records albums
Snoop Dogg albums
Gangsta rap albums by American artists
G-funk albums
|
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] |
211560
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DJ%20Hollywood
|
DJ Hollywood
|
DJ Hollywood (born Anthony Holloway; December 10, 1954) is an American MC and disc jockey.
Background
According to Kurtis Blow and Pete DJ Jones, Hollywood was the first rapper in the hip-hop style, making him the "Father" of the Hip Hop style. Before Hollywood introduced "Hip Hop style" rapping, he had already impacted DJing by creating a set that included singing, rhyming, and call and response, where he interacted with the crowd. An example would be Hollywood saying, "If you're feeling good with Hollywood somebody say, Oh yeah!" And the crowd would shout back: "Oh yeah!" Other rappers have been using some of his creations for the last 30 years, such as "throw ya hands in the air and wave 'em like you just don't care."
Holloway said, "Don't get me wrong, they had people [who] rapped before me syncopated and unsyncopated. I cannot take nothing away from people like Oscar Brown Jr., Pigmeat Markham, the Last Poets, Gil Scott Heron, the Watts Prophets, Rudy Ray Moore, I used to listen to all of them. I cannot take nothing from none of them ... but none of them was doing what I was doing with the turntables and a mic."
Hollywood's renown spread rapidly and he became a regular at the Apollo, even having his name added to the marquee. Hollywood had been DJing since 1972, and like every MC, he "rhythm talked". And like radio DJs, he usually pattered sequences of one or two bar rhymes. Hollywood said, he used to like the way "Frankie Crocker would ride a track, but he wasn't syncopated to the track though. I liked WWRL DJ Hank Spann too, but he wasn't on the one. Guys back then weren't concerned with being musical. I wanted to flow with the record."
In 1975, Hollywood would make his greatest contribution, when he adapted the lyrics of Isaac Hayes's "Good Love 6-9969" to the breakdown part of MFSB's "Love is the Message", which made Hollywood into an instant sensation. Hollywood did something new; he rhymed syncopated to the beat of an existing record uninterruptedly for nearly a minute. In effect, he connected the various short MC rhymes/patters into one continuous rhyme, introducing "flow" and giving birth to what would become known as the "hip hop" style. Before then, all MCs rhymed based on radio DJs. This usually consisted of short patters that were disconnected thematically. But by using song lyrics, Hollywood had imparted an inherent flow and theme to his rhyme. This was the game changer.
In 1978 and 1979, DJ Hollywood was the first DJ to bring turntables and a mixer to perform at the Apollo Theater. Before long, club owners in the South Bronx had hired Hollywood to play at a spot called Club 371. Kevin Smith, better known as Lovebug Starski, is considered one of the first hip-hop style rappers. Starski, however, was Hollywood's partner and simply imitated this new style.
Most of DJ Hollywood’s body of musical work was live, not recorded, although he did release a single "Shock Shock The House" in 1980 on CBS Records. Until the mid-1980s, Hollywood was one of the top DJs. He retired from the business and struggled with drug addiction. He has since returned to performing in the New York City area, appearing with Tha Veteranz which reunited him with his former partner Lovebug Starski.
References
1954 births
Living people
American hip hop DJs
African-American rappers
21st-century American rappers
21st-century African-American musicians
20th-century African-American people
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doris%20Fisher%20%28songwriter%29
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Doris Fisher (songwriter)
|
Doris Fisher (May 2, 1915 – January 15, 2003) was an American singer and songwriter, collaborating both as lyricist and composer. She co-wrote many popular songs in the 1940s, including "Whispering Grass", "You Always Hurt the One You Love", "Into Each Life Some Rain Must Fall", "That Ole Devil Called Love", and "Put the Blame on Mame." Her songs were recorded by the Ink Spots, Louis Prima, Billie Holiday, Bing Crosby, the Andrews Sisters, Pearl Bailey, the Mills Brothers and Ella Fitzgerald amongst others.
Biography
Fisher was born in New York, the daughter of noted songwriter Fred Fisher. Her brothers Dan Fisher ("Good Morning Heartache") and Marvin Fisher ("When Sunny Gets Blue") also became songwriters.
In the late 1930s she sang regularly on radio station WOR with Eddy Duchin's band. She also performed with other big bands including Count Basie, and led the vocal group Penny Wise and Her Wise Guys who recorded for the Vocalion label in 1938. Her first hit composition came the same year, co-writing the novelty song "Tutti Frutti" with its performer, Slim Gaillard. Following its success, she began writing songs for Mike Todd's Star and Garter revue on Broadway.
In 1940 she co-wrote "Whispering Grass" for The Ink Spots with her father. Her most successful songwriting period came after she met lyricist Allan Roberts in 1944, in her father's office at the Brill Building. Within a year of starting to work together, they co-wrote "You Always Hurt the One You Love", a no.1 hit that year for the Mills Brothers and in 2017 the Mills Brothers version was inducted into The Grammy Hall of Fame; "Good, Good, Good (That's You, That's You)", recorded by Bing Crosby and the Andrews Sisters; "Into Each Life Some Rain Must Fall", another no. 1 hit for the Ink Spots with Ella Fitzgerald; "That Ole Devil Called Love" recorded by Billie Holiday; "Angelina (The Waitress at the Pizzeria)", a hit for Louis Prima; "Tampico", a hit by Stan Kenton; and "Invitation to the Blues", which she co-wrote with Roberts and Arthur Gershwin, the younger brother of George and Ira Gershwin and which was first recorded by Ella Mae Morse.
In 1945, she and Roberts were signed by Harry Cohn of Columbia Pictures in Hollywood to a seven-year contract to supply songs for films. They had immediate success with the songs "Amado Mio" and "Put the Blame on Mame", written for Gilda starring Rita Hayworth, and in all contributed to about twenty films for the company, including Dead Reckoning and The Lady from Shanghai. Fisher's other hit compositions included "That's Good Enough for Me" and "Tired", recorded by Pearl Bailey; "Let's Stay Young Forever", and "It's So Easy". In a 1947 interview, Fisher said that "Allan is the tear-jerker of the team, and I specialize in light stuff." Fisher's "lighthearted, sentimental" compositions were so popular that at the time she was known as the "Queen of the Juke Box."
She married real estate developer Charles Gershenson, from Detroit, Michigan in 1947 and left the music business soon afterwards, moving to Detroit, Michigan to raise their two children, Frederika and Ned Gershenson. She became a collector of antique American furniture, and an advisor on interior design. In the early 1960s she advised President John F. Kennedy and his wife Jacqueline on interior design for the White House. Fisher and Gershenson divorced in the 1960s, and she returned to Los Angeles, California where she set up a retail business, Cookstores, selling kitchen and dining room items.
Fisher died at Century City Hospital in Los Angeles in January 2003, aged 87. Her friend, the pianist and singer Michael Feinstein, praised her tenacity and talent in what at the time was a man's world.
References
1915 births
2003 deaths
Songwriters from New York (state)
Singers from New York City
20th-century American singers
20th-century American women singers
21st-century American women
|
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] |
211563
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovebug%20Starski
|
Lovebug Starski
|
Kevin Smith (May 16, 1960 – February 8, 2018), best known by his stage name Lovebug Starski, was an American MC, musician, and record producer. He began his career as a record boy in 1971 as hip-hop first appeared in the Bronx, and he eventually became a DJ at the Disco Fever club in 1978. He is one of two people who may have come up with the term "hip-hop". Starski claimed that he coined the phrase, while trading the two words back and forth, while improvising lines with Keef Cowboy of the Furious Five, at a farewell party for a friend who was headed into the Army.
Career
Starski recorded his first single, "Positive Life," on the Tayster record label in 1981. (The British Group MARRS would sample this in 1987 with the No. 1 single "Pump Up the Volume".) Later, he recorded a song for the soundtrack of the 1986 film Rappin''', which was released on Atlantic Records, before recording his first album, House Rocker, on Epic/CBS Records. This featured his most successful chart single, "Amityville (The House on the Hill)," a parody song named in reference to the film The Amityville Horror (itself based on alleged supernatural activities surrounding the DeFeo murder case). It was a No. 12 hit on the UK Singles Chart in 1986. Lovebug Starski sank into cocaine dependency and was imprisoned for possession of illegal substances in 1987. On release in December 1991, he returned to a DJ residency at his former haunt, Disco Fever.
Lovebug Starski and World Famous Brucie B, also worked together at the Rooftop Roller rink in Harlem during the 1980s.
Death
Starski died of a heart attack in Las Vegas on February 8, 2018, at the age of 57, while moving speakers out of storage into his apartment. Smith had recently relocated to Las Vegas, where he was working to revive his DJ career with gigs including a weekly residency at the rooftop lounge of Indian restaurant Turmeric Flavors of India. His final appearance there was just hours before his death, according to his manager, Jeremy Crittenden. He is survived by his mother, Martha Bowes; two sisters, Kim Shaw and Karen Rivers; three daughters, Tiffany Williams, Shantel Williams and Bryanna Smith; and three granddaughters and grandson.
Discography
Albums
House Rocker'' (1986)
Singles
"Gangster Rock" (1979) (as Little Starsky)
"Dancin' Party People" (1981) (as Little Starsky)
"Positive Life" (1981) (with Harlem World Crew)
"Live At The Fever" (1983) (On Fever Records)
"Live At The Fever Pt.2" (1983) (On Fever Records)
"You've Gotta Believe" (On Fever Records) (1983)
"Do The Right Thing" (1984)
"House Rocker" (1985)
"Rappin'" (1985)
"Amityville (The House on the Hill)" (1986)
"Saturday Night" (1986)
References
External links
1960 births
2018 deaths
African-American male rappers
20th-century African-American people
American male singers
Epic Records artists
Rappers from the Bronx
American hip hop DJs
21st-century African-American people
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%20limit
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Direct limit
|
In mathematics, a direct limit is a way to construct a (typically large) object from many (typically smaller) objects that are put together in a specific way. These objects may be groups, rings, vector spaces or in general objects from any category. The way they are put together is specified by a system of homomorphisms (group homomorphism, ring homomorphism, or in general morphisms in the category) between those smaller objects. The direct limit of the objects , where ranges over some directed set , is denoted by . (This is a slight abuse of notation as it suppresses the system of homomorphisms that is crucial for the structure of the limit.)
Direct limits are a special case of the concept of colimit in category theory. Direct limits are dual to inverse limits which are also a special case of limits in category theory.
Formal definition
We will first give the definition for algebraic structures like groups and modules, and then the general definition, which can be used in any category.
Direct limits of algebraic objects
In this section objects are understood to consist of underlying sets with a given algebraic structure, such as groups, rings, modules (over a fixed ring), algebras (over a fixed field), etc. With this in mind, homomorphisms are understood in the corresponding setting (group homomorphisms, etc.).
Let be a directed set. Let be a family of objects indexed by and be a homomorphism for all with the following properties:
is the identity of , and
for all .
Then the pair is called a direct system over .
The direct limit of the direct system is denoted by and is defined as follows. Its underlying set is the disjoint union of the 's modulo a certain :
Here, if and , then iff there is some with and and such that .
Heuristically, two elements in the disjoint union are equivalent if and only if they "eventually become equal" in the direct system. An equivalent formulation that highlights the duality to the inverse limit is that an element is equivalent to all its images under the maps of the direct system, i.e. whenever .
One naturally obtains from this definition canonical functions sending each element to its equivalence class. The algebraic operations on are defined such that these maps become homomorphisms. Formally, the direct limit of the direct system consists of the object together with the canonical homomorphisms .
Direct limits in an arbitrary category
The direct limit can be defined in an arbitrary category by means of a universal property. Let be a direct system of objects and morphisms in (as defined above). A target is a pair where is an object in and are morphisms for each such that whenever . A direct limit of the direct system is a universally repelling target in the sense that is a target and for each target , there is a unique morphism such that for each i. The following diagram
will then commute for all i, j.
The direct limit is often denoted
with the direct system and the canonical morphisms being understood.
Unlike for algebraic objects, not every direct system in an arbitrary category has a direct limit. If it does, however, the direct limit is unique in a strong sense: given another direct limit X′ there exists a unique isomorphism X′ → X that commutes with the canonical morphisms.
Examples
A collection of subsets of a set can be partially ordered by inclusion. If the collection is directed, its direct limit is the union . The same is true for a directed collection of subgroups of a given group, or a directed collection of subrings of a given ring, etc.
Let be any directed set with a greatest element . The direct limit of any corresponding direct system is isomorphic to and the canonical morphism is an isomorphism.
Let K be a field. For a positive integer n, consider the general linear group GL(n;K) consisting of invertible n x n - matrices with entries from K. We have a group homomorphism GL(n;K) → GL(n+1;K) which enlarges matrices by putting a 1 in the lower right corner and zeros elsewhere in the last row and column. The direct limit of this system is the general linear group of K, written as GL(K). An element of GL(K) can be thought off as an infinite invertible matrix which differs from the infinite identity matrix in only finitely many entries. The group GL(K) is of vital importance in algebraic K-theory.
Let p be a prime number. Consider the direct system composed of the factor groups and the homomorphisms induced by multiplication by . The direct limit of this system consists of all the roots of unity of order some power of , and is called the Prüfer group .
There is a (non-obvious) injective ring homomorphism from the ring of symmetric polynomials in variables to the ring of symmetric polynomials in variables. Forming the direct limit of this direct system yields the ring of symmetric functions.
Let F be a C-valued sheaf on a topological space X. Fix a point x in X. The open neighborhoods of x form a directed set ordered by inclusion (U ≤ V if and only if U contains V). The corresponding direct system is (F(U), rU,V) where r is the restriction map. The direct limit of this system is called the stalk of F at x, denoted Fx. For each neighborhood U of x, the canonical morphism F(U) → Fx associates to a section s of F over U an element sx of the stalk Fx called the germ of s at x.
Direct limits in the category of topological spaces are given by placing the final topology on the underlying set-theoretic direct limit.
An ind-scheme is an inductive limit of schemes.
Properties
Direct limits are linked to inverse limits via
An important property is that taking direct limits in the category of modules is an exact functor. This means that if you start with a directed system of short exact sequences and form direct limits, you obtain a short exact sequence .
Related constructions and generalizations
We note that a direct system in a category admits an alternative description in terms of functors. Any directed set can be considered as a small category whose objects are the elements and there is a morphisms if and only if . A direct system over is then the same as a covariant functor . The colimit of this functor is the same as the direct limit of the original direct system.
A notion closely related to direct limits are the filtered colimits. Here we start with a covariant functor from a filtered category to some category and form the colimit of this functor. One can show that a category has all directed limits if and only if it has all filtered colimits, and a functor defined on such a category commutes with all direct limits if and only if it commutes with all filtered colimits.
Given an arbitrary category , there may be direct systems in which don't have a direct limit in (consider for example the category of finite sets, or the category of finitely generated abelian groups). In this case, we can always embed into a category in which all direct limits exist; the objects of are called ind-objects of .
The categorical dual of the direct limit is called the inverse limit. As above, inverse limits can be viewed as limits of certain functors and are closely related to limits over cofiltered categories.
Terminology
In the literature, one finds the terms "directed limit", "direct inductive limit", "directed colimit", "direct colimit" and "inductive limit" for the concept of direct limit defined above. The term "inductive limit" is ambiguous however, as some authors use it for the general concept of colimit.
See also
Direct limits of groups
Notes
References
Limits (category theory)
Abstract algebra
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] |
211567
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard%20Missile
|
Standard Missile
|
Standard Missile refers to a family of American-made shipborne guided missiles:
RIM-66 Standard (SM-1MR/SM-2MR), a medium-range surface-to-air missile, the successor of the RIM-24 Tartar surface-to-air missile, currently in use by the U.S. Navy and many other navies around the world
RIM-67 Standard (SM-1ER/SM-2ER), an extended-range surface-to-air missile, the successor of the RIM-2 Terrier surface-to-air missile, withdrawn from service because it was too long to fit into vertical launching system equipped ships
AGM-78 Standard ARM, a long-range air-launched anti-radiation missile used by the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Air Force during the War in Vietnam
XAIM-97A Seekbat, a proposed long range air-to-air missile, based on the AGM-78, development was cancelled at the flight testing stage.
RIM-156A Standard, an extended-range surface-to-air missile, a VLS version of the RIM-67 Standard
RIM-161 Standard Missile 3 (SM-3), a ship-launched anti-ballistic missile, originally based on the SM-2ER Block IV (RIM-156).
RIM-174 Standard ERAM (SM-6), an upgraded version of the SM-2. It is designed to intercept both hostile aircraft and high-performance anti-ship missiles.
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Holt
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Tom Holt
|
Thomas Charles Louis Holt (born 13 September 1961) is a British novelist. In addition to fiction published under his own name, he writes fantasy under the pseudonym K. J. Parker.
Holt was born in London, the son of novelist Hazel Holt, and was educated at Westminster School, Wadham College, Oxford, and The College of Law, London.
His works include mythopoeic novels which parody or take as their theme various aspects of mythology, history or literature and develop them in new and often humorous ways. He has also written a number of historical novels writing as Thomas Holt. Steve Nallon collaborated with Holt to write I, Margaret, a satirical autobiography of Margaret Thatcher published in 1989.
K. J. Parker
K. J. Parker is the pseudonym under which Holt has published fantasy fiction. Parker's identity as Holt was kept secret for 17 years, until April 2015.
While Parker's stories take place in secondary worlds with fictional geographies and world history, some of the typical features of fantasy fiction such as explicit use of magic are not present in his novels. His short stories, on the other hand, frequently deal with magic and the problems it brings for sorcerers. The stories tend to have tragic themes with characters whose actions are unintentionally, ultimately self-destructive. Other major themes in the books are politics, technology (especially disruptive innovation), and either or both of the former as a means to power.
Bibliography of Tom Holt
The list that follows is complete according to the list of books in Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Sausages, published 2012.
Novels
Humorous fantasy
Expecting Someone Taller (1987), based on the mythology of Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen.
Who's Afraid of Beowulf? (1988), based on Norse mythology and history.
Flying Dutch (1991), based on the story of the Flying Dutchman.
Ye Gods! (1992), based on elements of Greek mythology including a parody of Heracles.
Overtime (1993), based on the legend of Blondel combined with time travel.
Here Comes the Sun (1993), based loosely on the Celestial Bureaucracy reinterpreted along the lines of the British civil service.
Grailblazers (1994), based on Arthurian romance and the quest for the Holy Grail.
Faust Among Equals (1994), an imagined continuation of the story of Faust.
Odds & Gods (1995), which features assorted pantheons and their adventures after "retirement".
Djinn Rummy (1995), based on the antics of various bottle-trapped djinn along the lines of a modern Aladdin.
My Hero (1996), in which literary characters can move between fiction and the real world. One of the main characters is Hamlet.
Paint Your Dragon (1996), based on the adventures of statues carved to portray the legend of St George slaying the dragon.
Open Sesame (1997), based on characters from the story of Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves.
Wish You Were Here (1998), in which a lake spirit grants four people their heart's desire whether they like it or not.
Only Human (1999), in which four human souls are switched respectively with a machine, a painting, a lemming and a demon.
Snow White and the Seven Samurai (1999), based on fairy tales (Brothers Grimm and others) making a world within a computer simulation.
Valhalla (2000), based on ideas from Norse mythology and the notion of tailoring an afterlife to suit the client.
Nothing But Blue Skies (2001), which features Chinese dragons which cause rain, and the problems caused when one of them falls in love with a human.
Falling Sideways (2002), which features human cloning and interference from a race of powerful alien frogs.
Little People (2002), in which a boy sees elves, and discovers they are being shrunk, imprisoned and enslaved.
Featuring J.W. Wells & Co., the magic firm from The Sorcerer by Gilbert & Sullivan:
The Portable Door (2003), which features office politics with a magical twist.
In Your Dreams (2004), in which the Fey use people's dreams to try to invade the world of humans.
Earth, Air, Fire, and Custard (2005).
You Don't Have to Be Evil to Work Here, But It Helps (2006).
The Better Mousetrap (2008).
May Contain Traces of Magic (2009), where a JWW travelling salesman breaks the rules and converses with his car's demonical navigation system.
Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Sausages (2011), subtitled A Comedy of Transdimensional Tomfoolery, with a genius pig, human chickens, and reality misfunctions.
Barking (2007), based on vampires and werewolves transposed into modern day legal firms.
Blonde Bombshell (2010), an alien canine race is trying to destroy Earth.
Featuring YouSpace, a multiverse-based entertainment system, with doughnuts as portals:
Doughnut (2013), a disgraced physicist is bequeathed a very strange legacy.
When It's a Jar (2013), an ordinary fellow becomes a reluctant hero.
The Outsorcerer's Apprentice (2014), a fairy tale universe is exploited economically.
The Good, the Bad and the Smug (2015), Rumplestiltskin-based economies and Evil goes for a new, more appealing look.
An Orc on the Wild Side (2019)
The Management Style of the Supreme Beings (2017), God and his oldest son Jay sell Earth to the Venturi brothers, leaving behind younger son Kevin, all the archangels, and Santa Claus.
Historical
Using Thomas Holt as author name.
The Walled Orchard (1997), which was originally published in two parts as Goatsong (1989) and The Walled Orchard (1990)
Alexander at the World's End (1999)
Olympiad (2000)
A Song for Nero (2003)
Meadowland (2005)
Other
Poems by Tom Holt (1974) (Collection of early poems)
continuations of E. F. Benson's "Lucia" series set in Tilling
Lucia in Wartime (1985) fiction
Lucia Triumphant (1986) fiction
I, Margaret (1989) (satirical biography of Margaret Thatcher, with Steve Nallon)
Bitter lemmings (1997) (Songbook)
Holt Who Goes There? (2002) (short stories)
Someone Like Me (2006).
Short fiction
Parodies of musical works
"Impractical Man" – a parody of the song "Practical Man" by Pete Atkin and Clive James.
Bibliography of K. J. Parker
Novels
The Fencer trilogy
The Fencer trilogy follows Bardas Loredan, a fencer-at-law.
Colours in the Steel (1998)
The Belly of the Bow (1999)
The Proof House (2000)
The Scavenger trilogy
The Scavenger trilogy is about a man, or possibly god, who wakes up on a battlefield with amnesia and discovers that he is being hunted by enemies he no longer remembers.
Shadow (2001)
Pattern (2002)
Memory (2003)
The Engineer trilogy
The Engineer trilogy features an engineer, Ziani Vaatzes, who is forced into exile from his home city and plots an elaborate revenge.
Devices and Desires (2005)
Evil for Evil (2006)
The Escapement (2007)
Siege
Sixteen Ways to Defend a Walled City (9 April 2019)
How to Rule an Empire and Get Away with It (18 August 2020)
A Practical Guide to Conquering the World (11 January 2021)
Other novels
The Company (2 October 2008)
The Folding Knife (22 February 2010)
The Hammer (5 January 2011)
Sharps (5 July 2012)
The Two of Swords (April 2015), serialised e-book. Published in 2017 in three volumes:
Volume 1 Collects #1-8 (17 October 2017)
Volume 2 collects #9-15 (14 November 2017)
Volume 3 collects #16-19 (12 December 2017)
Savages (31 July 2015)
The Long Game (March 2022)
Short fiction
Novellas
Novella. Collected in Academic Exercises.
Novella. Collected in Academic Exercises.
The Last Witness (6 October 2015) Novella. Collected in The Father of Lies.
Novella. Collected in The Father of Lies.
The Devil You Know (1 March 2016) Novella. Collected in The Father of Lies.
Mightier than the Sword. Subterranean Press. (30 May 2017).
My Beautiful Life. Subterranean Press. (30 November 2019).
Prosper's Demon. Tor.com. (28 January 2020).
The Big Score. Subterranean Press. (31 March 2021).
Inside Man. Tor.com. (15 June 2021).
Novelettes
"The Best Man Wins". The Book of Swords. (10 October 2017) Novelette
Novelette
Novelette
Short Stories
Edited by Jonathan Strahan & Lou Anders. Collected in Academic Exercises.
Edited by William Schafer. Collected in Academic Exercises.
Collected in Academic Exercises.
Edited by Jonathan Strahan. Collected in The Father of Lies.
"I Met a Man Who Wasn't There". Subterranean Online. January 2014. Collected in The Father of Lies.
Collected in The Father of Lies.
Collected in The Father of Lies.
edited by Jonathan Strahan. Collected in The Father of Lies.
"Told by an Idiot". (4 February 2016). Collected in The Father of Lies.
"Priest's Hole". Five Stories High. 1 December 2016.
"Message in a Bottle" (14 March 2017). Collected in The Father of Lies.
"Rules". The Father of Lies. (31 January 2018).
"The Return of the Pig". The Book of Magic. (16 October 2018)
Collections
Academic Exercises (27 July 2014)
The Father of Lies (31 January 2018)
Nonfiction
Short essays
Collected in Academic Exercises.
Collected in Academic Exercises.
Collected in Academic Exercises.
References
Free short stories online
Free short story online. (Winner of 2012 World Fantasy Award for best novella).
External links
official site – official website run by Holt's publisher
The Tom Holt Webpage - a large website about Tom Holt
Interview at SFFWorld.com
kjparker.com – official website run by Parker's publisher
1961 births
Living people
20th-century British novelists
21st-century British novelists
English fantasy writers
English historical novelists
People educated at Westminster School, London
Writers of historical fiction set in antiquity
British male novelists
British male short story writers
20th-century British short story writers
21st-century British short story writers
20th-century English male writers
21st-century English male writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logan%20International%20Airport
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Logan International Airport
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General Edward Lawrence Logan International Airport , also known as Logan International Airport and commonly as Boston Logan, Logan Airport or simply Logan, is an international airport that is located mostly in East Boston and partially in Winthrop, Massachusetts, United States. It opened in 1923, covers , has six runways and four passenger terminals, and employs an estimated 16,000 people. It is the largest airport in both the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and the New England region in terms of passenger volume and cargo handling, the 16th-busiest airport in the United States, as well as the busiest airport in the Northeast outside the New York metropolitan area. The airport saw 42 million passengers in 2019, the most in its history. It is named after General Edward Lawrence Logan, a 20th-century war hero native to Boston.
Logan has non-stop service to destinations throughout the United States, Canada, Mexico, Latin America, the Caribbean, the North Atlantic region (including Bermuda and the Azores), Europe, Africa, Asia, and The Middle East. BOS is the northeastern hub for Cape Air and is the secondary Transatlantic hub for Delta Air Lines, serving several destinations in Europe. It is also an operating base for JetBlue. American and United also carry out significant operations from the airport, including daily transcontinental flights. All of the major U.S. air carriers offer flights from Boston to all or the majority of their primary and secondary hubs.
History
Origins
Logan Airport opened on September 8, 1923, and at that time it was mainly used by the Massachusetts Air National Guard and the United States Army Air Corps. during this time, it was known as Jeffery Field. The first scheduled commercial passenger flights to start at the new airfield were on Colonial Air Transport between Boston and New York City, starting in 1927. On January 1, 1936, the airport's weather station became the official point for Boston's weather observations and records by the National Weather Service.
Early domestic expansion
During the 1940s and 1950s, due to the rise in demand for air travel, the airport added of landfill in Boston Harbor, taken from the former Governors, Noddle's and Apple Islands. during this time, the airport expanded the terminals, adding terminals B and C in 1949, which are still in use today. In 1943, the state of Massachusetts renamed the airport after Maj. Gen. Edward Lawrence Logan, a Spanish–American War officer from South Boston, a statue of whom by sculptor Joseph Coletti was unveiled and dedicated on May 20, 1956. In 1952, Logan Airport became the first in the United States with an indirect rapid transit connection, with the opening of the Airport station on the Blue Line.
Boston became a transatlantic gateway after World War II. In the late 1940s, American Overseas Airlines began operating a weekly Boston-Shannon-London service, shortly after, Pan Am began operating nonstop service to Shannon Airport in Ireland and Santa Maria Airport in the Azores, continuing to London and Lisbon respectively. By the early 1950s, BOAC had started nonstop service the Stratocruiser to Glasgow and Prestwick Airport in Scotland. Around this time(but unknown is the exact date) Air France began operating a multi-stop Constellation service linking Boston to Orly Airport in Paris. During this time, BOAC began service on the new De Havilland Comet, the first commercial jetliner in the world, on direct flights to Boston from London Heathrow. In April 1957, the Official Airline Guide showed 49 weekday departures with the list as follows: American, 31 Eastern, 25 Northeast Airlines, 8 United Airlines, 7 TWA domestic, 6 National Airlines, 6 Mohawk Airlines, 2 Trans-Canada Air Lines and one Provincetown-Boston Airlines. In addition TWA had nine departures a week to or from the Atlantic, Pan Am had 18, Air France 8, BOAC 4 and Alitalia 4.
Introduction of the jumbo jet and early international expansion
The jumbo jet era began at Logan in the summer of 1970, when Pan Am started daily Boeing 747 service to London Heathrow. Until 2020, the Boeing 747-400 was scheduled on flights to Boston by British Airways. Lufthansa operates Boeing 747s, including the latest-model Boeing 747-8, on its daily nonstop flights to Frankfurt.
Terminal E was the second largest international arrivals facility in the United States when it opened in 1974. Between 1974 and 2015, the number of international travelers at Logan tripled. International long-haul travel has been one of the fastest growing market sector's at the airport. Massachusetts Port Authority (Massport) undertook the "Logan Modernization Project" from 1994 to 2006: a new parking garage, a new hotel, moving walkways, terminal expansions and improvements, and two-tiered roadways to separate arrival and departure traffic.
Massport's relationship with nearby communities has been strained since the mid-1960s, when the agency took control of a parcel of residential land and popular fishing area near the northwest side of the airfield. This land included Frederick Law Olmsted's 46-acre Wood Island Park, a valued recreational area for a neighborhood with "fewer park and recreation facilities than other neighborhood in the city." After decades of litigation, the forfeiture was undertaken to extend Runway 15R/33L, which later became Logan's longest runway via artificial land. Outside of the park on Neptune Road, residents of the neighborhood, formerly, with its convenient park access, the "most prestigious street in East Boston," were bought out of their homes and forced to relocate. Public opposition came to a head when residents laid down in the streets to block bulldozers and supply trucks from reaching the construction zone.
Modern international expansion and runway additions
Runway 14/32, Logan's first major runway addition in more than forty years, opened on November 23, 2006. It was proposed in 1973, but was delayed in the courts. According to Massport records, the first aircraft to use the new airstrip was a Continental Express ERJ-145 regional jet landing on Runway 32, on the morning of December 2, 2006.
In April 2007, the FAA approved construction of a center field taxiway long-sought by Massport. The taxiway is between, and parallel to, Runways 4R/22L and 4L/22R. News of the project angered neighboring residents. In 2009 the taxiway opened ahead of schedule and under budget. To ensure the taxiway is not mistaken for a runway, "TAXI" is written in large yellow letters at each end.
A scene from the 2006 film The Departed was filmed at Logan, inside the connector bridge between Terminal E and the Central Parking Garage. Terminal C and several United Airlines and Northwest Airlines aircraft can be seen in the background. Parts of the Delta Air Lines 2007 "Anthem" commercial were filmed in Terminal A as well as the connector bridge between Terminal A and Central Parking.
In October 2009 US Airways announced it would close its Boston crew base in May 2010. The airline cited an "operations realignment" as the reason. Over 400 employees were transferred or terminated.
After starting service to Logan in 2004, JetBlue was a major operator at Logan Airport by 2008 and its largest carrier by 2011, with flights to cities throughout North America and the Caribbean.
The Airbus A380 first landed at Logan International Airport for compatibility checks on February 8, 2010. On March 26, 2017, British Airways began flying the A380 to Logan, operating the aircraft three times per week. British Airways announced in October 2018, that A380 service to Boston would expand to daily frequency during the summer 2019 season, beginning on March 31, 2019. Likewise, in January 2019, Emirates announced that it would be deploying the A380 on its daily flight between Logan and Dubai during the June–September 2019 summer season, as high peak seasonal services replacing the B777-300ER on that route. Emirates intends to utilise the A380 as a daily service once the market demand has been achieved; Emirates has a codeshare agreement with JetBlue.
Facilities
Logan International Airport has four lettered passenger terminals, A, B, C, and E, and 102 gate positions in total. With the exception of flights from destinations with U.S. Customs and Border Protection preclearance, inbound international flights arrive at Terminal E for customs screening since the other terminals do not have customs screening facilities. All terminals are connected by pre-security shuttle buses and by the SL1 branch of the MBTA Silver Line BRT, and Terminals A, B, and E via pre-security moving walkways. Moving walkways also connect the terminals to a central parking garage designed for consolidated service between all four terminals and the garage itself. Post-security connection between Terminals C and E is available.
Terminal A
Terminal A, which replaced a 1970s-era building once occupied by the now-defunct Eastern Air Lines (and later by its successor Continental Airlines until closed for demolition in 2002), opened to passengers on March 16, 2005. The terminal is primarily used by Delta for its hub operations and is divided into a main terminal and a satellite terminal, which are connected via an underground pedestrian tunnel under the ramp. The new redesigned Terminal A was developed under a special facility lease between Massachusetts Port Authority and Delta. On September 14, 2005, six months after opening, Delta filed for bankruptcy and consequently had to reduce the number of gates it leased. Terminal A features two Delta Sky Clubs. One is located on the third floor of the satellite building, and a newer one opened at the site of the former Continental Presidents Club in the main terminal building.
The building is the first airport terminal in the United States to be LEED certified for environmentally friendly design by the U.S. Green Building Council. Among the building's features are heat-reflecting roof and windows, low-flow faucets and waterless urinals, self-dimming lights and stormwater filtration.
In December 2018, Delta announced an expansion of routes to take effect in 2019, which resulted in Southwest moving to Terminal B, and Delta regaining all of Terminal A (other than one gate subleased to WestJet, itself a codeshare airline with Delta). As a result, Delta has declared Logan to be one of their hubs as of June 2019.
Terminal B
Terminal B, designed by John Carl Warnecke & Associates and Desmond & Lord, Inc., opened in 1974. Pier B was completed for US Airways in 1974 and Pier A for American in 1975. The terminal remained largely unchanged until US Airways expanded its operations at Logan in 1979, and improvements designed by HNTB were constructed in 1980. From 1980 until 2000, numerous small projects including passenger seating area improvements, concessions expansions and passenger lounges were completed at both piers. American's facilities were renovated in 1995 and redesigned by Gresham, Smith & Partners, and US Airways' facilities were renovated in 1998 and 2000, and redesigned by URS Corporation with Turner Construction serving as the construction manager.
Until 2014, Terminal B was split into north and south buildings, with a parking garage between the two buildings. The gates of the south building are divided into three groups. The gates of the north building are divided into two groups. Air Canada, Alaska Airlines, American, Boutique Air, Southwest, Spirit, and United operate out of Terminal B. United and American both operate lounges in the terminal(those being the United Club and Admirals Club, respectively) for their customers.
Between 2012 and 2014, Terminal B underwent a $160 million renovation, which was completed in April 2014. It created a post-security walkway that connects Terminal B North to Terminal B South. The renovation also included 24 new ticket counter spots, eight new departure lounges, new concession space, and a new baggage carousel. United, formerly located in Terminals A and C, began operating all flights out of Terminal B effective April 2014.
Terminal C
Terminal C opened in 1967 and was designed by Perry, Shaw, Hepburn and Dean. It underwent renovations in 1987, 2002, and 2005. Continuing the renovations of Terminal C, a post-security connection between Terminal C and Terminal E opened in Summer 2016, allowing for seamless connections between the two terminals, part of Massport's plan to ultimately connect all terminals post-security. The terminal serves Aer Lingus, Cape Air, JetBlue as their operating base, with TAP Air Portugal only having departures take place out of the terminal.
The former Terminal D gates (the three gates at the north end of Terminal C) were renumbered and labeled as part of Terminal E in February 2006. These three gates were used, as part of Terminal E, by Southwest until their move to Terminal A. In 2016, following construction of an airside connector between Terminals E and C, these three gates were renumbered again.
The airport's USO Lounge is located in the baggage claim area of Terminal C, lower level. It offers most typical amenities as other markets as major as Greater Boston. Military ID is mandatory.
Terminal E
Terminal E, also known as the John A. Volpe International Terminal named after the former Governor of Massachusetts and U.S. Secretary of Transportation, serves as the international terminal for Logan and therefore houses the majority of its international arrivals (excluding flights from an origin that has U.S. border preclearance). Also, most non-U.S. carriers excluding Aer Lingus, Air Canada, TAP Air Portugal, and WestJet depart from Terminal E. The terminal was completed in 1974, and designed by Kubitz & Papi, Inc. and Desmond & Lord, Inc. Massport completed the "Terminal E Modernization" project in August 1997 which improved the passenger facilities. The International Gateway Project, designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill and DMJM Aviation, added to the terminal in 2003, and the entire project was completed in 2008.
Terminal E has a total of 12 gates. All gates within the terminal are designated as common-use, meaning gates are assigned mostly based on an operational need, and no specific airline claims ownership of any of those gates. All ticket counters and gates in Terminal E are shared among the international carriers. Terminal E has several airline lounges (e.g., Air France Lounge, British Airways' First Lounge and Terraces Lounge, Lufthansa's First Lounge and Business Lounges, Virgin Atlantic's Clubhouse Lounge). The third level of Terminal E is used for departures, the second for passport control via U.S. Customs and Border Protection, and the ground level for arrivals and customs, also via U.S. Customs and Border Protection. The Federal Inspection Station located in Terminal E is capable of processing over 2,000 passengers per hour.
Terminal E underwent a $100 million renovation which started in 2014, and includes a post-security connector between Terminals E and C (opened summer 2016), improved immigration and passport control kiosks, and gates capable of serving the Airbus A380. The Terminal E expansion was completed in late January 2017.
In summer 2019, Massport began another expansion project on Terminal E, due to continued growth at the airport. The project, which is slated to be completed in early 2023, will include the addition of 7 new international gates with two jetways each (E13-E19) with all-new shops, restaurants and other passenger services which will stretch into the current North Cargo area, and the renovation of gates E10, E11 and E12 that will each have three jetways to properly accommodate A380s. Additionally, a new TSA checkpoint will be built and the current ticketing, customs, and baggage claim areas will all be expanded. In total, the project is expected to cost $680 million and incorporate roughly of new space.
Runways
Located partly in East Boston and partly in the Town of Winthrop, on Boston Harbor, Logan International Airport covers an area of which contains six runways:
Runway 4L/22R:
Runway 4R/22L:
Runway 9/27:
Runway 14/32:
Runway 15L/33R:
Runway 15R/33L:
Additionally, the harbor to the south of the airport contains water Runway 14W/32W (); this runway, however, is not operated by Logan International Airport but is instead co-operated by two private seaplane bases (SPBs), Tailwind Boston SPB and Cape Air Boston Harbor SPB .
Between 1968 and 1971, Taxiway Sierra was converted into STOL runway 18/36, which was for use by Eastern Air Lines's STOL capable Breguet 941 turboprop shuttle.
Instrument landing system approaches are available for runways 4R, 15R, 22L, 27, and 33L, with runways 4R and 33L certified for CAT III operations. The other runways with ILS are certified for CAT I Instrument Landing operations. EMAS pads are located at the starting thresholds of runways 22R and 33L.
The distinctive central control tower, nearly a dozen stories high, is a local landmark with its pair of segmented elliptical pylons and a six-story platform trussed between them.
Logan Airport has two cargo facilities: North Cargo is adjacent to Terminal E and South Cargo adjacent to Terminals A and B. North Cargo is also the location of several maintenance hangars, including those operated by American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, and JetBlue.
Runway 14/32, which opened to air traffic on November 23, 2006, is unidirectional. Runway 32 is used for landings and 14 is used for takeoffs. Massport is barred by a court order from using the runway for overland landings or takeoffs, except in emergencies.
There was fierce opposition towards the construction of 14/32 among communities adjacent to the northwest side of the airport, such as Chelsea and East Boston, as authorities acknowledged these areas would likely see increased noise levels. Many Residents of Winthrop and Revere also joined in opposition, even though Massport had predicted the new traffic patterns allowed by 14/32 would actually reduce overflights and noise in those areas.
Since the opening of the new runway, there has been disagreement about when and how often it should operate. Residents have demanded a minimum of northwest winds, slightly higher than the threshold favored by Massport.
The rationale behind constructing the new runway 14/32 was that it reduces the need for improving existing Runway 15L/33R, which, at only is perhaps the shortest hard-surface runways at major airports in the United States. In 1988, Massport had proposed an extension to 15L/33R (a project which would have required additional filling-in some land along a "clam bed"), but was thwarted by a court injunction.
Boston's Hyatt Harborside Hotel, which sits only a few hundred yards from the runway threshold, was built primarily to prevent Massport from ever extending the length of 14/32 or using it for takeoffs or landings over the city. Massachusetts state legislators carefully chose the location of the hotel—directly in the runway centerline—prior to its construction in 1992.
Ground transportation
Boston Logan International Airport was called the "Easiest Airport to Get To" in a 2007 article on aviation.com because of the variety of options to and from the airport. These options include cars, taxis, the MBTA Blue and Silver lines, regional bus services, shared ride vans, ferries, limousines and an in-house airport operator (Massport) intercity bus common carrier, a service offered by few U.S. airports. The service, Logan Express, provides shuttle service to remote park and rides located at Back Bay, Braintree, Framingham, Peabody, and Woburn. Geographically, Logan is located northeast of Back Bay, a short distance with respect to other airports similarly sized and metropolitan areas served.
Massport's Airport Shuttle provides free service between all terminals, the Airport station on the Blue Line and the Rental Car Center, as well as additional service to the water transportation dock located on Harborside Drive.
Ride Shares serve the airport via the central parking garage. Due to sheer volume of users who use the providers, both have been known to use mass-messaging of their customer base to galvanize political pressure and act on a pressure group towards Logan management at MassPort concerning various policies that can impact those providers.
The SL1 branch of the MBTA's Silver Line bus rapid transit service connects all Logan terminals with South Station, a major transportation hub in the downtown Boston financial district that serves MBTA Commuter Rail, Amtrak, Red Line subway and intercity bus. Airport station on the MBTA's Blue Line subway, despite its name, is not in the airport terminal itself; free shuttle buses carry passengers between the Airport station and the terminal buildings. The Blue Line connects with the Orange Line at State, which provides service to both North Station and Back Bay, the two other major rail transportation hubs for Boston. A transfer to the Green Line, which also runs to North Station, is available at Government Center station. The SL3 branch of the Silver Line connects Chelsea with the Airport Station. As of 2019, Massport is considering the construction of either an automated people-mover or rapid transit line to replace the airport shuttle.
A $310 million rental car center opened on September 24, 2013, consolidating all rental car companies into one shared building. Advantage, Alamo, Avis, Budget, Dollar, Enterprise, E-Z Rent-A-Car, Hertz, National and Thrifty rental car companies operate out of the new facility which has 3,200 parking spaces across four levels. Access to the new facility is done through a new unified bus system consisting of 28 fuel efficient clean hybrid buses operated by Massport which provides service between all the terminals and the rental car center. A handful of livery-plate operators also service the airport offering various chauffeured car, van, or limousine for-hire offerings.
Public safety
Police services are provided by the Massachusetts State Police Troop F. Fire protection is the responsibility of the Massport Fire Rescue. Even though the airport is technically within city limits, under Massachusetts state law municipal police such as the Boston Police Department do not have jurisdiction on Massport property.
A 250-foot security zone, established in 2002, surrounds the waters around the airport which are marked by 29 buoys indicating the restricted area. The area is patrolled by the Massachusetts State Police, the Boston Police Department, the Massachusetts Environmental Police, the United States Coast Guard and the Boston and Winthrop Harbormasters. Anyone who enters the zone for non-emergency purposes is subject to prosecution and is entered into a State Police database that tracks offenders.
Other facilities
Currently, major air cargo companies such as British Airways World Cargo, Lufthansa Cargo, Cathay Pacific Cargo, Martinair Cargo, China Airlines Cargo, EVA Air Cargo and many more cargo carriers have cargo offices on Airport property.
Also, American Airlines, Delta and JetBlue have maintenance hangars at the airport, all located adjacent to the office building near Terminal E and the North Cargo Terminal. Delta TechOps is Delta Air Lines primary maintenance, repair and overhaul arm.
Also located on the property is the Amelia Earhart General Aviation Terminal which is located near Runway 14/32 and next to the Massport Fire Rescue headquarters. The terminal was built in 1980, and dedicated to former Boston resident Earhart in 1984. Until 2006, American Eagle flights flew out of the terminal when all flights were consolidated in the former B22-29 gates in Pier A, the north building of Terminal B. Passengers had to take a shuttle bus from Terminal B to the Earhart Terminal. The terminal currently sits mostly unused.
Terminal C is home to the airport's chapel, Our Lady of the Airways. Opened in 1951, it is considered the first airport chapel in the United States. The chapel was originally Catholic, but is now non-denominational.
Airlines and destinations
Passenger
Seaplane
Tailwind Air's seasonal seaplane service to Manhattan began on August 3, 2021. Cape Air is approved but has not yet begun scheduled service.
Cargo
Logan Airport is a medium-sized airport in terms of cargo, handling 684,875 tons of freight in 2012, making it the 10th busiest airport in the U.S. in terms of cargo. It handles many U.S.-based cargo airlines, including DHL Aviation, FedEx Express and UPS Airlines. It also has cargo offices for many international cargo carriers, including British Airways World Cargo, Cathay Pacific Cargo, China Airlines Cargo, EVA Air Cargo, LATAM Cargo Chile and Saudia Cargo. It has two cargo complexes: the North Cargo Terminal, located near Terminal E, and South Cargo, located near Terminal A. Given that the airport is the 10th busiest cargo facility in the country, with many companies operating at the airport, it has been recognized that future expansion of cargo from Logan is limited due to constrained physical space for expansion.
Statistics
Top destinations
Airline market share
* - Includes flights operated by American Eagle, Delta Connection, and United Express partner airlines. The specific airline total passenger numbers only include mainline operations.
Annual traffic
Accidents and incidents
Accidents
On June 5, 1930, A Colonial Air Transport Ford Trimotor bound for New York went nose down after takeoff and crashed into the sea. The aircraft came to rest in of water. One passenger died out of the 13 passengers and two crew.
On October 4, 1960, Eastern Air Lines Flight 375, a Lockheed L-188 Electra crashed into the sea while attempting to take off from Logan Airport. Sixty-two people died and ten people survived, incurring serious injuries.
On November 15, 1961, A Vickers Viscount N6592C of Northeast Airlines was written off when it collided with a Douglas DC-6 N8228H of National Airlines after landing at Logan International Airport. The DC-6 had started to take off without receiving clearance to do so.
On March 10, 1964, a Slick Airways DC-4 crashed southwest of Logan while on final approach. All three occupants were killed. Loss of control due to accumulation of ice on the horizontal stabilizer, causing the aircraft to pitch down, was the probable cause.
On July 31, 1973, Delta Air Lines Flight 723, a McDonnell Douglas DC-9, crashed into the seawall, causing the deaths of all 83 passengers and 6 crew members on board. One of the passengers initially survived the accident but later died in a hospital.
On November 3, 1973, Pan Am Flight 160, a Boeing 707-321C cargo aircraft, crashed on approach to Boston-Logan. Smoke in the cockpit caused the pilots to lose control. All three crewmembers died in the accident.
On December 17, 1973, Iberia Airlines Flight 933 from Madrid Barajas International Airport collided with the ALS system short of the runway threshold, critically damaging the front landing gear and causing it to collapse. The aircraft came to a rest short of the runway. All 168 onboard survived; however, the aircraft was written off and was the first hull loss of a DC-10.
On January 23, 1982, World Airways Flight 30H from Newark to Boston made a non-precision instrument approach to runway 15R and touched down past the displaced threshold on an icy runway. When the crew sensed that the DC-10-30-CF couldn't be stopped on the remaining runway, they steered the DC-10 off the side of the runway to avoid the approach light pier, and slid into the shallow water of Boston Harbor. The nose section separated as the DC-10 came to rest past the runway end, left of the extended centerline. Two passengers (a father and son) were never found and are presumed to have been swept out to sea.
Incidents
On October 2, 1954, a Massachusetts Air National Guard F94 Starfire experienced engine failure and crashed near Logan Airport. Its pilot, First Lieutenant James O. Conway, sacrificed his life by veering the plane into an embankment on Bayswater Street in East Boston. A memorial was placed nearby.
On July 2, 1976, an unoccupied Eastern Airlines L-188 Electra parked at Boston Logan Airport was destroyed by a bomb planted in the landing gear compartment. No one was injured.
On September 17, 1979, a McDonnell Douglas DC-9-32 with the registration C-FTLU operating as Air Canada Flight 680 left Boston for Yarmouth, NS. 14 minutes after taking off from Logan, the entire tailcone section of the aircraft separated resulting in rapid decompression at an altitude of 25,000 feet (7,600 m) and leaving a large hole in the rear fuselage. A beverage cart and other items in the cabin were sucked out of the aircraft over the Atlantic Ocean, but there were no fatalities or significant injuries. The aircraft safely returned to Boston without further incident. Fatigue cracks were determined to be the cause. Four years later, this same aircraft would be destroyed by a fire on June 2, 1983 as Air Canada Flight 797.
On September 11, 2001, two Los Angeles-bound flights, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, which were hijacked in the September 11 attacks and flown into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center, ultimately leading to their destruction, originated at and departed from Logan Airport. American flags now fly over gates B32 and C19, the respective gates that the two planes pushed back from on this day. Under political pressure, acting Governor Jane Swift forced the CEO of Massport to resign, but it was later determined that the failure had been with the airline security checkpoint policy of allowing small knives, and not anything to do with Logan management.
On June 9, 2005, US Airways Flight 1170 and Aer Lingus Flight 132 narrowly avoided collision when they were cleared for takeoff nearly simultaneously on intersecting runways by two different controllers. The crew of the US Airways flight spotted the oncoming Aer Lingus jet and avoided a collision by keeping their own aircraft on the runway past their normal rotation point, allowing the Aer Lingus flight to pass over them. Both flights lifted off safely and continued to their destinations without further incident.
On January 7, 2013, ground crew workers noticed smoke coming out from the battery compartment in a parked Japan Airlines Boeing 787 Dreamliner at the gate. This fire was caused by overcharged lithium-ion batteries, eventually leading to the grounding of the worldwide Boeing 787 fleet and subsequent redesign of the battery systems.
Alternative airports
The two historically known alternative airports to Logan are both located outside the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Manchester–Boston Regional Airport in Manchester, New Hampshire, is located approximately north-northwest of Logan, an average drive time of 62 minutes via I-90 and I-93. T. F. Green Airport in Warwick, Rhode Island, is located south-southwest of Logan, averaging 76 minutes from Logan via I-90, I-93, and I-95, or a 100-minute ride via the Silver Line SL1 bus to South Station and then the Providence/Stoughton Line commuter rail to T. F. Green Airport station. Massport does not operate these facilities.
Massport does operate Worcester Regional Airport in Worcester, Massachusetts, which also serves as an alternative to Logan, although not widely known as such. In late 2017, the airport finished construction on a Category IIIb Landing System that would allow for arrivals and departures in virtually all weather conditions. The increased reliability, which has been the main concern for airlines operating at the notoriously foggy airport over the years, was expected to draw additional service. The airport is located due west of Logan, primarily accessed via Interstates I-90 and I-290.
See also
Airports in Massachusetts
Airports in the Boston area
Busiest airports in the United States by both domestic and international passengers
Busiest airports in the United States by total passenger boardings
Class B airports in the United States
List of international airports by country
September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks
US busiest airports by international passenger traffic
World War II Army Airfields in Massachusetts
World's busiest airports by cargo traffic
World's busiest airports by international passenger traffic
World's busiest airports by passenger traffic
World's busiest airports by traffic movements
References
External links
Terminal Map of Logan International Airport
Noise Complaints
Massachusetts Port Authority
1923 establishments in Massachusetts
Airports established in 1923
Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces in Massachusetts
Airports in Suffolk County, Massachusetts
Tourism in Boston
Transportation buildings and structures in Boston
East Boston
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211582
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernkastel-Wittlich
|
Bernkastel-Wittlich
|
Bernkastel-Wittlich (German: Landkreis Bernkastel-Wittlich) is a district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is bounded by (from the north and clockwise) the districts of Vulkaneifel, Cochem-Zell, Rhein-Hunsrück, Birkenfeld, Trier-Saarburg and Bitburg-Prüm.
History
The district was established in 1969 by merging the former districts of Bernkastel and Wittlich.
Geography
The district is situated on both banks of the Moselle, which crosses the territory from southwest to northeast. The country rises to the Eifel in the north and the Hunsrück in the south. A great number of tributaries rise in the Eifel and flow into the Moselle. In the very south of the district is the Erbeskopf (818 m), the highest peak in the Hunsrück and Rhineland-Palatinate.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms displays:
The cross symbolising the bishopric of Trier
The crayfish from the arms of Bernkastel-Kues
The keys from the arms of Wittlich
The red and white pattern of the County of Sponheim, which ruled this part of the Moselle valley in medieval times
Towns and municipalities
Twin region
At one time, the Borough of Milton Keynes was the twinned region of the district of Bernkastel-Wittlich.
External links
Official website (German)
References
^ Kreis Bernkastel-Wittlich, Jahrbuch 1982 (page 23ff.), 1982
Districts of Rhineland-Palatinate
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai
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Dubai
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Dubai ( ; , , ) is the most populous city in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the capital of the Emirate of Dubai. Established in the 18th century as a small fishing village, the city grew rapidly in the early 21st century into a cosmopolitan metropolis with a focus on tourism and hospitality. Dubai is one of the world's most popular tourist destinations. It has the second most five-star hotels in the world and the tallest building in the world, the Burj Khalifa.
Located in the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula on the coast of the Persian Gulf, Dubai aims to be the business hub of Western Asia. It is also a major global transport hub for passengers and cargo. Oil revenue helped accelerate the development of the city, which was already a major mercantile hub. A centre for regional and international trade since the early 20th century, Dubai's economy relies on revenues from trade, tourism, aviation, real estate, and financial services. Oil production contributed less than 1 percent of the emirate's GDP in 2018. The city has a population of around 2.9 million (as of 2017).
From 1929 it was the primary state, and from 1953 the capital of the Trucial States.
Etymology
Many theories have been proposed as to origin of the word "Dubai". One theory suggests the word used to be the souq in Ba. An Arabic proverb says "Daba Dubai" (), meaning "They came with a lot of money." According to Fedel Handhal, a scholar on the UAE's history and culture, the word Dubai may have come from the word daba () (a past tense derivative of yadub (), which means "to creep"), referring to the slow flow of Dubai Creek inland. The poet and scholar Ahmad Mohammad Obaid traces it to the same word, but to its alternative meaning of "baby locust" () due to the abundance of locusts in the area before settlement.
History
The history of human settlement in the area now defined by the United Arab Emirates is rich and complex, and points to extensive trading links between the civilisations of the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia, but also as far afield as the Levant. Archaeological finds in the emirate of Dubai, particularly at Al-Ashoosh, Al Sufouh and the notably rich trove from Saruq Al Hadid show settlement through the Ubaid and Hafit periods, the Umm Al Nar and Wadi Suq periods and the three Iron Ages in the UAE. The area was known to the Sumerians as Magan, and was a source for metallic goods, notably copper and bronze.
The area was covered with sand about 5,000 years ago as the coast retreated inland, becoming part of the city's present coastline. Pre-Islamic ceramics have been found from the 3rd and 4th centuries. Prior to the introduction of Islam to the area, the people in this region worshiped Bajir (or Bajar). After the spread of Islam in the region, the Umayyad Caliph of the eastern Islamic world invaded south-east Arabia and drove out the Sassanians. Excavations by the Dubai Museum in the region of Al-Jumayra (Jumeirah) found several artefacts from the Umayyad period.
An early mention of Dubai is in 1095 in the Book of Geography by the Andalusian-Arab geographer Abu Abdullah al-Bakri. The Venetian pearl merchant Gasparo Balbi visited the area in 1580 and mentioned Dubai (Dibei) for its pearling industry.
Establishment of modern Dubai
Dubai is thought to have been established as a fishing village in the early 18th century and was, by 1822, a town of some 700–800 members of the Bani Yas tribe and subject to the rule of Sheikh Tahnun bin Shakhbut of Abu Dhabi.
In 1833, following tribal feuding, members of the Al Bu Falasah tribe seceded from Abu Dhabi and established themselves in Dubai. The exodus from Abu Dhabi was led by Obeid bin Saeed and Maktoum bin Butti, who became joint leaders of Dubai until Ubaid died in 1836, leaving Maktum to establish the Maktoum dynasty.
Dubai signed the General Maritime Treaty of 1820 with the British government along with other Trucial States, following the British campaign in 1819 against the Ras Al Khaimah. This led to the 1853 Perpetual Maritime Truce. Dubai also – like its neighbours on the Trucial Coast – entered into an exclusivity agreement in which the United Kingdom took responsibility for the emirate's security in 1892.
In 1841, a smallpox epidemic broke out in the Bur Dubai locality, forcing residents to relocate east to Deira. In 1896, fire broke out in Dubai, a disastrous occurrence in a town where many family homes were still constructed from barasti – palm fronds. The conflagration consumed half the houses of Bur Dubai, while the district of Deira was said to have been totally destroyed. The following year, more fires broke out. A female slave was caught in the act of starting one such blaze and was subsequently put to death.
In 1901, Maktoum bin Hasher Al Maktoum established Dubai as a free port with no taxation on imports or exports and also gave merchants parcels of land and guarantees of protection and tolerance. These policies saw a movement of merchants not only directly from Lingeh, but also those who had settled in Ras Al Khaimah and Sharjah (which had historical links with Lingeh through the Al Qawasim tribe) to Dubai. An indicator of the growing importance of the port of Dubai can be gained from the movements of the steamer of the Bombay and Persia Steam Navigation Company, which from 1899 to 1901 paid five visits annually to Dubai. In 1902 the company's vessels made 21 visits to Dubai and from 1904 on, the steamers called fortnightly – in 1906, trading 70,000 tonnes of cargo. The frequency of these vessels only helped to accelerate Dubai's role as an emerging port and trading hub of preference. Lorimer notes the transfer from Lingeh 'bids fair to become complete and permanent', and also that the town had by 1906 supplanted Lingeh as the chief entrepôt of the Trucial States.
The 'great storm' of 1908 struck the pearling boats of Dubai and the coastal emirates towards the end of the pearling season that year, resulting in the loss of a dozen boats and over 100 men. The disaster was a major setback for Dubai, with many families losing their breadwinner and merchants facing financial ruin. These losses came at a time when the tribes of the interior were also experiencing poverty. In a letter to the Sultan of Muscat in 1911, Butti laments, 'Misery and poverty are raging among them, with the result that they are struggling, looting and killing among themselves.'
In 1910, in the Hyacinth incident the town was bombarded by HMS Hyacinth, with the loss of 37 killed.
Pre-oil Dubai
Dubai's geographical proximity to Iran made it an important trade location. The town of Dubai was an important port of call for foreign tradesmen, chiefly those from Iran, many of whom eventually settled in the town. By the beginning of the 20th century, it was an important port. At that time, Dubai consisted of the town of Dubai and the nearby village of Jumeirah, a collection of some 45 areesh (palm leaf) huts. Dubai was known for its pearl exports until the 1930s; the pearl trade was damaged irreparably by the 1929 Great Depression and the innovation of cultured pearls. With the collapse of the pearling industry, Dubai fell into a deep depression and many residents lived in poverty or migrated to other parts of the Persian Gulf.
In the early days since its inception, Dubai was constantly at odds with Abu Dhabi. In 1947, a border dispute between Dubai and Abu Dhabi on the northern sector of their mutual border escalated into war. Arbitration by the British government resulted in a cessation of hostilities.
Despite a lack of oil, Dubai's ruler from 1958, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, used revenue from trading activities to build infrastructure. Private companies were established to build and operate infrastructure, including electricity, telephone services and both the ports and airport operators. An airport of sorts (a runway built on salt flats) was established in Dubai in the 1950s and, in 1959, the emirate's first hotel, the Airlines Hotel, was constructed. This was followed by the Ambassador and Carlton Hotels in 1968.
Sheikh Rashid commissioned John Harris from Halcrow, a British architecture firm, to create the city's first master plan in 1959. Harris imagined a Dubai that would rise from the historic centre on Dubai Creek, with an extensive road system, organised zones, and a town centre, all of which could feasibly be built with the limited financial resources at the time.
1959 saw the establishment of Dubai's first telephone company, 51% owned by IAL (International Aeradio Ltd) and 49% by Sheikh Rashid and local businessmen and in 1961 both the electricity company and telephone company had rolled out operational networks. The water company (Sheikh Rashid was chairman and majority shareholder) constructed a pipeline from wells at Awir and a series of storage tanks and, by 1968, Dubai had a reliable supply of piped water.
On 7 April 1961, the Dubai-based MV Dara, a five thousand ton British flagged vessel that plied the route between Basra (Iraq), Kuwait and Bombay (India), was caught in unusually high winds off Dubai. Early the next morning in heavy seas off Umm al-Quwain, an explosion tore out the second class cabins and started fires. The captain gave the order to abandon ship but two lifeboats capsized and a second explosion occurred. A flotilla of small boats from Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman and Umm al-Quwain picked up survivors, but 238 of the 819 persons on board were lost in the disaster.
The construction of Dubai's first airport was started on the Northern edge of the town in 1959 and the terminal building opened for business in September 1960. The airport was initially serviced by Gulf Aviation (flying Dakotas, Herons and Viscounts) but Iran Air commenced services to Shiraz in 1961.
In 1962 the British Political Agent noted that "Many new houses and blocks of offices and flats are being built... the Ruler is determined, against advice [from the British authorities] to press on with the construction of a jet airport... More and more European and Arab firms are opening up and the future looks bright."
In 1962, with expenditure on infrastructure projects already approaching levels some thought imprudent, Sheikh Rashid approached his brother in law, the Ruler of Qatar, for a loan to build the first bridge crossing Dubai's creek. This crossing was finished in May 1963 and was paid for by a toll levied on the crossing from the Dubai side of the creek to the Deira side.
BOAC was originally reluctant to start regular flights between Bombay and Dubai, fearing a lack of demand for seats. However, by the time the asphalt runway of Dubai Airport was constructed in 1965, opening Dubai to both regional and long haul traffic, a number of foreign airlines were competing for landing rights. In 1970 a new airport terminal building was constructed which included Dubai's first duty-free shops.
Throughout the 1960s Dubai was the centre of a lively gold trade, with 1968 imports of gold at some £56 million. This gold was, in the vast majority, re-exported – mainly to customers who took delivery in international waters off India. The import of gold to India had been banned and so the trade was characterised as smuggling, although Dubai's merchants were quick to point out that they were making legal deliveries of gold and that it was up to the customer where they took it.
In 1966, more gold was shipped from London to Dubai than almost anywhere else in the world (only France and Switzerland took more), at 4 million ounces. Dubai also took delivery of over $15 million-worth of watches and over 5 million ounces of silver. The 1967 price of gold was $35 an ounce but its market price in India was $68 an ounce – a healthy markup. Estimates at the time put the volume of gold imports from Dubai to India at around 75% of the total market.
Oil era
After years of exploration following large finds in neighbouring Abu Dhabi, oil was eventually discovered in territorial waters off Dubai in 1966, albeit in far smaller quantities. The first field was named 'Fateh' or 'good fortune'. This led to an acceleration of Sheikh Rashid's infrastructure development plans and a construction boom that brought a massive influx of foreign workers, mainly Asians and Middle easterners. Between 1968 and 1975 the city's population grew by over 300%.
As part of the infrastructure for pumping and transporting oil from the Fateh field, located offshore of the Jebel Ali area of Dubai, two 500,000 gallon storage tanks were built, known locally as 'Kazzans', by welding them together on the beach and then digging them out and floating them to drop onto the seabed at the Fateh field. These were constructed by the Chicago Bridge and Iron Company, which gave the beach its local name (Chicago Beach), which was transferred to the Chicago Beach Hotel, which was demolished and replaced by the Jumeirah Beach Hotel in the late 1990s. The Kazzans were an innovative oil storage solution which meant supertankers could moor offshore even in bad weather and avoided the need to pipe oil onshore from Fateh, which is some 60 miles out to sea.
Dubai had already embarked on a period of infrastructural development and expansion. Oil revenue, flowing from 1969 onwards supported a period of growth with Sheikh Rashid embarking on a policy of building infrastructure and a diversified trading economy before the emirate's limited reserves were depleted. Oil accounted for 24% of GDP in 1990, but had reduced to 7% of GDP by 2004.
Critically, one of the first major projects Sheikh Rashid embarked upon when oil revenue started to flow was the construction of Port Rashid, a deep water free port constructed by British company Halcrow. Originally intended to be a four-berth port, it was extended to sixteen berths as construction was ongoing. The project was an outstanding success, with shipping queuing to access the new facilities. The port was inaugurated on 5 October 1972, although its berths were each pressed into use as soon as they had been built. Port Rashid was to be further expanded in 1975 to add a further 35 berths before the larger port of Jebel Ali was constructed.
Port Rashid was the first of a swath of projects designed to create a modern trading infrastructure, including roads, bridges, schools and hospitals.
Reaching the UAE's Act of Union
Dubai and the other 'Trucial States' had long been a British protectorate where the British government took care of foreign policy and defence, as well as arbitrating between the rulers of the Eastern Gulf, the result of a treaty signed in 1892 named the 'Exclusive Agreement'. This was to change with PM Harold Wilson's announcement, on 16 January 1968, that all British troops were to be withdrawn from 'East of Aden'. The decision was to pitch the coastal emirates, together with Qatar and Bahrain, into fevered negotiations to fill the political vacuum that the British withdrawal would leave behind.
The principle of union was first agreed upon between the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, and Sheikh Rashid of Dubai on 18 February 1968 meeting in an encampment at Argoub Al Sedirah, near Al Semeih, a desert stop between the two emirates. The two agreed to work towards bringing the other emirates, including Qatar and Bahrain, into the union. Over the next two years, negotiations and meetings of the rulers followed -often stormy- as a form of union was thrashed out. The nine-state union was never to recover from the October 1969 meeting where heavy-handed British intervention resulted in a walk-out by Qatar and Ras Al Khaimah. Bahrain and Qatar dropped out of talks, leaving six of the seven 'trucial' emirates to agree on union on 18 July 1971.
On 2 December 1971, Dubai, together with Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm al-Quwain and Fujairah joined in the Act of Union to form the United Arab Emirates. The seventh emirate, Ras Al Khaimah, joined the UAE on 10 February 1972, following Iran's annexation of the RAK-claimed Tunbs islands.
In 1973, Dubai joined the other emirates to adopt a uniform currency: the UAE dirham. In that same year, the prior monetary union with Qatar was dissolved and the UAE Dirham was introduced throughout the Emirates.
Modern Dubai
During the 1970s, Dubai continued to grow from revenues generated from oil and trade, even as the city saw an influx of immigrants fleeing the Lebanese civil war. Border disputes between the emirates continued even after the formation of the UAE; it was only in 1979 that a formal compromise was reached that ended disagreements. The Jebel Ali port, a deep-water port that allowed larger ships to dock, was established in 1979. The port was not initially a success, so Sheikh Mohammed established the JAFZA (Jebel Ali Free Zone) around the port in 1985 to provide foreign companies unrestricted import of labour and export capital. Dubai airport and the aviation industry also continued to grow.
The Gulf War in early 1991 had a negative financial effect on the city, as depositors withdrew their money and traders withdrew their trade, but subsequently, the city recovered in a changing political climate and thrived. Later in the 1990s, many foreign trading communities—first from Kuwait, during the Gulf War, and later from Bahrain, during the Shia unrest—moved their businesses to Dubai. Dubai provided refuelling bases to allied forces at the Jebel Ali Free Zone during the Gulf War, and again during the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. Large increases in oil prices after the Gulf War encouraged Dubai to continue to focus on free trade and tourism.
Geography
Dubai is situated on the Persian Gulf coast of the United Arab Emirates and is roughly at sea level ( above). The emirate of Dubai shares borders with Abu Dhabi in the south, Sharjah in the northeast, and the Sultanate of Oman in the southeast. Hatta, a minor exclave of the emirate, is surrounded on three sides by Oman and by the emirates of Ajman (in the west) and Ras Al Khaimah (in the north). The Persian Gulf borders the western coast of the emirate. Dubai is positioned at and covers an area of , which represents a significant expansion beyond its initial designation due to land reclamation from the sea.
Dubai lies directly within the Arabian Desert. However, the topography of Dubai is significantly different from that of the southern portion of the UAE in that much of Dubai's landscape is highlighted by sandy desert patterns, while gravel deserts dominate much of the southern region of the country. The sand consists mostly of crushed shell and coral and is fine, clean and white. East of the city, the salt-crusted coastal plains, known as sabkha, give way to a north–south running line of dunes. Farther east, the dunes grow larger and are tinged red with iron oxide.
The flat sandy desert gives way to the Western Hajar Mountains, which run alongside Dubai's border with Oman at Hatta. The Western Hajar chain has an arid, jagged and shattered landscape, whose mountains rise to about in some places. Dubai has no natural river bodies or oases; however, Dubai does have a natural inlet, Dubai Creek, which has been dredged to make it deep enough for large vessels to pass through. Dubai also has multiple gorges and waterholes, which dot the base of the Western Al Hajar mountains. A vast sea of sand dunes covers much of southern Dubai and eventually leads into the desert known as The Empty Quarter. Seismically, Dubai is in a very stable zone—the nearest seismic fault line, the Zagros Fault, is from the UAE and is unlikely to have any seismic impact on Dubai. Experts also predict that the possibility of a tsunami in the region is minimal because the Persian Gulf waters are not deep enough to trigger a tsunami.
The sandy desert surrounding the city supports wild grasses and occasional date palms. Desert hyacinths grow in the sabkha plains east of the city, while acacia and ghaf trees grow in the flat plains within the proximity of the Western Al Hajar mountains. Several indigenous trees such as the date palm and neem as well as imported trees such as the eucalyptus grow in Dubai's natural parks. The macqueen's bustard, striped hyena, caracal, desert fox, falcon and Arabian oryx are common in Dubai's desert. Dubai is on the migration path between Europe, Asia and Africa, and more than 320 migratory bird species pass through the emirate in spring and autumn. The waters of Dubai are home to more than 300 species of fish, including the hammour. The typical marine life off the Dubai coast includes tropical fish, jellyfish, coral, dugong, dolphins, whales and sharks. Various types of turtles can also be found in the area including the hawksbill turtle and green turtle, which are listed as endangered species.
Dubai Creek runs northeast–southwest through the city. The eastern section of the city forms the locality of Deira and is flanked by the emirate of Sharjah in the east and the town of Al Aweer in the south. The Dubai International Airport is located south of Deira, while the Palm Deira is located north of Deira in the Persian Gulf. Much of Dubai's real-estate boom is concentrated to the west of Dubai Creek, on the Jumeirah coastal belt. Port Rashid, Jebel Ali, Burj Al Arab, the Palm Jumeirah and theme-based free-zone clusters such as Business Bay are all located in this section. Dubai is notable for sculpted artificial island complexes including the Palm Islands and The World archipelago.
Climate
Dubai has a hot desert climate (Köppen BWh). Summers in Dubai are extremely hot, prolonged, windy, and humid, with an average high around and overnight lows around in the hottest month, August. Most days are sunny throughout the year. Winters are comparatively cool, though mild to warm, with an average high of and overnight lows of in January, the coolest month. Precipitation, however, has been increasing in the last few decades, with accumulated rain reaching per year. Dubai summers are also known for the very high humidity level, which can make it very uncomfortable for many with exceptionally high dew points in summer. Heat index values can reach over at the height of summer. The highest recorded temperature in Dubai is .
Government
Dubai has been ruled by the Al Maktoum family since 1833; the emirate is a constitutional monarchy. Dubai citizens participate in the electoral college to vote representatives to the Federal National Council of the UAE. The ruler, His Highness Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, is also the vice-president and Prime Minister of the United Arab Emirates and member of the Supreme Council of the Union (SCU). Dubai appoints 8 members in two-term periods to the Federal National Council (FNC) of the UAE, the supreme federal legislative body.
The Dubai Municipality (DM) was established by the then ruler of Dubai, Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, in 1954 for purposes of city planning, citizen services and upkeep of local facilities. DM is chaired by Hamdan bin Rashid Al Maktoum, deputy ruler of Dubai, and comprises several departments such as the Roads Department, Planning and Survey Department, Environment and Public Health Department and Financial Affairs Department. In 2001, Dubai Municipality embarked on an e-Government project with the intention of providing 40 of its city services through its web portal, [dubai.ae]. Thirteen such services were launched by October 2001, while several other services were expected to be operational in the future. Dubai Municipality is also in charge of the city's sanitation and sewage infrastructure.
The UAE has a Minister of Happiness, appointed by Mohammed Bin Rashid Al Maktoum. The UAE has also appointed a Minister of Tolerance to promote tolerance as a fundamental value of the UAE, a country filled with a diverse range of faiths and ethnicities, and also a Minister for Youth Affairs.
Law enforcement
The Dubai Police Force, founded in 1956 in the locality of Naif, has law enforcement jurisdiction over the emirate. The force is under direct command of Mohammed bin Rashid al Maktoum.
Dubai and Ras al Khaimah are the only emirates that do not conform to the federal judicial system of the United Arab Emirates. The emirate's judicial courts comprise the Court of First Instance, the Court of Appeal, and the Court of Cassation. The Court of First Instance consists of the Civil Court, which hears all civil claims; the Criminal Court, which hears claims originating from police complaints; and Sharia Court, which is responsible for matters between Muslims. Non-Muslims do not appear before the Sharia Court. The Court of Cassation is the supreme court of the emirate and hears disputes on matters of law only.
Alcohol laws
Alcohol sale and consumption, though legal, is tightly regulated. Adult non-Muslims are allowed to consume alcohol in licensed venues, typically within hotels, or at home with the possession of an alcohol licence. Places other than hotels, clubs, and specially designated areas are typically not permitted to sell alcohol. As in other parts of the world, drinking and driving is illegal, with 21 being the legal drinking age in the Emirate of Dubai.
Human rights
Companies in Dubai have in the past been criticised for human rights violations against labourers. Some of the 250,000 foreign labourers in the city have been alleged to live in conditions described by Human Rights Watch as "less than humane". The mistreatment of foreign workers was a subject of the difficult-to-make documentary, Slaves in Dubai (2009). The Dubai government has denied labour injustices and stated that the watchdog's (Human Rights Watch) accusations were "misguided". The filmmaker explained in interviews how it was necessary to go undercover to avoid discovery by the authorities, who impose high fines on reporters attempting to document human rights abuses, including the conditions of construction workers.
Towards the end of March 2006, the government had announced steps to allow construction unions. UAE labour minister Ali al-Kaabi said: "Labourers will be allowed to form unions." As of 2020, the federal public prosecution has clarified that "it is an offense when at least three public employees collectively leave work or one of the duties to achieve an unlawful purpose. Each employee will be punished with not less than 6 months in prison and not more than a year, as the imprisonment will be for leaving the job or duties that affect the health or the security of the people, or affect other public services of public benefit." Any act of spreading discord among employees will be punishable by imprisonment, and in all cases, foreigners will be deported.
Homosexual acts are illegal under UAE law. Freedom of speech in Dubai is limited, with both residents and citizens facing severe sanctions from the government for speaking out against the royal family or local laws and culture. Many of the low paid labourers are victims of human trafficking or forced labour while some women are even trafficked into the growing sex trade in Dubai, a centre of human trafficking and prostitution.
Defamation on social media is a punishable offence in Dubai with fines up to half a million dirhams and jail term for up to 2 years. In January 2020, three Sri Lankan ex-pats were fined AED 500,000 each for posting defamatory Islamaphobic Facebook posts.
On 3 September 2020, The Guardian reported that hundreds of thousands of migrant workers lost their jobs and were left stranded in Dubai, due to oil price crash and COVID-19. Many were trapped in desperate situations in crowded labour camps with no salary or any other financial source. Those migrant workers had to rely on food donations while they waited for work and to get paid.
Crime
Dubai has one of the world's lowest violent crime rates, and in 2019 was ranked the seventh-safest city in the world. The Security Industry Regulatory Agency classified the crimes into six categories. These crimes include theft, forced robbery, domestic burglary, fraud, sexual assault and abuse, and criminal damages.
As per Gulf News, Dubai Police stated that the crime in Dubai was reduced by fifteen per cent during 2017. However, the cases of drugs operation increased by eight per cent. Major-General Abdullah Khalifa Al Merri, Commander-in-Chief of Dubai Police, hailed the force which solved 86 per cent of criminal cases.
The statistics also indicated that murder crimes dropped from 0.5 in 2016 to 0.3 in 2017 for every 100,000 population, while violent and aggressive crimes in the past 5 years went from 2.2 crimes per 100,000 and dropped to 1.2 by the end of 2017, pointed out Al Mansouri. General crimes have decreased since 2013, registering around 0.2 by the end of 2017. Robberies went from 3.8 in 2013 to 2.1 by the end of last year, while kidnapping cases also dropped from 0.2 in 2013 to 0.1 in 2017.
Vehicle thefts in 2013 were 3.8 per 100,000 population and fell to 1.7 in 2017. According to the US Bureau of Diplomatic Security, petty theft, pickpocketing, scams, and sexual harassment still occur although they are usually not violent and weapons are not involved.
Demographics
Ethnicity and languages
, the population is 3,331,420 – an annual increase of 177,020 people which represents a growth rate of 5.64%. The region covers . The population density is 408.18/km2 – more than eight times that of the entire country. Dubai is the second most expensive city in the region and 20th most expensive city in the world.
, only about 15% of the population of the emirate was made up of UAE nationals, with the rest comprising expatriates, many of whom either have been in the country for generations or were born in the UAE. Approximately 85% of the expatriate population (and 71% of the emirate's total population) was Asian, chiefly Indian (51%) and Pakistani (16%); other significant Asian groups include Bangladeshis (9%) and Filipinos (3%). A quarter of the population (local and foreign) reportedly traces their origins to Iran. In addition, 16% of the population (or 288,000 persons) living in collective labour accommodation were not identified by ethnicity or nationality, but were thought to be primarily Asian. 461,000 Westerners live in the United Arab Emirates, making up 5.1% of its total population. There are over 100,000 British expatriates in Dubai, by far the largest group of Western expatriates in the city. The median age in the emirate was about 27 years. In 2014, there were estimated to be 15.54 births and 1.99 deaths per 1,000 people. There are other Arab nationals, including GCC nationals.
Arabic is the national and official language of the United Arab Emirates. The Gulf dialect of Arabic is spoken natively by the Emirati people. English is used as a second language. Other major languages spoken in Dubai due to immigration are Malayalam, Hindi-Urdu (or Hindustani), Gujarati, Persian, Sindhi, Tamil, Punjabi, Pashto, Bengali, Balochi, Tulu, Kannada, Sinhala, Marathi, Telugu, Tagalog and Chinese, in addition to many other languages.
Religion
Article 7 of the UAE's Provisional Constitution declares Islam the official state religion of the UAE. The government subsidises almost 95% of mosques and employs all Imams; approximately 5% of mosques are entirely private, and several large mosques have large private endowments. All mosques in Dubai are managed by the Islamic Affairs and Charitable Activities Department also known as "Awqaf" under the Government of Dubai and all Imams are appointed by the Government. The Constitution of the United Arab Emirates provides for freedom of religion. Expats held preaching religious hatred or promoting religious extremism are usually jailed and deported.
Dubai has large Christian, Hindu, Sikh, Baháʼí, Buddhist and other religious communities residing in the city, as well as a small but growing Jewish community.
Non-Muslim groups can own their own houses of worship, where they can practice their religion freely, by requesting a land grant and permission to build a compound. Groups that do not have their own buildings are allowed to use the facilities of other religious organisations or worship in private homes. Non-Muslim religious groups are also permitted to advertise group functions openly and distribute various religious literature. Catholics are served pastorally by the Apostolic Vicariate of Southern Arabia. British preacher Reverend Andrew Thompson claimed that the United Arab Emirates is one of the most tolerant places in the world towards Christians and that it is easier to be a Christian in the UAE than in the UK.
On 5 April 2020, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints announced the building of one of their temples in Dubai. As part of the announcement, church President Russell M. Nelson said that “The plan for a temple in Dubai comes in response to their gracious invitation, which we gratefully acknowledge.”
Economy
One of the world's fastest growing economies, Dubai's gross domestic product is projected at US$107.1 billion, with a growth rate of 6.1% in 2014. Although a number of core elements of Dubai's trading infrastructure were built on the back of the oil industry, revenues from oil and natural gas account for less than 5% of the emirate's revenues. It is estimated that Dubai produces of oil a day and substantial quantities of gas from offshore fields. The emirate's share in the UAE's total gas revenues is about 2%. Dubai's oil reserves have diminished significantly and are expected to be exhausted in 20 years. Real estate and construction (22.6%), trade (16%), entrepôt (15%) and financial services (11%) are the largest contributors to Dubai's economy.
Dubai's non-oil foreign trade stood at $362 billion in 2014. Of the overall trade volumes, imports had the biggest share with a value of $230 billion while exports and re-exports to the emirate stood at $31 billion and $101 billion respectively.
By 2014, China had emerged as Dubai's largest international trading partner, with a total of $47.7 billion in trade flows, up 29% from 2013. India was second among Dubai's key trading partners with a trade of $29.7 billion, followed by the United States at $22.62 billion. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was Dubai's fourth trading partner globally and first in the GCC and Arab world with a total trade value of $14.2 billion. Trade with Germany in 2014 totalled $12.3 billion, Switzerland and Japan both at $11.72 billion and UK trade totalled $10.9 billion.
Historically, Dubai and its twin across Dubai Creek, Deira (independent of Dubai City at that time), were important ports of call for Western manufacturers. Most of the new city's banking and financial centres were headquartered in the port area. Dubai maintained its importance as a trade route through the 1970s and 1980s. Dubai has a free trade in gold and, until the 1990s, was the hub of a "brisk smuggling trade" of gold ingots to India, where gold import was restricted. Dubai's Jebel Ali port, constructed in the 1970s, has the largest man-made harbour in the world and was ranked seventh globally for the volume of container traffic it supports. Dubai is also a hub for service industries such as information technology and finance, with industry-specific free zones throughout the city. Dubai Internet City, combined with Dubai Media City as part of TECOM (Dubai Technology, Electronic Commerce and Media Free Zone Authority), is one such enclave, whose members include IT firms such as Hewlett Packard Enterprise, HP Inc., Google, EMC Corporation, Oracle Corporation, Microsoft, Dell and IBM, and media organisations such as MBC, CNN, BBC, Reuters, Sky News and AP. Various programmes, resources and value-added services support the growth of startups in Dubai and help them connect to new business opportunities.
The government's decision to diversify from a trade-based, oil-reliant economy to one that is service- and tourism-oriented made property more valuable, resulting in the property appreciation from 2004 to 2006. A longer-term assessment of Dubai's property market, however, showed depreciation; some properties lost as much as 64% of their value from 2001 to November 2008. The large-scale real estate development projects have led to the construction of some of the tallest skyscrapers and largest projects in the world such as the Emirates Towers, the Burj Khalifa, the Palm Islands and the most expensive hotel, the Burj Al Arab. Dubai's property market experienced a major downturn in 2008 and 2009 as a result of the slowing economic climate. By early 2009, the situation had worsened with the Great Recession taking a heavy toll on property values, construction and employment. This has had a major impact on property investors in the region, some of whom were unable to release funds from investments made in property developments. , Dubai's foreign debt was estimated at $80 billion, although this is a tiny fraction of the sovereign debt worldwide.
The Dubai Financial Market (DFM) was established in March 2000 as a secondary market for trading securities and bonds, both local and foreign. As of the fourth quarter 2006, its trading volume stood at about 400 billion shares, worth $95 billion in total. The DFM had a market capitalisation of about $87 billion. The other Dubai-based stock exchange is NASDAQ Dubai, which is the international stock exchange in the Middle East. It enables a range of companies, including UAE and regional small and medium-sized enterprises, to trade on an exchange with an international brand name, with access by both regional and international investors.
DMCC (Dubai Multi Commodities Centre) was established in 2002. It's the world's fastest-growing free zone and been nominated as "Global Free Zone of the Year 2016" by The Financial Times Magazine.
Dubai is also known as the City of Gold because a major part of the economy is based on gold trades, with Dubai's total gold trading volumes in H1 2011 reaching 580 tonnes, with an average price of US$1,455 per troy ounce.
A City Mayors survey ranked Dubai 44th among the world's best financial cities in 2007, while another report by City Mayors indicated that Dubai was the world's 27th richest city in 2012, in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP). Dubai is also an international financial centre (IFC) and has been ranked 37th within the top 50 global financial cities as surveyed by the MasterCard Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index (2007), and 1st within the Middle East. Since it opened in September 2004, the Dubai IFC has attracted, as a regional hub, leading international firms and set-up the NASDAQ Dubai which lists equity, derivatives, structured products, Islamic bonds (sukuk) and other bonds. The Dubai IFC model is an independent risk-based regulator with a legislative system consistent with English common law.
In 2012, the Global City Competitiveness Index by the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked Dubai at No. 40 with a total score of 55.9. According to its 2013 research report on the future competitiveness of cities, in 2025, Dubai will have moved up to 23rd place overall in the Index. Indians, followed by Britons and Pakistanis are the top foreign investors in Dubai realty.
Dubai has launched several major projects to support its economy and develop different sectors. These include Dubai Fashion 2020, and Dubai Design District, expected to become a home to leading local and international designers. The AED 4 billion first phase of the project was completed in 2015.
In September 2019, Dubai's ruler Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum ordered to establish the Higher Committee for Real Estate Planning to study and evaluate future real estate construction projects, in ordered to achieve a balance between supply and demand, which is seen as a move to curb the pace of construction projects following property prices fall.
Since the economy of Dubai relies majorly on real estate, transportation and tourism, it was highly exposed to the impact of the coronavirus pandemic. In April 2020, the American business and financial services company, Moody's Corporation reported that the coronavirus outbreak is likely to pose acute “negative growth and fiscal implications” in Dubai. It was reported that in order to bolster its finances and overcome the impact of coronavirus on its economy, Dubai was in talks to raise billions of dollars of debt privately, where it was seeking loans of 1 billion dirhams ($272 million) to 2 billion dirhams from each lender. On 6 May, Dubai's businessman from the hospitality sector, Khalaf Al Habtoor stated that the coronavirus pandemic left the economy and his companies “bleeding”. The owner of seven hotels in the country, including the Waldorf Astoria on the man-made island Palm Jumeirah, Habtoor stated that Dubai's economy cannot afford to wait for the vaccine, before resuming the major activities. In June 2020, the Moody's Investors Service cut down its ratings for eight of the biggest banks based in the UAE from stable to negative. In effect, the benchmark stock index of Dubai dropped the most among all the Gulf nations, where the DFM General Index lost as much as 1.3 per cent.
In July 2020, a report released by an NGO, Swissaid, denounced the gold trade between Dubai and Switzerland. The documents revealed that Dubai firms, including Kaloti Jewellery International Group and Trust One Financial Services (T1FS), have been obtaining gold from poor African countries like Sudan. Between 2012 and 2018, 95 per cent of gold from Sudan ended up in the UAE. The gold imported from Sudan by Kaloti was from the mines controlled by militias responsible for war crimes and human rights violations in the country. World's largest refinery in Switzerland, Valcambi, was denounced by Swissaid for importing extensive gold from these Dubai firms. In 2018 and 2019, Valcambi received 83 tonnes of gold from the two companies. In a letter on 11 October 2021, the Switzerland State Secretariat for Economic Affairs asked the country's gold refineries to keep a strict check on the imports from the Emirates to ensure no involvement of illicit African bullion. Switzerland accounted for high volume of imports from the UAE, which were to be 10% of the total Swiss gold imports in 2021. The refineries were required to identify the country of origin of all gold that came from the UAE.
Tourism and retail
Tourism is an important part of the Dubai government's strategy to maintain the flow of foreign cash into the emirate. Dubai's lure for tourists is based mainly on shopping, but also on its possession of other ancient and modern attractions. As of 2018, Dubai is the fourth most-visited city in the world based on the number of international visitors and the fastest growing, increasing by a 10.7% rate. The city hosted 14.9 million overnight visitors in 2016, and is expected to reach 20 million tourists by 2020.
A great tourist attraction in Dubai is the Burj Khalifa, currently the tallest building on Earth. Although, Jeddah Tower in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia is aiming to be taller.
Dubai has been called the "shopping capital of the Middle East". Dubai alone has more than 70 shopping centres, including the world's largest shopping centre, Dubai Mall. Dubai is also known for the historical souk districts located on either side of its creek. Traditionally, dhows from East Asia, China, Sri Lanka, and India would discharge their cargo and the goods would be bargained over in the souks adjacent to the docks. Dubai Creek played a vital role in sustaining the life of the community in the city and was the resource which originally drove the economic boom in Dubai. , Dubai creek has been proposed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Many boutiques and jewellery stores are also found in the city. Dubai is also referred to as "the City of Gold" as the Gold Souk in Deira houses nearly 250 gold retail shops.
Dubai Creek Park in Dubai Creek also plays a vital role in Dubai tourism as it showcase some of the most famous tourist attractions in Dubai such as Dolphinarium, Cable Car, Camel Ride, Horse Carriage and Exotic Birds Shows.
Dubai has a wide range of parks like Safa park, Mushrif park, Hamriya park, etc. Each park is uniquely distinct from the other. Mushrif park showcases different houses around the world. A visitor can check out the architectural features of the outside as well as the inside of each house.
Some of the most popular beaches in Dubai are Umm Suqeim Beach, Al Mamzar Beach Park, JBR Open Beach, Kite Beach, Black Palace Beach and Royal Island Beach Club.
Mastercard's Global Destination Cities Index 2019 found that tourists spend more in Dubai than in any other country. In 2018, the country topped the list for the fourth year in a row with a total spend of $30.82 billion. The average spend per day was found to be $553.
In October 2019, Dubai loosened its liquor laws for the first time, under which it allowed tourists to purchase alcohol from state-controlled stores. Previously, alcohol was accessible only for locals with special licences. The crucial policy shift came as the United Arab Emirates witnessed a severe economic crisis that led to a drop in alcohol sales by volume.
Expo 2020
On 2 November 2011, four cities had their bids for Expo 2020 already lodged, with Dubai making a last-minute entry. The delegation from the Bureau International des Expositions, which visited Dubai in February 2013 to examine the Emirate's readiness for the largest exposition, was impressed by the infrastructure and the level of national support. In May 2013, Dubai Expo 2020 Master Plan was revealed. Dubai then won the right to host Expo 2020 on 27 November 2013.
The main site of Dubai Expo 2020 was planned to be a 438-hectare area (1,083 acres), part of the new Dubai Trade Centre Jebel Ali urban development, located midway between Dubai and Abu Dhabi. Moreover, the Expo 2020 also created various social enlistment projects and monetary boons to the city targeting the year 2020, such as initiating the world's largest solar power project.
The Dubai Expo 2020 was scheduled to take place from 20 October 2020 until 10 April 2021 for 173 days where there would be 192 country pavilions featuring narratives from every part of the globe, have different thematic districts that would promote learning the wildlife in the forest exhibit too many other experiences.
Due to the impact of COVID-19 the organisers of Expo 2020 postponed the Expo by one year to begin in 2021 (the new dates are 1 October 2021 – 31 March 2022).
Dubai has targets to build an inclusive, barrier-free and disabled-friendly city. The city has already brought in changes by introducing wheelchair friendly taxis, pavements with slopes and tactile indicators on the floor for the visually impaired at all the metro stations.
Architecture
Dubai has a rich collection of buildings and structures of various architectural styles. Many modern interpretations of Islamic architecture can be found here, due to a boom in construction and architectural innovation in the Arab World in general, and in Dubai in particular, supported not only by top Arab or international architectural and engineering design firms such as Al Hashemi and Aedas, but also by top firms of New York and Chicago. As a result of this boom, modern Islamic – and world – architecture has literally been taken to new levels in skyscraper building design and technology. Dubai now has more completed or topped-out skyscrapers higher than , , or than any other city. A culmination point was reached in 2010 with the completion of the Burj Khalifa (Khalifa Tower), now by far the world's tallest building at . The Burj Khalifa's design is derived from the patterning systems embodied in Islamic architecture, with the triple-lobed footprint of the building based on an abstracted version of the desert flower hymenocallis which is native to the Dubai region.
The completion of the Khalifa Tower, following the construction boom that began in the 1980s, accelerated in the 1990s, and took on a rapid pace of construction during the decade of the 2000s, leaves Dubai with the world's tallest skyline . At the top, Burj Khalifa, the world's second highest observatory deck after the Shanghai Tower with an outdoor terrace is one of Dubai's most popular tourist attractions, with over 1.87 million visitors in 2013.
Burj Al Arab
The Burj Al Arab (Arabic: برج العرب, Tower of the Arabs), a luxury hotel, is frequently described as "the world's only 7-star", though its management has never made that claim but has claimed to be a “five-star deluxe property.” The term "7-star hotel" was coined by a British journalist to describe their initial experience of the hotel. A Jumeirah Group spokesperson is quoted as saying: "There's not a lot we can do to stop it. We're not encouraging the use of the term. We've never used it in our advertising." The hotel opened in December 1999.
Burj Khalifa
Burj Khalifa, known as the Burj Dubai before its inauguration, is a high skyscraper in Dubai, and the tallest building in the world. The tower was inspired by the structure of the desert flower Hymenocallis. It was constructed by more than 30 contracting companies around the world with workers of a hundred nationalities. It is an architectural icon. The building opened on 4 January 2010.
Palm Jumeirah
The Palm Jumeirah is an artificial archipelago, created using land reclamation by Nakheel, a company owned by the Dubai government, and designed and developed by Helman Hurley Charvat Peacock/Architects, Inc. It is one of three planned islands called the Palm Islands which extend into the Persian Gulf. The Palm Jumeirah is the smallest and the original of three Palm Islands, and it is located on the Jumeirah coastal area of Dubai. It was built between 2001 and 2006.
The World Islands
The World Islands is an archipelago of small artificial islands constructed in the shape of a world map, located in the waters of the Persian Gulf, 4.0 kilometres (2.5 mi) off the coast of Dubai, United Arab Emirates. The World islands are composed mainly of sand dredged from Dubai's shallow coastal waters, and are one of several artificial island developments in Dubai.
Dubai Miracle Garden
On 14 February 2013, the Dubai Miracle Garden, a flower garden, opened in Dubailand. It is the world's largest flower garden. The garden displays more than 50 million flowers with more than 70 species of flowering plants. The garden uses retreated waste water from city's municipality and utilises drip irrigation method for watering the plants. During the summer seasons from late May to September when the climate can get extremely hot with an average high of about , the garden stays closed.
Dubai Marina
Dubai Marina (Arabic: مرسى دبي) is a district in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. It is an artificial canal city, built along a 3-kilometre (2 mi) stretch of Persian Gulf shoreline. As of 2018, it has a population of 55,052.
Address Beach Resort and Address Beach Residences
The structure is a set of two towers connected at the bottom and with a sky bridge at the top which connects the 63rd through to the 77th levels. The sky bridge houses luxury apartments on the world's highest occupiable sky bridge floor, at 294.36 metres. Known as Jumeirah Gate, it opened in December 2020 and is situated along the beach. The towers have the world's highest infinity pool in a building, on the roof, at a height of 293.906 metres.
Transportation
Transport in Dubai is controlled by the Roads and Transport Authority (RTA), an agency of the government of Dubai, formed by royal decree in 2005. The public transport network has in the past faced congestion and reliability issues which a large investment programme has addressed, including over AED 70 billion of improvements planned for completion by 2020, when the population of the city is projected to exceed 3.5 million. In 2009, according to Dubai Municipality statistics, there were an estimated 1,021,880 cars in Dubai. In January 2010, the number of Dubai residents who use public transport stood at 6%.
Road
Five main routes – E 11 (Sheikh Zayed Road), E 311 (Sheikh Mohammed Bin Zayed Road), E 44 (Dubai-Hatta Highway), E 77 (Dubai-Al Habab Road) and E 66 (Oud Metha Road, Dubai-Al Ain Road, or Tahnoun Bin Mohammad Al Nahyan Road) – run through Dubai, connecting the city to other towns and emirates. Additionally, several important intra-city routes, such as D 89 (Al Maktoum Road/Airport Road), D 85 (Baniyas Road), D 75 (Sheikh Rashid Road), D 73 (Al Dhiyafa Road now named as 2 December street), D 94 (Jumeirah Road) and D 92 (Al Khaleej/Al Wasl Road) connect the various localities in the city. The eastern and western sections of the city are connected by Al Maktoum Bridge, Al Garhoud Bridge, Al Shindagha Tunnel, Business Bay Crossing and Floating Bridge.
The Public Bus Transport system in Dubai is run by the RTA. The bus system services 140 routes and transported over 109 million people in 2008. By the end of 2010, there will be 2,100 buses in service across the city. In 2006, the Transport authority announced the construction of 500 air-conditioned (A/C ) Passenger Bus Shelters, and planned for 1,000 more across the emirates in a move to encourage the use of public buses.
All taxi services are licensed by the RTA. Dubai licensed taxis are easily identifiable by their cream bodywork colour and varied roof colours identifying the operator. Dubai Taxi Corporation, a division of the RTA, is the largest operator and has taxis with red roofs. There are five private operators: Metro Taxis (orange roofs); Network Taxis (yellow roofs); Cars Taxis (blue roofs); Arabia Taxis (green roofs); and City Taxis (purple roof). In addition, there is a Ladies and Families taxi service (pink roofs) with female drivers, which caters exclusively for women and children. There are more than 3000 taxis operating within the emirate making an average of 192,000 trips every day, carrying about 385,000 persons. In 2009 taxi trips exceeded 70 million trips serving around 140.45 million passengers.
Air
Dubai International Airport (IATA: DXB), the hub for Emirates, serves the city of Dubai and other emirates in the country. The airport is the third-busiest airport in the world by passenger traffic and the world's busiest airport by international passenger traffic. In addition to being an important passenger traffic hub, the airport is the sixth-busiest cargo airport in world, handling 2.37 million tons of cargo in 2014. Emirates is the national airline of Dubai. , it operated internationally serving over 150 destinations in over 70 countries across six continents.
The development of Al Maktoum International Airport (IATA: DWC) was announced in 2004. The first phase of the airport, featuring one A380 capable runway, 64 remote stands, one cargo terminal with an annual capacity for 250,000 tonnes of cargo and a passenger terminal building designed to accommodate five million passengers per year, has been opened. When completed, Dubai World Central-Al Maktoum International will be the largest airport in the world with five runways, four terminal buildings and capacity for 160 million passengers and 12 million tons of cargo.
Metro rail
Dubai Metro consists of two lines (Red line and Green line) which run through the financial and residential areas of the city. It was opened in September 2009. UK-based international service company Serco is responsible for operating the metro.
The Red Line as of 2020, which has 29 stations (4 underground, 24 elevated and 1 at ground level) running from Rashidiya Station to UAE Xchange Station in Jebel Ali, is the major backbone line . The Green Line, running from the Etisalat Station to the Creek Station, has 20 stations (8 underground, 12 elevated). An extension to the Red Line connecting the EXPO 2020 site opened on June 1, 2021. A Blue and a Purple Line have also been planned. The Dubai Metro is the first urban train network in the Arabian Peninsula. The trains are fully automated and driverless.
Palm Jumeirah Monorail
A monorail line connecting the Palm Jumeirah to the mainland opened on 30 April 2009. It is the first monorail in the Middle East. An extension to connect to the Red Line of the Dubai Metro is planned.
Tram
A tramway located in Al Sufouh, will run for along Al Sufouh Road from Dubai Marina to the Burj Al Arab and the Mall of the Emirates with two interchanges with Dubai Metro's Red Line. The first section, a long tram line which serves 11 stations, was opened in 2014.
High-speed rail
Dubai has announced it will complete a link of the UAE high-speed rail system which will eventually hook up with the whole GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council, also known as Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf) and then possibly Europe. The High-Speed Rail will serve passengers and cargo.
Waterways
There are two major commercial ports in Dubai, Port Rashid and Port Jebel Ali. Port Jebel Ali is the world's largest man-made harbour, the biggest port in the Middle East, and the 7th-busiest port in the world. One of the more traditional methods of getting across Bur Dubai to Deira is by abras, small boats that ferry passengers across the Dubai Creek, between abra stations in Bastakiya and Baniyas Road. The Marine Transport Agency has also implemented the Dubai Water Bus System. Water bus is a fully air conditioned boat service across selected destinations across the creek. One can also avail oneself of the tourist water bus facility in Dubai. Latest addition to the water transport system is the Water Taxi.
Dubai is increasingly activating its logistics and ports in order to participate in trade between Europe and China or Africa in addition to oil transport. For this purpose, ports such as Port of Jebel Ali or Mina Rashid are rapidly expanded and investments are made in their technology. The country is historically and currently, part of the Maritime Silk Road that runs from the Chinese coast to the south via the southern tip of India to Mombasa, from there through the Red Sea via the Suez Canal to the Mediterranean, there to the Upper Adriatic region to the northern Italian hub of Trieste with its rail connections to Central Europe, Eastern Europe and the North Sea.
Culture
The UAE culture mainly revolves around traditional Arab culture. The influence of Arab and Islamic culture on its architecture, music, attire, cuisine, and lifestyle is very prominent as well. Five times every day, Muslims are called to prayer from the minarets of mosques that are scattered around the country. Since 2006, the weekend has been Friday and Saturday, as a compromise between Friday's holiness to Muslims and the Western weekend of Saturday and Sunday. Prior to 2006, the weekend was Thursday-Friday.
Because of the touristic approach of many Dubaites in the entrepreneurial sector and the high standard of living, Dubai's culture has gradually evolved towards one of luxury, opulence, and lavishness with a high regard for leisure-related extravagance. Annual entertainment events such as the Dubai Shopping Festival (DSF) and Dubai Summer Surprises (DSS) attract over 4 million visitors from across the region and generate revenues in excess of $2.7 billion.
Dubai is known for its nightlife. Clubs and bars are found mostly in hotels because of liquor laws. The New York Times described Dubai as "the kind of city where you might run into Michael Jordan at the Buddha Bar or stumble across Naomi Campbell celebrating her birthday with a multiday bash".
The city's cultural imprint as a small, ethnically homogeneous pearling community was changed with the arrival of other ethnic groups and nationals—first by the Iranians in the early 1900s, and later by Indians and Pakistanis in the 1960s. In 2005, 84% of the population of metropolitan Dubai was foreign-born, about half of them from India.
Major holidays in Dubai include Eid al Fitr, which marks the end of Ramadan, and National Day (2 December), which marks the formation of the United Arab Emirates.
The International Festivals and Events Association (IFEA), the world's leading events trade association, has crowned Dubai as IFEA World Festival and Event City, 2012 in the cities category with a population of more than one million. Large shopping malls in the city, such as Deira City Centre, Mirdiff City Centre, BurJuman, Mall of the Emirates, Dubai Mall (the world's largest) and Ibn Battuta Mall as well as traditional Dubai Gold Souk and other souks attract shoppers from the region.
Cuisine
Arabic cuisine is very popular and is available everywhere in the city, from the small shawarma diners in Deira and Al Karama to the restaurants in Dubai's hotels. Fast food, South Asian, and Chinese cuisines are also very popular and are widely available. The sale and consumption of pork is regulated and is sold only to non-Muslims, in designated areas of supermarkets and airports. Similarly, the sale of alcoholic beverages is regulated. A liquor permit is required to purchase alcohol; however, alcohol is available in bars and restaurants within hotels. Shisha and qahwa boutiques are also popular in Dubai. Biryani is also a popular cuisine across Dubai with being the most popular among Indians and Pakistanis present in Dubai.
The inaugural Dubai Food Festival was held between 21 February to 15 March 2014. According to Vision magazine, the event was aimed at enhancing and celebrating Dubai's position as the gastronomic capital of the region. The festival was designed to showcase the variety of flavours and cuisines on offer in Dubai featuring the cuisines of over 200 nationalities at the festival. The next food festival was held between 23 February 2017 to 11 March 2017.
Entertainment
Dubai Opera opened its door on 31 August 2016 in Downtown Dubai with a performance by Plácido Domingo. The venue is a 2000-seat, multifunctional performing arts centre able to host not only theatrical shows, concerts and operas, but also weddings, gala dinners, banquets and conferences.
Arabic movies are popular in Dubai and the UAE. Since 2004, the city has hosted the annual Dubai International Film Festival which serves as a showcase for Arab and Middle Eastern film making talent. The Dubai Desert Rock Festival was also another major festival consisting of heavy metal and rock artists but is no longer held in Dubai.
One of the lesser-known sides of Dubai is the importance of its young contemporary art gallery scene. Since 2008, the leading contemporary art galleries such as Carbon 12 Dubai, Green Art, gallery Isabelle van den Eynde, and The Third Line have brought the city onto the international art map. Art Dubai, the growing and reputable art fair of the region is as well a major contributor of the contemporary art scene's development.
Media
Many international news agencies such as Reuters, APTN, Bloomberg L.P. and Middle East Broadcasting Center (MBC) operate in Dubai Media City and Dubai Internet City. Additionally, several local network television channels such as Dubai One (formerly Channel 33), and Dubai TV (EDTV) provide programming in English and Arabic respectively. Dubai is also the headquarters for several print media outlets. Dar Al Khaleej, Al Bayan and Al Ittihad are the city's largest circulating Arabic language newspapers, while Gulf News, Khaleej Times, Khaleej Mag and 7days are the largest circulating English newspapers.
Etisalat, the government-owned telecommunications provider, held a virtual monopoly over telecommunication services in Dubai prior to the establishment of other, smaller telecommunications companies such as Emirates Integrated Telecommunications Company (EITC—better known as Du) in 2006. Internet was introduced into the UAE (and therefore Dubai) in 1995. The network has an Internet bandwidth of 7.5 Gbit/s with capacity of 49 STM1 links. Dubai houses two of four Domain Name System (DNS) data centres in the country (DXBNIC1, DXBNIC2). Censorship is common in Dubai and used by the government to control content that it believes violates the cultural and political sensitivities of Emirates. Homosexuality, drugs, and the theory of evolution are generally considered taboo.
Internet content is regulated in Dubai. Etisalat uses a proxy server to filter Internet content that the government deems to be inconsistent with the values of the country, such as sites that provide information on how to bypass the proxy; sites pertaining to dating, gay and lesbian networks, and pornography; and previously, sites originating from Israel. Emirates Media and Internet (a division of Etisalat) notes that , 76% of Internet users are male. About 60% of Internet users were Asian, while 25% of users were Arab. Dubai enacted an Electronic Transactions and Commerce Law in 2002 which deals with digital signatures and electronic registers. It prohibits Internet Service Providers (ISPs) from disclosing information gathered in providing services. The penal code contains official provisions that prohibit digital access to pornography; however, it does not address cyber crime or data protection.
Sports
Football and cricket are the most popular sports in Dubai. Three football teams (Al Wasl FC, Shabab Al-Ahli Dubai FC and Al Nasr SC) represent Dubai in UAE Pro-League. Al-Wasl have the second-most championships in the UAE League, after Al Ain. Dubai also hosts both the annual Dubai Tennis Championships and The Legends Rock Dubai tennis tournaments, as well as the Dubai Desert Classic golf tournament and the DP World Tour Championship, all of which attract sports stars from around the world. The Dubai World Cup, a thoroughbred horse race, is held annually at the Meydan Racecourse. The city's top basketball team has traditionally been Shabab Al Ahli Basket. Dubai also hosts the traditional rugby union tournament Dubai Sevens, part of the Sevens World Series Event pictures of Rugby 7 Dubai 2015. In 2009, Dubai hosted the 2009 Rugby World Cup Sevens. Auto racing is also a big sport in Dubai, the Dubai Autodrome is home to many auto racing events throughout the year. It also features a state-of-the-art indoor and outdoor Kartdrome, popular among racing enthusiasts and recreational riders. The Indian Premier League cricket competition was held in UAE in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Dress code
The Emirati attire is typical of several countries in the Arabian Peninsula. Women usually wear the "abaya", a long black robe with a hijab (the head-scarf which covers the neck and part of the head-all of the hair and ears). Some women may add a niqab which cover the mouth and nose and only leaves the eyes exposed. Men wear the "kandurah" also referred to as "dishdasha" or even "thawb" (long white robe) and the headscarf (ghotrah). The UAE traditional ghutrah is white and is held in place by an accessory called "egal", which resembles a black cord. The younger Emiratis prefer to wear red and white ghutrah and tie it around their head like a turban.
The above dress code is never compulsory and many people wear western or other eastern clothing without any problems, but prohibitions on wearing "indecent clothing" or revealing too much skin are aspects of the UAE to which Dubai's visitors are expected to conform, and are encoded in Dubai's criminal law. The UAE has enforced decency regulations in most public places, aside from waterparks, beaches, clubs, and bars.
Education
The school system in Dubai follows that of the United Arab Emirates. , there are 79 public schools run by the Ministry of Education that serve Emiratis and expatriate Arab people as well as 207 private schools. The medium of instruction in public schools is Arabic with emphasis on English as a second language, while most of the private schools use English as their medium of instruction. Currently only the Swiss International Scientific School in Dubai claims to offer parallel streams in different languages – bi-lingual English/French or English/ German. Most private schools cater to one or more expatriate communities.
Some 36 schools offer an international education using the one or more of the four International Baccalaureate Programmes for students aged 3–19. Currently, 15 schools have introduced the IB Career-related Programme that can be combined with a vocational qualification such as a BTEC.
While there are more UK curriculum based schools in Dubai than any other, more students attend an Indian curriculum school, which tend to be considerably larger, and lower cost. There are 34 Indian curriculum schools in the emirate, most of which offer the CBSE, and just a handful the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education Indian syllabus. Examples of Indian curriculum schools include IHS, DPS, DMHS. There are a small number of Pakistani schools offering FBISE curriculum for expatriate children in Dubai.
A total of 18 schools offer British primary education up to the age of eleven. There are 64 schools that offer a variation of a UK curriculum style secondary education, either a pure GCSE and A-Level offering, or increasingly I/GCSE up to 16, and then the IB Diploma post-16. Currently, no school in the UAE offers the choice of IB or A-Level at 16, but several schools have said they will do in the future. British style eleven-to-eighteen secondary schools offering General Certificate of Secondary Education and A-Levels include Dubai Gem Private School, Dubai British School, English Language School Pvt. Some schools, such as The American School of Dubai, also offer the curriculum of the United States.
Dubai has a very active education regulator, the KHDA, which is best known for its school ratings, but actually has a wide mandate when it comes to school improvement in the emirate. Its inspections truly matter, and there is no doubt that school quality has improved as a result of its implementation. A total of 17 schools are currently rated Outstanding (2020), and a further 40 rated Very Good. Parents in general rate schools highly.
The most well-known universities in Dubai are American University in Dubai, Hult International Business School, Al Ghurair University, The American College of Dubai, University of Wollongong in Dubai, British University in Dubai, Murdoch University Dubai offering courses in Business Administration, Engineering, Architecture and Interior Design. American University in Dubai is one of the six UAE universities featured in QS World University Rankings 2014/2015. In 2013 Synergy University Dubai Campus opened its campus in Jumeirah Lakes Towers being a first University in Dubai to be located outside of Educational Zones (Knowledge Village or Academic City).
Healthcare
Healthcare in Dubai can be divided into two different sectors: public and private. Each Emirate is able to dictate healthcare standards according to their internal laws, although the standards and regulations rarely have extreme differences. Public hospitals in Dubai were first built in the late 1950s and continued to grow with public health initiatives. There are now 28 hospitals in Dubai, 6 public and 22 private, with 3 more major hospitals scheduled to be built by 2025.
By the end of 2012, there were also a total of 1,348 medical clinics, 97% of which are operated privately. In 2015, Dubai phased in mandatory health insurance for all inhabitants, thereby leading to increased demand for medical services.
Twin towns – sister cities
Dubai is twinned with:
Amman, Jordan
Beirut, Lebanon
Busan, South Korea (2006)
Cape Town, South Africa
Casablanca, Morocco
Kish Island, Iran
Damascus, Syria
Dundee, Scotland, UK (2004)
Detroit, USA (2003)
Frankfurt am Main, Germany (2005)
Gaza City, Palestine
Gold Coast, Australia (2001)
Guangzhou, China
Istanbul, Turkey (1997)
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (2010)
Moscow, Russia
Mumbai, India
Pyongyang, North Korea
San Salvador, El Salvador
Shanghai, China
See also
Archaeology of the United Arab Emirates
Al Sufouh Archaeological Site
Dubai Desert Conservation Reserve
List of buildings in Dubai
List of people from Dubai
Sustainability in Dubai
Outline of Dubai
References
Further reading
Syed Ali. Dubai: Gilded Cage (Yale University Press; 2010) 240 pages. Focuses on the Arab emirate's treatment of foreign workers.
Heiko Schmid: Economy of Fascination: Dubai and Chicago as Themed Urban Landscapes, Berlin, Stuttgart 2009, .
John M. Smith: Dubai The Maktoum Story, Norderstedt 2007, .
External links
دبي.امارات – The Official Portal of Dubai Government
www.dm.gov.ae – Dubai Municipality website
Articles containing video clips
Persian Gulf
Populated coastal places in the United Arab Emirates
Port cities in the Arabian Peninsula
18th-century establishments in Asia
Populated places established in the 18th century
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] |
211584
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A1zaro%20C%C3%A1rdenas
|
Lázaro Cárdenas
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Lázaro Cárdenas del Río (; 21 May 1895 – 19 October 1970) was a Mexican army officer and politician. He was a general in the Constitutionalist Army during the Mexican Revolution and a statesman who served as president of Mexico between 1934 and 1940. He is best known for nationalization of the oil industry in 1938 and the creation of Pemex, the government oil company. He also revived agrarian reform in Mexico, expropriating large landed estates and redistributing land to smallholders in collective holdings (ejidos).
Although he was not from the state of Sonora, whose generals had dominated Mexican politics in the 1920s, Cárdenas was loyal to Sonoran general and former president Plutarco Elías Calles (1924–1928). Calles had founded the National Revolutionary Party (PNR) in the wake of the assassination of Sonoran general Alvaro Obregón, who served as president (1920–1924) and was president-elect in 1928. Cárdenas was Calles' hand-picked candidate in 1934 to run for the presidency. While Calles did not hold the title of president, he had remained the power behind the presidency, and expected to maintain that role when Cárdenas took office. However, Cárdenas out-maneuvered him politically and eventually forced the former president into exile, establishing Cárdenas's legitimacy and power in his own right during his remaining time in office. In 1938, Cárdenas transformed the structure of the party Calles founded, creating the Partido de la Revolución Mexicana (PRM), based on sectoral representation of peasants via peasant leagues, unionized workers, professionals, and the Mexican army. Cárdenas's incorporation of the army into the party structure was a deliberate move to diminish the power of the military and prevent their traditional intervention in politics through coups d'état. An important political achievement of Cárdenas was his complete surrender of power in December 1940 to his elected successor, Manuel Ávila Camacho, who was a political moderate without a distinguished military record.
Cárdenas has been revered as "the greatest constructive radical of the Mexican Revolution", for reviving its ideals, but he has also been criticized as an "authoritarian populist". According to numerous opinion polls and analysts, Cárdenas is the most popular Mexican president of the 20th century.
Early life and career
Lázaro Cárdenas del Río was born on 21 May 1895, one of eight children in a lower-middle-class family in the village of Jiquilpan, Michoacán, where his father owned a billiard hall. After the death of his father, from the age of 16 Cárdenas supported his family (including his mother and seven younger siblings). By the time he reached 18 he had worked as a tax collector, a printer's devil, and a jail keeper. Although he left school when he was eleven, he used every opportunity to educate himself and read widely throughout his life, especially works of history.
Military career
Cárdenas set his sights on becoming a teacher, but was drawn into the military during the Mexican Revolution after Victoriano Huerta overthrew President Francisco Madero in February 1913, although Michoacán was far from the revolutionary action that had brought Madero to the Mexican presidency. After Huerta's coup and Madero's assassination, Cárdenas joined a group of Zapatistas, but Huerta's forces scattered the group, where Cárdenas had served as captain and paymaster. Given that revolutionary forces were voluntary organizations, his position of leadership points to his skills and his being paymaster to the perception that he would be honest in financial matters. Both characteristics followed him through his subsequent career. He escaped the Federal forces in Michoacán and moved north where he served initially with Álvaro Obregón, then Pancho Villa, and after 1915 when Villa was defeated by Obregón to Plutarco Elías Calles, who served Constitutionalist leader, Venustiano Carranza. Although Cárdenas was from the southern state of Michoacán, his key experiences in the Revolution were with Constitutionalist northerners, whose faction won. In particular, he served under Calles, who tasked him with military operations against Yaqui Indians and against Zapatistas in Michoacán and Jalisco, during which time he rose to a field command as general, and then in 1920 after Carranza was overthrown by northern generals, Cárdenas was given the rank of brigadier general at the age of 25. Cárdenas was appointed provisional governor of his home state of Michoacán under the brief presidency of Adolfo de la Huerta.
Service under President Calles
Cárdenas was a political protégé of Calles, but his ideological mentor was revolutionary General Francisco J. Múgica, a strongly anticlerical, secular socialist. President Calles appointed Cárdenas Chief of Military Operations in the Huasteca, an oil producing region on the Gulf Coast. Cárdenas saw first-hand the operations of the foreign oil companies. In the Huasteca, U.S. oil companies extracted oil, avoided taxes owed to the Mexican government, and treated the region as “conquered territory.” Múgica also was posted to the Huasteca and he and Cárdenas became close. During their time in the Huasteca, Múgica told Cárdenas that “socialism [is] the appropriate doctrine for resolving conflicts in Mexico.”
Governor of Michoacan, 1928–1932
Cárdenas was appointed governor of his home state of Michoacan in 1928, which was then wracked by the political conflict between state and Church, the known as the Cristiada. His ideological mentor Múgica had previously served as the state's governor, and had attempted to counter the power of the Roman Catholic Church through laws. He mobilized groups to support his positions, creating “political shock troops,” consisting of public school teachers and members of a disbanded agrarian league, forming the Confederación Revolucionaria Michoacana del Trabajo, under the slogan of “Union, Land, Work.” The organization was funded by the state government, although not listed as an official expenditure. It became the single-most powerful organization representing both workers and peasants. Mobilizing worker and peasant support and controlling the organization to which they belonged became the model for Cárdenas when he became president.
Land reform
As governor, Cárdenas also prioritized distribution of land at a time when President Calles was disillusioned by the program. He expropriated haciendas and created ejidos, collectively held, state-controlled landholdings. Ejiditarios, members of the ejido, worked individual plots of land but did not hold title to it as private property. Opposition to the program came from estate owners (hacendados), the clergy, and in some cases tenant farmers, but Cárdenas continued with the program of land reform in his state.
During his four years as governor, Cárdenas initiated a modest re-distribution of land at the state level, encouraged the growth of peasant and labor organizations, and improved education at a time when it was neglected by the federal government. Cárdenas ensured that teachers were paid on time, personally inspected schools, and opened a hundred new rural schools. Due to his grassroots style of governing, Cárdenas made important policy decisions based on direct information received from the public rather than on the advice of his confidants.
Promotion of tourism, art, and indigenous culture
During his term as governor, Cárdenas sought to bring peace to the state, unite its population divided by the on-going Cristero War, and make Michoacan, especially the historic town of Pátzcuaro into a tourist destination. Once he was president of Mexico, he continued to devote government funding to the project. Cárdenas built a house in Pátzcuaro when he became governor of the state, naming it "La Quinta Eréndira," after the Purépecha princess, who has been identified as Mexico's first anticolonial heroine for her resistance to the Spanish conquest, and a contrasting figure to Malinche, Cortés's cultural translator. Eréndira became a popular historical figure under Cárdenas. At his estate, he commissioned murals for the house, which are now lost, but it is known from historical sources that they had indigenous themes, particularly the rise and fall of the Purépecha Empire at the time of the Spanish conquest. The murals and the texts "appropriate national historical narratives in order to supplant the national myths and locate Mexico's ideal foundations in Michoacan."
Presidential election of 1934
Calles tapped Cárdenas to be the party's president. Of the revolutionary generals, Cárdenas was considered "honest, able, anticlerical, and politically astute," He had come from a poor and marginal state of Mexico, but had risen to political prominence by his military skills on the battlefield but importantly he had chosen the correct side of decisive splits since 1913. When he was chosen as the presidential candidate in 1934, no one expected him to be anything other than being loyal to Calles, the "Jefe Máximo", and power behind the presidency since 1929.
As the PNR's candidate, Cárdenas's election was a foregone conclusion. It was politically impossible for his patron, Calles, to serve as president again, but he continued to dominate Mexico after his presidency (1924–28) through what were considered "puppet" administrations in a period known as the Maximato. After two of his hand-picked men held office, the PNR balked in 1932 at supporting his first choice, Manuel Pérez Treviño. Instead, they selected Cárdenas as the presidential candidate. Calles agreed, believing he could control Cárdenas as he had controlled his predecessors. Not only had Cárdenas been associated with Calles for two decades, but he had prospered politically with Calles' patronage. As expected, Cárdenas won handily, officially winning over 98 percent of the vote.
Six-Year Plan and presidential campaign
Cárdenas ran on the Six Year Plan for social and political reform that the party drafted under Calles's direction. Such a multiyear program was patterned after the just-completed Five Year Plan of the Soviet Union. The Six-Year Plan (to span the presidential term 1934–40) was a patchwork of proposals from a variety of participants, but the driving force behind it was Calles, who had given a speech in May 1933, saying that the "Mexican Revolution had failed in most of its important objectives," and that a plan needed to implement its objectives. Interim President Abelardo L. Rodríguez did not get his cabinet's approval for the plan in 1933, so that Calles's next move was to present it in draft form to the party convention. "Rather than a blueprint, the Six-Year Plan was a sales prospectus," and a "hopeless jumble" filled with compromises and contradictions, as well as utopian aspirations. But the direction of the plan was toward renewed reform.
The plan called for
destruction of the hacienda economy and creation of a collective system of ejidos (common lands) under government control;
modern secular schools and eradication of the influence of the Catholic Church; and
workers' cooperatives to oppose the excesses of industrial capitalism.
Assured of the backing of the powerful Calles and a presidential victory, Cárdenas took the opportunity to actively campaign in many parts of Mexico rather than remaining in Mexico City. His 25,000 kilometer campaign accomplished several things, including making direct contact with regions and constituents who had never seen a presidential candidate before and thus building Cárdenas a personal power base. The campaign also allowed him to refine and articulate for popular consumption what he considered the important elements of the Six Year Plan. On the campaign trail, he acted more like someone already in office than a candidate, settling disputes between groups. He reached out to Mexican workers, as well as peasants, to whom he promised land reform. Cárdenas promised Amerindians schools and educational opportunities, and urged them to join with workers against exploitative practices.
Presidency, 1934–1940
Presidential style
Cárdenas's first action after taking office late in 1934 was to have his presidential salary cut in half. He became the first occupant of the official presidential residence of Los Pinos. He had the previous residence, the ostentatious Chapultepec Castle, turned into the National Museum of History. In a move that struck at the financial interests of his patron Calles's cronies, Cárdenas closed down their gambling casinos and brothels, where "prominent Callistas had invested their profits from bribery and industrial activities." Cárdenas did not use armored cars or bodyguards to protect himself. In the presidential campaign of 1934, he travelled through much of the rural areas by auto and horseback, accompanied only by Rafael M. Pedrajo, a chauffeur and an aide-de-camp. His fearlessness generated widespread respect for Cárdenas, who had demonstrated his bravery and leadership as a revolutionary general.
Cabinet
Cárdenas's cabinet when he was first in office included Calles family members, his oldest son Rodolfo at the Secretariat of Communications and Public Works (1934–35); Aarón Sáenz Garza, the brother-in-law of Calles's second son, Plutarco Jr. ("Aco"), was appointed the administrator for Mexico City (1934–35), a cabinet-level position. Others with loyalty to Calles were radical Tomás Garrido Canabal at the Secretariat of Agriculture and Development (1934–35); Marxist Narciso Bassols held the post of Secretary of Finance and Public Credit (1934–35); Emilio Portes Gil, who had been interim president of Mexico following the assassination of Obregón but not chosen as the PNR presidential candidate in 1929, held the position of Foreign Secretary (1934–35). Cárdenas chose his comrade-in-arms and mentor General Francisco José Múgica as Secretary of the National Economy (1934–35). As Cárdenas began to chart his own course and outflank Calles politically, he replaced Calles loyalists in 1935 with his own men.
Cárdenas and the military
As a revolutionary general, Cárdenas followed in the tradition of his immediate predecessors in the presidency who had standing as a military leader but sought to curb the power of the military. Obregón and Calles sought to downsize and professionalize the Mexican military and make it subordinate to civilian government. Cárdenas's election had not triggered revolts by disgruntled military men with ambitions to the presidency, as had happened in 1923, 1928, and 1929. Much of the military remained loyal to Calles, but Cárdenas had supporters among the army leadership as well. Cárdenas sought be serve as president in his own right, not be a puppet of Calles, and to do that he needed to broaden his base of support. Cárdenas sought to arm the peasantry as a counterpoise to the army, a move that disturbed the more conservative generals. Cárdenas cultivated the loyalty of the junior officer corps, providing better housing, pensions, and schooling for their children.
Cárdenas and the Catholic Church
Cárdenas repealed the Calles Law soon after he became president in 1934. Cárdenas earned respect from Pope Pius XI and had a close friendship with Mexican Archbishop Luis María Martínez, a major figure in Mexico's Catholic Church who successfully persuaded Mexicans to obey the government's laws peacefully. However, he also implemented educational reforms, particularly socialist education and the elimination of religious schooling. Nevertheless, the Cárdenas administration bridged a gap between church and state, developed a working and friendly relationship with the church, and helped subdue the bitter animosity between Catholics and leftists that had lingered since the Mexican Revolution, with the Holy See eventually supporting Cárdenas in comparison to condemning the militant atheism of Calles.
Land reform and the peasantry
During Cárdenas' presidency, the government enacted land reform that was "sweeping, rapid, and, in some respects, innovative". He redistributed large commercial haciendas, some 180,000 km2 of land to peasants. With the powers of Article 27 of the Mexican constitution, he created agrarian collectives, or ejidos, which in early twentieth-century Mexico were an atypical form of landholding. Two high-profile regions of expropriation for Cárdenas's agrarian reform were in the productive cotton-growing region in northern Mexico, known as La Laguna, and in Yucatán, where the economy was dominated by henequen production. Other areas that saw significant land reform were Baja California and Sonora in northern Mexico, his home state of Michoacán and Chiapas in southern Mexico.
In 1937, Cárdenas invited Andrés Molina Enríquez, intellectual father of Article 27 of the 1917 Constitution, to accompany him to Yucatán to implement the land reform, even though Molina Enríquez was not a big supporter of the collective ejido system. Although he could not go due to ill health, he defended Cárdenas's action against Luis Cabrera, who argued that the Ejidal Bank that Cárdenas established when he embarked on his sweeping redistribution of land was, in fact, making the Mexican state the new hacienda owner. For Molina Enríquez, the Yucatecan henequen plantations were an "evil legacy" and "hellholes" for the Maya. As a lifelong supporter of land reform, Molina Enríquez's support of Cárdenas's "glorious crusade" was important.
Cárdenas knew that peasant support was important and as a presidential candidate in 1933, he reached out to an autonomous peasant organization, the Liga Nacional Campesina (National Peasant League) and promised to integrate it into the party structure. The Liga split over this question, but one element was integrated into the Partido Nacional Revolucionario. Cárdenas expanded the peasant league's base in 1938 into the Confederación Nacional Campesina (CNC). Cárdenas "believed that an organized peasantry would represent a political force capable of confronting the established landholding elite, as well as providing a critical voting block for the new Mexican state." Scholars differ as to Cárdenas's intent for the CNC, with some viewing it as an autonomous organization that would advocate for peasants regarding land tenure, rural projects, and peasant political interests, while others see the CNC as in patron-client relationship with the state, restricting its autonomy. The CNC was created with the idea of "peasant unification" and was controlled by the government. Peasants' rights were acknowledged, but peasants were to be responsible allies of the political regime. The radical Confederation of Mexican Workers (CTM) and the Mexican Communist Party (PCM) sought to organize peasants, but Cárdenas asserted the government's right to do that since it was in charge of land reform and warned that their attempting to organize the peasantry would sow dissension.
Cárdenas further strengthened the government's role by creating rural militias or reserves, which armed some 60,000 peasants by 1940, which were under the control of the army. The armed peasantry helped promote political stability against regional strongmen (caudillos). They could ensure that government land reform was accomplished. Peasant reserves could protect recipients of reform against estate owners and break rural strikes that threatened government control.
Agrarian reform took place in a patchwork fashion with uneven results. Over years, many regions had experienced peasant mobilization in the face of repression and "low intensity agrarian warfare." The peasant movement in Morelos had mobilized before the Mexican Revolution and had success under Emiliano Zapata's leadership extinguished the hacienda system in that state. In Cárdenas's agrarian reform, with the revolutionary regime consolidated and agrarian problems still unresolved, the president courted mobilized agraristas, who now found the state attentive to their issue. Land reform, with some exceptions such as in Yucatán, took place in areas of previous mobilization. Peasants themselves pushed for agrarian reform and to the extent it was accomplished, they were integral agents not merely the recipients of top-down state largesse. However, the peasantry was under the control of the national government with no outlet for independent organization or the formation of alliances with Mexican urban workers.
Labor
The other key sector of reform was industrial labor. Article 123 of the 1917 Constitution had empowered labor in an unprecedented way, guaranteeing worker rights such as the eight-hour day and the right to strike, but in a more comprehensive fashion, Article 123 signaled that the Mexican state was on the side of labor. A labor organization already existed when Cárdenas took office, the CROM union of Luis Morones. Morones was forced out of his cabinet post in Calles's government and the CROM declined in power and influence, with major defections of Mexico City unions, one of which was led by socialist Vicente Lombardo Toledano. Cárdenas promoted Toledano's "purified" Confederation of Mexican Workers, which evolved into the Mexican Confederation of Workers or CTM. The CTM's alliance with Cárdenas was tactical and conditional, seeing their interests being forwarded by Cárdenas, but not controlled by him. As with the agrarian sector with mobilized peasants, mobilized and organized workers had long agitated and fought for their interests. Article 123 of the Constitution was a tangible result of their participation in the Mexican Revolution on the Constitutionalist side. In fact, workers organized by the Casa del Obrero Mundial, a radical labor organization, fought in the Red Battalions against the peasant revolutionaries led by Emiliano Zapata. Lombardo Toledano and the CTM supported Cárdenas's exile of Calles and in the same stroke Cárdenas also exiled CROM's discredited leader, Luis Napoleón Morones.
Cárdenas nationalized the railway system creating the Ferrocarriles Nacionales de México in 1938 and put under a "workers' administration." His most sweeping nationalization was that of the petroleum industry in 1938.
Education
During the Calles Maximato, Mexican education policies were directed at curtailing the cultural influence of the Catholic Church by introducing sex education and leftist ideology via socialist education, and generally aiming to create a national civic culture. Cárdenas as a presidential candidate, under the patronage of fierce anticlerical Calles, was in favor of such policies. The opposition to socialist education by the Catholic Church as an institution and rural Catholics in such strongholds as Michoacan, Jalisco, and Durango saw the revival of armed peasant opposition, sometimes known as the Second Cristiada. The extent of the opposition was significant and Cárdenas chose to step back from implementing the radical educational policies, particularly as he became engaged with undermining Calles's power. Cárdenas gained support from the Catholic Church when he distanced himself from anticlerical policies.
An important addition to higher education in Mexico was when Cárdenas established the Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), a technical university in Mexico City, in the wake of the 1938 oil expropriation to train engineers and scientists.
Indigenismo
Cárdenas created the new cabinet-level Department of Indigenous Affairs (Departamento de Asuntos Indígenas) in 1936, with Graciano Sánchez, an agrarista leader in charge. After a controversy at the DAI, Sánchez was replaced by a scholar, Prof. Luis Chávez Orozco. Cárdenas was influenced by an advocate of indigenismo, Moisés Sáenz, who earned a doctorate in education from Columbia University and had held a position in the Calles administration in the Secretariat of Public Education (SEP). Although initially an assimilationist for Mexico's indigenous, he shifted his perspective after a period of residence in a Purépecha village, which he published as Carapan: Bosquejo de una experiencia. He came to see indigenous culture as having value. Sáenz advocated for educational and economic reforms that would better the indigenous, and this became the aim of the department Cárdenas created.
The official 1940 government report on the Cárdenas administration states that “the indigenous problem is one of the most serious that the revolutionary government has had to confront.” The aim of the department was to study fundamental problems concerning Mexico's indigenous, particularly economic and social conditions, and then propose measures to the executive power for coordinated action to promote and manage measures considered to be in the interests of centers of indigenous populations. Most indigenous people were found in Veracruz, Oaxaca, Chiapas, and Yucatán, according to the 1930 national census. In 1936 and 1937, the department had approximately 100 employees and a budget of $750,000 pesos, but as with other aspects of the Cárdenas regime, 1938 marked a significant increase personnel and budget; 350 employees in 1938 and a budget of $2.77 million pesos and in 1939, the high point in the department's budget, there were 850 employees with a budget of $3.75 million pesos. In 1940, the budget remained robust at $3 million pesos, with 650 employees.
The function of the department was primarily economic and educational. Specifically it was tasked with defending indigenous villages and communities, holders of ejidos (ejidatarios) and indigenous citizens from persecution and abuse that could be committed by any type of authority. It defended ejido officials (comisariados ejidales) and agricultural cooperatives. The goals that the department worked toward were primarily economic and education, with cultural actions second. Social measures and public health/sanitation were less important in terms of action for this department.
The department promoted a series of national indigenous congresses, bringing together different indigenous groups to meet as indigenous and discuss common issues. The government's aim in doing this was to have them move in concert toward the “integral liberation” (liberación integral), with their rights respected by the primary goal was to incorporate indigenous into the larger, national population on an equal basis. Initially in 1936 and 1937, there was one annual conference. The first one drew approximately 300 pueblos, while the second only 75. In 1938, there were two conferences with 950 pueblos represented. The last two years of the Cárdenas sexenio there were two congresses each year, but sparser attendance at around 200 pueblos each. The government attempted to engage the active participation of the indigenous pueblos, seeing that such engagement was the key to success, but the fall-off in the last two years indicates decreased mobilization. The department published 12 edited books with a total publication run of 350 as well as 170 tape recorded materials in indigenous languages.
In February 1940, the department established a separate medical/sanitary section with 4 clinics in Chihuahua and one in Sonora, but the largest number were in central in southern Mexico.
In 1940, the first Interamerican Indigenista Congress met in Pátzcuaro, Michoacán, with Cárdenas giving a plenary address to the participants.
Women's suffrage
Cárdenas had pushed for women's suffrage in Mexico, responding to the pressure from women activists and from the political climate that emphasized equality of citizens. Mexico was not alone in Latin America in not enfranchising women, but in 1932, both Brazil and Uruguay had extended suffrage to women, and Ecuador had also done so. Women had made a significant contribution to the Mexican Revolution, but had not made gains in the postrevolutionary phase. Women who were members of the National Peasants Confederation (Confederación Nacional Campesina) or the Confederation of Mexican Workers (Confederación de Trabajadores Mexicanos) were, by virtue of their membership umbrella organizations, also members of Cárdenas's reorganized party, the Party of the Mexican Revolution or PRM, done in 1938. In practice, however, women were marginalized from power. Women could not stand for national or local governmental elections or vote. The Constitution of 1917 did not explicitly address women's rights and so to enfranchise women required a constitutional amendment. The amendment itself was simple and brief, specifying that "mexicanos" referred to both women and men.
Many PNR congressmen and senators gave supportive speeches for the amendment, but there was opposition. Cárdenas's impending reorganization of the party, which took place in 1938, was a factor in changing some opponents into supporters. In the end, it passed unanimously and was sent to the states to ratify it. Despite the speeches and the ratifications, opponents used a loophole to block the amendment's implementation by refusing to publish notice of the change in the Diario official. Skeptics of women's suffrage were suspicious that conservative Catholic women would take instructions on voting from priests and so undermine the progressive gains of the Revolution. Conservative Catholic women had mobilized during the church-state conflict of the late 1920s, the Cristero Rebellion, giving material aid to Cristero armies, and even forming a secret society, Feminine Brigades of St. Joan of Arc.
The concern about Mexican women taking advise from priests on voting had some foundation in the example of the leftist Spanish Republic of the 1930s. Many Spanish women indeed supported the position of the Catholic Church which was opposed to the republic's anticlerical policies. The Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) was for Mexico a cautionary tale, the failure of a leftist regime after a military coup.
Cárdenas was unable to overcome opposition to women's suffrage although he personally was committed to the cause. Women did not get the vote in Mexico until 1953, when the Mexican government was pursuing economic policies friendlier to business and there was a modus vivendi with the Catholic Church in Mexico.
Partido de la Revolución Mexicana
The Partido de la Revolución Mexicana (PRM) came into being on March 30, 1938 after the party founded in 1929 by Calles, the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR), was dissolved. Cárdenas's PRM was reorganized again in 1946 as the Institutional Revolutionary Party. Calles founded the PNR in the wake of President-elect Obregón's assassination in order to create some way for revolutionary leaders to maintain order and power. Calles could not be re-elected as president, but did hold power through the newly created party. Often called the "official party", it "was created as a cartel to control localized political machines and interests."
When Cárdenas ran as the candidate of the PNR in 1934, Calles had expected to continue to be the real power in Mexico. Cárdenas might have been one of the short-term, powerless presidents of the years 1929–1934, but instead he built a large and mobilized base of support of industrial workers and peasants and forced Calles into exile in 1935. Cárdenas further consolidated power by dissolving the PNR and creating a new party with a completely different kind of organization.
The PRM was organized in four sectors, industrial labor, peasants, a middle class sector (composed largely of government workers), and the military. This organization was a resurrection of corporatism, essentially organization by estates or interest groups. Each sector of the party had a parallel organization, so that the labor sector was composed of the Confederation of Mexican Workers (CTM), the peasant sector by the National Confederation of Campesinos, (CNC); and the middle class sector by the Federation of Unions of Workers in Service to the State (FSTSE), created in 1938. The old Federal Army had been destroyed in the Revolution and the post-revolutionary military had increasingly been transformed from a collection of veteran revolutionary fighters into a military organized along more traditional lines of hierarchy and control.
The military had in most of Latin America in the post-independence period viewed itself as the arbiter of power and intervened in politics by force or the threat of force. In the post-revolutionary period, presidents of Mexico, including Cárdenas, were former generals in the revolutionary army. Curbing the power of the military was instigated by Álvaro Obregón and Calles, but the threat of revolt and undermining of the state remained, as the Cristero Rebellion showed in the late 1920s, led by a former revolutionary general, Enrique Gorostieta. Cárdenas aimed to undermine the military's potential to dominate politics by making it a sector of the official party. Although some critics questioned the military's incorporation into the party, Cárdenas saw it as a way to assert civilian control. He is quoted as saying, "We did not put the Army in politics. It was already there. In fact it had been dominating the situation, and we did well to reduce its voice to one in four." Cárdenas had already mobilized workers and peasants into a counterweight to the "military's domination of politics."
These groups often had different interests, but rather than creating a pluralist system in which the groups competed, the corporatist model placed the President as the arbiter of interests. Thus, the organization of different interest groups with formal representation in the party gave them access to largesse from the State, but also limited their ability to act autonomously since they were dependents of the new system.
The corporatist model is most often associated with fascism, whose rise in Germany and Italy in the 1930s coincided with Cárdenas's presidency. Cárdenas was emphatically opposed to fascism, but created the PRM and organized the Mexican state on authoritarian lines. That reorganization can be seen as the enduring legacy of the Cárdenas presidency. Although the PRM was reorganized into the Institutional Revolutionary Party in 1946, the basic structure was retained. Cárdenas's calculation that the military's incorporation into the PRM would undermine its power was essentially correct, since it disappeared as a separate sector of the party, but was absorbed into the "popular" sector.
1938 oil expropriation
Cárdenas had had dealings with the oil industry in the Huasteca in his capacity as military commander there. Ongoing issues with the foreign-owned companies and the Mexican petroleum workers' organization became increasingly tense. Early in his presidency, he declared that a previous agreement between companies and the government "was not in harmony with the basic principle of Article 27 of the Constitution." In 1936, the 18,000 member oil workers' union forced oil companies to sign the first-ever collective bargaining agreement. The union demanded 26 million pesos, the companies offered 12 million. Giving more force to Mexican workers' demands, Cárdenas set up the National Oil Administration and the government's Council of Conciliation and Arbitration took jurisdiction over the wage dispute. The Council supported the workers' demands and the companies refused to pay. To put even more force into the government's position, it cancelled oil concessions dating to the Porfirato. This move was unprecedented in the history of foreign oil in Mexico. Management and high level skilled workers were all foreigners, so the companies thought that nationalization would be a rash move for Mexico. The companies appealed the government's decision to force companies to pay the wages to the Mexican Supreme Court, which ruled against them on 1 March 1938. Cárdenas was ready to act. Cárdenas tasked his old comrade Francisco J. Múgica with writing the declaration to the nation about expropriation. On 18 March 1938, Cárdenas nationalized Mexico's petroleum reserves and expropriated the equipment of the foreign oil companies in Mexico. The announcement inspired a spontaneous six-hour parade in Mexico City; it was followed by a national fund-raising campaign to compensate the private companies.
The legislation for nationalization provided for compensation for the expropriated assets, but Cárdenas' action angered the international business community and Western governments, especially the United Kingdom. The Mexican government was more worried about the lack of technical expertise within the nation to run the refineries. Before leaving, the oil companies had ensured they left nothing of value behind, hoping to force Cárdenas to accept their conditions.
Mexico was eventually able to restart the oil fields and refineries, but production did not rise to pre-nationalization levels until 1942, after the entry of the United States into World War II. The US sent technical advisers to Mexico to ensure production could support the overall Allied war effort.
In 1938, the British severed diplomatic relations with Cárdenas' government, and boycotted Mexican oil and other goods. An international court ruled that Mexico had the authority for nationalization. With the outbreak of World War II, oil became a highly sought-after commodity. The company that Cárdenas founded, Petróleos Mexicanos (or Pemex), later served as a model for other nations seeking greater control over their own oil and natural gas resources. In the early 21st century, its revenues continued to be the most important source of income for the country, despite weakening finances. Cárdenas founded the National Polytechnic Institute in order to ensure the education and training of people to run the oil industry.
Spanish Civil War and refugees in Mexico
Cárdenas supported the Republican government of Spain against right-wing general Francisco Franco's forces during the Spanish Civil War. Franco was given support by Germany and Italy. Mexico's support of the Republican government was "by selling arms to the Republican army, underwriting arms purchases from third parties, supporting the Republic in the League of Nations, providing food, shelter and education for children orphaned during the Spanish Civil War."
Although Mexico's efforts in the Spanish Civil War were not enough to save the Spanish Republic, it did provide a place of exile for as many as 20,000-40,000 Spanish refugees. Among those who reached Mexico were distinguished intellectuals who left a lasting imprint in Mexican cultural life. The range of refugees may be seen from an analysis of the 4,559 passengers arriving in Mexico in 1939 on board the ships Sinaia, Ipanema and Mexique; the largest groups were technicians and qualified workers (32%), farmers and ranchers (20%), along with professionals, technicians, workers, business people students and merchants, who represented 43% of the total. The Casa de España, founded with Mexican government support in the early 1930s, was an organization to provide a safe haven for Spanish loyalist intellectuals and artists. It became the Colegio de México in October 1940, an elite institution of higher education in Mexico, in 1940 with the support of Cárdenas's government.
In 1936, Cárdenas allowed Russian exile Leon Trotsky to settle in Mexico, reportedly to counter accusations that Cárdenas was a Stalinist. Cárdenas was not as left-wing as Leon Trotsky and other socialists would wish, but Trotsky described his government as the only honest one in the world.
Relations with Latin America
Mexico's most important relations with foreign countries during the Cárdenas presidency was the United States, but Cárdenas attempted to influence fellow Latin American nations viable formal diplomatic efforts in Cuba, Chile, Colombia, and Peru, especially in the cultural sphere. Mexico sent artists, engineers, and athletes as good will efforts. No Latin American country emulated Cárdenas's radical policies in the agrarian sector, education, or economic nationalism.
Other presidential actions
The development bank, Nacional Financiera was founded during his term as president. Although not extensively active during that period, in the post-World War II era of the Mexican Miracle, the bank was an important tool in government industrialization projects.
Cárdenas became known for his progressive program of building roads and schools and promoting education, gaining Congressional approval to allocate twice as much federal money to rural education as all his predecessors combined.
Cárdenas ended capital punishment (in Mexico, usually in the form of a firing squad). Capital punishment has been banned in Mexico since that time. The control of the republic by Cárdenas and the PRI (Partido Revolucionario Institucional) predecessor Partido de la Revolución Mexicana without widespread bloodshed effectively signaled the end of rebellions that began with the 1910 Mexican Revolution. Despite Cárdenas' policy of socialist education, he also improved relations with the Roman Catholic Church during his administration.
Failed Saturnino Cedillo revolt, 1938–1939
The last military major revolt in Mexico was that of Saturnino Cedillo, a regional caudillo and former revolutionary general whose power base was in the state of San Luis Potosí. Cedillo was a supporter of Calles and had participated in the formation of the Partido Nacional Revolucionario. He was a "paradigmatic figure," acting as a strong leader in his region and mediating between the federal government and his local power base. As a powerbroker with demonstrated military and political skills, he had a great deal of autonomy in San Luis Potosí, serving a term as governor (1927–32), but then modeling Calles's Maximato was the power behind the governorship. Cedillo supported Cárdenas in his power struggle with Calles. However, relations between Cedillo and Cárdenas soured, particularly as Cárdenas's new political system was consolidated and undermined the autonomous power of local caciques.
Cárdenas was ideologically more radical than Cedillo, and Cedillo became a major figure in right-wing opposition to Cárdenas. Groups around him included the fascist “Gold Shirts”, seen as a force capable of ousting Cárdenas. Cedillo rose in revolt in 1938 against Cárdenas, but the federal government had clear military superiority and crushed the uprising. In 1939, Cedillo, members of his family, and a number of supporters were killed, Cedillo himself betrayed by a follower while he was in hiding. He was “the last of the great military caciques of the Mexican Revolution who maintained his own quasi-private army,” and who constructed “his campesino fiefdom.” Cárdenas's victory over Cedillo showed the power and consolidation of the newly reorganized Mexican state, but also a showdown between two former revolutionary generals in the political sphere.
Other political opposition to Cárdenas
There was more organized and ideological opposition to Cárdenas. Right-wing political groups opposed Cárdenas's policies, including the National Synarchist Union (UNS), a popular, pro-Catholic, quasi-fascist movement founded in 1937 opposed his "atheism" and collectivism. Catholic, pro-business conservatives founded the National Action Party (PAN) in 1939, which became the principal opposition party in later years and won the presidency in 2000.
Presidential election of 1940
In the elections of 1940, Cárdenas, hoping to prevent another uprising or even "an outright counter-revolution throughout the Republic" by those opposed to his leftist policies, endorsed the PRM nominee Manuel Ávila Camacho, a moderate conservative. Obregonista Francisco Múgica would have been Cárdenas's ideological heir, and he had played an important role in the Revolution, the leader of the left-wing faction that successfully placed key language in the Constitution of 1917, guaranteeing the rights of labor. Múgica had known Cárdenas personally since 1926 when the two were working in Veracruz. Múgica had served in Cárdenas's cabinet as Secretary of the National Economy and as Secretary of the Ministry of Communications and Public Works. In those positions, Múgica made sure the federal government pursued social goals; Múgica was considered "the social conscience of Cardenismo." Múgica resigned his cabinet post to be a candidate for the 1940 presidential election.
However, the political system was not one of open competition among candidates, although the PRM's rules required an open convention to select the candidate. Cárdenas established the unwritten rule that the president chose his successor. Cárdenas chose political unknown Manuel Ávila Camacho, far more centrist than Múgica, as the PRM's official candidate. He was "known as a conciliator rather than a leader" and later derided as "the unknown soldier." Múgica withdrew, realizing his personal ambitions would not be satisfied, and went on to hold other posts in the government. Cárdenas may well have hoped Ávila Camacho would salvage some of his progressive policies and be a compromise candidate compared to his conservative opponent, General Juan Andreu Almazán. Cárdenas is said to have secured the support of the CTM and the CNC for Ávila Camacho by personally guaranteeing their interests would be respected.
The campaign and elections were marked by violent incidents; on election-day the opposing parties hijacked numerous polling places and each issued their own "election results". Cárdenas himself was unable to vote on election day because the polling place closed early to prevent supporters of Almazán from voting. Since the government controlled the electoral process, the official results declared Ávila Camacho as winner; Almazán cried fraud and threatened revolt, trying to set up a parallel government and congress. Ávila Camacho crushed Almazán's forces and assumed office in December 1940. His inauguration was attended by US Vice President-elect Henry A. Wallace, who was appointed by the U.S. as a "special representative with the rank of Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary" for Mexico, indicating that the U.S. recognized the legitimacy of the election results. Almazán also attended Ávila Camacho's inauguration.
Much to the surprise of Mexicans who expected that Cárdenas might follow the example of Calles and remain the power behind the presidency—particularly since Ávila Camacho did not appear to have major leadership skills at a time that the conflict in Europe and domestic turmoil were in evidence—he set the important precedent of leaving the presidency and its powers to his successor.
Post-presidency
After his presidential term that ended 1 December 1940, Cárdenas served as Mexico's Minister of War 1942–1945, when Mexico was a solid participant in World War II, which reassured Mexican nationalists concerned about a close alliance with the United States.
It has been said that Cárdenas was the only president associated with the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) who did not use the office to make himself wealthy. He retired to a modest home by Lake Pátzcuaro, Michoacán, and worked the rest of his life supervising irrigation projects and promoting free medical clinics and education for the nation's poor. He also continued to speak out about international political issues and in favor of greater democracy and human rights in Latin America and elsewhere. For example, he was one of the participants in the Russell Tribunal for investigating war crimes in Vietnam. Although Cárdenas did not play the role that Calles had as the power behind the presidency, Cárdenas did exert influence on the PRI and in Mexican politics. He opposed the candidacy of Miguel Alemán Valdés for president in 1952, opposed the Vietnam War, and opposed the U.S. policy toward Cuba after the 1959 Cuban Revolution.
Cárdenas was not happy with the rightward shift of Mexican presidents, starting with the presidency of Miguel Alemán (1946-1952). During the presidency of Adolfo López Mateos (1958-1964), Cárdenas emerged from retirement and pressed the president toward leftist stances. With the triumph of the Cuban Revolution in January 1959, Cárdenas among others in Latin America who saw the hope of young revolution. Mexico was run by a party that claimed the legacy of the Mexican Revolution but had turned away from revolutionary ideals. Cárdenas went to Cuba in July 1959 and was with Castro at a huge rally where the former guerrilla leader declared himself premier of Cuba. Cárdenas returned to Mexico with the hope that the ideals of the Mexican Revolution could be revived, with land reform, support for agriculture, and an expansion of education and health services to Mexicans. He also directly appealed to López Mateos to free jailed union leaders. López Mateos became increasingly hostile to Cárdenas, who was explicitly and implicitly rebuking him. To Cárdenas he said, "They say the Communists are weaving a dangerous web around you." The pressure on López Mateos had an impact, and he began implementing reforms in land, education, and the creation of social programs that emulated those under Cárdenas. Cárdenas withdrew his public challenge to the PRI's policies and supported López Mateos's designated successor in 1964, Gustavo Díaz Ordaz, his Minister of the Interior.
In 1968, Cárdenas did not anticipate the draconian crackdown by Díaz Ordaz in the run-up to the Mexico City Olympics. That summer saw the emergence of the Mexican Movement of 1968, which mobilized tens of thousands of students and middle class supporters during the summer and early fall 1968. The movement ended in the bloody Tlatelolco Massacre on 2 October 1968. During the troubles that summer, one of Cárdenas's long-time friends, Heberto Castillo Martínez, a professor of mechanical engineering at the National University, actively participated in the movement and was pursued by Díaz Ordaz's secret police. Cárdenas hosted a meeting at his residence in the Polanco section of Mexico City with Castillo and some student leaders. Cárdenas was increasingly concerned about the impact on the movement on the political peace that had been built by the party. Despite the National University being a center of the movement, Cárdenas did not think that the government would violate the university's autonomy and take over the campus. It did, with tanks rolling into campus on 18 September. Castillo had a harrowing escape. In October government troops fired on demonstrators at the Plaza of the Three Cultures in Tlatelolco, someone who had been there made his way to Cárdenas's house to tell him in tears what happened. Cárdenas's wife Amalia reportedly said, "And I believe that the General shed some tears too."
Cárdenas died of lung cancer in Mexico City on 19 October 1970 at the age of 75. He is buried in the Monument to the Revolution in Mexico City, sharing his final resting place with Venustiano Carranza, Pancho Villa, and Plutarco Elias Calles. Cárdenas's son Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas and his grandson Lázaro Cárdenas Batel have been prominent Mexican politicians.
Honors
In his honor, his name was given to a number of cities, towns, and a municipality in Mexico, including Lázaro Cárdenas, Michoacán, the municipality of Lázaro Cárdenas, Quintana Roo, Lázaro Cárdenas, Jalisco, and other smaller communities. A major dam project on the Nazas River named for him was inaugurated in 1946. There are also many streets that have been named after him, including the Eje Central Lázaro Cárdenas in Mexico City and highways in Guadalajara, Monterrey and Mexicali. Šetalište Lazaro Kardenasa (Lázaro Cárdenas promenade) in Belgrade, Serbia, is also named after him, as is a street in Barcelona, Spain, and a monument in a park in Madrid dedicated to his memory for his role in admitting defeated Spanish Republicans to Mexico after the Civil War in that country.
In 1955, Lázaro Cárdenas was awarded the Stalin Peace Prize, which was later renamed for Lenin as part of de-Stalinization.
Also, there is a station in the Mexico City Metro with his name.
Legacy
President Cárdenas and his administration are given credit by socialists for expanding the distribution of land to the peasants, establishing new welfare programs for the poor, and nationalizing the railroad and petroleum industries, including the oil company that Cárdenas founded, Petróleos Mexicanos. Toward the end of his presidency, unhappy landowners and foreign capitalists began to challenge his programs and his power. His choice of his close associate Manuel Ávila Camacho rather than a candidate with a distinguished record as a revolutionary leader was displeasing to many, and occasioned a possible military revolt.
The party that Cárdenas founded, the Partido de la Revolución Mexicana (PRM), established the basic structure of sectoral representation of important groups, a structure retained by its successor in 1946, the PRI. The PRI continued in power until 2000. This is attributed by some to electoral fraud and coercion. This legacy led his son, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, to form the Democratic Revolution Party (PRD) to contest the 1988 presidential election. Since that year, the PRD has become one of the three major parties in Mexico, gaining working class support that was previously enjoyed by the PRI.
In his "Political Testament", written the year before his death and published posthumously, he acknowledged that his regime had failed to make the changes in distribution of political power and corruption that were the basis for his presidency and the revolution. He expressed his dismay in the fact that some people and groups were making themselves rich to the detriment of the mainly poor majority. It was said of Cárdenas in a eulogy that "he was the greatest figure produced by the revolution... an authentic revolutionary who aspired to the greatness of his country, not personal aggrandizement."
Philippine President Ramon Magsaysay patterned his people–oriented government on the principles which he found in a biography of Cárdenas written by William Cameron Townsend.
See also
History of Mexico
List of heads of state of Mexico
Monument to Lázaro Cárdenas
Lázaro Cárdenas Park, Puerto Vallarta, Mexico
Statue of Lázaro Cárdenas (Madrid)
References
Further reading
In English
Ashby, Joe C. Organized Labor and the Mexican Revolution under Lázaro Cárdenas. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 1963.
Bantjes, Adrian A. "Cardenismo: Interpretations" in Encyclopedia of Mexico, vol. 1. pp. 195–199. Chicago: Fitzroy and Dearborn 1997.
Becker, Marjorie (1995). Setting the Virgin on Fire: Lázaro Cárdenas, Michoacán Peasants, and the Redemption of the Mexican Revolution. Berkeley: University of California Press. .
Cárdenas, Enrique. "The Great Depression and Industrialization: The Case of Mexico" in Rosemary Thorp, ed. Latin America in the 1930s: The Role of the Periphery in World Crisis. London 1984, pp. 222–41.
Cline, Howard F. The United States and Mexico, second edition, Chapter 11, "The Cárdenas Upheaval", pp. 215–238. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1961.
Dulles, John W. F. Yesterday in Mexico: A Chronicle of the Revolution 1919–1936. Austin: University of Texas Press 1961.
Dwyer, John. "Diplomatic Weapons of the Weak: Mexican Policymaking during the U.S.-Mexican Agrarian Dispute, 1934–1941,Diplomatic History, 26:3 (2002): 375
Hamilton, Nora. The Limits of State Authority: Post-Revolutionary Mexico. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1982.
Hamilton, Nora. "Lázaro Cárdenas" in Encyclopedia of Mexico, vol. 1, pp. 192–195. Chicago: Fitzroy and Dearborn 1997.
Jolly, Jennifer. Creating Pátzcuaro, Creating Mexico: Art, Tourism, and Nation Building Under Lázaro Cárdenas. Austin: University of Texas Press 2018.
Knight, Alan. "Cardenismo: Juggernaut or Jalopy?" Journal of Latin American Studies 26 (1994).
Knight, Alan. "The Rise and Fall of Cardenismo" in Mexico Since Independence, Leslie Bethell, ed. New York: Cambridge University Press 1991, pp. 241–320, 417-422.
Krauze, Enrique, Mexico: Biography of Power. New York: HarperCollins 1997.
Leonard, Thomas M.; Rankin, Monica; Smith, Joseph; Bratzel, John (ed.) (September 2006). Latin America during World War II. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. .
Lucas, Jeffrey Kent (2010). The Rightward Drift of Mexico's Former Revolutionaries: The Case of Antonio Díaz Soto y Gama. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press. .
Michaels, Albert L. "The Crisis of Cardenismo," Journal of Latin American Studies vol. 2 (May 1970): 51-79.
Powell, T.G. Mexico and the Spanish Civil War. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1981.
Riding, Alan (1986). Distant Neighbors. New York City: Vintage Books. .
Smith, Peter H. (April 1996). Talons of the Eagle: Dynamics of U.S.-Latin American Relations (2nd edition). USA: Oxford University Press. .
Townsend, William Cameron. Lázaro Cárdenas, Mexican Democrat. Ann Arbor 1952.
Weston, Jr., Charles H.; "The Political Legacy of Lázaro Cárdenas", The Americas, Vol. 39, No. 3 (Jan., 1983), pp. 383–405 Published by: Academy of American Franciscan History Stable, URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/981231 Accessed: February 26, 2009 14:16
Whetten, Nathan L. Rural Mexico. Chicago 1948.
Weston, Charles H. "The Political Legacy of Lázaro Cárdenas." The Americas, Vol. 39, No. 3 (Jan., 1983), pp. 383–405 Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/981231
Weyl, Nathaniel and Sylvia Weyl. The Reconquest of Mexico: The Years of Lázaro Cárdenas. London 1939.
In Spanish
Anguiano, Arturo. El Estado y la política obrera del cardenismo. Mexico City: Era 1975.
Benítez, Fernando. Lázaro Cárdenas y la revolución mexicana, vol. 3 Historia de la revolución mexicana. Colegio de México 1978.
Córdova, Arnaldo. La política de masas del cardenismo. Mexico City: Era 1974.
Gilly, Adolfo. El cardenismo, una utopía mexicana. Mexico City: Cal y Arena 1994.
González, Luis. Los Artífices del Cardenismo: Historia de la Revolución Mexicana. vol. 14. Mexico City: El Colegio de México 1979.
Hernández Chávez, Alicia. La mecánica cardenista: Histora de la Revolución Mexicana. vol. 16. Mexico City: Colegio de México 1979.
Krauze, Enrique. Lázaro Cárdenas: General misionero. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económico 1987.
Lanni, Octavio. El estado capitalista en la época de Cárdenas. Mexico 1977.
León, Samuel and Ignacio Marván. En el cardenismo (1934–1940). Mexico 1985.
Medin, Tzvi. Ideología y praxis política de Lázaro Cárdenas. Mexico City: Siglo XXI 1972, 13th edition 1986.
Suárez Valles, Manuel. Lázaro Cárdenas: una vida fecunda al servicio de México (Mexico City, 1971).
Viscaíno, Rogelio. Cárdenas y la izquierda mexicana. Mexico 1975.
External links
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead%20Can%20Dance
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Dead Can Dance
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Dead Can Dance is a British and Australian music duo first established in Melbourne. Currently composed of Lisa Gerrard and Brendan Perry, the group formed in 1981. They relocated to London the following year. Australian music historian Ian McFarlane described Dead Can Dance's style as "constructed soundscapes of mesmerising grandeur and solemn beauty; African polyrhythms, Gaelic folk, Gregorian chant, Middle Eastern music, mantras, and art rock."
Having disbanded in 1998, they reunited briefly in 2005 for a world tour and reformed in 2011 when they released and toured a new album, Anastasis. They released a new album in 2018 called Dionysus and are touring again as of mid-2019.
Career
Formation and early years
Dead Can Dance was formed in Melbourne, Australia, in August 1981 with Paul Erikson on bass guitar, Lisa Gerrard (ex-Microfilm) on vocals and percussion, Simon Monroe (Marching Girls) on drums and Brendan Perry (also of Marching Girls) on vocals and guitar. Gerrard and Perry were a couple who met as members of Melbourne's Little Band scene. In May 1982, the band left Melbourne in Australia and moved to London, England, where they signed with alternative rock label 4AD. With the duo, the initial United Kingdom line-up were Paul Erikson and Peter Ulrich.
The group's debut album, Dead Can Dance, was released in February 1984. The artwork, which depicts a ritual mask from New Guinea, "provide[s] a visual reinterpretation of the meaning of the name Dead Can Dance", set in a faux Greek typeface. The album featured "drum-driven, ambient guitar music with chanting, singing and howling", and fit in with the ethereal wave style of label mates Cocteau Twins. They followed with a four-track extended play, Garden of the Arcane Delights in August. AllMusic described their early work as "as goth as it gets" (despite the group themselves rejecting the label), while the EP saw them "plunging into a wider range of music and style".
For their second album, Spleen and Ideal, the group comprised the core duo of Gerrard and Perry with cello, trombone and tympani added in by session musicians. Released in November 1985, it was co-produced by the duo and John A. Rivers. Raggett describes it as "a consciously medieval European sound [...] like it was recorded in an immense cathedral". The group built a following in Europe, and the album reached No. 2 on the UK indie charts. In 1989, Gerrard and Perry separated domestically – Gerrard moved to Barcelona before returning to Australia and Perry moved to Ireland – but still wrote, recorded and performed as Dead Can Dance.
Success
Dead Can Dance's albums were not widely available until the early 1990s, when 4AD made a distribution deal with Warner Bros. Records. Later, 4AD allied itself with the Beggars Banquet Records Group, which included that eponymous label and XL Recordings in the US, but the band's recordings remained distributed through Warner Bros. Subsequent releases, however, were licensed to Rhino/Atlantic Records, a sister label within Warner Music. Its 1991 compilation A Passage in Time remains with 4AD independently of the Rhino and Warner Bros. deals; it was initially only released in the US.
The duo's sixth studio album, Into the Labyrinth, was issued in September 1993 and dispensed with guest musicians entirely; it sold 500,000 copies worldwide and appeared in the Billboard 200. The band became 4AD's highest-selling act. They followed with a world tour in 1994 and recorded a live performance in California which was released as Toward the Within, with video versions on Laserdisc and VHS (later on DVD). Many unofficial bootlegs of concerts spanning its career exist, containing several rare songs that were only performed live. Toward the Within is the duo's first official live album, which reached the Billboard 200 and was followed by In Concert 19 years later. Gerrard released her debut solo recording, The Mirror Pool, and reunited with Perry on the Dead Can Dance studio album Spiritchaser in 1996. The album also charted on Billboard 200 and reached No. 1 on the Top World Music Albums Chart.
Disbandment and reunions
In 1998, Dead Can Dance began recording a follow-up album to Spiritchaser, which was due to be released in early 1999 followed by a planned world tour. However, they separated before it was completed and canceled the tour. One song from the recording sessions, "The Lotus Eaters", was eventually released on the box set Dead Can Dance (1981-1998) and on the two-disc compilation Wake (2003). Gerrard teamed with Pieter Bourke (Snog, Soma) to issue Duality in April 1998. Perry released Eye of the Hunter in October 1999.
Dead Can Dance reunited in 2005 and released limited-edition recordings of thirteen shows from its European tour and eight recordings from the subsequent North American tour, as well as a compilation titled Selections from Europe 2005. These concerts were recorded and released on The Show record label. In 2005, the song "Nierika" became part of the opening titles for Mexican television station TV Azteca's soap opera La Chacala.
On 12 May 2011 Brendan Perry announced on his official web forum that Dead Can Dance would record a new album and then embark on two-month world tour. The band made a formal announcement about its world tour and new album, Anastasis, for a release date of 13 August 2012.
On 30 September 2011, Dead Can Dance announced the release of a four track EP entitled Live Happenings – Part 1 available for free download from their website. Since December, the EP Live Happenings – Part 2 replaced the first EP. Both EPs contain songs from their 2005 Tour. Since 31 January 2012, the EP available was Live Happenings – Part 3, to be replaced by Live Happenings – Part IV on 20 March 2012.
In late 2011, the band announced a reunion world tour, including 12 US cities, to be accompanied by the release of a live album on a new label. The tour was scheduled to begin on 9 August 2012 in Canada and continue until 19 September 2012 in Turkey, 21 and 23 September in Greece, 13 October in Russia, then 28 October 2012 in Ireland, then Mexico and South America and then in Lebanon and finally Australia in February 2013. On 15 November 2012 it was announced that the band would be returning to Europe to continue its tour, starting on 28 May 2013 in Portugal. The final show of the Anastasis World Tour was in Santiago, Chile, on 13 July 2013.
On 8 September 2015, the band announced the sale of Brendan Perry's Quivvy Church Studio. When asked what this decision meant for the future of Dead Can Dance, Perry responded on the band's official Facebook page that the band has relocated to France and that they are in the process of fabricating a new recording and rehearsal studio.
On 21 April 2018, Perry announced mastering of a new album would be commencing at Abbey Road Studios. The new album, Dionysus, was released on 2 November 2018.
In September 2018, their website announced "A Celebration – Life & Works 1980-2019" tour with dates in Europe in May and June 2019. In contrast to previous tours, the setlist drew heavily from the band's older catalogue, featuring some songs the band had never before played live. In October 2019, the band announced a second leg of the tour with dates in North America, Mexico and South America. However, the tour was postponed to Spring 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Discography
Studio albums
Dead Can Dance (1984)
Spleen and Ideal (1985)
Within the Realm of a Dying Sun (1987)
The Serpent's Egg (1988)
Aion (1990)
Into the Labyrinth (1993)
Spiritchaser (1996)
Anastasis (2012)
Dionysus (2018)
Awards and nominations
Australian Music Prize
The Australian Music Prize (the AMP) is an annual award of $30,000 given to an Australian band or solo artist in recognition of the merit of an album released during the year of award. The commenced in 2005.
|-
| 2018
| Hope Downs
| Australian Music Prize
|
|-
See also
List of ambient music artists
References
External links
Dead Can Dance interviews from the Echoes public radio show
4AD artists
PIAS Recordings artists
Musical groups established in 1981
Musical groups disestablished in 1998
Victoria (Australia) musical groups
Australian musical duos
Australian world music groups
Australian gothic rock groups
Australian post-punk groups
Dream pop musical groups
Neoclassical dark wave musical groups
Neofolk music groups
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuauht%C3%A9moc%20C%C3%A1rdenas
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Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas
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Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas Solórzano (; born 1 May 1934) is a prominent Mexican politician. He is a former Head of Government of Mexico City and a founder of the Party of the Democratic Revolution. He ran for the presidency of Mexico three times. His 1988 loss to the Institutional Revolutionary Party candidate Carlos Salinas de Gortari had long been considered a direct result of obvious electoral fraud, later acknowledged by President Miguel de la Madrid. He previously served as a Senator, having been elected in 1976 to represent the state of Michoacán and also as the Governor of Michoacán from 1980 to 1986.
Early life and career
Cárdenas Solórzano was born in Mexico City on 1 May 1934 and was named after the last Aztec emperor, Cuauhtémoc. He is the only son of Lázaro Cárdenas and Amalia Solórzano. When he was seven months old, his father was inaugurated as President of Mexico. He studied at Colegio Williams, an all-boys private, secular English-language school that has a rigorous academic curriculum. The school is located in the old mansion of Porfirio Díaz's finance minister, José Yves Limantour. An alumnus described the education there as cultivating "the body as a source of energy and fighting. It was an energy destined to produce active, intelligent animals of prey. [The school] worshiped manly virtues like tenacity, strength, loyalty and aggression."
Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas often served as his father's aide-de-camp in later years, when the former president remained a powerful political figure. Lázaro Cárdenas remained active in Institutional Revolutionary Party politics, and, with son Cuauhtémoc, tried to move the party to a more leftist stance. Both were active in the Movimiento de Liberación Nacional (MLN, Movement for National Liberation), which sought international support for Cuba following its 1959 revolution, as well as to affect domestic politics in Mexico, particularly the need for democracy in the PRI and decentralization of power.
Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas served as a senator for the state of Michoacán from 1974 to 1980 and as governor of that same state from 1980 to 1986. He won election to these two posts as a member of the then-ruling Institutional Revolutionary Party.
When President Miguel de la Madrid, a centrist who began policy changes in Mexico that liberalized its economy, designated his presidential successor as Carlos Salinas de Gortari, another technocrat with centre-right tendencies, leftist and other elements within the PRI formed a "democratic current." They demanded democracy and a return to a more moderate, anti-privatization stance by the PRI. Cárdenas and Porfirio Muñoz Ledo led this current. There was an informal rule within the PRI called "el dedazo," the incumbent president's unwritten and exclusive right to designate his successor. (The expression was a reference to the action of pointing with a finger to the successor.) With the designation of Salinas as the official candidate, the democratic current were forced out of the PRI. In an interview with historian Enrique Krauze, De la Madrid said "as far as I'm concerned, let them go! Let them form another party." It was too late to form a new party in advance of the July 1988 elections, but a coalition of small left-wing parties, the Frente Democrático Nacional (National Democratic Front) supported Cárdenas as their candidate.
On 6 July 1988, the day of the elections, a system shutdown of the IBM AS/400 that the government was using to count the votes occurred. The government simply stated that se cayó el sistema ("the system crashed"), to refer to the incident. When the system was finally restored, Carlos Salinas was declared the official winner. The elections became extremely controversial, and even though some declare that Salinas won legally, the expression se cayó el sistema became a colloquial euphemism for electoral fraud. It was the first time in 59 years, from the creation of PRI to that point (1929–1988), that the winning of the presidency by that party was in doubt, and the citizens of Mexico realized that PRI could lose. Historian Enrique Krauze's assessment is that "an order from [Cárdenas] would have sent Mexico up in flames. But perhaps in memory of his father, the missionary general, a man of strong convictions but not a man of violence, he did the country a great service by sparing it a possible civil war."
The following year (5 May 1989), Cárdenas and other leading center-left and leftist PRI politicians, including Francisco Arellano-Belloc, formally founded the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD). He was elected the PRD's first president, running unopposed, and had a huge influence on the Executive Board's composition. The party had the expectation that Cárdenas would make another run for the presidency in 1994 and he was this new party's candidate in the 1994 presidential election. He placed third, trailing the PRI and PAN candidates, with 17% of the national vote. That election year was tumultuous, with the rebellion of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation in Chiapas beginning 1 January, the assassination of the PRI candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio in March, and his replacement as presidential candidate by Ernesto Zedillo. Cárdenas's poor showing at the polls may reflect the Mexican public's desire for stability via the long-time ruling party remaining in office. In the assessment of Enrique Krauze, "the events in Chiapas probably cost the PRD and its candidate, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas—who had no involvement with the Zapatista uprising—the votes of many Mexicans uneasy with the return of the past." Despite the PRD's electoral results, they were part of the 1996 negotiations between the PRI and the conservative National Action Party (PAN) on institutional reform.
In 1995, Cárdenas played a role in the peace negotiations with the Zapatistas. In 1996, the PRD was choosing a new party president, Cárdenas's ally Andrés Manuel López Obrador, who went further and sought a political alliance with the Zapatistas.
In 1997, he was the PRD's candidate for the newly created post of Head of Government (Jefe de Gobierno) of the Federal District – effectively, a role lying somewhere between that of Mexico City's mayor and a state governorship. He won this election, held on 6 July 1997, with a 47.7% share of the popular vote.
He resigned in 1999 (and was succeeded by one of his allies, Rosario Robles), to run for the presidency again in 2000. Cárdenas again placed third with 17% of the vote and the PRI lost the election to Vicente Fox, the candidate of the PAN.
On 25 November 2014, Cárdenas announced that he was leaving the PRD. He had been a longtime senior member of the PRD, and was considered the 'moral leader' of this party. Many in Mexico see his departure from the PRD as a product of the party's internal fighting and mounting identity crisis.
Personal life
Cárdenas Solórzano was reported to test positive for COVID-19 on 12 September 2020.
Further reading
Aguilar Zinser, Adolfo. Vamos a ganar! La pugna de Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas por el poder. Mexico City: Editorial Oceano 1995.
Bruhn, Kathleen. Taking on Goliath: The Emergence of a New Left Party and the Struggle for Democracy in Mexico. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press 1997.
Carr, Barry and Steve Ellner, editors. The Left in Latin America: From the fall of Allende to Perestroika. Boulder CO: Westview Press 1993.
Castañeda, Jorge. Utopia Unarmed: The Latin American Left after the Cold War. New York: Knopf 1993.
Gilly, Adolfo, ed. Cartas a Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas. Mexico City: Era 1989.
Taibo, Paco Ignacio II. Cárdenas de cerca: Una entrevista biográfica. Mexico City: Editorial Planeta 1994.
References
External links
PBS: Charles Krause interviews Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas
Biography on Televisa's website.
Government of the Mexican Federal District: Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas.
Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas Solórzano, A progressive proposal.
https://web.archive.org/web/20141208150646/http://www.laprensasa.com/309_america-in-english/2814492_cuauhtemoc-cardenas-leaves-mexico-s-prd.html
|-
|-
1935 births
Living people
People from Mexico City
Mexican democracy activists
Governors of Michoacán
Heads of Government of Mexico City
Mexican engineers
Candidates in the 1988 Mexican presidential election
Candidates in the 1994 Mexican presidential election
Candidates in the 2000 Mexican presidential election
Members of the Senate of the Republic (Mexico)
Mexican people of Basque descent
Presidents of the Party of the Democratic Revolution
National Autonomous University of Mexico alumni
Recipients of the Order of the Liberator General San Martin
Institutional Revolutionary Party politicians
Children of presidents of Mexico
Mexican social democrats
20th-century Mexican politicians
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gail%20Russell
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Gail Russell
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Gail Russell (born Betty Gale Russell; September 21, 1924 – August 26, 1961) was an American film and television actress.
Early years
Gail Russell was born to George and Gladys (Barnet) Russell in Chicago and then moved to the Los Angeles area when she was a teenager. Her father was initially a musician but later worked for Lockheed Corporation. Before she ventured into acting, she had planned to be a commercial artist. Her beauty saw her dubbed "the Hedy Lamarr of Santa Monica."
Career and life
Russell's beauty brought her to the attention of Paramount Pictures in 1942, and she signed a long-term contract with that studio when she was 18. Although she was almost clinically shy and had no acting experience, Paramount had great expectations for her and employed an acting coach to work with her.
She later said, "suddenly there was this terrific amount of work for myself and no time to myself. It was that way for ten years."
At the age of 19 she made her film debut in the 1943 film Henry Aldrich Gets Glamour. She also had a small part in Lady in the Dark (1943) and was meant to play a role in Henry Aldrich Haunts a House when, in March 1943, she was cast in a key role in The Uninvited (1944) with Ray Milland. Joan Mortimer played her role in Henry Aldrich instead.
Stardom
The Uninvited was directed by Lewis Allen and was a big success. Producer Charles Brackett wrote that filming with Russell proved difficult; he said that she would cry on set with her mother, claiming she had a sore throat, but in fact, Russell was crying because Director Lewis Allen had made her wear a hat for a scene which she did not want to wear. Allen said that Ray Milland would take Russell aside and continuously practice her lines with her. Allen also said, "She could only do about five or six lines, and then she'd burst into tears." According to Allen, Russell, who had not drunk alcohol before, began drinking it to calm herself at the suggestion of the head of make-up on set.
According to the National Box Office Digest, it was among the highest-grossing pictures in the United States with rentals of over $500,000. A delighted Paramount announced Russell for Her Heart in her Throat and True to the Navy with Eddie Bracken.
Allen directed Russell in Our Hearts Were Young and Gay (1944), in which she co-starred with Diana Lynn. It was another success.
Russell co-starred opposite Alan Ladd in Salty O'Rourke (1945), a horse racing drama.
Her Heart in Her Throat became the third film Russell made with Allen, The Unseen (1945), an unofficial follow up to The Uninvited. True to the Navy became Bring On the Girls; Russell did not appear in that film.
Then she and Lynn were in Our Hearts Were Growing Up (1946), a sequel to Our Hearts Were Young and Gay. Paramount announced her as the female lead in The Virginian (1946) but she did not appear in the final movie.
She was reunited with Ladd in Calcutta (1947), shot in 1945 but not released until two years later. She made a cameo as herself in two all-star Paramount films, Duffy's Tavern (1945) and Variety Girl (1947).
Loan-outs
Russell was borrowed by Andrew Stone for The Bachelor's Daughters (1946) at United Artists.
Republic Pictures borrowed her to be John Wayne's leading lady in a film Wayne was producing, Angel and the Badman (1948). Also at Republic she did Moonrise (1948) for Frank Borzage.
Russell returned to Paramount for Night Has a Thousand Eyes (1948), directed by John Farrow, who had made Calcutta. She reteamed with Wayne at Republic for Wake of the Red Witch (1948), which was a hit.
She appeared in a Western with John Payne for Pine-Thomas Productions, a production outfit who released through Paramount, El Paso (1949). Pine-Thomas normally made lower-budgeted films but El Paso was made on a bigger scale.
Russell did Song of India (1949) for Columbia and The Great Dan Patch (1949) for United Artists.
Russell married actor Guy Madison on 1 August 1949. They separated in less than six months but later reunited, then separated in 1953, and divorced in 1954.
She made some more Pine-Thomas films: Captain China (1950) with Payne, and The Lawless (1951) with Macdonald Carey directed by Joseph Losey.
By 1950 it was well known that she had become a victim of alcoholism. According to Yvonne de Carlo, actress Helen Walker took Russell "under her wing and introduced her to the tranquilizing benefits of vodka" when they were Paramount contractees together. Russell was already drinking on set by her third film, 1944's The Uninvited, to ease her paralyzing stage fright and lack of confidence. Paramount did not renew her contract.
She made Air Cadet (1951) for Universal then did not act for a number of years.
Legal troubles
In 1953 John Wayne's then-wife claimed during her divorce proceedings that Wayne and Russell had spent the night together. Wayne and Russell denied this.
In November 1953 she was held in jail overnight after being arrested for drunk driving. The following month she and Madison separated permanently.
In January 1954, in a court in Santa Monica, California, Russell pleaded guilty to a charge of drunkenness, receiving a $150 fine (). The fine was in lieu of a jail sentence, with the provision that she not use intoxicants or attend night spots for two years. In the same court session, she received a continuance on a charge of driving while drunk.
She sued Madison for divorce in May 1954. The divorce was finalized in October 1954. During the court proceedings Madison claimed that Russell would never do any housework and would not allow visitors or servants in the house.
In October 1954 she was admitted to a hospital in a coma after an attack of hepatitis.
In February 1955 she hit another car containing a couple and their baby while driving. She was fined $50. The couple later sued her for $30,000 () and settled out of court.
Comeback
Russell returned to work in a co-starring role with Randolph Scott in the western Seven Men from Now (1956), produced by her friend Wayne and directed by Budd Boetticher. The film and Russell's performance were lauded and she seemed poised to make a comeback.
Russell was expected to follow Seven Men from Now with Madame Courage, again with Boetticher as director, but the film was never made.
Instead Russell appeared in an episode of Studio 57 and had a substantial role in The Tattered Dress (1957).
In April 1957 she was found unconscious on the floor at her home.
On July 5, 1957, she was photographed by a Los Angeles Times photographer after she drove her convertible into the front of Jan's Coffee Shop at 8424 Beverly Boulevard, injuring a janitor. After failing a sobriety test, Russell was arrested and charged with driving under the influence. The janitor sued her for $75,000. She failed to appear at a court appearance and was discovered at home passed out due to drinking. She was fined $420, given a 30-day suspended sentence and put on three years' probation.
She appeared in No Place to Land (1958) for Republic.
She had roles in episodes of The Rebel and Manhunt. "I guess there are still a lot of doubts about me", she said in April 1960. "And this is one of the reasons why I want to get back to the business to prove to people I can do a picture. I'm stronger now. The future looks pretty good."
In November 1960 she was announced for a film with Mark Stevens and George Raft called Cause of Death but it appears to have not been made. She was top billed in her last film, the low-budget The Silent Call (1961).
Death
Russell moved to a small house where she lived alone. She would periodically try to stop drinking then start again. On one occasion she was hospitalized. On August 26, 1961, Russell was found dead in her apartment in Brentwood, Los Angeles, California, at the age of 36. She was found by two neighbors who were concerned they had not seen her for several days. An empty vodka bottle was by her side, and the house was full of empty bottles.
She died from liver damage attributed to "acute and chronic alcoholism" with aspiration of stomach contents as an additional cause. She was also found to have been suffering from malnutrition at the time of her death. She was buried in Valhalla Memorial Park Cemetery in North Hollywood.
Filmography
Television appearances
Radio appearances
References
External links
Actresses from Chicago
Alcohol-related deaths in California
American film actresses
American television actresses
Burials at Valhalla Memorial Park Cemetery
1924 births
1961 deaths
Paramount Pictures contract players
20th-century American actresses
People from Brentwood, Los Angeles
California Democrats
Illinois Democrats
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211600
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Sweden-related%20topics
|
List of Sweden-related topics
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This is a list of topics related to Sweden.
Those interested in the subject can monitor changes to the pages by clicking on Related changes in the sidebar.
Main articles
Sweden, a country in Europe
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Coat of Arms of Sweden
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Demographics of Sweden
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Lists
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Articles
Company mortgage (Sweden)
Economy of Sweden
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Education in Sweden
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Lists
List of Swedish noble families
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Swedish nobility
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Lists
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Politics of Sweden
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Swedish welfare/Social security in Sweden
Constitution of Sweden
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Riksdag (the Parliament of Sweden)
Elections in Sweden
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Sveriges Riksbank
Healthcare
Lists
List of hospitals in Sweden
Articles
Healthcare in Sweden
Abortion in Sweden
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History
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History of Sweden
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Articles
Sport in Sweden
See also
Swedish (disambiguation)
Sweden
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden-variable%20theory
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Hidden-variable theory
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In physics, hidden-variable theories are proposals to provide explanations of quantum mechanical phenomena through the introduction of unobservable hypothetical entities. The existence of fundamental indeterminacy for some measurements is assumed as part of the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics; moreover, bounds for indeterminacy can be expressed in a quantitative form by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Most hidden-variable theories are attempts at a deterministic description of quantum mechanics, to avoid quantum indeterminacy, but at the expense of requiring the existence of nonlocal interactions.
Albert Einstein objected to the fundamentally non-local nature of quantum mechanics, and famously declared "I am convinced God does not play dice". Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen argued by assuming local causality that quantum mechanics is an incomplete description of reality. Bell's theorem would later suggest that local hidden variables (a way for finding a complete description of reality) of certain types are impossible.
A famous non-local theory is the De Broglie–Bohm theory.
Motivation
Per its mathematical formulation, quantum mechanics is non-deterministic, meaning that it generally does not predict the outcome of any measurement with certainty. Instead, it indicates what the probabilities of the outcomes are, with the indeterminism of observable quantities constrained by the uncertainty principle. The question arises whether there might be some deeper reality hidden beneath quantum mechanics, to be described by a more fundamental theory that can always predict the outcome of each measurement with certainty: if the exact properties of every subatomic particle were known the entire system could be modeled exactly using deterministic physics similar to classical physics.
In other words, it is conceivable that quantum mechanics is an incomplete description of nature. The designation of variables as underlying "hidden" variables depends on the level of physical description (so, for example, "if a gas is described in terms of temperature, pressure, and volume, then the velocities of the individual atoms in the gas would be hidden variables"). Physicists supporting De Broglie–Bohm theory maintain that underlying the observed probabilistic nature of the universe is a deterministic objective foundation/property—the hidden variable. Others, however, believe that there is no deeper deterministic reality in quantum mechanics.
A lack of a kind of realism (understood here as asserting independent existence and evolution of physical quantities, such as position or momentum, without the process of measurement) is crucial in the Copenhagen interpretation. Realistic interpretations (which were already incorporated, to an extent, into the physics of Feynman), on the other hand, assume that particles have certain trajectories. Under such view, these trajectories will almost always be continuous, which follows both from the finitude of the perceived speed of light ("leaps" should rather be precluded) and, more importantly, from the principle of least action, as deduced in quantum physics by Dirac. But continuous movement, in accordance with the mathematical definition, implies deterministic movement for a range of time arguments; and thus realism is, under modern physics, one more reason for seeking (at least certain limited) determinism and thus a hidden-variable theory (especially that such theory exists: see De Broglie–Bohm interpretation).
Although determinism was initially a major motivation for physicists looking for hidden-variable theories, non-deterministic theories trying to explain what the supposed reality underlying the quantum mechanics formalism looks like are also considered hidden-variable theories; for example Edward Nelson's stochastic mechanics.
"God does not play dice"
In June 1926, Max Born published a paper, "Zur Quantenmechanik der Stoßvorgänge" ("Quantum Mechanics of Collision Phenomena") in the scientific journal Zeitschrift für Physik, in which he was the first to clearly enunciate the probabilistic interpretation of the quantum wave function, which had been introduced by Erwin Schrödinger earlier in the year. Born concluded the paper as follows:
Here the whole problem of determinism comes up. From the standpoint of our quantum mechanics there is no quantity which in any individual case causally fixes the consequence of the collision; but also experimentally we have so far no reason to believe that there are some inner properties of the atom which conditions a definite outcome for the collision. Ought we to hope later to discover such properties ... and determine them in individual cases? Or ought we to believe that the agreement of theory and experiment—as to the impossibility of prescribing conditions for a causal evolution—is a pre-established harmony founded on the nonexistence of such conditions? I myself am inclined to give up determinism in the world of atoms. But that is a philosophical question for which physical arguments alone are not decisive.
Born's interpretation of the wave function was criticized by Schrödinger, who had previously attempted to interpret it in real physical terms, but Albert Einstein's response became one of the earliest and most famous assertions that quantum mechanics is incomplete:
Quantum mechanics is very worthy of respect. But an inner voice tells me this is not the genuine article after all. The theory delivers much but it hardly brings us closer to the Old One's secret. In any event, I am convinced that He is not playing dice.
Niels Bohr reportedly replied to Einstein's later expression of this sentiment by advising him to "stop telling God what to do."
Early attempts at hidden-variable theories
Shortly after making his famous "God does not play dice" comment, Einstein attempted to formulate a deterministic counter proposal to quantum mechanics, presenting a paper at a meeting of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin, on 5 May 1927, titled "Bestimmt Schrödinger's Wellenmechanik die Bewegung eines Systems vollständig oder nur im Sinne der Statistik?" ("Does Schrödinger's wave mechanics determine the motion of a system completely or only in the statistical sense?"). However, as the paper was being prepared for publication in the academy's journal, Einstein decided to withdraw it, possibly because he discovered that, contrary to his intention, it implied non-separability of entangled systems, which he regarded as absurd.
At the Fifth Solvay Congress, held in Belgium in October 1927 and attended by all the major theoretical physicists of the era, Louis de Broglie presented his own version of a deterministic hidden-variable theory, apparently unaware of Einstein's aborted attempt earlier in the year. In his theory, every particle had an associated, hidden "pilot wave" which served to guide its trajectory through space. The theory was subject to criticism at the Congress, particularly by Wolfgang Pauli, which de Broglie did not adequately answer. De Broglie abandoned the theory shortly thereafter.
Declaration of completeness of quantum mechanics, and the Bohr–Einstein debates
Also at the Fifth Solvay Congress, Max Born and Werner Heisenberg made a presentation summarizing the recent tremendous theoretical development of quantum mechanics. At the conclusion of the presentation, they declared:
[W]hile we consider ... a quantum mechanical treatment of the electromagnetic field ... as not yet finished, we consider quantum mechanics to be a closed theory, whose fundamental physical and mathematical assumptions are no longer susceptible of any modification....
On the question of the 'validity of the law of causality' we have this opinion: as long as one takes into account only experiments that lie in the domain of our currently acquired physical and quantum mechanical experience, the assumption of indeterminism in principle, here taken as fundamental, agrees with experience.
Although there is no record of Einstein responding to Born and Heisenberg during the technical sessions of the Fifth Solvay Congress, he did challenge the completeness of quantum mechanics during informal discussions over meals, presenting a thought experiment intended to demonstrate that quantum mechanics could not be entirely correct. He did likewise during the Sixth Solvay Congress held in 1930. Both times, Niels Bohr is generally considered to have successfully defended quantum mechanics by discovering errors in Einstein's arguments.
EPR paradox
The debates between Bohr and Einstein essentially concluded in 1935, when Einstein finally expressed what is widely considered his best argument against the completeness of quantum mechanics. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen had proposed their definition of a "complete" description as one that uniquely determines the values of all its measurable properties. Einstein later summarized their argument as follows:
Consider a mechanical system consisting of two partial systems A and B which interact with each other only during a limited time. Let the ψ function [i.e., wavefunction] before their interaction be given. Then the Schrödinger equation will furnish the ψ function after the interaction has taken place. Let us now determine the physical state of the partial system A as completely as possible by measurements. Then quantum mechanics allows us to determine the ψ function of the partial system B from the measurements made, and from the ψ function of the total system. This determination, however, gives a result which depends upon which of the physical quantities (observables) of A have been measured (for instance, coordinates or momenta). Since there can be only one physical state of B after the interaction which cannot reasonably be considered to depend on the particular measurement we perform on the system A separated from B it may be concluded that the ψ function is not unambiguously coordinated to the physical state. This coordination of several ψ functions to the same physical state of system B shows again that the ψ function cannot be interpreted as a (complete) description of a physical state of a single system.
Bohr answered Einstein's challenge as follows:
[The argument of] Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen contains an ambiguity as regards the meaning of the expression "without in any way disturbing a system." ... [E]ven at this stage [i.e., the measurement of, for example, a particle that is part of an entangled pair], there is essentially the question of an influence on the very conditions which define the possible types of predictions regarding the future behavior of the system. Since these conditions constitute an inherent element of the description of any phenomenon to which the term "physical reality" can be properly attached, we see that the argumentation of the mentioned authors does not justify their conclusion that quantum-mechanical description is essentially incomplete."
Bohr is here choosing to define a "physical reality" as limited to a phenomenon that is immediately observable by an arbitrarily chosen and explicitly specified technique, using his own special definition of the term 'phenomenon'. He wrote in 1948:
As a more appropriate way of expression, one may strongly advocate limitation of the use of the word phenomenon to refer exclusively to observations obtained under specified circumstances, including an account of the whole experiment."Rosenfeld, L. (). 'Niels Bohr's contribution to epistemology', pp. 522–535 in Selected Papers of Léon Rosenfeld, Cohen, R.S., Stachel, J.J. (editors), D. Riedel, Dordrecht, , p. 531: "Moreover, the complete definition of the phenomenon must essentially contain the indication of some permanent mark left upon a recording device which is part of the apparatus; only by thus envisaging the phenomenon as a closed event, terminated by a permanent record, can we do justice to the typical wholeness of the quantal processes."
This was, of course, in conflict with the definition used by the EPR paper, as follows:
If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty (i.e., with probability equal to unity) the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an element of physical reality corresponding to this physical quantity. [Italics in original]
Bell's theorem
In 1964, John Bell showed through his famous theorem that if local hidden variables exist, certain experiments could be performed involving quantum entanglement where the result would satisfy a Bell inequality. If, on the other hand, statistical correlations resulting from quantum entanglement could not be explained by local hidden variables, the Bell inequality would be violated. Another no-go theorem concerning hidden-variable theories is the Kochen–Specker theorem.
Physicists such as Alain Aspect and Paul Kwiat have performed experiments that have found violations of these inequalities up to 242 standard deviations. This rules out local hidden-variable theories, but does not rule out non-local ones. Theoretically, there could be experimental problems that affect the validity of the experimental findings.
Gerard 't Hooft has disputed the validity of Bell's theorem on the basis of the superdeterminism loophole and proposed some ideas to construct local deterministic models.
Bohm's hidden-variable theory
Assuming the validity of Bell's theorem, any deterministic hidden-variable theory that is consistent with quantum mechanics would have to be non-local, maintaining the existence of instantaneous or faster-than-light relations (correlations) between physically separated entities. The currently best-known hidden-variable theory, the "causal" interpretation of the physicist and philosopher David Bohm, originally published in 1952, is a non-local hidden-variable theory. Bohm unknowingly rediscovered (and extended) the idea that Louis de Broglie had proposed in 1927 (and abandoned) – hence this theory is commonly called "de Broglie-Bohm theory". Bohm posited both the quantum particle, e.g. an electron, and a hidden 'guiding wave' that governs its motion. Thus, in this theory electrons are quite clearly particles—when a double-slit experiment is performed, its trajectory goes through one slit rather than the other. Also, the slit passed through is not random but is governed by the (hidden) guiding wave, resulting in the wave pattern that is observed. Since the location where the particles start in the double-slit experiment is unknown, the initial position of the particle is the hidden variable.
Such a view does not contradict the idea of local events that is used in both classical atomism and relativity theory as Bohm's theory (and quantum mechanics) are still locally causal (that is, information travel is still restricted to the speed of light) but allow non-local correlations. It points to a view of a more holistic, mutually interpenetrating and interacting world. Indeed, Bohm himself stressed the holistic aspect of quantum theory in his later years, when he became interested in the ideas of Jiddu Krishnamurti.
In Bohm's interpretation, the (non-local) quantum potential constitutes an implicate (hidden) order which organizes a particle, and which may itself be the result of yet a further implicate order: a superimplicate order which organizes a field. Nowadays Bohm's theory is considered to be one of many interpretations of quantum mechanics which give a realist interpretation, and not merely a positivistic one, to quantum-mechanical calculations. Some consider it the simplest theory to explain quantum phenomena. Nevertheless, it is a hidden-variable theory, and necessarily so. The major reference for Bohm's theory today is his book with Basil Hiley, published posthumously.
A possible weakness of Bohm's theory is that some (including Einstein, Pauli, and Heisenberg) feel that it looks contrived. (Indeed, Bohm thought this of his original formulation of the theory.) It was deliberately designed to give predictions that are in all details identical to conventional quantum mechanics. Bohm's original aim was not to make a serious counter proposal but simply to demonstrate that hidden-variable theories are indeed possible. (It thus provided a supposed counterexample to the famous proof by John von Neumann that was generally believed to demonstrate that no deterministic theory reproducing the statistical predictions of quantum mechanics is possible.) Bohm said he considered his theory to be unacceptable as a physical theory due to the guiding wave's existence in an abstract multi-dimensional configuration space, rather than three-dimensional space. His hope was that the theory would lead to new insights and experiments that would lead ultimately to an acceptable one; his aim was not to set out a deterministic, mechanical viewpoint, but rather to show that it was possible to attribute properties to an underlying reality, in contrast to the conventional approach to quantum mechanics.
Recent developments
In August 2011, Roger Colbeck and Renato Renner published a proof that any extension of quantum mechanical theory, whether using hidden variables or otherwise, cannot provide a more accurate prediction of outcomes, assuming that observers can freely choose the measurement settings. Colbeck and Renner write: "In the present work, we have ... excluded the possibility that any extension of quantum theory (not necessarily in the form of local hidden variables) can help predict the outcomes of any measurement on any quantum state. In this sense, we show the following: under the assumption that measurement settings can be chosen freely, quantum theory really is complete".
In January 2013, Giancarlo Ghirardi and Raffaele Romano described a model which, "under a different free choice assumption [...] violates [the statement by Colbeck and Renner] for almost all states of a bipartite two-level system, in a possibly experimentally testable way".
See also
Local hidden-variable theory
Bell's theorem
Bell test experiments
Einstein's thought experiments
Quantum mechanics
Bohm interpretation
Spekkens toy model
Grete Hermann
References
Bibliography
Reprinted in
(An updated version of Physics Today, 44:36–44 (1991) article)
External links
The David Bohm Society
Quantum measurement
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211604
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biberach%20%28district%29
|
Biberach (district)
|
Biberach () is a Landkreis (district) in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is bounded by (from the south and clockwise) the districts of Ravensburg, Sigmaringen, Reutlingen and Alb-Donau, and the Bavarian districts Neu-Ulm, Unterallgäu and the district-free city Memmingen. The major towns in the district of Biberach are Biberach an der Riss, Riedlingen, Ochsenhausen and Laupheim.
Geography
The district consists of hilly countryside between the rivers of the Danube and the Iller. The Danube crosses the district in its westernmost part from south to north. The Iller forms the eastern border of the district. Another river is the Riss, an affluent of the Danube crossing the district from south to north.
The Federsee is a small lake in the southwest of the district. Its area is only 1.4 km², but it is famous for Neolithic findings and rare birds.
Media
The local newspaper is the Schwäbische Zeitung ("Swabian Newspaper"). Biberach has also a film festival for German films which celebrated its 31st anniversary in 2009.
Coat of arms
The imperial eagle symbolizes the imperial city of Biberach. Originally the coat of arms of the city showed an eagle as well as a beaver as a canting symbol. In 1488 the coat of arms of the city was changed to show only the beaver. The crosier symbolises the monasteries of the region.
Cities and towns
References
External links
Official website of the district of Biberach (German)
Federsee Neolithic Museum (German, English)
Federsee Nature Reserve (German)
Tübingen (region)
Districts of Baden-Württemberg
|
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211607
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climax
|
Climax
|
Climax may refer to:
Language arts
Climax (narrative), the point of highest tension in a narrative work
Climax (rhetoric), a figure of speech that lists items in order of importance
Biology
Climax community, a biological community that has reached a steady state because the life there is best adapted to the area
Climax vegetation, the vegetation that establishes itself after a long absence of humans
Climax (sexual), another expression for orgasm
Climax (beetle), a genus of beetles
Film and television
The Climax, a 1944 film
Climax (1965 film), a 1965 Norwegian drama film
Climax!, a 1950s American television series
Climax (2013 film), a 2013 Indian biographical film
Climax (2018 film), a 2018 French-Belgian horror film
Music
Climax (band), a 1970s American rock band best known for their soft rock hit "Precious and Few"
Climax Blues Band, a British blues-based rock band formed in 1968
Climax (La'Mule album), 2001
Climax (Ohio Players album), by American band The Ohio Players
Climax (Plan B album), 2018
"Climax" (Usher song), a 2012 song by singer Usher
"Climax", a 2000 song by hip hop group Slum Village
"Climax", a song by Susumu Hirasawa from the video game Detonator Orgun 3
Climax, a 2013 album by the Spanish singer Edurne
Clymax, a record label by Bill Haley when he was with Bill Haley & His Comets
Klymaxx, an all-female R&B band
People
John Climacus, 7th-century Christian monk at the monastery on Mount Sinai
Climax Lawrence, Indian footballer
Places
Canada
Climax, Saskatchewan
Turkey
Climax (Paphlagonia), a town of ancient Paphlagonia
United States
Climax, Colorado, an unincorporated mining village and a former post office
Climax, Georgia
Climax, Kansas
Climax, Kentucky
Climax, Michigan
Climax Township, Michigan
Climax, Minnesota
Climax Springs, Missouri
Climax, New York, a hamlet in Greene County
Climax, North Carolina
Climax, Ohio, an unincorporated community
Climax, Oregon, an unincorporated community
Climax, Pennsylvania
Climax, Texas
Climax, Virginia
Transportation
Airborne Climax, a hang glider
Climax locomotive, a geared steam locomotive
Video games
Climax Entertainment, a video game studio based in Japan
Climax Group, a global game development studio
Other uses
Coventry Climax, an engine manufacturer
See also
The Climax (disambiguation)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheingau-Taunus-Kreis
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Rheingau-Taunus-Kreis
|
Rheingau-Taunus is a Kreis (district) in the west of Hesse, Germany. Rheingau-Taunus-Kreis is part of the Darmstadt region; its main administrative seat is Bad Schwalbach. Outposted sections of the local administration are located in Idstein and Rüdesheim am Rhein.
Neighbouring districts are the Hessian districts of Limburg-Weilburg, Hochtaunuskreis, Main-Taunus-Kreis, district-free Wiesbaden and Mainz-Bingen and Rhein-Lahn which are located in Rhineland-Palatinate.
History
From 983 to 1803, the Rheingau area belonged to the Electorate of Mainz and was then merged into the new Duchy of Nassau.
The Untertaunus region was part of the Earldom of Katzenelnbogen. From 1816 onward, the whole area of the district became part of the Duchy of Nassau. After the 1866 Austro-Prussian war, Nassau was annexed by Prussia and formed the new province of Hesse-Nassau.
In 1867, the province was divided into districts. Therefore, the districts of Rheingau and Untertaunus were created.
After the Second World War and the creation of Hesse in 1946, these two districts remained unchanged. Only in 1977, because administrative borders were redrawn, the districts of Rheingau and Untertaunus merged and thus formed the Rheingau-Taunus district.
Geography
The district covers the western part of the Taunus mountains. The river Rhine forms the district's border in the south.
Politics
District council
Recent district elections had the following results:
Coat of arms
The coat of arms combines the coat of arms of the two former districts - in the bottom right the Mainz wheel taken from the Rheingau district, in the top left the lion of Nassau from the former Untertaunuskreis.
Urban entities
Towns
Bad Schwalbach
Eltville
Geisenheim
Idstein
Lorch
Oestrich-Winkel
Rüdesheim
Taunusstein
Municipalities
Aarbergen
Heidenrod
Hohenstein
Hünstetten
Kiedrich
Niedernhausen
Schlangenbad
Waldems
Walluf
References
External links
Official website (in German)
Rheingau Daily Photo Blog
Rheingau
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukui%20Prefecture
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Fukui Prefecture
|
is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūbu region of Honshū. Fukui Prefecture has a population of 778,943 (1 June 2017) and has a geographic area of 4,190 km2 (1,617 sq mi). Fukui Prefecture borders Ishikawa Prefecture to the north, Gifu Prefecture to the east, Shiga Prefecture to the south, and Kyoto Prefecture to the southwest.
Fukui is the capital and largest city of Fukui Prefecture, with other major cities including Sakai, Echizen, and Sabae. Fukui Prefecture is located on the Sea of Japan coast and is part of the historic Hokuriku region of Japan. The Matsudaira clan, a powerful samurai clan during the Edo period that became a component of the Japanese nobility after the Meiji Restoration, was headquartered at Fukui Castle on the site of the modern prefectural offices. Fukui Prefecture is home to the Kitadani Formation, the Ichijōdani Asakura Family Historic Ruins, and the Tōjinbō cliff range.
Prehistory
The Kitadani Dinosaur Quarry, on the Sugiyama River within the city limits of Katsuyama, has yielded animals such As Fukuiraptor, Fukuisaurus, Nipponosaurus, Koshisaurus, Fukuivenator, Fukuititan and Tambatitanis as well as an unnamed dromaeosaurid.
History
Fukui originally consisted of the old provinces of Wakasa and Echizen, before the prefecture was formed in 1871.
During the Edo period, the daimyō of the region was surnamed Matsudaira, and was a descendant of Tokugawa Ieyasu.
During World War II, Fukui was heavily bombed and its palace, Fukui Castle, surrounded by a moat, was demolished. Buildings for the Fukui Prefectural government were built on the site of the castle.
Geography
Fukui faces the Sea of Japan, and has a western part (formerly Wakasa) which is a narrow plain between the mountains and the sea, and a larger eastern part (formerly Echizen) with wider plains including the capital and most of the population. The province lays within Japan's "Snow country".
As of 31 March 2008, 15% of the total land area of the prefecture was designated as Natural Parks, namely the Hakusan National Park; Echizen-Kaga Kaigan and Wakasa Wan Quasi-National Parks; and Okuetsu Kōgen Prefectural Natural Park.
Cities
Nine cities are located in Fukui Prefecture:
Towns
These are the towns in each district:
Mergers
Economy
Sabae is known for producing 90% of Japan's domestically-made glasses.
There are several nuclear power plants located along Wakasa Bay in Tsuruga which supply power to the Keihanshin metropolitan region. It has 14 reactors, the most of any prefecture.
Demographics
Fukui is one of the less populated prefectures of Japan; in September 2015 there were an estimated 785,508 people living in 281,394 households. As seen in most of Japan, Fukui is facing the problem of both an aging and decreasing population; 28.6% of the population were over the age of 65 in July 2015 and the population has decreased 2.6% from the 806,000 measured in the October 2010 national census.
Culture
Ichijōdani Asakura Family Historic Ruins is one of the most important cultural heritage sites in Japan.
Eihei-ji is a temple offering training and education to Buddhist monks. Founded by Dogen Zenji in 1244, Eiheiji is located on a plot of land covering about 33 hectares.
Myōtsū-ji's Three-storied Pagoda and Main Hall are National Treasures of Japan.
Fukui is home to Maruoka Castle, the oldest standing castle in Japan. It was built in 1576.
Many dinosaur fossils have been excavated in Fukui and they can be seen at the Fukui Prefectural Dinosaur Museum.
Residents of Fukui Prefecture have a distinctive accent, Fukui-ben.
Fukui has long been a center for papermaking in Japan (along with Kyoto). Its Echizen Papermaking Cooperative is a world-famous collection of papermakers making paper in the traditional Echizen style.
Fukui is also renowned for its clean water and crops, which result in delicious sake, rice, and soba noodles.
In August 2010 Fukui launched its own dating website entitled Fukui Marriage-Hunting Café in hopes of helping the declining population growth of Japan increase. Couples who meet in the site and continue on to marry receive monetary aid from the government as well as gifts.
Friendship cities
Vihti, Finland
Winsen (Luhe), Germany
Education
University
Fukui University
Fukui University of Technology
Fukui Prefectural University
Jin-ai University
Transportation
Railroad
JR West
Hokuriku Line
Obama Line
Kuzuryu Line
Echizen Railway
Katsuyama-Eiheiji Line
Mikuni-Awara Line
Fukui Railway
Fukubu Line
Road
Expressway and Toll Road
Hokuriku Expressway
Maizuru-Wakasa Expressway
Chubu Jukan Expressway
Mikata Lake Rainbow Road
Mount Hoonji Toll Road
National Highway
Route 8
Route 27
Route 157
Route 158
Route 161
Route 162
Route 303
Route 305
Route 364
Route 365
Route 367
Route 416
Route 417
Route 418
Route 476
Port
Tsuruga Port - Ferry route to Niigata, Akita, Tomakomai, Otaru and International container hub
Fukui Port
Tourism
Ichijōdani Asakura Family Historic Ruins
Eihei-ji Temple
Tōjinbō, a scenic piece of coastline, which is also a notorious spot for suicide.
Echizen crabs are a local delicacy available year-round, though the crabbing season is during the winter.
Another traditional sea-side Fukui dish is genge, a small guppy-like fish that when eaten raw as sashimi, gives the body a brief tingling sensation.
Awara is a famous onsen in the north of the prefecture.
Takefu Chrysanthemum Character Doll Exhibition, held in Takefu Central Park on every October to November, first held on 1952.
Notes
References
Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 58053128
External links
Official Fukui Prefecture homepage
Echizen Papermaking Cooperative
Chūbu region
Prefectures of Japan
Hokuriku region
|
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] |
211615
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20former%20and%20unopened%20London%20Underground%20stations
|
List of former and unopened London Underground stations
|
The London Underground is a public rapid transit system in the United Kingdom that serves a large part of Greater London and adjacent parts of the home counties of Essex, Hertfordshire and Buckinghamshire. It has many closed stations, while other stations were planned but never opened for public use. Some stations were closed down because a scarcity of passengers made them uneconomic; some became redundant after lines were re-routed or replacements were built; and others are no longer served by the Underground but remain open to National Rail main line services. Many stations were planned as parts of new lines or extensions to existing ones but were later abandoned.
Some closed station buildings are still standing, converted for other uses or abandoned, while others have been demolished and their sites redeveloped. A number of stations, while still open, have closed platforms or sections, such as the Jubilee line platforms at Charing Cross. The interiors and platforms of a few closed stations are among parts of the London Underground available for filming purposes, such as those at Aldwych.
Former stations
The following stations were once served by a London Underground line or by one of the organisation's predecessor companies, but are no longer served. Many are permanently closed, but some continue to be served by National Rail main line train operators.
Unopened stations
The following stations were once planned by the London Underground or one of the early independent underground railway companies and were granted parliamentary approval. Subsequent changes of plans or shortages of funds led to these stations being cancelled before they opened, and, in most cases, before any construction work was carried out.
See also
List of London Underground stations – includes previous names for stations
List of closed railway stations in London
List of closed railway stations in Britain
List of fictional rapid transit stations
List of London Underground-related fiction
Ghost stations of other cities:
Ghost stations of the Paris Métro
Ghost stations of Berlin
Disused Barcelona Metro stations
List of closed New York City Subway stations
Notes and references
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
London's Abandoned Tube Stations
Underground-history.co.uk
Clive's Underground Line Guides
London closed
Subterranean London
Lists of railway stations in London
London transport-related lists
|
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] |
211617
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent%20Novello
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Vincent Novello
|
Vincent Novello (6 September 17819 August 1861), English musician, son of an Italian who married an English woman, was born in London. He was a chorister and organist, but he is best known for bringing to England many works now considered major standards, and with his son he created a major publishing house.
Life
As a boy, Novello was a chorister at the Sardinian Embassy Chapel in Duke Street, Lincoln's Inn Fields, where he learnt the organ from Samuel Webbe; and from 1796 to 1822 he became in succession organist of the Sardinian, Spanish (in Manchester Square) and Portuguese (in South Street, Grosvenor Square) chapels, and from 1840 to 1843 of St Mary Moorfields. He taught music privately throughout his career. One of his most notable pupils was musicologist and music critic Edward Holmes. He was an original member of the Philharmonic Society, of the Classical Harmonists and of the Choral Harmonists, officiating frequently as conductor. In 1849 he went to live at Nice, where he died.
Legacy
Many of his compositions were sacred music, much of which was very popular. His great contribution, however, together with Christian Ignatius Latrobe, lay in the introduction to England of unknown compositions by the great masters, such as the Masses of Haydn and Mozart, the works of Palestrina, the treasures of the Fitzwilliam Museum, and innumerable, now well known great compositions. His first work, a collection of Sacred Music, as performed at the Royal Portuguese Chapel, which appeared in 1811, has the additional interest of dating the founding of the publishing firm Novello & Co which carries his name, as he issued the collection from his own house; and he did the same with succeeding works, till his son Joseph Alfred Novello (1810–1896), who had started as a bass singer, became a regular music publisher in 1829.
It was the latter who really created the business, and is credited with introducing cheap music and of departing from the method of publishing by subscription. From 1841 Henry Littleton assisted him, becoming a partner in 1861, when the firm became Novello & Co., and, on J.A. Novello's retirement in 1866, sole proprietor. Having incorporated the firm of Ewer & Co. in 1867, the title was changed to Novello, Ewer & Co., and still later back to Novello & Co., and, on Henry Littleton's death in 1888, his two sons carried on the business.
Novello and his wife, Mary Sabilla (née Hehl), had several children. Four of his daughters (of whom the eldest, Mary (1809–1898), married Charles Cowden Clarke) were gifted singers; but the most famous was Clara Novello (1818–1908), whose soprano voice made her one of the greatest vocalists in opera, as well as in oratorio and on the concert stage, from 1833 onward. In 1843 she married Count Gigliucci, but after a few years returned to her profession, retiring in 1860. Charles Lamb wrote a poem (To Clara N.) in her praise. Five of Vincent Novello's daughters survived to adulthood; his daughter Cecilia married Thomas James Serle, a dramatist, actor, novelist, and editor of a London weekly newspaper.
Notes
References
Hurd, Michael: Vincent Novello and Company (London: Granada, 1981);
Clarke, Mary Cowden: The life and labours of Vincent Novello, 1864, Novello & Co.
External links
1781 births
1861 deaths
19th-century classical composers
19th-century English musicians
English classical composers
English music publishers (people)
English people of Italian descent
Italian British musicians
Musicians from London
19th-century British composers
19th-century British businesspeople
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20raven
|
Australian raven
|
The Australian raven (Corvus coronoides) is a passerine bird in the genus Corvus native to much of southern and northeastern Australia. Measuring in length, it has all-black plumage, beak and mouth, as well as strong grey-black legs and feet. The upperparts are glossy, with a purple, blue, or green sheen, and its black feathers have grey bases. The Australian raven is distinguished from the Australian crow species by its throat hackles, which are prominent in adult birds. Older adult individuals have white irises, younger adults have white irises with an inner blue rim, while younger birds have dark brown irises until fifteen months of age, and hazel irises with an inner blue rim around each pupil until age two years and ten months. Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield described the Australian raven in 1827, its species name (coronoides) highlighting its similarity with the carrion crow (C. corone). Two subspecies are recognized, which differ slightly in calls and are quite divergent genetically.
The preferred habitat is open woodland and transitional zones. It has adapted well to urban environments and is a common city bird in Sydney, Canberra, and Perth. An omnivorous and opportunistic feeder, it eats a wide variety of plant and animal material, as well as food waste from urban areas. In eastern Australia, its range is strongly correlated with the presence of sheep, and it has been blamed for killing lambs. However, this is very rare, and the raven most often scavenges for afterbirth and stillborn animals as well as newborn lamb faeces. The Australian raven is territorial, with pairs generally bonding for life. Breeding takes place between July and September, with almost no variation across its range. The nest is a bowl-shaped structure of sticks sited high in a tree, or occasionally in a man-made structure such as a windmill or other building.
Taxonomy and naming
The Australian raven was first described by Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield in 1827, when they reported George Caley's early notes on the species from the Sydney district. Its specific epithet coronoides "crow-shaped" is derived from the Greek corone/κορόνη "crow" and eidos/είδος "shape" or "form". The two naturalists regarded the Australian raven as very similar in appearance to the carrion crow (C. corone) of Europe, though they noted it was larger with a longer bill. They did not give it a common name. The location where the type specimen was collected is not recorded, but thought to be in the Parramatta district. Christian Ludwig Brehm described Corvus affinis in 1845, later determined to be this species. In his 1865 Handbook to the Birds of Australia, John Gould recognised only one species of corvid in Australia, Corvus australis, which he called the white-eyed crow. He used Johann Friedrich Gmelin's 1788 name, which predated Vigors and Horsfield's description. In 1877 Richard Bowdler Sharpe recognised two species, but recorded that the feather bases of the type specimen of C. coronoides were white. He named C. coronoides as the "crow" and C. australis (as Corone australis) the "raven". Scottish naturalist William Robert Ogilvie-Grant corrected this in 1912 after re-examining the type specimen, clarifying the species as C. coronoides (raven, and incorporating little and forest ravens) and C. cecilae (Torresian crow).
Gregory Mathews described the western subspecies perplexus in 1912, naming it the southwestern crow and noting that it was smaller than the nominate subspecies. He called C. coronoides coronoides the eastern crow, listing its range as New South Wales, and described what is now the Australian crow as another subspecies, C. coronoides cecilae, calling it the north-western crow and recording its range as northwestern Australia. In the same work he listed the raven as Corvus marianae, with a type specimen from Gosford and listing its range as New South Wales. He listed the little raven and forest raven as subspecies. Mathews had erected C. marianae in 1911 as the name after declaring Corvus australis Gould to be preoccupied; French-American ornithologist Charles Vaurie acted as first reviser under Article 24 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) Code and discarded C. australis as a junior homonym—in 1788, Gmelin had used the same binomial name to describe the black nunbird—to preserve the stability of the name. This has been followed by later authors.
German ornithologist Erwin Stresemann lumped all Australian corvids plus other species as far as India into a single species, C. coronoides, as he believed there was intergradation between all characteristics such as iris colour, colour of feather bases and plumage. This was hotly disputed by Mathews. The official RAOU checklist listed three species (Australian raven, Torresian crow and little crow), with the little raven recognised as a fourth species in 1967 and forest raven in 1970. Stresemann described C. difficilis in 1943 from a single specimen, now thought to have been an unusual Australian raven or an Australian raven/Torresian crow hybrid.
"Australian raven" has been designated the official name by the International Ornithologists' Union (IOC). Alternative names sometimes seen include southern raven, southern crow and Kelly, the last thought to have alluded to the Kelly Gang, though did not appear until the 1920s. Southern crow was considered by the RAOU before Australian raven was adopted as the official name for the species in 1926. The term "crow" is colloquially applied to any or all species of Australian corvid. The Australian raven was called wugan by the local Eora and Darug inhabitants of the Sydney Basin.
Evolution and systematics
The Australian raven's closest relatives are the other two species of raven occurring in Australia: the little raven and forest raven. The Australian raven is also somewhat closely related to the Torresian and little crow, although not as closely related as it is to the other raven species. Initial single gene genetic analysis of the genus using mitochondrial DNA showed the three raven species to belong to one lineage and the two crows to another. The genetic separation between species is small and there was a suggestion the little raven may be nested within the Australian raven, though the authors conceded more genetic work was needed. Subsequent multigene analysis using nuclear DNA by Jønsson and colleagues in 2012 showed the eastern and western subspecies of the Australian raven to form two clades, almost as genetically distinct as the forest and little raven are to each other. This led the authors to propose that the subspecies be recognised as separate species.
Ian Rowley proposed that the common ancestor of the five species diverged into a tropical crow and temperate raven sometime after entering Australia from the north, which molecular evidence indicates occurred in the early Pliocene epoch around 4 million years ago. The raven diverged into the ancestor of the forest and little ravens in the east and Australian raven in the west, this split occurring around 2 million years ago in the early Pleistocene. As the climate became cooler and drier, the aridity of central Australia split them entirely. Furthermore, the eastern birds diverged into nomadic little ravens and, in forested refuges, forest ravens. As the climate eventually became warmer, the western birds spread eastwards and almost outcompeted forest ravens on mainland Australia. Rowley noted that the western subspecies of the Australian raven had features intermediate between the eastern subspecies of Australian and little ravens.
Two subspecies are recognised:
C. c. coronoides, the nominate or eastern subspecies, is found across most of eastern Australia. Its range is also highly correlated with the presence of sheep. This is thought to be because of the frequency of dead animals, which can be an important source of food. Ornithologist Ian Rowley held that the eastern subspecies was expanding eastwards before European colonisation, and that this suggested it was of younger origin than the western subspecies, which appears static. The advent of agriculture facilitated further spread.
C. c. perplexus, the western subspecies, occurs from the head of the Great Australian Bight in South Australia westwards into Western Australia where its northern limits are Shark Bay and the mulga-eucalypt boundary line. It is less specialised in its habitat, as it does not share its distribution with the little raven, and does not appear to correlate with the range of sheep. The western subspecies has a slightly lower-pitched call than that of the eastern subspecies, with similarities to calls of the little raven. Of smaller size overall, it has a more slender bill and shorter hackles. There is otherwise no difference in plumage. Intermediate birds are found in the Eyre Peninsula, Gawler Ranges and vicinity of Lake Eyre in South Australia.
Description
Measuring in length with a wingspan and weighing around the , the Australian raven is Australia's largest species of corvid. The adult Australian raven is an all black-bird with a black beak, mouth and tongue and sturdy black or grey-black legs and feet. The tibia is fully feathered and the tarsus is long, and the feet large and strong. It has white irises. The plumage is glossy with a blue-purple to a blue-green sheen, greenish over the ear coverts, depending on the light. The underparts are not glossy. The Australian raven has throat feathers (hackles) that are lanceolate with rounded tips, while the other four species of Australian corvids have bifurcate tips, though this can be difficult to see in the field. The hackles are also longer than those of the other four species; when they are raised (such as when the bird is calling), they give the bird an unusual bearded appearance. The upper third of the upper mandible, including the nares and nasal groove, is covered with bristles, which can be up to long. The heavy-set beak is tipped with a slight hook, and is longer than the bird's head. The wings are long and broad, with the longest of its ten primary feathers (usually the seventh but occasionally the eighth) almost reaching the end of the tail when the bird is at rest. The tail is rounded or wedge-shaped. The Australian raven can be distinguished from the two species of crow occurring in Australia by the grey base of the feathers, which is white in the latter species. The demarcation between pale and black regions on the feather is gradual in the ravens and sharply delineated in the crows. Feather bases are not normally visible when observing birds in the field, but can sometimes be seen on a windy day if the feathers are ruffled. Unlike the other four species, the Australian raven has a bare patch of skin under and extending to beside, the bill. This can be hard to discern in the field. The three species of raven are more heavily set with a broader chest than the two crow species, with the forest raven the stockiest of all. Relative size of species is only useful when two species can be seen side by side, as the overlap in size is large and the difference in size small.
Juveniles resemble adults, but lack throat hackles, and sometimes have a pink fleshy gape. The bill is shorter and shallower; its base can be pinkish and the tip can be light grey. The plumage is more ruffled and softer in appearance, lacks the glossy highlights and often having a brown tinge. The bare skin on the throat is pink in birds that have recently left the nest. Eye colour varies with age, gradually lightening from juvenile to adult. Nestlings up to four months old have blue-grey irises, juveniles aged from four to fifteen months have dark brown irises, and immature birds have hazel irises with an inner blue rim around each pupil until age two years and ten months. Immature birds older than one year develop hackles, while some pink remains in the gape until the bird is two or three years of age.
Vocalisations
The territorial call of the Australian raven is a slow, high ah-ah-aaaah (similar to the near-open front unrounded vowel (IPA:/æ/)) with the last note drawn out. It uses this call to communicate with other Australian ravens in the area. When giving this call, the species has a horizontal posture, holding its head forward and body parallel to the ground, while perched on a prominent position. It ruffles its hackles and lowers its tail, and sometimes holds its beak open between calls. In contrast, the little raven and forest raven hold their bodies in an upright posture. This call becomes louder if trespassers encroach upon the Australian raven's territory. The five Australian species are very difficult to tell apart, with the call being the easiest way to do so, although the drawing-out of the final note—long held to be solely recorded for the Australian raven—has been recorded for the other species and is hence not diagnostic.
The volume, pitch, tempo and order of notes can be changed depending on the message the Australian raven intends to convey. There is a variety of contact calls: a pair often makes a low murmuring sound when preening each other while roosting, and members of a flock carry on with a quiet chattering while at rest. Birds make a call and answer sequence if temporarily out of sight of one another while foraging. Birds in flocks make a single high-pitched caa while flying over another territory as a transit call to signify they are just passing through. An Australian raven will give a longer caa with a downward inflection to signify its return to the nest to its mate.
Distribution and habitat
The Australian raven is common throughout eastern Australia, and southern Western Australia (the populations being connected by a narrow strip across the Nullarbor Plain), but it is rarer and more scattered in the north, with isolated sightings in Cape York at Coen, Windmill Creek and the Mitchell River, and becoming more common south of Rockhampton in central Queensland. It is found throughout New South Wales, though is uncommon in the northeast of the state. It is rare in the Australian Alps, being replaced there by the little raven. It occurs across Victoria and eastern South Australia, through the Eyre Peninsula and Nullarbor Plain into Western Australia, across the state north to the Wooramel River. It is found on some offshore islands such as Rottnest Island and Kangaroo Island. It is a rare vagrant to Lord Howe Island., though it was recorded as a vagrant in New Zealand in the 1870s, this has not been confirmed.
The Australian raven can be found in a wide range of natural and modified habitats. It requires available water and trees (or buildings) to roost in or perch on. Preferred habitats include eucalypt-dominated sclerophyll forest, and farmland adjacent to trees. It is also found in heath and mangroves. In areas where it occurs with the little raven, namely over much of central New South Wales, Victoria and into South Australia, the Australian raven is restricted to more forested areas while the latter species prefers more open areas. Similarly, in inland Australia it can share a range with the little crow, as the two do not appear to compete. However, the ranges of similar-sized forest raven and Torresian crow only narrowly overlap with the Australian raven as all three compete with each other. In central and western regions, Australian ravens and Torresian crows vie for the scattered uncommon trees and outcrops, and only one or the other are found there. It co-occurs with the forest raven in northeastern New South Wales from Port Stephens northwards. The Australian raven has adapted very well to human habitation in some cities and is the most common corvid in Canberra, Sydney and Perth; in Melbourne and Adelaide it is replaced by the little raven, and by the Torresian crow in Brisbane. Its large range, abundance and increasing population mean it is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.
Behaviour
Difficulties in distinguishing Australian corvids has hampered understanding of seasonal movements. The Australian raven is thought to be largely sedentary, with most movement of over due to flocks of non-breeding subadult birds. Juvenile birds leave their parents and join flocks when they are four or five months old. Smaller flocks of 8–30 birds stay within an area of around 260 square kilometres, while larger flocks of up to 300 birds may travel hundreds of kilometres seeking food.
A single breeding pair and their brood can occupy a territory of up to around and remains there year-round, though groups of ravens may enter this area to forage. Australian ravens will defend their territory by chasing, dive-bombing and occasionally striking the backs of birds of prey, foxes or even people. They generally mate for life, though occasionally one male has been found to be mated with two females in adjacent territories. If the female dies, the male Australian raven maintains the territory and finds another mate, while if the male bird is lost, the female abandons the territory. No courtship behaviour has been observed, and species that mate for life often lack elaborate courting displays. Once they begin breeding at three years of age, they live another four to five years on average. During this time they produce two surviving young each year on average. The longest-lived Australian raven recorded is an adult (of at least 3 years of age) that was banded and recaptured alive 12 years and 5 months later.
Australian ravens generally walk when moving around on the ground, though do hop when hurrying. They preen themselves frequently, particularly when roosting in the middle of the day. They also engage in allopreening, where birds will preen each other's head and neck. This takes place particularly in autumn, winter and spring, and is important in pair bonding. Either member may initiate it, generally by landing near the other bird, shuffling next to its mate, then bending its head forward and presenting its nape.
Breeding
Australian ravens begin breeding once they are three years old. Breeding season is from July to September, with no substantial difference in timing across its range around the country despite it inhabiting a range of diverse climates and habitats across 19 degrees of latitude. Rowley has pointed out this is unusual for a bird species with a wide range and has postulated that breeding is initiated by day length. Rarely, breeding can take place in May, June or October. Australian ravens generally nest in tall trees, never near to the ground as some species do. The nest also functions as a lookout post and so tall or emergent trees are selected. The ravens occasionally nest on buildings, telegraph poles, or tall windmills which allow the species to occupy areas lacking in tall trees. Windmills may have assisted the spread of the species in North Queensland and the Northern Territory. The highest recorded corvid nest in Australia was found atop the AWA Tower in Sydney.
Nests are generally large and untidy, consisting of a bowl or platform of sticks lined with grasses, barks, and feathers that can be up to thick. As they are relatively heavy, they are built on larger forks in trees rather than out in the canopy. Building the nest is often time-consuming initially as the birds try (and often fail) to wedge sticks, which are long and thick, into the tree fork to make a platform. Thinner sticks and rootlets are used to make the bowl before the bowl is lined with feathers. Both birds build the nest, with the female taking over the lining of the nest while the male brings her material. New nests are built each year generally, as the re-use of old ones might spread disease or parasites—nests become caked with faeces as the nestlings grow and the parents cannot keep up with its removal. Furthermore, old nests often disintegrate within twelve months due to their exposed locations. The female develops a brood patch—a patch of bare skin on the bird's underparts that reddens and becomes much more extensive from around three weeks before the first egg is laid. The skin itself is oedematous and wrinkled, and does not get re-feathered until December after the breeding season has finished.
Their lofty locations makes monitoring of Australian raven nests difficult. A clutch can comprise up to six eggs, though usually four or five are laid, with five being the most common number. Measuring , eggs are pale green or bluish-green and splotched with darker olive, brown and blackish markings. Eggs are quite variable, and thus which Australian corvid laid them cannot be reliably identified. Incubation of the eggs is done solely by the female over roughly 20 days. Incubation is intermittent initially, becoming constant by the time the third or fourth egg is laid. Only one brood is raised per year, though a second clutch may be laid if the first clutch is lost early in the season. Late clutches have poor survival rates, possibly due to chicks getting dehydrated on hot days as the year progresses or being eaten by wedge-tailed eagles. The chicks are altricial and nidicolous; that is, they are born helpless, naked and blind, and remain in the nest for an extended period. They have pink skin until 5 days of age, when feathers under the skin turn it grey. They lose their egg tooth at the same time. Their eyes begin opening at 5 to 6 days of age and are fully open by 11 to 12 days, by which time their feathers begin emerging. At 14 days, their primary feathers begin emerging, and they are fully feathered by 35–36 days old. They leave the nest at 40–45 days of age, and stay with the parents for three to four months after that. They follow their parents and beg for food for the first month outside the nest but are feeding themselves by the third month. Young birds are often attacked when they enter neighbouring territories, and melees ensue as their parents try to defend them and herd them back.
Feeding
The Australian raven is omnivorous, though eats more meat than smaller corvids. Its diet in summer contains a high proportion of insects, while more plant items are eaten in autumn. Flesh makes up over half its diet in winter. Invertebrates commonly eaten include spiders, millipedes, centipedes (which ravens behead before eating), grasshoppers, cicadas and caterpillars (especially of the family Noctuidae), which are important in feeding nestlings. Australian ravens sometimes eat yabbies (Cherax destructor) from the edges of dams. Unusually for a ground-feeding omnivore, earthworms are rarely eaten. Australian ravens have been reported killing birds of such size as young galahs (Eolophus roseicapillus) and starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). Most mammals are eaten as carrion, as many species are too large for the raven to kill, though young rabbits are a frequent prey item. Australian ravens drink water frequently, up to ten times a day in hot weather. Birds have been observed dunking pieces of meat in water before eating them, as well as doing the same with hard biscuits to make them soggy and soft.
Australian ravens are intelligent birds, and like many other corvids have innovative methods of seeking out food. Foraging takes place in the early morning or late afternoon; birds rest in the hotter part of the day. Food is taken mainly from the ground, birds either finding objects while flying overhead or by walking along and looking. However, they occasionally feed in trees—Australian ravens forage eucalypt foliage for Christmas beetles (Anoplognathus), and devote a substantial amount of time to look for nests and eggs to eat. They have also been known to take golf balls from fairways, possibly mistaking them for eggs. Ravens use their bill rather than their feet to explore or turn items on the ground (rocks or sticks) over or hold or snatch food while flying. They have also been recorded using fence posts as anvils to bash snails against before eating them. Australian ravens most often eat food where they find it unless taking food back for nestlings. Occasionally they have been observed caching carrion or a killed animal in a hole nearby to store it. They can pack shredded meat in their mouth under their tongue. Australian ravens have adapted well to eating food scraps in urban areas, such as school playgrounds, rubbish tips, bins outside supermarkets or restaurants, abattoirs, piggeries and farmyards. In one isolated study, they were observed feeding on nectar from eucalypt flowers. Australian ravens sometimes forage in mixed-species flocks with any of the other four species of Australian corvids. Sometimes they are aggressive with little ravens if both are at a food source and drive them off, though not if the smaller species greatly outnumber the larger.
Parasites and predators
A circovirus—given the name raven circovirus or RaCV—was isolated from an Australian raven suffering from feather lesions in 2006. It has affinities with canary circovirus (CaCV) and pigeon circovirus (PiCV). Its clinical significance is unknown. A species of Isospora—given the name of I. coronoideae was isolated from this species, its only known host. Tick infestation is rare in the Australian raven, with Ixodes holocyclus and Amblyomma triguttatum recorded. Lice and hippoboscid flies have been recorded yet little-researched, and an infestation by the fly Passeromyia longicornis was recorded in one nest.
The wedge-tailed eagle (Aquila audax) preys on adult, nestling, and fledgling Australian ravens, while the little eagle (Hieraaetus morphnoides) also takes nestlings, and powerful owl (Ninox strenua) has been recorded killing adults; other birds of prey are seen as threats, yet there is no evidence they have successfully preyed on the ravens. The introduced red fox (Vulpes vulpes) competes with the Australian raven for carrion and can drive it off. It may also kill young birds that it catches on the ground. The channel-billed cuckoo (Scythrops novaehollandiae) has been recorded as a brood parasite.
Relationship with humans
Australian ravens sometimes die by being shot or poisoned—generally by farmers. Despite their fondness for roadkill, fewer ravens are hit by vehicles than Australian magpies. Research in the 1950s and 60s showed that 64% of Australian ravens perished in their first year of life. Immature birds are most at risk of dying. The Australian raven is a peaceful bird, showing no aggression toward humans or other birds without reason. However, the Australian raven is frequently blamed for the loss of young lambs. Scientific observation in the country's southeast showed that the killing of healthy lambs was rare, but that sick animals were predisposed to being attacked. Australian ravens mostly eat faeces (often from the lamb's anus), afterbirth or stillborn lambs. Newborn lamb faeces is nutritious, containing around 21–44% protein, 9–37% fat and 10–30% carbohydrate. It has the consistency of treacle and often sticks to the lamb's hindquarters or tail. The raven bites a sleeping lamb's tail, holding on and walking behind it when it wakes up. A healthy lamb would respond by running away or butting the bird, but a sick one might not respond and be attacked further as it alerts the bird that it is vulnerable. Wounded lambs can also succumb to Clostridium infection as these bacteria are present on raven bills. Ravens bring some benefits to agricultural areas as they clean away carrion and eat insects that are potentially damaging to crops. In areas of Western Australia, the species is classified as a Declared Pest of Agriculture under the provisions of the Agriculture and Related Resources Protection Act 1976, meaning that shooting on private land in rural areas is legal, although should be considered only after other options have been exhausted.
In Indigenous culture
In Australian Aboriginal mythology, Crow is a trickster, culture hero and ancestral being. In the Kulin nation in central Victoria he was known as Waa (also Wahn or Waang) and was regarded as one of two moiety ancestors, the other being the more sombre eaglehawk Bunjil. Legends relating to Crow have been observed in various Aboriginal language groups and cultures across Australia.
To the Noongar people of southwestern Australia, the Australian raven was Waardar, "the Watcher" and was wily and unpredictable. Noongar people were socially divided into two moieties or kinships: waardarng-maat and marrnetj-maat, or members of the Australian raven and long-billed corella (Cacatua tenuirostris) respectively.
Explanatory notes
References
Citations
Cited texts
External links
An Australian Raven call (two birds)
Australian Raven videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
Corvus
Ravens
Endemic birds of Australia
Birds described in 1827
Articles containing video clips
Taxa named by Nicholas Aylward Vigors
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211623
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Nichol%20%28biographer%29
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John Nichol (biographer)
|
John Nichol (8 September 1833 – 11 October 1894), was a Scottish literary academic, and the first Regius Professor of English Language and Literature at the University of Glasgow.
Early life
Born in Montrose, Scotland, Nichol was the son of John Pringle Nichol, Regius Professor of Astronomy at the University of Glasgow. John Jr. studied first at Glasgow (1848–55) and then Balliol College, Oxford (1855–9) as a Snell Exhibitioner, graduating with a First-Class degree in Classics, Philosophy and Mathematics. After graduating, Nicholl remained at Oxford as a coach. With Albert Venn Dicey, Thomas Hill Green, Swinburne and others, he formed the Old Mortality Society for discussions on literary matters.
Glasgow
In 1862 he was made Regius Professor of English Literature at Glasgow. He had already made a reputation as an acute critic and a successful lecturer, and his influence at Glasgow was very marked. During his tenure as Regius Professor, he also lectured at Oxford University as well as private tutoring across Britain, and formed a strong reputation as an inspiring lecturer, later joining Glasgow's Dialectic Society.
He left Glasgow for London in 1889, and died on 11 October 1894. A Memoir by Professor Knight was published in 1896.
Works
Among the major works by Nichol were his drama Hannibal (1873), The Death of Themistocles, and other Poems (1881), his Byron in the "English Men of Letters" series (1880), his Robert Burns (1882) and Carlyle (1892).
Nichol was also an enthusiastic Americanist and wrote the ground-breaking American Literature: An Historical Review, 1620–1880 (1882). He visited the United States in 1865, and in 1882 he wrote the article on American literature for the ninth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica.
In addition to the above, he was also the author of the following works:
Fragments of Criticism, a volume of essays, (1860);
Tables of European Literature and History, A.D. 200-1876 (1876);
Tables of Ancient Literature and History, (1877);
English Composition, a literature primer, (1879);
Questions on English Composition, (1890); and
two volumes on Lord Bacon's Life and Philosophy for Black's "Series of Philosophical Writers", (1887–89).
Nichol also wrote essays for the Westminster Review, North British Review, and other reviews; articles in the Encyclopædia Britannica; and several pamphlets on education questions.
Nichol was long blamed by biographers of the poet Swinburne for leading Swinburne to lose his faith and to alcoholism. Neither charge is true (See Terry L. Meyers, "On Drink and Faith: Swinburne and John Nichol at Oxford". Review of English Studies, ns 55:220 (June 2004), 392–424).
References
External links
His article about American Literature (in Encyclopædia Britannica 9th ed.)
1833 births
1894 deaths
Scottish biographers
People from Montrose, Angus
Academics of the University of Glasgow
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
|
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211624
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesser%20water%20boatman
|
Lesser water boatman
|
The lesser waterboatman or lesser water boatman (Corixa punctata) is a water-dwelling insect of the order Hemiptera.
Adults normally range in size from 5 to 15 mm long, and are found in ponds, lakes and sometimes even swimming pools. The boatman feeds on algae and dead plant material. They have long hind legs which they use to swim on top of water. These powerful legs are covered in tiny hairs which helps them float on the surface of the water.
They breathe oxygen by trapping air beneath their wing cases when they are on the surface as the oxygen is trapped by tiny hairs. They use trapped air in their physical gill to convert water-borne sounds into airborne sounds that they can hear.
They are similar to Notonecta glauca, the back swimmer by appearance, although these lesser waterboatman are herbivores and swim on their fronts. They are not related to Notonecta glauca, back swimmer, nor to the European Micronecta scholtzi, also known as the "lesser water boatman".
References
Further reading
Banks, C.J. (1949). "The absorption of water by the eggs of Corixa punctata Illig. (Hemiptera, Corixidae) under experimental conditions." The Journal of Experimental Biology 26: 131–136.
Short, J.R.T. (1953). "On the musculature of the legs of Corixa punctata (Illig.) Hemiptera." Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society of London A 28: 31–35.
External links
Canterbury Environmental Education Centre, includes images
Microcosmos.nl - description and images
Corixini
Fauna of the Netherlands
Insects described in 1807
|
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211626
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnnie%20Taylor
|
Johnnie Taylor
|
Johnnie Harrison Taylor (May 5, 1934 – May 31, 2000) was an American recording artist and songwriter who performed a wide variety of genres, from blues, rhythm and blues, soul, and gospel to pop, doo-wop, and disco.
Biography
Early years
Johnnie Taylor was born in Crawfordsville, Arkansas, United States. He grew up in West Memphis, Arkansas, performing in gospel groups as a youngster. As an adult, he had one release, "Somewhere to Lay My Head", on Chicago's Vee Jay Records label in the 1950s, as part of the gospel group The Highway Q.C.'s, which included a young Sam Cooke. Taylor's singing then was strikingly close to that of Cooke, and he was hired to take Cooke's place in the latter's gospel group, the Soul Stirrers, in 1957.
A few years later, after Cooke had established his independent SAR Records, Taylor signed on as one of the label's first acts and recorded "Rome Wasn't Built In A Day" in 1962. However, SAR Records quickly became defunct after Cooke's death in 1964.
In 1966, Taylor moved to Stax Records in Memphis, Tennessee, where he was dubbed "The Philosopher of Soul". He recorded with the label's house band, which included Booker T. & the M.G.'s. His hits included "I Had a Dream", "I've Got to Love Somebody's Baby" (both written by the team of Isaac Hayes and David Porter) and most notably "Who's Making Love", which reached No. 5 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and No. 1 on the R&B chart in 1968. "Who's Making Love" sold over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc. In 1970, Taylor married Gerlean Rocket and they remained married until his death in 2000.
During his tenure at Stax, he became an R&B star, with over a dozen chart successes, such as "Jody's Got Your Girl and Gone", which reached No. 23 on the Hot 100 chart, "Cheaper to Keep Her" (Mack Rice) and record producer Don Davis's penned "I Believe in You (You Believe in Me)", which reached No. 11 on the Hot 100 chart. "I Believe in You (You Believe in Me)" also sold in excess of one million copies, and was awarded gold disc status by the R.I.A.A. in October 1973. Taylor, along with Isaac Hayes and The Staple Singers, was one of the label's flagship artists, who were credited for keeping the company afloat in the late 1960s and early 1970s after the death of its biggest star, Otis Redding, in an aviation accident. He appeared in the documentary film, Wattstax, which was released in 1973.
Columbia Records
After Stax folded in 1975, Taylor switched to Columbia Records, where he recorded his biggest success with Don Davis still in charge of production, "Disco Lady", in 1976. It spent four weeks at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and six weeks at the top of the R&B chart. It peaked at No. 25 in the UK Singles Chart in May 1976. "Disco Lady" was the first certified platinum single (two million copies sold) by the RIAA. Taylor recorded several more successful albums and R&B single hits with Davis on Columbia, before Brad Shapiro took over production duties, but sales generally fell away.
Malaco Records
After a short stay at a small independent label in Los Angeles, Beverly Glen Records, Taylor signed with Malaco Records after the company's founder Tommy Couch and producing partner Wolf Stephenson heard him sing at blues singer Z. Z. Hill's funeral in spring 1984.
Backed by members of the Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section, as well as in-house veterans such as former Stax keyboardist Carson Whitsett and guitarist/bandleader Bernard Jenkins, Malaco gave Taylor the type of recording freedom that Stax had given him in the late 1960s and early 1970s, enabling him to record ten albums for the label in his 16-year stint.
In 1996, Taylor's eighth album for Malaco, Good Love!, reached number one on the Billboard Top Blues Albums chart (No. 15 R&B), and was the biggest record in Malaco's history. With this success, Malaco recorded a live video of Taylor at the Longhorn Ballroom in Dallas, Texas, in the summer of 1997. The club portion of the Good Love video was recorded at 1001 Nightclub in Jackson, Mississippi.
Taylor's final song was "Soul Heaven", in which he dreamed of being at a concert featuring deceased African-American music icons from Louis Armstrong to Otis Redding to Z.Z. Hill to The Notorious B.I.G., among others.
Radio
In the 1980s, Johnnie Taylor was a DJ on KKDA, a radio station in the Dallas area, where he had made his home. The station's format was mostly R&B and Soul oldies and their on-the-air personalities were often local R&B, Soul, blues, and jazz musicians. Taylor was billed as "The Wailer, Johnnie Taylor".
Death
Taylor died of a heart attack at Charlton Methodist Hospital in Dallas, Texas, on May 31, 2000, aged 66. Stax billed Johnnie Taylor as "The Philosopher of Soul". He was also known as "the Blues Wailer". He was buried beside his mother, Ida Mae Taylor, at Forrest Hill Cemetery in Kansas City, Missouri.
His highly complex personal life was revealed after his death. Having six accepted children and three others with confirmed paternity born to three different mothers, the difficulties associated with executing his will were presented in an episode of the TV program The Will: Family Secrets Revealed called "The Estate of Johnnie Taylor".
Awards and nominations
Taylor was given a Pioneer Award by the Rhythm and Blues Foundation in 1999. Taylor was also a three-time Grammy Award nominee. In 2015 Taylor was inducted into
the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame
Grammy Awards
Taylor has been nominated for three career Grammy Awards without a win.
|-
|rowspan="1"|1969
|rowspan="1"|"Who's Making Love"
|Best Male R&B Vocal Performance
|
|-
|rowspan="1"|1977
|rowspan="1"|"Disco Lady"
|Best Male R&B Vocal Performance
|
|-
|rowspan="1"|2001
|rowspan="1"|Gotta Get the Groove Back
|Best Traditional R&B Vocal Album
|
|-
|}
Johnnie Taylor was awarded the first-ever Platinum Record Award in history by the RIAA for his two-million-selling smash hit, "Disco Lady".
Musical influence
In 2004, the UK's Shapeshifters sampled Taylor's 1982 "What About My Love?", for their No. 1 hit single, "Lola's Theme".
Discography
Albums
Wanted: One Soul Singer - Stax 715 (1967)
Who's Making Love... - Stax 2005 (1968)
Raw Blues - Stax 2008 (1968)
Rare Stamps - Stax 2012 (1968)
The Johnnie Taylor Philosophy Continues - Stax 2023 (1969)
One Step Beyond - Stax 2030 (1971)
Taylored in Silk - Stax 3014 (1973)
Super Taylor - Stax 5509 (1974)
Eargasm - Columbia 33951 (1976)
Rated Extraordinaire - Columbia 34401 (1977)
Reflections - RCA APL1-2527 (1977)
Disco 9000 - Columbia 35004 (1977)
Ever Ready - Columbia 35340 (1978)
She's Killing Me - Columbia 36061 (1979)
A New Day - Columbia 36548 (1980)
Just Ain't Good Enough - Beverly Glen 10001 (1982)
This is Your Night - Malaco 7421 (1984)
Wall to Wall - Malaco 7431 (1985)
Lover Boy - Malaco 7440 (1987)
In Control - Malaco 7446 (1988)
Crazy 'Bout You - Malaco 7452 (1989)
I Know It's Wrong But I... Just Can't Do Right - Malaco 7460 (1991)
Real Love - Malaco 7472 (1993)
Good Love! - Malaco 7480 (1996)
Taylored to Please - Malaco 7488 (1998)
Gotta Get the Groove Back - Malaco 7499 (1999)
There's No Good in Goodbye - Malaco 7515 (2003)
Live at the Summit Club - Stax/Fantasy 8628 (recorded 1972; released 2007)
FunkSoulBrother - Fuel/Universal. Retrospective album
Singles
References
External links
Complete Discography
[ Allmusic.com bio]
Wanted One Soul Singer - Johnnie Taylor
1934 births
2000 deaths
American blues singers
American rhythm and blues singers
American gospel singers
American soul musicians
Soul-blues musicians
Blues musicians from Arkansas
People from Crittenden County, Arkansas
People from West Memphis, Arkansas
Stax Records artists
20th-century American singers
Singers from Arkansas
20th-century American male singers
Malaco Records artists
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T.%20H.%20Green
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T. H. Green
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Thomas Hill Green (7 April 183626 March 1882), known as T. H. Green, was an English philosopher, political radical and temperance reformer, and a member of the British idealism movement. Like all the British idealists, Green was influenced by the metaphysical historicism of G. W. F. Hegel. He was one of the thinkers behind the philosophy of social liberalism.
Life
Green was born on 7 April 1836 at Birkin, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, where his father was rector. On his paternal side, he was descended from Oliver Cromwell. His education was conducted entirely at home until, at the age of 14, he entered Rugby, where he remained for five years.
In 1855, he became an undergraduate member of Balliol College, Oxford, and was elected fellow in 1860. He began a life of teaching (mainly philosophical) in the university—first as college tutor, afterwards, from 1878 until his death, as Whyte's Professor of Moral Philosophy.
The lectures he delivered as professor form the substance of his two most important works, viz., the Prolegomena to Ethics and the Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation, which contain the whole of his positive constructive teaching. These works were not published until after his death, but Green's views were previously known indirectly through the Introduction to the standard edition of David Hume's works by Green and T. H. Grose, fellow of Queen's College, in which the doctrine of the "English" or "empirical" philosophy was exhaustively examined.
In 1871 he married Charlotte Byron Green who was known as a promoter of women's education. In 1879, Green sat in the committee which was formed to create an Oxford women's college "in which no distinction will be made between students on the ground of their belonging to different religious denominations." Green and his wife's work resulted in the founding of Somerville Hall (later Somerville College).
Green was involved in local politics for many years, through the university, temperance societies and the local Oxford Liberal association. During the passage of the Second Reform Act, he campaigned for the franchise to be extended to all men living in boroughs even if they did not own real property. In that sense, Green's position was more radical than that of most other Advanced Liberals, including William Ewart Gladstone.
It was in the context of his Liberal Party activities that in 1881, Green gave what became one of his most famous statements of his liberal political philosophy, the "Lecture on Liberal Legislation and Freedom of Contract". At this time, he was also lecturing on religion, epistemology, ethics and political philosophy.
Most of his major works were published posthumously, including his lay sermons on Faith and The Witness of God, the essay "On the Different Senses of 'Freedom' as Applied to Will and the Moral Progress of Man", Prolegomena to Ethics, Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation, and the "Lecture on Liberal Legislation and Freedom of Contract".
Green died of blood poisoning at the age of 45 on 26 March 1882. In addition to friends from his academic life, approximately 2,000 local townspeople attended his funeral.
He helped to found the City of Oxford High School for Boys.
Thought
Hume's empiricism and biological evolution (including Herbert Spencer) were chief features in English thought during the third quarter of the 19th century. Green represents primarily the reaction against such doctrines. Green argued that when these doctrines were carried to their logical conclusion, they not only "rendered all philosophy futile", but were fatal to practical life. By reducing the human mind to a series of unrelated atomic sensations, these related teachings destroyed the possibility of knowledge, he argued. These teachings were especially important for Green to refute because they had underpinned the conception of mind that was held by the nascent science of psychology. Green tried to deflate the pretensions of psychologists who had claimed that their young field would provide a scientific replacement for traditional epistemology and metaphysics.
Green further objected that such empiricists represented a person as a "being who is simply the result of natural forces", and thereby made conduct, or any theory of conduct, meaningless; for life in any human, intelligible sense implies a personal self that (1) knows what to do, and (2) has power to do it. Green was thus driven, not theoretically, but as a practical necessity, to raise again the whole question of humankind in relation to nature. When (he held) we have discovered what a person in themselves are, and what their relation to their environment is, we shall then know their function—what they are fitted to do. In the light of this knowledge, we shall be able to formulate the moral code, which, in turn, will serve as a criterion of actual civic and social institutions. These form, naturally and necessarily, the objective expression of moral ideas, and it is in some civic or social whole that the moral ideal must finally take concrete shape.
What is man?
To ask "What is man?" is to ask "What is experience?" for experience means that of which I am conscious. The facts of consciousness are the only facts that, to begin with, we are justified in asserting to exist. On the other hand, they are valid evidence for whatever is necessary to their own explanation, i.e. for whatever is logically involved in them. Now the most striking characteristic of humans, that in fact which marks them specially, as contrasted with other animals, is self-consciousness. The simplest mental act into which we can analyse the operations of the human mind—the act of sense-perception—is never merely a change, physical or psychical, but is the consciousness of a change.
Human experience consists, not of processes in an animal organism, but of these processes recognised as such. That which we perceive is from the outset an apprehended fact—that is to say, it cannot be analysed into isolated elements (so-called sensations) which, as such, are not constituents of consciousness at all, but exist from the first as a synthesis of relations in a consciousness which keeps distinct the "self" and the various elements of the "object," though holding all together in the unity of the act of perception. In other words, the whole mental structure we call knowledge consists, in its simplest equally with its most complex constituents, of the "work of the mind." Locke and Hume held that the work of the mind was eo ipso [by that very act] unreal because it was "made by" humans and not "given to" humans. It thus represented a subjective creation, not an objective fact. But this consequence follows only upon the assumption that the work of the mind is arbitrary, an assumption shown to be unjustified by the results of exact science, with the distinction, universally recognised, which such science draws between truth and falsehood, between the real and "mere ideas." This (obviously valid) distinction logically involves the consequence that the object, or content, of knowledge, viz., reality, is an intelligible ideal reality, a system of thought relations, a spiritual cosmos. How is the existence of this ideal whole to be accounted for? Only by the existence of some "principle which renders all relations possible and is itself determined by none of them"; an eternal self-consciousness which knows in whole what we know in part. To God the world is, to humans the world becomes. Human experience is God gradually made manifest.
Moral philosophy
Carrying on the same method into the area of moral philosophy, Green argued that ethics applies to the conditions of social life—that investigation into human nature which metaphysics began. The faculty employed in this further investigation is no "separate moral faculty", but that same reason which is the source of all our knowledge—ethical and other.
Self-reflection gradually reveals to us human capacity, human function, with, consequently, human responsibility. It brings out into clear consciousness certain potentialities in the realisation of which human's true good must consist. As the result of this analysis, combined with an investigation into the surroundings humans live in, a "content"—a moral code—becomes gradually evolved. Personal good is perceived to be realisable only by making real and actual the conceptions thus arrived at. So long as these remain potential or ideal, they form the motive of action; motive consisting always in the idea of some "end" or "good" that humans present to themselves as an end in the attainment of which he would be satisfied; that is, in the realisation of which he would find his true self.
The determination to realise the self in some definite way constitutes an "act of will", which, as thus constituted, is neither arbitrary nor externally determined. For the motive which may be said to be its cause lies in the person himself, and the identification of the self with such a motive is a self-determination, which is at once both rational and free. The "freedom of man" is constituted, not by a supposed ability to do anything he may choose, but in the power to identify himself with that true good that reason reveals to him as his true good.
This good consists in the realisation of personal character; hence the final good, i.e. the moral ideal, as a whole, can be realised only in some society of persons who, while remaining ends to themselves in the sense that their individuality is not lost but rendered more perfect, find this perfection attainable only when the separate individualities are integrated as part of a social whole.
Society is as necessary to form persons as persons are to constitute society. Social union is the indispensable condition of the development of the special capacities of its individual members. Human self-perfection cannot be gained in isolation; it is attainable only in inter-relation with fellow-citizens in the social community.
The law of our being, so revealed, involves in its turn civic or political duties. Moral goodness cannot be limited to, still less constituted by, the cultivation of self-regarding virtues, but consists in the attempt to realise in practice that moral ideal that self-analysis has revealed to us as our ideal. From this fact arises the ground of political obligation, because the institutions of political or civic life are the concrete embodiment of moral ideas in terms of our day and generation. But, since society exists only for the proper development of Persons, we have a criterion by which to test these institutions—namely, do they, or do they not, contribute to the development of moral character in the individual citizens?
It is obvious that the final moral ideal is not realised in any body of civic institutions actually existing, but the same analysis that demonstrates this deficiency points out the direction that a true development will take.
Hence arises the conception of rights and duties that should be maintained by law, as opposed to those actually maintained; with the further consequence that it may become occasionally a moral duty to rebel against the state in the interest of the state itself—that is, in order better to subserve that end or function that constitutes the raison d'être of the state. There exists a "general will" that is a desire for a common good that cannot be easily reconciled as there is an antagonism between the "common good" and the "private good": such as: "... interest in the common good, in some of its various forms, is necessary to produce that good, and to neutralise or render useful other desires and interests". Its basis is can be conceived as coercive authority imposed upon the citizens from without or it can be seen as a necessary restriction of individual liberty in light of a social contract, but this consists in the spiritual recognition or metaphysics, on the part of the citizens, of what constitutes their true nature, some conceptions and complicating factors are elaborating questions concerning: "Will, not force, is the basis of the state.", "Citizen Rights Against the State", "Private Rights. The Right to Life and Liberty", "The Right of the State Over the Individual in War", "The Right of the State to Punish", "The Right of the State to Promote Morality ", "The Right of the State in Regard to Property", and "The Right of the State in Regard to the Family".
Philosophy of state action
Green believed that the state should foster and protect the social, political and economic environments in which individuals will have the best chance of acting according to their consciences. But the state must be careful when deciding which liberties to curtail and in which ways to curtail them. Over-enthusiastic or clumsy state intervention could easily close down opportunities for conscientious action thereby stifling the moral development of the individual. The state should intervene only where there is a clear, proven and strong tendency of a liberty to enslave the individual. Even when such a hazard had been identified, Green tended to favour action by the affected community itself rather than national state action itself—local councils and municipal authorities tended to produce measures that were more imaginative and better suited to the daily reality of a social problem. Hence he favoured the "local option" where local people decided on the issuing of liquor licences in their area, through their town councils.
Green stressed the need for specific solutions to be tailored to fit specific problems. He stressed that there are no eternal solutions, no timeless division of responsibilities between national and local governmental units. The distribution of responsibilities should be guided by the imperative to enable as many individuals as possible to exercise their conscientious wills in particular contingent circumstances, as only in this way was it possible to foster individual self-realisation in the long-run. Deciding on the distribution of responsibilities was more a matter for practical politics than for ethical or political philosophy. Experience may show that the local and municipal levels are unable to control the harmful influences of, say, the brewery industry. When it did show this, the national state should take responsibility for this area of public policy.
Green argued that the ultimate power to decide on the allocation of such tasks should rest with the national state (in Britain, for instance, embodied in Parliament). The national state itself is legitimate for Green to the extent that it upholds a system of rights and obligations that is most likely to foster individual self-realisation. Yet, the most appropriate structure of this system is determined neither by purely political calculation nor by philosophical speculation. It is more accurate to say that it arose from the underlying conceptual and normative structure of one's particular society.
Influence of Green's thought
Green's teaching was, directly and indirectly, the most potent philosophical influence in England during the last quarter of the 19th century, while his enthusiasm for a common citizenship, and his personal example in practical municipal life, inspired much of the effort made in the years succeeding his death to bring the universities more into touch with the people, and to break down the rigour of class distinctions. His ideas spread to the University of St Andrews through the influence of David George Ritchie, a former student of his, who eventually helped found the Aristotelian Society. John Dewey wrote a number of early essays on Green's thought, including Self-Realization as the Moral Ideal.
Green was directly cited by many social liberal politicians, such as Herbert Samuel and H. H. Asquith, as an influence on their thought. It is no coincidence that these politicians were educated at Balliol College, Oxford. Roy Hattersley called for Green's work to be applied to the problems of 21st century Britain.
Works and commentary
Green's most important treatise—the Prolegomena to Ethics, practically complete in manuscript at his death—was published in the year following, under the editorship of A. C. Bradley (4th ed., 1899). Shortly afterwards, R. L. Nettleship's standard edition of his Works (exclusive of the Prolegomena) appeared in three volumes:
Reprints of Green's criticism of Hume, Spencer, G. H. Lewes
Lectures on Kant, on Logic, on the Principles of Political Obligation
Miscellanies, preceded by a full Memoir by the Editor.
All three volumes are available for download at Internet Archive
The Principles of Political Obligation was afterwards published in separate form. A criticism of Neo-Hegelianism will be found in Andrew Seth (Pringle Pattison), Hegelianism and Personality (1887).
Hume and Locke, Apollo Editions, 425 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10016, 1968 (Reprint of Thomas Y. Crowell Company edition). Contains Green's "Introductions to Hume's Treatise of Human Nature" and also Green's "Introduction to the Moral Part of Hume's Treatise"
See also
Consent of the governed
Liberalism in the United Kingdom
References
Further reading
Articles in Mind (January and April 1884) by A. J. Balfour and Henry Sidgwick
In the Academy (xxviii. 242 and xxv. 297) by S. Alexander
David George Ritchie, The Principles of State Interference (London, 1891)
W. H. Fairbrother, Philosophy of T.H. Green (London and New York, 1896)
S. S. Laurie The Metaphysics of T H Green an article in the Philosophical Review (Volume vi, March 1897) pages 113 to 131
Henry Sidgwick, Lectures on the ethics of T.H. Green, Mr. Herbert Spencer, and J. Martineau (London, 1902)
Henry Sidgwick, Lectures on the Philosophy of Kant (London, 1905)
A. W. Benn, The History of English Rationalism in the Nineteenth Century (1906), volume ii, pp. 401 foll.
H. Sturt, Idola theatri, a criticism of Oxford thought and thinkers from the standpoint of personal idealism, 1906.
J. H. Muirhead, The Service of the State: Four Lectures on the Political Teaching of T. H. Green (1908)
W. D. Lamont, Introduction to Green's moral philosophy, 1934.
J. Pucelle, La nature et l'esprit dans la philosophie de T.H. Green; la renaissance de l'idéalisme en Angleterre au 19e siècle, 1960.
M. Freeden (1978) The New Liberalism: An ideology of Social Reform, Oxford, Clarendon Press.
I.M. Greengarten (1981) Thomas Hill-Green and the Development of Liberal-Democratic Thought, University of Toronto Press.
Geoffrey Thomas (1988) The Moral Philosophy of T. H. Green (Oxford and New York).
Avital Simhony (1993) "T.H. Green: the common good society", History of Political Thought 14(2):225–247.
David O. Brink (2003) Perfectionism and the Common Good: Themes in the Philosophy of T. H. Green, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
External links
Grave of Thomas Hill Green and Charlotte Byron Green in St Sepulchre's Cemetery, Oxford, with biography
Works online
Prolegomena to Ethics (1883)
Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation (1883)
Works (excluding Prolegomena to Ethics) edited by R L Nettleship in three volumes (first published 1885): Volume 1: Introductions to Hume's Treatise; and Mr Herbert Spencer and Mr G H Lewes: their application of the doctrine of Evolution to Thought; Volume 2: Lectures: on (a) the Philosophy of Kant; (b) Logic, including J S Mill's System of Logic; (c) the different senses of freedom as applied to will and to moral progress; and (d) the Principles of Political Obligation; and Volume 3: Miscellanies and Memoir
1836 births
1882 deaths
19th-century British non-fiction writers
19th-century British philosophers
19th-century English philosophers
19th-century essayists
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
British ethicists
British male essayists
British reformers
British social liberals
British radicals
Deaths from sepsis
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English temperance activists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhs
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Kazakhs
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The Kazakhs (also spelled Qazaqs; Kazakh: , , , , , ; the English name is transliterated from Russian; ) are a Turkic ethnic group who mainly inhabit the Ural Mountains and northern parts of Central and East Asia (largely Kazakhstan, but also parts of Russia, Uzbekistan, Mongolia and China) in Eurasia. Kazakh identity is of medieval origin and was strongly shaped by the foundation of the Kazakh Khanate between 1456 and 1465, when several tribes under the rule of the sultans Janibek and Kerei departed from the Khanate of Abu'l-Khayr Khan in hopes of forming a powerful khanate of their own. Other notable Kazakh khans include Ablai Khan and Abul Khair Khan.
The Kazakhs are descendants of ancient Turkic tribes – Kipchaks and medieval Mongolic or Turco-Mongol tribes – Dughlats, Jalairs, Keraits.
Kazakh is used to refer to ethnic Kazakhs, while the term Kazakhstani usually refers to all inhabitants or citizens of Kazakhstan, regardless of ethnicity.
Etymology
The Kazakhs likely began using that name during the 15th century. There are many theories on the origin of the word Kazakh or Qazaq. Some speculate that it comes from the Turkic verb ("wanderer, vagabond, warrior, free, independent") or that it derives from the Proto-Turkic word (a wheeled cart used by the Kazakhs to transport their yurts and belongings).
Another theory on the origin of the word Kazakh (originally ) is that it comes from the ancient Turkic word , first mentioned on the 8th century Turkic monument of Uyuk-Turan. According to Turkic linguist Vasily Radlov and Orientalist Veniamin Yudin, the noun derives from the same root as the verb ("to obtain", "to gain"). Therefore, defines a type of person who seeks profit and gain.
History
Kazakh was a common term throughout medieval Central Asia, generally with regard to individuals or groups who had taken or achieved independence from a figure of authority. Timur described his own youth without direct authority as his ("freedom", "Qazaq-ness").
In Turko-Persian sources, the term Özbek-Qazaq first appeared during the middle of the 16th century, in the Tarikh-i-Rashidi by Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat, a Chagatayid prince of Kashmir. In this manuscript, the author locates Kazakh in the eastern part of Desht-i Qipchaq. According to Tarikh-i-Rashidi, the first Kazakh union was created 1465/1466 AD. The state was formed by nomads who settled along the border of Moghulistan, and was called Uzbeg-Kazák.
At the time of the Uzbek conquest of Central Asia, Abu'l-Khayr Khan, a descendant of Shiban, had disagreements with the Kazakh sultans Kerei and Janibek, descendants of Urus Khan. These disagreements probably resulted from the crushing defeat of Abu'l-Khayr Khan at the hands of the Kalmyks. Kerei and Janibek moved with a large following of nomads to the region of Zhetysu on the border of Moghulistan and set up new pastures there with the blessing of the Chagatayid khan of Moghulistan, Esen Buqa II, who hoped for a buffer zone of protection against the expansion of the Oirats.
Regarding these events, Haidar Dughlat in his Tarikh-i-Rashidi reports:
In the 17th century, Russian convention seeking to distinguish the Qazaqs of the steppes from the Cossacks of the Imperial Russian Army suggested spelling the final consonant with "kh" instead of "q" or "k", which was officially adopted by the USSR in 1936.
Kazakh -
Cossack -
The Ukrainian term Cossack probably comes from the same Kipchak etymological root: wanderer, brigand, independent free-booter.
Oral history
Their nomadic pastoral lifestyle made Kazakhs keep an epic tradition of oral history. The nation, which amalgamated nomadic tribes of various Kazakh origins, managed to preserve the distant memory of the original founding clans. It was important for Kazakhs to know their genealogical tree for no less than seven generations back (known as , from the Arabic word – "tree").
Three Kazakh Zhuz (Hordes)
In modern Kazakhstan, tribalism is fading away in business and government life. Still it is common for Kazakhs to ask each other the tribe they belong to when they become acquainted with one another. Now, it is more of a tradition than necessity, and there is no hostility between tribes. Kazakhs, regardless of their tribal origin, consider themselves one nation.
Those modern-day Kazakhs who yet remember their tribes know that their tribes belong to one of the three Zhuz (juz, roughly translatable as "horde" or "hundred"):
The Senior Horde (also called Elder or Great) (Uly juz)
The Middle (also called Central) (Orta juz)
The Junior (also called Younger or Lesser) (Kishi juz)
History of the Hordes
There is much debate surrounding the origins of the Hordes. Their age is unknown so far in extant historical texts, with the earliest mentions in the 17th century. The Turkologist Velyaminov-Zernov believed that it was the capture of the important cities of Tashkent, Yasi, and Sayram in 1598 by Tevvekel (Tauekel/Tavakkul) Khan that separated the Qazaqs, as they possessed the cities for only part of the 17th century. The theory suggests that the Qazaqs then divided among a wider territory after expanding from Zhetysu into most of the Dasht-i Qipchaq, with a focus on the trade available through the cities of the middle Syr Darya, to which Sayram and Yasi belonged. The Junior juz originated from the Nogais of the Nogai Horde.
Language
The Kazakh language is a member of the Turkic language family, as are Uzbek, Kyrgyz, Tatar, Uyghur, Turkmen, modern Turkish, Azeri and many other living and historical languages spoken in Eastern Europe, Central Asia, Xinjiang, and Siberia.
Kazakh belongs to the Kipchak (Northwestern) group of the Turkic language family. Kazakh is characterized, in distinction to other Turkic languages, by the presence of in place of reconstructed proto-Turkic and in place of ; furthermore, Kazakh has where other Turkic languages have .
Kazakh, like most of the Turkic language family lacks phonemic vowel length, and as such there is no distinction between long and short vowels.
Kazakh was written with the Arabic script until the mid-19th century, when a number of educated Kazakh poets from Muslim madrasahs incited a revolt against Russia. Russia's response was to set up secular schools and devise a way of writing Kazakh with the Cyrillic alphabet, which was not widely accepted. By 1917, the Arabic script for Kazakh was reintroduced, even in schools and local government.
In 1927, a Kazakh nationalist movement sprang up against the Soviet Union but was soon suppressed. As a result, the Arabic script for writing Kazakh was banned and the Latin alphabet was imposed as a new writing system. In an effort to Russianize the Kazakhs, the Latin alphabet was in turn replaced by the Cyrillic alphabet in 1940 by Soviet interventionists. Today, there are efforts to return to the Latin script.
Kazakh is a state (official) language in Kazakhstan. It is also spoken in the Ili region of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China, where the Arabic script is used, and in western parts of Mongolia (Bayan-Ölgii and Khovd province), where Cyrillic script is in use. European Kazakhs use the Latin alphabet.
Religion
Almost all ethnic Kazakhs today are Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi school. Their ancestors, however, believed in Shamanism and Tengrism, then Zoroastrianism, Buddhism and Christianity including Church of the East. Islam was first introduced to ancestors of modern Kazakhs during the 8th century when the Arab missionaries entered Central Asia. Islam initially took hold in the southern portions of Turkestan and thereafter gradually spread northward. Islam also took root because of the missionary work of Samanid rulers, notably in areas surrounding Taraz where a significant number of Turks accepted Islam. Over time, most ethnic Kazakhs became devout Muslims, with many performing the Hajj to Mecca and others choosing to perform the pilgrimage in the closer city of Turkistan (city), which was considered to be the “Mecca of the East”.
Additionally, in the late 14th century, the Golden Horde propagated Islam among Kazakhs and other tribes. Islam in Kazakhstan peaked during the era of the Kazakh Khanate, especially under rulers such as Ablai Khan and Kasym Khan. Another wave of conversions among the Kazakhs occurred during the 15th and 16th centuries via the efforts of Sufi orders. During the 18th century, Russian influence toward the region rapidly increased throughout Central Asia. Led by Catherine, the Russians initially demonstrated a willingness in allowing Islam to flourish as Muslim clerics were invited into the region to preach to the Kazakhs, whom the Russians viewed as "savages" and "ignorant" of morals and ethics. However, Russian policy gradually changed toward weakening Islam by introducing pre-Islamic elements of collective consciousness. Such attempts included methods of eulogizing pre-Islamic historical figures and imposing a sense of inferiority by sending Kazakhs to highly elite Russian military institutions. In response, Kazakh religious leaders attempted to bring in pan-Turkism, though many were persecuted as a result. During the Soviet era, Muslim institutions survived only in areas that Kazakhs significantly outnumbered non-Muslims, such as non-indigenous Russians, by everyday Muslim practices. In an attempt to conform Kazakhs into Communist ideologies, gender relations and other aspects of Kazakh culture were key targets of social change.
In more recent times, however, Kazakhs have gradually employed a determined effort in revitalizing Islamic religious institutions after the fall of the Soviet Union. Most Kazakhs continue to identify with their Islamic faith, and even more devotedly in the countryside. Those who claim descent from the original Muslim soldiers and missionaries of the 8th-century command substantial respect in their communities. Kazakh political figures have also stressed the need to sponsor Islamic awareness. For example, the Kazakh Foreign Affairs Minister, Marat Tazhin, recently emphasized that Kazakhstan attaches importance to the use of "positive potential Islam, learning of its history, culture and heritage."
Pre-Islamic beliefs, such as worship of the sky, the ancestors, and fire, continued to a great extent to be preserved among the common people, however. Kazakhs believed in the supernatural forces of good and evil spirits, of wood goblins and giants. To protect themselves from them and from the evil eye, Kazakhs wore protection beads and talismans. Shamanic beliefs are still widely preserved among Kazakhs, as well as the belief in the strength of the bearers of that worship, the shamans, which Kazakhs call bakhsy. Unlike the Siberian shamans, who used drums during their rituals, Kazakh shamans, who could also be men or women, played (with a bow) on a stringed instrument similar to a large violin. At present both Islamic and pre-Islamic beliefs continue to be found among Kazakhs, especially among the elderly. According to 2009 national census 39,172 Kazakhs are Christians.
Origin and ethnogenesis
Some scholars believed that Kazakhs are originally mix of Mongolic and Turkic tribes. The Kazakhs are the most northerly of the Central Asian peoples, inhabiting a large expanse of territory in northern Central Asia and southern Siberia known as the Kazakh Steppe. They are a formerly nomadic people of mixed Turkic and Mongol ancestry. Physically the majority of the Kazakhs resemble the Mongols, but culturally and linguistically they are closer to the nomadic Turkic tribes that settled the region in the eighth century. The tribal groups formed a powerful confederation that grew wealthy on the trade passing through the steppe lands along the fabled Silk Road. Invading Mongols conquered the vast region in the thirteenth century, destroying the sophisticated cities and the important irrigation systems. The Turkic inhabitants were scattered across the steppe as refugees. A division of the invading Mongols, known as the White Horde, began to settle the depopulated areas in 1456, slowly absorbing the surviving Turkic peoples. Taking the culture and language of the Turkic groups, the Kazakhs, as they came to be called, formed three new hordes, or ordas, under local khans.
Genetic studies
Genomic research found that Kazakhs are primarily of East Asian origin, and harbor two East Asian-related components, one commonly found among Northern Asian populations (associated with the Northeast Asian "Devil’s Gate_N" sample from the Amur region) and the other associated with historical Yellow River farmers. East-Eurasian ancestry generally ranges from ~75% to 94% among individual Kazakh samples. Neighboring Uzbeks, Kyrgyz, and Kalmyks, have the strongest resemblance to the Kazakh genome.
According to mitochondrial DNA studies (where sample consisted of only 246 individuals), the main maternal lineages of Kazakhs are: D (17.9%), C (16%), G (16%), A (3.25%), F (2.44%) of Eastern Eurasian origin (58%), and haplogroups H (14.1), T (5.5), J (3.6%), K (2.6%), U5 (3%), and others (12.2%) of western Eurasian origin (41%). An analysis of ancient Kazakhs found that East Asian haplogroups such as A and C did not begin to move into the Kazakh steppe region until around the time of the Xiongnu (1st millennia BCE), which is around the onset of the Sargat Culture as well .
Gokcumen et al. (2008) tested the mtDNA of a total of 237 Kazakhs from Altai Republic and found that they belonged to the following haplogroups: D(xD5) (15.6%), C (10.5%), F1 (6.8%), B4 (5.1%), G2a (4.6%), A (4.2%), B5 (4.2%), M(xC, Z, M8a, D, G, M7, M9a, M13) (3.0%), D5 (2.1%), G2(xG2a) (2.1%), G4 (1.7%), N9a (1.7%), G(xG2, G4) (0.8%), M7 (0.8%), M13 (0.8%), Y1 (0.8%), Z (0.4%), M8a (0.4%), M9a (0.4%), and F2 (0.4%) for a total of 66.7% mtDNA of Eastern Eurasian origin or affinity and H (10.5%), U(xU1, U3, U4, U5) (3.4%), J (3.0%), N1a (3.0%), R(xB4, B5, F1, F2, T, J, U, HV) (3.0%), I (2.1%), U5 (2.1%), T (1.7%), U4 (1.3%), U1 (0.8%), K (0.8%), N1b (0.4%), W (0.4%), U3 (0.4%), and HV (0.4%) for a total of 33.3% mtDNA of Western Eurasian origin or affinity. Comparing their samples of Kazakhs from Altai Republic with samples of Kazakhs from Kazakhstan and Kazakhs from Xinjiang, the authors have noted that "haplogroups A, B, C, D, F1, G2a, H, and M were present in all of them, suggesting that these lineages represent the common maternal gene pool from which these different Kazakh populations emerged." In every sample of Kazakhs, D (predominantly northern East Asian, such as Japanese, Okinawan, Korean, Manchu, Mongol, Han Chinese, Tibetan, etc., but also having several branches among indigenous peoples of the Americas) is the most frequently observed haplogroup (with nearly all of those Kazakhs belonging to the D4 subclade), and the second-most frequent haplogroup is either H (predominantly European) or C (predominantly indigenous Siberian, though some branches are present in the Americas, East Asia, and eastern and northern Europe).
In a sample of 54 Kazakhs and 119 Altaian Kazakh, the main paternal lineages of Kazakhs are: C (66.7% and 59.5%), O (9% and 26%), N (2% and 0%), J (4% and 0%), R (9% and 1%).
According to a large-scale Kazakhstani study (1294 persons) published in 2017, Kazakh males belong to the following Y-DNA haplogroups :
The distribution was inhomogeneous for some Y-DNA haplogroups: because of that lack of homogeneity among Kazakhs in regard to Y-chromosome DNA, the real percentage of present-day Kazakhs who belong to each Y-DNA haplogroup may differ from the percentages found in the study, depending on the proportion of each tribe in the total population of Kazakhs.
Population
Historical population of Kazakhs:
Huge drop in population of Ethnic Kazakhs between 1897 and 1959 years caused by colonial politics of Russian Empire, then genocide
which occurred during Stalin Regime. Sarah Cameron (Associate Professor of University of Maryland) described this genocide on her book, "The Hungry Steppe: Famine, Violence, and the Making of Soviet Kazakhstan".
Kazakh minorities
Russia
In Russia, the Kazakh population lives primarily in the regions bordering Kazakhstan. According to latest census (2002) there are 654,000 Kazakhs in Russia, most of whom are in the Astrakhan, Volgograd, Saratov, Samara, Orenburg, Chelyabinsk, Kurgan, Tyumen, Omsk, Novosibirsk, Altai Krai and Altai Republic regions. Though ethnically Kazakh, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, those people acquired Russian citizenship.
China
Kazakhs migrated into Dzungaria in the 18th century after the Dzungar genocide resulted in the native Buddhist Dzungar Oirat population being massacred.
Kazakhs, called "" in Chinese () are among 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. According to the census data of 2010, Kazakhs had a population of 1.462 million, ranking 17th among all ethnic groups in China. Thousands of Kazakhs fled to China during the 1932–1933 famine in Kazakhstan.
In 1936, after Sheng Shicai expelled 30,000 Kazakhs from Xinjiang to Qinghai, Hui led by General Ma Bufang massacred their fellow Muslim Kazakhs, until there were 135 of them left.
From Northern Xinjiang over 7,000 Kazakhs fled to the Tibetan-Qinghai plateau region via Gansu and were wreaking massive havoc so Ma Bufang solved the problem by relegating Kazakhs to designated pastureland in Qinghai, but Hui, Tibetans, and Kazakhs in the region continued to clash against each other. Tibetans attacked and fought against the Kazakhs as they entered Tibet via Gansu and Qinghai. In northern Tibet, Kazakhs clashed with Tibetan soldiers, and the Kazakhs were sent to Ladakh. Tibetan troops robbed and killed Kazakhs east of Lhasa at Chamdo when the Kazakhs were entering Tibet.
In 1934, 1935, and from 1936 to 1938 Qumil Elisqan led approximately 18,000 Kerey Kazakhs to migrate to Gansu, entering Gansu and Qinghai.
In China there is one Kazakh autonomous prefecture, the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region and three Kazakh autonomous counties: Aksai Kazakh Autonomous County in Gansu, Barkol Kazakh Autonomous County and Mori Kazakh Autonomous County in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. Many Kazakhs in China are not fluent in Standard Chinese, instead speaking the Kazakh language. "In that place wholly faraway", based on a Kazakh folk song, is very popular outside the Kazakh regions, especially in the Far Eastern countries of China, Japan and Korea.
At least one million Uyghurs, Kazakhs and other ethnic Muslims in Xinjiang have been detained in mass detention camps, termed "reeducation camps", aimed at changing the political thinking of detainees, their identities, and their religious beliefs.
Mongolia
In the 19th century, the advance of the Russian Empire troops pushed Kazakhs to neighboring countries. In around 1860, part of the Middle Jüz Kazakhs came to Mongolia and were allowed to settle down in Bayan-Ölgii, Western Mongolia and for most of the 20th century they remained an isolated, tightly knit community.
Ethnic Kazakhs (so-called Altaic Kazakhs or Altai-Kazakhs) live predominantly in Western Mongolia in Bayan-Ölgii Province (88.7% of the total population) and Khovd Province (11.5% of the total population, living primarily in Khovd city, Khovd sum and Buyant sum). In addition, a number of Kazakh communities can be found in various cities and towns spread throughout the country. Some of the major population centers with a significant Kazakh presence include Ulaanbaatar 90% in khoroo #4 of Nalaikh düüreg, Töv and Selenge provinces, Erdenet, Darkhan, Bulgan, Sharyngol (17.1% of population total) and Berkh cities.
Uzbekistan
400,000 Kazakhs live in Karakalpakstan and 100,000 in Tashkent province. Since the fall of the Soviet Union, the vast majority of Kazakhs are returning to Kazakhstan, mainly to Manghistau Oblast. Most Kazakhs in Karakalpakstan are descendants of one of the branches of "Junior juz" (Kişi juz) – Adai tribe.
Iran
During the Qajar period, Iran bought Kazakh slaves who were falsely masqueraded as Kalmyks by slave dealers from the Khiva and Turkmens.
Kazakhs of the Aday tribe inhabited the border regions of the Russian Empire with Iran since the 18th century. The Kazakhs made up 20% of the population of the Trans-Caspian region according to the 1897 census. As a result of the Kazakhs' rebellion against the Russian Empire in 1870, a significant number of Kazakhs became refugees in Iran.
Iranian Kazakhs live mainly in Golestan Province in northern Iran. According to ethnologue.org, in 1982 there were 3000 Kazakhs living in the city of Gorgan. Since the fall of the Soviet Union, the number of Kazakhs in Iran decreased because of emigration to their historical motherland.
Afghanistan
Kazakhs fled to Afghanistan in the 1930s escaping Bolshevik persecution. Kazakh historian Gulnar Mendikulova cites that there were between 20,000 and 24,000 Kazakhs in Afghanistan as of 1978. Some assimilated locally and cannot speak the Kazakh language.
As of 2021, there are about 200 Kazakhs remaining in Afghanistan according to Kazakhstan's foreign ministry. Locals claim that many live in Kunduz and others in Takhar Province, Baghlan Province, Mazar-i-Sharif and Kabul.
Afghan Kypchaks are Aimak (Taymani) tribe of Kazakh origin that can be found in Obe District to the east of the western Afghan province of Herat, between the rivers Farāh Rud and Hari Rud. There are approximately 440,000 Afghan Kipchaks.
Turkey
Turkey received refugees from among the Pakistan-based Kazakhs, Turkmen, Kirghiz, and Uzbeks numbering 3,800 originally from Afghanistan during the Soviet–Afghan War. Kayseri, Van, Amasya, Çiçekdağ, Gaziantep, Tokat, Urfa, and Serinyol received via Adana the Pakistan-based Kazakh, Turkmen, Kirghiz, and Uzbek refugees numbering 3,800 with UNHCR assistance.
In 1954 and 1969 Kazakhs migrated into Anatolia's Salihli, Develi and Altay regions. Turkey became home to refugee Kazakhs.
The Kazakh Turks Foundation (Kazak Türkleri Vakfı) is an organization of Kazakhs in Turkey.
Culture
Music
One of the most commonly used traditional musical instruments of the Kazakhs is the dombra, a plucked lute with two strings. It is often used to accompany solo or group singing. Another popular instrument is kobyz, a bow instrument played on the knees. Along with other instruments, both instruments play a key role in the traditional Kazakh orchestra. A notable composer is Kurmangazy, who lived in the 19th century. After studying in Moscow, Gaziza Zhubanova became the first woman classical composer in Kazakhstan, whose compositions reflect Kazakh history and folklore. A notable singer of the Soviet epoch is Roza Rymbaeva, she was a star of the trans-Soviet-Union scale. A notable Kazakh rock band is Urker, performing in the genre of ethno-rock, which synthesises rock music with the traditional Kazakh music.
Notable Kazakhs
See also
Chala Kazakh
Kazakh Americans
Kazakhs in Canada
Kazakhs in Russia
Turkic peoples
List of Kazakhs
References
External links
World Association of the Kazakhs
Kazakh tribes
‘Contemporary Falconry in Altai-Kazakh in Western Mongolia’The International Journal of Intangible Heritage (vol.7), pp. 103–111. 2012.
‘Ethnoarhchaeology of Horse-Riding Falconry’, The Asian Conference on the Social Sciences 2012 – Official Conference Proceedings, pp. 167–182. 2012.
‘Intangible Cultural Heritage of Arts and Knowledge for Coexisting with Golden Eagles: Ethnographic Studies in “Horseback Eagle-Hunting” of Altai-Kazakh Falconers’, The International Congress of Humanities and Social Sciences Research, pp. 307–316. 2012.
‘Ethnographic Study of Altaic Kazakh Falconers’, Falco: The Newsletter of the Middle East Falcon Research Group 41, pp. 10–14. 2013.
‘Ethnoarchaeology of Ancient Falconry in East Asia’, The Asian Conference on Cultural Studies 2013 – Official Conference Proceedings, pp. 81–95. 2013.
Soma, Takuya. 2014. 'Current Situation and Issues of Transhumant Animal Herding in Sagsai County, Bayan Ulgii Province, Western Mongolia', E-journal GEO 9(1): pp. 102–119.
Soma, Takuya. 2015. Human and Raptor Interactions in the Context of a Nomadic Society: Anthropological and Ethno-Ornithological Studies of Altaic Kazakh Falconry and its Cultural Sustainability in Western Mongolia. University of Kassel Press, Kassel (Germany) .
Ethnic groups in Russia
Ethnic groups in Kazakhstan
Ethnic groups in Kyrgyzstan
Ethnic groups in Mongolia
Ethnic groups in Tajikistan
Ethnic groups in Turkmenistan
Ethnic groups in Uzbekistan
Muslim communities of Russia
Turkic peoples of Asia
Ethnic groups in Iran
Modern nomads
Pastoralists
Nomadic groups in Eurasia
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211629
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R.%20L.%20Nettleship
|
R. L. Nettleship
|
Richard Lewis Nettleship (17 December 1846 – 25 August 1892) was an English philosopher.
Life
The youngest brother of Henry Nettleship, he was educated at Uppingham and Balliol College, Oxford, where he held a scholarship. He won the Hertford scholarship, the Ireland, the Gaisford Prize for Greek verse, a Craven scholarship and the Arnold prize, but took only a second class in literae humaniores.
Nettleship became fellow and tutor of his college and succeeded to the work of T. H. Green, whose writings he edited with a memoir. He was fond of music and outdoor sports, and rowed in his college boat. He died on 25 August 1892, from the effects of exposure on Mont Blanc, and was buried at Chamonix.
Works
Nettleship left an unfinished work on Plato, part of which was published after his death, together with his lectures on logic and some essays. His long essay The Theory of Education in the Republic of Plato was published in Hellenica.
His thought was idealistic, embodying elements of Hegelianism but also, in its account of the Platonic Forms (eide, idiai), markedly influenced by a particular reading of the Kantian categories. Many saw him as a model and example of philosophical honest and persistent philosophical inquiry. This did not prevent the undergraduates of Balliol from a gentle parody in the 1880 Masque of Balliol:
Roughly, so to say, you know,
I am N-TTL-SH-P or so;
You are gated after Hall,
That's all. I mean that's nearly all.
The inchoateness of Nettleship's philosophical thinking is more apparent in the Philosophical Remains than in the separate volume of lectures on Plato's Republic. From that volume a definite view of the aims, limits and scope of Plato's text emerges clearly. Few historians of philosophy would now accept, however, Nettleship's view of the analogy of the Line (509e-511c, 534a)
as involving throughout a temporal progression.
Selected bibliography
[A]
[B]
See also
British idealism
References
1846 births
1892 deaths
19th-century English non-fiction writers
19th-century English philosophers
19th-century essayists
19th-century philosophers
Deaths from hypothermia
English essayists
English logicians
English male non-fiction writers
Idealists
Kant scholars
Lecturers
People educated at Uppingham School
Philosophers of history
Philosophers of logic
Philosophy academics
Philosophy writers
Platonists
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiang%20Mai%20province
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Chiang Mai province
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Chiang Mai (, ; , ) is the second-largest Province (changwat) of Thailand. It lies in upper northern Thailand. It is bordered by Chiang Rai to the northeast, Lampang and Lamphun to the south, Tak to the southwest, Mae Hong Son to the west, and Shan State of Burma to the north. The capital, Chiang Mai, is north of Bangkok.
Geography
Chiang Mai province is about from Bangkok in the Mae Ping River basin and is on average at elevation. Surrounded by the mountain ranges of the Thai highlands, it covers an area of approximately . The mountains of the Daen Lao Range () at the north end of the province, the Thanon Thong Chai Range () with the highest mountain in Thailand, Doi Inthanon at , stretching in a north–south direction, and the Khun Tan Range in the east of the province are covered by rain forest. The Mae Ping, one of the major tributaries of the Chao Phraya River, originates in the Daen Lao mountains. Several national parks are in the province: Doi Inthanon, Doi Suthep-Pui, Ob Luang, Sri Lanna, Huai Nam Dang, Mae Wang, and Pha Daeng. The total forest area is or 69.6 percent of provincial area.
History
Chiang Mai the capital of Chiang Mai province was capital of the Lanna Kingdom after its founding in 1296, during the same period of time as the establishment of the Sukhothai Kingdom. From then, Chiang Mai not only became the capital and cultural core of the Lanna Kingdom, it was also the centre of Buddhism in northern Thailand and King Meng Rai built innumerable temples.
In 1558, Chiang Mai became a colony of the First Toungoo Empire. Chiang Mai remained its colony for more than 200 years, until in the Burmese–Siamese War (1775–1776). In 1774 the Burmese colonial regime were finally driven out of Chiang Mai by a coalition of Lanna and Siamese forces and it then became a tributary state of Siam, which later installed a Lanna chieftain ally, Kawila, to independently rule over Lampang and Chiang Mai region as a monarch.
In the reign of King Rama V of Siam, under his administrative centralization policy and due to inept of Chiang Mai ruling family, Chiang Mai eventually lost her independent, was annexed and became a second level subdivision of Siam as an administrative unit of Monthon Phayap, the remains of the Lanna Kingdom, was dissolved.
From 1933 on, Chiang Mai received its status as a "province" of Siam and remained so until the present day.
Demographics
13.4 percent of the population in the province are members of hill tribes:
Akha the largest population of any hill tribe in the region. Originating from Tibet and Southern China, they dwell on high ground around above sea-level. Within their villages they build a spirit gateway to protect them from evil spirits.
Hmong from southern China. Prefer higher elevations. They raise livestock and grow rice, corn, tobacco, and cabbage. Known for their embroidery and silver.
Karen occupy valleys and riverbanks.
Lahu from southern China and live in high areas. They are known as hunters and planters.
Lisu from southern China and Tibet are renowned for their colorful dress and also build their dwellings on high poles. They harvest rice and corn and their men are skilled in hunting.
Tai Lue live in dwellings of usually only a single room wooden house built on high poles. They are skilled in weaving.
Tai Yai, Burmese in origin, harvest rice, farm, raise cattle and trade. Their craftsmanship lies in weaving, pottery, wood carving and bronze ware.
Yao reside on mountainsides and grow corn and other crops. They are skilled blacksmiths, silversmiths and embroiders.
Symbols
The seal of the province shows a white elephant in a glass pavilion. The white elephant is a royal symbol in Thailand, and it is depicted to remember the offering of a white elephant by Thammalangka, a ruler of Chiang Mai, to his overlord, King Rama II of Bangkok. The pavilion symbolizes that Buddhism prospered in Chiang Mai, especially when in 1477 the teachings of Buddha, the Tripitaka, were reviewed.
The provincial flower and tree is the "flame of the forest" (Butea monosperma).
The provincial slogan is In the shadow of Mount Doi Suthep, blessed with rice customs and traditions, beautiful wild flowers, magnificent Nakhon Phing.
Administrative divisions and postal codes
Chiang Mai is subdivided into 25 districts (amphoe). The districts are further divided into 204 subdistricts (tambon) and 2,066 villages (muban).
Local government
As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Chiang Mai Provincial Administration Organisation () and 121 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Chiang Mai has city (thesaban nakhon) status. Mae Jo, Mae Hia, Mueang Kaen Phatthana and Ton Pao have town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 116 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 89 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon).
Climate
Chiang Mai has a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen Aw), tempered by the low latitude and moderate elevation, with warm to hot weather year-round, though nighttime conditions during the dry season can be cool and are much lower than daytime highs. The maximum temperature ever recorded is in May 2005.
Human achievement index 2017
Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.
Transportation
Road: Chiang Mai is on Highway 11, the only 2-digit road number in the province. Other roads connect the city of Chiang Mai with the north and south of the province, as well as with the east towards Chiang Rai province.
Train: Chiang Mai railway station is the northern terminus of the Northern Line, operated by the State Railway of Thailand.
Air: Chiang Mai International Airport (CNX) is one of the seven Thai international airports under the aegis of the Airports of Thailand Public Company Limited (AOT). As Chiang Mai International Airport is the major gateway to northern Thailand, it plays an important role in promoting travel and tourism throughout the northern region. Today, 14 airlines serve the airport and more than 3,000,000 passengers, 15,000 flights, and 16,000 tons of cargo are handled annually.*Songthaew
Tourism
Chiang Mai province is the tourist hub of the north and one of Thailand's most important tourist destinations.It is considered one of the most scenic provinces in the country due to its mountain ranges, valleys, flora, and fauna. For example, the Hang Dong Canyon is coveted as a great tourist attraction. Furthermore, unlike most of Thailand, in some months, the climate in the north and Chiang Mai is cool, fresh, and misty.
Health
Each amphoe of Chiang Mai has its own hospital, but among the largest are located in Mueang Chiang Mai District and include Maharaj Nakorn Chiang Mai Hospital and Nakornping Hospital.
Local products
Chiang Mai is a handicrafts centre, with a variety of antiques, silver jewellery, and embroidery, Thai silks and cottons, basketry, celadon, silverware, furniture, lacquerware, woodcarvings, and parasols.
Local culture
The north of Thailand's culture is Lanna in origin and the people are proud of their northern roots. The region is home to distinctive foods, music, arts, way of life, and even language. Chiang Mai is home to various hill tribes and their own distinctive cultures.
Local food
Nam phrik ong is a type of Nam phrik chili paste which is made of minced pork and tomatoes. It is usually eaten with soft-boiled vegetables, pork crackling, or deep-fried crunchy rice cakes.
Nam phrik num meaning "chili paste young man", is another kind of paste which can be eaten with pork crackling.
Sai ua is a local sausage that is very aromatic and spicy and is usually eaten with sticky rice.
Kaeng meaning "curry", is not made with coconut milk in the north.
Kaeng hang-le is northern-style pork curry
Kaeng om is a spicy curry consisting of intestines
Kaeng khae is a spicy curry consisting mainly of vegetables.
Khanom chin nam ngiao is a traditional northern noodle dish with chicken or pork.
Khao soi is a noodle dish which can be made from chicken, pork, or beef made with coconut milk and garnished with chopped fresh shallots, pickled cabbage, chilli paste to taste, and a slice of fresh lime.
Sports
There are two main sport stadia in Chiang Mai and its environs: 700th Anniversary Stadium and province Stadium. 700th Anniversary Stadium is on Klongchonpratan Road, from Chiang Mai University. There are swimming pools, diving pool, basketball arena, and 11 tennis courts.
Sister cities
The province is twinned with eight provinces/states.
Shanghai, China (2000)
Yogyakarta, Indonesia (2007)
Qingdao, China (2008)
Chongqing, China (2008)
Hokkaido, Japan (2013)
Bursa, Turkey (2013)
Chiang Tung, Myanmar (2014)
Chengdu, China (2015)
Notable inhabitants
Thaksin Shinawatra (Thai:ทักษิณ ชินวัตร) (born 1949), politician and businessman
Yingluck Shinawatra (Thai:ยิ่งลักษณ์ ชินวัตร) (born 1967), politician
Gallery
References
External links
Chiang Mai Creative City Page
Website of Chiang Mai provincial administration
Website of Chiang Mai Provincial Administration Organization
Provinces of Thailand
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torresian%20crow
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Torresian crow
|
The Torresian crow (Corvus orru), also called the Australian crow or Papuan crow, is a passerine bird in the crow family native to the north and west of Australia and nearby islands in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. The species has a black plumage, beak and mouth with white irises. The base of the feathers on the head and neck are white. The Torresian crow is slightly larger with a more robust bill than the morphologically similar little crow.
Taxonomy
The Torresian crow was described by the French ornithologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1850. The origin of the specific epithet orru is not known but may be derived from a Papuan name.
There are three subspecies:
C. o. latirostris Meyer, AB, 1884 – east Lesser Sunda Islands
C. o. orru Bonaparte, 1850 – Maluku Islands, New Guinea, D'Entrecasteaux Islands. and Louisiade Archipelago
C. o. cecilae Mathews, 1912 – west, central and northern Australia
The Bismarck crow (Corvus insularis) on the Bismarck Archipelago was formerly considered a subspecies. In Central Australia southwest of Alice Springs, the Pitjantjatjara term for race ceciliae is kaanka. The term wati kaanka refers to a light-fingered man or someone who hangs around suspiciously.
Description
The Torresian crow is a large corvid, about the same size (48–53 cm in length) as the Eurasian carrion crow but with a more robust bill and slightly longer legs. The plumage of the Torresian Crow is glossy black on the back and dull black on the breast with inconspicuous throat hackles. Its tail is broad and has a distinctive square-shaped tip. Its bill is dark grey and about the same length as the head. The legs and feet are a similar dark grey color with pink foot soles. The Torresian crow has the typical white iris of the other Australasian Corvus species with a fine, blue eye-ring. However, it can be distinguished from most except the little crow by the base of the head and neck feathers being white. The white feather bases are revealed when ruffled. Birds of this species characteristically shuffle their wings after alighting. Sexes are identical in their appearance; however, juveniles lack glossy dorsal feathers and have blue eyes, rather than white, up to about nine months of age.
The Torresian crow is not to be confused with the Australian raven which has an almost identical appearance. Despite their visual similarities, the Australian raven and crow have very different and unique calls.
Distribution and habitat
The Torresian crow has an extensive distribution across Australia, Papua New Guinea in particular the Bismarck Archipelago and some islands in Indonesia, in particular the Moluccas. The range of the mainland Australian race C. orru ceciliae extends from the tropical north of Australia to as far south as Forster on the east coast of New South Wales and to between Geraldton and Norseman in South Western Australia.
The Torresian crow occupies almost any habitat within its geographic range where there is a permanent source of water. The species is common in habitats such as tropical rainforests, eucalyptus woodland, open scrub, beaches, swamps, offshore islands. The Torresian crow is also well adapted to fringe habitats including farmland, towns and cities. On farms in much of Northern Australia, they are the most numerous bird species and are considered a pest by farmers, as they damage crops such as sweetcorn, peanuts, wheat and many kinds of fruit. Torresian crows are common in urban landscapes and many cities and towns in Australia support large populations. In the arid zones of central Australia, the species is sparsely distributed and confined to areas with permanent water.
Two other races occur on various islands to the north: C. orru orru in Papua New Guinea and the Moluccas), and C. orru latirostris on Tanimbar and Babar Islands.
Ecology
Expansion of the Torresian crow population in Australia
The Torresian crow, similarly to many corvids, is an opportunistic species and has adapted to a broad range of habitats. The population size of Torresian crows in Australia is increasing, possibly owing to the expansion of agricultural activity in arid areas, as well as increased urbanization. Studies on the distribution of Torresian Crows across Australia, between 1993 and 2004, have shown that the geographic range of the species has expanded into highly urbanized regions including many of Australia's largest cities, as well as further south into arid areas of central Australia. The continued urban growth of Australia in the past decades has resulted in large areas of natural subtropical and eucalypt sclerophyll forest to be replaced by suburbs and parkland, especially in the regions surrounding major cities. This increased urbanisation of land has been associated with the observed proliferation of Torresian crows. Over a long term study in urban to suburban areas of South-East Queensland, the abundance of Torresian crows was observed to have increased by about 40%. The density of the species in Brisbane has become such that the noise resulting from the congregation of large numbers of individuals in communal roosting sites located in urban areas, has become a source of complaints by local residents.
The population of Torresian crows has also expanded in rural areas across Australia. Increased development of land for agricultural activities is likely to be a significant factor influencing the rising population size of the species outside urban areas. In rural areas, Torresian crows have been found to congregate in agricultural environments and form large flocks. Since the species is reliant on a permanent source of water for their survival, large groups of Torresian crows are most commonly observed on cultivated land in the tropics and in the East of the country where annual rainfall is relatively higher. Whilst the distribution of Torresian crows has expanded further across all of Australia, the density of the species in arid areas remains low due to a lack of sustainable water sources. In the arid centre, the species is primarily confined to localised areas where the amount of water in streams and waterholes is enhanced by high runoff in surrounding regions. However, the development of irrigation systems and wells by the cattle and farming industry may have provided the species with sufficiently stable sources of water to allow them to establish in areas that were previously untenable.
Edge species
The expansion of corvid species populations in urban areas worldwide is due to their ability to exploit edge habitats. This has allowed corvids including the Torresian crow to take advantage of urban growth by exploiting the associated increase in anthropogenic food resources and by dominating the resulting urban habitat, reducing the competition imposed by other species.
One of the reasons the Torresian crow is able to take advantage of increased urbanisation is its diet; a significant proportion of the diet of the species consists of carrion, which is abundant in urban environments due to road kill. Anthropogenic waste also provides Torresian crows with a plentiful source of food requiring minimal foraging. Furthermore, food resources of the Torresian crow may be indirectly supplemented by the modification of land coverage, where native forests are replaced by lawns and parkland that are rich in invertebrates which also represent a significant part of the species’ diet. The abundance of food means that little intra-specific aggression is observed since resources are not economically defensible. Finally, the large size of Torresian crows allows them to dominate food resources and hence experience little competition from other smaller urban bird species.
A second aspect allowing the Torresian crow to expand into urban areas is its breeding requirements. The species only requires very minimal breeding space making it well adapted to living in a dense urban landscape. This allows the formation of large communal roosts resulting in a high population density. Therefore, the carrying capacity of urban habitats for Torresian crows is comparatively much higher than that of rural areas where resources are more limited.
The urban sprawl in Australia is continually creating new habitat for the species and is likely to be a strong contributing factor in the observed increase in population size. Even relatively small urban developments on previously untouched land can represent significant increases in breeding space for Torresian crows to colonize, given the large carrying capacity of these habitats.
Behaviour
Like other corvids, Torresian crows are intelligent and adaptable and have been known to steal food from larger birds by working in teams, and to feed on poisonous prey without ingesting poison (see below) among other behaviours. Torresian crows are large and aggressive birds, with females displaying the more aggressive behaviour and dominating most other species except large birds of prey and the Australian magpie. They have been observed to attack larger birds of prey, particularly wedge-tailed eagles and most owl species in defence of their nest or territory. Smaller birds will therefore attack crows in defence of their nests, with willie wagtails and pied butcherbirds being notable examples. Noisy miners and Australian magpies are among the few birds that are successful in driving Torresian crows out of their territories, with the latter species being one of the smaller bird species that dominate and displace crows where they meet. Between the months of January and August, large groups of crows congregate and roam nomadically across farmlands, forests and city suburbs. These groups consist of crows of all ages; however, from September to December, many leave these flocks to breed in temporary territories, with the nomadic flock sizes reducing significantly to only young and old crows. Each pair of crows returns to the same territory each year, but territories may be taken over by other pairs from year to year.
Diet
Torresian crows are omnivores and consume a wide range of foods. Their diet varies significantly between habitats with birds living in urban environments relying to a greater extent on anthropogenically-related food sources compared to those living in natural habitats. Outside urbanised areas, the diet of Torresian crows primarily consists of invertebrates, berries and carrion. Birds of this species have also been observed to take stranded fish on the seashore, roadkill, fruit, grain, smaller birds and rodents. In Northern Australia Torresian crows have developed a remarkable technique to kill and eat the introduced poisonous cane toad without ingesting the poison it secretes from its skin and poison glands on either side of its head, by flipping it onto its back and delivering a lethal blow with its powerful bill. The crows only feed on the intestines and part of the thighs of the toad, thus avoiding the poison. This predation and consumption technique is culturally transmitted amongst crows of the species.
For further information on the adaptation of Torresian crows to cane toads see: Adaptations of Australian animals to cane toads
Nesting
The main breeding period occurs from August to January, with most eggs being laid in September and October. The stick nest is built high in a tree, usually a eucalypt, however other locations such as power pylons and tall buildings are occasionally chosen. Two to four eggs are laid which the female incubates for roughly twenty days and then is assisted by the male in rearing the chicks for around forty days until they leave the nest. Young Torresian crows then stay with their parents for several months after fledging, before joining the nomadic flock. Torresian crows aggressively defend their nest from goannas, snakes and birds of prey with aggressive dive-bombs. Dogs, cats and humans are also occasionally swooped in nest defence, however not nearly as aggressively as notorious species such as Australian magpies and masked lapwings.
Voice
Their voice is quite different from the Australian raven: whilst the more standard loud penetrating Australian raven/crow call "Fark! Fark!" may occur there is often a more nasal, metallic clattering "uk-uk-uk-uk-uk" or sometimes an "ok-ok-ok-ok" or "Ar-ar-argh", sometimes with an upward inflection, somewhat like a cat meow. This may be following the more standard call or may be delivered in isolation.
References
Further reading
External links
xeno-canto: Sound recordings of the Torresian crow
Torresian crow
Birds of Australia
Birds of the Maluku Islands
Birds of New Guinea
Torresian crow
Torresian crow
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan%20of%20Acre
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Joan of Acre
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Joan of Acre (April 1272 – 23 April 1307) was an English princess, a daughter of Edward I of England and Eleanor of Castile. The name "Acre" derives from her birthplace in the Holy Land while her parents were on a crusade.
She was married twice; her first husband was Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Gloucester, one of the most powerful nobles in her father's kingdom; her second husband was Ralph de Monthermer, a squire in her household whom she married in secret.
Joan is most notable for the claim that miracles have allegedly taken place at her grave, and for the multiple references to her in literature.
Birth and childhood
Joan (or Joanna, as she is sometimes called) of Acre was born in the spring of 1272 in the Kingdom of Acre, Outremer, now in modern Israel, while her parents, Edward I and Eleanor of Castile, were on crusade. At the time of Joan's birth, her grandfather, Henry III, was still alive and thus her father was not yet king of England. Her parents departed from Acre shortly after her birth, travelling to Sicily and Spain before leaving Joan with Eleanor's mother, Joan, Countess of Ponthieu, in France. Joan lived for several years in France where she spent her time being educated by a bishop and "being thoroughly spoiled by an indulgent grandmother." Joan was free to play among the "vine clad hills and sunny vales" surrounding her grandmother's home, although she required "judicious surveillance."
As Joan was growing up with her grandmother, her father was back in England, already arranging marriages for his daughter. He hoped to gain both political power and more wealth with his daughter's marriage, so he conducted the arrangement in a very "business-like style". He finally found a man suitable to marry Joan (aged 5 at the time), Hartman, son of King Rudolph I of Germany. Edward then brought her home from France for the first time to meet him. As she had spent her entire life away from Edward and Eleanor, when she returned she "stood in no awe of her parents" and had a fairly distanced relationship with them.
Before he was able to meet or marry Joan, Hartman died. It was reported that he had fallen through a patch of shallow ice while "amusing himself in skating" while a letter sent to the King himself stated that Hartman had set out on a boat to visit his father amidst a terrible fog and the boat had smashed into a rock, drowning him.
First marriage
Edward arranged a second marriage almost immediately after the death of Hartman. Gilbert de Clare, Earl of Gloucester, who was almost 30 years older than Joan and newly divorced, was his first choice. The earl resigned his lands to Edward upon agreeing to get them back when he married Joan, as well as agreed on a dower of 2,000 silver marks. By the time all of these negotiations were finished, Joan was 12 years old. Gilbert de Clare became very enamoured with Joan, and even though she had to marry him regardless of how she felt, he still tried to woo her. He bought her expensive gifts and clothing to try to win favour with her. The couple were married on 30 April 1290 at Westminster Abbey, and had four children together. They were:
Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Hertford
Eleanor de Clare
Margaret de Clare
Elizabeth de Clare
Joan's first husband, Gilbert de Clare, died on 7 December 1295.
Secret second marriage
Joan had been a widow for only a little over a year when she caught the eye of Ralph de Monthermer, a squire in Joan's father's household. Joan fell in love and convinced her father to have Monthermer knighted. It was unheard of in European royalty for a noble lady to even converse with a man who had not won or acquired importance in the household. However, Joan secretly married Ralph in January 1297. Joan's father was already planning another marriage for Joan to Amadeus V, Count of Savoy, to occur on 16 March 1297. Being already married, unbeknownst to her father, Joan was in a dangerous predicament.
Joan sent her four young children to their grandfather, in hopes that their sweetness would win Edward's favor, but her plan did not work. The king soon discovered his daughter's intentions, but not yet aware that she had already committed to them, he seized Joan's lands and continued to arrange her marriage to Amadeus of Savoy. Soon after the seizure of her lands, Joan told her father that she had married Ralph. The king was enraged and retaliated by immediately imprisoning Monthermer at Bristol Castle. The people of the land had differing opinions on Joan's predicament. It has been argued that the noblemen who were most upset were those who wanted her hand in marriage.
With regard to the matter, Joan famously said, "It is not considered ignominious, nor disgraceful, for a great earl to take a poor and mean woman to wife; neither, on the other hand, is it worthy of blame, or too difficult a thing for a countess to promote to honour a gallant youth." Coming at the time of a pregnancy which may have been obvious, Joan's statement seemed to soften Edward's attitude towards the situation. Her first child by Monthermer was born in October 1297; by the summer of 1297, when the marriage was revealed to the king, Joan's condition would certainly have been apparent, helping to convince Edward that he had no choice but to recognise his daughter's second marriage. Edward I eventually relented, for the sake of his daughter, and released Monthermer from imprisonment in August 1297. Monthermer paid homage on 2 August, was granted the titles of Earl of Gloucester and Earl of Hertford, and rose in the King's favour during Joan's lifetime.
Monthermer and Joan had four children:
Mary de Monthermer, born October 1297. In 1306 her grandfather King Edward I arranged for her to marry Duncan Macduff, 8th Earl of Fife.
Joan de Monthermer, born 1299, became a nun at Amesbury.
Thomas de Monthermer, 2nd Baron Monthermer, born 1301.
Edward de Monthermer, born 1304 and died 1339.
Relationship with family
Joan of Acre was the seventh of Edward I and Eleanor's fourteen children. Most of her elder siblings died before the age of seven, and many of her younger siblings died before adulthood. Those who survived to adulthood were Joan, her younger brother, Edward of Caernarfon (later Edward II), and four of her sisters: Eleanor, Margaret, Mary, and Elizabeth.
Joan, like her siblings, was raised outside her parents' household. She lived with her grandmother in Ponthieu for four years, and was then entrusted to the same caregivers who looked after her siblings. Edward I did not have a close relationship with most of his children while they were growing up, yet "he seemed fonder of his daughters than his sons."
However, Joan of Acre's independent nature caused numerous conflicts with her father. Her father disapproved of her leaving court after her marriage to the Earl of Gloucester, and in turn "seized seven robes that had been made for her". He also strongly disapproved of her second marriage to Ralph de Monthermer, a squire in her household, even to the point of attempting to force her to marry someone else. While Edward ultimately developed a cordial relationship with Monthermer, even granting him two earldoms, there appears to have been a notable difference in Edward's treatment of Joan as compared to the treatment of the rest of her siblings. For instance, her father famously paid messengers substantially when they brought news of the birth of grandchildren, but did not do this upon the birth of Joan's daughter.
Joan retained a fairly tight bond with her siblings. She and Monthermer both maintained a close relationship with her brother, Edward, which was maintained through letters. After Edward became estranged from his father and lost his royal seal, "Joan offered to lend him her seal".
Death
Joan died on 23 April 1307, at the manor of Clare in Suffolk. The cause of her death remains unclear, though one popular theory is that she died during childbirth, a common cause of death at the time. While Joan's age in 1307 (about 35) and the chronology of her earlier pregnancies with Ralph de Monthermer suggest that this could well be the case, historians have not confirmed the cause of her death.
Less than four months after her death, Joan's father died. Joan's widower, Ralph de Monthermer, lost the title of Earl of Gloucester soon after the deaths of his wife and father-in-law. The earldom of Gloucester was given to Joan's son from her first marriage, Gilbert, who was its rightful holder. Monthermer continued to hold a nominal earldom in Scotland, which had been conferred on him by Edward I, until his death.
Joan's burial place has been the cause of some interest and debate. She is interred in the Augustinian priory at Clare, which had been founded by her first husband's ancestors and where many of them were also buried. Allegedly, in 1357, Joan's daughter, Elizabeth De Burgh, claimed to have "inspected her mother's body and found the corpse to be intact", which in the eyes of the Roman Catholic Church is an indication of sanctity. This claim was only recorded in a fifteenth-century chronicle, however, and its details are uncertain, especially the statement that her corpse was in such a state of preservation that "when her paps [breasts] were pressed with hands, they rose up again." Some sources further claim that miracles took place at Joan's tomb, but no cause for her beatification or canonisation has ever been introduced.
Joan in fiction
Joan of Acre makes an appearance in Virginia Henley's historical romance Infamous. In the book, Joan, known as Joanna, is described as a promiscuous young princess, vain, shallow and spoilt. In the novel she is only given one daughter, when she historically had eight children. There is no evidence that supports this picture of Joan.
In The Love Knot by Vanessa Alexander, Joan of Acre is an important character. The author portrays a completely different view of the princess from the one in Henley's novel. The Love Knot tells the story of the love affair between Ralph de Monthermer and Joan of Acre through the discovery of a series of letters the two had written to each other.
Between historians and novelists, Joan has appeared in various texts as either an independent and spirited woman or a spoiled brat. In Lives of the Princesses of England by Mary Anne Everett Green, Joan is portrayed as a "giddy princess" and neglectful mother. Many have agreed to this characterisation; however, some authors think there is little evidence to support the assumption that Joan of Acre was a neglectful or uncaring mother.
Ancestry
References
Bibliography
Costain, Thomas. A History of the Plantagenets, Vol III.
Green, Mary Anna Everett. Lives of the Princesses of England. London: Henry Colburn, 1850. Google Books full text
Parsons, John Carmi. Eleanor of Castile. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995.
1272 births
1307 deaths
13th-century English people
14th-century English people
13th-century English women
14th-century English women
Deaths in childbirth
English princesses
Gloucester
House of Plantagenet
English people of French descent
English people of Portuguese descent
English people of Italian descent
Burials at Clare Priory
Daughters of kings
Children of Edward I of England
|
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] |
211640
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little%20crow%20%28bird%29
|
Little crow (bird)
|
The little crow (Corvus bennetti) is an Australian species of crow, very similar to the Torresian crow in having white bases to the neck and head feathers (shown when ruffled in strong wind) but slightly smaller (38–45 cm in length) and with a slightly smaller bill. It has the same white iris that distinguish the Australian species from all other Corvus except a few island species to the north of Australia, and one from Eurasia, the jackdaw (Corvus monedula). Like the Australian raven, this species has a blue ring around the pupil.
Distribution and habitat
It ranges over western and central Australia, often inhabiting very dry, near desert areas. It frequents small country towns and cultivated areas, where its flocks have reminded people of
the European rook.
Etymology
C. bennetti was named in honour of the New South Wales ornithologist and collector of natural history specimens, Kenric Harold Bennett.
Behaviour
Diet
Its food is mainly taken from the ground and includes insects, cereals and other seeds. It is less of a scavenger than the Torresian crow.
Nesting
It usually nests in small, loose colonies, building stick nests lined with mud (the only Australian species of Corvid known to do this).
Call
The little crow's calls range from a harsh hark-hark-hark-hark to a more raven like ah-ah-ah.
Image links
Little Crow 1
Little Crow 2
Little crow series
References
little crow
little crow
Endemic birds of Australia
little crow
little crow
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Starkey
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David Starkey
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David Robert Starkey (born 3 January 1945) is an English historian and radio and television presenter, with views that he describes as conservative. The only child of Quaker parents, he attended Kendal Grammar School before studying at Cambridge through a scholarship. There he specialised in Tudor history, writing a thesis on King Henry VIII's household. From Cambridge, he moved to the London School of Economics, where he was a lecturer in history until 1998. He has written several books on the Tudors.
Starkey first appeared on television in 1977. While a regular contributor to the BBC Radio 4 debate programme The Moral Maze, his acerbic tongue earned him the sobriquet of "rudest man in Britain"; his frequent appearances on Question Time have been received with criticism and applause. Starkey has presented several historical documentaries. In 2002, he signed a £2 million contract with Channel 4 for 25 hours of programming, and in 2011 was a contributor on the Channel 4 series Jamie's Dream School.
Starkey was widely censured for a racist comment he made during a podcast interview with Darren Grimes in June 2020, for which he later apologised. Immediately afterwards, he resigned as an honorary fellow of his alma mater, Fitzwilliam College, had several honorary doctorates and fellowships revoked, book contracts and memberships of learned societies cancelled, and his Medlicott Medal withdrawn.
Early years and education
Starkey was born on 3 January 1945 in Kendal, Westmorland. He is the only child of Robert Starkey and Elsie Lyon, Quakers who had married 10 years previously in Bolton, at a Friends meeting house. His father, the son of a cotton spinner, was a foreman in a washing-machine factory, while his mother followed in her father's footsteps and became a cotton weaver and later a cleaner. He was raised in an austere and frugal environment of near-poverty, with his parents often unemployed for long periods of time; an environment which, he later stated, taught him "the value of money". Starkey is equivocal about his mother, describing her as both "wonderful", in that she helped develop his ambition, and "monstrous", intellectually frustrated and living through her son. "She was a wonderful but also very frightening parent. Finally, she was a Pygmalion. She wanted a creature, she wanted something she had made." Her dominance contrasted sharply to his father, who was "poetic, reflective, rather solitary...as a father he was weak." Their relationship was "distant", but improved after his mother's death in 1977.
Starkey was born with two club feet. One was fixed early, while the other had to be operated on several times. He also suffered from polio. He suffered a nervous breakdown at secondary school, aged 13, and was taken by his mother to a boarding house in Southport, where he spent several months recovering. Starkey blamed the episode on the unfamiliar experience of being in a "highly competitive environment". He ultimately excelled at Kendal Grammar School, winning debating prizes and appearing in school plays.
Although he showed an early inclination towards science, he chose instead to study history. A scholarship enabled his entry into Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge, where he gained a first-class degree.
Starkey was fascinated by King Henry VIII, and his thesis focused on the Tudor monarch's inner household. His doctoral supervisor was Professor Sir Geoffrey Elton, an expert on the Tudor period. Starkey claimed that with age his mentor became "tetchy" and "arrogant". In 1983, when Elton was awarded a knighthood, Starkey derided one of his essays, Cromwell Redivivus and Elton responded by writing an "absolutely shocking" review of a collection of essays Starkey had edited. Starkey later expressed his remorse over the spat: "I regret that the thing happened at all."
Career
He was a fellow at Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge from 1970 to 1972. Bored at Cambridge and attracted to London's gay scene, in 1972 Starkey moved to the London School of Economics and secured a position as a part-time junior associate lecturer. He claimed to be an "excessively enthusiastic advocate of promiscuity", seeking to liberate himself from his mother, who strongly disapproved of his homosexuality. A 30-year career as a teacher ended in 1998 when, blaming boredom and modern academic life, he gave it up.
Starkey entered a wider public awareness in 1992 on the BBC Radio 4 debate programme The Moral Maze, where he debated morality with his fellow panellists Rabbi Hugo Gryn, Roger Scruton and the journalist Janet Daley. He soon acquired a reputation for abrasiveness; he explained in 2007 that his personality possesses "a tendency towards showmanship... towards self-indulgence and explosion and repartee and occasional silliness and going over the top." The Daily Mail gave him the sobriquet of "the rudest man in Britain", to which Starkey was said to have told friends, "Don’t worry darlings, it’s worth at least £100,000 a year", claiming that his character was part of a "convenient image". He once attacked George Austin, the Archdeacon of York, over "his fatness, his smugness, and his pomposity", but after a nine-year stint on the programme he left, citing his boredom with being "Dr Rude" and its move to an evening slot.
From 1995 he also spent three years at Talk Radio UK, presenting Starkey on Saturday, later Starkey on Sunday. An interview with Denis Healey proved to be one of his most embarrassing moments: "I mistakenly thought that he had become an amiable old buffer who would engage in amusing conversation, and he tore me limb from limb. I laugh about it now, but I didn't feel like laughing about it at the time."
His first television appearance was in 1977, on Granada Television's Behave Yourself with Russell Harty. He was a prosecution witness in the 1984 ITV programme The Trial of Richard III, whose jury acquitted the king of the murder of the Princes in the Tower on the grounds of insufficient evidence. His television documentaries on The Six Wives of Henry VIII and Elizabeth I were ratings successes. His breathless delivery of the script, with noticeable breaths and choppy cadence, is widely imitated.
In 2002 he signed a £2 million contract with Channel 4 to produce 25 hours of television, including Monarchy, a chronicle of the history of English kings and queens from Anglo-Saxon times onward. He presented the 2009 series Henry: Mind of a Tyrant, which Brian Viner, a reviewer for the Independent, called "highly fascinating", although A. A. Gill was less complimentary, calling it "Hello! history". In an interview about the series for the Radio Times, Starkey complained that too many historians had focused not on Henry, but on his wives. Referring to a "feminised history", he said: "so many of the writers who write about this are women and so much of their audience is a female audience." This prompted the historian Lucy Worsley to describe his comments as misogynistic. More recently, in 2011, he taught five history lessons in Channel 4's Jamie's Dream School, after which he criticised the state education system.
In 1984 Starkey was elected a Fellow of the Royal Historical Society and in 1994 a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London. He was also given an Honorary Fellowship at his Cambridge College, Fitzwilliam College. He was until 2015, a visiting professor of the University of Kent.
He has worked as curator on several exhibitions, including an exhibit in 2003 on Elizabeth I, following which he had lunch with her namesake, Elizabeth II. Several years later he told a reporter that the monarch had no interest in her predecessors, other than those who followed her great-grandfather, Edward VII. "I don't think she's at all comfortable with anybody – I would hesitate to use the word intellectual – but it's useful. I think she's got elements a bit like Goebbels in her attitude to culture – you remember: 'every time I hear the word culture I reach for my revolver.' I think the queen reaches for her mask." His remarks were criticised by Penny Junor, a royal biographer, and Robert Lacey, a royal historian.
On 25 June 2012 Starkey gave his lecture 'Head of Our Morality: why the twentieth-century British monarchy matters' at The Marc Fitch Lectures.
Views
Politics
Starkey's political views have changed over the years from what he called "middle-of-the-road Labour left until the end of the 1970s" to a conservative outlook, that he attributed to economic failures of the Callaghan government. He is a supporter of one-nation conservatism and believes that Victorian Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli was a great symbol of this. He has written that Disraeli was "exotic, slippery and had a gift for language and phrase-making", drawing similarities with the rhetorical style of current UK Prime minister Boris Johnson. He argues that the working classes need more explicit "nationalism" of the type demonstrated by Disraeli. Furthermore, he believes that if Johnson's premiership could talk persuasively about the nation, as he argues Disraeli did, then his premiership would be successful. He believes Disraelianism would strengthen the Anglo-American "conservative" alliance between Johnson and US president Donald Trump. However, he suspects that despite Boris Johnson being a Conservative prime minister, he is actually "a liberal", so he doubts whether Johnson would ever take this view.
Starkey blames the Callaghan administration for "blow[ing] the nation's finances". During the 1980s he was an active Conservative Party member, and he was a Conservative candidate for Islington Borough Council in 1986 in Tollington ward, and in 1990 in Hillrise ward.
He bemoaned the Conservatives when they were in Opposition, criticising Michael Howard in particular: "I knew Michael Howard was going to be a disaster as soon as he opposed top-up fees, either out of sentimentality or calculated expediency so that it might get him a bit of the student vote...Instead of backing Tony Blair, causing revolution in the Labour Party, the Conservatives have been whoring after strange gods, coming up with increasingly strange policies." He likened Gordon Brown to the fictional Kenneth Widmerpool, continuing, "It seems to me that with Brown there is a complete sense of humour and charm bypass." Of Ed Miliband, in 2015 he said "He is a man of high ambition and low talent – the worst possible combination. His whole language at the moment is soak the rich, hate the rich."
During the 2011 Conservative Party Conference he spoke at a fringe meeting, declaring Mayor Boris Johnson to be a "jester-despot" and the Prime Minister, David Cameron, as having "absolutely no strategy" for running the country. He urged the party to re-engage with the working class rather than the "Guardian-reading middle class". In 2015 he claimed that while Cameron and his Chancellor, George Osborne, had introduced some meaningful reforms to education and welfare policies, they had not made large enough cuts to the UK's budget deficit.
Starkey prefers radical changes to the UK's constitution in line with the federal system used by the United States, although in an interview with Iain Dale he expressed his support for the monarchy, the Queen and Prince Charles. In the run-up to the UK Alternative Vote referendum, he was a signatory on a letter to The Times, which urged people to vote against the proposals. Starkey thinks the modern UK House of Commons has become a weak political institution and that it should return to its core value of being in defiance of state authority, as it was in its origin. He believes the House too often gives way to the state, such as with the police being allowed to search the place without a warrant. This occurred in 2008 with the searching of the Westminster office of Conservative politician Damian Green after the custodians of the House, the Speaker and the Serjeant at Arms, allowed the police to search the place without a warrant.
Starkey was a supporter of the Tory Campaign for Homosexual Equality ("Torche"), and during one of many appearances on the BBC's Question Time he attacked Jeffrey Archer over his views on the age of homosexual consent. However, in 2012 he described himself as "torn" on the issue of same-sex marriage, describing marriage as "part of the baggage of heterosexual society."
In 2009, Mike Russell, then the Scottish Government Minister for Culture and External Affairs, called on him to apologise for his declaration on the programme that Scotland, Ireland and Wales are "feeble little countries". Starkey responded that it had been a joke regarding the lack of necessity for the English to outwardly celebrate their nationalism, approvingly quoting H. G. Wells's observation that "the English are the only nation without national dress". He described Alex Salmond, then Scottish First Minister, as a "Caledonian Hitler" who thinks that "the English, like the Jews, are everywhere". In August 2014, Starkey was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian expressing their hope that Scotland would vote to remain part of the United Kingdom in September's referendum on that issue. In June 2015 in an interview for The Sunday Times Starkey compared the Scottish National Party (SNP) with the Nazi Party. He said:
You have as a symbol the twisted cross: the saltire or the swastika. You have a passionate belief in self-sufficiency: known by the Nazis as autarky and the Scots as oil. And also you have the propensity of your elderly and middle-aged supporters to expose their knees.
SNP member of parliament Kirsten Oswald described Starkey's comments as "deeply offensive" to the Jewish community and SNP voters, and described Starkey as a "serial utterer of bile and bilge".
European Union
Starkey is very critical of the European Union (EU). As a result, he supported the leave vote in the 2016 EU referendum and is a Brexit supporter. This is because, as Starkey argues, the United Kingdom is best off as a self-governing nation, and the EU conflicts with this notion of self-government. Furthermore, he believes that the continuing support for the ideas of national pride and sovereignty, not xenophobia, in the UK were the biggest factors behind the UK's decision to leave the EU. He argues that the support for these ideas is what makes the UK different from the other EU member states which, as a result of the legacy of World War Two, tend to believe that nationalism is the cause of war and so joined the EU to prevent this.
As an historian, Starkey presents a view of Brexit in a wider historical context to try to show its importance in British history. He makes comparisons between Brexit and Henry VIII's split from Rome and the Reformation that followed. He believes the Reformation sowed the seeds of Euroscepticism particularly in England and the nation's "semi-detached relationship with continental Europe". This had its origin with Henry VIII because "nobody before Henry would make any argument about England being much different from the rest of Europe. It was Henry who turns England into a defensible island, who literally fortifies the English coastline. It really is Henry that turns England into a genuine island." He claimed that Henry VIII could be considered the first Brexiteer. As Starkey explained in an interview in 2018, "The Roman Church was a super-national organisation with its own system of law, its own language, governance and own system of taxation. In other words, exactly like the European Union! And it's no accident at all that the EU was founded by the Treaty of Rome." He explains that Henry VIII fought on the grounds of England ruling itself, which is analogous to the Brexit debates.
Starkey argues that, "Remainers have somehow got the notion that we get our rights and liberties from Europe" but actually, we created our own values over our 800-year history. He believes that Brexit was a reaffirmation of those values, but was nevertheless a "...deeply irrational vote, not about what will make us better off, but rather, 'we'll be poorer, but we'll be free'."
Religion
Starkey is an atheist. He has described the Catholic Church as being "riddled with corruption". However, he has often defended the right for Christians to hold their beliefs, arguing that they should have the right to their views and penalising them for it is "intolerant, oppressive and tyrannical".
Magna Carta
Starkey believes the royal charter of rights Magna Carta is of great importance. He has often spoken about it and has written about it most notably in his book Magna Carta: The True Story Behind the Charter (2015). He also presented a television documentary on the subject David Starkey’s Magna Carta, in which he argued that Magna Carta is a steadying force for constitutions. He believes that Magna Carta is essential in keeping peace and constraints on the state and the public and says that it is this rather shaky but very important 800 year old document that has led to a "constitutional edifice" developing in the UK.
Starkey often speaks about the political implications of Magna Carta in present-day politics. He believes the modern UK state appears to be fragmenting and would be helped by the core principles of the charter with a new charter of liberties or a new William Marshal figure. In a review of Starkey's book on Magna Carta, medieval historian James Masschaele said that Starkey viewed the barons as republican figures.
Controversial racist comments
England riots and black culture
In August 2011, Starkey attracted criticism for some comments made on the BBC's Newsnight programme where he was a panel member together with Owen Jones and Dreda Say Mitchell. The programme discussed the 2011 England riots. Starkey condemned "this language which is wholly false, which is this Jamaican patois that’s been intruded in England, and this is why so many of us have this sense of literally a foreign country", that listening to the voice of the black MP for Tottenham where the riots occurred "you would think he was white" and that "The whites have become black. A particular sort of violent, destructive, nihilistic, gangster culture."
The comments were heavily criticised by MPs and some notable media presenters and described as a "career ending moment". He was criticised by fellow panellist Dreda Say Mitchell for focusing on "black culture", since "Black communities are not homogenous. So there are black cultures. Lots of different black cultures." The then-leader of the Labour Party, Ed Miliband, spoke about Starkey's remarks, saying that "they are racist comments, frankly". The author Toby Young, blogging in the Telegraph, defended Starkey by saying that Starkey had been talking not about black culture in general. The Spectator columnist Rod Liddle argued in support of the remarks. Jones described the comments as "one of the ugliest episodes of the backlash". Writing in The Daily Telegraph, Starkey argued his views had been distorted, he referred only to a "particular sort" of "black culture", and that the "black educationalists" Tony Sewell and Katharine Birbalsingh supported the substance of his Newsnight comments.
The BBC received more than 700 complaints (and broadcast regulator Ofcom a further 103) about the comments. A petition to demand a public apology from the BBC attracted more than 3,600 signatures. Ofcom deemed the comments to have been part of a "serious and measured discussion" and took no action, and Starkey described the reaction as "hysteria about race".
In the aftermath of the Newsnight broadcast, 102 university historians wrote an open letter that demanded Starkey no longer be described as a "historian" on anything but his specialist subject, the Tudors. The letter criticised "[h]is crass generalisations about black culture and white culture as oppositional, monolithic entities demonstrate a failure to grasp the subtleties of race and class that would disgrace a first-year history undergraduate." The letter also criticised his supposed "lack of professionalism" and "some of the worst practices of an academic" in shouting down, belittling, and mocking, opposing views, rather than meeting them with evidence.
In a June 2012 debate Starkey was criticised for stating that the perpetrators of the Rochdale child sex abuse ring had values "entrenched in the foothills of the Punjab or wherever it is" and were "acting within their cultural norm". He was accused by his fellow panelist, writer Laurie Penny, of "playing xenophobia and national prejudice for laughs". In 2013, he criticised the inclusion of the British-Jamaican nurse Mary Seacole in British school history curriculums, which he argued
unduly promoted her and her work.
In January 2015, Starkey was criticised after calling political journalist Mehdi Hasan "Ahmed" and saying that "nothing important" had been written in Arabic for 500 years. He was also criticised for appearing to imply that a female victim of a child sexual abuse grooming gang was at fault for the abuse she had experienced.
In November 2015 the University of Cambridge dropped a fundraising video featuring Starkey after a backlash from staff and students. A letter signed by hundreds of students and staff criticised Starkey's involvement in the video due to him "repeatedly making racist statements".
Black Lives Matter and slavery
On 30 June 2020, in a podcast interview with Darren Grimes, Starkey spoke about the Black Lives Matter movement. Starkey suggested that people should not "go on about" slavery because it had been abolished in 1833 and that "Slavery was not genocide, otherwise there wouldn't be so many damn blacks in Africa or in Britain would there? An awful lot of them survived ..." He had made the same point in a column eight days earlier except without the use of the word "damn". Starkey's comments were rebuffed by Health Secretary Sajid Javid, who said they were racist and that they serve as "a reminder of the appalling views that still exist", and they were widely described as racist in the media. Historian David Olusoga, praised by Starkey in the same broadcast, described the comments as "truly disgusting. And by the same ridiculous, twisted logic the Holocaust would not be counted as a genocide".
As a result, the Mary Rose Trust accepted his resignation from the board of trustees and the Historical Association announced on Twitter that it would withdraw the Medlicott Medal it had awarded him 20 years previously. Fitzwilliam College of Cambridge University distanced themselves from his comments and later accepted his resignation as an honorary fellow on 3 July 2020. Canterbury Christ Church University, where Starkey had been a visiting professor, removed him from that role in response to his "completely unacceptable" remarks. The magazine History Today also removed him from their editorial board. Lancaster University revoked Starkey's honorary degree after an investigation found that his comments were "racist and contradictory to the values of the University". The University of Kent launched a formal review of his honorary graduate status. HarperCollins terminated its book deal with Starkey and his previous publisher, Hodder & Stoughton, has also said that they "will not be publishing any further books by him". Vintage Books announced it would be reviewing the status of books by Starkey in their back catalogue. Also on 3 July 2020, at a meeting of the Royal Historical Society, the society's council resolved that Starkey should be asked to resign his fellowship with immediate effect. On 6 July 2020, Starkey resigned his fellowship of the Society of Antiquaries of London at the request of its council.
On 25 September 2020, the Metropolitan Police opened an investigation into the interview over an allegation of a public order offence. In October, Starkey was investigated by the police for "stirring up racial hatred" through the comments he made in the podcast with Darren Grimes. In regards to the allegations, Starkey said that he did not "intend to stir up racial hatred and there was nothing about the circumstances of the broadcast which made it likely to do so" and also that the investigation by the police was "neither proportionate nor in the best interests of preserving proper freedom of expression".
On 14 October the police dropped their investigation saying that "it is no longer proportionate that this investigation continues". This followed a free speech backlash from several major UK politicians such as current Home Secretary Priti Patel who said the law should protect freedom of speech as a "general principle" which should not be violated. Following the news of the ending of the investigation, Starkey said: "The investigation should never of course have begun. From the beginning it was misconceived, oppressive and designed to misuse the criminal law to curtail the proper freedom of expression and debate …freedom is our birth right; and it is more important than ever at this critical juncture in our nation's history."
Grimes and Starkey subsequently launched a formal complaint against the Metropolitan Police accusing them of being biased against them and acting in "deference" to the Black Lives Matter movement.
Personal life
Starkey lived for many years with his partner, James Brown, a publisher and book designer, until the latter's death in 2015. The couple had three homes: a house in Highbury, a manor house in Kent, and another in Chestertown, Maryland, US. Starkey previously lived at John Spencer Square in Canonbury, Islington.
Honours
David Starkey was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2007 Birthday Honours for services to history.
Commonwealth honours
Commonwealth honours
Scholastic
University degrees
Chancellor, visitor, governor, rector and fellowships
Honorary degrees
Memberships and fellowships
Learned societies
Museums and trusts
Awards
Work
Books
This Land of England (1985) (with David Souden)
The Reign of Henry VIII: Personalities and Politics (1986)
Revolution Reassessed: Revisions in the History of Tudor Government and Administration (1986) (Editor with Christopher Coleman)
The English Court from the Wars of the Roses to the Civil War (1987)
Rivals in Power: the Lives and Letters of the Great Tudor Dynasties (1990)
Henry VIII: A European Court in England (1991)
Nick Harris: An Un-Official Biography (1998)
The Inventory of Henry VIII: The Transcript, Volume 1 (1998) (with Philip Ward and Alistair Hawkyard)
Elizabeth: Apprenticeship (2000) (published in North America as Elizabeth: The struggle for the throne)
The Stuart Courts – Foreword (2000) (Edited by Eveline Cruickshanks)
The Inventory of Henry VIII: Essays and Illustrations, Volume 2, (2002) (with Philip Ward and Alistair Hawkyard)
The Inventory of Henry VIII: Essays and Illustrations, Volume 3, (2002) (with Philip Ward and Alistair Hawkyard)
Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII (2003)
Elizabeth I: The Exhibition Catalogue (2003)
The Books of King Henry VIII and His Wives – Introduction and Preface (2004) (James P. Carley)
The Monarchy of England: The Beginnings (2004)
Monarchy: From the Middle Ages to Modernity (2006)
Making History: Antiquaries in Britain, 1707–2007 – Introduction (2007) (Edited by Sarah McCarthy, Bernard Nurse, and David Gaimster)
Henry: Virtuous Prince (2008)
Introduction to Henry VIII; Man & Monarch (Susan Doran, ed. published by the British Library, 2009)
Crown and Country (Harper Press, 2010) (A compilation of The Monarchy of England: The Beginnings, Monarchy: From the Middle Ages to Modernity and some new material)
Introduction to Fatal Colours: Towton 1461 – England's Most Brutal Battle by George Goodwin (2011)
Magna Carta: The True Story Behind the Charter (2015)
Henry: Model of a Tyrant (2020)
Television
Henry VIII (1998, revised 2001)
Elizabeth (2000)
The Six Wives of Henry VIII (2001)
Edward and Mary: The Unknown Tudors (2002)
David Starkey: Reinventing the Royals (2002)
Monarchy by David Starkey (2004–2007)
Henry VIII: The Mind of a Tyrant (2009)
Kate and William: Romance and the Royals (2011)
Jamie's Dream School (2011)
The Churchills (2012)
David Starkey's Music and Monarchy (2013)
Britain's Tudor Treasure: A Night at Hampton Court, co-presented with Lucy Worsley (2015)
David Starkey's Magna Carta (2015)
Reformation: Europe's Holy War (2017)
Applications
Kings and Queens by David Starkey for iPhone and iPad (2011)
References
Footnotes
Notes
Further reading
External links
Debrett's People of Today
1945 births
Living people
Academics of the London School of Economics
Alumni of Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge
British monarchists
British secularists
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Contestants on University Challenge
Critics of multiculturalism
Critics of the Catholic Church
English atheists
English historians
English radio personalities
Conservative Party (UK) politicians
LGBT politicians from England
English television presenters
Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London
Fellows of the Royal Historical Society
British gay writers
Historians of the British Isles
History Today people
LGBT broadcasters from the United Kingdom
LGBT historians
LGBT people from England
People from Kendal
21st-century LGBT people
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Wycherley
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William Wycherley
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William Wycherley (baptised 8 April 16411 January 1716) was an English dramatist of the Restoration period, best known for the plays The Country Wife and The Plain Dealer.
Early life
Wycherley was born at Clive near Shrewsbury, Shropshire, although his birthplace has been said to be Trench Farm to the north near Wem later the birthplace of another writer, John Ireland, who was said to have been adopted by Wycherley's widow following the death of Ireland's parents. He was baptised on 8 April 1641 at Whitchurch, Hampshire, son of Daniel Wycherley (1617–1697) and his wife Bethia, daughter of William Shrimpton. His family was settled on a moderate estate of about £600 a year and his father was in the business service of the Marquess of Winchester. Wycherley lived during much of his childhood at Trench Farm, one his paternal family's properties, then spent some three years of his adolescence in France, where he was sent, at fifteen, to be educated on the banks of the Charente.
While in France, Wycherley converted to Roman Catholicism.
He returned to England shortly before the restoration of King Charles II, and lived at Queen's College, Oxford where Thomas Barlow was provost.
Under Barlow's influence, Wycherley returned to the Church of England.
Thomas Macaulay hints that Wycherley's subsequent turning back to Roman Catholicism once more was influenced by the patronage and unwonted liberality of the Duke of York, the future King James II. As a professional fine gentleman, at a period when, as Major Pack wrote, "the amours of Britain would furnish as diverting memoirs, if well related, as those of France published by Rabutin, or those of Nero's court writ by Petronius", Wycherley was obliged to be a loose liver. However, his nickname of "Manly Wycherley" seems to have been earned by his straightforward attitude to life.
Wycherley left Oxford and took up residence at the Inner Temple, which he had initially entered in October 1659 but gave little attention to studying law and ceased to live there after 1670. Nor did he reside in London continuously. He was serving in Ireland in 1662 as a soldier with the Earl of Ancram's Regiment of Guards; during 1664–65 he was attached on a diplomatic mission by Sir Richard Fanshawe in Madrid, and claimed to have fought in the Second Anglo-Dutch War in 1665.
First two plays
Pleasure and the stage were his only interests. His play, Love in a Wood, was produced early in 1671 at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane. It was published the next year. Though Wycherley boasted of having written the play at the age of nineteen, before going to Oxford, this is probably untrue. Macaulay points to the allusions in the play to gentlemen's periwigs, to guineas, to the vests which Charles ordered to be worn at court, to the Great Fire of London, etc., as showing that the comedy could not have been written the year before the author went to Oxford.
That the writer of a play far more daring than George Etherege's She Would If She Could—and far more brilliant too—should at once become the talk of the court was inevitable; equally inevitable was it that the author of the song at the end of the first act, in praise of harlots and their offspring, should attract the attention of the king's mistress, Barbara Villiers, Duchess of Cleveland. Possibly Wycherley intended this famous song as a glorification of the Duchess and her profession, for he seems to have been more delighted than surprised when, as he passed in his coach through Pall Mall, he heard her address him from her coach window as a "rascal" and a "villain", and the son of a woman such as that mentioned in the song. His answer was perfect: "Madam, you have been pleased to bestow a title on me which belongs only to the fortunate." Seeing that she received the compliment in the spirit in which it was meant, he lost no time in calling upon her, and was from that moment the recipient of those "favours" to which he alludes with pride in the dedication of the play to her. Voltaire's story (in his Letters on the English Nation) that the Duchess used to go to Wycherley's chambers in the Temple disguised as a country wench, in a straw hat, with pattens on and a basket in her hand, may be apocryphal, for disguise was superfluous in her case, but it shows how general was the opinion that, under such patronage as this, Wycherley's fortune as poet and dramatist was now made.
Whether Wycherley's experiences as a sea-borne officer, which he alludes to in his lines "On a Sea Fight which the Author was in betwixt the English and the Dutch", occurred before or after the production of Love in a Wood is a point upon which opinions differ, but probably took place not only after the production of Love in a Wood but after the production of The Gentleman Dancing Master, in 1673. Macaulay claims that he went to sea simply because it was the "polite" thing to do so—because, as he says in the epilogue to The Gentleman Dancing Master, "all gentlemen must pack to sea". This second comedy was published in 1673, but was probably acted late in 1671. In The Gentleman Dancing Master the mingling of discordant elements destroys a play that would never in any circumstances have been strong.
His military service in the Third Anglo-Dutch War is known. He was commissioned "Captain-Lieutenant" in a company of the Duke of Buckingham's regiment of foot on 19 June 1672. He was sent on an expedition that ended in his company being deployed on the Isle of Wight to pre-empt any Dutch landings in July 1673. He was promoted to Captain proper on 26 February 1674 but resigned on 6 March and returned home. His time was plagued by difficulties obtaining pay and supplies for the troops, some of whom, after his departure complained of having had "ill-usage" from their captain.
Last two plays
It is, however, his two last comedies, The Country Wife and The Plain Dealer, that sustain Wycherley's reputation. The Country Wife, produced in 1672 or 1673 and published in 1675, is full of wit, ingenuity, high spirits and conventional humour. The play reflects an aristocratic and anti-Puritan ideology, and was controversial for its sexual explicitness even in its own time. The title itself contains a lewd pun with regard to the first syllable of "country". It is based on several plays by Molière, with added features that 1670s London audiences demanded: colloquial prose dialogue in place of Molière's verse, a complicated, fast-paced plot tangle, and many sex jokes. It turns on two indelicate plot devices: a rake's trick of pretending impotence to safely have clandestine affairs with married women, and the arrival in London of an inexperienced young "country wife", with her discovery of the joys of town life, especially the fascinating London men.
The Plain Dealer, based on Molière's Le Misanthrope, was highly praised by John Dryden and John Dennis, though it was equally condemned for its obscenity by many. The title character is Captain Manly, a sailor who doubts the motives of everyone he meets except for his sweetheart, Olivia, and his friend, Vernish. When Olivia jilts him and marries Vernish, he attempts to gain revenge by sending a pageboy (who, unknown to him, is a girl in disguise and is in love with him) to seduce Olivia. When the truth of the page's identity is discovered, Manly marries her instead.
Wycherley had no title or wealth, but had by 1675 already recommended himself by his two well-received comedies and had been admitted to the inner court circle, sharing the conversation and sometimes the mistresses of King Charles II, who "was extremely fond of him upon account of his wit". Charles had determined to bring up his bastard son, the Duke of Richmond, like a prince, sought as his tutor a man as qualified as Wycherley to impart a "princely education", engaging him in 1679 and it seems clear that, if not for Wycherley's marriage, the education of the young man would actually have been entrusted to him as a reward for having written Love in a Wood.
Wycherley's efforts to bring to the Duke of Buckingham's notice the case of Samuel Butler shows that the writer of even such plays as The Country Wife may have generous impulses, while his defence of Buckingham, when the duke in his turn fell into trouble, show that the inventor of so shameless a fraud as that which forms the pivot of The Plain Dealer may in actual life possess that passion for fair play which is seldom believed to be an English quality. But among the "ninety-nine" religions with which Voltaire accredited England there is one whose permanency has never been shaken — the worship of gentility. To this Wycherley remained as faithful to the day of his death as Congreve himself. And, if his relations to that "other world beyond this", which the Puritans had adopted, were liable to change with his environments, it was because that "other world" was really out of fashion altogether.
First marriage
It was after the success of The Plain Dealer that the turning point came in Wycherley's career. The great dream of all the men about town in Charles's time, as Wycherley's plays all show, was to marry a widow, young and handsome, a peer's daughter if possible — but in any event rich, and spend her money upon wine and women. While talking to a friend in a bookseller's shop at Tunbridge Wells where he was staying at the spa during the spring of 1678, Wycherley heard The Plain Dealer asked for by a lady who, in the person of the countess of Drogheda (Letitia Isabella Robartes, eldest daughter of the 1st Earl of Radnor and widow of the 2nd Earl of Drogheda), answered all the requirements. They secretly married on 29 September 1679, for, fearing to lose the king's patronage and the income therefrom, Wycherley still thought it politic to pass as a bachelor.
However the king was displeased when he came to know of Wycherley's secret marriage. Wycherley lost the appointment that was so nearly within his grasp—lost indeed the royal favour for ever. He never had an opportunity of regaining it, for the countess seems to have really loved him, and Love in a Wood had proclaimed the writer to be the kind of husband whose virtue prospers best when closely guarded at the domestic hearth. Wherever he went the countess followed trim, and when she did allow him to meet his boon companions it was in a tavern in Bow Street opposite to his own house, and even there under certain protective conditions. In summer or in winter he was obliged to sit with the window open and the blinds up, so that his wife might see that the party included no women.
She died, however, by July 1685 and left him the whole of her fortune but the title to the property was disputed; the costs of the litigation were so heavy that his father was unable (or otherwise unwilling) to come to financially aid him. He was thrown into the Fleet Prison where he remained, being finally released by the liberality of James II. James had been so much gratified by seeing The Plain Dealer acted that, finding a parallel between Manly's "manliness" and his own, such as no spectator had before discovered, he paid off Wycherley's execution creditor and settled on him a pension of £200 a year. In 1689, while his father was still alive, he fled back to Shropshire after the accession of William III displaced James II. He feuded with his father over his debts but eventually achieved a settlement to pay off £1,000 of these, enabling him to return to London.
Later life
Other debts still troubled Wycherley, however, and he never was released from his embarrassments, not even after succeeding to a life estate in the family property at Clive after his father's death in 1697. He took a mortgage of £1000 from lands there to pay further debts and continued to live in London, only calling on the estate to collect rents.
At the age of seventy-four, in poor health, and by special licence dated 20 December 1715, he married young Elizabeth Jackson, who was mistress of a cousin, Captain Thomas Shrimpton, who had collusively and somewhat coercively introduced her to Wycherley. Wycherley was said to have done so in order to spite his nephew, the next in succession, knowing that he would shortly die and that the jointure would impoverish the estate. Wycherley died at his lodging house, having returned to the Catholic Church before his remarriage, in the early hours of 1 January 1716, and was buried in the vault of St Paul's, Covent Garden on 5 January.
There was a lawsuit by the nephew to overturn the validity of the marriage but it was upheld on the grounds Wycherley was sane at the time of the marriage. Three months after Wycherley's death, she married Shrimpton.
Legacy
The scandalous language and content of Wycherley's plays restricted their publication and performances for nearly two centuries, and over most of that time the original versions were replaced with bowdlerised versions, such as the adaptation of The Plain Dealer by Isaac Bickerstaffe and a cleaned-up and bland version of The Country Girl by David Garrick. These are now forgotten curiosities.
William Wycherley may have coined the expression "nincompoop" (certainly, the word occurs in The Plain Dealer). The Oxford English Dictionary also cites Wycherley as the first user of the phrase "happy-go-lucky", in 1672.
Voltaire was a great admirer of Wycherley's plays, and once said of them:
Composer Malcolm Arnold (and librettist Joe Mandoza) turned The Gentleman Dancing Master into a one act opera in 1952. It was originally intended as a television opera but was rejected as too racy. It was recorded in 2020.
Bibliography
William Wycherley Edited with an Introduction and Notes by W C Ward, part of Mermaid Series Includes biography of Wycherley, together with the following written in play format Love in a Wood or St James's Park, The Gentleman Dancing Master, The Country Wife and the Plain Dealer.
Notes
References
External links
1641 births
1716 deaths
Converts to Roman Catholicism
English dramatists and playwrights
Alumni of The Queen's College, Oxford
People imprisoned for debt
English male dramatists and playwrights
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211644
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intestinal%20parasite%20infection
|
Intestinal parasite infection
|
An intestinal parasite infection is a condition in which a parasite infects the gastro-intestinal tract of humans and other animals. Such parasites can live anywhere in the body, but most prefer the intestinal wall.
Routes of exposure and infection include ingestion of undercooked meat, drinking infected water, fecal-oral transmission and skin absorption.
Some types of helminths and protozoa are classified as intestinal parasites that cause infection—those that reside in the intestines. These infections can damage or sicken the host (humans or other animals). If the intestinal parasite infection is caused by helminths, the infection is called helminthiasis.
Signs and symptoms
Signs and symptoms depend on the type of infection. Intestinal parasites produce a variety of symptoms in those affected, most of which manifest themselves in gastrointestinal complications and general weakness. Gastrointestinal conditions include inflammation of the small and/or large intestine, diarrhea/dysentery, abdominal pains, and nausea/vomiting. These symptoms negatively impact nutritional status, including decreased absorption of micronutrients, loss of appetite, weight loss, and intestinal blood loss that can often result in anemia. It may also cause physical and mental disabilities, delayed growth in children, and skin irritation around the anus and vulva.
Cause
The prevalence of intestinal parasites is the highest among children that are living in the poorest communities in developing nations. The most common causes of intestinal parasites are through consumption of contaminated water, infected soil, inadequate sanitation and hygiene, and improper hygiene. Specifically, lack of access to facilities for safe disposal of human waste can result in intestinal parasites and disease. Poor hygiene habits or lacking available hygiene resources, such as hand washing facilities, also negatively impact rates of disease. Parasitic contamination can also occur from eating raw produce, soil-eating behaviour, and low availability of safe drinking water.
Parasites can get into the intestines by going through the mouth from uncooked or unwashed food, contaminated water or hands, or by skin contact with larva infected soil; they can also be transferred by the sexual act of anilingus in some cases. When the organisms are swallowed, they move into the intestines, where they can reproduce and cause symptoms. Children are particularly susceptible if they are not thoroughly cleaned after coming into contact with infected soil that is present in environments that they may frequently visit such as sandboxes and school playgrounds. People in developing countries are also at particular risk due to drinking water from sources that may be contaminated with parasites that colonize the gastrointestinal tract.
Diagnosis
Due to the wide variety of intestinal parasites, a description of the symptoms rarely is sufficient for diagnosis. Instead, medical personnel use one of two common tests: they search stool samples for the parasites, or apply an adhesive to the anus to search for eggs.
Types
Major groups of parasites include protozoans (organisms having only one cell) and parasitic worms (helminths). Of these, protozoans, including cryptosporidium, microsporidia, and isospora, are most common in HIV-infected persons. Each of these parasites can infect the digestive tract, and sometimes two or more can cause infection at the same time.
Prevention
Good hygiene is necessary to avoid reinfection. The Rockefeller Foundation's hookworm campaign in Mexico in the 1920s was extremely effective at eliminating hookworm from humans with the use of anthelmintics. However, preventative measures were not adequately introduced to the people that were treated. Therefore, the rate of reinfection was extremely high and the project evaluated through any sort of scientific method was a marked failure. More education was needed to inform the people of the importance of wearing shoes, using latrines (better access to sanitation), and good hygiene.
Intestinal parasite prevention methods are not isolated to specific geographical areas; however, many of the research-based interventions have primarily taken place in underdeveloped countries and regions, where sanitation is a large concern for spreading disease.Current best practice behaviors that prevent intestinal parasites include: using proper hand washing practices, using correctly-built latrines with ample ventilation, having a piped water source, and wearing shoes. Currently, in some parts of Ethiopia where disease prevalence is high, up to 80% of people in a population lack access to washing facilities. While this is high, 93% did have access to a latrine, but only 29.2% of those latrines had proper construction to decrease parasitic infections. Behavioral interventions have focused on promoting washing, sometimes with soap, in context of education at schools and child care facilities. In recent studies, the best interventions follow a multidisciplinary approach by:
Increasing environmental sanitation to promote hand washing and shoe wearing habits
Educating children at young ages at school and at home
Specific evidence-based interventions that may lower disease prevalence include:
Interventions at schools, focusing on the construction of pit latrines (ventilated and improved), providing clean drinking water and educating the students about hygiene
The SAFE (surgery, antibiotics, facial cleanliness, environmental sanitation) strategy to address trachoma, primarily the facial cleanliness and the environmental sanitation components
Hand-washing with soap at critical times and nail clipping to decrease reinfection rates, although further research is needed to develop and implement similar interventions at scale
Programs combining anthelmintic drug administration with interventions to increase environmental sanitation (such as decreasing fecal contamination)
Treatment
Drugs are frequently used to kill parasites in the host. In earlier times, turpentine was often used for this, but modern drugs do not poison intestinal worms directly. Rather, anthelmintic drugs now inhibit an enzyme that is necessary for the worm to make the substance that prevents the worm from being digested.
For example, tapeworms are usually treated with a medicine taken by mouth. The most commonly used medicine for tapeworms is praziquantel.
References
External links
Gastrointestinal tract disorders
Parasites of animals
|
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211646
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catboat
|
Catboat
|
A catboat is a sailboat with a single sail on a single mast set well forward in the bow of the boat. Traditionally they were gaff rigged. Most have a shallow draft, with centreboards, although some have a keel. The hull can be 12 to 40 feet long with a beam half as wide as the hull length at the waterline.
Advantages of this sail plan include simplicity of construction, maintenance, and sailing. Its disadvantage is a limited ability to sail upwind.
The origin of the name is unknown. A catboat is not the same as a twin-hull catamaran.
Some cat boats in current use include the Beetle Cat, the Redden Catboat, the Nonsuch, the Inland Cat, the Zijlsloep, the Cape Cod Cat, Com-Pac Trailerable, Marshall, Menger, and the APBY cat boat.
From the 1850s to the early 1900s catboats were the dominant inshore boat on the New England coast, both for work and for pleasure. They were used for fishing and coastal transportation. Their popularity declined in the commercial world where they were replaced by motorized boats. In boat racing the tendency was for larger sails, which favored other rigging styles.
Catboats in Europe
Great Britain and Ireland
In 1851, during the 'Great Exhibition' a Catboat called 'The Una' was put on display at The Serpentine, Hyde Park. She was seen by Dixon Kemp who was much impressed with her. After 'Una' sailed at Cowes, she impressed many of the sailors who built a fleet of them. After 1907 'Una' raced at the Upper Thames yacht Club.
In Bray, Co. Wicklow, south of Dublin a fleet of one-design catboats, 12 feet in length and 6 foot beam were designed and built in 1897, and they continued to race for several years at home and at local east coast regattas.
References
External links
"Nine Lives: The Story of the Catboat" (documentary film, 50 min.)
Selina II, the largest vintage catboat
Sailing rigs and rigging
Sailboat types
Nautical terminology
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giardia%20duodenalis
|
Giardia duodenalis
|
Giardia duodenalis, also known as Giardia intestinalis and Giardia lamblia, is a flagellated parasitic microorganism that colonizes and reproduces in the small intestine, causing a diarrheal condition known as giardiasis. The parasite attaches to the epithelium by a ventral adhesive disc or sucker, and reproduces via binary fission. Giardiasis does not spread via the bloodstream, nor does it spread to other parts of the gastrointestinal tract, but remains confined to the lumen of the small intestine. Giardia has an outer membrane that makes it possible to retain life, even when outside of the host body, and which can make it tolerant to chlorine disinfection. Giardia trophozoites absorb their nutrients from the lumen, and are anaerobes. If the organism is split and stained, its characteristic pattern resembles the familiar "smiley face" symbol.
Chief pathways of human infection include ingestion of untreated drinking water (which is the most common method of transmission for this parasite), food, and soil contaminated with human feces, as well as ingestion of sewage, a phenomenon particularly common in many developing countries. Contamination of natural waters also occurs in watersheds where intensive grazing occurs.
Giardia infections occur worldwide. It is the most commonly identified intestinal parasite in the United States and Canada among children in day-care centers, hikers, family members, and immunocompromised adults. About 20,000 cases per year in the United States are reported.
Life cycle
G. duodenalis takes on two morphologically distinct forms during its lifecycle. The replicative form is a motile, pear-shaped cell that survives only in host small intestines called a trophozoite. Trophozoites swim through the intestinal mucus until they eventually adhere to the host intestinal epithelium. Adhered trophozoites then divide by binary fission, forming either more trophozoites or the nonreplicative cyst stage. Cysts pass through the host's large intestine and are shed in the feces. G. lamblia cysts are resistant to environment stressors, and can survive in the environment for weeks to months if kept moist. Cysts remain dormant until ingested by a host animal. In the new host, environmental conditions trigger the cyst to produce two trophozoites, which then attach to epithelial cells, starting the cycle anew.
Ecology and distribution
The cyst can survive for weeks to months in cold water, so can be present in contaminated wells and water systems, especially stagnant water sources, such as naturally occurring ponds, storm-water storage systems, and even clean-looking mountain streams. Cysts can also be found on surfaces, soil, food, or water that have been contaminated with feces from infected humans or animals. They may also occur in city reservoirs and persist after water treatment, as the cysts are resistant to conventional water-treatment methods, such as chlorination and ozonolysis. Zoonotic transmission is also possible, so Giardia infection is a concern for people camping in the wilderness or swimming in contaminated streams or lakes, especially the artificial lakes formed by beaver dams (hence the popular name for giardiasis, "beaver fever").
In addition to waterborne sources, fecal–oral transmission can also occur, for example in day-care centers, where children may have poor hygiene practices. Those who work with children are also at risk of being infected, as are family members of infected individuals. Not all Giardia infections are symptomatic, and many people can unknowingly serve as carriers of the parasite.
Giardia infects humans, but is also one of the most common parasites infecting cats, dogs, and birds. Mammalian hosts also include dozens of species, including cattle, sheep, and goats.
Cats can be cured easily, and lambs usually simply lose weight, but in calves, the parasites can be fatal and often are not responsive to antibiotics or electrolytes. Carriers among calves can also be asymptomatic. This parasite is deadly for chinchillas, so extra care must be taken by providing them with safe water. Dogs have a high infection rate, as 30% of the population under one year old are known to be infected in kennels. The infection is more prevalent in puppies than in adult dogs. Infected dogs can be isolated and treated, or the entire pack at a kennel can be treated together regardless. Kennels should also be then cleaned with bleach or other cleaning disinfectants. The grass areas used for exercise should be considered contaminated for at least one month after dogs show signs of infection, as cysts can survive in the environment for long periods of time. Prevention can be achieved by quarantine of infected dogs for at least 20 days and careful management and maintenance of a clean water supply.
Cell biology
G. duodenalis trophozoites are pear-shaped cells, 10 to 20 μm long, 7 to 10 μm across, and 2 to 4 μm thick. They are motile by way of four pairs of flagella, which propel the trophozoites through the intestine. Notably, each G. duodenalis cell has two nuclei, both of which actively transcribe genes. Adjacent to the nucleus, G. duodenalis cells have an endoplasmic reticulum that extends through much of the cell. Trophozoites about to differentiate into cysts also contain prominent vesicles termed encystation-specific vesicles that disappear once cyst wall construction begins. Unlike most other eukaryotes, G. duodenalis cells contain no visible mitochondria, but instead contains a substantially reduced metabolic organelle termed a mitosome. Additionally, cells appear to contain no Golgi bodies, and instead the secretory system consists entirely of the endoplasmic reticulum and numerous vesicles spread throughout the cell, termed peripheral vesicles. Peripheral vesicles are responsible both for taking up extracellular nutrients, and expelling waste outside the cell. Each cell also contains a pair of rigid structures called median bodies which make up part of the G. lamblia cytoskeleton. Trophozoites adhere to host epithelial cells via a specialized disk-shaped organelle called the ventral disk.
Cysts are oval-shaped cells slightly smaller than trophozoites. They lack flagella, and are covered by a smooth, clear cyst wall. Each cyst contains the organelles for two trophzoites: four nuclei, two ventral disks, etc.
Metabolism
G. lamblia primarily generates its energy by breaking down glucose via glycolysis, as well as the arginine dihydrolase pathway. It is unable to synthesize nucleotides on its own, instead salvaging them from its host. Synthesis of iron-sulfur clusters is done in a double-membrane-bound compartment called the mitosome, which is likely a remnant of mitochondria. Each cell contains 25 to 100 mitosomes divided into two categories - peripheral mitosomes, which are scattered throughout the cell, and central mitosomes, which gather at the center of the cell for unknown reasons. Like in mitochondria, proteins with a certain peptide signal sequence are trafficked to and imported into the mitosome. Unlike mitochondria, mitosomes have no genome of their own. All mitosomal genes are encoded by the Giardia nuclear genome.
Genetics
Giardia and the other diplomonads are unique in their possession of two nuclei that are similar in appearance, DNA content, transcription, and time of replication. Five chromosomes occur per haploid genome.
The genome has been sequenced and was published in 2007, although the sequence contains several gaps. The sequence is about 12 million base pairs and contains about 5000 protein-coding genes. The GC content is 46%. Trophozoites have a ploidy of four and the ploidy of cysts is eight, which in turn raises the question of how Giardia maintains homogeneity between the chromosomes of the same and opposite nuclei. Modern sequencing technologies have been used to resequence different strains.
Evolution
Giardia had been assumed to be primitively asexual and with no means of transferring DNA between nuclei. These assumptions made explaining the remarkably low level of allelic heterozygosity (< 0.01%) in the genome isolate, WB, very difficult, but all those assumptions of asexuality are now in doubt, with population genetics providing evidence for recombination and the identification of meiotic genes, evidence for recombination among isolates and the evidence for exchange of genetic material between nuclei during the process of encystation.
These findings on sexuality in Giardia, above, have important implications for understanding the origin of sexual reproduction in eukaryotes. Though sexual reproduction is widespread among extant eukaryotes, until recently, sex seemed unlikely to be a primordial and fundamental feature of eukaryotes. A probable reason for the view that sex may not be fundamental to eukaryotes was that sexual reproduction previously appeared to be lacking in certain human pathogenic single-celled eukaryotes (e.g. Giardia) that diverged from early ancestors in the eukaryotic lineage.
In addition to the evidence cited above for recombination in Giardia, Malik et al. reported that many meiosis specific genes occur in the Giardia genome, and further that homologs of these genes also occur in another unicellular eukaryote, Trichomonas vaginalis. Because these two species are descendants of lineages that are highly divergent among eukaryotes, Malik et al. suggested that these meiotic genes were present in a common ancestor of all eukaryotes. Thus, on this view, the earliest ancestor of eukaryotes was likely capable of sexual reproduction. Furthermore, Dacks and Roger proposed, based on phylogenetic analysis, that facultative sex was present in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes. Bernstein et al. also reviewed evidence in support of this view.
Eight genotype assemblages of G. duodenalis have been recognized to date (A-H). Genotyping of G. duodenalis isolated from various hosts has shown that assemblages A and B infect the largest range of host species, and appear to be the main (or possibly only) G. duodenalis assemblages that undeniably infect human subjects.
Research
Frances Gillin of the University of California, San Diego, and her colleagues cultivated the entire lifecycle of this parasite in the laboratory, and identified biochemical cues in the host's digestive system that trigger Giardia'''s lifecycle transformations. They also uncovered several ways in which the parasite evades the defences of the infected organism. One of these is by altering the proteins on its surface, which confounds the ability of the infected animal's immune system to detect and combat the parasite (called antigenic variation). Gillin's work reveals why Giardia infections are extremely persistent and prone to recur. In addition, these insights into its biology and survival techniques may enable scientists to develop better strategies to understand, prevent, and treat Giardia infections.
In December 2008, Nature published an article showing the discovery of an RNA interference mechanism that allows Giardia to switch variant-specific surface proteins to avoid host immune response. The discovery was made by the team working at the Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, School of Medicine, Catholic University of Cordoba, Argentina, led by Dr. Hugo Lujan.
The main congress about Giardia is the International Giardia and Cryptosporidium Conference. A summary of results presented at the most recent edition (2019, in Rouen, France) is available.
History
The first likely description of Giardia was in 1681 by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, who in a letter to Robert Hooke, described "animalcules" resembling Giardia trophozoites in his stool. The next known description of Giardia wasn't until 1859, when Czech physician Vilém Lambl published a description of the trophozoite stages he saw in the stool of a pediatric patient. Lambl termed the organism Cercomonas intestinalis. In 1888, Raphaël Blanchard renamed the parasite Lamblia intestinalis in Lambl's honor. In 1915, Charles Stiles renamed the organism Giardia lamblia'' in honor of both Lambl and Professor Alfred Mathieu Giard of Paris. In 1921, Charles E. Simon published a detailed description of the parasite's morphology.
See also
List of parasites of humans
1998 Sydney water crisis
References
External links
Giardia lamblia image library
GiardiaDB: The Giardia lamblia genome sequencing project
Washington State Department of Health fact sheet on Giardia.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Giardia Information
United States Environmental Protection Agency fact sheet on Giardia in water
Giardia article at MicrobeWiki
Video of Giardia Life Cycle
Giardia and the Sierra Nevada
http://diarrhea.emedtv.com/giardia-lamblia/giardia-lambia.html
Metamonads
Parasitic excavates
Pathogenic microbes
Waterborne diseases
Conditions diagnosed by stool test
Veterinary protozoology
Zoonoses
Protozoal diseases
Parasites of birds
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constraint%20satisfaction%20problem
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Constraint satisfaction problem
|
Constraint satisfaction problems (CSPs) are mathematical questions defined as a set of objects whose state must satisfy a number of constraints or limitations. CSPs represent the entities in a problem as a homogeneous collection of finite constraints over variables, which is solved by constraint satisfaction methods. CSPs are the subject of research in both artificial intelligence and operations research, since the regularity in their formulation provides a common basis to analyze and solve problems of many seemingly unrelated families. CSPs often exhibit high complexity, requiring a combination of heuristics and combinatorial search methods to be solved in a reasonable time. Constraint programming (CP) is the field of research that specifically focuses on tackling these kinds of problems. Additionally, Boolean satisfiability problem (SAT), the satisfiability modulo theories (SMT), mixed integer programming (MIP) and answer set programming (ASP) are all fields of research focusing on the resolution of particular forms of the constraint satisfaction problem.
Examples of problems that can be modeled as a constraint satisfaction problem include:
Type inference
Eight queens puzzle
Map coloring problem
Maximum cut problem
Sudoku, Crosswords, Futoshiki, Kakuro (Cross Sums), Numbrix, Hidato and many other logic puzzles
These are often provided with tutorials of CP, ASP, Boolean SAT and SMT solvers. In the general case, constraint problems can be much harder, and may not be expressible in some of these simpler systems. "Real life" examples include automated planning, lexical disambiguation, musicology, product configuration and resource allocation.
The existence of a solution to a CSP can be viewed as a decision problem. This can be decided by finding a solution, or failing to find a solution after exhaustive search (stochastic algorithms typically never reach an exhaustive conclusion, while directed searches often do, on sufficiently small problems). In some cases the CSP might be known to have solutions beforehand, through some other mathematical inference process.
Formal definition
Formally, a constraint satisfaction problem is defined as a triple , where
is a set of variables,
is a set of their respective domains of values, and
is a set of constraints.
Each variable can take on the values in the nonempty domain .
Every constraint is in turn a pair , where is a subset of variables and is a -ary relation on the corresponding subset of domains . An evaluation of the variables is a function from a subset of variables to a particular set of values in the corresponding subset of domains. An evaluation satisfies a constraint if the values assigned to the variables satisfies the relation .
An evaluation is consistent if it does not violate any of the constraints. An evaluation is complete if it includes all variables. An evaluation is a solution if it is consistent and complete; such an evaluation is said to solve the constraint satisfaction problem.
Solution
Constraint satisfaction problems on finite domains are typically solved using a form of search. The most used techniques are variants of backtracking, constraint propagation, and local search. These techniques are also often combined, as in the VLNS method, and current research involves other technologies such as linear programming.
Backtracking is a recursive algorithm. It maintains a partial assignment of the variables. Initially, all variables are unassigned. At each step, a variable is chosen, and all possible values are assigned to it in turn. For each value, the consistency of the partial assignment with the constraints is checked; in case of consistency, a recursive call is performed. When all values have been tried, the algorithm backtracks. In this basic backtracking algorithm, consistency is defined as the satisfaction of all constraints whose variables are all assigned. Several variants of backtracking exist. Backmarking improves the efficiency of checking consistency. Backjumping allows saving part of the search by backtracking "more than one variable" in some cases. Constraint learning infers and saves new constraints that can be later used to avoid part of the search. Look-ahead is also often used in backtracking to attempt to foresee the effects of choosing a variable or a value, thus sometimes determining in advance when a subproblem is satisfiable or unsatisfiable.
Constraint propagation techniques are methods used to modify a constraint satisfaction problem. More precisely, they are methods that enforce a form of local consistency, which are conditions related to the consistency of a group of variables and/or constraints. Constraint propagation has various uses. First, it turns a problem into one that is equivalent but is usually simpler to solve. Second, it may prove satisfiability or unsatisfiability of problems. This is not guaranteed to happen in general; however, it always happens for some forms of constraint propagation and/or for certain kinds of problems. The most known and used forms of local consistency are arc consistency, hyper-arc consistency, and path consistency. The most popular constraint propagation method is the AC-3 algorithm, which enforces arc consistency.
Local search methods are incomplete satisfiability algorithms. They may find a solution of a problem, but they may fail even if the problem is satisfiable. They work by iteratively improving a complete assignment over the variables. At each step, a small number of variables are changed in value, with the overall aim of increasing the number of constraints satisfied by this assignment. The min-conflicts algorithm is a local search algorithm specific for CSPs and is based on that principle. In practice, local search appears to work well when these changes are also affected by random choices. An integration of search with local search has been developed, leading to hybrid algorithms.
Theoretical aspects
Decision problems
CSPs are also studied in computational complexity theory and finite model theory. An important question is whether for each set of relations, the set of all CSPs that can be represented using only relations chosen from that set is either in P or NP-complete. If such a dichotomy theorem is true, then CSPs provide one of the largest known subsets of NP which avoids NP-intermediate problems, whose existence was demonstrated by Ladner's theorem under the assumption that P ≠ NP. Schaefer's dichotomy theorem handles the case when all the available relations are Boolean operators, that is, for domain size 2. Schaefer's dichotomy theorem was recently generalized to a larger class of relations.
Most classes of CSPs that are known to be tractable are those where the hypergraph of constraints has bounded treewidth (and there are no restrictions on the set of constraint relations), or where the constraints have arbitrary form but there exist essentially non-unary polymorphisms of the set of constraint relations.
Every CSP can also be considered as a conjunctive query containment problem.
Function problems
A similar situation exists between the functional classes FP and #P. By a generalization of Ladner's theorem, there are also problems in neither FP nor #P-complete as long as FP ≠ #P. As in the decision case, a problem in the #CSP is defined by a set of relations. Each problem takes a Boolean formula as input and the task is to compute the number of satisfying assignments. This can be further generalized by using larger domain sizes and attaching a weight to each satisfying assignment and computing the sum of these weights. It is known that any complex weighted #CSP problem is either in FP or #P-hard.
Variants
The classic model of Constraint Satisfaction Problem defines a model of static, inflexible constraints. This rigid model is a shortcoming that makes it difficult to represent problems easily. Several modifications of the basic CSP definition have been proposed to adapt the model to a wide variety of problems.
Dynamic CSPs
Dynamic CSPs (DCSPs) are useful when the original formulation of a problem is altered in some way, typically because the set of constraints to consider evolves because of the environment. DCSPs are viewed as a sequence of static CSPs, each one a transformation of the previous one in which variables and constraints can be added (restriction) or removed (relaxation). Information found in the initial formulations of the problem can be used to refine the next ones. The solving method can be classified according to the way in which information is transferred:
Oracles: the solution found to previous CSPs in the sequence are used as heuristics to guide the resolution of the current CSP from scratch.
Local repair: each CSP is calculated starting from the partial solution of the previous one and repairing the inconsistent constraints with local search.
Constraint recording: new constraints are defined in each stage of the search to represent the learning of inconsistent group of decisions. Those constraints are carried over to the new CSP problems.
Flexible CSPs
Classic CSPs treat constraints as hard, meaning that they are imperative (each solution must satisfy all of them) and inflexible (in the sense that they must be completely satisfied or else they are completely violated). Flexible CSPs relax those assumptions, partially relaxing the constraints and allowing the solution to not comply with all of them. This is similar to preferences in preference-based planning. Some types of flexible CSPs include:
MAX-CSP, where a number of constraints are allowed to be violated, and the quality of a solution is measured by the number of satisfied constraints.
Weighted CSP, a MAX-CSP in which each violation of a constraint is weighted according to a predefined preference. Thus satisfying constraint with more weight is preferred.
Fuzzy CSP model constraints as fuzzy relations in which the satisfaction of a constraint is a continuous function of its variables' values, going from fully satisfied to fully violated.
Decentralized CSPs
In DCSPs each constraint variable is thought of as having a separate geographic location. Strong constraints are placed on information exchange between variables, requiring the use of fully distributed algorithms to solve the constraint satisfaction problem.
See also
Constraint composite graph
Constraint programming
Declarative programming
Constrained optimization (COP)
Distributed constraint optimization
Graph homomorphism
Unique games conjecture
Weighted constraint satisfaction problem (WCSP)
References
Further reading
A quick introduction to constraint satisfaction on YouTube
Tomás Feder, Constraint satisfaction: a personal perspective, manuscript.
Constraints archive
Forced Satisfiable CSP Benchmarks of Model RB
Benchmarks – XML representation of CSP instances
XCSP3 – An XML-based format designed to represent CSP instances
Constraint Propagation – Dissertation by Guido Tack giving a good survey of theory and implementation issues
Constraint programming
|
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211655
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Institute%20of%20General%20Medical%20Sciences
|
National Institute of General Medical Sciences
|
The National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS) supports basic research that increases understanding of biological processes and lays the foundation for advances in disease diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. NIGMS-funded scientists investigate how living systems work at a range of levels, from molecules and cells to tissues and organs, in research organisms, humans, and populations. Additionally, to ensure the vitality and continued productivity of the research enterprise, NIGMS provides leadership in training the next generation of scientists, in enhancing the diversity of the scientific workforce, and in developing research capacity throughout the country.
NIGMS is one of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the principal medical research agency of the Federal Government. NIH is a component of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
All NIH Institutes and Centers support basic research that is relevant to the diseases, organ systems, stages of life, or populations within their mission areas. In contrast, NIGMS supports fundamental research that does not focus on those specific areas. NIGMS' research mission is aimed at understanding the principles, mechanisms, and processes that underlie living organisms, often using research models. NIGMS also supports the development of fundamental methods and new technologies to achieve its mission. NIGMS-supported research may utilize specific cells or organ systems if they serve as models for understanding general principles. Research with the overall goal to gain knowledge about a specific organ or organ system or the pathophysiology, treatment, or cure of a specific disease or condition will, in most cases, be more appropriate for another Institute or Center. See the NIH listing of Institutes, Centers, and Offices to learn more about their specific missions.
NIGMS also supports research in specific clinical areas that affect multiple organ systems: anesthesiology and peri-operative pain; sepsis; clinical pharmacology that is common to multiple drugs and treatments; and trauma, burn injury, and wound healing.
NIGMS is organized into the following divisions that support research, research training, and capacity building in a range of scientific fields.
Division of Biophysics, Biomedical Technology, and Computational Biosciences
Division of Genetics and Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology
Division of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Biological Chemistry
Division for Research Capacity Building
Division of Training, Workforce Development, and Diversity
NIGMS was established in 1962. In Fiscal Year 2017, the Institute's budget was $2.6 billion. The vast majority of this money funds grants to scientists at universities, medical schools, hospitals, and other research institutions throughout the country. At any given time, NIGMS supports more than 3,000 investigators and 4,000 research grants—around 11 percent of the total number of research grants funded by NIH as a whole. Additionally, NIGMS supports approximately 26 percent of the NRSA trainees who receive assistance from NIH.
NIGMS produces a number of free science education materials on topics such as cell biology, genetics, chemistry, pharmacology, structural biology, and computational biology. The Institute also produces the magazine Findings, which showcases diverse scientists who do cutting-edge research and lead interesting lives.
Research advances
Among the advances that scientists have made with NIGMS support are:
Discovering a gene-silencing process called RNA interference, or RNAi, that is both a powerful research tool and a promising new approach for treating diseases.
Revealing how a protein's shape affects its function, which plays a key role in health and disease and also informs the design of new drugs.
Increasing survival from burn injury, in part by improving methods of wound care, nutrition and infection control.
Shedding light on the critical functions of carbohydrates, sugar molecules found on all living cells that are vital to fertilization, inflammation, blood clotting and viral infection.
Modeling infectious disease outbreaks and the impact of interventions through computer simulations to provide valuable information to public health policymakers.
Developing new methods to look inside cells and other living systems. These approaches have advanced what we know about basic life processes in a range of organisms.
Notes and references
External links
NIGMS account on USAspending.gov
General Medical Sciences
|
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] |
211656
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists%20of%20corporate%20assets
|
Lists of corporate assets
|
This page is an index for lists of some assets owned by large corporations.
Holding companies
List of assets owned by Procter & Gamble
List of assets owned by Unilever
List of assets owned by Sony
List of assets owned by Shaw Communications
List of assets owned by Vivendi
List of assets owned by Berkshire Hathaway
List of assets owned by Nestlé
List of assets owned by Walmart
Advertising holding companies
List of assets owned by WPP Group
List of assets owned by Omnicom
List of assets owned by Publicis
List of assets owned by Interpublic
Media companies
Media companies are included here based on their inclusion in an online list provided by the Columbia Journalism Review, published by the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism. The country in which the company has its corporate headquarters is noted after each company name. ( this list is incomplete.)
List of assets owned by 21st Century Fox
List of assets owned by ABS-CBN
List of assets owned by Advance Publications
List of assets owned by American Media
List of assets owned by Bell Media
List of assets owned by Belo Corporation
List of assets owned by Bertelsmann
List of assets owned by CanWest Global Communications
List of assets owned by Corus Entertainment
List of assets owned by Clear Channel Communications
List of assets owned by Comcast
List of assets owned by Discovery, Inc.
List of assets owned by Dow Jones
List of assets owned by Fox Corporation
List of assets owned by Gannett
List of assets owned by Hearst Corporation
List of assets owned by Hubbard Broadcasting Corporation
List of assets owned by MGM Holdings
List of assets owned by News Corp
List of assets owned by NBCUniversal
List of assets owned by The New York Times Company
List of assets owned by Rogers Communications
List of assets owned by Sinclair Broadcast Group
List of assets owned by The Walt Disney Company
List of assets owned by Nexstar Media Group
List of assets owned by Paramount Global
List of assets owned by Village Voice Media
List of assets owned by WarnerMedia
List of assets owned by Washington Post Company
List of assets owned by Saban Capital Group
Technology companies
List of assets owned by Hewlett-Packard
List of assets owned by Hewlett-Packard (Acquisitions only)
List of assets owned by Microsoft Corporation (Mergers and acquisitions only)
List of assets owned by Microsoft Corporation (Investments only)
List of assets owned by Nokia (Acquisitions only)
Food companies
List of assets owned by Cara Operations
List of assets owned by The Coca-Cola Company
List of assets owned by ConAgra Foods, Inc.
List of assets owned by Mars, Incorporated
List of assets owned by Molson Coors
List of assets owned by PepsiCo
List of assets owned by Yum! Brands, Inc.
List of assets owned by AB InBev
Conglomerates
List of assets owned by Siemens
List of assets owned by General Electric
List of assets owned by Canadian National Railways Companies
List of assets owned by Gazprom
List of assets owned by Canadian Pacific Railway
List of assets owned by Total S.A.
See also
Concentration of media ownership
Stock-taking
Hostile takeover
References
Adbusters: Who Owns What
Corporation-related lists
Corporate subsidiaries
|
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] |
211665
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20I
|
Stephen I
|
Stephen I may refer to:
Pope Stephen I, Bishop of Rome from 254 to 257
Stephen I of Antioch, Patriarch of Antioch from 342 to 344
Stephen I of Iberia (died 627), of the Guaramid Dynasty, presiding prince of Iberia from c. 590 to 627
Ecumenical Patriarch Stephen I of Constantinople (867–893), Patriarch of Constantinople
Stephen I, Count of Troyes (died 1020), seventh Count of Meaux
Stephen I of Hungary (967/969/975 – 1038), Grand Prince of the Hungarians and first King of Hungary
Stephen I of Croatia (ruled 1030–1058)
Stephan I, Count of Sponheim (d. ca. 1080)
Stephen I, Count of Burgundy (1065–1102), Count Palatine of Burgundy, Count of Burgundy and Count of Mâcon and Vienne
Stephen of England (c. 1096 – 1154) may be referred to as Stephen I
Stephen I of Sancerre (1133–1190), Count of Sancerre and son of Count Theobald II of Champagne
Stefan Nemanja (1109–1199), Medieval Serb nobleman, Grand Prince of the medieval Serb state of Rascia
Stephen I, Duke of Bavaria (1271–1310), duke of Lower Bavaria as co-regent of his older brothers Otto III and Louis III
Stephen I, Ban of Bosnia (1242–1314), Bosnian Ban
Stephen I of Moldavia (r. 1394–1399)
Stephen Báthory of Poland (1533–1586), Hungarian noble Prince of Transylvania, King consort of Poland and Grand Duke consort of Lithuania.
eo:Stefano#Regantoj
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill%20Buckner
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Bill Buckner
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William Joseph Buckner (December 14, 1949 – May 27, 2019) was an American professional baseball first baseman and left fielder, who played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for five teams from through , including the Chicago Cubs, the Los Angeles Dodgers, and Boston Red Sox.
Beginning his career as an outfielder with the Dodgers, Buckner helped the team to the pennant with a .314 batting average, but a serious ankle injury the next year led to his trade to the Cubs prior to the season. The Cubs moved Buckner to first base, and he won the National League (NL) batting title with a .324 mark in 1980. He was named to the All-Star team in 1981 as he led the major leagues in doubles. After setting a major league record for first basemen with 159 assists in , Buckner surpassed that total with 161 in while again leading the NL in doubles. Feuds with team management over a loss of playing time resulted in his being traded to the Red Sox in the middle of the season.
During the season, Buckner started all 162 games and shattered his own big league record with 184 assists. Toward the end of the season, he was hobbled by leg injuries and struggled throughout the playoffs. Buckner’s tenth-inning error in Game 6 of the 1986 World Series against the New York Mets remains one of the most memorable plays in baseball history; it was long considered part of a curse on the Red Sox that kept them from winning the World Series, and led to years of fan anger and public mockery that Buckner handled graciously before being embraced by Red Sox fans again after their 2004 World Series victory.
After spending his last few seasons with the California Angels, Kansas City Royals, and the Red Sox, Buckner became the 21st player in MLB history to play in four decades. He ended his career with 2,715 hits and 498 doubles, having batted over .300 seven times. Buckner led his league in assists four times, with his 1985 mark remaining the American League (AL) record. He retired with the fourth-most assists by a first baseman (1,351) in major league history despite not playing the position regularly until he was 27 years old. After retiring as a player, Buckner became a real estate developer in Idaho. He coached a number of Minor League Baseball (MiLB) teams before leaving baseball in 2014.
Early years
Buckner was born in Vallejo, California and grew up in nearby American Canyon. He and his brothers Bob and Jim, and Jim's twin sister Jan, were raised by their parents, Leonard and Marie Katherine Buckner; his father died in 1966, when Bill was a teenager. His mother was a stenographer for the California Highway Patrol.
He graduated from Napa High School in 1968 after playing on the school's baseball and football teams. While playing football, he was a two-time All-State receiver and also achieved All-America honors twice.
As a baseball player at Napa High School, Buckner hit .667 in 1967 and .529 in 1968 under coach Dale Fisher. As a football player, Buckner is still in the Napa record lists for reception yards in a season (579), career reception yards (963), and career receptions (61). At first, Buckner contemplated attending Stanford or USC, but he eventually chose professional baseball instead.
Buckner was selected by the Los Angeles Dodgers in the second round of the 1968 Major League Baseball draft; his friend Bobby Valentine was the Dodgers' first-round pick. Upon signing with the Dodgers, Buckner was assigned to the Ogden Dodgers of the Pioneer League. He also briefly attended Los Angeles Valley College, USC and Arizona State University. He became a member of the Sigma Chi fraternity while a farmhand with the Dodgers, and roomed with Valentine while attending USC after his first professional season.
Career
Minor leagues (1968–1970)
At age 18, Buckner made his professional debut playing with the Ogden Dodgers of the Rookie Pioneer league in 1968, hitting .344 with 4 home runs and 44 RBI in 64 games. He was teammates with Valentine and Steve Garvey, who also were playing in their first professional seasons. The manager at Ogden was Tommy Lasorda.
In 1969, Buckner played with four Dodger teams, as he advanced quickly in the Dodgers' farm system. He hit .350 with 6 home runs and 36 RBI in 46 games with the Dodgers team in the Arizona Instructional League. He then batted .307 with 7 home runs and 50 RBI with the Class AA Albuquerque Dodgers, and .315 with 2 home runs and 27 RBI in 36 games with the Class AAA Spokane Indians of the Pacific Coast League. While at Spokane, Buckner's manager was once again Lasorda. Buckner was called up to the Dodgers late in the season at age 19, popping up to second base as a pinch hitter for Jim Brewer in the 9th inning of a 4-3 road loss to the San Francisco Giants on September 21 in his only appearance.
Buckner spent April with the Dodgers, picking up his first hit in a 5-2 loss to the Cincinnati Reds on April 8, but after batting .121 with no home runs or RBI, he was returned to Triple-A Spokane, where he played 111 games under Lasorda after he was given leave to complete finals at USC. He hit .335 with 3 home runs and 74 RBI, playing alongside Garvey, Valentine, Davey Lopes, Tom Paciorek, Bill Russell, Charlie Hough, and Doyle Alexander, among others. Buckner played most of the 1970 season with a broken jaw and with his jaw wired shut. Spokane finished 94–52, and Buckner was again called up to the Dodgers in September. He batted .257 in the final month, with 4 RBI and 5 runs scored.
Los Angeles Dodgers (1971–1976)
Buckner earned a starting job with the Dodgers in as their opening-day right fielder, and hit his first career home run off Don Wilson of the Houston Astros on April 6, providing the only scoring in a 2-0 road win. Buckner also played some first base with the Dodgers, making 87 starts at first in . However, when Steve Garvey emerged as a Gold Glove first baseman and the National League's Most Valuable Player the following season, Buckner was shifted to left field permanently. Buckner played a supporting role in a baseball milestone on April 8, . Playing left field, he climbed the fence in an attempt to catch Hank Aaron's record 715th home run. He also played in his first World Series that year, which the Dodgers lost to the Oakland Athletics in five games; Buckner hit .250 in the Series, including a home run off Catfish Hunter in Game 3, a 3-2 road loss.
In his Dodgers career, Buckner batted .289 with 38 home runs and 277 runs batted in in 773 games.
Chicago Cubs (1977–1984)
Following the 1976 season, Buckner was traded with Iván DeJesús and Jeff Albert to the Chicago Cubs for Rick Monday and Mike Garman. He had suffered a staph infection in his ankle in 1976, so the Cubs shifted him to first base, the playing position where he remained for the final 14 years of his career.
Whereas early indications seemed to lean toward the Dodgers getting the better end of this deal – with Monday becoming one of the key centerpieces of the Dodgers clubs that went to the and 1978 World Series – Buckner soon emerged as something of a star for the beleaguered Cubs. On May 17, 1979, in a famous slugfest at Wrigley Field in which the Cubs lost 23-22 to the Philadelphia Phillies, with three homers by Dave Kingman and two by Mike Schmidt, Buckner went 4–for–7 with a grand slam off Tug McGraw and a career-high seven RBI. But when manager Herman Franks resigned late in the season, he made negative comments about several players, including calling Buckner "nuts".
In 1980 Buckner won the NL batting title with a .324 average. He also struck out only 18 times – once every 32 at bats – batting in front of Kingman. Keith Hernandez (.321) and Garry Templeton (.319) finished just behind Buckner in the race for the NL batting title. In the strike-interrupted 1981 season, he batted .311 while tying Cecil Cooper for the major league lead with 35 doubles; he was the Cubs' sole representative at the All-Star Game, where he grounded out to first base pinch hitting for Manny Trillo in the 9th inning of a 5-4 NL victory, their 10th consecutive All-Star win. In 1982 Buckner batted over .300 for the fourth time in Chicago, picked up a career-high 201 hits, drove in 105 runs – the first time he had topped 75 – and recorded 159 assists at first base, breaking Mickey Vernon's 1949 major league record of 155. In 1983 he again led the NL with 38 doubles, but saw his batting average drop to .280, his lowest mark in eight years.
During the season, Buckner saw a loss of playing time at first base to Leon Durham. Because of his lack of playing time, Buckner was at odds with the Cubs management; in protest, he vowed not to shave until he played two games in a row at first base. Buckner finally shaved between games of a doubleheader on May 24, because he found out he was going to be traded the next day to the Boston Red Sox; the Cubs went on to win their division, reaching the postseason for the first time in 39 years. In eight seasons with the Cubs, Buckner hit .300 with 81 home runs, 235 doubles, and 516 RBI in 974 games.
Boston Red Sox (1984–1987)
Early in the season, the Red Sox were in the market for an upgrade at first base. On May 25, they acquired Buckner from the Cubs for Dennis Eckersley and Mike Brumley. The Red Sox were 19–25 and in sixth place in the American League East at the time of the trade, but improved to 67–51 the rest of the way to finish the season in fourth place. On September 21, Buckner enjoyed the first five-hit game of his career in an 8-0 road win over the Baltimore Orioles.
Buckner appeared in all 162 games for the Red Sox in , and batted .299 with 16 home runs while posting career highs with 110 RBI, 201 hits and 46 doubles. He was a prototypical contact hitter, and struck out just 36 times in 719 plate appearances to lead the American League in that category in 1985. (He also led the NL in most at bats per strikeout in , and , and placed second in , , , and .) In 1985 he also extended his own major league record for assists in a season with 184. The record stood for almost 25 years until the St. Louis Cardinals' Albert Pujols broke Buckner's record with 185 assists in .
On June 5, 1986, Buckner picked up his 1,000th career RBI on a ground out in a 7-5 road loss to the Milwaukee Brewers. On August 21, he again had five hits in a blowout 24-5 road win over the Cleveland Indians. In September, he hit .340 with 8 home runs and 22 RBI, while missing just 3 games in spite of chronic ankle soreness. Dave Stapleton, the Red Sox first baseman prior to the acquisition of Buckner, began seeing more playing time as a late-inning defensive replacement in September and October. Meanwhile, Buckner became the first major league player to wear Nike high-top baseball cleats professionally in an effort to relieve pressure on his ankles. That season, Buckner hit a career-high 18 home runs, drove in more than 100 runs for the second season in a row, and was a key member of the team that won the American League East by 5-1/2 games. He entered Game 5 of the 1986 American League Championship Series batting just .111 in the Series, and was 0–for–3 in the game when he singled to start a ninth-inning rally which was capped off by Dave Henderson's famous home run. He went 3–for–6 in the final 2 games as the Red Sox came back from the brink of elimination to defeat the California Angels and win the American League pennant.
1986 World Series
The 1986 Red Sox were leading the heavily favored New York Mets 3 games to 2 in the 1986 World Series when Game 6 went into extra innings. For his part, Buckner was batting just .143 against Mets pitching, and he was 0–for–5 in Game 6. When the Sox scored 2 runs in the top of the tenth, Boston manager John McNamara chose to have Buckner take the field in the bottom of the inning instead of bringing Stapleton in as a defensive replacement for the ailing Buckner, as he had in Games 1, 2, and 5.
With two outs and no one on base, New York struck back with three straight singles off Calvin Schiraldi, and tied the game on a wild pitch by Bob Stanley. Mookie Wilson fouled off several pitches before hitting a slow roller to Buckner at first base. Aware of Wilson's speed, Buckner tried to rush the play. As a result, the ball rolled to the left side of his glove, through his legs, and into shallow right field, allowing Ray Knight to score the winning run from second base. Had Buckner fielded the ball with Wilson safe at first, the score would have remained tied for the next Mets batter. Had Buckner put out Wilson at first base, Game 6 would have gone to an 11th inning.
Boston led Game 7 by a 3–0 score heading into the bottom of the sixth inning when New York rallied again, scoring 3 runs off Bruce Hurst to tie the game, and 3 more off of Schiraldi in the seventh to take a 6–3 lead. Buckner was 2–for–4 in the game, and scored 1 of Boston's 2 runs in the eighth. However, the Mets also scored twice in the eighth and won 8–5, for their second and most recent World Series championship.
Fallout
Regardless of any of the other perceived shortcomings that led to Boston's loss in the 1986 World Series, Buckner's error epitomized the "Curse of the Bambino" in the minds of Red Sox fans, and he soon became the scapegoat for a frustrated fan base. Buckner began receiving death threats and was heckled and booed by some of his own home fans, often with the false belief or implication that his play alone could have instantly won the series for the Red Sox. Meanwhile, he was the focal point of derision from the fans of opposing teams on the road—especially when he faced the Mets in spring training of 1987—and during his first regular-season at bat at Yankee Stadium. He made his 2,500th career hit on May 19, an RBI single in a 4-1 road loss to the Kansas City Royals, but the Red Sox released Buckner on July 23 after he recorded a .273 batting average, 2 home runs, and 42 RBI in 75 games.
California Angels (1987–1988)
Upon his release from the Red Sox, Buckner signed with the California Angels. For the remainder of the 1987 season, Buckner batted .306 and drove in 32 runs in 57 games. In 76 total games with the Angels, Buckner hit .288 with 3 home runs and 41 RBI.
Kansas City Royals (1988–1989)
At 38 years old, Buckner was released by the Angels on May 9, , just before a road trip that would have brought him to the east coast to face the Yankees and Red Sox. He signed with the Royals shortly after his release and walked into Fenway Park as a player for the opposing team for the first time on July 15. He went 1–for–2 off Roger Clemens with a walk.
In 168 games with the Royals, Buckner hit .239 with 4 home runs and 50 RBI.
Second Red Sox stint (1990)
Buckner returned to the Red Sox in as a free agent and received a standing ovation from the crowd during player introductions at the home opener on April 9.
Buckner's last home run was against Kirk McCaskill on April 25, 1990 at Fenway Park, the only inside-the-park home run of his career. Despite being one of the slowest runners in baseball, the 40-year-old Buckner circled the bases in the fourth inning when Angels outfielder Claudell Washington crashed into Fenway's 3-foot high right-field wall and somersaulted into the front row of seats.
His return was short-lived; he retired on June 5 with a .186 batting average, 1 home run, and 3 RBI that season. In 526 career games with Boston, Buckner hit .279 with 48 home runs, 112 doubles, and 324 RBI.
Career stats
Buckner was a speedy baserunner until his ankle surgeries in 1975 and 1976 for a severe ankle sprain and bone chips, respectively. He twice finished in the top 10 in the league in stolen bases ( and 1976) and twice led the league in doubles (1981 and 1983). After moving to first base, he played 1,555 regular-season games and made only 128 errors in 13,901 chances.
In 2,517 games over 22 seasons, Buckner batted .289 (2,715–for–9,397) with 1,077 runs scored, 498 doubles, 49 triples, 174 home runs, 1,208 RBI, 183 stolen bases, 450 walks, an on-base percentage of .321, and a slugging percentage of .408. Defensively, he recorded a .991 fielding percentage at first base and at left and right field.
Post-playing career
After Buckner retired from baseball, he moved his family to Idaho where he invested in real estate in the Boise area. One of the housing subdivisions that he developed is named "Fenway Park". He lent his name to and was a minority owner of a local car dealership, Bill Buckner Motors in Emmett, which was in business from 2006 to 2008.
On April 8, , Buckner threw out the first pitch to former teammate Dwight Evans at the Red Sox home opener as they unfurled their 2007 World Series championship banner. He received a two-minute standing ovation from the sell-out crowd. After the game, when asked if he had any second thoughts about appearing at the game, he said, "I really had to forgive, not the fans of Boston, per se, but I would have to say in my heart I had to forgive the media for what they put me and my family through. So, you know, I've done that and I'm over that."
On January 4, 2011, Buckner was named the manager of the Brockton Rox of the Can-Am League. The Rox posted a 51–42 record in 2011, but after the season, the Rox dropped the professional format to join the Futures Collegiate Baseball League. In December, Buckner became the hitting instructor for the Boise Hawks for the 2012 season. The Hawks were the Chicago Cubs affiliate in the Class A-Short Season Northwest League. Buckner announced his retirement from baseball on March 3, 2014. Buckner was inducted into the Napa High School Hall Of Fame in 1997 and the CIF Sac-Joaquin Section Hall of Fame in 2010.
Buckner was inducted into the Baseball Reliquary's Shrine of the Eternals in 2008.
Personal life
Buckner and his wife Jody had two daughters, Brittany and Christen, and a son, Bobby. Bobby was a member of the Texas A&M–Corpus Christi Islanders baseball team.
Death
Buckner died on May 27, 2019, of Lewy body dementia at the age of 69. He was surrounded by his wife Jody and three children at the time of his death.
In a statement, Buckner's family said, "Bill fought with courage and grit as he did all things in life. Our hearts are broken but we are at peace knowing he is in the arms of his Lord and Savior Jesus Christ." Buckner's funeral service was held at Calvary Chapel in Boise, Idaho.
References in popular culture
Charlie Sheen purchased the "Buckner Ball" at auction in for $93,000, and for a long time, it resided in the collection of songwriter Seth Swirsky, who refers to it as the "Mookie Ball." The ball was on loan for a time from Swirsky to the Mets to display in their Mets Hall of Fame and Museum, and it was among the most popular artifacts for fans to see. On May 3, 2012, Swirsky sold the ball through Heritage Auctions for $418,250.
Buckner made a cameo appearance at the beginning of the sports parody film The Comebacks and
was featured in an episode of the HBO series Curb Your Enthusiasm. Also, he made a cameo appearance in the pilot episode of the short-lived sitcom Inside Schwartz, advising the title character to "just let it go." In 1995, Buckner appeared along with Michael Jordan, Stan Musial, Willie Mays and Ken Griffey, Jr. in a commercial for the shoemaker Nike in which Spike Lee, in character as Mars Blackmon, compares Jordan's baseball skills to Musial, Mays, Griffey and Buckner. The punch line is a visual reference to Buckner's 1986 World Series error. His famous 1986 World Series miscue is also referenced in the films Celtic Pride, Rounders, and Fever Pitch. The play also is referenced in an episode of The Simpsons titled "Brother's Little Helper" and in the musical Johnny Baseball. On October 23, 2008, during former Federal Reserve chairman Alan Greenspan's testimony in House hearings on the economic crisis of 2008, Representative John Yarmuth referred to Greenspan as one of "three Bill Buckners." Buckner and Mookie Wilson appeared in an MLB Network commercial for the 2016 postseason, "Catching Up", marking the 30th anniversary of the 1986 World Series and their roles in it.
Buckner is mentioned in The Areas of My Expertise in a series of New England sports references. In the book, John Hodgman describes a (fictional) radio personality and recounts the premonition she had regarding Buckner's infamous error in Game 6 of the 1986 World Series.
The Leonard P. Zakim Bunker Hill Memorial Bridge, in Boston, is colloquially referred to locals as the Bill Buckner Bridge because traffic goes between the "legs" of the bridge, like Buckner's 1986 World Series fielding error. The nickname is now spoken fondly, since Buckner and Sox fans thought fondly of each other after the 2004 World Series win.
See also
List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders
List of Major League Baseball career doubles leaders
List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders
List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders
List of Major League Baseball batting champions
List of Major League Baseball annual doubles leaders
List of Major League Baseball players who played in four decades
References
Further reading
Bill Buckner's 1986 World Series error
External links
Bill Buckner at SABR (Baseball BioProject)
Bill Buckner at Baseball Almanac
Bill Buckner
Bill Buckner at The Baseball Page (via archive.today)
1949 births
2019 deaths
Major League Baseball first basemen
Major League Baseball left fielders
Chicago Cubs players
Boston Red Sox players
Los Angeles Dodgers players
California Angels players
Kansas City Royals players
National League All-Stars
National League batting champions
Baseball players from California
Albuquerque Dodgers players
Ogden Dodgers players
Spokane Indians players
Arizona Instructional League Dodgers players
Tiburones de La Guaira players
American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
Chicago White Sox coaches
Minor league baseball managers
Sportspeople from Vallejo, California
Sportspeople from Boise, Idaho
University of Southern California alumni
Neurological disease deaths in Idaho
Deaths from Lewy body dementia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldwych%20tube%20station
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Aldwych tube station
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Aldwych is a closed station on the London Underground, located in the City of Westminster in Central London. It was opened in 1907 with the name Strand, after the street on which it is located, and was the terminus of the short Piccadilly line branch from Holborn that was a relic of the merger of two railway schemes. The station building is close to the Strand's junction with Surrey Street, near Aldwych. During its lifetime, the branch was the subject of a number of unrealised extension proposals that would have seen the tunnels through the station extended southwards, usually to Waterloo.
Served mostly by a shuttle train and having low passenger numbers, the station and branch were considered for closure several times. Service was offered only during weekday peak hours from 1962 and discontinued in 1994, when the cost of replacing the lifts was considered too high for the income generated.
Disused parts of the station and the running tunnels were used during both world wars to shelter artworks from London's public galleries and museums from bombing. The station is the work of Leslie Green and has long been popular as a filming location, appearing as itself and as other London Underground stations in a number of films. In recognition of its historical significance, the station is a Grade II listed building and is an example of the Modern Style (British Art Nouveau style).
History
Planning
The Great Northern and Strand Railway (GN&SR) first proposed a station in the Strand area in a private bill presented to Parliament in November 1898. The station was to be the southern terminus of an underground railway line planned to run from Wood Green station (now Alexandra Palace) via Finsbury Park and King's Cross and was originally to be located at the corner of Stanhope Street and Holles Street, north of the Strand. When the two streets were scheduled for demolition as part of the London County Council's plans for the construction of Kingsway and Aldwych, the GN&SR moved the location to the junction of the two new roads. Royal Assent to the bill was given and the Great Northern and Strand Railway Act 1899 was enacted on 1 August.
In September 1901, the GN&SR was taken over by the Brompton and Piccadilly Circus Railway (B&PCR), which planned to build an underground line from South Kensington to Piccadilly Circus via Knightsbridge. Both were under the control of Charles Yerkes through his Metropolitan District Electric Traction Company and, in June 1902, were transferred to Yerkes' new holding company, the Underground Electric Railways Company of London (UERL). Neither of the railways had carried out any construction, but the UERL obtained permission for new tunnels between Piccadilly Circus and Holborn to connect the two routes. The companies were formally merged as the Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway (GNP&BR) following parliamentary approval in November 1902. Prior to confirmation of the merger, the GN&SR had sought permission to extend its line southwards from the future junction of Kingsway and Aldwych, under Norfolk Street to a new interchange under the Metropolitan District Railway's station at Temple. The extension was rejected following objections from the Duke of Norfolk under whose land the last part of the proposed tunnels would have run.
In 1903, the GNP&BR sought permission for a branch from Piccadilly Circus to run under Leicester Square, Strand, and Fleet Street and into the City of London. The branch would have passed and interchanged with the already approved Strand station, allowing travel on the GNP&BR from Strand in three directions. The deliberations of the Royal Commission on London Traffic prevented parliamentary consideration of the proposal, which was withdrawn.
In 1905, with the Royal Commission's report about to be published, the GNP&BR returned to Parliament with two bills for consideration. The first bill revived the 1903 proposal for a branch from Piccadilly Circus to the City of London, passing and interchanging with Strand station. The second proposed an extension and relocation of Strand station to the junction of Strand and Surrey Street. From there the line was to continue as a single tunnel under the River Thames to Waterloo. The first bill was again delayed and withdrawn. Of the second, only the relocation of Strand station was permitted.
Construction
The linking of the GN&SR and B&PCR routes meant that the section of the GN&SR south of Holborn became a branch from the main route. The UERL began constructing the main route in July 1902. Progress was rapid, so that it was largely complete by the Autumn of 1906. Construction of the Holborn to Strand section was delayed while the London County Council constructed Kingsway and the tramway subway running beneath it and while the UERL decided how the junction between the main route and the branch would be arranged at Holborn.
Strand station was built on the site of the Royal Strand Theatre, which had closed on 13 May 1905 and been demolished. Construction of the station began on 21 October 1905, to a design by the UERL's architect Leslie Green in the UERL house style of a two-storey steel-framed building faced with red glazed terracotta blocks, with wide semi-circular windows on the upper floor. The station building is L-shaped, with two façades separated by the building on the corner of Strand and Surrey Street. The Strand façade is narrow with a single semi-circular window above the entrance. The façade in Surrey Street is wider with a separate entrance and exit and a shop unit. In anticipation of a revival of the extension to Waterloo and the City route, the station was built with three circular lift shafts able to accommodate six trapezium-shaped lifts. Only one of the shafts was fitted out, with two lifts. The other two shafts rose from the lower concourse to the basement of the station, but could have been extended upwards into the space of the shop unit when required. A fourth smaller-diameter shaft accommodated an emergency spiral stair.
The platforms are below street level and are long; shorter than the GNP&BR's standard length of . As with other UERL stations, the platform walls were tiled with distinctive patterns, in this case cream and dark green. Only parts of the platform walls were decorated because it was planned to operate the branch with short trains. Owing to the reduced lift provision, a second route between the platforms and lifts was never brought into use and was left in an unfinished condition without tiling.
Operation
The GNP&BR's main route opened on 15 December 1906, but the Strand branch was not opened until 30 November 1907. Initially, shuttle trains operated to Holborn from the eastern platform into the through platform at Holborn. At peak times, an additional train operated alternately in the branch's western tunnel into the bay platform at Holborn. During the first year of operation, a train for theatregoers operated late on Monday to Saturday evenings from Strand through Holborn and northbound to Finsbury Park; this was discontinued in October 1908.
In March 1908, the off-peak shuttle service began to use the western platform at Strand and the through platform at Holborn, crossing between the two branch tunnels south of Holborn. Low usage led to the withdrawal of the second peak-hour shuttle and the eastern tunnel was taken out of use in 1914. On 9 May 1915, three of the Underground stations in the area were renamed and Strand station became Aldwych. Sunday services ended in April 1917 and, in August of the same year, the eastern tunnel and platform at Aldwych and the bay platform at Holborn were formally closed. A German bombing campaign in September 1917 led to the disused platform being used as storage for around 300 paintings from the National Gallery from then until December 1918.
In October 1922, the ticket office was replaced by a facility in the lifts. Passenger numbers remained low: when the station was one of a number on the network considered for closure in 1929, its annual usage was 1,069,650 and takings were £4,500. The branch was again considered for closure in 1933, but remained open.
Wartime efficiency measures led to the branch being closed temporarily on 22 September 1940, shortly after the start of The Blitz, and it was partly fitted out by the City of Westminster as an air-raid shelter. The tunnels between Aldwych and Holborn were used to store items from the British Museum, including the Elgin Marbles. The branch reopened on 1 July 1946, but patronage did not increase. In 1958, the station was one of three that London Transport announced would be closed. Again it survived, but the service was reduced in June 1958 to run during Monday to Friday peak hours and Saturday morning and early afternoons. The Saturday service was withdrawn in June 1962.
After operating only during peak hours for more than 30 years, the closure announcement came on 4 January 1993. The original 1907 lifts required replacement at a cost of £3 million. This was not considered justifiable in relation to the passenger numbers using the station and it was losing London Regional Transport £150,000 per year. The Secretary of State for Transport granted permission on 1 September 1994 to close the station and the branch closed on 30 September. Recognising the station's historical significance as a mostly unaltered station from the early 20th century, the station was given Grade II listed building status in 2011. Office floors above the station are used by the Classics department of King's College London.
Proposals for extension and new connections
Although the Piccadilly Circus to City of London branch proposal of 1905 was never revisited after its withdrawal, the early plan to extend the branch south to Waterloo was revived a number of times during the station's life. The extension was considered in 1919 and 1948, but no progress towards constructing the link was made.
In the years after the Second World War, a series of preliminary plans for relieving congestion on the London Underground had considered various east–west routes through the Aldwych area, although other priorities meant that these were never proceeded with. In March 1965, a British Rail and London Transport joint planning committee published "A Railway Plan for London", which proposed a new tube railway, the Fleet line (later renamed the Jubilee line), to join the Bakerloo line at then run via , , , Aldwych and into the City of London via , and before heading into south-east London. An interchange was proposed at Aldwych and a second recommendation of the report was the revival of the link from Aldwych to Waterloo. London Transport had already sought parliamentary approval to construct tunnels from Aldwych to Waterloo in November 1964, and in August 1965, parliamentary powers were granted. Detailed planning took place, although public spending cuts led to postponement of the scheme in 1967 before tenders were invited.
Planning of the Fleet line continued and parliamentary approval was given in July 1969 for the first phase of the line, from Baker Street to Charing Cross. Tunnelling began on the £35 million route in February 1972 and the Jubilee line opened north from Charing Cross in May 1979. The tunnels of the approved section continued east of Charing Cross under Strand almost as far as Aldwych station, but no work at Aldwych was undertaken and they were used only as sidings. Funding for the second phase of the work was delayed throughout the 1970s whilst the route beyond Charing Cross was reviewed to consider options for serving anticipated development in the London Docklands area. By 1979, the cost was estimated as £325 million, a six-fold increase from the £51 million estimated in 1970. A further review of alternatives for the Jubilee line was carried out in 1980, which led to a change of priorities and the postponement of any further effort on the line. When the extension was eventually constructed in the late 1990s it took a different route, south of the River Thames via , and to provide a rapid link to , leaving the tunnels between and Aldwych redundant.
In July 2005, Ove Arup & Partners produced a report, DLR Horizon 2020 Study, for the Docklands Light Railway (DLR) examining "pragmatic development schemes" to expand and improve the DLR network between 2012 and 2020. One of the proposals was an extension of the DLR from to via and Aldwych. The disused Jubilee line tunnels would be enlarged to accommodate the larger DLR trains and Aldwych station would form the basis for a new station on the line, although requiring considerable reconstruction to accommodate escalators. The estimated cost in 2005 was £232 million for the infrastructure works and the scheme was described as "strongly beneficial" as it was expected to attract passengers from the London Underground's existing east–west routes and from local buses and reduce overcrowding at Bank station. The business case assessment was that the proposal offered high value, although similar values were calculated for other extension proposals from Bank. Further detailed studies were proposed.
In 2015, a scheme was proposed by the design firm Gensler to convert disused London Underground tunnels into subterranean rail trails, enabling the disused branches of the Piccadilly line and Jubilee line to be used as cycle paths. The scheme, which would involve re-opening Aldwych station as an access point for cyclists, has not been officially approved.
Use in media
Because it was a self-contained section of the London Underground that was closed outside weekday peak hours, Aldwych station and the branch line from Holborn were popular locations for filming scenes set on the Tube even before their closure. Since the branch's closure in 1994, its use in film productions has continued, with the station appearing as itself and, with appropriate signage, as other stations on the network. The track and infrastructure are maintained in operational condition, and until 2021 a train of ex-Northern line 1972 tube stock was stabled on the branch. This train could be driven up and down the branch for filming. The physical connection with the Piccadilly line northbound tracks remains, but requires manual operation.
Films and television productions that have been shot at Aldwych include:
The Gentle Gunman (1952)
Battle of Britain (1969)
Deep End (1970)
Death Line (1972)
Take It or Leave It (1981)
Superman IV: The Quest for Peace (1986)
The Krays (1990)
Patriot Games (1992)
Creep (2004)
V for Vendetta (2006)
The Good Shepherd (2006)
Atonement (2007)
28 Weeks Later (2007)
The Bank Job (2008)
The Edge of Love (2008)
Mr Selfridge (2013)
Fast & Furious 6 (2013)
Sherlock (2014)
Darkest Hour (2017)
Secrets of the London Underground (2021)
The pre-war operation of the station features in a pivotal scene in Geoffrey Household's novel Rogue Male, when the pursuit of the protagonist by an enemy agent sees them repeatedly using the shuttle service on the branch line. A chase through Aldwych station ends with the agent's death by electrocution on the track. A much modified and expanded version of the station appears as a level in the video game Tomb Raider III. The music video for The Prodigy's song "Firestarter" was filmed in the disused eastern tunnel and one of the unused lift shafts. The station was the subject of an episode of Most Haunted in 2002.
See also
List of former and unopened London Underground stations
Notes and references
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
London Transport Museum Photographic Archive
Disused London Underground stations
Disused railway stations in the City of Westminster
Former Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1907
Railway stations in Great Britain closed in 1994
Former single platform tube stations
Grade II listed buildings in the City of Westminster
Grade II listed railway stations
History of King's College London
Tube station
Leslie Green railway stations
Railway stations located underground in the United Kingdom
|
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] |
211675
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20footwear%20designers
|
List of footwear designers
|
This is a list of notable dedicated footwear designers.
See also
List of fashion designers
Fashion occupations
Lists of people by occupation
Fashion-related lists
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceremonial%20magic
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Ceremonial magic
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Ceremonial magic (ritual magic, high magic or learned magic) encompasses a wide variety of rituals of magic. The works included are characterized by ceremony and numerous requisite accessories to aid the practitioner. It can be seen as an extension of ritual magic, and in most cases synonymous with it. Popularized by the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, it draws on such schools of philosophical and occult thought as Hermetic Qabalah, Enochian magic, Thelema, and the magic of various grimoires. Ceremonial magic is part of Hermeticism and Western esotericism.
The synonym magick is a term revived by Aleister Crowley to show and differentiate the occult from performance magic and he defined it as "the Science and Art of causing Change to occur in conformity with Will", including "mundane" acts of will as well as ritual magic. Crowley wrote that "it is theoretically possible to cause in any object any change of which that object is capable by nature". John Symonds and Kenneth Grant attach a deeper occult significance to this preference.
Crowley saw Magick as the essential method for a person to reach true understanding of the self and to act according to one's true will, which he saw as the reconciliation "between freewill and destiny." Crowley describes this process in his Magick, Book 4.
Definitions and general purpose
The term magick is an Early Modern English spelling for magic, used in works such as the 1651 translation of Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa's De Occulta Philosophia, Three Books of Occult Philosophy, or Of Magick. Aleister Crowley chose the spelling to differentiate his practices and rituals from stage magic (which may be more appropriately termed "illusion") and the term has since been re-popularised by those who have adopted elements of his teachings. Crowley defined Magick as "the science and art of causing change to occur in conformity with will."
History
Renaissance magic
The term originates in 16th-century Renaissance magic, referring to practices described in various Medieval and Renaissance grimoires and in collections such as that of Johannes Hartlieb. Georg Pictor uses the term synonymously with goetia.
James Sanford in his 1569 translation of Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa's 1526 De incertitudine et vanitate scientiarum has "The partes of ceremoniall Magicke be Geocie, and Theurgie". For Agrippa, ceremonial magic was in opposition to natural magic. While he had his misgivings about natural magic, which included astrology, alchemy, and also what we would today consider fields of natural science, such as botany, he was nevertheless prepared to accept it as "the highest peak of natural philosophy". Ceremonial magic, on the other hand, which included all sorts of communication with spirits, including necromancy and witchcraft, he denounced in its entirety as impious disobedience towards God.
Francis Barrett
Among the various sources for ceremonial magic, Francis Barrett, a late 18th-century Englishman, called himself a student of chemistry, metaphysics, and natural occult philosophy. Barrett was enthusiastic about reviving interest in the occult arts, and published a magical textbook called The Magus. The Magus dealt with the natural magic of herbs and stones, magnetism, talismanic magic, alchemy, numerology, the elements, and biographies of famous adepts from history. It was a compilation, almost entirely consisting of selections from Cornelius Agrippa's Three Books of Occult Philosophy, the Fourth Book of Occult Philosophy attributed to Agrippa, and Robert Turner's 1655 translation of the Heptameron of Peter of Abano. Barrett made modifications and modernized spelling and syntax. Possibly influencing the novelist Edward Bulwer-Lytton, the book gained little other notice until it influenced Eliphas Levi.
Éliphas Lévi
Éliphas Lévi (1810–1875) conceived the notion of writing a treatise on magic with his friend Bulwer-Lytton. This appeared in 1855 under the title Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie, and was translated into English by Arthur Edward Waite as Transcendental Magic, its Doctrine and Ritual.
In 1861, he published a sequel, La Clef des Grands Mystères (The Key to the Great Mysteries). Further magical works by Lévi include Fables et Symboles (Stories and Images), 1862, and La Science des Esprits (The Science of Spirits), 1865. In 1868, he wrote Le Grand Arcane, ou l'Occultisme Dévoilé (The Great Secret, or Occultism Unveiled); this, however, was only published posthumously in 1898.
Lévi's version of magic became a great success, especially after his death. That Spiritualism was popular on both sides of the Atlantic from the 1850s contributed to his success. His magical teachings were free from obvious fanaticisms, even if they remained rather murky; he had nothing to sell, and did not pretend to be the initiate of some ancient or fictitious secret society. He incorporated the Tarot cards into his magical system, and as a result the Tarot has been an important part of the paraphernalia of Western magicians. He had a deep impact on the magic of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and later Aleister Crowley, and it was largely through this impact that Lévi is remembered as one of the key founders of the twentieth century revival of magic.
Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn
The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn (founded 1888) was a secret society devoted to the study and practice of the occult, metaphysics, and paranormal activities during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Known as a magical order, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn was active in Great Britain and focused its practices on theurgy and spiritual development. Many present-day concepts of ritual and magic that are at the centre of contemporary traditions, such as Wicca and Thelema, were inspired by the Golden Dawn, which became one of the largest single influences on 20th century Western occultism.
The three founders, William Robert Woodman, William Wynn Westcott, and Samuel Liddell Mathers, were Freemasons. Westcott appears to have been the initial driving force behind the establishment of the Golden Dawn.
The "Golden Dawn" was the first of three Orders, although all three are often collectively referred to as the "Golden Dawn". The First Order taught esoteric philosophy based on the Hermetic Qabalah and personal development through study and awareness of the four classical elements, as well as the basics of astrology, tarot divination, and geomancy. The Second or Inner Order, the , taught magic, including scrying, astral travel, and alchemy.
Aleister Crowley
English author and occultist Aleister Crowley (1875–1947) often introduced new terminology for spiritual and magical practices and theory. For example, he termed theurgy "high magick" and thaumaturgy "low magick". In The Book of the Law and The Vision and the Voice, the Aramaic magical formula Abracadabra was changed to Abrahadabra, which he called the new formula of the Aeon of Horus. He also famously spelled magic in the archaic manner, as magick, to differentiate "the true science of the Magi from all its counterfeits." He also stated that "The spirits of the Goetia are portions of the human brain."
His book Magick, Liber ABA, Book 4, is a lengthy treatise on magick in which he which also presents his own system of Western occult practice, synthesised from many sources, including Yoga, Hermeticism, medieval grimoires, contemporary magical theories from writers like Eliphas Levi and Helena Blavatsky, and his own original contributions. It consists of four parts: Mysticism, Magick (Elementary Theory), Magick in Theory and Practice, and ΘΕΛΗΜΑ—the Law (The Equinox of The Gods). It also includes numerous appendices presenting many rituals and explicatory papers.
Dion Fortune
Dion Fortune (1890–1946) was a Welsh occultist, ceremonial magician, novelist and author. She was a co-founder of the Fraternity of the Inner Light, an occult organisation that promoted philosophies which she claimed had been taught to her by spiritual entities known as the Ascended Masters. A prolific writer, she produced a large number of articles and books on her occult ideas and also authored seven novels, several of which expound occult themes.
Fortune was a ceremonial magician. The magical principles on which her Fraternity was based were adopted from the late nineteenth century Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, with other influences coming from Theosophy and Christian Science. The magical ceremonies performed by Fortune's Fraternity were placed into two categories: initiations, in which the candidate was introduced to magical forces, and evocation, in which these forces were manipulated for a given purpose.
The Fraternity's rituals at their Bayswater temple were carried out under a dim light, as Fortune believed that bright light disperses etheric forces. An altar was placed in the centre of a room, with the colours of the altar-cloth and the symbols on the altar varying according to the ceremony being performed. A light was placed on the altar while incense, usually frankincense, was burned. The senior officers sat in a row along the eastern end of the room, while officers—who were believed to be channels for cosmic forces—were positioned at various positions on the floor. The lodge was opened by walking around the room in a circle chanting, with the intent of building a psychic force up as a wall. Next, the cosmic entities would be invoked, with the members believing that these entities would manifest in astral form and interact with the chosen officers.
Fortune was particularly concerned with the issue of sex. She believed that this erotic attraction between men and women could be harnessed for use in magic. She urged her followers to be naked under their robes when carrying out magical rituals, for this would increase the creative sexual tension between the men and women present. Although sex features in her novels, it is never described in graphic detail. The scholar Andrew Radford noted that Fortune's "reactionary and highly heteronormative" view of "sacralised sexuality" should be seen as part of a wider tradition among esoteric currents, going back to the ideas of Emanuel Swedenborg and Andrew Jackson Davis and also being found in the work of occultists like Paschal Beverly Randolph and Ida Craddock.
The religious studies scholar Hugh Urban noted that Fortune was "one of the key links" between early twentieth-century ceremonial magic and the developing Pagan religion of Wicca. Similarly, the Wiccan high priestess Vivianne Crowley characterised Fortune as a "proto-Pagan". The scholar and esotericist Nevill Drury stated that Fortune "in many ways anticipated feminist ideas in contemporary Wicca", particularly through her belief that all goddesses were a manifestation of a single Great Goddess. Graf agreed, adding that Fortune's works found "resonance" in the work of the later feminist Wiccan Starhawk, and in particular in the latter's 1979 book, The Spiral Dance.
In researching ceremonial magic orders and other esoteric groups active in the London area during the 1980s, Luhrmann found that within them, Fortune's novels were treated as "fictionalized ideals" and that they were recommended to newcomers as the best way to understand magic. The Pagan studies scholar Joanne Pearson added that Fortune's books, and in particular the novels The Sea Priestess and Moon Magic, were owned by many Wiccans and other Pagans. The religious studies scholar Graham Harvey compared The Sea Priestess to the Wiccan Gerald Gardner's 1949 novel High Magic's Aid, stating that while neither were "great literature", they "evoke Paganism better than later more didactic works".
Fortune's priestesses were an influence on the characters of Marion Zimmer Bradley's The Mists of Avalon, and her ideas were adopted as the basis for the Aquarian Order of the Restoration, a ceremonial magic group led by Bradley. Her works also influenced Bradley's collaborator and fellow Order member Diana Paxson. As of 2007, Fortune's latter three novels remained in print and had a wide readership.
Jack Parsons
John Whiteside Parsons (1914–1952) was an American rocket engineer, chemist, and Thelemite occultist. Parsons converted to Thelema, the new religious movement founded by the English occultist Aleister Crowley. Together with his first wife, Helen Northrup, Parsons joined the Agape Lodge, the Californian branch of the Thelemite Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.) in 1941. At Crowley's bidding, Parsons replaced Wilfred Talbot Smith as its leader in 1942 and ran the Lodge from his mansion on Orange Grove Boulevard.
Parsons identified four obstacles that prevented humans from achieving and performing their True Will, all of which he connected with fear: the fear of incompetence, the fear of the opinion of others, the fear of hurting others, and the fear of insecurity. He insisted that these must be overcome, writing that "The Will must be freed of its fetters. The ruthless examination and destruction of taboos, complexes, frustrations, dislikes, fears and disgusts hostile to the Will is essential to progress."
In 1945, Parsons separated from Helen, after having an affair with her sister Sara; when Sara left him for L. Ron Hubbard, Parsons conducted the Babalon Working, a series of rituals intended to invoke the Thelemic goddess Babalon on Earth. The Babalon Working was a series of magic ceremonies or rituals performed from January to March 1946 by Parsons and Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard. This ritual was essentially designed to manifest an individual incarnation of the archetypal divine feminine called Babalon. The project was based on the ideas of Crowley, and his description of a similar project in his 1917 novel Moonchild.
When Parsons declared that the first of the series of rituals was complete and successful, he almost immediately met Marjorie Cameron in his own home, and regarded her as the elemental that he and Hubbard had called through the ritual. Soon Parsons began the next stage of the series, an attempt to conceive a child through sex magic workings. Although no child was conceived, this did not affect the result of the ritual to that point. Parsons and Cameron, who Parsons now regarded as the Scarlet Woman, Babalon, called forth by the ritual, soon married.
The rituals performed drew largely upon rituals and sex magic described by Crowley. Crowley was in correspondence with Parsons during the course of the Babalon Working, and warned Parsons of his potential overreactions to the magic he was performing, while simultaneously deriding Parsons' work to others.
A brief text entitled Liber 49, self-referenced within the text as The Book of Babalon, was written by Jack Parsons as a transmission from the goddess or force called 'Babalon' received by him during the Babalon Working. Parsons wrote that Liber 49 constituted a fourth chapter of Crowley's Liber AL Vel Legis (The Book of the Law), the holy text of Thelema.
Phyllis Seckler
Phyllis Seckler (1917–2004), also known as 'Soror Meral', was a ninth degree (IX°) member of the Sovereign Sanctuary of the Gnosis of Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.), and a lineage holder in the A∴A∴ tradition. She was a student of Jane Wolfe, herself a student of Aleister Crowley.
Sekler was a member of O.T.O. Agape Lodge, the only working Lodge of the O.T.O. at the time of Aleister Crowley's death. Seckler was also instrumental in preserving important parts of Crowley's literary heritage, typing parts of his Confessions, and the complete texts of The Vision and the Voice and Magick Without Tears during the 1950s. Seckler was also instrumental in re-activing the O.T.O. with Grady Louis McMurtry, during the early-mid 1970s, following the death of Crowley's appointed successor, Karl Germer.
Seckler continued her lifelong work with the A∴A∴, founding the College of Thelema and co-founding (with James A. Eshelman) the Temple of Thelema, and later warranting the formation of the Temple of the Silver Star. Seeking to guide her students to an understanding of the Law of Thelema, especially deeper understanding of oneself and of one's magickal Will, Sekler published the bi-annual Thelemic journal In the Continuum which featured her essays on Thelema and initiation as well as instructional articles for the students of the A.:.A.:., illustrations and essays which help to clarify some of Crowley's thoughts and aid in the understanding of Thelemic principles expressed in Liber AL. Printed for 20 years from 1976 through 1996, In the Continuum also published rare works by Aleister Crowley which at the time were out of print or hard to find.
Seckler served as a master of 418 Lodge of O.T.O. in California from its inception in 1979 until her death.
Kenneth Grant
Kenneth Grant (1924–2011) was an English ceremonial magician and advocate of the Thelemic religion. A poet, novelist, and writer, he founded his own Thelemic organisation, the Typhonian Ordo Templi Orientis—later renamed the Typhonian Order—with his wife Steffi Grant.
Grant was fascinated by the work of the occultist Aleister Crowley, having read a number of his books. Eager to meet Crowley, Grant wrote letters to Crowley's publishers, asking that they pass his letters on to Crowley himself. These eventually resulted in the first meeting between the two, in autumn 1944, at the Bell Inn in Buckinghamshire. After several further meetings and an exchange of letters, Grant agreed to work for Crowley as his secretary and personal assistant. Now living in relative poverty, Crowley was unable to pay Grant for his services in money, instead paying him in magical instruction.
In March 1945, Grant moved into a lodge cottage in the grounds of Netherwood, a Sussex boarding house where Crowley was living. He continued living there with Crowley for several months, dealing with the old man's correspondences and needs. In turn, he was allowed to read from Crowley's extensive library on occult subjects, and performed ceremonial magic workings with him, becoming a high initiate of Crowley's magical group, the Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.). Crowley saw Grant as a potential leader of O.T.O. in the UK, writing in his diary, "value of Grant. If I die or go to the USA, there must be a trained man to take care of the English O.T.O."
Grant drew eclectically on a range of sources in devising his teachings. Although based in Thelema, Grant's Typhonian tradition has been described as "a bricolage of occultism, Neo-Vedanta, Hindu tantra, Western sexual magic, Surrealism, ufology and Lovecraftian gnosis". According to Djurdjevic, Grant's writing style is notorious for being opaque with "verbal and conceptual labyrinths". The historian of religion Manon Hedenborg White noted that "Grant's writings to not lend themselves easily to systematization". She added that he "deliberately employs cryptic or circuitous modes of argumentation", and lacks clear boundaries between fact and fiction.
Grant promoted what he termed the Typhonian or Draconian tradition of magic, and wrote that Thelema was only a recent manifestation of this wider tradition. In his books, he portrayed the Typhonian tradition as the world's oldest spiritual tradition, writing that it had ancient roots in Africa. The religious studies scholar Gordan Djurdjevic noted that Grant's historical claims regarding Typhonian history were "at best highly speculative" and lacked any supporting evidence, however he suggested that Grant may never have intended these claims to be taken literally.
Grant adopted a perennialist interpretation of the history of religion. Grant's wrote that Indian spiritual traditions like Tantra and Yoga correlate to Western esoteric traditions, and that both stem from a core, ancient source, has parallels in the perennial philosophy promoted by the Traditionalist School of esotericists. He believed that by mastering magic, one masters this illusory universe, gaining personal liberation and recognising that only the Self really exists. Doing so, according to Grant, leads to the discovery of one's True Will, the central focus of Thelema.
Grant further wrote that the realm of the Self was known as "the Mauve Zone", and that it could be reached while in a state of deep sleep, where it has the symbolic appearance of a swamp. He also believed that the reality of consciousness, which he deemed the only true reality, was formless and thus presented as a void, although he also taught that it was symbolised by the Hindu goddess Kali and the Thelemic goddess Nuit.
Grant's views on sex magic drew heavily on the importance of sexual dimorphism among humans and the subsequent differentiation of gender roles. Grant taught that the true secret of sex magic were bodily secretions, the most important of which was a woman's menstrual blood. In this he differed from Crowley, who viewed semen as the most important genital secretion. Grant referred to female sexual secretions as kalas, a term adopted from Sanskrit. He thought that because women have kalas, they have oracular and visionary powers. The magical uses of female genital secretions are a recurring theme in Grant's writings.
James Lees
James Lees (August 22, 1939 - 2015) was an English magician known for discovering the system he called English Qaballa.
Lees was born in Bolton, Lancashire. He established a career as an analytic chemist. In his search for truth, he also studied psychology. Not finding the answers he wanted from science, he turned to the study of astrology, even making a living for a time as a horary astrologer.
Still resolved to discover further answers, Lees decided to study Kabbalah and the Tree of Life. From here he proceed to experiment with invocations from the Key of Solomon. Satisfied with the results, he proceeded to perform the 18-month working described in The Book of Abramelin by means of the Bornless Ritual. Having successfully invoked his Holy Guardian Angel, he turned his attention to ascending the 'Middle Pillar' of the Tree of Life, culminating with an experience known as crossing the abyss.
Then, in November 1976, Lees discovered the "order & value of the English Alphabet." Follow this discovery, Lees founded the O∴A∴A∴ in order to assist others in the pursuit of their own spiritual paths. The first public report of the system known as English Qaballa (EQ) was published in 1979 by Ray Sherwin in an editorial in the final issue of his journal, The New Equinox. Lees subsequently assumed the role of publisher of The New Equinox and, starting in 1981, published additional material about the EQ system over the course of five issues of the journal, extending into 1982.
In 1904, Aleister Crowley wrote out the text of the foundational document of his world-view, known as Liber AL vel Legis, The Book of the Law. In this text was the injunction found at verse 2:55; "Thou shalt obtain the order & value of the English Alphabet, thou shalt find new symbols to attribute them unto" which was understood by Crowley as referring to an English Qabalah yet to be developed or revealed.
The "order & value" discovered by James Lees lays the letters out on the grid superimposed on the page of manuscript of Liber AL on which this verse (Ch. III, v. 47) appears (sheet 16 of Chapter III). Also appearing on this page are a diagonal line and a circled cross. The Book of the Law states that the book should only be printed with Crowley's hand-written version included, suggesting that there are mysteries in the "chance shape of the letters and their position to one another" of Crowley's handwriting. Whichever top-left to bottom-right diagonal is read the magickal order of the letters is obtained.
Little further material on English Qaballa was published until the appearance of Jake Stratton-Kent's book, The Serpent Tongue: Liber 187, in 2011. This was followed in 2016 by The Magickal Language of the Book of the Law: An English Qaballa Primer by Cath Thompson. The discovery, exploration, and continuing research and development of the system up to 2010, by James Lees and members of his group in England, are detailed in her 2018 book, All This and a Book.
Nema Andahadna
Nema Andahadna (1939-2018) practiced and wrote about magick (magical working, as defined by Aleister Crowley) for over thirty years. In 1974, she channelled a short book called Liber Pennae Praenumbra.
From her experience with Thelemic magick, she developed her own system of magic called "Maat Magick" which has the aim of transforming the human race. In 1979, she co-founded the Horus-Maat Lodge. The Lodge and her ideas have been featured in the writings of Kenneth Grant.
Her writings have appeared in many publications, including the Cincinnati Journal of Ceremonial Magick, Aeon, and Starfire. According to Donald Michael Kraig:
Components
Grimoires
A grimoire is a textbook of magic, typically including instructions on how to create magical objects like talismans and amulets, how to perform magical spells, charms and divination, and how to summon or invoke supernatural entities such as angels, spirits, deities, and demons. In many cases, the books themselves are believed to be imbued with magical powers, although in many cultures, other sacred texts that are not grimoires (such as the Bible) have been believed to have supernatural properties intrinsically. The only contents found in a grimoire would be information on spells, rituals, the preparation of magical tools, and lists of ingredients and their magical correspondences. In this manner, while all books on magic could be thought of as grimoires, not all magical books should be thought of as grimoires.
While the term grimoire is originally European—and many Europeans throughout history, particularly ceremonial magicians and cunning folk, have used grimoires—the historian Owen Davies noted that similar books can be found all around the world, ranging from Jamaica to Sumatra. He also noted that in this sense, the world's first grimoires were created in Europe and the Ancient Near East.
Magical formulae
A magical formula or 'word of power' is a word that is believed to have specific supernatural effects. They are words whose meaning illustrates principles and degrees of understanding that are often difficult to relay using other forms of speech or writing. It is a concise means to communicate very abstract information through the medium of a word or phrase.
These words often have no intrinsic meaning in and of themselves. However, when deconstructed, each individual letter may refer to some universal concept found in the system that the formula appears. Additionally, in grouping certain letters together one is able to display meaningful sequences that are considered to be of value to the spiritual system that utilizes them (e.g., spiritual hierarchies, historiographic data, psychological stages, etc.)
A formula's potency is understood and made usable by the magician only through prolonged meditation on its levels of meaning. Once these have been interiorized by the magician, they may then utilize the formula to maximum effect.
Magical weapons
The practice of ceremonial magic often requires tools made or consecrated specifically for this use, called magical weapons, which are required for a particular ritual or series of rituals. They may be a symbolic representation of psychological elements of the magician or of metaphysical concepts.
In Magick (Book 4), Part II (Magick), Aleister Crowley lists the tools required as a magic circle drawn on the ground and inscribed with the names of god, an altar, a wand, cup, sword, and pentacle, to represent his true will, his understanding, his reason, and the lower parts of his being respectively. On the altar, too, is a phial of oil to represent his aspiration, and for consecrating items to his intent. The magician is surrounded by a scourge, dagger, and chain intended to keep his intent pure. An oil lamp, book of conjurations and bell are required, as is the wearing of a crown, robe, and lamen. The crown affirms his divinity, the robe symbolizes silence, and the lamen declare his work. The book of conjurations is his magical record, his karma. In the East is the magick fire in which all burns up at last.
Vibration of god-names
In magical rituals involving the invocation of deities, a vocal technique called vibration is commonly used. This was a basic aspect of magical training for Crowley, who described it in "Liber O." According to that text, vibration involves a physical set of steps, starting in a standing position, breathing in through the nose while imagining the name of the god entering with the breath, imagining that breath travelling through the entire body, stepping forward with the left foot while throwing the body forward with arms outstretched, visualizing the name rushing out when spoken, ending in an upright stance, with the right forefinger placed upon the lips. According to Crowley in "Liber O", success in this technique is signaled by physical exhaustion and "though only by the student himself is it perceived, when he hears the name of the God vehemently roared forth, as if by the concourse of ten thousand thunders; and it should appear to him as if that Great Voice proceeded from the Universe, and not from himself."
In general ritual practice, vibration can also refer to a technique of saying a god-name or a magical formula in a long, drawn-out fashion (i.e. with a full, deep breath) that employs the nasal passages, such that the sound feels and sounds "vibrated'.
Techniques
According to Crowley, there is a single definition of the purpose for ritual magick: to achieve Union with God through "the uniting of the Microcosm with the Macrocosm." Since this process is so arduous, it is also acceptable to use magick to develop the self (i.e. one's body of light) or to create ideal circumstances for the Work (e.g. having access to a place in which to do ritual undisturbed). There are many kinds of magick, but the categories of ritual that are recommended by Crowley include:
Banishing—the elimination of unwanted forces. "The Magician must therefore take the utmost care in the matter of purification, firstly, of himself, secondly, of his instruments, thirdly, of the place of working."
Invocation, where the magician identifies with the Deity invoked. There are three methods:
Devotion —where "identity with the God is attained by love and by surrender, by giving up or suppressing all irrelevant (and illusionary) parts of yourself."
Calling forth—where "identity is attained by paying special attention to the desired part of yourself: positive, as the first method is negative." (e.g. assumption of godforms)
Drama—where "identity is attained by sympathy. It is very difficult for the ordinary man to lose himself completely in the subject of a play or of a novel; but for those who can do so, this method is unquestionably the best." (e.g. many initiations and the Gnostic Mass)
Evocation—which is bringing a spiritual being before, not into, the magician (e.g. goetia)
Eucharistic ritual—which "consists in taking common things, transmuting them into things divine, and consuming them."
Consecration—"the active dedication of a thing to a single purpose."
Divination—such as the use of the Tarot or other tools used to gather information.
Banishing
The purpose of banishing rituals is to eliminate forces that might interfere with a magical operation, and they are often performed at the beginning of an important event or ceremony (although they can be performed for their own sake as well). The area of effect can be a magic circle or a room. The general theory of Magick proposes that there are various forces which are represented by the classical elements (air, earth, fire, and water), the planets, the signs of the Zodiac, and adjacent spaces in the astral world. There are many banishing rituals, but most are some variation on two of the most common—"The Star Ruby" and the Lesser Banishing Ritual of the Pentagram.
Crowley describes banishing in his Magick, Book 4 (ch.13):
He further states:
Purification
Purification is similar in theme to banishing, but is a more rigorous process of preparing the self and her temple for serious spiritual work. Crowley mentions that ancient magicians would purify themselves through arduous programs, such as through special diets, fasting, sexual abstinence, keeping the body meticulously tidy, and undergoing a complicated series of prayers. He goes on to say that purification no longer requires such activity, since the magician can purify the self via willed intention. Specifically, the magician labors to purify the mind and body of all influences which may interfere with the Great Work:
Crowley recommended symbolically ritual practices, such as bathing and robing before a main ceremony: "The bath signifies the removal of all things extraneous or antagonistic to the one thought. The putting on of the robe is the positive side of the same operation. It is the assumption of the frame of mind suitable to that one thought."
Consecration
Consecration is an equally important magical operation. It is essentially the dedication, usually of a ritual instrument or space, to a specific purpose. In Magick, Book 4 (ch.13), Crowley writes:
Invocation
Invocation is the bringing in or identifying with a particular deity or spirit. Crowley wrote of two keys to success in this arena: to "inflame thyself in praying" and to "invoke often". For Crowley, the single most important invocation, or any act of Magick for that matter, was the invocation of one's Holy Guardian Angel, or "secret self", which allows the adept to know his or her True Will.
Crowley describes the experience of invocation:
Crowley (Magick, Book 4) discusses three main categories of invocation, although "in the great essentials these three methods are one. In each case the magician identifies himself with the Deity invoked."
Devotion—where "identity with the God is attained by love and by surrender, by giving up or suppressing all irrelevant (and illusionary) parts of yourself."
Calling forth—where "identity is attained by paying special attention to the desired part of yourself."
Drama—where "identity is attained by sympathy. It is very difficult for the ordinary man to lose himself completely in the subject of a play or of a novel; but for those who can do so, this method is unquestionably the best."
Another invocatory technique that the magician can employ is called the assumption of godforms — where with "concentrated imagination of oneself in the symbolic shape of any God, one should be able to identify oneself with the idea which [the god] represents." A general method involves positioning the body in a position that is typical for a given god, imagining that the image of the god is coinciding with or enveloping the body, accompanied by the practice of "vibration" of the appropriate god-name(s).
Evocation
There is a distinct difference between invocation and evocation, as Crowley explains:
Generally, evocation is used for two main purposes: to gather information and to obtain the services or obedience of a spirit or demon. Crowley believed that the most effective form of evocation was found in the grimoire on Goetia (see below), which instructs the magician in how to safely summon forth and command 72 infernal spirits. However, it is equally possible to evoke angelic beings, gods, and other intelligences related to planets, elements, and the Zodiac.
Unlike with invocation, which involves a calling in, evocation involves a calling forth, most commonly into what is called the "triangle of art."
Eucharist
The word eucharist originally comes from the Greek word for thanksgiving. However, within Magick, it takes on a special meaning—the transmutation of ordinary things (usually food and drink) into divine sacraments, which are then consumed. The object is to infuse the food and drink with certain properties, usually embodied by various deities, so that the adept takes in those properties upon consumption. Crowley describes the process of the regular practice of eucharistic ritual:
There are several eucharistic rituals within the magical canon. Two of the most well known are The Mass of the Phoenix and The Gnostic Mass. The first is a ritual designed for the individual, which involves sacrificing a "Cake of Light" (a type of bread that serves as the host) to Ra (i.e. the Sun) and infusing a second Cake with the adept's own blood (either real or symbolic, in a gesture reflecting the myth of the Pelican cutting its own breast to feed its young) and then consuming it with the words, "There is no grace: there is no guilt: This is the Law: Do what thou wilt!" The other ritual, The Gnostic Mass, is a very popular public ritual (although it can be practiced privately) that involves a team of participants, including a Priest and Priestess. This ritual is an enactment of the mystical journey that culminates with the Mystic Marriage and the consumption of a Cake of Light and a goblet of wine (a process termed "communication"). Afterwards, each Communicant declares, "There is no part of me that is not of the gods!"
Divination
The art of divination is generally employed for the purpose of obtaining information that can guide the adept in his Great Work. The underlying theory states that there exists intelligences (either outside of or inside the mind of the diviner) that can offer accurate information within certain limits using a language of symbols. Normally, divination within Magick is not the same as fortune telling, which is more interested in predicting future events. Rather, divination tends to be more about discovering information about the nature and condition of things that can help the magician gain insight and to make better decisions.
There are literally hundreds of different divinatory techniques in the world. However, Western occult practice mostly includes the use of astrology (calculating the influence of heavenly bodies), bibliomancy (reading random passages from a book, such as Liber Legis or the I Ching), tarot (a deck of 78 cards, each with symbolic meaning, usually laid out in a meaningful pattern), and geomancy (a method of making random marks on paper or in earth that results in a combination of sixteen patterns).
It is an accepted truism within Magick that divination is imperfect. As Crowley writes, "In estimating the ultimate value of a divinatory judgment, one must allow for more than the numerous sources of error inherent in the process itself. The judgment can do no more than the facts presented to it warrant. It is naturally impossible in most cases to make sure that some important factor has not been omitted [...] One must not assume that the oracle is omniscient."
Other magical practices
Qabalah and the Tree of Life
The Tree of Life is a tool used to categorize and organize various mystical concepts. At its most simple level, it is composed of ten spheres, or emanations, called sephiroth (sing. "sephira") which are connected by twenty two paths. The sephiroth are represented by the planets and the paths by the characters of the Hebrew alphabet, which are subdivided by the four classical elements, the seven classical planets, and the twelve signs of the Zodiac. Within the western magical tradition, the Tree is used as a kind of conceptual filing cabinet. Each sephira and path is assigned various ideas, such as gods, cards of the Tarot, astrological planets and signs, elements, etc.
Crowley considered a deep understanding of the Tree of Life to be essential to the magician:
Similar to yoga, learning the Tree of Life is not so much Magick as it is a way to map out one's spiritual universe. As such, the adept may use the Tree to determine a destination for astral travel, to choose which gods to invoke for what purposes, et cetera. It also plays an important role in modeling the spiritual journey, where the adept begins in Malkuth, which is the every-day material world of phenomena, with the ultimate goal being at Kether, the sphere of Unity with the All.
Body of light
The body of light, sometimes called the 'astral body' or the 'subtle body,' is a "quasi material" aspect of the human body, being neither solely physical nor solely spiritual, posited by a number of philosophers, and elaborated on according to various esoteric, occult, and mystical teachings. Other terms used for this body include body of glory, spirit-body, radiant body, luciform body, augoeides ('radiant'), astroeides ('starry' or 'sidereal body'), and celestial body.
Crowley referred to the augoeides, a Greek term for the body of light, and connected it with 'the Knowledge & Conversation of the Holy Guardian Angel' associated with each human being. He stressed that the body of light must be built up though the use of imagination, and that it must then be animated, exercised, and disciplined. According to Asprem (2017):
Magical record
A magical record is a journal or other source of documentation containing magical events, experiences, ideas, and any other information that the magician may see fit to add. There can be many purposes for such a record, such as recording evidence to verify the effectiveness of specific procedures (per the scientific method that Aleister Crowley claimed should be applied to the practice of Magick) or to ensure that data may propagate beyond the lifetime of the magician. Benefits of this process vary, but usually include future analysis and further education by the individual and/or associates with whom the magician feels comfortable in revealing such intrinsically private information.
Crowley was highly insistent upon the importance of this practice. As he writes in Liber E, "It is absolutely necessary that all experiments should be recorded in detail during, or immediately after, their performance ... The more scientific the record is, the better. Yet the emotions should be noted, as being some of the conditions. Let then the record be written with sincerity and care; thus with practice it will be found more and more to approximate to the ideal." Other items he suggests for inclusion include the physical and mental condition of the experimenter, the time and place, and environmental conditions, including the weather.
See also
Astrotheology
The Book of Abramelin
Bornless Ritual
Chaos magic
Folk religion
Greater and lesser magic
Greek Magical Papyri
Magic in the Greco-Roman world
Initiation#Religious and spiritual
Magic and religion
Magical organization
Medieval European magic
Rosicrucianism
Notes
References
Citations
Works cited
Primary sources
Contains a lengthy account of the writing of Nema's Liber Pennae Praenumbra.
Contains a photo facsimile of Liber Pennae Praenumbra.
Secondary sources
.
Further reading
Magic (supernatural)
Thelema
Western esotericism
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf%2C%20Crown%20Prince%20of%20Austria
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Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria
|
Archduke Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria (Rudolf Franz Karl Josef; 21 August 1858 – 30 January 1889) was the only son and third child of Emperor Franz Joseph I and Elisabeth in Bavaria. He was heir apparent to the Imperial throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire from birth. In 1889, he died in a suicide pact with his mistress Mary Vetsera at the Mayerling hunting lodge. The ensuing scandal made international headlines.
Background
Rudolf was born at Schloss Laxenburg, a castle near Vienna, as the son of Emperor Franz Joseph I and Empress Elisabeth. He was named after the first Habsburg King of Germany, Rudolf I, who reigned from 1273 to 1291. Rudolf was raised together with his older sister Gisela and the two were very close. At the age of six, Rudolf was separated from his sister as he began his education to become a future Emperor of Austria. This did not change their relationship and Gisela remained close to him until she left Vienna upon her marriage to Prince Leopold of Bavaria.
Influenced by his tutor Ferdinand von Hochstetter (who later became the first superintendent of the Imperial Natural History Museum), Rudolf became very interested in natural sciences, starting a mineral collection at an early age. After his death, large portions of his mineral collection came into the possession of the University for Agriculture in Vienna.
In 1877, the Count of Bombelles was master of the young prince. Bombelles had been the custodian of Rudolf's aunt Empress Charlotte of Mexico.
In contrast with his deeply conservative father, Rudolf held liberal views that were closer to those of his mother. Nevertheless, his relationship with her was at times strained.
Marriage
In Vienna, on 10 May 1881, Rudolf married Princess Stéphanie of Belgium, a daughter of King Leopold II of Belgium, at the Augustinian Church in Vienna. Although their marriage was initially a happy one, by the time their only child, the Archduchess Elisabeth, was born on 2 September 1883, the couple had drifted apart, and he found solace in drink and other female companionship. Rudolf started having many affairs, and wanted to write to Pope Leo XIII about the possibility of annulling his marriage to Stéphanie, but the Emperor forbade it. In 1886, the spouses were diagnosed with gonorrhea, which rendered Stéphanie sterile.
Affairs and suicide
In 1886, Rudolf bought Mayerling, a hunting lodge. In late 1888, the 30-year-old Crown Prince met the 17-year-old Freiin (Baroness) Marie von Vetsera, known by the more fashionable Anglophile name Mary, and began an affair with her. On 30 January 1889, he and the young Baroness were discovered dead in the lodge as a result of an apparent joint suicide. As suicide would prevent him from being given a church burial, Rudolf was officially declared to have been in a state of "mental unbalance", and he was buried in the Imperial Crypt (Kapuzinergruft) of the Capuchin Church in Vienna. Vetsera's body was smuggled out of Mayerling in the middle of the night and secretly buried in the village cemetery at Heiligenkreuz. The Emperor had Mayerling converted into a penitential convent of Carmelite nuns and endowed a chantry so that daily prayers would eternally be said by the nuns for the repose of Rudolf's soul.
Vetsera's private letters were discovered in a safe deposit box in an Austrian bank in 2015, and they revealed that she was preparing to commit suicide alongside Rudolf, out of love.
Aftermath of death
Rudolf's death plunged his mother into despair. She wore black or pearl grey, the colours of mourning, for the rest of her life and spent more and more time away from the imperial court in Vienna. Empress Elisabeth was murdered while abroad in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1898 by an Italian anarchist, Luigi Lucheni.
Politically, Rudolf's death left Franz Joseph without a direct male heir. Franz-Joseph's younger brother, Archduke Karl Ludwig, was next in line to the Austro-Hungarian throne, though it was falsely reported that he had renounced his succession rights. In any case, his death in 1896 from typhoid made his eldest son, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the new heir presumptive. In 1914, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand precipitated World War I. Emperor Franz-Joseph died in November 1916 and was succeeded by his grandnephew, Charles I of Austria. The demands of American President Woodrow Wilson forced Emperor Charles I to renounce involvement in state affairs in Vienna in early November 1918. As a result, the Austro-Hungarian Empire ceased to exist and a republic came into being without revolution. Charles I and his family went into exile in Switzerland after spending a short time at Castle Eckartsau.
In popular culture
Mayerling, a film directed by Anatole Litvak, with Charles Boyer and Danielle Darrieux, based on a novel by Claude Anet.
Sarajevo (1940), a film directed Max Ophüls starts with Rudolf's death.
The musical Marinka (1945), with book by George Marion Jr., and Karl Farkas, lyrics by George Marion, Jr., music by Emmerich Kalman.
Rudolf appears in the Austrian film Der Engel mit der Posaune (1948) and in the British remake of that film, The Angel with the Trumpet (1950).
Mayerling, a 1957 film, starring Mel Ferrer as Crown Prince Rudolf, Audrey Hepburn as Baroness Mary Vetsara with Lorne Greene as Kaiser Franz Josef.
Mayerling, a 1968 film, starring Omar Sharif as Crown Prince Rudolf, Catherine Deneuve as Mary with James Mason as Kaiser Franz Josef and Ava Gardner as Empress Elisabeth.
Japanese Takarazuka Revue's "Utakata no Koi"/"Ephemeral Love", based on the 1968 film.
Requiem for a Crown Prince, one-hour episode of the British documentary/drama series Fall of Eagles (1974), directed by James Furman and written by David Turner, tracks in detail the events of 30 January 1889 and the following few days at Mayerling.
Miklós Jancsó's 1975 film Vizi privati, pubbliche virtù (Private Vices, Public Virtues), a reinterpretation in which the lovers and their friends are murdered by imperial authorities for treason and immorality.
Kenneth MacMillan's 1978 ballet, Mayerling.
Rudolf appears as a character in the musical Elisabeth (1992)
Rudolf appears as a character in Lillie, played by Patrick Ryecart, Granada TV's dramatisation of the life of Lillie Langtry.
Japanese manga by Higuri You, "Tenshi no Hitsugi" (Angel's Coffin) (2000).
, film directed by Robert Dornhelm (2006) in two parts.
Composer Frank Wildhorn's musical Rudolf – Affaire Mayerling (2006), produced in some territories as The Last Kiss or Rudolf – The Last Kiss.
The play Rudolf (2011) by David Logan dramatises the last few weeks of the life of Crown Prince Rudolf.
A highly fictionalized version of the incident at Mayerling is depicted in the 2006 film The Illusionist. Crown Prince Leopold (played by Rufus Sewell) is a fictional analog of Rudolf.
Titles, styles and honours
Titles and styles
21 August 1858 – 30 January 1889: His Imperial and Royal Highness The Crown Prince of Austria, Hungary, Bohemia and Croatia
Honours
Domestic
Knight of the Golden Fleece, 1858
Grand Cross of the Royal Hungarian Order of St. Stephen, 1877
Foreign
Ancestors
Gallery
See also
Lake Rudolf
Alma V. Hayne
Rudolf Island
List of heirs to the Austrian throne
Notes
Further reading
Barkeley, Richard. The Road to Mayerling: Life and Death of Crown Prince Rudolph of Austria. London: Macmillan, 1958.
Franzel, Emil. Crown Prince Rudolph and the Mayerling Tragedy: Fact and Fiction. Vienna : V. Herold, 1974.
Hamann, Brigitte. Kronprinz Rudolf: Ein Leben. Wien: Amalthea, 2005, .
Listowel, Judith Márffy-Mantuano Hare, Countess of. A Habsburg Tragedy: Crown Prince Rudolf. London: Ascent Books, 1978.
Lonyay, Károly. Rudolph: The Tragedy of Mayerling. New York: Scribner, 1949.
Morton, Frederic. A Nervous Splendor: Vienna 1888/1889. Penguin 1979
Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria. Majestät, ich warne Sie... Geheime und private Schriften. Edited by Brigitte Hamann. Wien: Amalthea, 1979, (reprinted München: Piper, 1998, ).
Salvendy, John T. Royal Rebel: A Psychological Portrait of Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria-Hungary. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1988.
External links
A profile of Marie Vetsera
IMDB on various Mayerling Films
Crown Prince Rudolfs death
House of Habsburg-Lorraine
Heirs apparent who never acceded
Austrian Roman Catholics
Suicides by firearm in Austria
Joint suicides
1858 births
1889 deaths
1880s suicides
19th-century Austrian people
People from Laxenburg
Austrian princes
Franz Joseph I of Austria
Burials at the Imperial Crypt
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Austria
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
Recipients of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
Knights of Malta
2
2
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Star of Romania
Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Takovo
Extra Knights Companion of the Garter
Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Russia)
Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 1st class
Recipients of the Order of Saint Stanislaus (Russian), 1st class
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
Knights of the Order of Saint Joseph
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%E2%80%93industrial%20complex
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Military–industrial complex
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The expression military–industrial complex (MIC) describes the relationship between a country's military and the defense industry that supplies it, seen together as a vested interest which influences public policy. A driving factor behind the relationship between the military and the defense-minded corporations is that both sides benefit—one side from obtaining war weapons, and the other from being paid to supply them. The term is most often used in reference to the system behind the armed forces of the United States, where the relationship is most prevalent due to close links among defense contractors, the Pentagon, and politicians. The expression gained popularity after a warning of the relationship's detrimental effects, in the farewell address of President Dwight D. Eisenhower on January 17, 1961.
In the context of the United States, the appellation is sometimes extended to military–industrial–congressional complex (MICC), adding the U.S. Congress to form a three-sided relationship termed an "iron triangle". Its three legs include political contributions, political approval for military spending, lobbying to support bureaucracies, and oversight of the industry; or more broadly, the entire network of contracts and flows of money and resources among individuals as well as corporations and institutions of the defense contractors, private military contractors, the Pentagon, Congress, and the executive branch.
Etymology
President of the United States (and five-star general during World War II) Dwight D. Eisenhower used the term in his Farewell Address to the Nation on January 17, 1961:
The phrase was thought to have been "war-based" industrial complex before becoming "military" in later drafts of Eisenhower's speech, a claim passed on only by oral history. Geoffrey Perret, in his biography of Eisenhower, claims that, in one draft of the speech, the phrase was "military–industrial–congressional complex", indicating the essential role that the United States Congress plays in the propagation of the military industry, but the word "congressional" was dropped from the final version to appease the then-currently elected officials. James Ledbetter calls this a "stubborn misconception" not supported by any evidence; likewise a claim by Douglas Brinkley that it was originally "military–industrial–scientific complex". Additionally, Henry Giroux claims that it was originally "military–industrial–academic complex". The actual authors of the speech were Eisenhower's speechwriters Ralph E. Williams and Malcolm Moos.
Attempts to conceptualize something similar to a modern "military–industrial complex" existed before Eisenhower's address. Ledbetter finds the precise term used in 1947 in close to its later meaning in an article in Foreign Affairs by Winfield W. Riefler. In 1956, sociologist C. Wright Mills had claimed in his book The Power Elite that a class of military, business, and political leaders, driven by mutual interests, were the real leaders of the state, and were effectively beyond democratic control. Friedrich Hayek mentions in his 1944 book The Road to Serfdom the danger of a support of monopolistic organization of industry from World War II political remnants:
Vietnam War–era activists, such as Seymour Melman, referred frequently to the concept, and use continued throughout the Cold War: George F. Kennan wrote in his preface to Norman Cousins's 1987 book The Pathology of Power, "Were the Soviet Union to sink tomorrow under the waters of the ocean, the American military–industrial complex would have to remain, substantially unchanged, until some other adversary could be invented. Anything else would be an unacceptable shock to the American economy."
In the late 1990s James Kurth asserted, "By the mid-1980s... the term had l argely fallen out of public discussion." He went on to argue that "[w]hatever the power of arguments about the influence of the military–industrial complex on weapons procurement during the Cold War, they are much less relevant to the current era".
Contemporary students and critics of U.S. militarism continue to refer to and employ the term, however. For example, historian Chalmers Johnson uses words from the second, third, and fourth paragraphs quoted above from Eisenhower's address as an epigraph to Chapter Two ("The Roots of American Militarism") of a 2004 volume on this subject. P. W. Singer's book concerning private military companies illustrates contemporary ways in which industry, particularly an information-based one, still interacts with the U.S. federal and the Pentagon.
The expressions permanent war economy and war corporatism are related concepts that have also been used in association with this term. The term is also used to describe comparable collusion in other political entities such as the German Empire (prior to and through the first world war), Britain, France, and (post-Soviet) Russia.
Linguist and anarchist theorist Noam Chomsky has suggested that "military–industrial complex" is a misnomer because (as he considers it) the phenomenon in question "is not specifically military". He asserts, "There is no military–industrial complex: it's just the industrial system operating under one or another pretext (defense was a pretext for a long time)."
Post–Cold War
At the end of the Cold War, American defense contractors bewailed what they called declining government weapons spending. They saw escalation of tensions, such as with Russia over Ukraine, as new opportunities for increased weapons sales, and have pushed the political system, both directly and through industry groups such as the National Defense Industrial Association, to spend more on military hardware. Pentagon contractor-funded American think tanks such as the Lexington Institute and the Atlantic Council have also demanded increased spending in view of the perceived Russian threat. Independent Western observers such as William Hartung, director of the Arms & Security Project at the Center for International Policy, noted that "Russian saber-rattling has additional benefits for weapons makers because it has become a standard part of the argument for higher Pentagon spending—even though the Pentagon already has more than enough money to address any actual threat to the United States."
Eras
Some sources divide the history of the military–industrial complex into three distinct eras.
First era
From 1797 to 1941, the government only relied on civilian industries while the country was actually at war. The government owned their own shipyards and weapons manufacturing facilities which they relied on through World War I. With World War II came a massive shift in the way that the American government armed the military.
With the onset of World War II President Franklin D. Roosevelt established the War Production Board to coordinate civilian industries and shift them into wartime production. Throughout World War II arms production in the United States went from around one percent of the annual GDP to 40 percent of the GDP. Various American companies, such as Boeing and General Motors, maintained and expanded their defense divisions. These companies have gone on to develop various technologies that have improved civilian life as well, such as night-vision goggles and GPS.
Second era
The second era is identified as beginning with the coining of the term by President Dwight D. Eisenhower. This era continued through the Cold War period, up to the end of the Warsaw Pact and the collapse of the Soviet Union. A 1965 article written by Marc Pilisuk and Thomas Hayden says benefits of the Military Industrial Complex of the United States include the advancement of the civilian technology market as civilian companies benefit from innovations from the MIC and vice versa. In 1993 the Pentagon urged defense contractors to consolidate due to the collapse of communism and shrinking defense budget.
Third (current) era
In the third era, defense contractors either consolidated or shifted their focus to civilian innovation. From 1992 to 1997 there was a total of US$55 billion worth of mergers in the defense industry, with major defense companies purchasing smaller competitors.
In the current era, the military–industrial complex is seen as a core part of American policy-making. The American domestic economy is now tied directly to the success of the MIC which has led to concerns of repression as Cold War-era attitudes are still prevalent among the American public.
Shifts in values and the collapse of communism have ushered in a new era for the military–industrial complex. The Department of Defense works in coordination with traditional military–industrial complex aligned companies such as Lockheed Martin and Northrop Grumman. Many former defense contractors have shifted operations to the civilian market and sold off their defense departments.
Military subsidy theory
According to the military subsidy theory, the Cold War-era mass production of aircraft benefited the civilian aircraft industry. The theory asserts that the technologies developed during the Cold War along with the financial backing of the military led to the dominance of American aviation companies. There is also strong evidence that the United States federal government intentionally paid a higher price for these innovations to serve as a subsidy for civilian aircraft advancement.
Current applications
According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, total world spending on military expenses in 2018 was $1822 billion. 36% of this total, roughly $649 billion, was spent by the United States. The privatization of the production and invention of military technology also leads to a complicated relationship with significant research and development of many technologies.
In 2011, the United States spent more (in absolute numbers) on its military than the next 13 countries combined.
The military budget of the United States for the 2009 fiscal year was $515.4 billion. Adding emergency discretionary spending and supplemental spending brings the sum to $651.2 billion. This does not include many military-related items that are outside of the Defense Department budget. Overall the U.S. federal government is spending about $1 trillion annually on defense-related purposes.
In a 2012 story, Salon reported, "Despite a decline in global arms sales in 2010 due to recessionary pressures, the United States increased its market share, accounting for a whopping 53 percent of the trade that year. Last year saw the United States on pace to deliver more than $46 billion in foreign arms sales." The defense industry also tends to contribute heavily to incumbent members of Congress.
Similar concepts
A thesis similar to the military–industrial complex was originally expressed by Daniel Guérin, in his 1936 book Fascism and Big Business, about the fascist government ties to heavy industry. It can be defined as, "an informal and changing coalition of groups with vested psychological, moral, and material interests in the continuous development and maintenance of high levels of weaponry, in preservation of colonial markets and in military-strategic conceptions of internal affairs." An exhibit of the trend was made in Franz Leopold Neumann's book Behemoth: The Structure and Practice of National Socialism in 1942, a study of how Nazism came into a position of power in a democratic state.
Within decades of its inception, the idea of the military–industrial complex gave rise to other similar Industrial complexes, including the animal–industrial complex, prison–industrial complex, pharmaceutical–industrial complex, entertainment-industrial complex, and medical–industrial complex. Virtually all institutions in sectors ranging from agriculture, medicine, entertainment, and media, to education, criminal justice, security, and transportation, began reconceiving and reconstructing in accordance with capitalist, industrial, and bureaucratic models with the aim of realizing profit, growth, and other imperatives. According to Steven Best, all these systems interrelate and reinforce one another.
The concept of the military–industrial complex has been expanded to include the entertainment and creative industries as well. For an example in practice, Matthew Brummer describes Japan's Manga Military and how the Ministry of Defense uses popular culture and the moe that it engenders to shape domestic and international perceptions.
An alternative term to describe the interdependence between the military-industrial complex and the entertainment industry is coined by James Der Derian as "Military-Industrial-Media-Entertainment-Network".
See also
Literature and media
War Is a Racket (1935 book by Smedley Butler)
Why We Fight (2005 documentary film by Eugene Jarecki)
War Made Easy: How Presidents & Pundits Keep Spinning Us to Death (2007 documentary film)
The Complex: How the Military Invades Our Everyday Lives (2008 book by Nick Turse)
References
Citations
Sources
DeGroot, Gerard J. Blighty: British Society in the Era of the Great War, 144, London & New York: Longman, 1996,
Eisenhower, Dwight D. Public Papers of the Presidents, 1035–40. 1960.
Eisenhower, Dwight D. "Farewell Address." In The Annals of America. Vol. 18. 1961–1968: The Burdens of World Power, 1–5. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1968.
Eisenhower, Dwight D. [[wikisource:Military–Industrial Complex Speech|President Eisenhower's Farewell Address]], Wikisource.
Hartung, William D. "Eisenhower's Warning: The Military–Industrial Complex Forty Years Later." World Policy Journal 18, no. 1 (Spring 2001).
Johnson, Chalmers The Sorrows of Empire: Militarism, Secrecy, and the End of the Republic, New York: Metropolitan Books, 2004
Kurth, James. "Military–Industrial Complex." In The Oxford Companion to American Military History, ed. John Whiteclay Chambers II, 440–42. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Nelson, Lars-Erik. "Military–Industrial Man." In New York Review of Books 47, no. 20 (Dec. 21, 2000): 6.
Nieburg, H. L. In the Name of Science, Quadrangle Books, 1970
Mills, C. Wright."Power Elite", New York, 1956
Further reading
Adams, Gordon, The Iron Triangle: The Politics of Defense Contracting, 1981.
Andreas, Joel, Addicted to War: Why the U.S. Can't Kick Militarism, .
Cochran, Thomas B., William M. Arkin, Robert S. Norris, Milton M. Hoenig, U.S. Nuclear Warhead Production Harper and Row, 1987,
Cockburn, Andrew, "The Military-Industrial Virus: How bloated budgets gut our defenses", Harper's Magazine, vol. 338, no. 2029 (June 2019), pp. 61–67. "The military-industrial complex could be said to be concerned, exclusively, with self-preservation and expansion.... The defense budget is not propelled by foreign wars. The wars are a consequence of the quest for bigger budgets."
Cockburn, Andrew, "Why America Goes to War: Money drives the US military machine", The Nation, vol. 313, no. 6 (20-27 September 2021), pp. 24–27.
Colby, Gerard, DuPont Dynasty, New York, Lyle Stuart, 1984.
Friedman, George and Meredith, The Future of War: Power, Technology and American World Dominance in the 21st Century, Crown, 1996,
Hossein-Zadeh, Ismael, The Political Economy of US Militarism. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2006.
Keller, William W., Arm in Arm: The Political Economy of the Global Arms Trade. New York: Basic Books, 1995.
Kelly, Brian, Adventures in Porkland: How Washington Wastes Your Money and Why They Won't Stop, Villard, 1992,
Lassman, Thomas C. "Putting the Military Back into the History of the Military-Industrial Complex: The Management of Technological Innovation in the U.S. Army, 1945–1960," Isis (2015) 106#1 pp. 94–120 in JSTOR
Mathews, Jessica T., "America's Indefensible Defense Budget", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 12 (18 July 2019), pp. 23–24. "For many years, the United States has increasingly relied on military strength to achieve its foreign policy aims.... We are [...] allocating too large a portion of the federal budget to defense as compared to domestic needs [...] accumulating too much federal debt, and yet not acquiring a forward-looking, twenty-first-century military built around new cyber and space technologies." (p. 24.)
McCartney, James and Molly Sinclair McCartney, America's War Machine: Vested Interests, Endless Conflicts. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2015.
McDougall, Walter A., ...The Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age, Basic Books, 1985, (Pulitzer Prize for History)
Melman, Seymour, Pentagon Capitalism: The Political Economy of War, McGraw Hill, 1970
Melman, Seymour, (ed.) The War Economy of the United States: Readings in Military Industry and Economy, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1971.
Mills, C Wright, The Power Elite. New York, 1956.
Mollenhoff, Clark R., The Pentagon: Politics, Profits and Plunder. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1967
Patterson, Walter C., The Plutonium Business and the Spread of the Bomb, Sierra Club, 1984,
Pasztor, Andy, When the Pentagon Was for Sale: Inside America's Biggest Defense Scandal, Scribner, 1995,
Pierre, Andrew J., The Global Politics of Arms Sales. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982.
Sampson, Anthony, The Arms Bazaar: From Lebanon to Lockheed. New York: Bantam Books, 1977.
St. Clair, Jeffery, Grand Theft Pentagon: Tales of Corruption and Profiteering in the War on Terror. Common Courage Press, July 1, 2005.
Sweetman, Bill, "In search of the Pentagon's billion dollar hidden budgets – how the US keeps its R&D spending under wraps", from Jane's International Defence Review, online
Thorpe, Rebecca U. The American Warfare State: The Domestic Politics of Military Spending. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014.
Watry, David M., Diplomacy at the Brink, Eisenhower, Churchill, and Eden in the Cold War, Baton Rouge, Louisiana State University Press, 2014.
Weinberger, Sharon, Imaginary Weapons, New York, Nation Books, 2006.
External links
Khaki capitalism, The Economist, December 3, 2011
Militaryindustrialcomplex.com, Features running daily, weekly and monthly defense spending totals plus Contract Archives section.
C. Wright Mills, Structure of Power in American Society, British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 9. No. 1 1958
Dwight David Eisenhower, Farewell Address On the military–industrial complex and the government–universities collusion – January 17, 1961
Dwight D. Eisenhower, Farewell Address As delivered transcript and complete audio from AmericanRhetoric.com
William McGaffin and Erwin Knoll, The military–industrial complex, An analysis of the phenomenon written in 1969
The Cost of War & Today's Military Industrial Complex, National Public Radio, January 8, 2003.
Human Rights First; Private Security Contractors at War: Ending the Culture of Impunity (2008)
Fifty Years After Eisenhower's Farewell Address, A Look at the Military–Industrial Complex – video report by Democracy Now!''
Online documents, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
50th Anniversary of Eisenhower's Farewell Address – Eisenhower Institute
Part 1 – Anniversary Discussion of Eisenhower's Farewell Address – Gettysburg College
Part 2 – Anniversary Discussion of Eisenhower's Farewell Address – Gettysburg College
Dwight D. Eisenhower
Military economics
Complex
Snowclones
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaphone
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Megaphone
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A megaphone, speaking-trumpet, bullhorn, blowhorn, or loudhailer is usually a portable or hand-held, cone-shaped acoustic horn used to amplify a person's voice or other sounds and direct it in a given direction. The sound is introduced into the narrow end of the megaphone, by holding it up to the face and speaking into it, and the sound waves radiate out the wide end. A megaphone increases the volume of sound by increasing the acoustic impedance seen by the vocal cords, matching the impedance of the vocal cords to the air, so that more sound power is radiated. It also serves to direct the sound waves in the direction the horn is pointing. It somewhat distorts the sound of the voice because the frequency response of the megaphone is greater at higher sound frequencies.
Since the 1960s the voice-powered acoustic megaphone described above has been replaced by the electric megaphone, which uses a microphone, an electrically-powered amplifier and a folded horn loudspeaker to amplify the voice.
History
The initial inventor of the speaking trumpet is a subject of historical controversy. There have been references to speakers in Ancient Greece (5th Century B.C.) wearing masks with cones protruding from the mouth in order to amplify their voices in theatres. Hellenic architects may have also consciously utilized acoustic physics in their design of theatre amphitheaters.
A drawing by Louis Nicolas (right) on page 14 of the Codex canadensis, circa 1675 to 1682, shows a Native American chief named Iscouakité using a megaphone made of birch bark. The text of the illustration says that he is addressing his soldiers through a birch bark tube.
Both Samuel Morland and Athanasius Kircher have been credited with inventing megaphones around the same time in the 17th century. Morland, in a work published in 1655, wrote about his experimentation with different horns. His largest megaphone consisted of over 20 feet of copper tube and could reportedly project a person's voice a mile and a half.
Twenty years earlier, Kircher described a device that could be used as both a megaphone and for "overhearing" people speaking outside a house. His coiled horn would be mounted into the side of a building, with a narrow end inside that could be either spoken into or listened to, and the wide mouth projecting through the outside wall.
Morland favored a straight, tube-shaped speaking device. Kircher's horn, on the other hand, utilized a "cochleate" design, where the horn was twisted and coiled to make it more compact.
A later, papier-mâché trumpet of special design was the Sengerphone.
Additionally, in ruins of Tiwanaku are stones around the central place with holes shaped in a megaphone's profile. Their purpose is today unknown, but as local guards can show, it is possible to amplify a human voice loud enough to hear it across a large area.
The term 'megaphone' was first associated with Thomas Edison's instrument 200 years later. In 1878, Edison developed a device similar to the speaking trumpet in hopes of benefiting the deaf and hard of hearing. His variation included three separate funnels lined up in a row. The two outer funnels, which were six feet and eight inches long, were made of paper and connected to a tube inserted in each ear. The middle funnel was similar to Morland's speaking trumpet, but had a larger slot to insert a user's mouth.
With Edison's megaphone, a low whisper could be heard a thousand feet away, while a normal tone of voice could be heard roughly two miles away. On the listening end, the receiver could hear a low whisper at a thousand feet away. However the apparatus was much too large to be portable, limiting its use. George Prescott wrote: "The principal drawback at present is the large size of the apparatus."
Prior to the invention of the electric microphone, early pop singers sang with a megaphone.
Since the 1960s, acoustic megaphones have generally been replaced by electric versions (below), although the cheap, light, rugged acoustic megaphone is still used in a few venues, like cheering at sporting events and cheerleading, and by lifeguards at pools and beaches where the moisture could damage the electronics of electric megaphones.
Electric megaphone
An electric megaphone is a handheld public address system, an electronic device that amplifies the human voice like an acoustic megaphone, using electric power. It consists of a microphone to convert sound waves into an electrical audio signal, an amplifier powered by a battery to increase the power of the audio signal, and a loudspeaker to convert the audio signal to sound waves again. Although slightly heavier than acoustic megaphones, electric megaphones can amplify the voice to a higher level, to over 90 dB. They have replaced acoustic megaphones in most applications, and are generally used to address congregations of people wherever stationary public address systems are not available; at outdoor sporting events, movie sets, political rallies, and street demonstrations.
Although electronic public address systems have existed since vacuum tube amplifiers were developed in the early 1920s, vacuum tube versions were too heavy to be portable. Practical portable electric megaphones had to await the development of microelectronics which followed the invention of the transistor in 1947. In 1954, TOA Corporation developed the EM-202, the world's first transistorized megaphone.
Handheld versions are shaped generally like the old acoustic megaphone, with a microphone at one end and a horn speaker at the other, and a pistol grip on the side, with a trigger switch to turn it on. In use, the device is held up to the mouth, and the trigger is pressed to turn it on while speaking. Other larger versions hang from the shoulder on a strap, and have a separate handheld microphone on a cord to speak into, so users can address a crowd without the instrument obscuring their faces. A vast array of modern electric megaphones are available to purchase, and characteristics like power, weight, price, and the presence of alarms and shoulder straps all contribute to a consumer's choice.
The shape of the megaphone directly affects the range of projection; narrower horns compensate for lower power by concentrating sound more sharply than wide horns.
Impact on society
Portable megaphones are widely used for crowd management and mass communication. When needing to communicate information or directions to a large crowd of people in one place, an electric megaphone is valuable when other public address systems are not present.
Besides their practical implications, public address systems, including megaphones, also had a social impact. Public address systems helped promote women's participation in society. In events like the National Republican and Democratic Conventions of 1920, when electronic public address systems were first becoming popularized, women used these amplifying technologies during roll call of participants. Later, portable electric megaphones extended this equalizing influence to outdoor events. Some protest leaders use electric megaphones to speak to an outdoor crowd or to other protesters.
As of the 2010s, cheerleading is one of the few fields that still uses acoustic megaphones. Cheerleaders at the University of Minnesota are credited with first using acoustic megaphones in routines in 1898. Since then, cheerleaders have relied heavily on acoustic megaphones during performances at sporting events. Generally, female cheerleaders would use pom poms while male cheerleaders, with loud booming voices, would project cheers through megaphones. Vocal projection is an important aspect for cheerleading, so experts recommend the use of acoustic megaphones not only to increase the volume of sound, but also to protect performers’ voices in the process.
For decades, film directors have used megaphones to communicate with their cast and crew on sets where it was hard to hear. The acoustic megaphone became an iconic clichéd symbol of a movie director, although modern directors use electric megaphones. A major contributor to this cliche was Cecil B. DeMille, director of epic movies like The Ten Commandments and The King of Kings. Many of his films were biblical epics set on vast outdoor sets that required communication with hundreds of extras.
The distinctive distorted sound of a human voice amplified by a megaphone is widely recognized, from its use in train and bus stations and sports arenas. Applied to music, it gives the sound of an antique acoustic gramophone record player. It has been used in radio advertisements and popular music to give retro and often humorous effects. A recorded voice or music can be processed to give it a "megaphone" sound effect without using an actual megaphone, by audio recording decks and software. In recording software like Logic Pro and Pro Tools, selecting certain filters and settings will produce an artificial sound almost indistinguishable from an electric megaphone.
Legal restrictions
Governments can pass laws restricting the use of electronically amplified megaphones. In the US the ability to use a megaphone in public can be restricted to certain decibel levels, time of day or banned in residential neighborhoods. However, under the First Amendment, the specific kinds of speech used with a megaphone cannot be restricted.
See also
Long range acoustic device (LRAD)
Water Talkie
Human microphone
References
External links
"Controlling Public Protest: First Amendment Implications" An article about restrictions that may legally be imposed on public protests (including use of bullhorns), by Daniel L. Schofield, S.J.D., published in the November 1994 issue of the FBI's Law Enforcement Bulletin.
Audio amplifiers
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] |
211687
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type%20X
|
Type X
|
Type X may refer to:
Typex, or Type X, British cipher machines used from 1937
Taito Type X, an arcade system board
Type X submarine, a special type of German U-boat
Grahame-White Type X, a 1910s British passenger-carrying biplane
Type X, a category of fire-resistant drywall
Type-X (unmanned ground vehicle), a robotic combat vehicle by Milrem Robotics
See also
Type 10 (disambiguation)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20cruiser%20Nachi
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Japanese cruiser Nachi
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was the second vessel completed of the four-member of heavy cruisers of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN), which were active in World War II. The other ships of the class were , , and . She was named after a mountain in Wakayama Prefecture.
Background
The Myōkō class was approved under the 1922–1929 Fleet Modernization Program as the first heavy cruisers to be built by Japan within the design constraints imposed by the Washington Naval Treaty, and was the first of the "10,000-ton" cruisers built by any nation. Naval architect Vice admiral Yuzuru Hiraga was able to keep the design from becoming dangerously top-heavy in its early years by continually rejecting demands from the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff for additional equipment to the upper decks. However, during modifications and rebuildings in the 1930s, the final displacement rose to 15,933 tons, well over the treaty limits.
Design
The Myōkō class displaced , with a hull-design based on an enlarged version of the . Nachi was long, with a beam of , draft of and was capable of 35.5 knots.
Propulsion was by 12 Kampon boilers driving four sets of single-impulse geared turbine engines, with four shafts turning three-bladed propellers. The ship was armored with a side belt, and armored deck; however, the bridge was not armored.
Nachi’s main battery was ten 20 cm/50 3rd Year Type naval guns, the heaviest armament of any heavy cruiser in the world at the time, mounted in five twin turrets. Her secondary armament included eight 12.7 cm/40 Type 89 naval guns in four twin mounts on each side, and 12 Type 93 Long Lance torpedoes in four triple launchers positioned below the aircraft deck. Nachi was also equipped with an aircraft catapult and carried up to three floatplanes for scouting purposes.
Nachi was repeatedly modernized and upgraded throughout her career in order to counter the growing threat of air strikes. She eventually mounted 52 Type 96 25 mm AT/AA Gun guns and two Type 93 13 mm AA guns after her final upgrade.
Nachi was laid down at Kure Naval Arsenal on 26 November 1924, launched and named on 15 June 1927, and was commissioned on 26 November 1928. Although commissioned on 26 November, the ship was far from completed. Due to a political decision, the partially completed cruiser was sent to Yokosuka for the Coronation Naval Review for Emperor Hirohito on 4 December. Afterwards, she was returned to Kure for the remaining work to be accomplished, and was only ready for service in April 1929. Emperor Hirohito visited the completed vessel at Kobe for a cruise on the Inland Sea on 28–29 May as part of his tour of the Kansai region of Japan to encourage domestic industrial production.
Operational history
Early service
All of the Myōkō-class were assigned to the Sasebo Naval District, forming Sentai-4 of the IJN 3rd Fleet, and trained as a unit during the 1930s. During a naval review off Kobe on 26 October 1930 stack gases caused problems on the bridge, resulting in a lengthening of the forward smokestack by two meters. During the First Shanghai Incident of February 1932, the cruisers escorted the transports conveying elements of the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) to the continent. In December 1932, the cruisers were placed in reserve as the new was commissioned, becoming the new Sentai-4, whereas the Myōkō class was shifted to Sentai-5. Between 1933 and 1935, all Myōkō-class cruisers were retrofitted with their fixed triple torpedo launchers replaced by two quadruple rotatable launchers, and their secondary guns upgraded from 12 cm/45 10th Year Type naval guns to 12.7 cm/40 Type 89 naval gun. Nachi was commanded by Captain Teruhisa Komatsu from November 1934 to December 1935, followed by Captain Michitaro Totsuka to November 1936.
In 1936, Nachi underwent her first modernization program at Sasebo Naval Arsenal. With the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, Nachi transported the headquarters elements of the Imperial Japanese Army’s IJA 3rd Division and IJA 6th Infantry Regiment from Nagoya to China on 20 August, as part of a large combat force consisting of six cruisers and eight destroyers.
In December 1937, Nachi underwent her second modernization program at Sasebo Naval Arsenal, doubling the number of torpedoes to 16, adding another eight Type 96 25-mm anti-aircraft guns and bulges to the hull to improve stability.
Pacific War
Japanese invasions
In late 1941, Nachi was based at Mako Guard District in the Pescadores Islands, and at the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor Myōkō and Nachi formed Sentai-5 of the IJN 3rd Fleet. Sentai-5 was commanded by Rear Admiral Takeo Takagi, and deployed from Palau to provide cover for the landings of Japanese forces under "Operation M" — the invasion of the southern Philippine Islands. After covering the landings of Japanese forces at Legaspi on 11 December 1941, Myōkō and Nachi returned to Palau and were then reassigned to Rear Admiral Raizō Tanaka, whose attack force covered landings at Davao on 19 December and Jolo on 24 December.
On 4 January 1942 Nachi and the other vessels of Admiral Tanaka’s invasion force were attacked by U.S. Army Air Force B-17 Flying Fortress bombers while at anchor at Davao. Myōkō was hit by one bomb, causing only superficial damage, but Admiral Tanaka transferred his flag to Nachi, sending Myōkō back to Sasebo for repairs.
Battle of the Java Sea
In January 1942, Nachi and Haguro covered the landings of Japanese troops in the invasion of the Celebes in the Netherlands East Indies, followed by the invasion of Ambon. In the Battle of the Java Sea, Nachi, Haguro and participated in the destruction of the last remaining Allied fleet units in the Netherlands East Indies. On 27 February, the reconnaissance floatplanes from Nachi spotted the Allied fleet, enabling Haguro to sink the destroyer with a torpedo and damage with gunfire, and for the destroyer to sink the destroyer . Later that same evening a torpedo from Nachi sank the cruiser while several minutes later a torpedo from Haguro sank the cruiser . Two days later, on 1 March, Nachi and Haguro and their accompanying destroyers spotted the damaged Exeter as she attempted to escape the Java Sea, and together with the cruisers Myōkō and Ashigara (and their accompanying destroyers) sank her, along with destroyer . , who was accompanying the two British ships, initially escaped the melee only to be caught and sunk about two hours later by planes from the Japanese carrier Ryujo.
Operations in northern waters
Later in March, Nachi received a refit at Sasebo for operations in northern waters, and patrolled the Kurile Islands in April and May. On 26 May, Nachi departed from Ōminato Guard District as flagship of Vice Admiral Boshiro Hosogaya’s force for the invasion of the Aleutian islands, and patrolled south of Attu, returning to Ōminato on 23 June. She departed Ōminato to escort another convoy to Kiska from 28 June, remaining in the Aleutian Islands until 7 July. After a refit at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal from 14–30 July, Nachi was reassigned to the IJN 5th Fleet with and . She continued patrols of the Kurile Islands though March 1943, and was sent as an escort for a reinforcement convoy to Attu from 7–10 March.
While escorting another convoy towards Attu on 26 March, Nachi spotted an American force consisting of the cruisers and and destroyers , , and . Vice Admiral Hosogaya had the cruisers , Tama, and , in addition to two destroyers. However, Maya was not carrying any aircraft, and Nachi had left one of her three planes behind for repairs. Hosogaya ordered Nachi’s aircraft to launch, but before they did so, he also ordered that the cruiser’s main battery open fire. The aircraft on the starboard catapult was damaged by the blast and had to be jettisoned. The remaining aircraft launched and provided reconnaissance during the subsequent Battle of the Komandorski Islands. Nachi launched her Type 93 "Long Lance" torpedoes at the American task force, but failed to hit. In a four-hour gun battle, the Japanese fleet damaged Salt Lake City and Bailey, but five shells hit Nachi, killed fourteen crewmen, and Maya suffered damage to her No.1 gun turret. Hosogaya abandoned the attempt to reinforce Attu, and was relieved of command in disgrace.
Nachi was then repaired at Yokosuka, with eight Type 96 AA guns installed, returning to Paramushiro on 15 May, and then returning to Kiska from 10–15 July to evacuate the Japanese garrison. On 6 October, after departing Ōminato, Nachi was attacked by the submarine , which fired four torpedoes, one of which struck Nachi in her starboard side. However, the torpedo was a dud and damage was minimal. Nachi remained based at Ōminato through July 1944.
Operations in the Philippines and sinking
Nachi was reassigned to Kure Naval District from 31 July 1944 and spent the month of August in training. Her anti-aircraft defenses were updated with an additional two twin-mount and twenty single mount Type 96 25-mm autocannon, bringing her final total to 48 barrels in September. In October 1944, she was sent to the Philippines as part of a cruiser force under the command of Vice Admiral Kiyohide Shima. During the Battle of Leyte Gulf from 24 October, Nachi and Ashigara were part of Vice Admiral Shoji Nishimura’s force, which included the battleships , and the cruiser . On 25 October, after the Battle of Surigao Strait, Nachi and Mogami collided, resulting in severe damage to both vessels. Nachi was forced to retire to Manila to repair damage to her bow.
While under repair at Manila on 29 October, Nachi and Kumano were attacked by aircraft from USN Task Force 38. Nachi was hit by a single bomb to her aircraft deck, and this, as well as strafing attacks, killed 53 crewmen and further delayed repairs. On 5 November, again in Manila Bay, Nachi was attacked by three waves of U.S. planes from the aircraft carriers and . She escaped the first wave undamaged, but was hit by five bombs and two or three torpedoes in the second wave while attempting to get underway. During the third wave, Nachi was hit by five torpedoes in her port side, which severed her bow and stern, and by an additional twenty bombs and 16 rockets. Nachis flag commander, Vice Admiral Kiyohide Shima, was ashore for a conference at the time of the attack, but arrived at dockside in time to see his flagship blown apart. The central portion of the vessel sank in of water about northeast of Corregidor (at approximately ),.
The original wartime caption of a picture taken of the sinking Nachi by Lexington aircraft reads, Of the crew, 807 were lost, including the captain, while 220 survived and were rescued by the destroyers and .
Wreck
In April and May 1945, divers from made 296 dives on the wreck, salvaging radar equipment, code books, maps of Japanese fortifications on Luzon and other documents. John Prados, in his book, Combined Fleet Decoded, writes that this was a major intelligence coup. This is also verified by U.S. Navy Master Diver Joseph S. Karneke, who served as the master diver aboard Chanticleer while diving on the wreck of Nachi, in his book, Navy Diver.
References
Bibliography
External links
Myōkō-class cruisers
Ships built by Kure Naval Arsenal
1927 ships
Second Sino-Japanese War cruisers of Japan
World War II cruisers of Japan
Ships of the Aleutian Islands campaign
World War II shipwrecks in the South China Sea
Maritime incidents in November 1944
Cruisers sunk by aircraft
Ships sunk by US aircraft
Shipwrecks of the Philippines
Shipwrecks in Manila Bay
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211693
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhani%20Harrison
|
Dhani Harrison
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Dhani Harrison (; born 1 August 1978) is a British musician, composer and singer-songwriter. He is the son of George and Olivia Harrison. Dhani debuted as a professional musician assisting in recording his father's final album, Brainwashed, and completing it with the assistance of Jeff Lynne after his father's death in November 2001. Harrison formed his own band, thenewno2, in 2002 and has performed at festivals including Coachella where Spin magazine dubbed their performance as one of the "best debut performances of the festival." The band also played Lollapalooza three times with Harrison joining the festival's founder Perry Farrell on a cover of The Velvet Underground's "Sweet Jane" at 2010's event. In 2017 Harrison released his debut solo album IN///PARALLEL. The 2019 film IN///PARALIVE, showcases the live version of his debut solo album and was recorded in the round at Henson Studios in Los Angeles. Harrison's latest single, "Motorways (Erase It)", was described by Rolling Stone as "a psychedelic track with a robust beat".
In 2013, Harrison launched his career as a composer. Alongside his writing partner Paul Hicks, Harrison scored the Warner Bros. movie Beautiful Creatures. Harrison has gone on to score the music for the TV show Good Girls Revolt, AMC's The Divide, Seattle Road, Learning to Drive, and for the Paul Giamatti-produced show Outsiders. In 2018 Harrison and his writing partner Hicks received a nomination for 'Best Music Score' at the International Documentary Association Awards for their work on the Sundance Film Festival Award Winning documentary Matangi/Maya/M.I.A. Most recently, Harrison wrote and recorded the title song for the Netflix original series Dogs and, along with Paul Hicks, scored the four-part HBO documentary series The Case Against Adnan Syed, the Bill Gates Netflix docuseries Inside Bill's Brain: Decoding Bill Gates and the 2020 RZA movie Cut Throat City.
Harrison's music collaborations span a diverse range of genres that have seen him tour with Eric Clapton, appear on the Wu-Tang Clan track "The Heart Gently Weeps", and join Pearl Jam live on stage several times over the years. One of Harrison's notable collaborations was in 2004 at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, where he appeared alongside Tom Petty, Jeff Lynne, and Prince on "While My Guitar Gently Weeps", which was performed to mark the posthumous induction of his father. Harrison guests on the UNKLE album The Road: Part II/Lost Highway, and also appears on Perry Farrell's solo album, Kind Heaven. Harrison united with his long-time family friend Jeff Lynne when he opened for Jeff Lynne's ELO on the band's sold out 2019 North American summer tour.
Harrison is named after the sixth and seventh notes of the Indian music scale, dha and ni. Dhani is also a raga in North Indian classical music.
Early life
Harrison was born on 1 August 1978 at Princess Christian Nursing Home in Windsor, Berkshire. He grew up with his parents in Henley-on-Thames, in Friar Park, the estate on which his father had lived since 1970. His mother, Olivia Harrison, is an American of Mexican descent. One of Harrison's earliest memories, from the age of six, is receiving a drumming lesson from his father's friend and bandmate, "Uncle" Ringo Starr. He recalled that before the lesson, he had been an avid drummer. However, when Starr began to play, the loud noise frightened him so much that he ran out of the room screaming.
Harrison attended Dolphin School near Twyford, a Montessori method school, followed by Badgemore Primary School, Henley-On-Thames. He later attended Shiplake College, also near Henley, where he enrolled in the Combined Cadet Force, and showed a keen interest in rowing which continued into his later years.
Harrison is an alumnus of Brown University, where he studied industrial design and physics, earning a bachelor's degree. Harrison pursued a career as a car designer at McLaren Automotive before deciding to follow in his father's footsteps as a professional musician.
Musical career
After his father's death in 2001, Harrison, in collaboration with Jeff Lynne, completed his father's final album, Brainwashed, which was released in 2002 and went on to win a Grammy for Best Pop Instrumental Performance, in "Marwa Blues", at the 46th Annual Grammy Awards in 2004. Harrison participated in the Concert for George on the first anniversary of his father's death. The concert was organized by Eric Clapton and featured some of his father's friends and collaborators, including former Beatles bandmates Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr as well as Clapton, Billy Preston, Ravi Shankar, Jeff Lynne, Tom Petty, Jim Keltner, and Joe Brown. Harrison played backup acoustic guitar for most of the concert. Before the finale, Paul McCartney relayed to the audience, "Olivia said that with Dhani up on stage, it looks like George stayed young and we all got old", referencing the physical similarities between father and son.
In 2004 Harrison appeared onstage with Tom Petty, Steve Winwood, Jeff Lynne, Prince and others for a performance of "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" during his father's induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.
In March 2006, Harrison made a guest appearance on Liam Lynch's Podcast Video Variety Show, Lynchland. They performed a duet that will appear on a Lynch album. He collaborated with Jakob Dylan on the John Lennon song "Gimme Some Truth" for the Lennon tribute album Instant Karma: The Amnesty International Campaign to Save Darfur, which was released on 12 June 2007.In April 2006, it was announced that Harrison's band, thenewno2, had begun recording. The band released a music video, "Choose What You're Watching", on its website. thenewno2 features Harrison on lead guitar, synthesiser and vocals and Oli Hecks on drums and synths. He was involved in a re-working of the Beatles' "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" entitled "The Heart Gently Weeps", which was the first single on the Wu-Tang Clan's album 8 Diagrams, released in December 2007.
Thenewno2's debut album, You Are Here, was released online on 11 August 2008 and in stores on 31 March 2009. The song "Yomp" was featured as a downloadable song for the Rock Band series, and "Crazy Tuesday" was featured as one of the 20 free songs that were downloadable with the purchase of Rock Band 2.
In August 2010, Dhani Harrison, Ben Harper and Joseph Arthur joined to form Fistful of Mercy.
In 2013, Harrison was the face of Gap's fall global campaign, entitled "Back To Blue."
Harrison's dedication to his father's musical legacy resulted in a week long run of shows on Conan in September 2014, dedicated to George Harrison, which culminated in a sold out George Fest event at The Fonda Theatre in Los Angeles, which was later released as an album and documentary. He participated in The Night That Changed America: A Grammy Salute to The Beatles the same year.
Harrison produced George Fest, a live album and concert DVD package documenting The George Fest tribute concert in honor of his father. The tribute was held at the Fonda Theatre in Los Angeles on 28 September 2014. The album and documentary were released on 26 February 2016.
In 2017 Harrison played his first-ever solo show at the Panorama Festival in New York City. Harrison released his first solo album, In Parallel, in October 2017.
In 2019, he toured as the opening act for Jeff Lynne's ELO, and typically performed with the group singing the vocals for the Traveling Wilburys song "Handle with Care."
Film composing
In between working on albums, Harrison, along with Paul Hicks, began their film composing partnership scoring the 2013 film Beautiful Creatures. In 2014, they scored the film Learning to Drive and the television series The Divide. In 2016, they composed music for the Amazon Video television series Good Girls Revolt and continue scoring the WGN TV series Outsiders.
More recently, Harrison wrote and recorded the title song for the Netflix original series Dogs and, along with Paul Hicks, scored the four-part HBO documentary series The Case Against Adnan Syed and the 2020 RZA movie Cut Throat City.
Discography
Solo
Albums
In Parallel (2017)
With Thenewno2
Albums
You Are Here (2008)
thefearofmissingout (2012)
Beautiful Creatures (2013)
EPs
EP001 (2006)
EP002 (2011)
With Fistful of Mercy
Albums
As I Call You Down (2010)
Personal life
Harrison married Sólveig "Sóla" Káradóttir, daughter of Icelandic scientist Kári Stefánsson, in 2012. They announced their separation in 2016. The couple had no children.
Video games
Harrison collaborated in the development of The Beatles: Rock Band, a music video game released on 9 September 2009 on the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 and Wii gaming platforms. He was instrumental in the creation of the game and urged McCartney and Starr to participate. When asked about the game production Dhani stated, "I took the project to Apple and sort of convinced everybody to have a presentation. My job description is... being enthusiastic. We've been working on it for the past two years. This is the first one that is going to be totally, historically accurate. It's been a real headache, but it's been the most enjoyable work I've done in my life."
To promote the game's release, he appeared on The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien on 8 September 2009 and at the end of the show they played "Birthday" with Dhani on drums, Conan O'Brien on bass, and Aaron Bleyaert and Mark Pender on guitar.
Harrison told the Chicago Tribune in an interview that he is "working on Rock Band 3 and making the controllers more real so people can actually learn how to play music while playing the game".
References
External links
Thenewno2 Official Band Site
HOT Records
1978 births
Brown University alumni
Living people
English rock guitarists
English male singers
Lead guitarists
Slide guitarists
English people of American descent
English people of Irish descent
English people of Mexican descent
People from Henley-on-Thames
People from Windsor, Berkshire
People educated at Shiplake College
Dhani
Fistful of Mercy members
English male guitarists
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211694
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20cruiser%20Haguro
|
Japanese cruiser Haguro
|
Haguro (羽黒) was a heavy cruiser of the Imperial Japanese Navy, named after Mount Haguro in Yamagata Prefecture. Commissioned in 1929, Haguro saw significant service during World War II, participating in nine naval engagements. She was sunk in 1945 during a fight with Royal Navy destroyers, one of the last major Japanese warships to be sunk in open waters during World War II.
Design
Haguro was the third of the four-member of heavy cruiser; the other ships were (妙高), (那智), and (足柄). The ships of this class displaced 13,300 tons, were long, and were capable of . They carried two aircraft and their main armament was ten guns in five twin turrets. At the time they were built, this was the heaviest armament of any cruiser class in the world.
Construction and career
Haguro was laid down at the Mitsubishi shipyard in Nagasaki on 16 March 1925, launched and named on 24 March 1928, and was commissioned into the Imperial Navy on 25 April 1929.
Between 1931 and 1933 she was commanded by Nomura Naokuni who subsequently achieved flag rank.
Her service in World War II started in the Dutch East Indies, where she engaged the enemy off Makassar on 8 February 1942. Haguro then played a key role in the Battle of the Java Sea on 27 February 1942, first sinking the destroyer and then later the same day the Allied fleet's flagship, the cruiser ; both by torpedo. Two days later, on 1 March 1942 in another action south of Borneo, Haguro took part in the sinking of the cruiser and the destroyer .
On 7 May 1942, she participated in the Battle of the Coral Sea, moving on to the Solomon Islands where she took part in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons on 24 August 1942, the evacuation from Guadalcanal at the end of January 1943. Haguro took light damage in the Battle of Empress Augusta Bay on 2 November 1943. On 19 June 1944, she survived the Battle of the Philippine Sea, and from 23–25 October 1944 she took light damage in the Battle of Leyte Gulf.
Battle of the Malacca Strait and fate
In May 1945, Haguro was the target of the British "Operation Dukedom" and was ambushed. The 26th Destroyer Flotilla found her with the destroyer just after midnight on 16 May 1945, and began the attack. During the battle, Kamikaze was lightly damaged, but Haguro was hit by gunfire and three Mark IX torpedoes from the British destroyers. She soon began to slow down and took a 30-degree list to port.
At 02:32, Haguro began to go down stern first in the Malacca Strait, off Penang; Kamikaze rescued 320 survivors, but 900 men, including Vice Admiral Hashimoto and Rear Admiral Sugiura, perished with her. Rear Admiral Sugiura was posthumously promoted to vice admiral on 16 May. Haguro was the last major Japanese warship to be sunk in a surface action during the war.
Haguro was stricken from the navy list on 20 June 1945.
Shipwreck
On 4 March 2003, a group of specialised shipwreck divers operating off MV Empress discovered the wreck of Haguro in of water in the Malacca Strait south of Penang. The wreck sits upright, covered in places by discarded trawler nets with her hull opposite her forward turrets buried in the seabed to about her original waterline, but this level gradually reduces until at the stern her outer propellers and shafts are actually up above the seabed. Her foremast and the top half of the bridge structure are missing/collapsed. Her mainmast is collapsed. Her funnels are missing. British hits are visible in places. The bow section forward of No. 2 turret is badly damaged by torpedo hits. Haguros No. 1 turret and barbette are uprooted and lie against the hull, the rear of the turret on the starboard sea bed and the barrels pointing vertically towards the surface. Her No. 2 turret is trained to starboard at approximately the 1 o'clock position, with its roof collapsed and both barrels and breeches missing, as they were not replaced after being damaged by a bomb at the earlier Battle of Leyte Gulf. Her No. 3 turret's guns are askew and trained to the port quarter at the 8 o'clock position. Both her stern main turrets' guns point almost directly astern. Just behind the No. 5 turret, the wreck is broken in half, although the very stern section is still "partially" attached and heavily damaged on the port side.
In 2010 a further diving expedition surveyed the wreck in detail. In 2014 the wreck was among five located in the region reported to have been heavily destroyed by illegal salvors.
Notes
References
Books
External links
Haguro's history in detail
Myōkō-class cruisers
Ships built by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
1928 ships
Cruisers of the Imperial Japanese Navy
World War II cruisers of Japan
World War II shipwrecks in the Strait of Malacca
Maritime incidents in May 1945
2003 archaeological discoveries
|
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211696
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%BCnther%20Schifter
|
Günther Schifter
|
Günther Schifter (23 December 1923 – 11 August 2008) was an Austrian journalist, radio presenter and record collector.
Born in Vienna, Schifter started collecting 78s of the popular music of the interwar years already as a boy. After the war, he played jazz and Swing in occupied Austria, becoming, in 1949, one of the first disc jockeys on Austrian radio. From 1967 to 2000 Schifter had a weekly radio programme, Günther Schifters Schellacks, where he played 78s from his vast personal archives (including, for example, more than 100 cover versions of W.C. Handy's "St. Louis Blues") while always refusing to resort to reissues of older material on vinyl records, audiotape or, later, CDs. In between songs Schifter developed his style of giving enjoyable history lessons.
Ousted by the Austrian state radio (ORF) in 2000 due to a switch to the more commercial music radio format, Schifter continued broadcasting for a while from Bavaria, Germany. He died on 11 August 2008, aged 84, in Salzburg.
See also
Swing Movement in Nazi Germany
External links
Günther Schifter: "Unterhaltung in den vierziger Jahren" ("Entertainment during the 1940s") (1998) (an essay very similar to his radio show; in German).
Howdy! Günther Schifter, an Internet exhibition (2006) by the Austrian Mediathek.
1923 births
2008 deaths
Journalists from Vienna
20th-century Austrian journalists
Austrian expatriates in Germany
|
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211697
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20destroyer%20Ikazuchi%20%281931%29
|
Japanese destroyer Ikazuchi (1931)
|
was the twenty-third , or the third (if that sub-class is regarded as a separate class), built for the Imperial Japanese Navy in the inter-war period. When introduced into service, these ships were the most powerful destroyers in the world. They remained formidable weapons systems well into the Pacific War.
Ikazuchi, built at the Uraga Dock Company, was the third of the “Type III” improved series of Fubuki destroyers, incorporating a modified gun turret which could elevate her main battery of Type 3 127 mm 50 caliber naval guns to 75° as opposed to the original 40°, thus permitting the guns to be used as dual purpose guns against aircraft. Ikazuchi was laid down on 7 March 1930, launched on 22 October 1931 and commissioned on 15 August 1932.
History
Construction of the advanced Akatsuki-class destroyers was authorized as part of the Imperial Japanese Navy's expansion program from fiscal 1923, intended to give Japan a qualitative edge with the world's most modern ships. The Akatsuki class had performance that was a quantum leap over previous destroyer designs, so much so that they were designated . The large size, powerful engines, high speed, large radius of action and unprecedented armament gave these destroyers the firepower similar to many light cruisers in other navies. The Akatsuki sub-class was an improved version of the Fubuki, externally almost identical, but incorporating changes to her propulsion system.
Operational history
On completion, Ikazuchi was assigned to Destroyer Division 6 along with her sister ships, , , and , under the IJN 1st Fleet and participated in operations in the Second Sino-Japanese War.
World War II
At the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor, Ikazuchi was assigned to Destroyer Division 6 of Desron 1 of the IJN 1st Fleet, and had deployed from Mako Guard District to provide cover for landing operations in the Invasion of Hong Kong. After assisting the cruiser in sinking British gunboats HMS Cicada and HMS Robin, she helped secure Hong Kong Harbor. After the start of 1942, Ikazuchi deployed from Hong Kong to Davao, providing cover for landing operations during the Battle of Ambon, and Battle of Timor in the Netherlands East Indies.
On 2 March 1942, Ikazuchi rescued the remaining 400 odd survivors who were still in the water from the Royal Navy cruiser (some of whose survivors had been rescued on 1 March) and the destroyer , both ships having been sunk the previous day in the Second Battle of the Java Sea between Java and Borneo. The survivors had been adrift for some 20 hours, in rafts and life jackets or clinging to floats, many coated in oil and unable to see. Among the rescued was Lieutenant (later Sir) Sam Falle, an officer aboard Encounter, who would go on to become a British diplomat.
This humanitarian decision by Lieutenant Commander Shunsaku Kudō placed Ikazuchi at risk of submarine attack, and interfered with her fighting ability due to the sheer numbers of rescued sailors. The action was later the subject of a book and a 2007 TV programme.
Ikazuchi deployed from Ōminato Guard District in support of Admiral Boshiro Hosogaya’s Northern Force in the Aleutians campaign, patrolling waters around Kiska and Attu during June and July, and towing the damaged destroyer from Kiska back to Shimushu in the Chishima Islands. She continued to be assigned to northern patrols in the Chishima islands and Aleutian islands through the beginning of August.
From September, Ikazuchi was reassigned as escort for the new aircraft carriers and , which the destroyer accompanied to Truk, and missions in the Solomon Islands and back to Kure Naval District.
From October, Ikazuchi was used for numerous “Tokyo Express" high speed transport runs throughout the Solomon Islands.
On 25 October 1942 Ikazuchi, , and conducted a daylight raid into the waters off Guadalcanal. In the resulting action, the fast minesweeper was damaged and fleet tug and patrol craft YP-284 were sunk before the Japanese ships were driven off by US Marine coastal artillery. Ikazuchi suffered light damage from strafing attacks by Allied aircraft, with four crewmen killed.
Ikazuchi participated in the first night action of the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal on 13 November 1942. Stationed on the right flank of the battleships and with two other destroyers, she engaged several U.S. warships, among them the cruiser , and received hits to her forward gun mount, which caught fire. In the battle, 21 crewmen were killed and 20 injured, and she had to return to Truk for emergency repairs.
After repairs at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal from December to the end of February 1943, Ikazuchi returned to the north Pacific, and was present at the Battle of the Komandorski Islands on 26 March but saw no action. On 30 March, she collided with the destroyer , suffering moderate damage.
Ikazuchi was reassigned to Desron 11 of the IJN 1st Fleet on 1 April 1943. After repairs at Yokosuka, she returned to Truk, and escorted convoys between Truk and the Japanese home islands until mid-April 1944.
Under the command of Lieutenant Commander Ikunaga Kunio, on 13 April 1944, while escorting the transport Sanyō Maru to Woleai, Ikazuchi was torpedoed and sunk by the submarine , approximately south-southeast of Guam at position . There were no survivors.
On 10 June 1944, Ikazuchi was removed from the navy list.
Notes
References
External links
Akatsuki-class destroyers (1931)
Ships built by Uraga Dock Company
1931 ships
Second Sino-Japanese War naval ships of Japan
World War II destroyers of Japan
Ships sunk by American submarines
World War II shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean
Maritime incidents in April 1944
Ships of the Aleutian Islands campaign
Ships lost with all hands
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterritoriality
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Extraterritoriality
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In international law, extraterritoriality is the state of being exempted from the jurisdiction of local law, usually as the result of diplomatic negotiations.
Historically, this primarily applied to individuals, as jurisdiction was usually claimed on peoples rather than on lands. Extraterritoriality can also be applied to physical places, such as foreign embassies, military bases of foreign countries, or offices of the United Nations. The three most common cases recognized today internationally relate to the persons and belongings of foreign heads of state, the persons and belongings of ambassadors and other diplomats, and ships in international waters.
Forms
In the past, pre-modern states generally claimed sovereignty over persons, creating something known as personal jurisdiction. As people move between borders, this led, in the framework of a territorial jurisdiction, to certain persons being under the laws of countries in which they did not reside. Extraterritoriality, in this sense, emerges from the interaction of these two conceptions of jurisdiction, personal and territorial, when laws are applied based on who a person is rather than where they are.
In the modern day, extraterritoriality can take various forms. Most famous are examples of diplomatic extraterritoriality, where diplomats and their belongings do not operate under the laws of their host nations, but rather, under the laws of the diplomat's nation.
Similarly, many nations claim the right to prosecute foreign combatants and violators of human rights under doctrines of universal jurisdiction, irrespective of the nationality of those persons or the place in which the alleged crimes occurred. This extends to domestic criminal codes as well: for example, the People's Republic of China claims the right to prosecute Chinese citizens for crimes committed abroad and Canada will prosecute sexual abuse of minors by a Canadian anywhere in the world.
In some military and commercial agreements, nations cede legal jurisdiction for foreign bases or ports to other countries. For example, Japan cedes jurisdiction over American military bases on its soil in Okinawa to US military tribunals pursuant to a bilateral status of forces agreement.
In maritime law, a ship in international waters is governed by the laws of the jurisdiction in which that ship is registered. This can be conceived of as a form of extraterritoriality, where a nation's jurisdiction extends beyond its border.
Historical cases
14th century
During the 13th and 14th centuries, the Italian sea republics of Genoa, Venice and Pisa obtained extraterritoriality for their merchants who operated in designated quarters (Pera and Galata) in the Byzantine capital, Constantinople, as well as in Egypt and the Barbary States.
Ottoman Empire
A series of capitulations were made in the form of treaties between the Sublime Porte and Western nations, from the sixteenth through the early nineteenth centuries. The legal impenetrability of the Ottoman legal code created during the Tanzimat era began to weaken continuously through the spread of European empires and the prevalence of legal positivism.
The laws and regulations created for Ottoman subjects to abide by often did not apply to European nationals conducting business and trade in the provinces of the empire, and thus various capitulations were brought into effect with respect to many foreign powers. The various overlapping governmental laws led to legal pluralism in which jurisdiction often was left up to the great powers to institute and organize their own legal structures to represent their citizens abroad.
The capitulations ceased to have effect in Turkey in 1923, by virtue of the Treaty of Lausanne, and in Egypt they were abolished by the Montreux Convention in 1949.
British India
During the Second World War, the military personnel of the Allied forces within the British Raj were governed by their own military codes by the Allied Forces Ordinance, 1942 and the members of the United States Armed Forces were entirely governed by their own laws, even in criminal cases.
United States
Historically, the United States has had extraterritoriality agreements with 15 nations with non-Western legal systems: Algeria, Borneo, China, Egypt, Iran, Japan, Korea, Libya, Madagascar, Morocco, Samoa, Tanzania, Thailand, Tunisia and the Ottoman empire. Americans in the military or civilians working on American military bases overseas generally have extraterritoriality, so they can only be tried by the U.S. military. This is regulated by a status of forces agreement.
East Asia
The most famous cases of extraterritoriality in East Asia are those of 19th century China, Japan, and Siam, emerging from what is termed the "unequal treaties". The practice of extraterritoriality, however, was not confined to the 19th century or these nations, as the monarchs and governments of pre-modern East Asia primarily claimed sovereignty over people rather than tracts of land.
China
The creation of extraterritoriality for treaty nations "was not introduced into East Asia ex novo, but built atop a long-standing legal edifice". Jurisdiction in Qing China, with differential treatment for Han and Manchu subjects, was not determined by geography, but rather, by the identity of the subjects. For example, the ruling Manchu elite possessed legal privileges which placed them outside the jurisdiction of local ethnically Chinese administrators.
Before the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, which ended the First Opium War, foreign merchants were not satisfied with the state of the Qing legal system. British merchants were "suspicious of what they regarded as a tendency in the Qing legal order to impose collective responsibility; they were also resentful of the Qing practice of meting out capital punishment in cases of accidental manslaughter". After a controversial 1784 case where a British gunner was executed for accidentally killing a Chinese subject, East India Company officials generally spirited away Britons before Qing officials could react.
Grants of extraterritoriality were regular in China. In the 1830s, when the Qing government concluded a treaty with the Uzbek khanate of Khoqand, it granted extraterritorial privileges to its traders. And in dealing with foreign merchants through the centuries, the Qing government rarely attempted to impose jurisdiction based on territorial sovereignty, instead entrusting the punishment of foreigners to the respective authority in practically all cases except homicide.
At the negotiations of the Treaty of Nanjing, Qing negotiators readily extended a grant of extraterritoriality. Cassel writes "the imperial commissioner and Manchu nobleman Qiying readily conceded extraterritorial privileges to the British in an exchange of notes with Pottinger [the British plenipotentiary] at the time of the conclusion of the treaty". This was in line with Qing practices at the time, where sovereignty was held by peoples rather than imposed on lands.
A more formal declaration of extraterritoriality was concluded in the 1843 Supplementary Treaty of the Bogue, which established that "Britons were to be punished according to English law and Chinese were to be 'tried and punished by their own laws'". These provisions only applied to the treaty ports, since foreigners were barred from entering the Chinese interior.
Under imperial edict earlier in the year, these privileges were extended to most western countries. Other nations wanted reassurances and guarantees. For example, the United States negotiated the 1844 Treaty of Wanghia, which stated in article 21:
The Wanghia treaty included an exception for American trading in opium and also subjected American ships trading outside treaty ports to confiscation by the Chinese government in articles 33 and 3. Similarly, the French also pursued protections in the Treaty of Huangpu, which further introduced a distinction between criminal and civil jurisdiction (non-existent in Qing dynasty law) and gave Frenchmen the full protections of Chinese law outside concessionary areas.
The 1858 Sino-British Treaty of Tientsin, which ended the Second Opium War, expanded the rights of western visitors. They were permitted to enter the Chinese interior after passporting. However, extraterritorial rights were not extended outside the treaty ports. Similar rights were granted to the interested western powers due to the "most-favoured-nation" clause: all privileges the Qing empire granted to one power were automatically granted to the others. In 1868, when the Tientsin treaties were renegotiated, British merchants clamoured to lift the travel restrictions on the Chinese interior. The Qing position was adamantly opposed, unless extraterritoriality was also abolished. No compromise was reached; and the Qing government was successful in preventing foreigners from visiting the Chinese interior with extraterritorial privileges.
Extraterritorial rights were not limited to Western nations. Under the 1871 Sino-Japanese Treaty of Tientsin, Japan and China granted each other reciprocal extraterritorial rights. China itself imposed reciprocal extraterritoriality rights for its own citizens in Joseon Korea. However, in 1895, under the Treaty of Shimonoseki after the First Sino-Japanese War, China gave up its extraterritorial rights in Japan, without reciprocity.
International Mixed Court
By far the most important of the treaty ports established after 1842 was Shanghai, where the vague extraterritoriality provisions of the various treaties were most sophisticatedly implemented. The two main courts judging extraterritorial cases were the Shanghai Mixed Court and the British Supreme Court for China. Similar courts were established for treaty countries, e.g. the United States Court for China. These had jurisdiction over the concession areas, which formally remained under Qing sovereignty. Initially, Chinese people who committed crimes in, say, the British zone, were remanded to Chinese authorities.
End of extraterritoriality in China
By the early 20th century, some Western powers were willing to relinquish extraterritorial rights given Chinese legal reform. For example, the 1902 Sino-British "Mackay treaty"'s article 12 read:
Qing law did not make a formal distinction between criminal and civil law. While efforts at legal reform were pursued in earnest in the last decade of the Qing dynasty, what was actually enacted failed to meaningfully address this lack of law regarding contracts, trade, or commerce.
After the collapse of the Chinese government in 1911 and the ensuing administrative vacuum, the Chinese members of the Mixed Court were subsequently appointed by the Western powers, placing all inhabitants of the international settlement under de facto foreign jurisdiction. The success of the Northern Expedition in increasing the authority of the Chinese republic in the mid-1920s led to many governments giving up their more minor treaty ports without a fight. However, the treaty powers were unwilling to give up Shanghai, or their privileges within it, which remained the most prominent economic centre and treaty port, even as the others were disestablished. It was only after a confrontation between Shanghai police and Nationalist demonstrators in 1925 that Chinese authorities refused to enforce the verdicts of the Mixed Court; this led to its disestablishment in 1927 and replacement with a Chinese-run local court.
In 1921, at the Conference on the Limitation of Armament in Washington, an international treaty called the Nine-Power Treaty was signed expressing the willingness of the parties to end extraterritoriality in China once a satisfactory legal system was established by China. As a result, a commission was established in 1926 that published a detailed report containing its findings and recommendations for the Chinese legal system.
Extraterritoriality in China for non-diplomatic personnel ended at various times in the 20th century.
Germany and Austria-Hungary lost their rights in China in 1917 after China declared war on them. The Soviet Union Russia made secret agreements that kept its rights until 1960, although publicity falsely stated that it gave them up in 1924.
In 1937, the status of the various foreign powers was thus:
In 1929 the Nationalist government announced its goal of ending extraterritoriality. Negotiations with Britain, the main holder of such rights, went slowly. They ended with the Japanese invasion of 1937, as Japan seized Shanghai and the main treaty ports where extraterritoriality was in operation. When Britain and the United States went to war with Japan in late 1941, they became formal allies of China and made ending extraterritoriality an urgent goal. The United States focused on protecting its immigration restrictions. Britain sought and failed to secure guarantees for the freedom of its commerce. Both the U.S. and Britain relinquished extraterritorial rights with new treaties in 1943: the Sino-American Treaty for the Relinquishment of Extraterritorial Rights in China and the Sino-British Treaty for the Relinquishment of Extra-Territorial Rights in China. Other countries quickly followed.
Legacy
The legacy of this for jurisdictional control continues to the modern day. Cassel writes, "extraterritoriality has left many policy-makers in mainland China with a legacy of deeply felt suspicions toward international law, international organisations, and more recently, human rights". With part of its legitimacy resting on claims to strengthening national sovereignty and territorial integrity, the Constitution of the People's Republic of China explicitly states that foreigners must abide by PRC law. And the PRC government claims the right, under article 10 of its criminal code, to prosecute Chinese citizens for crimes against the criminal code which are committed abroad, even if already punished for the crime. These emerge from significant claims of the importance of national sovereignty, a reaction to its abridgement in the past, where almost no nations emphasise the importance of their sovereignty more than China does today.
Japan
Japan recognized extraterritoriality in the treaties concluded with the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Netherlands, and Russia in 1858, in connection with the concept of the "most favoured nation". Various commercial treaties extended extraterritorial protections in Japan with various parties, including with Peru, in 1873. Most countries exercised extraterritorial jurisdiction through consular courts. Britain established the British Court for Japan in 1879.
In 1887, only 2,389 non-Chinese foreigners lived in Japan, with strict limitations on freedom of movement. These limitations meant that foreigners in Japan were not able to commit crime with impunity, in contrast with China, where foreigners were granted the ability to travel to the interior after passporting. Rather, it was in the context of the Japanese state's desire to eliminate all competing jurisdictions and calls for legal reform based on the models of those jurisdictions that Japan's government desired to abolish foreign courts.
Having convinced the Western powers that its legal system was "sufficiently modern", Japan succeeded in reforming its unequal status with Britain through the 1894 Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation, in which London would relinquish its Japanese extraterritorial rights within five years. Similar treaties were signed with other extraterritorial powers around the same time. These treaties all came into effect in 1899, ending extraterritoriality in Japan.
After the Allied victory in 1945, the Mutual Security Assistance Pact, and its successor treaties, between the United States, to the modern day, grant US military personnel on American bases in Okinawa extraterritorial privileges.
Siam
King Mongkut (Rama IV) of Siam signed the Bowring Treaty granting extraterritorial rights to Britain in 1855. Sir Robert Hermann Schomburgk, British Consul-General from 1859 to 1864, gives an account of his judicial training and responsibilities in a letter to his cousin dated 6 September 1860. Unequal treaties were later signed with 12 other European powers and with Japan. Extraterritoriality came to end in 1917 with respect to the German Empire and Austria-Hungary.
In 19251926, the treaties were revised to provide for consular jurisdiction to be terminated, and nationals of the parties to the treaty were to come under the jurisdiction of Thai courts after the introduction of all Thai legal codes and a period of 5 years thereafter. By 1930, extraterritoriality was in effect no longer in force. After absolute monarchy was replaced by constitutional monarchy in the bloodless Siamese revolution of 1932, the constitutional government promulgated a set of legal codes, setting the stage for new treaties signed in 19371938 which canceled extraterritorial rights completely.
Current examples
Contrary to popular belief, diplomatic missions do not generally enjoy full extraterritorial status and are not sovereign territory of the represented state.
Countries ceding some control but not sovereignty
Countries which have ceded some control over their territory (for example, the right to enter at will for law enforcement purposes) without ceding sovereignty include:
Extraterritorial properties of the Holy See in Italy
Headquarters of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta in Rome
Fort St. Angelo in Malta(only partial)
Tomb of Suleyman Shah of Turkey in Syria
United Nations headquarters in New York, United Nations offices in Geneva, Vienna, Nairobi, The Hague (International Court of Justice), Hamburg (International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea), Copenhagen and elsewhere.
CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research) - for convenience, some facilities that cross into France are under Swiss jurisdiction
European Patent Office in Munich, Berlin and The Hague
French domains of St Helena
International Maritime Organization Headquarters in London
Saimaa Canal is partly located in Russia, but the Russian part is rented by Finland
Various free ports exist outside the main customs territory of their host country.
U.S.–Japan Status of Forces Agreement
SHAPE in Belgium
Khmeimim Air Base in Syria is leased to the Russian Air Force for a period of 49 years, with the Russian Federation having extraterritorial jurisdiction over the air base and its personnel.
The countries pavilions of Venice Biennale
Transfers of ownership of land
Special concessions are sometimes made for cemeteries and memorials. National governments can also own property or special concessions in other host countries without gaining any sort of legal jurisdiction or sovereignty, in which case they are treated similarly to other private property owners. For example, ownership of land under the John F. Kennedy Memorial at Runnymede, England, was given to the United States by the United Kingdom, but required an Act of Parliament (the John F. Kennedy Memorial Act 1964) to do so, because the land was part of the Crown Estate, which cannot otherwise be given away for free. Another example of these types of special concessions are the numerous cemeteries and monuments administered by the American Battle Monuments Commission. These are located in Belgium, Cuba, France, Gibraltar, Italy, Luxembourg, Mexico, Morocco, the Netherlands, Panama, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, the Solomon Islands, Tunisia, and the United Kingdom. The most popular site among these is the Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial in France. Land under the Canadian National Vimy Memorial and surrounding 100 hectares was gifted by France to Canada.
Internal cases
Internal cases (both parties are part of the same unitary sovereign state but have different border control and legal systems):
Shenzhen Bay Port in Shenzhen, Guangdong where an area in a port is leased by Shenzhen to the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and Hong Kong law applies. Although both jurisdictions, Shenzhen and Hong Kong, are in the same country, Hong Kong maintains a common law legal system different from the civil law system in Mainland China. Hong Kong law now applies in the port area.
Hengqin Campus of University of Macau in Zhuhai, Guangdong, administered by Macau SAR in a situation similar to above
Macau half of Hengqin Border Crossing, adjacent to above
See also
Akmal Shaikh
Antarctic Treaty System
Basilica Major
British Supreme Court for China and Japan
British Court for Japan
Demilitarized zone
Diplomatic immunity
Embassy church
Enclave and exclave
EuroAirport Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg
Extraterritorial jurisdiction
Extraterritorial operation
Harris Treaty
Imperialism in Asia
International waters
International zone
Law of the Sea
Moon Treaty
Neutral territory
Outer Space Treaty
Prerogative
Rasul v. Bush
Status of forces agreement
United States Court for China
U.S.–Japan Status of Forces Agreement
United Nations Headquarters
List of territories governed by the United Nations
References
Further reading
Bickers, Robert, and Isabella Jackson, eds. Treaty Ports in Modern China: Law, Land and Power (Routledge, 2016).
Chan, K. Chan. "The Abrogation of British Extraterritoriality in China 1942-43: A Study of Anglo-American-Chinese Relations." Modern Asian Studies 11.2 (1977): 257-291 online.
, Vol. 1: ; Vol. 2: ; Vol. 3:
Davids, Jules, and Jonathan M. Nielson. "Extraterritoriality." in Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy ed. by Alexander DeConde et al. (2002) 2:81–92.
“Developments in the Law: Extraterritoriality.” Harvard Law Review, vol. 124, no. 5, 2011, pp. 1226–1304. www.jstor.org/stable/25800158 online
Fenwick, C. G. "The Nine Power Treaty and the Present Crisis in China." American Journal of International Law 31.4 (1937): 671-674. online
Kayaoglu, Turan. Legal imperialism: sovereignty and extraterritoriality in Japan, the Ottoman Empire, and China (Cambridge UP, 2010).
Keeton, George W. The development of extraterritoriality in China (2 vol 1928). comprehensive on China and briefer coverage across the world in vol 2 pp 155–172. vol 2 online
Liu, Shih Shun. Extraterritoriality, Its Rise and Its Decline (1925) online; comprehensive scholarly history in global history perspective.
Scully, Eileen P. "Historical Wrongs and Human Rights in Sino-Foreign Relations: The Legacy of Extraterritoriality." Journal of American-East Asian Relations 9.1-2 (2000): 129-146.
Thomson, Janice E. Mercenaries, Pirates, and Sovereigns: State-Building and Extraterritorial Violence in Early Modern Europe (Princeton UP, 1994) online
External links
Columbia Encyclopedia—"Extraterritoriality"
Report of the Extraterritoriality Commission in China (1926)
Law Ministry of India
International law
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenemhat%20III
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Amenemhat III
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See Amenemhat, for other individuals with this name.
Amenemhat III (Ancient Egyptian: Ỉmn-m-hꜣt) was a pharaoh of ancient Egypt and the sixth king of the Twelfth Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. He was elevated to throne as co-regent by his father Senusret III, with whom he shared the throne as the active king for twenty years. During his reign, Egypt attained its cultural and economic zenith of the Middle Kingdom.
The aggressive military and domestic policies of Senusret III, which re-subjugated Nubia and wrested power from the nomarchs allowed Amenemhat III to inherit a stable and peaceful Egypt. He directed his efforts towards an extensive building program with particular focus on Faiyum. Here he dedicated a temple to Sobek, a chapel to Renenutet, erected two colossal statues of himself in Biahmu, and contributed to excavation of Lake Moeris. Most enduring of all, he built for himself two pyramids at Dahshur and Hawara. Becoming the first pharaoh since Sneferu in the Fourth Dynasty to build more than one. Near to his Hawara pyramid is a pyramid for his daughter Neferuptah. To acquire resources for the building program, Amenemhat III exploited the quarries of Egypt and the Sinai for turquoise and copper. Other exploited sites includes the schist quarries at Wadi Hammamat, amethyst from Wadi el-Hudi, fine limestone from Tura, alabaster from Hatnub, red granite from Aswan, and diorite from Nubia. A large corpus of inscriptions attest to the activities at these sites, particularly at Serabit el-Khadim. There is scant evidence of military expeditions during his reign, though a small one is attested at Kumma in his ninth regnal year. He also sent a handful of expeditions to Punt.
In total, Amenemhat III reigned for at least 45 years, though a papyrus mentioning a 46th year likely belongs to his reign as well. Toward the end of his reign he instituted a co-regency with Amenemhat IV, as recorded in a rock inscription from Semna in Nubia, which equates regnal year 1 of Amenemhat IV to regnal year 44 or 46–48 of Amenemhat III. Sobekneferu later succeeded Amenemhat IV as the last ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty.
Family
Amenemhat III was the son of Senusret III, his predecessor on the throne. He had several sisters named Menet, Mereret, Senetsenbetes, Sithathor, and a partially known Khnemet-. Two of his wives are known, Aat and a likely Khenemetneferhedjet both buried in his Pyramid at Dahshur. Hetepti, the mother of Amenemhat IV, might be another wife. He had one confirmed daughter, Neferuptah, who appears to have been groomed as his successor, owing to her name being enclosed in cartouche. She was originally buried at Amenemhat III's second pyramid at Hawara but was eventually moved to her own pyramid. Two other children, both of whom reigned as king, are also attributed to Amenemhat III: a son, Amenemhat IV and a daughter, Sobekneferu. It has been suggested that Amenemhat IV may instead have been a grandson. Evidence of burials of three other princesses – Hathorhotep, Nubhotep, and Sithathor – were found at the Dahshur complex, but it is not clear whether these princesses were Amenemhat III's daughters as the complex was used for royal burials throughout the Thirteenth Dynasty.
Reign
In his twentieth regnal year, Senusret III elevated his son Amenemhat III to the status of co-regent. The co–regency seems to be established from several indicators, though not all scholars agree and some instead argue for sole reigns for both kings. For the following twenty years, Senusret III and Amenemhat III shared the throne, with Amenemhat III taking the active role as king. It is assumed that Amenemhat III took the primary role as the regnal dates roll over from year 19 of Senusret III to year 1 of Amenemhat III. His reign is attested for at least 45 years, though a papyrus fragment from El-Lahun mentioning 'regnal year 46, month 1 of akhet, day 22' likely dates to his rule as well. The highest date might be found on a bowl from Elephantine bearing regnal year 46, month three of peret. This attribution is favoured by the Egyptologist Cornelius von Pilgrim, but rejected by the Egyptologist Wolfram Grajetzki who places it in the early Middle Kingdom. In his 30th regnal year, the king celebrated his Sed festival as is mentioned in several inscriptions. His reign ends with a brief co-regency with his successor Amenemhat IV. This is evidenced from a rock inscription at Semna which equates regnal year 1 of Amenemhat IV with regnal year 44 or perhaps 46–48 of Amenemhat III.
These two kings presided over the golden age of the Middle Kingdom. Senusret III had pursued aggressive military action to curb incursions from tribes people from Nubia. These campaigns were conducted across several years and were brutal against the native populations, including slaughter of men, enslavement of women and children, and the burning of fields. He also sent a military expedition into Syria-Palestine, enemies of Egypt since the reign of Senusret I. His internal policies targeted the increasing power of provincial governors, transferring power back to the reigning monarch. It is disputed whether he dismantled the nomarchical system. He also formed the basis for the legendary character Sesostris described by Manetho and Herodotus. As a consequence of Senusret III's administrative and military policies, Amenemhat III inherited a peaceful and stable Egypt.
The Middle Kingdom reached its cultural and economic zenith under the direction of Amenemhat III. Exploitation of the quarries of Egypt and the Sinai for turquoise and copper peaked during his reign. A collection of more than 50 texts were inscribed at Serabit el-Khadim, Wadi Maghara, and Wadi Nasb. The efforts here were so extensive that near-permanent settlements formed around them. The quarries at Wadi Hammamat (schist), Wadi el-Hudi (amethyst), Tura (limestone), Hatnub (alabaster), Aswan (red granite) and throughout Nubia (diorite) were all also exploited. These all translated into an extensive building program, particularly in the development of Faiyum. His building program included monuments in Khatana, Tell el-Yahudiyya, Bubastis, the enlargement of the temples to Hathor at Serabit el-Khadim and Ptah in Memphis, the construction of a temple in Quban, and the reinforcement of fortresses at Semna. From Elephantine comes a fragment of a building inscription dated to his regnal year 44. A similar inscription was found at Elkab. Another find at Elephantine was a door lintel of the Eleventh Dynasty, where there Amenemhat III added an inscription dated to his regnal year 34. No site, however, received as much attention as Faiyum, with which Amenemhat III is most closely associated.
In Faiyum, Amenemhat built a huge temple dedicated to Sobek at Kiman Faras. He dedicated a chapel to Renenutet at Medinet Maadi. In Biahmu, he built a massive structure with two colossal tall seated quartzite statues of himself. These face Lake Moeris, for which he is credited with excavating, although how much of this work was conducted by Amenemhat III is unknown. Amenemhat III kept close watch on the inundation levels of the Nile, as demonstrated by inscriptions left at Kumma and Semna. The Nile level peaked in his regnal year 30 at , but was followed by a dramatic decline so that it measured by regnal year 40. The most enduring of his works are the two pyramids that he built for himself, the first king since Sneferu in the Fourth Dynasty to build more than one. His pyramids are in Dahshur and Hawara.
Pyramids
Dahshur
The construction of the pyramid at Dahshur, the 'Black Pyramid' (Egyptian language: Sḫm Ỉmn-m-hꜣt 'Amenemhat is Mighty' or Nfr Ỉmn-m-hꜣt 'Amenemhat is Beautiful'/'Perfect One of Amenemhat') began in the first year of Amenemhat III's reign. The pyramid core was constructed entirely of mudbrick and stabilized through the building of a stepped core rather than with a stone framework. The structure was then encased by thick, fine white Tura limestone blocks held together by wooden dove-tail pegs. The pyramid was given a base length of that was inclined towards the apex at between 54°30′ to 57°15′50″ reaching a height of for a total volume of . The apogee of the structure was crowned, seemingly, by a grey granite pyramidion high. This now resides in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, catalogued as JE 35133. The pyramidion had a band of hieroglyphic text running on all four of its sides. That the name of Amun has been erased can only be the result of Akhenaten's proscription against the god.
In front of the pyramid, lay a mortuary temple of simple design comprising an offering hall and an open columned courtyard. Surrounding the complex were two mudbrick enclosing walls. From the mortuary temple an open, mudbrick walled causeway led to the valley temple. Beneath the pyramid was built a substructure with an intricate series of passages and chambers, with burial chambers for the king and two queens. The two queens, Aat and an unidentified queen, were buried here and their remains were recovered from their chambers. The king, though, was not buried here. Shortly after the completion of the pyramid superstructure, in around Amenemhat III's 15th regnal year, the substructure began to buckle with cracks appearing inside as a result of groundwater seepage. Rushed efforts were made to prevent the structure collapsing, which were successful, but just as Sneferu had decided to do with his Bent Pyramid, Amenemhat III chose to build a new one.
Hawara
The second pyramid is at Hawara (Egyptian language: Uncertain, possibly ꜥnḫ Ỉmn-m-hꜣt 'Amenemhat Lives'), in the Faiyum Oasis. The pyramid had a core constructed entirely of mudbrick encased in fine white Tura limestone. The pyramid had a base length of between and with a shallower inclination of between 48° and 52° up to a peak height for a total volume of . The shallower inclination angle was a step taken to guard against the threat of a collapse and avoid a repeat of the failure at Dahshur. Inside the substructure, builders took further precautions, such as lining chamber pits with limestone. The burial chamber was chiselled out of a single quartzite block measuring by by and weighing over .
Before the pyramid lay a mortuary temple, that has been identified as 'the Labyrinth' which Classical travellers such as Herodotus and Strabo referred to and which formed the basis for the 'Labyrinth of Minos'. The temple was destroyed in antiquity and can only be partially reconstructed. Its floorplan covered an estimated . According to the account of Strabo, the temple contained as many rooms as there were nomes in Egypt, while Herodotus wrote about being led 'from courtyards into rooms, rooms into galleries, galleries into more rooms, thence into more courtyards'. A limestone statue of Sobek and another of Hathor were discovered here as were two granite shrines each containing two statues of Amenemhat III. A north-south oriented perimeter wall enclosed the entire complex which thus measured by . The causeway has been identified near the south-west corner of the complex, but neither it nor the valley temple have been investigated.
Neferuptah
The pyramid of Neferuptah was built south-east of Amenemhat III's Hawara pyramid. It was excavated by Nagib Farag and Zaky Iskander in 1956. The superstructure of the pyramid is near completely lost and the substructure was found full of groundwater, but her burial was otherwise undisturbed including both her sarcophagus and funerary equipment.
Expeditions
Military expeditions
There is very little evidence for military expeditions during Amenemhat III's reign. One rock inscription records a small mission in regnal year nine. It was found in Nubia, near the fortress of Kumma. The short text reports that a military mission was guided by the mouth of Nekhen Zamonth who states that he went north with a small troop and that nobody died on the return south.
Sinai peninsula
Amenemhat III's activities in the Sinai peninsula are well-attested. There were expeditions to Wadi Maghara in regnal years 2, 30, and 41–43, with one further expedition in an indiscernible 20 + x year. The temple of Hathor was decorated during the expedition in year 2, which is also the only expedition for which the mining of copper is attested. A related inscription found in Ayn Soukhna suggests that the mission originated from Memphis and perhaps crossed the Red Sea to the peninsula by boat. A single expedition in Wadi Nasb is attested to his 20th regnal year. Between 18 and 20 expeditions to Serabit el-Khadim have been attested to Amenemhat III's reign: in years 2, 4–8, 13, 15, 20, 23, 25, 27, 30, 38, 40, 44, possibly also 18, 29, and 45, alongside a 10 + x and x + 17 years, and there are many inscriptions whose date is indeterminable.
Egypt
One inscription dating to year 43 of Amenemhat III's reign comes from Tura and refers to the quarrying of limestone there for a mortuary temple, either that at Dahshur or Hawara. A stela retrieved from the massif of Gebel Zeit, south of Ras Ghareb, on the Red Sea coast shows activity at the Galena mines there. The stela bears a partial date suggesting that it was inscribed after regnal year 10.
Several expeditions to Wadi Hammamat where schist was quarried were recorded. These date to regnal years 2, 3, 19, 20 and 33. Three inscriptions from year 19 note the workforce of labourers and soldiers employed and the outcome of the efforts resulting in ten tall seated statues of the king being made. The statues were destined for the Labyrinth at Hawara. A few expeditions were sent to Wadi el-Hudi, south-east of Aswan, at the southern border of Egypt, where amethyst was collected. These enterprises date to regnal years 1, 11, 20, and 28. An expedition was also sent to Wadi Abu Agag, near Aswan, in regnal year 13.
Nubia
North-west of Abu Simbel and west of Lake Nasser lie the quarries of Gebel el-Asr in Lower Nubia. The site is best known as the source of diorite for six of Khafre's seated statues. The locale was also a source of gneiss and chalcedony in the Middle Kingdom. The Chalcedony deposits are also known as 'stela ridge' as it was a place where commemorative stelae and votive offerings were left. Nine of these commemorative objects date to the reign of Amenemhat III, specifically regnal years 2 and 4.
Punt
A stela was discovered at Mersa on the Red Sea coast, by Rosanna Pirelli in 2005 that detailed an expedition to Punt during the reign of Amenemhat III. The expedition was organized by high steward Senebef. Under his direction, two contingents were formed. The first was led by an Amenhotep and bound for Punt to acquire incense. The second led by a Nebesu was sent to the mines referred to as Bia-Punt to procure exotic metals. There were a total of between two and five expeditions organized during Amenemhat III's rule. Two of the stelae recovered from the site are dated indicating activity there in his 23rd and 41st regnal years.
Irrigation of the Faiyum
During his reign Amenemhat III continued the work inaugurated by Senusret II to link the Faiyum Depression with Bahr Yussef. This project reclaimed land downstream at the edges of Lake Moeris allowing it to be farmed. A naturally formed valley long and wide was converted into a canal to link the depression with Bahr Yussef. The canal was cut to a depth of and given sloped banks at a ratio of 1:10 and an average inclination of 0.01° along its length. It is known as Mer-Wer or the Great Canal. The area continued to be used until 230 BC when the Lahun branch of the Nile silted up.
Sculpture
Amenemhat III and Sensuret III are the best attested rulers of the Middle Kingdom by number of statues, with about 80 statues that can be assigned to the former. The sculpture of Amenemhat III continued the tradition of Senusret III. His statuary pursued a more natural and a more expressive physiognomy, while retaining an idealized image. A wide range of stones were used for the sculpture of the king, more than attested for any king before. Furthermore, the king introduced new and re-interpreted types of sculptures, many of which were inspired by far older works. Two broad facial types can be assigned to Amenemhat III:
Expressive style: The face of the king shows its musculature, bone structure, and furrows are clearly marked in the face. This style is evidently inspired by the sculpture of Senusret III.
Humanized style: The face is simplified with few or no folds and furrows and averse to sharp transitions between features. These have a generally softer, more youthful expression.
Officials
The vizier Kheti (H̱ty) held office around year 29 of Amenemhat III's reign, as is attested on a papyrus from el-Lahun. The papyrus is a business document authored by the vizier in his office discussing payment of two brothers named Ahy-seneb (Ỉhy-snb) for their services. At that time one brother, Ahy-seneb Ankh-ren (ꜥnḫ-rn), was an 'assistant to the treasurer', yet on a later papyrus containing his will, dated to year 44 of Amenemhat III's reign, he had become the 'director of works'. This latter papyrus contains two dates: year 44, month II of Shemu, day 13 and year 2, month II of Akhet, day 18. The latter date refers to the reign of either Amenemhat IV or Sobekneferu. There is one other hieratic text and also a limestone table on which Ahy-seneb Ankh-ren is attested. The other brother, Ahy-seneb Wah (Wꜣḥ), was a wab-priest and 'superintendent of priestly orders of Sepdu, lord of the East'.
Khnumhotep (H̱nmw-ḥtp) was an official that held office for at least three decades from Senusret II's first regnal year through to Amenemhat III's reign. At the beginning of Senusret II's reign he was a chamberlain, but by the end of his life he held both the office of vizier and chief steward. His tomb in Dahshur also attests to many other titles including 'high official', 'royal seal-bearer', 'chief lector-priest', 'master of secrets', and 'overseer of the city'.
A further vizier datable to the reign was Ameny (Ỉmny). Ameny is attested on two rock inscriptions from Aswan. The first found by Flinders Petrie on the road between Philae and Aswan, and the second found by Jacques de Morgan on the right bank of the river nile between Bar and Aswan. The inscriptions bear the names of his family members, including his wife Sehotepibre Nehy (Sḥtp-ỉb-rꜥ Nḥy) who is also attested on a stela in Copenhagen National Museum.
The treasurer Ikhernofret (Y-ẖr-nfrt) was still in office in the early years of the king's reign, as is demonstrated by a funerary stela in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. This official is among the best attested for the Middle Kingdom, though there is little known of his family. His funerary stela is dated to Amenemhat III's first regnal year and bears his name along with three of his titles: 'sealbearer of the King of Lower Egypt', 'sole friend of the king', and 'treasurer'. The treasurer is mentioned on the funerary stela of an Ameny (Ỉmny) 'chief of staff of the bureau of the vizier'. The latter part of the stela tells of the attendance of Ikhernofret and Sasetet (Sꜣ-sṯt) at a feast in Abydos at the instruction of Senusret III after a campaign against Nubia in his regnal year 19. Ameny is also mentioned on the 'stela of Sasetet' dating to the first year of Amenemhat III, where he still held the same position. Sasetet holds the title 'chief of staff of the bureau of the treasurer' in that stela.
Artefacts
The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus is thought to have been originally composed during Amenemhat's time.
See also
List of pharaohs
Notes
Citations
References
External links
Amenemhat (III) Nimaatre
The Pyramid of Amenemhet III from Talking Pyramids
19th-century BC deaths
19th-century BC Pharaohs
Pharaohs of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt
Year of birth unknown
Senusret III
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morey%20Amsterdam
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Morey Amsterdam
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Moritz "Morey" Amsterdam (December 14, 1908 – October 28, 1996) was an American actor, comedian, writer and producer. He played Buddy Sorrell on CBS's The Dick Van Dyke Show from 1961 to 1966.
Early life
Amsterdam was born in Chicago, Illinois, the youngest of the three sons of Max and Jennie (née Finder) Amsterdam, Jewish immigrants from Austria-Hungary.
He began working in vaudeville in 1922 as the straight man for his older brother's jokes. He was a cellist, a skill he used throughout his career. By 1924, he was working in a speakeasy operated by Al Capone.
After being caught in the middle of a gunfight, Amsterdam moved to California and worked writing jokes. His enormous repertoire, and his ability to come up with a joke on any subject, earned him the nickname The Human Joke Machine. He sometimes performed with a mock machine on his chest, hanging by a strap. He turned a hand crank and paper rolled out; he would then pretend to read the machine's joke, although actually the paper was blank.
Amsterdam's reputation for humor preceded him. Hal Block tells of Amsterdam walking up Sixth Avenue in New York City and meeting an old friend. "Where have you been?" the friend asked. "Sick," Amsterdam replied, "I've been in bed with a cold." His friend looked at him and asked, "What's so funny about that?"
Career
During the 1930s, Amsterdam was a regular on The Al Pearce Show radio program, and by 1937 was the master of ceremonies on The Night Club of the Air. Amsterdam also had a notable career as a songwriter, with his first popular success being "Why Oh Why Did I Ever Leave Wyoming".
Amsterdam was credited as the lyricist on the popular 1945 Andrews Sisters hit "Rum and Coca-Cola". However, the original song was written and performed by Trinidadian calypso singer Lord Invader, and composed by Lionel Belasco. Amsterdam had altered some lyrics for the Andrews Sisters record, and was subsequently involved in a copyright suit over the song, which dragged on until 1948. In the end, Lord Invader was given a substantial royalty payment for having written the lyrics of the original piece, while Amsterdam retained the credit (and the publishing rights) for his revised version of the lyric.
In the early 1940s, Amsterdam was a screenwriter, contributing dialogue for two East Side Kids films. He is listed as screenwriter for the 1943 film The Ghost and the Guest and 1944's Bowery Champs.
By 1947, he was performing on three daily radio shows. Beginning in 1948, he appeared on the radio show Stop Me If You've Heard This One. The Morey Amsterdam Show aired on CBS radio from July 10, 1948, to February 15, 1949. For three months, it was on both radio and television with different scripts for the same premise and cast. He also did a radio show called the Laugh and Chuckle Swing Club, broadcasting from the Filmart Theater on Vine Street in Hollywood, in the late 1940s and early 1950s.
Television
In 1950, he briefly hosted the comedy-variety show Broadway Open House, TV's first late-night entertainment show, on NBC. One of the pioneering TV creations of NBC president Pat Weaver, it demonstrated the potential for late-night programming and led to the later development of The Tonight Show.
In February 1952, Amsterdam made his dramatic TV debut on an episode of the DuMont Television Network series Not for Publication. Also in 1952, he was host of Breakfast With Music, a 9 a.m. Monday-Friday program on WNBT-TV in New York City.
In 1957, he appeared as "Jack Connors" in the third episode ("The Three Pretenders") of the syndicated television sitcom How to Marry a Millionaire, with Barbara Eden and Merry Anders.
In 1958, he appeared as saloon manager Lucien Bellingham in an episode of the CBS western series Have Gun, Will Travel entitled "The Moor's Revenge". He later guest-starred on the CBS sitcom Pete and Gladys, with Harry Morgan and Cara Williams.
His best-known role was as comedy writer Buddy Sorrell on The Dick Van Dyke Show, a role suggested for him by his friend Rose Marie, who also appeared on the show.
The show's creator, Carl Reiner, based the character on his old friend Mel Brooks, with whom he worked on the writing staff of Your Show of Shows. Like Amsterdam himself, Buddy had a ready quip for any situation, and one of the show's most popular running gags was his insult-laden feud with producer Mel Cooley (Richard Deacon). Buddy was also one of the rare overtly Jewish characters on TV in that era, with one episode revolving around his belated decision to have a Bar Mitzvah. Amsterdam also wrote lyrics for the show's theme song, which were never heard on the air, but have been performed by Dick Van Dyke in concert. Van Dyke sang those lyrics on the October 23, 2010 edition of the NPR show Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me!.
In a 1970 (November) episode of The Partridge Family, titled "Did You Hear the One About Danny Partridge?", Amsterdam played the role of Ziggy Shnurr, a small time joke writer, whom Danny found in the Yellow Pages after deciding that the family music act needed some comedy during song breaks. The Amsterdam role echoed his Dick Van Dyke character. The episode also guested Hollywood veteran Jackie Coogan.
Amsterdam was an occasional panelist on Match Game and the short-lived Can You Top This? (which he also executive produced) during the 1970s. He appeared as a small-time criminal in several episodes of the soap opera The Young and the Restless in the 1990s. Amsterdam and Rose Marie later appeared as panelists on The Hollywood Squares and guest-starred together in a February 1996 episode of the NBC sitcom Caroline in the City (his final TV appearance).
Films
In 1958, Amsterdam appeared in the low-budget film Machine-Gun Kelly with Charles Bronson, and he did a notable dramatic turn in the 1960 noir classic Murder, Inc. as Catskill nightclub owner Walter Sage, the first victim (according to the film) of the newly minted Murder, Incorporated.
Amsterdam played Cappy, owner of the local nightclub, in the Beach Party movies of the 1960s, which were produced by American International Pictures, of which he was vice president. He and Rose Marie also co-starred in the 1966 film Don't Worry, We'll Think of a Title, a comedy co-written and co-produced by Amsterdam. The film features Richard Deacon, their co-star on The Dick Van Dyke Show, with cameos by the show's co-producer Danny Thomas and co-star Carl Reiner. His later roles included appearances in The Horse in the Gray Flannel Suit (1968), Won Ton Ton, the Dog Who Saved Hollywood (1976), When Nature Calls (1985) and Side by Side (1988).
Personal life
Amsterdam married actress Mabel Todd in 1933; they divorced in 1945 after twelve years of marriage. He married his second wife Kay Patrick in 1949; they remained married until his death in 1996.
Hanna-Barbera lawsuit
In 1963, Amsterdam filed a $12,000 lawsuit against Hanna-Barbera for breach of contract, he claimed that he had been cast and signed to the role of George Jetson. Although his contract stipulated that he would be paid $500 an episode with a guarantee of twenty-four episodes (i.e., a full season) of work, he recorded only one episode before being replaced. Several sources claimed the change had occurred as a result of sponsor conflict with Amsterdam's commitment to The Dick Van Dyke Show. The case had been closed by early 1965 and the court had ruled in favor of Hanna-Barbera.
Death
Amsterdam died at Cedars Sinai Hospital in Los Angeles, California, on October 28, 1996, at the age of 87, due to a heart attack.
He was entombed at Forest Lawn - Hollywood Hills Cemetery in Los Angeles.
Filmography
Film
With Love and Kisses (1936) - TV Performer (uncredited)
Columbia Animal Cavalcade 1: Chimp-Antics (1952) - Commentator
Machine-Gun Kelly (1958) - Michael Fandango
Murder, Inc. (1960) - Walter Sage
Gay Purr-ee (1962) – Narrator (voice)
Beach Party (1963) - Cappy
It's a Mad Mad Mad Mad World (1963) - Uncle Mike (voice) (uncredited)
Muscle Beach Party (1964) - Cappy
Don't Worry, We'll Think of a Title (1966) - Charlie Yuckapuck
Sandman (1993) - Car Salesman
Television
The Morey Amsterdam Show (1948–1950) - Himself
The Gale Storm Show: Oh! Susanna (1957) - Mr. Agnew
December Bride (1957) - Herbert
The O. Henry Playhouse (1957) - Phineas C. Gooch, Manny Stettner
How to Marry a Millionaire (1957) - Jack Connors
Matinee Theatre (1957) - Unknown role
The Danny Thomas Show (1957–1963) - Buddy Sorrell, Mr. Simmons
The Adventures of Jim Bowie (1958) - Pinky
Gunsmoke (1958) - Cicero Grimes
Schlitz Playhouse (1958) - Mr. Braxton
Dragnet - Unknown role
The Phil Silvers Show (1958) - Harry Harris
Have Gun - Will Travel (1958) - Lucien Bellingham
The Further Adventures of Ellery Queen (1959) - J.C. Smith
Pete and Gladys (1961) - Fred
The Dick Van Dyke Show (1961–1966) - Buddy Sorrell
Mister Magoo's Christmas Carol (1962) - Brady, James (voices)
The Famous Adventures of Mr. Magoo (1964) - Unknown role (voice)
Daktari (1966) - Sammy Spotts
Black, Kloke & Dagga (1967) - Dagge (voice)
That's Life (1968) - Unknown role
Love, American Style (1969–1973) - Bodkin
The Partridge Family (1970) - Ziggy Shnurr
Adam-12 (1971) - Jerry Mermaid
Honeymoon Suite (1972) - Bellboy
Rudolph's Shiny New Year (1976) - One Million (O.M) (voice)
Mixed Nuts (1977) - Moe
Alice (1977) - Herman
Vega$ (1978) - Izzy
The Love Boat (1978–1982) - Floyd Loomis, Moe Price
Sooner or Later (1979) - Eddie Nova
Project U.F.O. (1979) - Ollie Hayes
The Littlest Hobo (1980) - Freddie Tewksbur
Fantasy Island (1983) - Jake
Believe You Can... And You Can! (1983) - J. Fauntenoy Chiffenrobe
Hail to the Chief (1985) - Manny
Brothers (1985) - Mr. Bobo
Crazy Like a Fox (1986) - Mr. Margus
Side by Side (1988) - Moe
The Young and the Restless (1990) - Morey
1st & Ten (1993) - Joe
Herman's Head (1993) - Buddy
Cybill (1995) - Man in Nursing Home
Caroline in the City (1996) - Vic Stansky
Production credits
Writer
Hollywood Hobbies (1939)
Kid Dynamite (1943) (additional dialogue)
The Ghost and the Guest (1943) (screenplay)
Bowery Champs (1944) (additional dialogue)
The Morey Amsterdam Show (1948–1950) (3 episodes)
Columbia Animal Cavalcade 1: Chimp-Antics (1952) (narrative)
Don't Worry, We'll Think of a Title (1966) (screenplay)
Producer
The Morey Amsterdam Show (1949–1950) (2 episodes)
Don't Worry, We'll Think of a Title (1966)
Black, Kloke & Dagga (1967) (uncredited)
Can You Top This (1970–1971) (46 episodes)
Further reading
Keep Laughing. Citadel Press, 1959. ASIN B0007E665M
Morey Amsterdam's Benny Cooker Crock Book for Drinkers. Regnery, 1977.
References
External links
Filmography of Morey Amsterdam at The New York Times
Catalogue of his shows in the radioGOLDINdex database
1908 births
1996 deaths
American male comedians
American radio personalities
American male radio actors
American male television actors
American people of Austrian-Jewish descent
Male actors from Chicago
Musicians from Chicago
Jewish American writers
Jewish American male actors
Jewish American musicians
American cellists
Vaudeville performers
Male actors from New York City
Male actors from Los Angeles
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)
20th-century American male actors
20th-century American musicians
Comedians from California
Comedians from New York City
Comedians from Illinois
Jewish American male comedians
20th-century American comedians
20th-century American Jews
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] |
211713
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Talbot
|
Thomas Talbot
|
Thomas Talbot may refer to:
Politicians
Thomas Talbot (MP for Lancashire) (died 1558), English politician
Thomas Talbot (MP for Castle Rising), represented Castle Rising (1640)
Thomas Talbot (MP for Thirsk), represented Thirsk (1659)
Thomas Talbot (Upper Canada) (1771–1853), member of the Legislative Council of Upper Canada and settler of the Talbot Settlement
Thomas Talbot (Newfoundland politician) (1818–1901), educator and politician in Newfoundland
Thomas Talbot (Massachusetts politician) (1818–1885), governor of Massachusetts
Others
Thomas Talbot (died 1487) (c. 1439–1487), landowner and judge in Ireland
Thomas Talbot, 2nd Viscount Lisle (1443–1470), English nobleman
Thomas Talbot (antiquary) (fl. 1580), English antiquary
Thomas Talbot (bishop) (1727–1795), Roman Catholic bishop
Thomas Talbot (bottler) (1819–1891), beverage bottler of Gloucester
Thomas W. Talbot (1849–1892), American machinist and trade unionist
See also
Thomas Talbott, philosopher
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JAG%20%28TV%20series%29
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JAG (TV series)
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JAG (U.S. military acronym for Judge Advocate General) is an American legal drama television series with a U.S. Navy theme, created by Donald P. Bellisario, and produced by Belisarius Productions in association with Paramount Network Television (now CBS Studios). The series originally aired on NBC for one season from September 23, 1995, to May 22, 1996, and then on CBS for an additional nine seasons from January 3, 1997, to April 29, 2005. The first season was co-produced with NBC Productions (now Universal Television) and was originally perceived as a Top Gun meets A Few Good Men hybrid series.
In the spring of 1996, NBC canceled the series after it finished 79th in the ratings, leaving one episode unaired. In December 1996, the rival network CBS picked up the series as a mid-season replacement and aired 15 new episodes as its second season. For several seasons, JAG climbed in the ratings and ultimately ran for nine additional seasons. JAG furthermore spawned the hit series NCIS, which in turn led to spin-offs NCIS: Los Angeles, NCIS: New Orleans, NCIS: Hawaiʻi and NCIS: Sydney.
In total, 227 episodes were produced over 10 seasons. At the time of the original airing of its fifth season in the United States, JAG was seen in over 90 countries worldwide.
Premise
The series follows the exploits of the Washington metropolitan area–based "judge advocates" (i.e. uniformed lawyers) in the Department of the Navy's Office of the Judge Advocate General, who in the line of duty can prosecute and defend criminal cases under the jurisdiction of the Uniform Code of Military Justice (arising from the global presence of the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Marine Corps), conduct informal and formal investigations, and advise on military operational law.
In the first season, the in-universe JAG headquarters was set in Washington, DC, while in later seasons it is located in Falls Church, Virginia.
The exterior shot for the latter was of the Cravens Estate in Pasadena, which at the time was owned by the American Red Cross. The real-life Office of the Judge Advocate General (OJAG) was and is based at the Washington Navy Yard.
Akin to Law & Order, the plots from many episodes were often "ripped from the headlines" with portions of the plot either resembling or referencing recognizable aspects of actual cases or incidents, such as the USS Cole bombing ("Act of Terror" and "Valor"), the rescue of downed pilot Scott O'Grady ("Defensive Action"), the Cavalese cable car disaster ("Clipped Wings"), the USS Iowa turret explosion ("Into the Breech"), and the Kelly Flinn incident ("The Court-Martial of Sandra Gilbert").
While not part of the mission of its real-world counterpart, some of the main characters are at times also involved, directly and indirectly, in various CIA intelligence operations, often revolving around the recurring character CIA officer Clayton Webb (played by Steven Culp).
Episodes
Cast and characters
Main
David James Elliott as Harmon Rabb, Jr., USN, Lieutenant/Lieutenant Commander/Commander, JAG Corps; Acting Judge Advocate General; Captain; Executive Officer of USS Allegiance (NCIS: Los Angeles).
Tracey Needham as Meg Austin, USN (season 1), Lieutenant JG
Catherine Bell as Sarah "Mac" MacKenzie, USMC (seasons 2–10), Major/Lieutenant Colonel, JAG Corps; OJAG Chief of Staff; Acting Judge Advocate General; Head of Joint Legal Services Southwest (San Diego); Marine Liaison to the U.S. Secretary of State (NCIS: Los Angeles).
Patrick Labyorteaux as Budrick "Bud" Roberts, Jr., USN (main: seasons 2–10; recurring: season 1); Ensign; Lieutenant JG/Lieutenant/Lieutenant Commander, JAG Corps; JAG Captain (NCIS).
John M. Jackson as Albert Jethro "A.J." Chegwidden, USN (main: seasons 2–9; recurring: season 1), Rear Admiral, JAG Corps; Judge Advocate General of the U.S. Navy; SEAL; lawyer (NCIS), later retired (NCIS: Los Angeles).
Scott Lawrence as Sturgis Turner, USN (main: season 10; recurring: seasons 7–9), Commander, JAG Corps; Acting Judge Advocate General; submariner.
Zoe McLellan as Petty Officer Jennifer Coates (main: season 10; recurring: seasons 7–9), USN. Legalman, personal aide to the Judge Advocate General.
Recurring
Andrea Parker as Lt. JG / Lieutenant / Commander Caitlin Pike, USN (Seasons 1, 6)
Trevor Goddard as Lt. Commander Mic Brumby, RAN (Seasons 4–7)
Karri Turner as Ensign / Lt. JG / Lieutenant Harriet Sims, USN (Seasons 2–10)
Michael Bellisario as Seaman / Petty Officer Third Class / Midshipman Mike “Mikey” Roberts, USN (Seasons 3–10)
Jeff MacKay as Master Chief Petty Officer Bud “Big Bud” Roberts, USN (Seasons 3–10)
Nanci Chambers as Lieutenant Loren Singer, USN (Seasons 5–8)
Randy Vasquez as Gunnery Sergeant Victor Galindez, USMC (Seasons 5–9)
Chuck Carrington as Petty Officer Jason Tiner, USN (Seasons 2–9)
Terry O'Quinn as Captain / Rear Admiral Thomas Boone, USN (Seasons 1–2, 6–8)
Steven Culp as CIA Officer Clayton Webb (Seasons 2–10)
Andrea Thompson as Commander / Captain Alison Krennick, USN (Seasons 1, 9)
Chris Beetem as Lieutenant Gregory Vukovic, USN (Season 10)
Meta Golding as Lieutenant Tali Mayfield, USN (Season 10)
Jordana Spiro as Lieutenant Catherine Graves, USN (Season 10)
David Andrews as Major General Gordon Cresswell, USMC (Season 10)
Rif Hutton as Lt. Commander Alan Mattoni, USN (Seasons 3–6)
Sibel Galindez as Lieutenant Elizabeth Hawkes, "Skates", USN (Seasons 2, 4–7)
Oliver North as Ollie
Montel Williams as Lieutenant Curtis Rivers (Seasons 3-5)
Production
Background and development
The creator of JAG, Donald P. Bellisario, served for four years in the U.S. Marine Corps, and after having worked his way up through advertising jobs, he landed his first network television job as a story editor for the World War II-era series Baa Baa Black Sheep, where he got a habit of promoting a consistent promilitary stance in a business where he got the perception that "antiwar" and "antisoldier" mentality were the commonplace. The stereotype in the post-Vietnam war era of "crazed Vietnam veterans" was notably subverted, by not just one, but three of the main characters, in Magnum P.I., of which Bellisario was the co-creator.
Following the cancellation of his series Quantum Leap, Bellisario moved his production deal from Universal to Paramount (headed by former Universal executive Kerry McCluggage), and began working on a one-shot screenplay of a murder mystery aboard a U.S. Navy aircraft carrier, where the victim was a woman and naval aviator, inspired by the then-current introduction of female fighter pilots onboard aircraft carriers and in the wake of fallout of the Tailhook scandal.
While doing research on which organizational entities would partake in investigative efforts of crimes committed aboard Naval vessels, Bellisario learned that the special agents of the Naval Criminal Investigative Service filled the police role, and the uniformed lawyers, in the Navy's Judge Advocate General's Corps, could alternate between the role of defense attorney, prosecutor, and field investigator. Bellisario chose to go ahead with the lawyers and remarked the unique advantages it brought from a story-telling point of view: "Unlike most law shows, I've got a detective, a prosecutor, and a defender."
Production
With the cancellation on NBC and the immediate pick-up by CBS, showrunner Donald P. Bellisario was allowed greater creative freedom in terms in story and casting. While over on NBC, its West Coast president Don Ohlmeyer wanted more action rather than legal drama and imposed a new female lead, Tracey Needham, rather than continuing with Andrea Parker as in the pilot movie. The move over to CBS, with its older skewing audience and its president Les Moonves giving freer reins, this allowed Bellisario to retool JAG from an emphasis on action stories to character driven stories and building an ensemble cast.
At the start of the third season, JAG moved its production base from the Paramount lot at Melrose Avenue in Hollywood out to Valencia Studios in Santa Clarita in order to save costs and putting more of the budget on screen rather than spending on soundstage rentals. The spin-off series NCIS has remained on the same studio facility for its entire duration and was filmed side-by-side with JAG for the ninth and tenth season of the latter and the first and second season of the former.
While the scope of the in-universe settings of JAG were global, the show was with, only a few exceptions, entirely filmed on location in southern California and mostly within Greater Los Angeles and the studio zone in which unionized film crews can commute without receiving additional remuneration. JAG had around the dawn of millennium two location managers for this task alternating between episodes, Paul F. Brinkman, Jr and Marvin Bernstein. A few examples of buildings acting as stand-in on location shooting are:
Park Plaza Hotel, the Gothic revival style building with Art Deco elements (Moscow hotel),
Angeles National Forest (Siberian taiga),
Shrine Auditorium, the masonic temple and large-event venue (Bahrain and various settings in the Middle East),
Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary building in the Los Feliz district (American Embassy in Rome and various other places in Italy),
Old Town shopping district in Pasadena (East Coast small towns.)
The advance of computer-generated imagery (CGI) made the process of removing palm trees and California license plates simpler still. As to how effectively the deception worked according to the showrunner when JAG started to air overseas, "we started to get letters from England, from Germany, from the Middle Eastern companies. A lot of these viewers wanted to know: When were we going to shoot in their city?"
Collaboration with the military
Initially, the producers of JAG did not receive any co-operation from the U.S. Department of Defense entertainment media liaison offices, due to sensitivity in light of all the accumulative negative publicity that had been generated from the Tailhook scandal and its aftermath. However, the lack of co-operation from the military was not a show-stopper, as the JAG production team, by virtue of being a Paramount Pictures production, had access to the abundant stock footage from the studio's motion pictures, which included many films with military content, such as Top Gun, The Final Countdown, and The Hunt for Red October (and the two other Tom Clancy movie adaptations).
In 1997, though, the naval services had begun to change their minds, and began to render support to the production team on a script-by-script basis with the United States Marine Corps more eager than the United States Navy to render production assistance. A primetime network series about Navy lawyers bringing out controversial subjects in a very public arena was during the third season apparently no longer an issue in itself, but as noted by Commander Bob Anderson of the Navy Office of Information West in Los Angeles in a TV Guide interview: "We're fine with that as long as the bad guys are caught and punished, and the institution of the Navy is not the bad guy". The Headquarters Marine Corps Entertainment Liaison Office lists JAG on their website in its portfolio of collaborations.
The production filmed on regular basis at nearby installations, primarily at Naval Base Ventura County and its two component parts: Naval Air Station Point Mugu and Naval Construction Battalion Center Port Hueneme. Between 12-14 July 1999, three of the lead actors (Elliott, Bell, and Labyorteaux) and crew filmed aboard the nuclear-powered Nimitz-class aircraft carrier USS John C. Stennis (CVN-74) off the coast of southern California for scenes for the first three episodes of the 5th season.
Series end
David James Elliott left the show at the end of the 10th season; the show was subsequently not renewed for an 11th season by the network. The show also introduced new younger characters, including former As the World Turns star Chris Beetem, and Jordana Spiro from The Huntress.
The producers also considered relocating the fictional setting of the show, from Falls Church to Naval Base San Diego. An episode of the final season, "JAG: San Diego" had the main cast, excluding Harm, going to the San Diego naval base and working with the local JAG office there. Though it was reportedly considered as a pilot episode, as a reformat of the show aiming for a younger audience, CBS ultimately decided not to pursue a new series.
Nevertheless, CBS canceled the show on April 4, 2005, after 10 seasons. The final episode, "Fair Winds and Following Seas", aired on April 29, 2005, and in which Harm and Mac are assigned different stations: Harm in London, Mac in San Diego. They finally confront their feelings and decide to get married. The episode ends with Bud tossing a challenge coin to decide which one would give up his or her military career to be with the other. However, in keeping with JAG tradition, the outcome of the toss is never seen, as the screen fades to black, showing only the coin, which bears the inscription "1995 – 2005", the years the series spanned.
Postscript
The result of the coin toss was eventually revealed in the 2019 finale of the tenth season of NCIS: Los Angeles, "False Flag", in which David James Elliott and Catherine Bell both appeared. Mac won the coin toss and Harm resigned his commission and moved with her to San Diego, but later they mutually ended their relationship and Harm rejoined the Navy and is currently serving as the XO of the (fictional) aircraft carrier, USS Allegiance. Mac left the Marines to serve as the USMC liaison to the secretary of state, a civilian position at the U.S. Department of State. Harm and Mac had not seen each other in 9 years until video conferencing with each other in their new roles. In the eleventh season premiere, Harm and Mac reunite in person, share an embrace, and later renew a discussion of their relationship, once again without reaching any conclusions.
Reception
Critical reception
The pilot movie received a moderately positive review in Variety which noted that it "borrows from recent features Crimson Tide and Apollo 13 in being jargon-heavy to help generate atmosphere but as Rabb’s character is allowed to develop, JAG could become one of the season’s highlights." Entertainment Weekly was less impressed by the first episodes of the first season and noted that there is, "...nothing new about JAG‘s plots; they’re the sort of good-guy-against-the-establishment stuff you’d expect, with the scripts (including a recent one cowritten by the mystery novelist Robert Crais) a slight cut above most hour-long dramas."
During its run JAG and its two lead actors (Elliott as "Harm" and Bell as "Mac") featured on the cover of TV Guide on two occasions: July 6, 2002 ("ON THE WINGS OF AMERICAN PRIDE, THE NAVY DRAMA FLIES HIGH"), and on May 3, 2003 ("JAG SOARS! Tough Timely Stories And a Likely Spin-off"). Virginia Heffernan wrote a scathing critique of JAG in the liberal progressive online magazine Slate that "As right-wing military propaganda JAG operates like socialist realist novels and the barking radio of G. Gordon Liddy: It pounds home its message at deafening volume, razing nuance and stranding viewers with nothing else to think." Furthermore, that in many episodes it "...typically opens with the suggestion that the military has done something terrible—and the officers in question do show signs of guilt (reticence). But in the end they reveal their absolute innocence and their higher purpose—and both the military and its reticence are exonerated."
The August 2009 issue of ABA Journal ranked the "25 greatest legal TV shows of all time" and JAG came in at number 13. JAG was on spot 10 out of 20 on a 2018 Wonderwall.com list over "Best TV shows about the military"
Nielsen ratings
Seasonal rankings (based on average total viewers per episode) of JAG on NBC (first season) and CBS (other seasons).
Note: U.S. network television seasons generally start in late September and end in late May, which coincides with the completion of the May sweeps.
It was noted in 1998 that the largest segment of the audience was those over the age of 55. JAG had its highest ratings ever in the fall of season 7, beating episodes of The Practice on ABC and in symbiosis with the other CBS law dramas on Tuesdays, Judging Amy and The Guardian. In 2003, the median age audience for JAG (along with the other CBS series' The Guardian and Becker) was 58 years, the second highest median in primetime network television, with only CBS 60 Minutes higher up.
Awards and nominations
Source:
Primetime Emmy Awards
Other awards and nominations
Connections with other shows
NCIS spin-off
In January 2003, Donald P. Bellisario was developing a JAG spin-off, around the work of the Naval Criminal Investigative Service. It was aired in April 2003 in a two-part backdoor pilot in which Commander Rabb is arrested, but later vindicated as innocent, for the murder of Lieutenant Singer. The two episodes, titled "Ice Queen" and "Meltdown", focused on the NCIS team, with most of the JAG regulars as supporting characters. Whereas the episodes of JAG are primarily oriented on a mixture of courtroom drama and military activities in the field, NCIS episodes are more focused, as the meaning of the acronym suggests, on criminal investigations. NCIS also follows a different storytelling format from JAG, emphasizing character humor to a larger extent than its parent program. NCIS later produced its own spin-offs, NCIS: Los Angeles, NCIS: New Orleans and NCIS: Hawaiʻi, which shows a further departure from the styles and themes of JAG.
The two episodes "Ice Queen" and "Meltdown" were edited down to a one-hour pilot film, which was then used to sell the idea of NCIS as a new series to CBS; the pilot used the title, "NCIS – The Beginning". It was later also used to introduce the show to CBS affiliates and advertisers. It was only broadcast once and is not available on home video.
Excluding the backdoor pilot, few major characters from JAG have appeared in the NCIS series. Patrick Labyorteaux appeared briefly as Lieutenant Bud Roberts in the NCIS first-season episode "Hung Out to Dry", and again – now with the rank of captain – in the season fourteen episode "Rogue," advising the NCIS team on a legal issue. John M. Jackson returned in May 2013 as retired Rear Admiral A.J. Chegwidden, now a civilian attorney in the private sector hired by Director Vance to provide legal representation for Special Agent Gibbs, in the season ten NCIS finale, "Damned If You Do". Jackson has recurred as A.J. Chegwidden since the eighth season of NCIS: Los Angeles. Chegwidden is a Vietnam-era compatriot of series regulars Hetty Lange (Linda Hunt) and Owen Granger (Miguel Ferrer). David James Elliot and Catherine Bell returned to their roles as Harmon Rabb and Sarah MacKenzie for the first time since JAG ended in the last two episodes of the tenth season of NCIS: Los Angeles.
While several other actors who played major roles on JAG have also appeared on NCIS, such as Scott Lawrence (Sturgis Turner on JAG), Steven Culp (Clayton Webb on JAG), Randy Vazquez (Victor Galindez on JAG), and Michael Bellisario (Mikey Roberts on JAG); they played completely different characters when appearing on NCIS. Similarly, after Sean Murray (Donald Bellisario's stepson) played a one-off Ensign character in JAG season 4, and the recurring character of Danny Walden in season 6, he joined the core cast of NCIS during the first season as Tim McGee, and is still on the show as of 2019.
First introduced in the NCIS back-door pilot, Alicia Coppola appeared as Navy judge advocate Lieutenant Commander Faith Coleman in several episodes of NCIS. Adam Baldwin played the same guest role, Navy SEAL Commander Michael Rainer, in one episode of each show.
First Monday cross-over
First Monday was a short-lived series co-created by Bellisario and Paul Levine about fictional U.S. Supreme Court justices and their clerks, which aired in 2002 and starred James Garner and Joe Mantegna. The character of U.S. Senator Edward Sheffield (Dean Stockwell), who appeared in three episodes of that show, later became a recurring character on JAG as the new Secretary of the Navy, starting in season eight.
Yes, Dear tribute
The sitcom Yes, Dear did an episode called "Let's Get Jaggy With It" where Greg's father Tom (Tim Conway) wins a walk-on role on JAG. Catherine Bell guest-starred as herself while David James Elliott, Patrick Labyorteaux, and Scott Lawrence guest-starred as their respective JAG characters.
Bette tribute
The second episode of Bette Midler's short-lived sitcom Bette, titled "And the Winner Is," had a storyline where her title character wins an award for guest starring in an episode of JAG. The are-winning scene shows Bette playing a character who interrogates Harmon Rabb after comedically checking out his posterior. David James Elliott guest stars in this episode-within-an-episode. The episode aired on CBS on October 18, 2000.
Home media
On September 1, 1998, the pilot episode of JAG was released on VHS cassette in the U.S. by Paramount Home Entertainment. However, no further episodes of the series proper were released on any home entertainment media while the show was still in production, allegedly due to syndication deals made with several broadcasters.
Beginning in 2006, CBS Home Entertainment (distributed by Paramount) has released all 10 seasons on DVD in regions 1, 2 and 4. Seasons 1 to 4 are released with a 4:3 aspect ratio, while seasons 5 to 10 have a 16:9 aspect ratio. The region-2 and −4 editions do not have the bonus features (audio commentaries and retrospective interviews) included on the region-1 editions of seasons one and two.
On December 11, 2012, CBS released JAG: The Complete Series – Collector's Edition on DVD in region 1. This collection contains, other than all 227 episodes of the series and the bonus features of the previously released individual season packs, one disc with new bonus features and a booklet with production notes.
On April 14, 2015, CBS Home Entertainment released a repackaged version of the complete series set, at a lower price, in Region 1. It does not include the bonus disc that was part of the original complete series set.
Soundtrack
On April 26, 2010, Intrada released an album of music on compact disc from the series, featuring Bruce Broughton's theme and his pilot movie score (tracks 1–15) and weekly composer Steven Bramson's score from the second-season episode "Cowboys & Cossacks", including Broughton's format music (the main and end title theme and commercial bumper.)
See also
Interservice rivalry
Judge Advocate General's Corps, U.S. Navy
Uniform Code of Military Justice
United States Navy Regulations
Uniforms of the United States Navy
Uniforms of the United States Marine Corps
List of U.S. Navy acronyms
List of United States Marine Corps acronyms and expressions
The Code (2019 TV series)
References
Bibliography
External links
1990s American crime drama television series
1990s American legal television series
1995 American television series debuts
2000s American crime drama television series
2000s American legal television series
2005 American television series endings
American action television series
American legal drama television series
Aviation television series
CBS original programming
Courtroom drama television series
English-language television shows
Military courtroom dramas
Military fiction
American military television series
Nautical television series
NBC original programming
Television series by CBS Studios
Television series created by Donald P. Bellisario
American television series revived after cancellation
Television shows filmed in Santa Clarita, California
Television shows set in Virginia
Television shows set in Washington, D.C.
Television shows about the United States Marine Corps
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoxy
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Epoxy
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Epoxy is the family of basic components or cured end products of epoxy resins. Epoxy resins, also known as polyepoxides, are a class of reactive prepolymers and polymers which contain epoxide groups. The epoxide functional group is also collectively called epoxy. The IUPAC name for an epoxide group is an oxirane.
Epoxy resins may be reacted (cross-linked) either with themselves through catalytic homopolymerisation, or with a wide range of co-reactants including polyfunctional amines, acids (and acid anhydrides), phenols, alcohols and thiols (usually called mercaptans). These co-reactants are often referred to as hardeners or curatives, and the cross-linking reaction is commonly referred to as curing.
Reaction of polyepoxides with themselves or with polyfunctional hardeners forms a thermosetting polymer, often with favorable mechanical properties and high thermal and chemical resistance. Epoxy has a wide range of applications, including metal coatings, use in electronics, electrical components, LEDs, high-tension electrical insulators, paint brush manufacturing, fiber-reinforced plastic materials, and adhesives for structural and other purposes.
The health risks associated with exposure to epoxy resin compounds include contact dermatitis and allergic reactions, as well as respiratory problems from breathing vapor and sanding dust, especially when not fully cured.
History
Condensation of epoxides and amines was first reported and patented by Paul Schlack of Germany in 1934. Claims of discovery of bisphenol-A-based epoxy resins include Pierre Castan in 1943. Castan's work was licensed by Ciba, Ltd. of Switzerland, which went on to become one of the three major epoxy resin producers worldwide. Ciba's epoxy business was spun off as Vantico in the late 1990s, which was subsequently sold in 2003 and became the Advanced Materials business unit of Huntsman Corporation of the United States. In 1946, Sylvan Greenlee, working for the Devoe & Raynolds Company, patented resin derived from bisphenol-A and epichlorohydrin. Devoe & Raynolds, which was active in the early days of the epoxy resin industry, was sold to Shell Chemical; the division involved in this work was eventually sold, and via a series of other corporate transactions is now part of Hexion Inc.
Chemistry
Most of the commercially used epoxy monomers are produced by the reaction of a compound with acidic hydroxy groups and epichlorohydrin. First a hydroxy group reacts in a coupling reaction with epichlorohydrin, followed by dehydrohalogenation. Epoxy resins produced from such epoxy monomers are called glycidyl-based epoxy resins. The hydroxy group may be derived from aliphatic diols, polyols (polyether polyols), phenolic compounds or dicarboxylic acids. Phenols can be compounds such as bisphenol A and novolak. Polyols can be compounds such as 1,4-butanediol. Di- and polyols lead to diglycid polyethers. Dicarboxylic acids such as hexahydrophthalic acid are used for diglycide ester resins. Instead of a hydroxy group, also the nitrogen atom of an amine or amide can be reacted with epichlorohydrin.
The other production route for epoxy resins is the conversion of aliphatic or cycloaliphatic alkenes with peracids: In contrast to glycidyl-based epoxy resins, this production of such epoxy monomers does not require an acidic hydrogen atom but an aliphatic double bond.
The epoxide group is also sometimes referred to as a oxirane group.
Bisphenol-based
The most common epoxy resins are based on reacting epichlorohydrin (ECH) with bisphenol A, resulting in a different chemical substance known as bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (commonly known as BADGE or DGEBA). Bisphenol A-based resins are the most widely commercialised resins but also other bisphenols are analogously reacted with epichlorohydrin, for example Bisphenol F.
In this two-stage reaction, epichlorohydrin is first added to bisphenol A (bis(3-chloro-2-hydroxy-propoxy)bisphenol A is formed), then a bisepoxide is formed in a condensation reaction with a stoichiometric amount of sodium hydroxide. The chlorine atom is released as sodium chloride (NaCl), the hydrogen atom as of water.
Higher molecular weight diglycidyl ethers (n ≥ 1) are formed by the reaction of the bisphenol A diglycidyl ether formed with further bisphenol A, this is called prepolymerization:
A product comprising a few repeat units (n = 1 to 2) is a viscous, clear liquid; this is called a liquid epoxy resin. A product comprising more repeating units (n = 2 to 30) is at room temperature a colourless solid, which is correspondingly referred to as solid epoxy resin.
Instead of bisphenol A, other bisphenols (especially bisphenol F) or brominated bisphenols (e. g. tetrabromobisphenol A) can be used for the said epoxidation and prepolymerisation. Bisphenol F may undergo epoxy resin formation in a similar fashion to bisphenol A. These resins typically have lower viscosity and a higher mean epoxy content per gram than bisphenol A resins, which (once cured) gives them increased chemical resistance.
Important epoxy resins are produced from combining epichlorohydrin and bisphenol A to give bisphenol A diglycidyl ethers.
Increasing the ratio of bisphenol A to epichlorohydrin during manufacture produces higher molecular weight linear polyethers with glycidyl end groups, which are semi-solid to hard crystalline materials at room temperature depending on the molecular weight achieved. This route of synthesis is known as the "taffy" process. More modern manufacturing methods of higher molecular weight epoxy resins is to start with liquid epoxy resin (LER) and add a calculated amount of bisphenol A and then a catalyst is added and the reaction heated to circa . This process is known as "advancement". As the molecular weight of the resin increases, the epoxide content reduces and the material behaves more and more like a thermoplastic. Very high molecular weight polycondensates (ca. 30 000 – 70 000 g/mol) form a class known as phenoxy resins and contain virtually no epoxide groups (since the terminal epoxy groups are insignificant compared to the total size of the molecule). These resins do however contain hydroxyl groups throughout the backbone, which may also undergo other cross-linking reactions, e.g. with aminoplasts, phenoplasts and isocyanates.
Epoxy resins are polymeric or semi-polymeric materials or an oligomer, and as such rarely exist as pure substances, since variable chain length results from the polymerisation reaction used to produce them. High purity grades can be produced for certain applications, e.g. using a distillation purification process. One downside of high purity liquid grades is their tendency to form crystalline solids due to their highly regular structure, which then require melting to enable processing.
An important criterion for epoxy resins is the epoxide group content. This is expressed as the "epoxide equivalent weight", which is the ratio between the molecular weight of the monomer and the number of epoxide groups. This parameter is used to calculate the mass of co-reactant (hardener) to use when curing epoxy resins. Epoxies are typically cured with stoichiometric or near-stoichiometric quantities of hardener to achieve the best physical properties.
Novolaks
Novolaks are produced by reacting phenol with methanal (formaldehyde). The reaction of epichlorohydrin and novolaks produces novolaks with glycidyl residues, such as epoxyphenol novolak (EPN) or epoxycresol novolak (ECN). These highly viscous to solid resins typically carry 2 to 6 epoxy groups per molecule. By curing, highly cross-linked polymers with high temperature and chemical resistance but low mechanical flexibility are formed due to the high functionality of these resins.
Aliphatic
There are two common types of aliphatic epoxy resins: those obtained by epoxidation of double bonds (cycloaliphatic epoxides and epoxidized vegetable oils) and those formed by reaction with epichlorohydrin (glycidyl ethers and esters).
Cycloaliphatic epoxides contain one or more aliphatic rings in the molecule on which the oxirane ring is contained (e.g. 3,4-epoxycyclohexylmethyl-3',4'-epoxycyclohexane carboxylate). They are produced by the reaction of a cyclic alkene with a peracid (see above). Cycloaliphatic epoxides are characterised by their aliphatic structure, high oxirane content and the absence of chlorine, which results in low viscosity and (once cured) good weather resistance, low dielectric constants and high Tg. However, aliphatic epoxy resins polymerize very slowly at room temperature, so higher temperatures and suitable accelerators are usually required. Because aliphatic epoxies have a lower electron density than aromatics, cycloaliphatic epoxies react less readily with nucleophiles than bisphenol A-based epoxy resins (which have aromatic ether groups). This means that conventional nucleophilic hardeners such as amines are hardly suitable for crosslinking. Cycloaliphatic epoxides are therefore usually homopolymerized thermally or UV-initiated in an electrophilic or cationic reaction. Due to the low dielectric constants and the absence of chlorine, cycloaliphatic epoxides are often used to encapsulate electronic systems, such as microchips or LEDs. They are also used for radiation-cured paints and varnishes. Due to their high price, however, their use has so far been limited to such applications.
Epoxidized vegetable oils are formed by epoxidation of unsaturated fatty acids by reaction with peracids. In this case, the peracids can also be formed in situ by reacting carboxylic acids with hydrogen peroxide. Compared with LERs (liquid epoxy resins) they have very low viscosities. If, however, they are used in larger proportions as reactive diluents, this often leads to reduced chemical and thermal resistance and to poorer mechanical properties of the cured epoxides. Large scale epoxidized vegetable oils such as epoxidized soy and lens oils are used to a large extent as secondary plasticizers and cost stabilizers for PVC.
Aliphatic glycidyl epoxy resins of low molar mass (mono-, bi- or polyfunctional) are formed by the reaction of epichlorohydrin with aliphatic alcohols or polyols (glycidyl ethers are formed) or with aliphatic carboxylic acids (glycidyl esters are formed). The reaction is carried out in the presence of a base such as sodium hydroxide, analogous to the formation of bisphenol A-diglycidyl ether. Also aliphatic glycidyl epoxy resins usually have a low viscosity compared to aromatic epoxy resins. They are therefore added to other epoxy resins as reactive diluents or as adhesion promoters. Epoxy resins made of (long-chain) polyols are also added to improve tensile strength and impact strength.
A related class is cycloaliphatic epoxy resin, which contains one or more cycloaliphatic rings in the molecule (e.g. 3,4-epoxycyclohexylmethyl-3,4-epoxycyclohexane carboxylate). This class also displays lower viscosity at room temperature, but offers significantly higher temperature resistance than the aliphatic epoxy diluents. However, reactivity is rather low compared to other classes of epoxy resin, and high temperature curing using suitable accelerators is normally required. As aromaticity is not present in these materials as it is in Bisphenol A and F resins, the UV stability is considerably improved.
Halogenated
Halogenated epoxy resins are admixed for special properties, in particular brominated and fluorinated epoxy resins are used.
Brominated bisphenol A is used when flame retardant properties are required, such as in some electrical applications (e.g. printed circuit boards). The tetrabrominated bisphenol A (TBBPA, 2,2-bis(3,5-dibromophenyl)propane) or its diglycidyl ether, 2,2-bis[3,5-dibromo-4-(2,3-epoxypropoxy)phenyl]propane, can be added to the epoxy formulation. The formulation may then be reacted in the same way as pure bisphenol A. Some (non-crosslinked) epoxy resins with very high molar mass are added to engineering thermoplastics, again to achieve flame retardant properties.
Fluorinated epoxy resins have been investigated for some high performance applications, such as the fluorinated diglycidether 5-heptafluoropropyl-1,3-bis[2-(2,3-epoxypropoxy)hexafluoro-2-propyl]benzene. As it has a low surface tension, it is added as a wetting agent (surfactant) for contact with glass fibres. Its reactivity to hardeners is comparable to that of bisphenol A. When cured, the epoxy resin leads to a thermosetting plastic with high chemical resistance and low water absorption. However, the commercial use of fluorinated epoxy resins is limited by their high cost and low Tg.
Diluents
Epoxy resins diluents are typically formed by glycidylation of aliphatic alcohols or polyols. The resulting materials may be monofunctional (e.g. dodecanol glycidyl ether), difunctional (butanediol diglycidyl ether), or higher functionality (e.g. trimethylolpropane triglycidyl ether). These resins typically display low viscosity at room temperature (10-200 mPa.s) and are often referred to as reactive diluents. They are rarely used alone, but are rather employed to modify (reduce) the viscosity of other epoxy resins. This has led to the term ‘modified epoxy resin’ to denote those containing viscosity-lowering reactive diluents.
Glycidylamine
Glycidylamine epoxy resins are higher functionality epoxies which are formed when aromatic amines are reacted with epichlorohydrin. Important industrial grades are triglycidyl-p-aminophenol (functionality 3) and N,N,N′,N′-tetraglycidyl-bis-(4-aminophenyl)-methane (functionality 4). The resins are low to medium viscosity at room temperature, which makes them easier to process than EPN or ECN resins. This coupled with high reactivity, plus high temperature resistance and mechanical properties of the resulting cured network makes them important materials for aerospace composite applications.
Curing
There are several dozen chemicals that can be used to cure epoxy, including amines, imidazoles, anhydrides and photosensitive chemicals.
In general, uncured epoxy resins have only poor mechanical, chemical and heat resistance properties. However, good properties are obtained by reacting the linear epoxy resin with suitable curatives to form three-dimensional cross-linked thermoset structures. This process is commonly referred to as curing or gelation process. Curing of epoxy resins is an exothermic reaction and in some cases produces sufficient heat to cause thermal degradation if not controlled.
Curing may be achieved by reacting an epoxy with itself (homopolymerisation) or by forming a copolymer with polyfunctional curatives or hardeners. This curing is what produces the qualities of the substance such as resistance, durability, versatility, and adhesion. In principle, any molecule containing a reactive hydrogen may react with the epoxide groups of the epoxy resin. Common classes of hardeners for epoxy resins include amines, acids, acid anhydrides, phenols, alcohols and thiols. Relative reactivity (lowest first) is approximately in the order: phenol < anhydride < aromatic amine < cycloaliphatic amine < aliphatic amine < thiol.
While some epoxy resin/ hardener combinations will cure at ambient temperature, many require heat, with temperatures up to being common, and up to for some specialist systems. Insufficient heat during cure will result in a network with incomplete polymerisation, and thus reduced mechanical, chemical and heat resistance. Cure temperature should typically attain the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the fully cured network in order to achieve maximum properties. Temperature is sometimes increased in a step-wise fashion to control the rate of curing and prevent excessive heat build-up from the exothermic reaction.
Hardeners which show only low or limited reactivity at ambient temperature, but which react with epoxy resins at elevated temperature are referred to as latent hardeners. When using latent hardeners, the epoxy resin and hardener may be mixed and stored for some time prior to use, which is advantageous for many industrial processes. Very latent hardeners enable one-component (1K) products to be produced, whereby the resin and hardener are supplied pre-mixed to the end user and only require heat to initiate curing. One-component products generally have shorter shelf-lives than standard 2-component systems, and products may require cooled storage and transport.
The epoxy curing reaction may be accelerated by addition of small quantities of accelerators. Tertiary amines, carboxylic acids and alcohols (especially phenols) are effective accelerators. Bisphenol A is a highly effective and widely used accelerator, but is now increasingly replaced due to health concerns with this substance.
Homopolymerisation
Epoxy resin may be reacted with itself in the presence of an anionic catalyst (a Lewis base such as tertiary amines or imidazoles) or a cationic catalyst (a Lewis acid such as a boron trifluoride complex) to form a cured network. This process is known as catalytic homopolymerisation. The resulting network contains only ether bridges, and exhibits high thermal and chemical resistance, but is brittle and often requires elevated temperature for the curing process, so finds only niche applications industrially.
Epoxy homopolymerisation is often used when there is a requirement for UV curing, since cationic UV catalysts may be employed (e.g. for UV coatings).
Amines
Polyfunctional primary amines form an important class of epoxy hardeners. Primary amines undergo an addition reaction with the epoxide group to form a hydroxyl group and a secondary amine. The secondary amine can further react with an epoxide to form a tertiary amine and an additional hydroxyl group. Kinetic studies have shown the reactivity of the primary amine to be approximately double that of the secondary amine. Use of a difunctional or polyfunctional amine forms a three-dimensional cross-linked network.
Aliphatic, cycloaliphatic and aromatic amines are all employed as epoxy hardeners. Amine type hardeners will alter both the processing properties (viscosity, reactivity) and the final properties (mechanical, temperature and heat resistance) of the cured copolymer network. Thus amine structure is normally selected according to the application. Overall reactivity potential for different hardeners can roughly be ordered; aliphatic amines > cycloaliphatic amines > aromatic amines, though aliphatic amines with steric hindrance near the amino groups may react as slowly as some of the aromatic amines. Slower reactivity allows longer working times for processors. Temperature resistance generally increases in the same order, since aromatic amines form much more rigid structures than aliphatic amines. Aromatic amines were widely used as epoxy resin hardeners, due to the excellent end properties when mixed with a parent resin. Over the past few decades concern about the possible adverse health effects of many aromatic amines has led to increased use of aliphatic or cycloaliphatic amine alternatives. Amines are also blended, adducted and reacted to alter properties and these amine resins are more often used to cure epoxy resins than a pure amine such as TETA. Increasingly, water-based polyamines are also used to help reduce the toxicity profile among other reasons.
Anhydrides
Epoxy resins may be thermally cured with anhydrides to create polymers with significant property retention at elevated temperatures for extended periods of time. Reaction and subsequent crosslinking occur only after opening of the anhydride ring, e.g. by secondary hydroxyl groups in the epoxy resin. Homopolymerization may also occur between epoxide and hydroxyl groups. The high latency of anhydride hardeners makes them suitable for processing systems which require addition of mineral fillers prior to curing, e.g. for high voltage electrical insulators. Cure speed may be improved by matching anhydrides with suitable accelerators. For dianhydrides, and to a lesser extent, monoanhydrides, non-stoichiometric, empirical determinations are often used to optimize dosing levels. In some cases, blends of dianhydrides and monoanhydrides can improve metering and mixing with liquid epoxy resins.
Phenols
Polyphenols, such as bisphenol A or novolacs can react with epoxy resins at elevated temperatures (), normally in the presence of a catalyst. The resulting material has ether linkages and displays higher chemical and oxidation resistance than typically obtained by curing with amines or anhydrides. Since many novolacs are solids, this class of hardeners is often employed for powder coatings.
Thiols
Also known as mercaptans, thiols contain a sulfur which reacts very readily with the epoxide group, even at ambient or sub-ambient temperatures. While the resulting network does not typically display high temperature or chemical resistance, the high reactivity of the thiol group makes it useful for applications where heated curing is not possible, or very fast cure is required e.g. for domestic DIY adhesives and chemical rock bolt anchors. Thiols have a characteristic odour, which can be detected in many two-component household adhesives.
Applications
The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include coatings, adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass reinforcements (although polyester, vinyl ester, and other thermosetting resins are also used for glass-reinforced plastic). The chemistry of epoxies and the range of commercially available variations allows cure polymers to be produced with a very broad range of properties. In general, epoxies are known for their excellent adhesion, chemical and heat resistance, good-to-excellent mechanical properties and very good electrical insulating properties. Many properties of epoxies can be modified (for example silver-filled epoxies with good electrical conductivity are available, although epoxies are typically electrically insulating). Variations offering high thermal insulation, or thermal conductivity combined with high electrical resistance for electronics applications, are available.
As with other classes of thermoset polymer materials, blending different grades of epoxy resin, as well as use of additives, plasticizers or fillers is common to achieve the desired processing or final properties, or to reduce cost. Use of blending, additives and fillers is often referred to as formulating.
Paints and coatings
Two part epoxy coatings were developed for heavy duty service on metal substrates and use less energy than heat-cured powder coatings. These systems provide a tough, protective coating with excellent hardness. One part epoxy coatings are formulated as an emulsion in water, and can be cleaned up without solvents.
Epoxy coatings are often used in industrial and automotive applications since they are more heat resistant than latex-based and alkyd-based paints. Epoxy paints tend to deteriorate, known as "chalking out", due to UV exposure.
Change in color, known as yellowing, is a common phenomenon for epoxy materials and is often of concern in art and conservation applications. Epoxy resins yellow with time, even when not exposed to UV radiation. Significant advances in understanding yellowing of epoxies were achieved by Down first in 1984 (natural dark aging) and later in 1986 (high-intensity light aging). Down investigated various room-temperature-cure epoxy resin adhesives suitable for use in glass conservation, testing their tendency to yellow. A fundamental molecular understanding of epoxy yellowing was achieved, when Krauklis and Echtermeyer discovered the mechanistic origin of yellowing in a commonly used amine epoxy resin, published in 2018. They found that the molecular reason for epoxy yellowing was a thermo-oxidative evolution of carbonyl groups in the polymeric carbon–carbon backbone via a nucleophilic radical attack.
Polyester epoxies are used as powder coatings for washers, driers and other "white goods". Fusion Bonded Epoxy Powder Coatings (FBE) are extensively used for corrosion protection of steel pipes and fittings used in the oil and gas industry, potable water transmission pipelines (steel), and concrete reinforcing rebar. Epoxy coatings are also widely used as primers to improve the adhesion of automotive and marine paints especially on metal surfaces where corrosion (rusting) resistance is important. Metal cans and containers are often coated with epoxy to prevent rusting, especially for foods like tomatoes that are acidic. Epoxy resins are also used for decorative flooring applications such as terrazzo flooring, chip flooring, and colored aggregate flooring.
Epoxies were modified in a variety of ways, Reacted with fatty acids derived from oils to yield epoxy esters, which were cured the same way as alkyds. Typical ones were L8 (80% linseed) and D4 (40% dehydrated castor oil). These were often reacted with styrene to make styrenated epoxy esters, used as primers. Curing with phenolics to make drum linings, curing esters with amine resins and pre-curing epoxies with amino resins to make resistant top coats.
One of the best examples was a system of using solvent free epoxies for priming ships during construction, this used a system of hot airless spray with premixing at the head. This obviated the problem of solvent retention under the film, which caused adhesion problems later on.
Adhesives
Epoxy adhesives are a major part of the class of adhesives called "structural adhesives" or "engineering adhesives" (that includes polyurethane, acrylic, cyanoacrylate, and other chemistries.) These high-performance adhesives are used in the construction of aircraft, automobiles, bicycles, boats, golf clubs, skis, snowboards, and other applications where high strength bonds are required. Epoxy adhesives can be developed to suit almost any application. They can be used as adhesives for wood, metal, glass, stone, and some plastics. They can be made flexible or rigid, transparent or opaque/colored, fast setting or slow setting. Epoxy adhesives are better in heat and chemical resistance than other common adhesives. In general, epoxy adhesives cured with heat will be more heat- and chemical-resistant than those cured at room temperature. The strength of epoxy adhesives is degraded at temperatures above .
Some epoxies are cured by exposure to ultraviolet light. Such epoxies are commonly used in optics, fiber optics, and optoelectronics.
Industrial tooling and composites
Epoxy systems are used in industrial tooling applications to produce molds, master models, laminates, castings, fixtures, and other industrial production aids. This "plastic tooling" replaces metal, wood and other traditional materials, and generally improves the efficiency and either lowers the overall cost or shortens the lead-time for many industrial processes. Epoxies are also used in producing fiber-reinforced or composite parts. They are more expensive than polyester resins and vinyl ester resins, but usually produce stronger and more temperature-resistant thermoset polymer matrix composite parts.
Wind turbine technology composites
Epoxy resins are used as bonding matrix along with glass or carbon fiber fabrics to produce composites with very high strength to weight characteristics, allowing longer and more efficient rotor blades to be produced. In addition, for offshore and onshore wind energy installations, epoxy resins are used as protective coatings on steel towers, base struts and concrete foundations. Aliphatic polyurethane top coats are applied on top to ensure full UV protection, prolong operational lifetimes and lowering maintenance costs. Electric generators, connected via the drivetrain with the rotor blades, convert mechanical wind energy in usable electric energy, and rely on epoxies electrical insulation and high thermal resistance properties. The same applies to transformers, bushings, spacers, and composites cables connecting the windmills to the grid. In Europe, wind energy components account for the largest segment of epoxy applications, about 27% of the market.
Electrical systems and electronics
Epoxy resin formulations are important in the electronics industry, and are employed in motors, generators, transformers, switchgear, bushings, insulators, printed wiring boards (PWB), and semiconductor encapsulants. Epoxy resins are excellent electrical insulators and protect electrical components from short circuiting, dust and moisture. In the electronics industry epoxy resins are the primary resin used in overmolding integrated circuits, transistors and hybrid circuits, and making printed circuit boards. The largest volume type of circuit board—an "FR-4 board"—is a sandwich of layers of glass cloth bonded into a composite by an epoxy resin. Epoxy resins are used to bond copper foil to circuit board substrates, and are a component of the solder mask on many circuit boards.
Flexible epoxy resins are used for potting transformers and inductors. By using vacuum impregnation on uncured epoxy, winding-to-winding, winding-to-core, and winding-to-insulator air voids are eliminated. The cured epoxy is an electrical insulator and a much better conductor of heat than air. Transformer and inductor hot spots are greatly reduced, giving the component a stable and longer life than unpotted product.
Epoxy resins are applied using the technology of resin dispensing.
Petroleum & petrochemical
Epoxies can be used to plug selective layers in a reservoir which are producing excessive brine. The technique is named "water shut-off treatment".
Consumer and marine applications
Epoxies are sold in hardware stores, typically as a pack containing separate resin and hardener, which must be mixed immediately before use. They are also sold in boat shops as repair resins for marine applications. Epoxies typically are not used in the outer layer of a boat because they deteriorate by exposure to UV light. They are often used during boat repair and assembly, and then over-coated with conventional or two-part polyurethane paint or marine-varnishes that provide UV protection.
There are two main areas of marine use. Because of the better mechanical properties relative to the more common polyester resins, epoxies are used for commercial manufacture of components where a high strength/weight ratio is required. The second area is that their strength, gap filling properties and excellent adhesion to many materials including timber have created a boom in amateur building projects including aircraft and boats.
Normal gelcoat formulated for use with polyester resins and vinylester resins does not adhere to epoxy surfaces, though epoxy adheres very well if applied to polyester resin surfaces. "Flocoat" that is normally used to coat the interior of polyester fibreglass yachts is also compatible with epoxies.
Epoxy materials tend to harden somewhat more gradually, while polyester materials tend to harden quickly, particularly if a lot of catalyst is used. The chemical reactions in both cases are exothermic. Large quantities of mix will generate their own heat and greatly speed the reaction, so it is usual to mix small amounts which can be used quickly.
While it is common to associate polyester resins and epoxy resins, their properties are sufficiently different that they are properly treated as distinct materials. Polyester resins are typically low strength unless used with a reinforcing material like glass fibre, are relatively brittle unless reinforced, and have low adhesion. Epoxies, by contrast, are inherently strong, somewhat flexible and have excellent adhesion. However, polyester resins are much cheaper.
Epoxy resins typically require a precise mix of two components which form a third chemical. Depending on the properties required, the ratio may be anything from 1:1 or over 10:1, but in every case they must be mixed exactly. The final product is then a precise thermo-setting plastic. Until they are mixed the two elements are relatively inert, although the 'hardeners' tend to be more chemically active and should be protected from the atmosphere and moisture. The rate of the reaction can be changed by using different hardeners, which may change the nature of the final product, or by controlling the temperature.
By contrast, polyester resins are usually made available in a 'promoted' form, such that the progress of previously-mixed resins from liquid to solid is already underway, albeit very slowly. The only variable available to the user is to change the rate of this process using a catalyst, often Methyl-Ethyl-Ketone-Peroxide (MEKP), which is very toxic. The presence of the catalyst in the final product actually detracts from the desirable properties, so that small amounts of catalyst are preferable, so long as the hardening proceeds at an acceptable pace. The rate of cure of polyesters can therefore be controlled by the amount and type of catalyst as well as by the temperature.
As adhesives, epoxies bond in three ways: a) Mechanically, because the bonding surfaces are roughened; b) by proximity, because the cured resins are physically so close to the bonding surfaces that they are hard to separate; c) ionically, because the epoxy resins form ionic bonds at an atomic level with the bonding surfaces. This last is substantially the strongest of the three. By contrast, polyester resins can only bond using the first two of these, which greatly reduces their utility as adhesives and in marine repair.
Aerospace applications
In the aerospace industry, epoxy is used as a structural matrix material which is then reinforced by fiber. Typical fiber reinforcements include glass, carbon, Kevlar, and boron.
Epoxies are also used as a structural glue. Materials like wood, and others that are 'low-tech' are glued with epoxy resin. Epoxies generally out-perform most other resin types in terms of mechanical properties and resistance to environmental degradation.
Biology
Water-soluble epoxies such as Durcupan are commonly used for embedding electron microscope samples in plastic so they may be sectioned (sliced thin) with a microtome and then imaged.
Art
Epoxy resin, mixed with pigment, may be used as a painting medium, by pouring layers on top of each other to form a complete picture. It is also used in jewelry, as a doming resin for decorations and labels, and in decoupage type applications for art, countertops, and tables.
Production
The global epoxy resin market was valued at approximately $8 billion in 2016. The epoxy resin market is dominated by the Asia-Pacific region, which contributes 55.2% of the total market share. China is the major producer and consumer globally, consuming almost 35% of the global resin production. The global market is made up of approximately 50–100 manufacturers of basic or commodity epoxy resins and hardeners. In Europe, about 323,000 tonnes of epoxy resin were manufactured in 2017 generating some €1,055 million in sales. Germany is the largest market for epoxy resins in Europe, followed by Italy, France, the UK, Spain, the Netherlands and Austria.
These commodity epoxy manufacturers mentioned above typically do not sell epoxy resins in a form usable to smaller end users, so there is another group of companies that purchases epoxy raw materials from the major producers and then compounds (blends, modifies, or otherwise customizes) epoxy systems from these raw materials. These companies are known as "formulators". The majority of the epoxy systems sold are produced by these formulators and they comprise over 60% of the dollar value of the epoxy market. There are hundreds of ways that these formulators can modify epoxies—by adding mineral fillers (talc, silica, alumina, etc.), by adding flexibilizers, viscosity reducers, colorants, thickeners, accelerators, adhesion promoters, etc. These modifications are made to reduce costs, to improve performance, and to improve processing convenience. As a result, a typical formulator sells dozens or even thousands of formulations—each tailored to the requirements of a particular application or market.
The raw materials for epoxy resin production are today largely petroleum derived, although some plant derived sources are now becoming commercially available (e.g. plant derived glycerol used to make epichlorohydrin).
Health risks
Liquid epoxy resins in their uncured state are mostly classed as irritant to the eyes and skin, as well as toxic to aquatic organisms. Solid epoxy resins are generally safer than liquid epoxy resins, and many are classified non-hazardous materials. One particular risk associated with epoxy resins is sensitization. The risk has been shown to be more pronounced in epoxy resins containing low molecular weight epoxy diluents. Exposure to epoxy resins can, over time, induce an allergic reaction. Sensitization generally occurs due to repeated exposure (e.g. through poor working hygiene or lack of protective equipment) over a long period of time. Allergic reaction sometimes occurs at a time which is delayed several days from the exposure. Allergic reaction is often visible in the form of dermatitis, particularly in areas where the exposure has been highest (commonly hands and forearms). Epoxy use is a main source of occupational asthma among users of plastics.
References
External links
Epoxy Resin Systems (California Department of Public Health) Link Updated 31 August 2021
The chemistry of epoxide
Further reading
Organic polymers
Adhesives
Synthetic resins
Thermosetting plastics
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20Dole
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Elizabeth Dole
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Mary Elizabeth Alexander Hanford Dole (born July 29, 1936) is an American politician and author who served in the Nixon, Reagan, and Bush presidential administrations. She also served as a United States Senator for North Carolina from 2003 to 2009.
A graduate of Duke University and Harvard Law School, Dole served as Secretary of Transportation under Ronald Reagan and Secretary of Labor under George H. W. Bush before becoming head of the American Red Cross. She next served as North Carolina's first female U.S. Senator (2003–09). She is a member of the Republican Party and former chair of the National Republican Senatorial Committee. She is the widow of former U.S. Senate Majority Leader, 1976 Republican vice presidential nominee, and 1996 Republican presidential nominee Bob Dole.
Early life and education
Dole was born Mary Elizabeth Alexander Hanford in Salisbury, North Carolina, to Mary Ella (née Cathey; 1901–2004) and John Van Hanford (1893–1978).
Dole attended Duke University and graduated with distinction in Political Science, on June 2, 1958. She was a finalist for an Angier B. Duke scholarship, a full-tuition award given to outstanding applicants who matriculate at Duke. She was elected to Phi Beta Kappa and was a recipient of the Algernon Sydney Sullivan Award, a national prize given to those exemplifying the ideal of service to others.
Among her activities at Duke were the chapel choir, Chanticleer (yearbook) business staff, freshman advisory council, The Order of the White Duchy (a local honorary society for outstanding women student leaders, a female counterpart of The Order of The Red Friars), Phi Kappa Delta (a local leadership honorary for senior women), and Pi Sigma Alpha (a national political-science honorary society). Dole is a sister of Delta Delta Delta. She was also elected president of the woman's student government association, 1958 May queen, and "leader of the year" by the student newspaper, The Chronicle. Dole has remained involved with Duke University, serving at various points in time as president of the Duke University alumnae association, and a member of the board of trustees and board of visitors. She has spoken formally at Duke several times.
Following her graduation from Duke, she did her post-graduate work at Oxford in 1959. After Oxford, she took a job as a student teacher at Melrose High School in Melrose, Massachusetts, for the 1959–1960 school year. While teaching, she also pursued her master's degree in education from Harvard University, which she earned in 1960, followed by a J.D. from Harvard Law School in 1965. At graduation, she was one of 24 women in a class of 550 students. She is an alumna of the Phi Beta Kappa honor society.
White House years
Johnson Administration
Dole, who had campaigned for the Kennedy–Johnson presidential ticket in 1960, began working in 1967 as a staff assistant to the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare in the Lyndon B. Johnson administration.
Nixon and Ford Administrations
When many Democrats left the White House following Richard Nixon's replacement of Johnson, Dole did not. From 1969 to 1973, she served as deputy assistant to President Nixon for consumer affairs. In 1973, Nixon appointed her to a seven-year term on the Federal Trade Commission.
Dole first met her future husband, Bob Dole, in the spring of 1972 at a meeting arranged by her boss and mentor, Virginia Knauer. The couple dated, and she became his second wife on December 6, 1975, in the Washington National Cathedral. They have no children, though she is stepmother to Bob's adult daughter Robin from his first marriage of 24 years, which ended in divorce in 1972. She attended individually, and later with her husband, the Foundry United Methodist Church in Washington, D.C., before joining the National Presbyterian Church in 1996. Articles at the time reported that the Doles stopped attending Foundry in 1995, finding the pastor at the time, J. Philip Wogaman, too liberal.
In 1975, she became a Republican. She took a leave from her post as a Federal Trade Commissioner for several months in 1976 to campaign for her husband for vice president of the United States, when he ran on the Republican ticket with Gerald Ford. She later resigned from the FTC in 1979, to campaign for her husband's 1980 presidential run. During the 1970s, Dole was a self-described member of the Women's Liberation Movement and helped reform laws to ensure equal credit for women. She was also a supporter of the Equal Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution.
Reagan Administration and Secretary of Transportation
She served as director of the White House Office of Public Liaison, from 1981 to 1983 and as United States Secretary of Transportation from 1983 to 1987 under Ronald Reagan. She was also appointed by Reagan to chair task forces that sought to reform federal and state laws to ensure equal rights for women. She was the first woman appointed Secretary of Transportation. In this role, she was the first woman to have served as the head of a branch of the United States Military, as the United States Coast Guard was under the Department of Transportation at the time. Dole's appointment was "particularly irritating" to conservative activists, since "though at least nominally opposed to abortion, [she was] viewed by the right as [an] aggressive feminist."
During her tenure, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, mandated the installation of a center high-mounted stop lamp on new cars; these are sometimes called "Liddy Lights" in her recognition. She worked with MADD (Mothers Against Drunk Driving) to pass laws withholding federal highway funding from any state that had a drinking age below twenty-one. The state government of South Dakota opposed the drinking age law and sued Dole in the case South Dakota v. Dole, but the Supreme Court ruled in favor of Dole. She oversaw the privatization of the national freight railroad, CONRAIL. She initiated random drug testing within the Department of Transportation.
Bush Administration and Secretary of Labor
Dole served as United States Secretary of Labor from 1989 to 1990 under George H. W. Bush; she is the first woman to serve in two different Cabinet positions in the administrations of two presidents. Her tenure as both U.S. Transportation Secretary and U.S. Labor Secretary focused heavily on improving public safety and workplace safety and health.
American Red Cross presidency
In 1991, Dole became the president of the American Red Cross. She served until 1999. She was the second woman to serve as president since Clara Barton founded the organization in 1881. She restructured the world's largest humanitarian organization during her eight years as president, serving as a volunteer in her first year. She also led a transformation of the way the Red Cross collects, tests, and distributes one-half of the nation's blood supply.
1996 Republican National Convention
Dole's husband Bob Dole was the Republican nominee in the US presidential election of 1996. Elizabeth Dole, who would have become First Lady had her husband won the election, or the Second Lady of the United States, had Gerald Ford won the 1976 election, received recognition for her speech at the 1996 Republican National Convention, during which she walked out into the audience while talking conversationally about her husband's qualities.
2000 United States Presidential candidacy
Elizabeth Dole ran for the Republican nomination in the 2000 United States presidential election.
Speculation of a presidential campaign became widespread after Dole announced her departure from her job as president of the Red Cross on January 4, 1999.
Dole announced she was forming an exploratory committee on March 10, 1999.
While Dole had been an active participant in her husband's campaign four years prior, he was largely absent from the campaign trail during her campaign.
In August, Dole placed thirdbehind George W. Bush and Steve Forbesin a large field in the Iowa Straw Poll (the first, non-binding, test of electability for the Republican Party nomination). The Iowa Straw Poll differed from the national polls where she was second only to Bush; Senator John McCain was in third place.
Dole withdrew from race in October 1999 before any of the primaries, largely due to inadequate fundraising even though a Gallup poll had her in second place in the presidential race at 11% behind George W. Bush at 60% as late as October 1999.
2000 vice presidential vetting
Shortly before the 2000 Republican National Convention in Philadelphia, Bush campaign sources said Elizabeth Dole was on the short list to be named the vice-presidential nominee, along with Michigan Governor John Engler, New York Governor George Pataki, Pennsylvania Governor Tom Ridge, and former Missouri Senator John Danforth. Many pundits believed that Dole was the frontrunner for the vice presidential nomination. Bush then surprised most pundits by selecting former U.S. Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney, who was actually in charge of leading Bush's search for a vice presidential nominee.
United States Senate career
Campaigns
In late December 2001, Dole shifted her official residency from the Doles' condominium in the Watergate complex to her mother's home in Salisbury to seek election to the U.S. Senate. The seat was made available by the retirement of Republican Jesse Helms. Although Dole had not lived regularly in North Carolina since 1959 and had been a resident of the Washington area for most of the time since the mid-1960s, the state and national Republican establishment quickly cleared the field for her. She handily won the Republican primary with 80 percent of the vote over a lesser-known candidate, Dr. Ada Fisher. In the November general election, she defeated her Democratic opponent Erskine Bowles, a former chief of staff to former President Bill Clinton, by an eight-point margin.
Her election to the Senate marked the first time a spouse of a former Senator was elected to the Senate from a different state from that of her spouse. (Although Kansas Senator Nancy Landon Kassebaum married former Tennessee Senator Howard Baker, the marriage occurred after Kassebaum and Baker both had finished their service in the Senate.) Dole was criticized by Democrats during her first Senate campaign over the fact that for over 40 years prior to her nomination, she had not lived in North Carolina.
In November 2004, following Republican gains in the United States Senate, Dole narrowly edged out Senator Norm Coleman of Minnesota for the post of chairman of the National Republican Senatorial Committee. She is the first woman to become chair of the NRSC. During her election cycle as chairperson, her Democratic Party counterpart, Senator Chuck Schumer raised significantly more money, and experienced more success in recruiting candidates. In the November election, Dole's party lost six U.S. Senate seats to the Democrats, thus losing control of the U.S. Senate. Dole was replaced as NRSC chair by Senator John Ensign of Nevada following the 2006 midterms.
2008 Senate re-election campaign
Dole was initially a heavy favorite for re-election, especially after several potential top-tier challengers such as Congressman Brad Miller, Governor Mike Easley and former Governor Jim Hunt all declined to compete against Dole. Ultimately, Kay Hagan, a state senator from Greensboro, won the Democratic primary election against Jim Neal and became Dole's general election opponent. Reports late in the campaign suggested that Dole suffered from Barack Obama's decision to aggressively contest North Carolina in the presidential election, while Hagan received substantial support from independent 527 groups lobbying/advertising against Dole, as well as the Democratic Senate Campaign Committee, which spent more money in North Carolina than in any other state during the 2008 election season. Dole undertook an eight-day "ElizaBus" tour of the state in the days leading up to election day.
In late October, Dole released a controversial television ad attacking Hagan for reportedly taking donations from individuals involved in the Godless Americans PAC, a group that advocates for the rights of people who do not believe in God. The ad also included a female voice saying, "There is no god." Hagan's campaign said the ad sought to put inflammatory words in their candidate's mouth. Hagan, who was a member of the Presbyterian Church and a former Sunday school teacher, condemned the ad as "fabricated and pathetic," and, according to Hagan's campaign website, a cease-and-desist letter was "hand-delivered to Dole's Raleigh office and to her home at the Watergate in Washington, DC." Hagan also filed a lawsuit in Wake County Superior Court accusing Dole of defamation and libel. The ad met significant criticism from some members of the public as well as national media outlets. After the first ad Hagan received over 3,600 contributions, including major donors as well as individual support from a range of persons who believed in the right to participate in civil government free of religious orthodoxy requirements. Following the second ad Hagan's lead doubled according to some polls.
In the 2008 election, Dole lost by a wider-than-expected margin, taking 44 percent of the vote to Hagan's 53 percent – the largest margin of defeat for an incumbent Senator in the 2008 cycle. It has been speculated that the outcry over the "Godless" ad contributed to Dole's loss. Hagan trounced Dole in the state's five largest counties – Mecklenburg, Wake, Guilford, Forsyth and Durham. Hagan also dominated most of the eastern portion of the state, which had been the backbone of Helms' past Senate victories. While Dole dominated the Charlotte suburbs and most of the heavily Republican Foothills region, it was not enough to save her seat.
Political positions
Dole's voting record was somewhat more conservative than that of her husband, though slightly less conservative than that of Helms. She has a lifetime rating of 92 from the American Conservative Union.
Dole worked with other senators such as Chuck Hagel to draft and attempt to pass legislation reforming housing financing regulation; the bill did not go up for a vote.
In September 2008, Dole joined the Gang of 20, a bipartisan group working towards comprehensive energy reform. The group is pushing for a bill that would encourage state-by-state decisions on offshore drilling and authorize billions of dollars for conservation and alternative energy.
As a member of the U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services, Dole is credited with helping to prevent any closures of North Carolina military bases despite threats from the Department of Defense. In 2007, she sponsored legislation which would have granted federal recognition of a North Carolina Native American tribe, the Lumbee based in Robeson County.
Committee assignments
Dole was a member of the following U.S. Senate committees:
U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services
Emerging Threats and Capabilities
Personnel
Readiness and Management Support
U.S. Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs
Financial Institutions
Housing, Transportation, and Community Development
Security and International Trade and Finance
U.S. Senate Select Committee on Aging
U.S. Senate Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship
After politics: Elizabeth Dole Foundation
In 2012, Dole established the Elizabeth Dole Foundation, dedicated to helping caregivers of "wounded warriors".
Dole commissioned the RAND Corporation to develop the first nationwide comprehensive, evidence-based report on the needs of military and veteran caregivers. The two-year study includes an environmental scan of available services, a gap analysis, and recommendations for meeting the enormous challenges of America's hidden helpers – the young spouses, mothers, fathers and other loved ones caring for those who cared for us. The study was generously supported by the Wounded Warrior Project, the Lilly Endowment, and the Cannon Foundation.
The Foundation selects military and veteran caregivers from each state to serve a two-year Fellowship with the Foundation. The Dole Fellows represent a vast array of military caregivers: spouses, parents, siblings and friends, and use their voice to help bring awareness on a national scale. The Foundation also has a National Coalition Program to bring together private and public entities to create substantial change.
Actor Tom Hanks joined the Foundation's Hidden Heroes Campaign to bring awareness to the over 5.5 million military caregivers across America who are facing enormous challenges every day caring for members of the military and gravely injured veterans.
Books
Author
The book was first released during Bob Dole's presidential candidacy. (re-release) Unlimited Partners: Our American Story. Simon & Schuster, 1996.
Dole, Elizabeth (2004) Hearts Touched by Fire: My 500 Most Inspirational Quotations. Carroll & Graf.
Subject
Lucas, Eileen (1998) Elizabeth Dole: A Leader In Washington. The Millbrook Press.
Wertheimer, Molly Meijer and Gutgold, Nichola D. (2004) Elizabeth Hanford Dole: Speaking from the Heart. Praeger Publishers. online
Charity work
Dole accepted no salary from the Red Cross during her first year as president of the organization.
Dole is an Honorary Board Member of the humanitarian organization Wings of Hope.
Awards
In 1995, Dole was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.
In 1999, Dole received the S. Roger Horchow Award for Greatest Public Service by a Private Citizen, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards.
In 2014, Dole was inducted into Indiana Wesleyan University's Society of World Changers for her humanitarian public service efforts.
In July 2018, Dole was honored with the 4th annual Leo K. Thorsness Leadership Award. Named after the Medal of Honor recipient, the award recognizes outstanding service to veteran communities.
Electoral history
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See also
List of female United States Cabinet Secretaries
Wedtech scandal
Women in the United States Senate
List of former FTC commissioners
Footnotes
External links
Senate Campaign website
Collected news and commentary from The New York Times
A Few Good Women... Elizabeth Dole
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1936 births
Elizabeth
20th-century American politicians
20th-century American women politicians
21st-century American politicians
American women lawyers
Daughters of the American Revolution people
Duke University Trinity College of Arts and Sciences alumni
Federal Trade Commission personnel
Dole, Elizabeth Hanford
Female United States senators
George H. W. Bush administration cabinet members
Harvard Graduate School of Education alumni
Harvard Law School alumni
Living people
North Carolina Republicans
People from Salisbury, North Carolina
Reagan administration cabinet members
Salisbury High School (North Carolina) alumni
Spouses of Kansas politicians
Candidates in the 2000 United States presidential election
United States Secretaries of Labor
United States Secretaries of Transportation
Republican Party United States senators from North Carolina
Women in North Carolina politics
Women members of the Cabinet of the United States
21st-century American women politicians
Nixon administration personnel
Ford administration personnel
Carter administration personnel
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical%20puzzle
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Mechanical puzzle
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A mechanical puzzle is a puzzle presented as a set of mechanically interlinked pieces in which the solution is to manipulate the whole object or parts of it. One of the most well-known mechanical puzzles is the Rubik's Cube, invented by the Hungarian architect Ernő Rubik in 1974. The puzzles are mostly designed for a single player where the goal is for the player to see through the principle of the object, not so much that they accidentally come up with the right solution through trial and error. With this in mind, they are often used as an intelligence test or in problem solving training.
History
The oldest known mechanical puzzle comes from Greece and appeared in the 3rd century BC.
The game consists of a square divided into 14 parts, and the aim was to create different shapes from these pieces. This is not easy to do. (see Ostomachion loculus Archimedius)
In Iran "puzzle-locks" were made as early as the 17th century AD.
The next known occurrence of puzzles is in Japan. In 1742 there is a mention of a game called "Sei Shona-gon Chie No-Ita" in a book. Around the year 1800 the Tangram puzzle from China became popular, and 20 years later it had spread through Europe and America.
The company Richter from Rudolstadt began producing large amounts of Tangram-like puzzles of different shapes, the so-called "Anker-puzzles" in about 1891.
In 1893, Angelo John Lewis, using the pen name "Professor Hoffman", wrote a book called Puzzles; Old and New. It contained, among other things, more than 40 descriptions of puzzles with secret opening mechanisms. This book grew into a reference work for puzzle games and modern copies exist for those interested.
The beginning of the 20th century was a time in which puzzles were greatly fashionable and the first patents for puzzles were recorded.
With the invention of modern polymers manufacture of many puzzles became easier and cheaper.
In 1993, Jerry Slocum founded the Slocum Puzzle Foundation, a non-profit organization dedicated to educating the public on puzzles through puzzle collecting, exhibitions, publications, and communications.
Categories
Assembly
In this category, the puzzle is present in component form, and the aim is to produce a certain shape. The Soma cube made by Piet Hein, the Pentomino by Solomon Golomb and the aforementioned laying puzzles Tangram and "Anker-puzzles" are all examples of this type of puzzle.
Furthermore, problems in which a number of pieces have to be arranged so as to fit into a (seemingly too small) box are also classed in this category.
The image shows an example of Hoffman's packing puzzle. The aim is to pack 27 cuboids with side lengths A, B, C into a box of side length A+B+C, subject to two constraints:
1) A, B, C must not be equal
2) The smallest of A, B, C must be larger than
One possibility would be A=18, B=20, C=22 – the box would then have to have the dimensions 60×60×60.
Modern tools such as laser cutters allow the creation of complex two-dimensional puzzles made of wood or acrylic plastic. In recent times this has become predominant and puzzles of extraordinarily decorative geometry have been designed. This makes use of the multitude of ways of subdividing areas into repeating shapes.
Computers aid in the design of new puzzles. A computer allows an exhaustive search for solution – with its help a puzzle may be designed in such a way that it has the fewest possible solutions, or a solution requiring the most steps possible. The consequence is that solving the puzzle can be very difficult.
The use of transparent materials enables the creation of puzzles, in which pieces have to be stacked on top of each other. The aim is to create a specific pattern, image or colour scheme in the solution.
For example, one puzzle consists of several discs in which angular sections of varying sizes are differently coloured. The discs have to be stacked so as to create a colour circle (red->blue->green->red) around the discs.
Pyramid puzzles
A pyramid puzzle consists of two or more component pieces which fit together to create a pyramid. Two-piece pyramid puzzles cannot form a regular pyramid and can only form a 4 faced tetrahedron pyramid.
The solution involves facing the square faces to each other and twisting one upright to complete the four faced tetrahedronic pyramid. There are also four-piece pyramid puzzles.
Disassembly
The puzzles in this category are usually solved by opening or dividing them into pieces. This includes those puzzles with secret opening mechanisms, which are to be opened by trial and error. Furthermore, puzzles consisting of several metal pieces linked together in some fashion are also considered part of this category.
The two puzzles shown in the picture are especially good for social gatherings, since they appear to be very easily taken apart, but in reality many people cannot solve this puzzle. The problem here lies in the shape of the interlocking pieces – the mating surfaces are tapered, and thus can only be removed in one direction. However, each piece has two oppositely sloping tapers mating with the two adjoining pieces so that the piece cannot be removed in either direction.
Boxes called secret boxes or puzzle boxes with secret opening mechanisms, extremely popular in Japan, are included in this category. These caskets contain more or less complex, usually invisible opening mechanisms which reveal a small hollow space on opening. There is a vast variety of opening mechanisms, such as hardly visible panels which need to be shifted, inclination mechanisms, magnetic locks, movable pins which need to be rotated into a certain position up and even time locks in which an object has to be held in a given position until a liquid has filled up a certain container.
Interlocking
In an interlocking puzzle, one or more pieces hold the rest together, or the pieces are mutually self-sustaining. The aim is to completely disassemble and then reassemble the puzzle. Both assembly and disassembly can be difficult – contrary to assembly puzzles, these puzzles usually do not just fall apart easily. The level of difficulty is usually assessed in terms of the number of moves required to remove the first piece from the initial puzzle. Later puzzles introduced elements of rotation.
The known history of these puzzles reaches back to the beginning of the 18th century. In 1803 a catalog by "Bastelmeier" contained two puzzles of this type. Professor Hoffman's puzzle book mentioned above also contained two interlocking puzzles.
At the beginning of the 19th century the Japanese took over the market for these puzzles. They developed a multitude of games in all kinds of different shapes – animals, houses and other objects – whereas the development in the western world revolved mainly around geometrical shapes.
With the help of computers, it became possible to analyze complete sets of games played. This process was begun by Bill Cutler with his analysis of all the Chinese wood knots. From October 1987 to August 1990 all the 35,657,131,235 different variations were analyzed by computer. With shapes different from the Chinese cross the level of difficulty reached levels of up to 100 moves for the first piece to be removed, a scale humans would struggle to grasp. The peak of this development is a puzzle in which the addition of a few pieces doubles the number of moves. Prior to the 2003 publication of the RD Design Project by Owen, Charnley and Strickland, puzzles without right angles could not be efficiently analyzed by computers.
Stewart Coffin has been creating puzzles based upon the rhombic dodecahedron since the 1960s. These made use of strips with either six or three edges. These kinds of puzzles often have extremely irregular components, which come together in a regular shape only at the last step. Furthermore, the 60° angles allow designs in which several objects have to be moved at the same time. The "Rosebud" puzzle is a prime example of this: in this puzzle 6 pieces have to be moved from one extreme position, in which they are only touching at the corners, to the center of the completed object.
Disentanglement
For puzzles of this kind, the goal is to disentangle a metal or string loop from an object. Topology plays an important role with these puzzles. The image shows a version of the derringer puzzle. Although simple in appearance, it is quite challenging – most puzzle sites rank it among their hardest puzzles.
Vexiers are a different sort of disentanglement puzzle – two or more metal wires, which have been intertwined, are to be untangled. They, too, spread with the general puzzle craze at the end of the 19th century. A large number of the Vexiers still available today originate in this period.
So-called ring puzzles, of which the Chinese rings are part, are a different type of Vexier. In these puzzles a long wire loop must be unsnarled from a mesh of rings and wires. The number of steps required for a solution often has an exponential relationship with the number of loops in the puzzle. The common type, which connects the rings to a bar with cords (or loose metal equivalents) has a movement pattern identical to the Gray binary code, in which only one bit changes from one code word relative to its immediate neighbor.
A noteworthy puzzle, known as the Chinese rings, Cardans' rings, the Baguenaudier or the Renaissance puzzle was mentioned in circa 1500 as Problem 107 of the manuscript by Luca Pacioli. The puzzle is again referred to by Girolamo Cardano in the 1550 edition of his book . Although the puzzle is a disentanglement-type puzzle, it also has mechanical puzzle attributes, and the solution can be derived as a binary mathematical procedure.
The Chinese rings are associated with the tale that in the Middle Ages, knights would give these to their wives as a present, so that in their absence they may fill their time. Tavern puzzles, made of steel, are based on forging exercises that provided good practice for blacksmith apprentices.
Niels Bohr used disentanglement puzzles called Tangloids to demonstrate the properties of spin to his students.
Fold
The aim in this particular genre of puzzles is to fold a printed piece of paper in such a way as to obtain a target picture. In principle, Rubik's Magic could be counted in this category. A better example is shown in the picture. The task is to fold the square piece of paper so that the four squares with the numbers lie next to each other without any gaps and form a square.
Another folding puzzle is folding prospectuses and city maps. Despite the often visible folding direction at the folding points it can be extraordinarily difficult to put the paper back into the form with which it originally came. The reason these maps are difficult to restore to their original state is that the folds are designed for a paper-folding machine, in which the optimum folds are not of the sort an average person would try to use.
Lock
These puzzles, also called trick locks, are locks (often padlocks) which have an unusual locking mechanism. The aim is to open the lock. If you are given a key, it will not open the lock in the conventional way. For some locks it may then be more difficult to restore the original situation.
Trick vessels
These are vessels "with a twist". The aim is to either drink or pour from a container without spilling any of the liquid. Puzzle containers are an ancient form of game. The Greeks and Phoenicians made containers which had to be filled via an opening at the bottom. In the 9th century a number of different containers were described in detail in a Turkish book. In the 18th century the Chinese also produced these kinds of drinking containers.
One example is the puzzle jug: the neck of the container has many holes which make it possible to pour liquid into the container, but not out of it. Hidden to the puzzler's eye, there is a small tubular conduit all the way through the grip and along the upper rim of the container up to the nozzle. If one then blocks the opening at the upper end of the grip with one finger, it is possible to drink liquid from the container by sucking on the nozzle.
Other examples include the fuddling cup and the pot crown.
Impossible objects
Impossible objects are objects which at first sight do not seem possible. The most well known impossible object is the ship in a bottle. The goal is to discover how these objects are made. Another well known puzzle is one consisting of a cube made of two pieces interlocked in four places by seemingly inseparable links. The solutions to these are to be found in different places. There are all kinds of objects which fit this description – "impossible bottles" which contain objects that are far too large, Japanese hole coins with wooden arrows and rings through them, wooden spheres in a wooden frame with far too small openings and many more.
The apple and arrow in the picture are made of one piece of wood each. The hole is in effect too small to fit the arrow through it and there are no signs of gluing.
Dexterity
The games listed in this category are not strictly puzzles as such, as dexterity and endurance are of more importance here. Often, the aim is to incline a box fitted with a transparent cover in just the right way as to cause one or more small balls to fall into holes.
Sequential movement
The puzzles in this category require a repeated manipulation of the puzzle to get the puzzle to a certain target condition. Well-known puzzles of this sort are the Rubik's Cube and the Tower of Hanoi.
This category also includes those puzzles in which one or more pieces have to be slid into the right position, of which the N-puzzle is the best known. Rush Hour or Sokoban are other examples.
The Rubik's Cube caused an unprecedented boom of this category. A large number of variants have been produced. Cubes of dimensions from 2×2×2 to 33×33×33 have been made, as well as many other geometric shapes such as tetrahedral and dodecahedral. With a varying orientation of the axis of rotation a variety of puzzles with the same basic shape can be created. Furthermore, one can obtain further cuboidal puzzles by removing one layer from a cube. These cuboidal puzzles take irregular shapes when they are manipulated.
The picture shows another, less well-known example of this kind of puzzle. It is just easy enough that it can still be solved with a bit of trial and error, and a few notes, as opposed to Rubik's Cube which is too difficult to just solve by trial.
Simulated mechanical
While many computer games and computer puzzles simulate mechanical puzzles, these simulated mechanical puzzles are usually not strictly classified as mechanical puzzles.
Other notable mechanical puzzles
Chinese Ring Puzzle: Recursive iron ring manipulation (ancient)
Nintendo Ten Billion Barrel: manipulate mechanically connected parts of a barrel
Hedgehog in the Cage: mechanical puzzle popular in the Czech Republic
See also
Bedlam cube
Miguel Ortiz Berrocal – produced many figurative and abstract puzzle sculptures
Puzzle ring
References
Puzzles Old & New, by Professor Hoffmann, 1893
Puzzles Old and New, by Jerry Slocum & Jack Botermans, 1986
New Book of Puzzles, by Jerry Slocum & Jack Botermans, 1992
Ingenious & Diabolical Puzzles, by Jerry Slocum & Jack Botermans, 1994
The Tangram Book, by Jerry Slocum, 2003
The 15 Puzzle, by Jerry Slocum & Dic Sonneveld, 2006
This article draws heavily on the corresponding article in the German Wikipedia.
Puzzles
|
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211757
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disentanglement%20puzzle
|
Disentanglement puzzle
|
Disentanglement puzzles (also called entanglement puzzles, tanglement puzzles, tavern puzzles or topological puzzles) are a type or group of mechanical puzzle that involves disentangling one piece or set of pieces from another piece or set of pieces. Several subtypes are included under this category, the names of which are sometimes used synonymously for the group: wire puzzles; nail puzzles; ring-and-string puzzles; et al. Although the initial object is disentanglement, the reverse problem of reassembling the puzzle can be as hard as—or even harder than—disentanglement. There are several different kinds of disentanglement puzzles, though a single puzzle may incorporate several of these features.
Wire-and-string puzzles
Wire-and-string puzzles usually consist of:
one piece of string, ribbon or similar, which may form a closed loop or which may have other pieces like balls fixed to its end.
one or several pieces of stiff wire
sometimes additional pieces like wooden ball through which the string is threaded.
One can distinguish three subgroups of wire-and-string puzzles:
Closed string subgroup: The pieces of string consist of one closed loop, as in the Baguenaudier puzzle. Usually the string has to be disentangled from the wire.
Unclosed loose string subgroup: The pieces of string are not closed, and are not attached to the wire. In this case the ends of the string are fitted with a ball, cube or similar which stops the string from slipping out too easily. Usually the string has to be disentangled from the wire. Sometimes other tasks have to be completed instead, such as shifting a ring or ball from one end of the string to another end.
Unclosed fixed string subgroup: The pieces of string are not closed, but are somewhere on its length attached to the wire. In these puzzles the string is not to be disentangled from the wire. One possible task may be to shift a ring or ball from one end of the string to another end.
One particularly difficult puzzle was designed by R. Boomhower in 1966 and has been modified into different designs (but topologically similar). Different versions include a paddle-shaped design, a vertical beam on a wood support, and two vertical beams on a wood support. Variations also have the string passing through the slot once or two times. Names have included the Boomhower puzzle, T-Bar puzzle, Wit's End puzzle, and the Mini Rope Bridge puzzle. Some sources identify a topologically-equivalent puzzle called the Mystery Key issued by the Peter Pan company in the 1950s.
Wire puzzles
Wire puzzles, or nail puzzles consist of two or more entangled pieces of more or less stiff wire, metal rods, or bent nails.
The pieces may or may not be closed loops. The closed pieces might be simple rings or have more complex shapes. Normally the puzzle must be solved by disentangling the two pieces without bending or cutting the wires.
Early wire puzzles were made from bent carpenter's nails, horseshoes, or similar material.
Plate-and-ring puzzles
A plate-and-ring puzzle usually consists of three pieces:
one plate or similar displaying many holes and/or indentations
a closed or nearly closed ring or a similar item.
The plate as well as the ring are usually made from metal. The ring has to be disentangled from the plate.
Puzzles with no solution
Some puzzles have been created which may appear deceptively simple, but are actually impossible to solve. One such puzzle is the "Notorious Figure Eight Puzzle" (also called the "Figure Eight Puzzle, or "Possibly Impossible"). It is sometimes sold with instructions giving hints as to its level of difficulty, and a "solution" is provided but is vague and impossible to follow, but the puzzle is actually impossible to solve.
Mathematical modeling
Most puzzle solvers try to solve such puzzles by mechanical manipulation, but some branches of mathematics can be used to create a model of disentanglement puzzles. Applying a configuration space with a topological framework is an analytical method to gain insight into the properties and solution of some disentanglement puzzles. However, some mathematicians have stated that capturing the important aspects of many such puzzles can often be difficult, and there is no universal algorithm that will provide the solution generally to such puzzles.
See also
Borromean rings, a method of linking three closed loops which is found in some disentanglement puzzles
Human knot
Tangloids
Unknotting problem
Unlink
References
Mechanical puzzles
Recreational mathematics
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongoose
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Mongoose
|
A mongoose is a small terrestrial carnivorous mammal belonging to the family Herpestidae. This family is currently split into two subfamilies, the Herpestinae and the Mungotinae. The Herpestinae comprises 23 living species that are native to southern Europe, Africa and Asia, whereas the Mungotinae comprises 11 species native to Africa.
The Herpestidae originated about in the Early Miocene and genetically diverged into two main genetic lineages between 19.1 and .
Etymology
The English word "mongoose" used to be spelled "mungoose" in the 18th and 19th centuries. The name is derived from names used in India for Herpestes species:
or in classical Hindi;
in Marathi;
in Telugu;
, and in Kannada.
The form of the English name (since 1698) was altered to its "-goose" ending by folk etymology. The plural form is "mongooses".
Characteristics
Mongooses have long faces and bodies, small, rounded ears, short legs, and long, tapering tails. Most are brindled or grizzly; a few have strongly marked coats which bear a striking resemblance to mustelids. Their nonretractile claws are used primarily for digging. Mongooses, much like goats, have narrow, ovular pupils. Most species have a large anal scent gland, used for territorial marking and signaling reproductive status. The dental formula of mongooses is .
They range from in head-to-body length, excluding the tail. In weight, they range from to .
Mongooses are one of at least four known mammalian taxa with mutations in the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor that protect against snake venom. Their modified receptors prevent the snake venom α-neurotoxin from binding. These represent four separate, independent mutations. In the mongoose, this change is effected, uniquely, by glycosylation.
Taxonomy
Herpestina was a scientific name proposed by Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1845 who considered the mongooses a subfamily of the Viverridae. In 1864, John Edward Gray classified the mongooses into three subfamilies: Galidiinae, Herpestinae and Mungotinae. This grouping was supported by Reginald Innes Pocock in 1919, who referred to the family as "Mungotidae".
Genetic research based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analyses revealed that the Galidiinae are more closely related to Madagascar carnivores, including the fossa and Malagasy civet. Galidiinae is presently considered a subfamily of Eupleridae.
Phylogenetic relationships
Phylogenetic research of 18 mongoose species revealed that the solitary and social mongooses form different clades.
The phylogenetic relationships of Herpestidae are shown in the following cladogram:
Extinct species
Atilax
†A. mesotes
Herpestes
†H. lemanensis
Leptoplesictis
†L. atavus Beaumont, 1973
†L. aurelianensis Schlosser, 1888
†L. filholi Gaillard, 1899
†L. mbitensis Schmidt-Kittler, 1987
†L. namibiensis Morales et al., 2008
†L. peignei, Grohé et al., 2020
†L. rangwai Schmidt-Kittler, 1987
†L. senutae Morales et al., 2008
Behaviour and ecology
Mongooses mostly feed on insects, crabs, earthworms, lizards, birds, and rodents. However, they also eat eggs and carrion.
Some species can learn simple tricks. They can be semi-domesticated and are kept as pets to control vermin.
Cultural significance
In ancient Mesopotamia, mongooses were sacred to the deity Ninkilim, who was conflated with Ningirama, a deity of magic who was invoked for protection against serpents. According to a Babylonian popular saying, when a mouse fled from a mongoose into a serpent's hole, it announced, "I bring you greetings from the snake-charmer!" A creature resembling a mongoose also appears in Old Babylonian glyptic art, but its significance is not known.
All mongoose species, except for Suricata suricatta, are classed as a "prohibited new organism" under New Zealand's Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996, preventing them from being imported into the country.
A well-known fictional mongoose is Rikki-Tikki-Tavi, who appears in a short story of the same title in The Jungle Book (1894) by Rudyard Kipling. In this tale set in India, a young pet mongoose saves his human family from a krait and from Nag and Nagaina, two cobras. The story was later made into several films and a song by Donovan, among other references. A mongoose is also featured in Bram Stoker's novel The Lair of the White Worm. The main character, Adam Salton, purchases one to independently hunt snakes. Another mongoose features in the denouement of the Sherlock Holmes story "The Adventure of the Crooked Man", by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. The Indian Tamil devotional film Padai Veetu Amman shows Tamil actor Vinu Chakravarthy changing himself into a mongoose by using his evil tantric mantra, to fight the goddess Amman. However, the mongoose finally dies at the hands of the goddess.
Mongoose species are prohibited to be kept as pets in the United States.
See also
List of herpestids
References
Further reading
External links
Extant Oligocene first appearances
Mammals of Africa
Mammals of Asia
Marathi terms
Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burr%20puzzle
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Burr puzzle
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A burr puzzle is an interlocking puzzle consisting of notched sticks, combined to make one three-dimensional, usually symmetrical unit.
These puzzles are traditionally made of wood, but versions made of plastic or metal can also be found. Quality burr puzzles are usually precision-made for easy sliding and accurate fitting of the pieces.
In recent years the definition of "burr" is expanding, as puzzle designers use this name for puzzles not necessarily of stick-based pieces.
History
The term "burr" is first mentioned in a 1928 book by Edwin Wyatt, but the text implies that it was commonly used before. The term is attributed to the finished shape of many of these puzzles, resembling a seed burr.
The origin of burr puzzles is unknown. The first known record appears in a 1698 engraving used as a title page of Chambers's Cyclopaedia. Later records can be found in German catalogs from the late 18th century and early 19th century. There are claims of the burr being a Chinese invention, like other classic puzzles such as the Tangram. In Kerala, India, these wooden puzzles are called edakoodam.
Six-piece burr
The six-piece burr, also called "Puzzle Knot" or "Chinese Cross", is the most well-known and presumably the oldest of the burr puzzles. This is actually a family of puzzles, all sharing the same finished shape and basic shape of the pieces. The earliest US patent for a puzzle of this kind dates back to 1917.
For many years, the six-piece burr was very common and popular, but was considered trite and uninteresting by enthusiasts. Most of the puzzles made and sold were very similar to one another and most of them included a "key" piece, an unnotched stick that slides easily out. In the late 1970s, however, the six-piece burr regained the attention of inventors and collectors, thanks largely to a computer analysis conducted by the mathematically trained puzzle designer Bill Cutler which was published by Martin Gardner in his "Mathematical Games column in Scientific American.
Structure
All six pieces of the puzzle are square sticks of equal length (at least 3 times their width). When solved, the pieces are arranged in three perpendicular, mutually intersecting pairs. The notches of all sticks are located within the region of intersection, so when the puzzle is assembled they are unseen. All notches can be described as being made by removing cubic units (with an edge length of half the sticks' width), as shown in the figure:
There are 12 removable cubic units, and different puzzles of this family are made of sticks with different units removed. 4,096 permutations exist for removing the cubic units. Of those, we ignore the ones that cut the stick in two and the ones creating identical pieces, and are left with 837 usable pieces. Theoretically, these pieces can be combined to create over 35 billion possible assemblies, but it is estimated that fewer than six billion of them are actual puzzles, capable of being assembled or taken apart.
Solid burr
A burr puzzle with no internal voids when assembled is called a solid burr. These burrs can be taken apart directly by removing a piece or some pieces in one move. Up until the late 1970s, solid burrs received the most attention and publications referred only to this type. 119,979 solid burrs are possible, using 369 of the usable pieces. To assemble all these puzzles, one would need a set of 485 pieces, as some of the puzzles include identical pieces.
Pieces types
For aesthetic, but mostly practical reasons, the burr pieces can be divided into three types:
Notchable pieces - with full notches running perpendicular to the long axis that can be made with a saw
Millable pieces - with no internal blind corners that can be made with a milling machine.
Non-notchable pieces - with internal corners that have to be made with a chisel or by gluing parts together.
59 of the usable pieces are notchable, including the unnotched stick. Of those, only 25 can be used to create solid burrs. This set, often referred to as "The 25 notchable pieces", with the addition of 17 duplicates, can be assembled to create 221 different solid burr puzzles. Some of those puzzles have more than one solution, for a total of 314 solutions. These pieces are very popular, and full sets are manufactured and sold by many companies.
Holey burr
For all solid burrs, one movement is required to remove the first piece or pieces. However, a holey burr, which has internal voids when assembled, can require more than one move. The number of moves required for removing the first piece is referred to as the level of the burr. All solid burrs are therefore level 1. The higher the level is, the more difficult the puzzle.
During the 1970s and 1980s, attempts were made by experts to find burrs of an ever-higher level. On 1979, the American designer and craftsman Stewart Coffin found a level-3 puzzle. In 1985, Bill Cutler found a level-5 burr and shortly afterwards a level-7 burr was found by the Israeli Philippe Dubois. In 1990, Cutler completed the final part of his analysis and found that the highest possible level using notchable pieces is 5, and 139 of those puzzles exist. The highest level possible for a six-piece burr with more than one solution is 12, meaning 12 moves are required to remove the first piece.
Three-piece burr
A three-piece burr made from sticks with "regular" right-angled notches (as the six-piece burr), cannot be assembled or taken apart. There are, however, some three-piece burrs with different kinds of notches, the best known of them being the one mentioned by Wyatt in his 1928 book, consisting of a rounded piece that is meant to be rotated.
Known families
Altekruse
The Altekruse puzzle is named after the grantee of its 1890 patent, though the puzzle is of earlier origin. The name "Altekruse" is of Austrian-German origin and means "old-cross" in German, which led to the presumption that it was a pseudonym, but a man by that name immigrated to America in 1844 with his three brothers to avoid being drafted to the Prussian Army and is presumed to be the one who filed this patent.
A classic Altekruse consists of 12 identical pieces. In order to disassemble it, two halves of the puzzle have to be moved in opposite directions. Using two more of these pieces, the puzzle can be assembled in a different way. By the same principle, other puzzles of this family can be created, with 6, 24, 36 and so forth. Despite their size, those bigger puzzles are not considered very difficult, yet they require patience and dexterity to assemble.
Chuck
The Chuck puzzle was invented and patented by Edward Nelson in 1897. His design was improved and developed by Ron Cook of the British company Pentangle Puzzles who designed other puzzles of the family.
The Chuck consists mostly of U-shaped stick pieces of various lengths, and some with an extra notch that are used as key pieces. For creating bigger Chuck puzzles (named Papa-chuck, Grandpapachuck and Great Grandpapachuck, by Cook) one would need to add longer pieces. The Chuck can also be regarded as an extension of a six-piece burr of very simple pieces called Baby-chuck, which is very easy to solve. Chuck pieces of different lengths can also be used to create asymmetric shapes, assembled according to the same principle as the original puzzle.
Pagoda
The origin of the Pagoda, also called "Japanese Crystal" is unknown. It is mentioned in Wyatt's 1928 book. Puzzles of this family can be regarded as an extension of the "three-piece burr" (Pagoda of size 1), however they do not require special notches to be assembled or taken apart. Pagoda of size 2 consists of 9 pieces, and bigger versions consist of 19, 33, 51 and so forth. Pagoda of size consists of pieces.
Diagonal burr
Though most burr puzzle pieces are made with square notches, some are made with diagonal notches. Diagonal burr pieces are square sticks with V-shaped notches, cut at an angle of 45° off the stick's Face. These puzzles are often called "stars", as it is customary to also cut the sticks' edges at an angle of 45°, for aesthetic reasons, giving the assembled puzzle a star-like shape.
See also
Disentanglement puzzle
References
Further reading
External links
- Previous edition of his book Geometric Puzzle Design.
- With hundreds of burr puzzles described.
Mechanical puzzles
Wooden toys
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxe-Coburg%20and%20Gotha
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Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
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Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (), or Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ( ), was an Ernestine, Thuringian duchy ruled by a branch of the House of Wettin, consisting of territories in the present-day states of Thuringia and Bavaria in Germany. It lasted from 1826 to 1918. In November 1918, Charles Edward, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was forced to abdicate. In 1920, the northern part of the duchy (since 1918 the Free State of Gotha; culturally and linguistically Thuringian) was merged with six other Thuringian free states to form the Free State of Thuringia: Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (until 1918 a grand duchy), Saxe-Altenburg and Saxe-Meiningen (until 1918 duchies), Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt and Schwarzburg-Sondershausen (until 1918 principalities), as well as the People's State of Reuss (until 1918 the principalities of Reuss-Gera and Reuss-Greiz). The southern part of the duchy (since 1918 the Free State of Coburg; culturally and linguistically Franconian), as southernmost of the Thuringian states, was the only one which, after a referendum, became part of the Free State of Bavaria.
The name Saxe-Coburg-Gotha also refers to the family of the ruling House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, which played many varied roles in the dynastic and political history of Europe in the 19th and 20th centuries. In the early part of the 20th century, before the First World War, it was the family of the sovereigns of the United Kingdom, Belgium, Portugal, Bulgaria, and Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. In 1910, the Portuguese king was deposed, and the same thing occurred in Saxe-Coburg-Gotha in 1918 and in Bulgaria in 1946. , branches of the family still reign in Belgium, the United Kingdom, and the other Commonwealth realms. The former Tsar of Bulgaria, Simeon II (reigned 1943–46), kept his surname while serving as the Prime Minister of Bulgaria from 2001 to 2005.
History
The Duchy was born when the arbitration of the King of Saxony, Frederick Augustus, produced the Treaty of Hildburghausen on 12 November 1826 for the Gothaische Teilung (Gothan Division), the extensive rearrangement of the Ernestine duchies. After the extinction of the Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg line, the Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen exchanged his Duchy for that of Saxe-Altenburg. The Saxe-Meiningen line became Saxe-Hildburghausen and got from Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld the Saalfelder territories as well as the District of Themar and the places of Mupperg, Mogger, Liebau and Oerlsdorf. The Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld received for that the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg, Districts of Königsberg and Sonnefeld from Saxe-Hildburghausen, and the properties of Callenberg and Gauerstadt from Saxe-Meiningen.
By then, the Principality of Lichtenberg, on the Nahe River, had already been a part of the Duchy of Coburg for ten years. Ernest III, the sovereign of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, had received it in 1816 from the Congress of Vienna for providing assistance to the Allies in their war against France. But, because of the great distance from Coburg and of the unrest caused by the Hambach Festival, the Duke sold the Principality in 1834 to Prussia.
The newly created Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha was initially a double duchy, ruled by Ernest III as Duke Ernest I in a personal union, but with only one vote in the Bundesrat. The opportunity to unify the two duchies in 1826 was missed. After the Staatsgrundgesetz (House laws) of 1852, the duchies were bound in a political and real union. They were then a quasi-federal unitary state. Later attempts to merge the duchies failed in 1867 because the Landtag of Gotha did not want to assume the higher state debts of Coburg and in 1872 because of the questions about the administration of the whole union.
The Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha received on 3 May 1852 a national constitution, which had taken substantial parts of the fundamental rights from the Constitution of the National Assembly in Frankfurt. It also joined the German Zollverein in 1834, the North German Confederation in 1866 and the German Empire in 1871. At the Bundesrat in Berlin, where it had a seat, it kept its agents but, since 1913, like most of the other Thuringian states, it had to defer to the Grand Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen for the representation.
Ernest I died in 1844. His elder son and successor, Ernest II, ruled until his own death in 1893. Because he had died childless, the throne of the two duchies would have passed to his late brother Prince Albert's male descendants. But Prince Albert was the husband of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and his eldest son, Edward, the Prince of Wales, was already her heir apparent. Besides, he was prohibited by the Constitutions of both duchies from inheriting the throne if there were other eligible male heirs. But he had already renounced his claim in favour of his next brother, Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh. So Alfred became the next Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.
Alfred's only son, also named Alfred, died in 1899, so when Duke Alfred died in 1900 he was succeeded by his nephew the Duke of Albany, the 16-year-old son of Queen Victoria's youngest son, Leopold, as Duke Alfred's next brother Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and his son Prince Arthur of Connaught had renounced their own claims to the succession. Reigning as Duke Carl Eduard, Charles Edward, because of his age, began under the Regency of Prince Ernst von Hohenlohe-Langenburg until he came of age in 1905. The new Duke also continued to use his British title, the Duke of Albany. But, because he chose to side with the Germans against the British in the First World War, he was stripped of his British titles in 1919.
After the November Revolution ended the monarchy in 1918, the two duchies became two different and independent states, the Free State of Coburg and the Republic (later Free State) of Gotha. But their leaders believed that their new countries were not economically feasible so they began to search for possible mergers. Eventually, a referendum was held on 30 November 1919 and the decision was made. On 1 May 1920 the Free State of Gotha merged with the new State of Thuringia and the Free State of Coburg followed two months later, on 1 July 1920, by uniting with the Free State of Bavaria.
Politics
In the German Empire, the Duchy had only one vote in the Bundestag and two votes (for the two Duchies of Coburg and Gotha) in the Reichstag.
Each Duchy had its own Landtag, elected every four years by male taxpayers over 25 years of age. Only males 30 years or older were eligible to stand for the elections. The Coburger assembly had 11 members and its twin in Gotha had 19. The assemblies met every year but, every two years, they would combine, alternatively in Gotha and Coburg, for the matters and questions that involve both Duchies.
For both duchies, however, there was a Ministry of State in Gotha but Coburg and Gotha had their own subordinate and almost independent ministries. The Minister of State directed Gotha's Ducal ministry but, for both Duchies, he was responsible for the state affairs, the economical and commercials policies, the judiciary and the conduct of Imperial laws. In Coburg, for state matters as such as community services, police duties, support of the state church, and education, as well as management of assets and finances, and also, until 1891, court matters, the local authorities could not interfere with the decisions from Gotha.
The finances of both Duchies remained basically disconnected. But, in their management, a distinction was always made between the Crown revenue from the domains and the State revenue from taxes and duties. Every four years, a common budget, especially in the financial dealings with the German Empire, was made, even if it interfered with the local and national operations of the two Duchies. Grants from the state budgets of both Duchies were made in the ratio of 7 to 3 between Gotha and Coburg.
Because of its size and finances, the Duchy did not have ambassadors but it did have trade consuls. They were for trade with Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Brazil, Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, France, Great Britain, Italy, Mexico, Peru, Portugal, Prussia, Russia, Spain, Switzerland, and Turkey. The United States had its own consul in Coburg from 1897 to 1918.
During the American Civil War, Ernst Raven was assigned to the position of consul in the state of Texas. He applied to the Confederate Government for a diplomatic exequatur on 30 July 1861 and was accepted.
Military
Before 1867, the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha had its own Army. But, on 26 June 1867, because of a treaty signed in 1866 with Prussia, its Army was added, for defending and recruiting purposes, to the 6th Thuringian Infantry Regiment No. 95 of the 22nd Division of the XIth Army Corps. Three battalions of the 6th Thuringian were assigned to Gotha (No. 1), Hildburghausen (No. 2) and Coburg (No. 3) but the Corps headquarters was in Kassel. Unlike Prussia, where military service was mandatory, Saxe-Coburg and Gotha filled its quota in the Imperial Army with the draft.
Miscellaneous
The capitals of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha were Coburg and Gotha. By 1914 the area and populations of the two duchies were:
There are two residences in Gotha and Coburg. Therefore, the whole ducal court, including the Court Theater, had to move twice a year: from Gotha to Coburg for the summer, from Coburg to Gotha for the winter. For the Court Theater, two almost identical buildings had to be built in 1840 in Gotha (destroyed in the Second World War) and Coburg (now the Coburg State Theater) and thereafter maintained at the same time. In addition to the residential castles, Friedenstein in Gotha and Ehrenburg in Coburg, the Ducal family also used the Schloss Reinhardsbrunn in Gotha as well as the Rosenau and Callenberg castles in Coburg and the hunting lodge Greinburg Castle, Grein, Austria (the latter two still today owned by the ducal branch of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha).
Only the Duchy of Gotha, along with nearby Duchies of Saxe-Meiningen and Saxe-Altenburg and especially the Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach – was able to be one of the sponsoring states of the University of Jena. Coburg did not have its own university. It did not have its court of law, either. Gotha had its own court of law while Coburg had to go to Meiningen for the legal administration.
Ruler
Titles and styles of the Sovereign of the House
According to the Staatsgrundgesetz (House laws) of the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the full title of the Duke was:
Wir, Ernst, Herzog zu Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha, Jülich, Cleve und Berg, auch Engern und Westphalen, Landgraf in Thüringen, Markgraf zu Meißen, gefürsteter Graf zu Henneberg, Graf zu der Mark und Ravensberg, Herr zu Ravenstein und Tonna usw.
Translation: We, Ernest, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Jülich, Cleves and Berg, also Angria and Westphalia, Landgrave in Thuringia, Margrave of Meissen, Princely Count of Henneberg, Count of the Mark and Ravensberg, Lord of Ravenstein and Tonna, et cetera.
Titles and styles of other members of the House
The use of Ducal and Princely titles may be restricted if the marriage conflicts with the requirements of the Staatsgrundgesetz or if a member of the House renounces his claims for himself and his descendants.
Dukes of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1826–1918)
Ernst I, Duke 1826–1844 (1784–1844)
Ernst II, Duke 1844–1893 (1818–1893)
Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1819–1861), married Queen Victoria Prince Albert Edward (1841–1910), Prince of Wales
Alfred, Duke 1893–1900 (1844–1900), 1st Duke of Edinburgh
Alfred, Hereditary Prince, (1874–1899)
Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught (1850–1942)
Prince Arthur of Connaught (1883–1938)
Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany (1853–1884)
Carl Eduard, Duke 1900–1918 (1884–1954), abdicated 1918
Heads of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1918–present)
Carl Eduard, Prince 1918–1954 (1884–1954), stripped of British title as 2nd Duke of Albany 1919
Johann Leopold, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1906–1972), surrendered rights 1932
Hubertus (1909–1943)
Friedrich Josias, Prince 1954–1998 (1918–1998)
Andreas, Prince 1998–present (born 1943)
Hubertus Michael, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (born 1975)
Prince Philipp of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (born 2015)
Prince Alexander Philipp of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (born 1977)
State Ministers of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1824–1919)
1824–1840 Christoph Anton Ferdinand von Carlowitz
1840–1840 Dietrich [Carl August] Freiherr von Stein (first time)
1840–1846 Georg Ferdinand von Lepel
1846–1849 Dietrich [Carl August] Freiherr von Stein (second time)
1849–1888 Camillo Freiherr von Seebach
1888–1891 Gisbert von Bonin
1891–1900 Office Vacant
1900–1905 [Philipp Hermann] Otto von Hentig
1905–1914 Ernst [Friedrich Hermann] von Richter
1914–1919 Hans Barthold von Bassewitz
See also
Ernestine duchies
Palais Coburg in Vienna
References
Bibliography
Dressel, Carl-Christian H., Die Entwicklung von Verfassung und Verwaltung in Sachsen-Coburg 1800–1826 im Vergleich(The Development and Comparison of the Constitution and Administration of Saxe-Coburg 1880 – 1826) (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 2007), , Subscription required.
Erdmann, Jürgen, Coburg, Bayern und das Reich 1918–1923 (Coburg, Bavaria and the Empire 1918–1923), Coburg, Druckhaus und Vesteverlag A. Rossteutscher, 1969, (Coburger Heimatkunde und Landesgeschichte Reihe 2, 22 (Coburger Studies of State and Local History Series 2, Nr 22), ZDB-ID 1151614-8) (simultaneously: University of Würzburg, Dissertation, 1969: Coburg in den Anfangsjahren der Weimarer Republik 1918–1923 (Coburg in the Beginning of the Weimar Republic Years 1918–1923))
Homann, Johann B[aptist]., Die Herzogtümer Gotha, Coburg und Altenburg 1729. Historische Karte (The Duchies of Gotha, Coburg and Altenburg 1729. Historical Maps), Tabula Geographica Principatus Gotha, Coburg, Altenburg (Geographical Maps of the Principalities of Gotha, Coburg and Altenburg 1729), Bad Langensalza, Verlag Rockstuhl, 1999, (reprint), .
Niclas, Thomas, Das Haus Sachsen-Coburg – Europas späte Dynastie (The House of Saxe-Coburg – Europe's Last Dynasty), Stuttgart, Kohlhammer Verlag, 2003, .
Sandner, Harold, Das Haus von Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha 1826 bis 2001 (The House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 1826 to 2001''), Coburg, Neue Presse GmbH, 2004. .
External links
The Ducal House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha – the official website of the house
The Catholic Encyclopedia: Saxe-Coburg and Gotha – article about the Duchy, written in 1910, with details about the religious issues
States and territories disestablished in 1918
States and territories established in 1826
States of the German Empire
Coburg and Gotha
Former states and territories of Bavaria
1826 establishments in Europe
1918 disestablishments in Germany
19th century in Germany by state
Real unions
States of the North German Confederation
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Anadyr
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Operation Anadyr
|
Operation Anadyr () was the code name used by the Soviet Union for its Cold War secret operation in 1962 of deploying ballistic missiles, medium-range bombers, and a division of mechanized infantry to Cuba to create an army group that would be able to prevent an invasion of the island by United States forces. The plan was to deploy approximately 60,000 personnel in support of the main missile force, which consisted of three R-12 missile regiments and two R-14 missile regiments. However, part of it was foiled when the United States discovered the plan, prompting the Cuban Missile Crisis.
Motivations
According to the memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet leader at the time, he and his defense minister, Rodion Malinovsky, were walking on a Black Sea beach in April 1962 and discussing the threat posed by the short flight time of US Jupiter missiles deployed in Turkey, which needed about 10 minutes to land in the Soviet Union. The disparity in number of warheads between the Soviet Union and the West was also being discussed when deploying missiles to Cuba took root in Khrushchev's mind as a way to compensate for these disadvantages. As Khrushchev put it, he saw the deployment of Soviet missiles in Cuba as "putting one of our hedgehogs down the Americans' trousers".
Initial plan
The initial deployment plan for Operation Anadyr was drafted by General Anatoly Gribkov and two of his assistants sometime after a meeting of the Soviet Defense Council on May 21, 1962, at which Khrushchev's basic idea was discussed and approved. Gribkov's plan included a main missile force of five regiments (including an R-12 regiment from 50th Rocket Army). Three would be armed with R-12 medium-range missiles and two armed with R-14 intermediate-range missiles; each regiment would also be equipped with eight launchers and 1.5 missiles per launcher. In support of this main force, the plan called for:
two regiments of FKR-1 cruise missiles equipped with 16 launchers and 80 tactical nuclear warheads
two antiaircraft divisions
a fighter regiment equipped with MiG-21s
four motorized rifle regiments, each with its own tank battalion
a brigade of twelve missile boats
The total personnel figure for the operation was 50,874. The forces required an estimated 85 transports to deploy: mostly freighters, but also some passenger liners. Malinovsky approved this deployment plan on July 4, and Khrushchev gave his final approval three days later.
The fighter regiment (40 MiG-21 aircraft) deployed was the 32nd Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment, from the Kubinka air base. It was renamed the 213th Fighter Aviation Regiment during the deployment.
On September 4, some of the surface-to-air antiaircraft missiles and missile boats (which deployed ahead of the main missile force) were spotted by US reconnaissance flights, and President John F. Kennedy issued a warning. In response, Khrushchev approved reinforcements:
six Il-28 bombers with a total of six 407H nuclear bombs at their disposal
three Luna battalions equipped with a total of twelve type 3N14 nuclear warheads
Since the main missile force had not yet been dispatched, these reinforcements would be shipped along with it.
Transport and deployment
Troops were transferred by 86 blockade runners, which conducted 180 voyages from ports at Baltiysk, Liepāja, Sevastopol, Feodosiya, Nikolaev, Poti, Murmansk, and Kronstadt.
Oleg Penkovsky, a double agent in the Soviets' GRU intelligence service working for the Central Intelligence Agency and Britain's MI6, provided details of the missile placements to the United States. A former GRU colonel who defected, Viktor Suvorov, wrote, "Historians will remember with gratitude the name of the GRU Colonel Oleg Penkovsky. Thanks to his priceless information, the Cuban crisis was not transformed into a last World War."
A Lockheed KH-5 Argon reconnaissance satellite was launched on October 9 from Vandenberg Air Force Base. On October 14, photographs were taken by a Lockheed U-2. On October 16, President Kennedy and the United States military command were informed of the presence of Soviet missiles in Cuba, and the Cuban Missile Crisis started.
Soviet denial and deception
Operation Anadyr was not only a missile and troop deployment, but also a complex denial and deception campaign. The Soviet attempt to position nuclear weapons in Cuba occurred under a shroud of great secrecy, both to deny the United States information on the deployment of the missiles and to deceive the United States' political leadership, military, and intelligence services on the Soviets' intentions in Cuba. The parameters of Anadyr demanded that both medium- and intermediate-range ballistic missiles be deployed to Cuba and operable before their existence was discovered by the United States, and the Soviet General Staff and political leadership turned to radical measures to achieve this.
Military deception
Perhaps the most fundamental deception in Operation Anadyr was the code name itself. To an American intelligence analyst poring over intercepted Soviet military communications, "Anadyr" would suggest anything but a movement of Soviet troops to the Caribbean. The Anadyr is a river that flows into the Bering Sea, and also the name of a Soviet district capital and a remote bomber base, both in the far north of the Soviet Union. Thus, both American analysts and rank-and-file Soviet soldiers, prone to starting rumors and leaking information, would most likely have expected the operation to be a military exercise in the northern vastness of the USSR.
In the early planning stages of Operation Anadyr, only five senior officers on the General Staff were privy to the details of the deployment or its actual location. They alone prepared every feature of the enterprise, enough work to keep scores of staff busy for weeks, but so stringent was the demand for secrecy that no one else was allowed into this small coterie. The plans were handwritten to deny knowledge of the operation to even a single secretary.
The logistical preparations for Anadyr were equally covert. Men and matériel were moved by railway to four northern ports and four on the Black Sea. Foreigners were barred from the ports during this period, and most loading occurred under the cover of darkness. Troops awaiting the voyage were restricted to barracks and denied contact with the outside world. The same restrictions were placed on the sailors of the transport ships. During the wait, Soviet soldiers kept busy by constructing false superstructures with plywood to hide the ships' defenses, and even on-deck field kitchens. Metal sheets were placed over missiles and missile launchers, which were too large to be stored below decks on most vessels, to prevent detection by infrared surveillance. Other military equipment was stored below decks. Agricultural equipment and other non-military machinery was placed on deck to add to the subterfuge. Once underway, the Soviet troops were not allowed on deck, except at night, and even then only in small groups.
Instructions to the troops and ship crews were carried by special couriers to prevent Western intelligence services from intercepting electronic communications regarding the operation. The ships' captains received their instructions, which revealed their final destination, only after they had put out to sea. The instructions were given to them by a KGB officer aboard who had been entrusted with the envelope prior to departure. Every vessel carried thick folders of information on various countries for the officers aboard to review. Only after the destination was revealed were they specifically instructed to study Cuba.
Soviet denial and deception measures were equally rigid upon the ships' arrival in Cuba. The vessels unloaded at eleven ports to complicate adversarial surveillance. While non-military equipment was unloaded in daylight, matériel with obvious military qualities was unloaded and transported to its end destination only at night. The same applied to major troop movements, and Soviet military positions were generally in sparsely populated areas of the island. The Soviet troops were even forbidden to wear their uniforms, in order to make the Soviet military presence deniable. Instead, they wore civilian attire. Simultaneously, as a false explanation for the presence of the men and equipment, the Soviet media trumpeted the massive agricultural assistance that the Soviets were ostensibly providing to their Cuban comrades.
Diplomatic deception
The Soviets employed an equally extensive array of diplomatic ruses to disguise their activities in Cuba. Khrushchev embarked on a tour of the Soviet republics in Central Asia for much of the duration of Anadyr. During this time, he explicitly avoided all hostile references to the United States.
The Soviet ambassador to the United States, Anatoly Dobrynin, was a primary instrument in transmitting diplomatic assurances that only defensive weaponry was being supplied to Cuba. On September 4, 1962, for instance, Dobrynin personally asked Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy to inform President Kennedy that no ballistic missiles or other offensive armaments had been transported to Cuba. Dobrynin was repeating a message from Khrushchev himself. Later, he would again deny the presence of Soviet missiles in Cuba.
A KGB officer posted at the Soviet embassy, Georgi Bolshakov, was another source of disinformation. Bolshakov met regularly with Robert Kennedy, who believed him to be an honest diplomat and a discreet communications channel to Khrushchev. Robert Kennedy seemed to personally trust Bolshakov, and President Kennedy came to rely on his information. Throughout the duration of Operation Anadyr, Bolshakov assured the Kennedy brothers that Moscow had no aspirations of turning Cuba into a forward strike base. Bolshakov lost their trust only when the president was shown photographs, taken by a Lockheed U-2 surveillance aircraft, of Soviet ballistic missiles on Cuban soil.
The Soviet media also disseminated misinformation to the public and the world's political leaders. On September 11, the Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union claimed that the USSR was supplying exclusively defensive weaponry to Cuba to deter American aggression, and that it had no need to place offensive weapons outside of its own soil. Pravda, the official newspaper of the Soviet Communist Party, even censored elements of a speech made by Cuba's leader, Fidel Castro, that hinted at the Soviets' ability to strike the United States from Cuba.
Kennedy was not the only president whom the Soviets attempted to deceive. They also fed false information to the Communist Party of Cuba, overstating the American threat to Cuba, to persuade Cuban leaders to allow Soviet nuclear weapons to be deployed to the island.
Some non-Soviets, however, were privy to accurate information regarding both the American threat and Soviet intentions. The KGB waged a deception campaign in support of Anadyr that involved feeding partially or even wholly correct information to the Cuban émigré community in Miami, Florida. The Soviets knew that information from Cuban exile organizations was perceived by the American intelligence services as highly unreliable. They assumed, correctly, that the Americans would discount warnings from the community as lies that the Cuban émigrés hoped would prompt an American invasion of Cuba and an overthrow of the Castro regime. This assessment was bitterly remembered by the Cuban exile community in the United States. Cuban expatriates, particularly the Truth About Cuba Committee, later condemned the Kennedy administration for its failure to perceive Soviet activities in Cuba despite accurate reports.
The Soviet denial and deception campaign was highly effective, but the eventual discovery of the missile emplacements, which occurred after they were operational, was almost inevitable. American imagery analysis of the Soviet vessels sailing for Cuba had proven fruitless; no indication that the ships carried anything other than non-military equipment was visible. Some American analysts speculated that some of the larger ships might be carrying nuclear-capable ballistic missiles in their holds, but no definitive evidence existed until those missiles were already on Cuban soil. Finally, on October 14, an American U-2 reconnaissance aircraft photographed Soviet ballistic missiles in Cuba. President Kennedy received the images two days later. On October 23, six Vought F-8 Crusader reconnaissance aircraft gathered clearer images from a lower altitude that provided definitive proof of the deployment of Soviet nuclear weapons. The following morning, President Kennedy authorized the blockade that began the actual crisis.
Operation Kama
One part of Operation Anadyr was Operation Kama, a plan to station seven Soviet ballistic missile submarines in Mariel, Cuba, much like the United States stations ballistic missile submarines in Holy Loch, Scotland. The operation began on October 1, 1962, with the departure of four diesel-electric attack submarines to the Caribbean Sea to clear the way. All four submarines were Project 641 boats, known to NATO as the Foxtrot class. The boats were the B-4 (known as Chelyabinski Komsomolets), the B-36, the B-59, and the B-130.
Kama failed independently of Anadyr, with none of the initially deployed attack submarines reaching Cuba. All four of the attack submarines were detected by the blockade of Cuba in the Sargasso Sea and followed closely by American destroyers and ASW aircraft. (Some of the destroyer crews harassed the Soviet submarines by dropping hand grenades overboard, making it clear that depth charges could follow at any time. One submarine had its rudder damaged and had to be towed back to the USSR.) The after-action report prepared by the Soviet Union's Northern Fleet Headquarters attributed the detection and pursuit of B-36 to the destroyer Charles P. Cecil, and the detection and pursuit of B-59 to a multitude of destroyers and carrier-launched planes. Three of the four submarines were forced to the surface by U.S. Navy ships. B-4 was detected by anti-submarine aircraft, but, unlike the other submarines, it had freshly recharged accumulator batteries. Because of this, it was able to remain submerged until it had evaded the pursuing destroyers.
All of the Soviet submarines experienced a wide range of equipment failures, with faulty cooling systems and damage to the ships themselves. Anatoly Petrovich Andreyev's diary entries describe constant dehydration and sweating in temperatures ranging from 37 °C to 57 °C , and infected rashes—due to lack of water for hygiene—were reported in 100% of personnel. The onboard freezers were overwhelmed, compromising much of the submarines' food supply. Some of them partially surfaced in an attempt to alleviate these problems, which increased the likelihood of detection. Operation Kama ended ignominiously, with three submarines forced to surface within visual range of American ships and the fourth unable to do anything beyond avoid capture.
References
Bibliography
External links
Michael Dobbs, "THE SOVIET PLAN TO DESTROY GUANTANAMO NAVAL BASE." Excerpt from "One Minute To Midnight Kennedy, Khrushchev and Castro on the Brink of Nuclear War"
Joe Matthews (13 October 2012) "Cuban missile crisis: The other, secret one", BBC
Soviet naval map of Foxtrot submarine locations off of Cuba, ca. October 1962
COMASWFORLANT (Commander, Anti-Submarine Warfare Forces, Atlantic) cable to AIG 43, October 29, 1962. The Underwater Cuban Missile Crisis: Soviet Submarines and the Risk of Nuclear War National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 399, October 24, 2012. National Security Archive. Retrieved March 31, 2015
Cuban Missile Crisis
Anadyr
Cold War intelligence operations
Cold War military history of Cuba
Cold War military history of the Soviet Union
Cold War history of the United States
Anadyr
Cuba–Soviet Union relations
Soviet Union–United States relations
1962 in the Soviet Union
1962 in Cuba
1962 establishments in Cuba
Cold War military equipment of Cuba
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20American%20XB-70%20Valkyrie
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North American XB-70 Valkyrie
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The North American Aviation XB-70 Valkyrie was the prototype version of the planned B-70 nuclear-armed, deep-penetration supersonic strategic bomber for the United States Air Force Strategic Air Command. Designed in the late 1950s by North American Aviation (NAA), the six-engined Valkyrie was capable of cruising for thousands of miles at Mach 3+ while flying at .
At these speeds, it was expected that the B-70 would be practically immune to interceptor aircraft, the only effective weapon against bomber aircraft at the time. The bomber would spend only a brief time over a particular radar station, flying out of its range before the controllers could position their fighters in a suitable location for an interception. High speed also made the aircraft difficult to see on radar displays and its high-altitude and high-speed capacity could not be matched by any contemporaneous Soviet interceptor or fighter aircraft.
The introduction of the first Soviet surface-to-air missiles in the late 1950s put the near-invulnerability of the B-70 in doubt. In response, the United States Air Force (USAF) began flying its missions at low level, where the missile radar's line of sight was limited by terrain. In this low-level penetration role, the B-70 offered little additional performance over the B-52 it was meant to replace, while being far more expensive with shorter range. Other alternate missions were proposed, but these were of limited scope. With the advent of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) during the late 1950s, manned bombers were increasingly seen as obsolete.
The USAF eventually gave up fighting for its production and the B-70 program was canceled in 1961. Development was then turned over to a research program to study the effects of long-duration high-speed flight. As such, two prototype aircraft, designated XB-70A, were built; these aircraft were used for supersonic test-flights during 1964–69. In 1966, one prototype crashed after colliding with a smaller aircraft while flying in close formation; the remaining Valkyrie bomber is in the National Museum of the United States Air Force near Dayton, Ohio.
Development
Background
In an offshoot of Boeing's MX-2145 manned boost-glide bomber project, Boeing partnered with RAND Corporation in January 1954 to explore what sort of bomber aircraft would be needed to deliver the various contemporary nuclear weapons under development. At the time, nuclear weapons weighed several tons, and the need to carry enough fuel to fly that payload from the continental United States to the Soviet Union demanded large bombers. They also concluded that after the release of the bombs, the aircraft would need supersonic speed to escape the critical blast-radius.
The aviation industry had been studying this problem for some time. From the mid-1940s, there was interest in using nuclear-powered aircraft in the bomber role. In a conventional jet engine, thrust is provided by heating air using jet fuel and accelerating it out a nozzle. In a nuclear engine, heat is supplied by a reactor, whose consumables last for months instead of hours. Most designs also carried a small amount of jet fuel for use during high-power portions of flight, such as takeoffs and high-speed dashes.
Another possibility being explored at the time was the use of boron-enriched "zip fuels", which improve the energy density of jet fuel by about 40 percent, and could be used in modified versions of existing jet engine designs. Zip fuels appeared to offer sufficient performance improvement to produce a strategic bomber with supersonic speed.
WS-110A
The U.S. Air Force (USAF) followed these developments closely, and in 1955 issued General Operational Requirement No. 38 for a new bomber, combining the payload and intercontinental range of the B-52 with the Mach 2 top speed of the Convair B-58 Hustler. The new bomber was expected to enter service in 1963. Both nuclear and conventional designs were considered. The nuclear-powered bomber was organized as "Weapon System 125A" and pursued simultaneously with the jet-powered version, "Weapon System 110A".
The USAF Air Research and Development Command's (ARDC) requirement for WS-110A asked for a chemical-fuel bomber with Mach 0.9 cruising speed and "maximum possible" speed during a entrance and exit from the target. The requirement also called for a payload and a combat radius of . The Air Force formed similar requirements for a WS-110L intercontinental reconnaissance system in 1955, but this was later canceled in 1958 due to better options. In July 1955, six contractors were selected to bid on WS-110A studies. Boeing and North American Aviation submitted proposals, and on 8 November 1955 were awarded contracts for Phase 1 development.
In mid-1956, initial designs were presented by the two companies. Zip fuel was to be used in the afterburners to improve range by 10 to 15 percent over conventional fuel. Both designs featured huge wing-tip fuel tanks that could be jettisoned when their fuel was depleted before a supersonic dash to the target. The tanks also included the outer portions of the wing, which would also be jettisoned to produce a smaller wing suitable for supersonic speeds. Both became trapezoidal wings after ejection, at that time the highest performance planform known. They also featured flush cockpits to maintain the highest fineness ratio possible in spite of its effects on visibility.
The two designs had takeoff weights of approximately with large fuel loads. The Air Force evaluated the designs, and in September 1956 deemed them too large and complicated for operations. General Curtis LeMay was dismissive, declaiming, "This is not an airplane, it's a three-ship formation." The USAF ended Phase 1 development in October 1956 and instructed the two contractors to continue design studies.
New designs
During the period that the original proposals were being studied, advances in supersonic flight were proceeding rapidly. The narrow delta was establishing itself as a preferred planform for supersonic flight, replacing earlier designs like the swept-wing and trapezoidal layouts seen on designs like the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter and the earlier WS-110 concepts. Engines able to cope with higher temperatures were also under development, allowing for sustained supersonic speeds.
This work led to an interesting discovery: when an engine was optimized specifically for high speed, it burned perhaps twice as much fuel at that speed than when it was running at subsonic speeds. However, the aircraft would be flying as much as four times as fast. Thus its most economical cruise speed, in terms of fuel per mile, was its maximum speed. This was entirely unexpected and implied that there was no point in the dash concept; if the aircraft was able to reach Mach 3, it may as well fly its entire mission at that speed. The question remained whether such a concept was technically feasible, but by March 1957, engine development and wind tunnel testing had progressed enough to suggest that it was.
WS-110 was redesigned to fly at Mach 3 for the entire mission. Zip fuel was retained for the engine's afterburner to increase range. Both North American and Boeing returned new designs with very long fuselages and large delta wings. They differed primarily in engine layout; the NAA design arranged its six engines in a semi-circular duct under the rear fuselage, while the Boeing design used separate podded engines located individually on pylons below the wing, like the Hustler.
North American scoured available literature to find any additional advantage. This led them to an obscure report by two NACA wind tunnel experts, who wrote a report in 1956 titled "Aircraft Configurations Developing High Lift-Drag Ratios at High Supersonic Speeds". Known today as compression lift, the idea was to use the shock wave generated off the nose or other sharp points on the aircraft as a source of high-pressure air. By carefully positioning the wing in relation to the shock, the shock's high pressure could be captured on the bottom of the wing and generate additional lift. To take maximum advantage of this effect, they redesigned the underside of the aircraft to feature a large triangular intake area far forward of the engines, better positioning the shock in relation to the wing. The six individually-podded engines were repositioned, three in each of two separate ducts, under the fuselage.
North American improved on the basic concept by adding a set of drooping wing-tip panels that were lowered at high speed. This helped trap the shock wave under the wing between the downturned wing tips. It also added more vertical surface to the aircraft to maintain directional stability at high speeds. NAA's solution had an additional advantage, as it decreased the surface area of the rear of the wing when the panels were moved into their high-speed position. This helped offset the natural rearward shift of the center of pressure, or "average lift point", with increasing speeds. Under normal conditions this caused an increasing nose-down trim, which had to be offset by moving the control surfaces, increasing drag. When the wing tips were drooped, the lifting area of the wings was lessened, moving the lift forward and reducing trim drag.
The buildup of heat due to skin friction during sustained supersonic flight had to be addressed. During a Mach 3 cruise, the aircraft would reach an average of , with leading edges reaching , and up to in engine compartments. NAA proposed building their design out of sandwich panels, with each panel consisting of two thin sheets of stainless steel brazed to opposite faces of a honeycomb-shaped foil core. Expensive titanium would be used only in high-temperature areas like the leading edge of the horizontal stabilizer, and the nose. For cooling the interior, the XB-70 pumped fuel en route to the engines through heat exchangers.
On 30 August 1957, the Air Force decided that enough data were available on the NAA and Boeing designs that a competition could begin. On 18 September, the Air Force issued operational requirements that called for a cruising speed of Mach 3.0 to 3.2, an over-target altitude of , a range of up to , and a gross weight not to exceed . The aircraft would have to use the hangars, runways and handling procedures used by the B-52. On 23 December 1957, the North American proposal was declared the winner of the competition, and on 24 January 1958, a contract was issued for Phase 1 development.
In February 1958, the proposed bomber was designated B-70, with the prototypes receiving the "X" experimental prototype designation. The name "Valkyrie" was the winning submission in early 1958, selected from 20,000 entries in a USAF "Name the B-70" contest. The Air Force approved an 18-month program acceleration in March 1958 that rescheduled the first flight to December 1961. But in late 1958 the service announced that this acceleration would not be possible due to lack of funding. In December 1958, a Phase II contract was issued. The mockup of the B-70 was reviewed by the Air Force in March 1959. Provisions for air-to-surface missiles and external fuel tanks were requested afterward. At the same time, North American was developing the F-108 supersonic interceptor. To reduce program costs, the F-108 would share two of the engines, the escape capsule, and some smaller systems with the B-70. In early 1960, North American and the USAF released the first drawing of the XB-70 to the public.
The "missile problem"
The B-70 was planned to use a high-speed, high-altitude bombing approach that followed a trend of bombers flying progressively faster and higher since the start of manned bomber use. Through that same period, only two weapons proved effective against bombers: fighter aircraft and anti-aircraft artillery (AAA). Flying higher and faster made it more difficult for both; higher speeds allowed the bomber to fly out of range of the weapons more quickly, while higher altitudes increased the time needed for fighters to climb to the bombers, and greatly increased the size of the AAA weapons needed to reach those altitudes.
As early as 1942, German flak commanders had already concluded that AAA would be essentially useless against jet aircraft, and began development of guided missiles to fill this role. Most forces reached the same conclusion soon after, with both the US and UK starting missile development programs before the war ended. The UK's Green Mace was one of the last attempts to develop a useful high-altitude AAA weapon, but its development ended in 1957.
Interceptor aircraft with ever-improving performance remained the only effective anti-bomber weapons by the early 1950s, and even these were having problems keeping up with the latest designs; Soviet interceptors during the late 1950s could not intercept the high-altitude U-2 reconnaissance aircraft, despite its relatively low speeds. It was later discovered that flying faster also made radar detection much more difficult due to an effect known as the blip-to-scan ratio, and any reduction in tracking efficiency would further interfere with the operation and guidance of fighters.
The introduction of the first effective anti-aircraft missiles by the late 1950s changed this picture dramatically. Missiles could stand ready for immediate launch, eliminating operational delays like the time needed to get the pilot into the cockpit of a fighter. Guidance did not require wide-area tracking or calculation of an intercept course: a simple comparison of the time needed to fly to the altitude of the target returned the required deflection. Missiles also had greater altitude capability than any aircraft and improving this to adapt to new aircraft was a low-cost development path. The US was aware of Soviet work in the field, and had reduced the expected operational lifetime of the U-2, knowing that it would become vulnerable to these missiles as they were improved. In 1960, a U-2 flown by Gary Powers was shot down by one of the earliest Soviet guided air-defence missiles, the S-75 Dvina, known in the west as the SA-2 Guideline.
Faced with this problem, military doctrine had already started shifting away from high-altitude supersonic bombing toward low-altitude penetration. Radar is line-of-sight, so aircraft could dramatically shorten detection distances by flying close to the Earth and hiding behind terrain. Missile sites spaced to overlap in range when attacking bombers at high altitudes would leave large gaps between their coverage for bombers flying at lower levels. With an appropriate map of the missile sites, the bombers could fly between and around the defenses. Additionally, early missiles generally flew unguided for a period of time before the radar systems were able to track the missile and start sending it guidance signals. With the SA-2 missile, this minimum altitude was roughly .
Flying at low level provided protection against fighters as well. Radars of the era did not have the ability to look down (see look-down/shoot-down); if a higher altitude aircraft's radar was aimed down to detect targets at a lower altitude, the reflection of the ground would overwhelm the signal returned from a target. An interceptor flying at normal altitudes would be effectively blind to bombers far below it. The interceptor could descend to lower altitudes to increase the amount of visible sky, but doing so would limit its radar range in the same way as the missile sites, as well as greatly increasing fuel use and thus reducing mission time. The Soviet Union would not introduce an interceptor with look-down capability until 1972 with the High Lark radar in the MiG-23M, and even this model had very limited capability.
Strategic Air Command found itself in an uncomfortable position; bombers had been tuned for efficiency at high speeds and altitudes, performance that had been purchased at great cost in both engineering and financial terms. Before the B-70 was to replace the B-52 in the long-range role, SAC had introduced the B-58 Hustler to replace the Boeing B-47 Stratojet in the medium-range role. The Hustler was expensive to develop and purchase, and required enormous amounts of fuel and maintenance in comparison to the B-47. It was estimated that it cost three times as much to operate as the much larger and longer-ranged B-52.
The B-70, designed for even higher speeds, altitudes and range than the B-58, suffered even more in relative terms. At high altitudes, the B-70 was as much as four times as fast as the B-52, but at low altitudes it was limited to only Mach 0.95, only modestly faster than the B-52 at the same altitudes. It also had a smaller bombload and shorter range. Its only major advantage would be its ability to use high speed in areas without missile cover, especially on the long journey from the US to USSR. The value was limited; the USAF's doctrine stressed that the primary reason for maintaining the bomber force in an era of ICBMs was that the bombers could remain in the air at long ranges from their bases and were thus immune to sneak attack. In this case, the higher speed would be used for only a short period of time between the staging areas and the Soviet coastline.
Adding to the problems, the zip fuel program was canceled in 1959. After burning, the fuel turned into liquids and solids that increased wear on moving turbine engine components. Although the B-70 was intended to use zip only in the afterburners, and thus avoid this problem, the enormous cost of the zip program for such limited gains led to its cancellation. This by itself was not a fatal problem, however, as newly developed high-energy fuels like JP-6 were available to make up some of the difference. Most of the range lost in the change from zip fuel was restored by filling one of the two bomb bays with a fuel tank. However, another problem arose when the XF-108 program was canceled in September 1959, which ended the shared development that benefited the B-70 program.
Downsizing, upswing, cancellation
At two secret meetings on 16 and 18 November 1959, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Air Force General Twining, recommended the Air Force's plan for the B-70 to reconnoiter and strike rail-mobile Soviet ICBMs, but the Chief of Staff of the Air Force, General White, admitted the Soviets would "be able to hit the B-70 with rockets" and requested the B-70 be downgraded to "a bare minimum research and development program" at $200 million for fiscal year 1960 (equivalent to $ billion today). President Eisenhower responded that the reconnaissance and strike mission was "crazy" since the nuclear mission was to attack known production and military complexes, and emphasized that he saw no need for the B-70 since the ICBM is "a cheaper, more effective way of doing the same thing". Eisenhower also identified that the B-70 would not be in manufacturing until "eight to ten years from now" and "said he thought we were talking about bows and arrows at a time of gunpowder when we spoke of bombers in the missile age". In December 1959 the Air Force announced the B-70 project would be cut to a single prototype, and most of the planned B-70 subsystems would no longer be developed.
Then interest increased due to the politics of presidential campaign of 1960. A central plank of John F. Kennedy's campaign was that Eisenhower and the Republicans were weak on defense, and pointed to the B-70 as an example. He told a San Diego audience near NAA facilities, "I endorse wholeheartedly the B-70 manned aircraft." Kennedy also made similar campaign claims regarding other aircraft: near the Seattle Boeing plant he affirmed the need for B-52s and in Fort Worth he praised the B-58.
The Air Force changed the program to full weapon development and awarded a contract for an XB-70 prototype and 11 YB-70s in August 1960. In November 1960, the B-70 program received a $265 million (equivalent to $ billion today) appropriation from Congress for FY 1961. Nixon, trailing in his home state of California, also publicly endorsed the B-70, and on 30 October Eisenhower helped the Republican campaign with a pledge of an additional $155 million ($ billion today) for the B-70 development program.
On taking office in January 1961, Kennedy was informed that the missile gap was an illusion. On 28 March 1961, after $800 million (equivalent to $ billion today) had been spent on the B-70 program, Kennedy canceled the project as "unnecessary and economically unjustifiable" because it "stood little chance of penetrating enemy defenses successfully." Instead, Kennedy recommended "the B-70 program be carried forward essentially to explore the problem of flying at three times the speed of sound with an airframe potentially useful as a bomber." After Congress approved $290 million ($ billion today) of B-70 "add-on" funds to the President's 12 May 1960 modified FY 1961 budget, the Administration decided on a "Planned Usage" of only $100 million ($ million today) of these funds. The Department of Defense subsequently presented data to Congress that the B-70 would add little performance for the high cost.
However, after becoming the new Air Force Chief of Staff in July 1961, Curtis LeMay increased his B-70 advocacy, including interviews for August Reader's Digest and November Aviation Week articles, and allowing a 25 February General Electric tour at which the press was provided artist conceptions of, and other info about, the B-70. Congress had also continued B-70 appropriations in an effort to resurrect bomber development. After Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara explained again to the House Armed Services Committee (HASC) on 24 January 1962 that the B-70 was unjustifiable, LeMay subsequently argued for the B-70 to both the House and Senate committees—and was chastised by McNamara on 1 March. By 7 March 1962, the HASC—with 21 members having B-70 work in their districts—had written an appropriations bill to "direct"—by law—the Executive Branch to use all of the nearly $500 million (equivalent to $ billion today) appropriated for the RS-70. McNamara was unsuccessful with an address to the HASC on 14 March, but a 19 March 1962 11th hour White House Rose Garden agreement between Kennedy and HASC chairman Carl Vinson retracted the bill's language and the bomber remained canceled.
Experimental aircraft
The XB-70s were intended to be used for the advanced study of aerodynamics, propulsion, and other subjects related to large supersonic transports. The crew was reduced to only the two pilots, as a navigator and a bombardier were not needed for this research role. The production order was reduced to three prototypes in March 1961 with the third aircraft to incorporate improvements from the previous prototype. The order was later reduced to two experimental XB-70As, named Air Vehicle 1 and 2 (AV-1 and AV-2). XB-70 No. 1 was completed on 7May 1964, and rolled out on 11May 1964 at Palmdale, California. One report stated "nothing like it existed anywhere". AV-2 was completed on 15 October 1964. The manufacture of the third prototype (AV-3) was canceled in July 1964 before completion. The first XB-70 carried out its maiden flight in September 1964 and many more test flights followed.
The data from the XB-70 test flights and aerospace materials development were used in the later B-1 bomber program, the American supersonic transport (SST) program, and via espionage, the Soviet Union's Tupolev Tu-144 SST program. The development of the Lockheed U-2 and the SR-71 Blackbird reconnaissance aircraft, as well as the XB-70, prompted Soviet aerospace engineers to design and develop their high-altitude and high-speed MiG-25 interceptor.
Design
The Valkyrie was designed to be a high-altitude Mach 3 bomber with six engines. Harrison Storms shaped the aircraft with a canard surface and a delta wing, which was built largely of stainless steel, sandwiched honeycomb panels, and titanium. The XB-70 was designed to use supersonic technologies developed for the Mach 3 SM-64 Navaho, as well as a modified form of the Navaho's inertial guidance system.
The XB-70 used compression lift, which resulted from a shock wave generated by the leading edge of the engine intake splitter below the apex of the wing. At Mach 3 cruising speed, the shock wave is bent back about 65 degrees and the wing is superimposed on the shock system which has a pressure 40 pounds per square foot higher under the aircraft than in front of the shock. The compression lift provided five percent of the total lift. Camber was added to the wing leading edge inboard of the folding tips to improve subsonic handling and reduce supersonic drag. The outer portions of the wings were hinged to pivot downward by 65 degrees, acting as a type of variable-geometry wingtip device. This increased the aircraft's directional stability at supersonic speeds, shifted the center of pressure to a more favorable position at high speeds, and caused the shock originating at the intake splitter to reflect from the vertical tip surface giving additional compression lift.
Like a number of other delta-wing aircraft designed for supersonic speeds (Concorde, Tu-144, FD2), the Valkyrie needed a feature to improve the pilot's view during nose-high low-speed flight and on the ground. An outer windshield and ramp, which could be lowered, was provided enabling viewing through the fixed cockpit windshield. With the ramp raised into its high-speed position, the forebody was more streamlined. A system that used air from the engine compressors was used for windshield anti-ice and rain removal. The lower forward section included a radar bay, and production machines were to be equipped with a refueling receptacle on the upper surface of the forward fuselage.
The XB-70 was equipped with six General Electric YJ93-GE-3 turbojet engines, which used JP-6 jet fuel, specially formulated for the mission requirements. The engine was stated to be in the "30,000-pound class", but actually produced with afterburner and without afterburner. The Valkyrie used fuel for cooling; it was pumped through heat exchangers before reaching the engines. To reduce the likelihood of autoignition, nitrogen was injected into the JP-6 during refueling, and the "fuel pressurization and inerting system" vaporized a supply of liquid nitrogen to fill the fuel tank vent space and maintain tank pressure.
Operational history
The XB-70's maiden flight was on 21 September 1964. In the first flight test, between Palmdale and Edwards AFB, one engine had to be shut down shortly after take-off, and an undercarriage malfunction warning meant that the flight was flown with the undercarriage down as a precaution, limiting speed to 390 mph – about half that planned. During landing, the rear wheels of the port side main gear locked, the tires ruptured, and a fire started.
The Valkyrie first became supersonic (Mach 1.1) on the third test flight on 12 October 1964, and flew above Mach 1 for 40 minutes during the following flight on 24 October. The wing tips were also lowered partially in this flight. XB-70 No. 1 surpassed Mach 3 on 14 October 1965 by reaching Mach 3.02 at . The first aircraft was found to suffer from weaknesses in the honeycomb panels, primarily due to inexperience with fabrication and quality control of this new material. On two occasions, honeycomb panels failed and were torn off during supersonic flight, necessitating a Mach 2.5 limit being placed on the aircraft.
The deficiencies discovered on AV-1 were almost completely solved on the second XB-70, which first flew on 17 July 1965. On 3 January 1966, XB-70 No. 2 attained a speed of Mach 3.05 while flying at . AV-2 reached a top speed of Mach 3.08 and maintained it for 20 minutes on 12 April 1966. On 19 May 1966, AV-2 reached Mach 3.06 and flew at Mach 3 for 32 minutes, covering in 91 minutes of total flight.
A joint NASA/USAF research program was conducted from 3 November 1966 to 31 January 1967 for measuring the intensity and signature of sonic booms for the National Sonic Boom Program. Testing was planned to cover a range of sonic boom overpressures on the ground similar to but higher than those anticipated from the proposed American SST. In 1966, AV-2 was selected for the program and was outfitted with test sensors. It flew the first sonic boom test on 6 June 1966, attaining a speed of Mach 3.05 at . Two days later, AV-2 crashed following a mid-air collision with an F-104 while flying in a multi-aircraft formation. Sonic boom and later testing continued with XB-70A #1.
The second flight research program (NASA NAS4-1174) investigated "control of structural dynamics" from 25 April 1967 through the XB-70's last flight in 1969. At high altitude and high speed, the XB-70A experienced unwanted changes in altitude. NASA testing from June 1968 included two small vanes on the nose of AV-1 for measuring the response of the aircraft's stability augmentation system. AV-1 flew a total of 83 flights.
The XB-70's last supersonic flight took place on 17 December 1968. On 4 February 1969, AV-1 took its final flight to Wright-Patterson Air Force Base for museum display (now the National Museum of the United States Air Force). Flight data was collected on this subsonic trip. North American Rockwell completed a four-volume report on the B-70 that was published by NASA in April 1972.
Variants
XB-70A
Prototype of B-70. Two were built.
AV-1, NAA Model Number NA-278, USAF S/N 62-0001, completed 83 flights spanning 160 hours and 16 minutes.
AV-2, NAA Model Number NA-278, USAF S/N 62-0207, flew 46 times over 92 hours and 22 minutes, before it crashed in June 1966.
XB-70B
AV-3, NAA Model Number NA-274, USAF S/N 62-0208, was originally to be the first YB-70A in March 1961. This advanced prototype was canceled during early manufacture.
YB-70
Planned preproduction version with improvements based on XB-70s.
B-70A
Planned bomber production version of Valkyrie. A fleet of up to 65 operational bombers was planned.
RS-70
Proposed reconnaissance-strike version with a crew of four and in-flight refueling capability.
Incidents and accidents
Accidents and notable incidents
On 7 May 1965, a three-foot piece of the apex of the wing broke off in flight and caused extensive damage to five of the six engines. They were sent to GE and repaired. The sixth engine was inspected and re-installed in the aircraft.
On 14 October 1965, AV-1 surpassed Mach 3, but heat and stress damaged the honeycomb panels, leaving of the leading edge of the left wing missing. The first aircraft was limited to Mach 2.5 afterwards.
Mid-air collision
On 8 June 1966, XB-70A No. 2 was in close formation with four other aircraft (an F-4 Phantom, an F-5, a T-38 Talon, and an F-104 Starfighter) for a photoshoot at the behest of General Electric, manufacturer of the engines of all five aircraft. After the photoshoot, the F-104 drifted into the XB-70's right wingtip, flipped and rolled inverted over the top of the Valkyrie, before striking the bomber's vertical stabilizers and left wing. The F-104 then exploded, destroying the Valkyrie's vertical stabilizers and damaging its left wing. Despite the loss of both vertical stabilizers and damage to the wings, the Valkyrie flew straight for 16 seconds before it entered an uncontrollable spin and crashed north of Barstow, California. NASA Chief Test Pilot Joe Walker (F-104 pilot) and Carl Cross (XB-70 co-pilot) were killed. Al White (XB-70 pilot) ejected, sustaining serious injuries, including the crushing of his arm by the closing clamshell-like escape crew capsule moments prior to ejection.
The USAF summary report of the accident investigation stated that, given the position of the F-104 relative to the XB-70, Walker, the F-104 pilot, would not have been able to see the XB-70's wing, except by uncomfortably looking back over his left shoulder. The report said that it was likely that Walker maintained his position by looking at the fuselage of the XB-70, forward of his position. The F-104 was estimated to be to the side of the fuselage of the XB-70 and below. The report concluded that from that position, without appropriate sight cues, Walker was unable to properly perceive his motion relative to the Valkyrie, leading to his aircraft drifting into the XB-70's wing. The accident investigation also pointed to the wake vortex from the XB-70's right wingtip as the reason for the F-104's sudden roll over and into the bomber.
Aircraft on display
Valkyrie AV-1 (AF Ser. No. 62-0001) is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB near Dayton, Ohio. The aircraft was flown to the museum on 4 February 1969, following the conclusion of the XB-70 testing program. The Valkyrie became the museum's signature aircraft, appearing on Museum letterhead, and even appearing as the chief design feature for the Museum's restaurant, the Valkyrie Cafe. In 2011, the XB-70 was on display in the museum's Research & Development Hangar alongside other experimental aircraft. After completion of the fourth hangar at the museum's main campus, the XB-70 was moved there in late October 2015.
Specifications (XB-70A)
See also
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
Conway, Erik M. High-speed Dreams: NASA and the Technopolitics of Supersonic Transportation, 1945–1999. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005. .
"Fundamentals of Aerospace Weapon Systems". Air University, Maxwell AFB, May 1961.
Greenwood, John T. (ed). Milestones of Aviation: National Air and Space Museum. Westport, Connecticut: Hugh Lauter Levin Associates, Inc., 1995 (first published: 1989). .
Hannah, Craig. Striving for Air Superiority: The Tactical Air Command in Vietnam. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 2002, First edition 2001.
Heppenheimer, T. A. Facing the Heat Barrier: A History of Hypersonics, part 1, "part 2". NASA, NASA History Series, 2006. Retrieved: 6 April 2009.
Jenkins, Dennis R. B-1 Lancer, The Most Complicated Warplane Ever Developed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999. .
Jenkins, Dennis R. Lockheed SR-71/YF-12 Blackbirds (WarbirdTech Series, Volume 10). North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 1997. .
Jenkins, Dennis R. and Tony R. Landis. North American XB-70A Valkyrie WarbirdTech Volume 34. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2002. .
Jenkins, Dennis R. and Tony R. Landis. Valkyrie: North American's Mach 3 Superbomber. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2005. .
Lang, Walt N. United States Military Almanac. New York: Random House, 1989. .
Knaack, Marcelle Size. Post-World War II bombers, 1945–1973. Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History, 1988. .
Koenig, William and Peter Scofield. Soviet Military Power. London: Arms and Armour Press, 1983. .
Machat, Mike. "XB-70 Valkyrie: Rollout and First Flights, May 1964 – June 1966." Wings Volume 35, No. 8, August 2005.
Miller, Jay. Convair B-58 Hustler (Aerograph 4). Tulsa, Oklahoma: Aerofax, 1985. .
Moon, Howard. Soviet SST: The Techno-Politics of the Tupolev-144. Westminster, Maryland: Orion Books, 1989. .
Pedlow, Gregory W. and Donald E. Welzenbach. "Chapter 6: The U-2's Intended Successor: Project Oxcart, 1956–1968". The Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance: The U-2 and OXCART Programs, 1954–1974. Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 1992. No ISBN.
Pace, Steve. North American XB-70 Valkyrie, second edition. Blue Ridge Summit, Pennsylvania: TAB Books, 1990. .
Pace, Steve. "Triplesonic Twosome". Wings Volume 18, No. 1, February 1988.
Rees, Ed. "The Furor Over Fantastic Plane". Life, 17 October 1960, pp. 125–126.
Spick, Mike. Modern Fighting Aircraft: B-1B. New York: Prentice Hall, 1986. .
Taube, L.J., Study Manager. "SD 72-SH-0003, B-70 Aircraft Study Final Report, Vol. I". North American Rockwell via NASA, April 1972: Vol. II: Vol. III: Vol. IV.
von Braun Wernher (Estate of), Frederick I. Ordway III and David Jr. Dooling. Space Travel: A History. New York: Harper & Row, 1985, first edition, 1975. .
Winchester, Jim. "North American XB-70 Valkyrie". Concept Aircraft: Prototypes, X-Planes and Experimental Aircraft. Kent, UK: Grange Books plc., 2005. .
York, Herbert Jr. Race to Oblivion: A Participant's View of the Arms Race. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1978. .
Further reading
External links
Cancelled military aircraft projects of the United States
Canard aircraft
Delta-wing aircraft
XB-70
1960s United States bomber aircraft
Six-engined jet aircraft
NASA aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1964
Variable-geometry-wing aircraft
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crypt
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Crypt
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A crypt (from Latin crypta "vault") is a stone chamber beneath the floor of a church or other building. It typically contains coffins, sarcophagi, or religious relics.
Originally, crypts were typically found below the main apse of a church, such as at the Abbey of Saint-Germain en Auxerre, but were later located beneath chancel, naves and transepts as well. Occasionally churches were raised high to accommodate a crypt at the ground level, such as St Michael's Church in Hildesheim, Germany.
Etymology
The word "Crypt" developed as an alternative form of the Latin "vault" as it was carried over into Late Latin, and came to refer to the ritual rooms found underneath church buildings. It also served as a vault for storing important and/or sacred items.
The word "Crypta", however, is also the female form of crypto "hidden". The earliest known origin of both is in the Ancient Greek κρύπτω (krupto/krypto), the first person singular indicative of the verb "to conceal, to hide".
Development
First known in the early Christian period, in particular North Africa at Chlef and Djemila in Algeria, and Byzantium at Saint John Studio in Constantinople where Christian churches have been built over mithraea, the mithraeum has often been adapted to serve as a crypt.
The famous crypt at Old St. Peter's Basilica, Rome, developed about the year 600, as a means of affording pilgrims a view of Saint Peter's tomb, which lay according to the Roman fashion, directly below the high altar. The tomb was made accessible through an underground passageway beneath the sanctuary from where pilgrims could enter at one stair, pass by the tomb and exit without interrupting the clerical community's service at the altar directly above.
The Visigothic crypt (the Crypt of San Antolín) in Palencia Cathedral (Spain), was built during the reign of Wamba to preserve the remains of the martyr Saint Antoninus of Pamiers, a Visigothic-Gallic nobleman brought from Narbonne to Visigothic Hispania in 672 or 673 by Wamba himself. These are the only remains of the Visigothic cathedral of Palencia.
Crypts were introduced into Frankish church building in the mid-8th century, as a feature of its Romanization. Their popularity then spread more widely in western Europe under Charlemagne. Examples from this period are most common in the early medieval West, for example in Burgundy at Dijon and Tournus.
After the 10th century, the early medieval requirements of a crypt faded, as church officials permitted relics to be held in the main level of the church. By the Gothic period crypts were rarely built, however burial vaults continued to be constructed beneath churches and referred to as crypts.
Burial vaults
In more modern terms, a crypt is most often a stone chambered burial vault used to store the deceased. Placing a corpse into a crypt can be called immurement, and is a method of final disposition, as an alternative to, for example, cremation. Crypts are usually found in cemeteries and under public religious buildings, such as churches or cathedrals, but are also occasionally found beneath mausolea or chapels on personal estates. Wealthy or prestigious families will often have a 'family crypt' or 'vault,' in which all members of the family are interred. Many royal families, for example, have vast crypts containing the bodies of dozens of former royalty. In some localities, an above ground crypt is more commonly called a mausoleum, which also refers to any elaborate building intended as a burial place, for any number of people.
There was a trend in the 19th century of building crypts on medium to large size family estates, usually subtly placed on the edge of the grounds or more commonly incorporated into the cellar. After a change of owner, these are often blocked up and the house deeds will not allow this area to be re-developed.
Gallery
See also
Catacomb
Ossuary
Tumulus
References
External links
Building engineering
Burial monuments and structures
Church architecture
Rooms
Semi-subterranean structures
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20family
|
Royal family
|
A royal family is the immediate family of kings/queens, emirs/emiras, sultans/sultanas, or raja/rani and sometimes their extended family. The term imperial family appropriately describes the family of an emperor or empress, and the term papal family describes the family of a pope, while the terms baronial family, comital family, ducal family, archducal family, grand ducal family, or princely family are more appropriate to describe, respectively, the relatives of a reigning baron, count/earl, duke, archduke, grand duke, or prince. However, in common parlance members of any family which reigns by hereditary right are often referred to as royalty or "royals". It is also customary in some circles to refer to the extended relations of a deposed monarch and their descendants as a royal family. A dynasty is sometimes referred to as the "House of ...". In July 2013 there were 26 active sovereign dynasties in the world that ruled or reigned over 43 monarchies.
, while there are several European countries whose nominal head of state, by long tradition, is a king or queen, the associated royal families, with the notable exception of the British royal family, are non-notable ordinary citizens who may bear a title but are not involved in public affairs.
Members of a royal family
A royal family typically includes the spouse of the reigning monarch, surviving spouses of a deceased monarch, the children, grandchildren, brothers, sisters, and paternal cousins of the reigning monarch, as well as their spouses. In some cases, royal family membership may extend to great grandchildren and more distant descendants of a monarch. In certain monarchies where voluntary abdication is the norm, such as the Netherlands, a royal family may also include one or more former monarchs. In certain instances, such as in Canada, the royal family is defined by who holds the styles Majesty and Royal Highness. There is often a distinction between persons of the blood royal and those that marry into the royal family. Under most systems, only persons in the first category are dynasts, that is, potential successors to the throne (unless the member of the latter category is also in line to the throne in their own right, a frequent occurrence in royal families which frequently intermarry). This is not always observed; some monarchies have operated by the principle of jure uxoris.
In addition, certain relatives of the monarch (by blood or marriage) possess special privileges and are subject to certain statutes, conventions, or special common law. The precise functions of a royal family vary depending on whether the polity in question is an absolute monarchy, a constitutional monarchy, or somewhere in between. In certain monarchies, such as that found in Saudi Arabia or Kuwait, or in political systems where the monarch actually exercises executive power, such as in Jordan, it is not uncommon for the members of a royal family to hold important government posts or military commands. In most constitutional monarchies, however, members of a royal family perform certain public, social, or ceremonial functions, but refrain from any involvement in electoral politics or the actual governance of the country.
The specific composition of royal families varies from country to country, as do the titles and royal and noble styles held by members of the family. The composition of the royal family may be regulated by statute enacted by the legislature (e.g., Spain, the Netherlands, and Japan since 1947), the sovereign's prerogative and common law tradition (e.g., the United Kingdom), or a private house law (e.g., Liechtenstein, the former ruling houses of Bavaria, Prussia, Hanover, etc.). Public statutes, constitutional provisions, or conventions may also regulate the marriages, names, and personal titles of royal family members. The members of a royal family may or may not have a surname or dynastic name (see Royal House).
In a constitutional monarchy, when the monarch dies, there is always a law or tradition of succession to the throne that either specifies a formula for identifying the precise order of succession among family members in line to the throne or specifies a process by which a family member is chosen to inherit the crown. Usually in the former case the exact line of hereditary succession among royal individuals may be identified at any given moment during prior reigns (e.g. United Kingdom, Sark, Nizari Ismailis, Japan, Balobedus, Sweden, Kingdom of Benin) whereas in the latter case the next sovereign may be selected (or changed) only during the reign or shortly after the demise of the immediately preceding monarch (e.g. Cambodia, KwaZulu Natal, Buganda, Saudi Arabia, Swaziland, Yorubaland, The Kingitanga). Some monarchies employ a mix of these selection processes (Malaysia, Monaco, Tonga, Jordan, Morocco), providing for both an identifiable line of succession as well as authority for the monarch, dynasty or other institution to alter the line in specific instances without changing the general law of succession.
Some countries have abolished royalty altogether, as in post-revolutionary France (1870), post-revolutionary Russia (1917), Portugal (1910), post-war Germany (1918), post-war Italy (1946) and many ex European colonies.
Current royal families
Africa
Lesotho royal family
Moroccan royal family
Swazi royal family
List of current constituent African monarchs
Asia
Bruneian royal family
Bhutanese royal family
Cambodian royal family
Japanese imperial family
Javanese royal families
Yogyakarta royal families
Yogyakarta royal family
Pakualam ducal family
Surakarta royal families
Surakarta royal family
Mangkunegaran ducal family
Malaysian royal families
Johor royal family
Kedah royal family
Kelantan royal family
Negeri Sembilan royal family
Pahang royal family
Perak royal family
Perlis royal family
Selangor royal family
Terengganu royal family
Thai royal family
List of current constituent Asian monarchs
Europe
Belgian royal family
Royal family of the Commonwealth realms:
Antigua and Barbuda royal family
Australian royal family
Bahamian royal family
Belizian royal family
British royal family
Canadian royal family
Grenadian royal family
Jamaican royal family
New Zealand royal family
Papua New Guinean royal family
Saint Kitts and Nevis royal family
Saint Lucian royal family
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines royal family
Solomon Island royal family
Tuvaluan royal family
Danish royal family
Dutch royal family
Liechtenstein princely family
Luxembourg grand ducal family
Monegasque princely family
Norwegian royal family
Spanish royal family
Swedish royal family
Middle East
Bahraini royal family
Emirati royal families
Jordanian royal family
Kuwaiti royal family
Omani royal family
Qatari royal family
Saudi royal family
Oceania
Tongan royal family
Deposed royal families
Mediatised princely families
Whilst mediatization occurred in other countries such as France, Italy and Russia, only the certain houses within the former Holy Roman Empire are collectively called the Mediatized Houses.
Arenberg ducal family (Belgium)
Fürstenberg princely family (Germany)
Ligne princely family (Belgium)
Merode princely family (Belgium)
Schwarzenberg princely family (Bohemia)
Thurn und Taxis princely family (Germany)
Dynasties
See also
Abolished monarchy
Born in the purple
Chief of the Name
Crown prince
Divine right of kings
Dynasty
First Family (in some republican states)
Family trees of royal families
Nobility
Palace
Prince
Prince consort
Princeps
Princess
Raja
Rana (title)
Rani (disambiguation)
Princess Royal
Queen consort
Regicide
Royal and noble styles
Royal descent
Rao (Indian surname)
Royal prerogative
References
External links
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My%20Word%21
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My Word!
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My Word! is a British radio quiz panel game broadcast by the BBC on the Home Service (1956–67) and Radio 4 (1967–88). It was created by Edward J. Mason and Tony Shryane, and featured the humorous writers Frank Muir and Denis Norden, known in Britain for the series Take It From Here. The show was piloted in June 1956 on the Midland Home Service and broadcast as a series on the national Home Service network from 1 January 1957. The series also ran on BBC Television for one series from July–September 1960.
For decades the programme was also broadcast worldwide via BBC World Service and was relayed to an international audience though the BBC Transcription Services. A companion programme, My Music, ran from 1967 to 1993.
Background and first broadcasts
In 1956, Edward J. Mason and Tony Shryane, respectively the writer and producer of the popular radio soap opera The Archers, decided that by way of a change they would devise and produce what Frank Muir called "a new kind of not-very-academic literary quiz". The Aeolian Hall in London was booked for the recording of a pilot show, but at the last minute two of the four panellists were unexpectedly unavailable. Shryane sought the help of Muir and his writing partner Denis Norden, scriptwriters of the popular BBC comedy series Take It From Here, who were based in a nearby office. They thought of themselves as writers rather than performers, but at Shryane's urgent request they agreed to stand in for the absentees. Muir was partnered by Isobel Barnett – a panel show regular – and Norden by the journalist Nancy Spain. Mason set the questions, and the chairman was the cricket commentator and poet John Arlott, who was billed as "umpire". The pilot was well received by the audience in the hall and by listeners to its first transmission. The BBC commissioned a series, which was transmitted in early 1957. Muir and Norden had no intention of becoming regular panellists, but Shyrane persuaded them.
Arlott did not return for the second series, which began in August 1957. He was succeeded by Jack Longland, known to BBC listeners as the chairman of the panel show Country Questions and a regular team member on Round Britain Quiz and panellist on Any Questions? Although, unlike Arlott, Longland had no particular association with cricket he too was billed as umpire until 1962, after which he was billed as "in the chair", as were his successors.
Later series
The programme ran for 38 series, until 1988. Muir and Norden were in every series, always on opposing teams. As Muir's partner, Barnett was succeeded during the first series by the novelist and critic E. Arnot Robertson. On Robertson's death in 1961 the film critic and Greek scholar Dilys Powell took her place until the show finished, when she was aged 87. Norden's first partner was Nancy Spain; after her death in 1964 she was succeeded by the journalist Anne Scott-James, and then from 1979 by the historian Antonia Fraser. In the one season in which Fraser took the chair her place as Norden's teammate was taken by Irene Thomas.
After 20 years in the chair, Longland retired from the programme at the end of the 1977 series. He was succeeded by John Julius Norwich for four series, followed by Fraser for a single series and finally Michael O'Donnell for the last five series, from late 1983 to 1988.
From time to time guests substituted for absent regulars. Neither Spain nor Powell ever missed a broadcast during their time as panellists, but Robertson and Scott-James missed one apiece, their absences covered respectively by Pamela Frankau and Katherine Whitehorn. Lionel Hale (one of the intended contestants in the pilot show) deputised for both Muir and Norden in 1967 as did John Wells in 1975 and Barry Took on four occasions between 1978 and 1982. Ted Kavanagh took Muir's place for two programmes in 1957, and Edward Blishen stood in for Norden in two episodes in 1985. Fraser's absences between 1986 and 1988 were covered by Joan Bakewell, Victoria Glendinning, P. D. James, Libby Purves and Gay Search.
After Mason's death in 1971 Longland took over responsibility for compiling the questions, and was joined in that role by Peter Moore in 1972. After Longland's retirement Moore continued to set the questions until 1987. For the final season, in 1988, O'Donnell combined the roles of chairman and question-setter.
Content
The two teams faced questions devised, for the first 21 series, by Mason, of whom Muir wrote:
Mason and his successors provided word games and literary quizzes covering vocabulary, etymology, snippets of poetry, and the like. In many series the opening round consisted of obscure words for the panellists to define: examples ranged from such words as auscultation, bumblepuppy, cabless and crinkum-crankum to defenestration, hebetude, hobbledehoy and katydid to lallation, macaronic, palmiped and rahat lokum, or scrimshaw, tatterdemalion, unau and widdershins.
In the final round, each team was asked to give the origin of a famous phrase or quotation. In early shows, once the real answers were given, Muir and Norden were invited to explain the origin of the phrase less seriously, in the form of a feghoot. An early example was the quotation "Dead! And never called me mother!" from a stage adaptation of East Lynne, which became the exclamation of a youth coming out of a public telephone box which he had discovered to be out of order. Later the first part of the round was dropped in favour of having the chairman simply announce the accepted origin of each phrase, thus opening up new fields of phrases that would have been too well known or too obscure to be posed as questions. In later series Muir and Norden chose their own phrases in advance of each programme, and their stories became longer and more convoluted.
The stories became a popular segment of the quiz. Examples included Norden's tale in which a young woman and a young man found themselves happily trapped in a sauna despite earlier assurances from the landlord that the faulty lock had been repaired: "Least said, soonest mended" became "Lease said sauna's mended". In another, "There's many a slip 'twixt the cup and the lip" became a story about Édouard Manet in a drunken doze in a beauty spot between a carp pond and Lover's Leap – "There's Manet asleep 'twixt the carp and the leap". In another, Muir confessed to forging fan letters purportedly from Monica Dickens, Val Gielgud, Asa Briggs and Fay Compton, so that "I am monarch of all I survey" became "I am Monica, Val, Asa, Fay". A Norden story explaining "Charity shall cover the multitude of sins" became a lament for his diminishing capacity for alcohol and consequent need to enunciate extremely carefully after drinking spirits: "Clarity shall cover the multitude of gins".
Series history
A one-off pilot programme was broadcast by the Midland region of the BBC Home Service on 6 June 1956. When the series was launched on the national BBC network in January 1957, an edited edition of the pilot preceded the 14 new episodes.
Source: BBC Genome and Global British Comedy Collaborative.
Syndication and spin-offs
Over the years My Word! was syndicated through the BBC Transcription Services in more than 35 countries including not only Anglophone locations such as Australia and the US, but in countries including Chile, Germany and Russia. A televised version of the programme ran in Britain for a series of ten episodes on BBC Television from 10 July to 11 September 1960. The team and host were the same as for the radio series of that year; the producer was Barrie Edgar. A companion radio programme, My Music, ran from 1967 to 1993. When it was mooted, Muir and Norden told Shryane that they were too busy to take on another series, but they allowed themselves to be persuaded and became permanent features on the programme. In 1972 and 1973 the two shows joined forces to present Christmas specials, My Word! It's My Music, with Longland and Steve Race as co-hosts and the regular My Word team joined by Ian Wallace and David Franklin (1972), and Wallace and John Amis (1973).
Between 1974 and 1989, Muir and Norden published five collections of their My Word! stories, and in 1991 an omnibus edition of the five volumes was issued:
, a collection of all five volumes.
Notes, references and sources
Notes
References
Sources
External links
BBC Ends US Distribution
297 episodes.
BBC Radio comedy programmes
British radio game shows
1950s British game shows
1960s British game shows
1970s British game shows
1980s British game shows
1956 radio programme debuts
1988 radio programme endings
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] |
211791
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silkworm%20%28missile%29
|
Silkworm (missile)
|
The Shang You or SY-series (), and the Hai Ying or HY-series () were early Chinese anti-ship cruise missiles. They were derived from the Soviet P-15 Termit missile.
The HY-1 and HY-2 received the NATO reporting name Silkworm. However, confusingly Western media also referred to the SY-series, and its export derivatives, the Fei Long or FL-series (), as Silkworms.
While it is not a particularly sophisticated missile when compared to newer generations of anti-ship missiles such as the French Exocet or Russian Kh-15 and P-800 Oniks, the Silkworm's unusually large warhead ensures that a single hit will inflict very serious damage.
SY-series
The SY-series were developed from the Soviet P-15 Termit. They were used on small missile boats with limited electronics. The Chinese encountered difficulties making the missile compatible with the more complex systems of larger warships. This could have resulted in premature launches or detonations when the electronics were placed on full power. In response, the HY-series was designed for warships and to replace the SY-series.
The SY-series was initially produced concurrently with the HY-series to arm missile boats and to provide an inexpensive alternative for export.
SY-1
This is the original Chinese version of Soviet P-15 Termit missile, and the first was SY-1, produced at Factory 320 (the Nanchang Aircraft Factory, 南昌飞机制造厂); Chinese sources identify the designers as Li Tongli and Lu Lin. The main difference between P-15 Termit and SY-1 missiles is that the unreliable aneroid altimeter of P-15 Termit was replaced by a much more reliable radar altimeter in SY-1. The successor of SY-1, designed by Peng Lisheng (彭历生) and designated as SY-1A, had a mono-pulse terminal guidance radar seeker replacing the original conical scanning radar seeker. The missile received a NATO reporting name CSS-N-1 Scrubbrush.
The missile has been upgraded to be air-launched, and the air-launched version is known as C-601 (YJ-6), which is the first air-launched anti-ship missile in China. The missile received a NATO reporting name CAS-1 Kraken. It was used by Iraqi H-6Ds during Iran–Iraq War. An upgraded version that is fully solid state (electronics) with integrated circuitry and new active radar homing seeker and new radar altimeter entered service as SY-1A in early 1980s.
Specifications:
Length: 6.55 metre
Diameter: 0.76 metre
Wingspan: 2.4 metre
Weight: 2,095 kg
Warhead: 513 kg shaped charge high explosive
Propulsion: One liquid rocket engine and one solid rocket booster
Speed: Mach 0.8
Range: 150 km
Cruising altitude: < 20 metres
Guidance: Inertial guidance + active conical scanning terminal guidance radar (SY-1); or inertial + active monopulse radar (SY-1A)
Single-shot kill probability: 70%
SY-2
The liquid fuel engine was a rather hazardous and unreliable, so a solid fuel rocket engine was developed. This engine also made it possible to reduce the size and weight of the missile while providing greater range. The warhead weight is also reduced, but its effectiveness was actually increased when a time-delayed semi-armour-piercing high-explosive design was adopted. The extended version developed is designated SY-2A.
Specification:
Length: 6 metre
Diameter: 0.54 metre
Wingspan: 1.7 metre
Weight: 1,720 kg
Warhead: 365 kg shaped charge high-explosive
Propulsion: A solid rocket engine and a solid booster
Speed: Mach 0.9
Range: 130 km
Cruising altitude: 20 metre
Guidance: Inertial + active radar
Single-shot kill probability: 70%
HY-series
HY-1
The HY-1 received two separate NATO reporting name, the CSS-N-2 Safflower for the ship to ship version and the CSSC-2 Silkworm for the land based coastal defense variant.
The HY-1J was intended for use on the Type 051 destroyers. However, the turmoil of the Cultural Revolution prolonged development into the 1980s. As a result, the Type 051s deployed into the Pacific Ocean to support ballistic missile tests without anti-ship missiles.
Variants
HY-1: Basic developmental version developed from the SY missiles, used only in very small numbers as land-to-ship missile for evaluation purposes. Did not enter series production and was replaced by HY-1J.
HY-1J: Ship-to-ship variant for Type 051 DDG
HY-1JA: Improved ship-to-ship variant with a new radar seeker for better anti-jamming capability and accuracy
HY-1A: Land-to-ship variant based on the HY-1JA
HY-1B: Low level target drone for the test of HQ-2A SAM
HJ-1YB Target drone for the test of HQ-61 SAM
Specifications
Length: 6.60 metre
Diameter: 0.76 metre
Wingspan: 2.4 metre
Weight: 2,300 kg
Warhead: 513 kg shaped charge high explosive
Propulsion: One liquid rocket engine and one solid rocket booster
Speed: Mach 0.8
Range: 85 km
Cruising altitude: 100~300m (early models); <20m (later models)
Guidance: Inertial + active conical scanning terminal guidance radar (early models); or inertial + monopulse active radar (later models)
Single-shot kill probability: 70%
HY-2
The HY-2 is identical to the HY-1 but with a further stretched body. The missile features a round nose accommodating the radar seeker, a pair of mid-mounted delta wings on the middle section of missile body, and three tail control surfaces. The missile is powered by a liquid-fuel rocket motor, with a solid rocket booster attached under the missile fuselage.
The HY-2 is launched from land-based launcher and flies at an altitude of 1000 m during the initial stage of the flight. After the missile switched to the cruising mode, the flight altitude was reduced to 100 ~ 300 m. During the final stage of the flight, the missile switched on its radar seeker and dives to an altitude of 8 m until it hits the target. The single-shot hit probability is estimated to be 90%. Due to its oversized body, the HY-2 did not develop a ship-to-ship variant. The missile is obsolete and will be replaced by the YJ-8 series in the future.
The HY-2 was widely exported to the Middle East, and was the missile most associated with the silkworm nickname.
Variants
HY-2: Basic variant radar-guidance land-to-ship missile *developed from the HY-1 missile
HY-2A: IR-guidance variant
HY-2AII: Improved variant of the HY-2A
HY-2B: Improved radar-guidance variant with a monopulse radar seeker replacing the original conical scanning radar
HY-2BII: Improved variant of the HY-2B with a newly designed radar seeker
C-201: Export designation for HY-2.
C-201W Extended-range variant powered by a turbojet engine replacing the original liquid-fuel rocket motor. Export only
YJ-6: Air launched variant of the HY-2
YJ-61: Improved variant of the YJ-6
Specifications
Dimensions: Length: 7.48 m; Diameter: 0.76 m; Wingspan: 2.4 m
Launch weight: 2,998 kg
Warhead: 513 kg shaped charge high-explosive
Propulsion: One liquid rocket engine and one solid rocket booster
Speed: Mach 0.8
Range: 200 km
Flight altitude: < 20m
Guidance: Inertial + active conical scanning terminal guidance radar (HY-2); or inertial + infrared homing guidance (HY-2A); or inertial + monopulse active radar (HY-2B)
Single-shot hit probability: 90%
HY-3
The HaiYing-3 (HY-3, also known as C-301 in its export name; NATO codename: CSS-C-6 Sawhorse) is the active radar homing, ramjet-powered supersonic land-to-ship missile developed by China Haiying Electro-Mechanical Technology Academy (CHETA, also known as 3rd Space Academy). The missile was developed in the 1980s based on the design of the HY-2 (C-201) and the ramjet technology of the cancelled YJ-1 (C-101). The development was completed in the early 1990s but the missile did not enter service.
The HY-3 is a large-size missile with a slim forward body and sharp nose, and a fatter rear half with four solid rocket boosters and two ramjet engines located aft of the missile body. There are a pair of front-canards on the front fuselage, four control surfaces on the rear fuselage, and four smaller stabilising fins attached on the solid rocket boosters. The booster motors accelerate the missile to past Mach 1.8 and the kerosene-fuelled ramjet engines accelerate the missile to a cruise speed of Mach 2.0. Its range is variously reported as up to 130 km, and it can fly as low as 50 m in its terminal attack phase. The missile is programmed to dive from cruising altitude to under 30m before the active-radar terminal phase begins, then dive onto the target just prior to impact.
The 3.5t missile is launched from a land-based launcher. Each firing unit consists of four launchers, a target acquisition radar, a fire-control unit, a power unit, and 8~12 missile reloading vehicle (each with one missile).
Specifications
Length: 9.85m
Diameter: 0.76 m
Wingspan: 2.24 m
Weight: 3,400 kg
Warhead: 300~500 kg time-delayed semi-armour-piercing high-explosive
Propulsion: Two side-mounted ramjet engines; four solid propellant boost motors
Speed: Mach 2.5
Range: 180 km
Flight altitude: 50 m
Guidance: Inertial and terminal active radar
HY-4
The HY-4 development of the C-201 is a mid-range ground-, air-, and ship-launched cruise missile. Development of the C-201 HY-4 is believed to have started in the mid-1970s, replacing the C-201 HY-2 liquid propellant sustainer motor with a small turbojet engine, and adding a monopulse active radar seeker. Apart from the substitution of the turbojet engine, the overall configuration of the HY-4 variant of the C-201 missile is similar to the HY-2 variants of the C-201, with two delta wings and tri-form rudder and tail. The missile has a radar altimeter which allows the cruise height to be varied between 70 and 200 m altitude, followed by a steep dive onto the target. The air-launched version is designated as C-401
Specifications
Developer: China Sea Eagle Electro-Mechanical Technology Co.
Length: 7.36 m
Diameter: 0.76 m
Wingspan: 2.4 m
Weight: 1,740 kg
Speed: Mach 0.8 – 0.85
Range: 300–500 km
Cruising altitude: 8 m
Propulsion: one turbojet engine and one solid rocket booster
FL-series
The FL-series was designed as land-based counterparts to the SY-series, and had a much longer production run than the SY-series. The FL-series was less expensive since it did not have to deal with more demanding conditions at sea. An added benefit was the ability to locate the missiles separately from the targeting and control systems, which improved survivability and flexibility. The SY-, HY-, and FL-series all shared the same systems.
A supersonic version, the FL-7, was also developed but differed significantly from the SY-series and its immediate derivatives.
FL-1
The FL-1 (NATO designation CSS-NX-1) was a SY-1 with a high-frequency monopulse seeker. It used a radar altimeter to cruise at 30 metres.
FL-2
The FL-2 anti-ship missiles was the land-based derivative of the SY-2. It was produced at the Nanchang Aircraft Factory (南昌飞机制造厂).
SFQ-1
SFQ-1 was an unarmed test vehicle derivative of the Silkworm missile family. The test vehicle was used in the Chinese development of small turbojets that were designed to improve the range of the Chinese anti-ship cruise missiles, as well as powering the experimental versions of land attack YJ-4 cruise missiles. The entire project was reportedly named as Kunpeng (鲲鹏) Project, which first started in the early 1970s. SFQ-1 was specifically developed to test mini turbojet engines WP-11 and FW-41, the Chinese reverse engineered western turbojet engines for UAVs and missiles.
YJ-4
YJ-4 is a family of experimental land-attack cruise missiles developed by China in the 1970s and early 1980s. Due to the limitation of Chinese industrial and technological bottleneck at the time, the YJ-4 only entered the Chinese services in extremely limited numbers, mainly serving as a foundation for more successful Chinese cruise missiles developed later, such as Changfeng missile. Two versions of YJ-4 family were developed: YJ-4I, which is also frequently but erroneously referred as YJ-41, and YJ-4II, which is also frequently but erroneously referred as YJ-42. The two missiles only differed in their respective powerplant, YJ-4I was equipped with WP-11, the Chinese version of Turbomeca Marboré, while the longer ranged YJ-4II was equipped with an engine that was twice as powerful, FW-41, the Chinese version of Teledyne CAE J69, reversed engineered from downed American Ryan Firebee.
XW-41
A developed version based on HY-4, known as the XW-41, has been developed. This latest version of the C-201 missile family is said to have a 300 km range with additional GPS/GLONASS guidance. However, due to the availability of more advanced anti-ship missile with similar range, such as the C-602, the future of XW-41, like others in the Silkworm missile family, is uncertain despite its successful trials. Although still a member of Silkworm missile, the developer considers the missile was different enough to be a listed as a separate category of its own due to the amount of new technologies adopted. After the Gulf War, United Arab Emirates ordered 30 of these shore-based version for coastal defense, and accordingly to Jane's Defence Weekly, these missiles are referred by the general name Silkworm missiles, but domestic Chinese sources have claimed that these were XW-41s, though there are reports claiming these missiles are other models of Silkworm series.
C-611
Upgraded version of C-601 and other earlier models of the air-to-surface missiles of Silkworm family. Not all upgrades are necessarily the same due to difference between various versions, but electronics for all versions are upgraded to the latest standard. The seeker of the missile is modernized to include semi-active radar homing and passive homing capability, and the missile can be used against coastal ground targets. Cruise altitude is decreased while the range is increased.
YJ-63 (C-603)
XW-41 and its predecessor HY-4 lost their intended market when the wars in middle east ended, so XW-41 was converted to the first indigenously developed air-to-surface precision strike missile. The developmental work begun in the mid-1990s when Sea Eagle Mechanical-Electrical Research Academy (海鹰机电技术研究院) received support of Chinese military and the project was completed in 2002. The resulting new missile was named as YJ-63, also known as C-603. In comparison to XW-41, the original radar guidance was changed to TV guidance. The original inverted Y-configuration of tail control surfaces was changed to X-configuration. Like its predecessor, XW-41, turbojet engine was adopted instead of liquid fuel rocket engine used on HY-2. Range is 500km.
KD-63
Newest version of YJ-63 series that entered service in 2004 - 2005. This land attack version is almost identical to C-603 in appearance, except it has a solid nose instead of a window for TV guidance optronics. The solid nose indicates that the guidance of this air-to-surface missile adopts other means of guidance such as radar, but the exact type remain unknown.
KN-1
North Korean KN-1 or KN-01 versions of Silkworm Chinese and Russian P-15 Termit, Rubezh, P22 P20, and KN-01 are called Geum Seong-1 (Korean: 금성-1호) and produced locally.
Nomenclature
Operational history
The Silkworm was developed at the Institute of Mechanics under Qian Xuesen, a Chinese scientist who did his graduate studies at MIT and Caltech, before being deported by the United States in 1955 after being suspected of Communist ties. A book about this scientist's life was written by Iris Chang, entitled Thread of the Silkworm.
Iran–Iraq War
The Silkworm gained fame in the 1980s when it was used by both sides in the Iran–Iraq War; both countries were supplied by China. During 1987, Iran launched a number of Silkworm missiles from the Faw Peninsula, striking the American-owned, Liberian-flagged tanker Sungari and U.S.-flagged tanker Sea Isle City in October 1987. Five other missiles struck areas in Kuwait earlier in the year. In October 1987, Kuwait's Sea Island offshore oil terminal was hit by an Iranian Silkworm which was observed to have originated from the Faw peninsula. The attack prompted Kuwait to deploy a Hawk missile battery on Failaka Island to protect the terminal. In December 1987, another Iranian Silkworm was fired at the terminal, but it struck a decoy barge instead. Prior to these attacks the missile's range was thought to be less than , but these attacks proved that the range exceeded with Kuwaiti military observers seeing that the missiles originated from the area and tracking them on radar along with US satellite imagery of the launch sites.
Iraqi forces combined SS-N-2 (P-15 Termit) launched from Tu-22, Exocet missiles launched from Mirage F1 and Super Etendard, as well as Silkworm missiles and C-601 missiles launched from Tu-16 and H-6 bombers, bought from the Soviet Union and China to engage the Iranian Navy and tankers carrying Iranian oil.
In March 1988, China agreed to stop supplying Iran with HY-2 missiles, though it reportedly supplied Iran until 1989. Iran has since developed the capability to manufacture these missiles itself.
Persian Gulf War
On February 25, 1991 during Operation Desert Storm, a shore-based Iraqi launcher fired two Silkworm missiles at the USS Missouri which was in company with the USS Jarrett and HMS Gloucester. A Sea Dart missile from HMS Gloucester shot down one Silkworm and the other missed, crashing into the ocean. Royal Air Force officers subsequently recovered an HY-2 missile at Umm Qasr in southern Iraq. It is currently displayed at the RAF Museum Cosford.
Iraq War
During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Iraq used the Silkworm (HY-2 Seersucker) as a surface to surface missile by firing at least two of them at the coalition positions in Kuwait.
2006 Lebanon War
During the 2006 Lebanon War, it was initially reported that Hezbollah guerillas fired a Silkworm missile at an Israeli warship off the shore of Lebanon. Israeli sources later said that the missile used instead was a more sophisticated Chinese C-701.
Operators
Current operators
(made under license)
(Type 053H)
(as of Saddam's Era)
as KN-1 or KN-01, locally produced under the name Geum Seong-1 (). Naval, coastal, submarine, other variants and roles.
References
External links
Federation of American Scientists page on HY-1
Federation of American Scientists page on HY-2
Anti-ship cruise missiles of the People's Republic of China
China–Soviet Union relations
Guided missiles of the People's Republic of China
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangent%20bundle
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Tangent bundle
|
In differential geometry, the tangent bundle of a differentiable manifold is a manifold which assembles all the tangent vectors in . As a set, it is given by the disjoint union of the tangent spaces of . That is,
where denotes the tangent space to at the point . So, an element of can be thought of as a pair , where is a point in and is a tangent vector to at .
There is a natural projection
defined by . This projection maps each element of the tangent space to the single point .
The tangent bundle comes equipped with a natural topology (described in a section below). With this topology, the tangent bundle to a manifold is the prototypical example of a vector bundle (which is a fiber bundle whose fibers are vector spaces). A section of is a vector field on , and the dual bundle to is the cotangent bundle, which is the disjoint union of the cotangent spaces of . By definition, a manifold is parallelizable if and only if the tangent bundle is trivial. By definition, a manifold is framed if and only if the tangent bundle is stably trivial, meaning that for some trivial bundle the Whitney sum is trivial. For example, the n-dimensional sphere Sn is framed for all n, but parallelizable only for (by results of Bott-Milnor and Kervaire).
Role
One of the main roles of the tangent bundle is to provide a domain and range for the derivative of a smooth function. Namely, if is a smooth function, with and smooth manifolds, its derivative is a smooth function .
Topology and smooth structure
The tangent bundle comes equipped with a natural topology (not the disjoint union topology) and smooth structure so as to make it into a manifold in its own right. The dimension of is twice the dimension of .
Each tangent space of an n-dimensional manifold is an n-dimensional vector space. If is an open contractible subset of , then there is a diffeomorphism which restricts to a linear isomorphism from each tangent space to . As a manifold, however, is not always diffeomorphic to the product manifold . When it is of the form , then the tangent bundle is said to be trivial. Trivial tangent bundles usually occur for manifolds equipped with a 'compatible group structure'; for instance, in the case where the manifold is a Lie group. The tangent bundle of the unit circle is trivial because it is a Lie group (under multiplication and its natural differential structure). It is not true however that all spaces with trivial tangent bundles are Lie groups; manifolds which have a trivial tangent bundle are called parallelizable. Just as manifolds are locally modeled on Euclidean space, tangent bundles are locally modeled on , where is an open subset of Euclidean space.
If M is a smooth n-dimensional manifold, then it comes equipped with an atlas of charts , where is an open set in and
is a diffeomorphism. These local coordinates on give rise to an isomorphism for all . We may then define a map
by
We use these maps to define the topology and smooth structure on . A subset of is open if and only if
is open in for each These maps are homeomorphisms between open subsets of and and therefore serve as charts for the smooth structure on . The transition functions on chart overlaps are induced by the Jacobian matrices of the associated coordinate transformation and are therefore smooth maps between open subsets of .
The tangent bundle is an example of a more general construction called a vector bundle (which is itself a specific kind of fiber bundle). Explicitly, the tangent bundle to an -dimensional manifold may be defined as a rank vector bundle over whose transition functions are given by the Jacobian of the associated coordinate transformations.
Examples
The simplest example is that of . In this case the tangent bundle is trivial: each is canonically isomorphic to via the map which subtracts , giving a diffeomorphism .
Another simple example is the unit circle, (see picture above). The tangent bundle of the circle is also trivial and isomorphic to . Geometrically, this is a cylinder of infinite height.
The only tangent bundles that can be readily visualized are those of the real line and the unit circle , both of which are trivial. For 2-dimensional manifolds the tangent bundle is 4-dimensional and hence difficult to visualize.
A simple example of a nontrivial tangent bundle is that of the unit sphere : this tangent bundle is nontrivial as a consequence of the hairy ball theorem. Therefore, the sphere is not parallelizable.
Vector fields
A smooth assignment of a tangent vector to each point of a manifold is called a vector field. Specifically, a vector field on a manifold is a smooth map
such that with for every . In the language of fiber bundles, such a map is called a section. A vector field on is therefore a section of the tangent bundle of .
The set of all vector fields on is denoted by . Vector fields can be added together pointwise
and multiplied by smooth functions on M
to get other vector fields. The set of all vector fields then takes on the structure of a module over the commutative algebra of smooth functions on M, denoted .
A local vector field on is a local section of the tangent bundle. That is, a local vector field is defined only on some open set and assigns to each point of a vector in the associated tangent space. The set of local vector fields on forms a structure known as a sheaf of real vector spaces on .
The above construction applies equally well to the cotangent bundle – the differential 1-forms on are precisely the sections of the cotangent bundle , that associate to each point a 1-covector , which map tangent vectors to real numbers: . Equivalently, a differential 1-form maps a smooth vector field to a smooth function .
Higher-order tangent bundles
Since the tangent bundle is itself a smooth manifold, the second-order tangent bundle can be defined via repeated application of the tangent bundle construction:
In general, the th order tangent bundle can be defined recursively as .
A smooth map has an induced derivative, for which the tangent bundle is the appropriate domain and range . Similarly, higher-order tangent bundles provide the domain and range for higher-order derivatives .
A distinct but related construction are the jet bundles on a manifold, which are bundles consisting of jets.
Canonical vector field on tangent bundle
On every tangent bundle , considered as a manifold itself, one can define a canonical vector field as the diagonal map on the tangent space at each point. This is possible because the tangent space of a vector space W is naturally a product, since the vector space itself is flat, and thus has a natural diagonal map given by under this product structure. Applying this product structure to the tangent space at each point and globalizing yields the canonical vector field. Informally, although the manifold is curved, each tangent space at a point , , is flat, so the tangent bundle manifold is locally a product of a curved and a flat Thus the tangent bundle of the tangent bundle is locally (using for "choice of coordinates" and for "natural identification"):
and the map is the projection onto the first coordinates:
Splitting the first map via the zero section and the second map by the diagonal yields the canonical vector field.
If are local coordinates for , the vector field has the expression
More concisely, – the first pair of coordinates do not change because it is the section of a bundle and these are just the point in the base space: the last pair of coordinates are the section itself. This expression for the vector field depends only on , not on , as only the tangent directions can be naturally identified.
Alternatively, consider the scalar multiplication function:
The derivative of this function with respect to the variable at time is a function , which is an alternative description of the canonical vector field.
The existence of such a vector field on is analogous to the canonical one-form on the cotangent bundle. Sometimes is also called the Liouville vector field, or radial vector field. Using one can characterize the tangent bundle. Essentially, can be characterized using 4 axioms, and if a manifold has a vector field satisfying these axioms, then the manifold is a tangent bundle and the vector field is the canonical vector field on it. See for example, De León et al.
Lifts
There are various ways to lift objects on into objects on . For example, if is a curve in , then (the tangent of ) is a curve in . In contrast, without further assumptions on (say, a Riemannian metric), there is no similar lift into the cotangent bundle.
The vertical lift of a function is the function defined by , where is the canonical projection.
See also
Pushforward (differential)
Unit tangent bundle
Cotangent bundle
Frame bundle
Musical isomorphism
Notes
References
.
John M. Lee, Introduction to Smooth Manifolds, (2003) Springer-Verlag, New York. .
Jürgen Jost, Riemannian Geometry and Geometric Analysis, (2002) Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Ralph Abraham and Jerrold E. Marsden, Foundations of Mechanics, (1978) Benjamin-Cummings, London.
M. De León, E. Merino, J.A. Oubiña, M. Salgado, A characterization of tangent and stable tangent bundles, Annales de l'institut Henri Poincaré (A) Physique théorique, Vol. 61, no. 1, 1994, 1-15
External links
Wolfram MathWorld: Tangent Bundle
PlanetMath: Tangent Bundle
Differential topology
Vector bundles
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus%20Airways%20%281947%E2%80%932015%29
|
Cyprus Airways (1947–2015)
|
Cyprus Airways (Public) Ltd. ( Kypriakes Aerogrammes) was the flag carrier airline of Cyprus. It was established in September 1947 and ceased operations on 9 January 2015. Cyprus Airways had its operating base at Larnaca International Airport.
In July 2016, Charlie Airlines acquired the rights to use the Cyprus Airways trademarks and brand.
History
Early years
Cyprus Airways was established on 24 September 1947 as a joint venture between the British Colonial Government of Cyprus, holding 40% of the share capital, British European Airways (BEA) and private interests owning the rest of the company. Operations commenced on 18 April 1948 with three Douglas DC-3 aircraft. The planes, which carried 21 passengers each, flew on a route network centred on Nicosia that included Rome, London (via Athens), Beirut, Athens, Cairo, Istanbul, and Haifa. During the next three years the airline purchased an additional three DC-3 aircraft and introduced services to Alexandria, Amman, Bahrain, Khartoum (via Haifa) and Lod.
In its early years Cyprus Airways was operated effectively as a subsidiary of BEA, not only in its ownership structure, but in its use of BEA crew and cabin staff, and BEA aircraft. In part this was due to restrictions placed on BEA by the British government on serving destinations further east than Cyprus, as such routes were considered the preserve of BEA's rival, British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC), although both BEA and BOAC were state-owned airlines at the time. With its control of Cyprus Airways, BEA was able to serve key destinations in the Middle East, including Beirut and Cairo, using Cyprus Airways, whilst maintaining the pretence of not flying beyond Cyprus. Paradoxically it was continuing disputes between BEA and BOAC over this issue that led to the first proposals in 1953 to merge BEA and BOAC to form British Airways.
In 1952, BEA took over the Cyprus Airways service to London with an Airspeed Ambassador, which featured a pressurized cabin that allowed nonstop routing avoiding a stopover in Athens. On 18 April 1953, BEA began using its newly delivered Vickers Viscount 701 on their scheduled service from London to Rome and Athens. The continuing sector from Athens to Nicosia was operated by BEA under charter to Cyprus Airways. This route from London to Nicosia was the world's first regular turboprop service.
In 1956, contemplating expansion of its routes, Cyprus Airways ordered two Vickers Viscount 756 aircraft that would be named St Hilarion (registration G-APCD) and Buffavento (G-APCE), but sold them before receiving them because of the deteriorating political situation in Cyprus. It also decided to sell all the Douglas DC-3 and Auster aircraft in September 1957 and entered into a five-year agreement with BEA for the latter to operate services on behalf of Cyprus Airways. As a result, BEA took over the operation of all Cyprus Airways services from 26 January 1958.
Independence in 1960
The government of newly independent Cyprus became the majority shareholder in 1960 with a 53.2 percent holding, while BEA's stake was reduced to 22.7 percent and private individuals held the rest. Thereafter, Cypriot nationals began to be hired and trained for the flight crews, which had previously been made up of British expatriates from BEA. Cyprus Airways still relied on BEA for aircraft and backroom support. BEA began introducing Comet 4B jets on all routes in 1961 via a joint aircraft pool arrangement that included Greece's Olympic Airways.
On 5 April 1960, BEA introduced de Havilland Comet 4B aircraft on the Nicosia, Athens, Rome and London routes. With the introduction of the Comets, Cyprus Airways became the first airline in the Middle East to have jet airplanes. The Comets flew in the BEA livery, but had the Cyprus Airways logo and title above their doors.
In 1965, Cyprus Airways began leasing its own Viscounts from BEA for regional routes. The Comet and Viscount aircraft were replaced with five Trident jets, three of them acquired from BEA. The first Hawker Siddeley Trident jet was introduced in November 1969. Cyprus also leased a BAC 1-11. The faster planes allowed more European trade centres (Frankfurt, Manchester, Brussels, and Paris) to be added to the timetable.
1974
At the start of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974, the attack on Nicosia airport caught all five of Cyprus Airways aircraft on the ground. Of the four Tridents stranded at Nicosia International Airport one was destroyed by Turkish Air force rocket fire and wreckage of its tail still exists at that airport and one was damaged by small arms fire remaining in the same position today as it did in 1974. The two other Tridents were only lightly damaged by small arms fire and were flown out of Nicosia by British Airways engineers to the United Kingdom in 1977. The team from British Airways was assisted by a British Army team from the UN Peace Keeping (UNFICYP) REME Workshop based in Nicosia.
They used their 6x6 Leyland Recovery vehicle to remove the tail section of one of the destroyed planes and to lift the repaired engines into place. When the Tridents flew out (the Turks would not give permission for test flights, once they took off they were not allowed to return) they were the first planes to use the runway since U Thant flew in and out on a UN flight. One of these is at the Imperial War Museum Duxford, England, although it has been returned to its original BEA livery. Also flown out was the company's BAC1-11 which was claimed by the insurers of the lessor, Court-Line, which had gone bankrupt. That aircraft returned to Cyprus Airways in 1978 and served with the company until 1995.
All of the Cypriot airline's operations had to be suspended following the end of the hostilities in 1974 because Nicosia International Airport, the only airport of the island, had to be closed. Although the Turkish troops did not capture it, they were close enough to it to demand that it not be reopened. The government of Cyprus then moved quickly to build a small terminal by a runway in Larnaca and Cyprus Airways restarted limited operations from there on 8 February 1975. Specifically the airline leased from British Midland Airways Viscount turboprops to fly a stripped down route network to a few key cities in the region: Beirut, Tel Aviv, and Athens via Heraklion, with connections to London on British Airways. Cyprus Airways leased a pair of DC-9 jets in August 1975 to resume its own flights to London (via Salonika).
The acquisition of a DC-8 several months later allowed for non-stop service. Cyprus also added flights to Saudi Arabia at this time. The company was soon able to order a pair of new BAC 1-11s, added to the sister aircraft already in the fleet. The economic loss of the Turkish invasion to the airline was estimated to be 1.6 million Cypriot pounds. To survive, the airline decided to reduce the salaries of all its employees to minimum, who accepted it.
The airline ordered still more different aircraft types in the late 1970s which replaced some earlier aircraft coming off lease.
Expansion in the 1980s
By 1981, Cyprus's fleet included four Boeing 707-123B (1979–1989) and three BAC One-Eleven 500. The route network again extended from Manchester, England, to Baghdad. A change in ownership structure had taken place, with British Airways selling all but 5 percent of the shares it had inherited from BEA to the Cypriot government. Private investors owned the remainder (24.14 percent).
Cyprus made a transition to Airbus aircraft over the course of the decade. Its first A310 widebodies arrived in 1984, followed by A320s in 1989. The order for the eight A320s was worth more than DEM 250 million.
Cyprus Airways was one of the first airlines to operate the Airbus A310, the eighth airline in the world to receive the Airbus A320, and the first airline that launched the IAE V2500 engine along with Adria Airways.
Profits reached record levels in the mid-1980s as the airline added service from new UK cities (Cardiff, Newcastle, and Glasgow). Income of CYP 4.8 million (DEM 8 million) in 1983, a record, would be tripled three years later. By this time, the airline was carrying 740,000 passengers a year.
1990s
British Airways divested the last of its shares in 1991, leaving the government with an 80.46 percent stake and private investors, the remainder. The airline was flying high, introducing a livery and uniforms as the Airbuses plied new routes to Berlin and Helsinki. Cyprus Airways had also joined the SABRE international computer reservations system and set up a tour operation in the United Kingdom.
In 1992 the group established Eurocypria Airlines Ltd. to fly European tourists to Cyprus on a charter basis. It was expanding into ancillary services as well, taking over duty-free operations at Larnaca and Pafos airports.
Cyprus added many new cooperation agreements with other airlines as it developed its international reach by linking Europe and the Middle East. Its partners included KLM and Saudia. By the mid-1990s, more than one million passengers were flying Cyprus Airways every year; another 4,000 chose the charter operation Eurocypria. The airline's market share approached 40 percent. After a rough couple of years, the company posted a CYP 13 million profit in 1994 thanks to cost-cutting and marketing efforts.
New Millennium
The airline introduced a restyled livery, as it embarked on an ambitious fleet renewal programme. Two new Airbus A319s, smaller than its other aircraft, were added in 2002. The next year, two new Airbus A330s replaced the older A310s on long-haul routes. A fleet of four Boeing 737s was chosen for the Eurocypria charter subsidiary, however, with two further similar aircraft added in 2004 and 2005. A feature of the new Eurocypria aircraft was that each had a different colour on its tail. In the meantime, the A320s owned by Cyprus Airways but leased to Eurocypria were returned to the parent company.
In 2002, the Cypriot government lowered its ownership stake to 69.62 percent.
Cyprus Airways founded Hellas Jet in Athens (Greece) in 2003, never making a profit. It held a 75% share of that carrier until all of the shares were sold to Air Miles (charter broker) Air Miles in 2005.
In 2006, the government of Cyprus bought Eurocypria because Cyprus Airways started facing severe financial problems.
According to the airline's 2010 financial results the operating loss for 2010 was €4,9 million in comparison to a loss of €5,4 million in 2009. On 28 June 2011 Cyprus Airways issued a profits warning to the Cyprus Stock Exchange, attributing this to "the continuing financial crisis and to the further significant increase in fuel prices."
On 31 August 2011 Cyprus Airways issued its results for the first half of 2011 which showed a loss of €29,3 million in comparison to a loss of €25,5 million for the respective period of 2010, recording an increase of €3,8 million.
As a result of a restructuring programme to curb the continued losses, most Middle East destinations were cut from the timetable in 2011/2012, including Bahrain, Cairo, Damascus, Dubai and Jeddah.
Final years and closure
In February 2012, due to the poor financial results of the airline, the Cypriot government announced it would increase the airline's capital and authorized negotiations for the sale of an unspecified stake of the carrier. , Cyprus government owns 93.67% of the airline.
raised the share capital of the company and sold the state-owned majority of shares. Negotiations were developing with Aeroflot, which was expected to buy the company if an agreement is reached with the Cypriot government. In May 2012, Cyprus Airways announced that interest was expressed by Triple Five Group, the first official announcement concerning a bidder for the sale of the company. On 23 July 2012, the Cyprus Stock Exchange suspended dealing in Cyprus Airways shares, due to the delay by Cyprus Airways in submitting and publishing its annual financial statements for the year ended 31 December 2011.
A statement to the Cyprus Stock Exchange on 4 March 2013 gave the results for Cyprus Airways Group for the year ended 31 December 2012 as a loss after tax of €55,8 million in comparison to a loss of €23,9 million in 2011.
The European Commission announced on 6 March 2013 that it has opened an investigation into whether the Cypriot government's €73 million rescue loan in December 2012 and €31.3 million contribution to a capital increase in January 2013 are in breach of EU rules on state aid.
On 13 March 2014 Cyprus Airways confirmed the sale of its second slot at London Heathrow Airport to the Lebanese company Middle East Airlines for €6.3 million.
The airline ceased operations on 9 January 2015 following a policy made by the European Commission that the state aid paid to the airline by the Government of Cyprus was illegal and had to be returned by the company. This effectively caused Cyprus Airways to be bankrupt. Notably, air connectivity rose by 15 per cent in the first six months of 2016 compared with an increase of 3.6 per cent in 2015, the year when Cyprus Airways went into bankruptcy.
Restart of operations
In July 2016, the Cypriot government announced that the Cypriot start-up company Charlie Airlines Ltd was the winning bidder in a competition carried out by the finance ministry about the usage of the Cyprus Airways Brand for a period of ten years. Charlie Airlines has been built by a consortium of local investors that hold 60% of the airline and Russia's S7 Airlines, that holds 40% as a joint-venture. S7 is currently Russia's largest domestic carrier and transported 10.6 million passengers in 2015. S7 CEO Vladislav Filev said that the Charlie name was inspired by the nickname handed to expatriated Cypriots that had left the island. S7 will provide two Airbus A319-100 aircraft to start operations to destinations in the UK, Greece and Russia. Charlie Airlines Ltd filed an application to receive a local Air operator's certificate and acquire the right to use the Cyprus Airways trademarks for ten years for 2 million euros.
Corporate affairs
Ownership
Cyprus Airways Public Ltd was predominantly owned by the government of Cyprus, with 391,155,177 shares issued and fully paid:
Business trends
The key trends for Cyprus Airways are shown below (as at years ending 31 December). Full annual reports and accounts were issued up until 2007, but as the airline's financial position deteriorated, so the annual accounts became briefer. The 2012 figures are only from press reports, and are unaudited.:
*Unaudited figures; loss shown is after tax.
Destinations
, Cyprus Airways served 12-year-round destinations in 10 countries, all in Europe and the Middle East.
Codeshare agreements
, Cyprus Airways had codeshare agreements with the following airlines:
Aeroflot
Air France
Alitalia
Bulgaria Air
Etihad Airways
Gulf Air
KLM
Middle East Airlines
TAROM
Virgin Atlantic
On 25 July 2011, Cyprus Airways signed a code-share agreement with Virgin Atlantic, allowing the Cypriot market to travel to Boston, New York, Newark, Los Angeles, Manchester, Edinburgh and Aberdeen on flights operated by Virgin using both Virgin and Cyprus Airways flight numbers, with connecting flights at London–Heathrow. Services from London Heathrow to Larnaca were operated by Cyprus Airways aircraft with flight numbers both of Cyprus Airways and Virgin Atlantic.
Fleet
Prior to the airline's shutdown, Cyprus Airways had a fleet of five Airbus A320 aircraft of an average age of 11.3 years. All aircraft bore names of Cypriot landmarks and cities.
Past fleet
Cyprus Airways operated the following aircraft types:
Livery
The airline's livery was an all white fuselage with the words 'CYPRUS AIRWAYS' in blue over the front passenger windows. The vertical stabilizer was blue, with yellow lines depicting a galloping Cypriot mouflon, a type of wild sheep only found in Cyprus. This logo was also painted on the engines of the aircraft. The galloping mouflon logo was designed in 1962 by David Collins on the instruction of BEA. The first aircraft to display the mouflon design were De Havilland Comet 4B aircraft by the passenger door entrance.
Services
Catering
Food and beverages served on flights from Cyprus were provided by Cyprus Airways Catering facilities in Larnaca. Meals are selected of an array of international and Cypriot foods.
In-flight entertainment
In-flight entertainment was introduced by Cyprus Airways on its Airbus A319 aircraft upon delivery in 2002, and its A320s were retrofitted at the same time.
On the A320 family aircraft, there were television screens placed along the aircraft. Sound was provided through headsets given by the cabin crew. Screens had a moving-map system which provides real-time flight information such position and direction of the plane, altitude, airspeed, distance to destination, distance from origination and local time.
The larger A330 aircraft, operated between 2002 and 2011 and used mainly on longer flights to London Heathrow, Paris and Amsterdam, but also occasionally to Manchester, Athens and Zurich, had individual screens for each passenger, mounted on the back of the seats, offering many more options in video and audio entertainment.
Business class
Business class was named after the ancient Greek god Apollo, who was a symbol of harmony, order, and reason. Apollo class had wide leather seats that reclined by up to 45 inches (110 cm) of pitch and featured electrical recline and leg rest. Apollo-class passengers also had access to the Sunjet executive lounges at both Larnaca and Paphos airports.
Apollo class included a personal entertainment system, built into the armrest of the high standard seats. Additionally, meals were served to business class passengers, with a selection of international and Cypriot cuisine on offer. Drinks and wine were offered on all flights.
Economy class
Economy class was named after the ancient Greek goddess Aphrodite, who, according to Greek mythology, was a symbol of beauty and elegance. Cyprus Airways' Aphrodite (economy) Class offered a seat pitch of 30-31 inches.
Depending on the destination and time of the flight, a hot breakfast, lunch or cold snack was served. The tray included a seasonal salad and dessert, as well as crackers and halloumi cheese. Drinks, including coffee or tea and soft drinks, were offered.
SunMiles
SunMiles was the frequent flyer programme of Cyprus Airways. There were four tiers of membership: Student, Regular, Premier, and Elite. Points were credited per each one-way flight on Cyprus airways. Economy class passengers gained 1 point per kilometre, and Business class passengers gained 1,5 points per kiliometre.
Awards
Cyprus Airways was awarded the 'Commitment to Excellence in Europe' award by the European Foundation of Quality Management (EFQM) in 2007.
Cyprus Airways was also awarded the 'IATA Best In-flight Programming for a European airline' award.
Incidents and accidents
On 21 December 1961, a De Havilland Comet 4, owned and operated by British European Airways (BEA) on behalf of Cyprus Airways, crashed immediately after takeoff from Ankara. The probable cause was instrument failure. Seven of the 34 people on board survived. The four cabin crew were Cyprus Airways employees.
On 12 October 1967, Cyprus Airways Flight 284 broke up in midair on a flight between Athens and Nicosia, most likely as a result of the detonation of an explosive device. All 66 people on board died. Similarly to the 1961 accident, the De Havilland Comet 4B aircraft was owned and operated by British European Airways (BEA), though cabin staff were Cyprus Airways employees.
References
External links
Official website)
Airlines established in 1947
Airlines disestablished in 2015
British Airways
Cypriot brands
+
Defunct airlines of Cyprus
Former Association of European Airlines members
Government-owned airlines
1947 establishments in Cyprus
2015 disestablishments in Cyprus
Companies based in Nicosia
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Longland
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Jack Longland
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Sir John Laurence "Jack" Longland (26 June 1905 – 29 November 1993) was an educator, mountain climber, and broadcaster.
After a brilliant student career Longland became a don at Durham University in the 1930s. He formed a lifelong concern for the welfare of unemployed people, and after a time working in community service he moved to become an educational administrator, retiring in 1970. Among his achievements was the establishment of White Hall in Derbyshire, the country's first local authority Outdoor Pursuits Centre for young people.
As a young man Longland was prominent among British rock-climbers, taking a distinguished part in the 1933 British Mount Everest expedition. Later in life he was active in the affairs of the British Mountaineering Council.
Longland was a familiar broadcaster on BBC Radio, appearing regularly from the late 1940s until the 1970s in the long-running Round Britain Quiz, Any Questions?, and the panel game My Word!, which he chaired for twenty years from 1957.
Life and career
Longland was the eldest son of the Rev E. H. Longland (successively curate of Hagley, vicar of St Paul's, Warwick (1908–16) rector of St Nicholas's Droitwich (1916–27), and vicar of Cropthorne (1927)) and his wife, Emily, elder daughter of Sir James Crockett. Longland was educated at the King's School, Worcester, and Jesus College, Cambridge, where he was Rustat Exhibitioner and scholar, won a Blue for pole-vaulting, and gained a first in Part I of the Historical Tripos in 1926, and first class honours with distinction in the English Tripos in 1927.
After graduating, Longland was elected Charles Kingsley bye-fellow of Magdalene College for two years, and then spent a year in Germany as Austausch-student at Königsberg University, where he witnessed the early rise of Adolf Hitler.
While still in his twenties Longland established a reputation as a mountaineer. He liked to say that he started out "with a clothes line and a pair of old army boots", but in the words of an obituarist, "as a rock-climber he was brilliant. He will always be remembered for 'Longland's Climb', on Clogwyn Du'r Arddu, in Snowdonia, the first route right up that formidable crag. It gave him enormous pleasure to climb that route again with his son over 40 years later." He was a member of two major British expeditions –in 1933 to Everest and in 1935 to East Greenland. In the words of The Times, "His place in Everest legend remains secure, if only for his 1933 feat in bringing down eight sherpas from Camp Six to Base Camp after a blizzard had produced whiteout conditions obliterating all traces of their upward route." He was invited to go on the 1938 Everest expedition, but declined, being by then heavily involved with public service work in England.
Longland's first full-time academic post was as lecturer in English at Durham University from 1930 to 1936. In 1934 he married Margaret Lowrey Harrison in a ceremony conducted by the Bishop of Durham (Hensley Henson) assisted by Longland senior and two other clergymen. There were two sons and two daughters of the marriage.
During his time at Durham, Longland became increasingly concerned at the social problems caused by the Great Depression and unemployment in the Durham coalfields, and became an active member of the Labour Party. He said later:
He left the university to become deputy director of Durham's Community Service Council, taking over as director a year later. From 1940 until his retirement in 1970 he worked in the management of education, as deputy education officer for Hertfordshire (1940–42), director of education for Dorset (1942–49) and for Derbyshire (1949–70). In tandem with his main official duties he was Regional Officer of the National Council of Social Service, 1939–40, president of the Association of Education Officers, 1960–61, and chairman of the Mountain Leadership Training Board, 1964–80. He was also a member of eighteen national commissions, committees and advisory bodies.. In his Derbyshire post in 1950 he set up the first local authority Outdoor Pursuits Centre (White Hall). As a member of the Countryside Commission from 1969 to 1974 he played an important part in bringing increased protection for the countryside responsible, writing the Commission's report that persuaded the government to strengthen the powers of National Park committees.
In addition to his public service work, Longland was a frequent and popular broadcaster on BBC Radio. In the late 1940s and 1950s he was the chairman of the series Country Questions in which a team of experts answered listeners' questions about the countryside; he was a panellist and later a question-master on the long-running Round Britain Quiz, and was a frequent member of the Any Questions? panel. He was in the chair for series for younger listeners, including The Younger Generation Question Time and Summer Parade. From August 1957 he succeeded John Arlott as chairman of the panel game My Word!, and remained in the role until he retired in December 1977. He was described in The Times as "the perfect chairman, courteous, receptive, self-effacing and clearly well liked by the team".
In 1990 Longland gave an address at a gathering to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the birth of Sir George Everest, the surveyor-general of India, after whom the mountain was named. The Royal Geographical Society hosted a gathering of climbers who had made or attempted the ascent of Everest. Among them were Lord Hunt, leader of the first successful British expedition in 1953, and Sir Edmund Hillary, who first climbed the mountain with Tenzing Norgay. Chris Bonington, Doug Scott, Stephen Venables and Harry Taylor talked of the post-war achievements, and Longland spoke about the early attempts on the mountain.
Longland was knighted on his retirement in 1970. In his last years he was distressed, in the words of The Times, "to sit by and watch his educational work being undone by successively tougher Conservative secretaries of state." He died at the age of 88. His wife and one of his sons predeceased him.
Notes and references
Notes
References
External links
Royal Geographical Society Everest site
Cambridge University Mountaineering Club – First Ascents list
Climbers' Club – obituary
1905 births
1993 deaths
Academics of Durham University
Alumni of Jesus College, Cambridge
British rock climbers
English mountain climbers
English radio personalities
People educated at King's School, Worcester
|
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] |
211801
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleen
|
Charleen
|
Charleen is a 1977 observational documentary film directed and shot by Ross McElwee, about his friend and former poetry teacher, Charleen Swansea.
Summary
McElwee follows Charleen over a month in her life in North Carolina, where she still teaches poetry and engages in interracial flirtation (to the titillation of her students), and documents her friendship with American poet Ezra Pound.
Production
McElwee shot the film as part of his graduate thesis at MIT.
References
External links
Homepage
Official trailer
References
American films
American documentary films
Films shot in North Carolina
Films set in North Carolina
Films directed by Ross McElwee
Documentary films about poets
American student films
1977 documentary films
Ezra Pound
|
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211804
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilys%20Powell
|
Dilys Powell
|
Elizabeth Dilys Powell, CBE (20 July 1901 – 3 June 1995) was a British film critic and travel writer who contributed to The Sunday Times for more than 50 years. Powell was known for her receptiveness to cultural change in the cinema and coined many classic phrases about films and actors. She was a founder member of the Independent Television Authority (ITA), which launched commercial television in the UK, and also served as the second female president of the Classical Association. Powell wrote several books on films and her travels in Greece.
Early life and education
Born in Bridgnorth, Shropshire, to Thomas Powell, a bank manager, and Mary Jane Lloyd, Dilys Powell attended Talbot Heath School, Bournemouth before winning a scholarship to read modern languages at Somerville College, Oxford. Powell was in the significant minority of women studying at Oxford at that time.
Powell considered studying classics (or greats) at Oxford University, but she was advised against it by her brother: '"Don't" he said; "the classics are a terrible grind for a girl, and you will be prematurely wrinkled."' Powell took his advice, but later regretted it, feeling that she had been robbed of "deep and solid pleasures", having "small Latin...and, goodness knows, less Greek".
At Oxford, Powell met an archaeologist, Humfry Payne (19 February 1902 – 9 May 1936), whom she married in 1926. Whilst studying at Oxford, she made news headlines in the Daily Mail after being "taken out for tea" and climbing over the wall to go out with her boyfriend, whom she would later marry. She was rusticated for two terms, and the principal accused her of 'dragging the name of Somerville in the dust'. She graduated with a first-class honours degree.
Career
After graduation, Powell spent a period as personal assistant to Lady Ottoline Morrell before joining the literary department of The Sunday Times in 1928.
In 1929, her husband Humfry Payne was appointed director of the British School at Athens. From 1931 to 1936, Powell spent part of each year in Greece, frequently attending excavations where her husband was working, including the excavation of the Heraion of Perachora, as well as attending an excavation at Abydos in Egypt. Payne died in Athens in 1936 from a staphylococcus infection. They had no children.
Powell continued her periodic visits to Greece after 1936, until the Second World War intervened. In 1939 Powell was appointed film critic at The Sunday Times, and in 1941 she found war work with a Greek connection in the Political Warfare Executive, which oversaw Britain's propaganda in occupied Europe, where she worked until 1945: she was involved with making sure that the BBC's broadcasts to Greece accurately represented British policies. In June 1943, she married Leonard Russell (1906–1974), the literary editor at The Sunday Times.
Powell was one of the founder members of the Independent Television Authority (ITA) from 1954, despite initial concerns about her possible conflicts of interest (she wrote for a newspaper that was backing one of the ITV franchises, but its bid was eventually withdrawn). She resigned her post at the ITA in 1956 in protest at the government's refusal to come up with funding which it had promised to the authority in the Television Act 1954. She was a long-serving panel member of the BBC radio word game, My Word!.
Powell's journalism led a change in the writing of cinema criticism. To quote from the British Film Institute: "she was open to new directions in cinema and was not constrained by the middle class shibboleths of 'good taste', unlike her rival C. A. Lejeune, film critic for The Observer from 1928 to 1960." She remained film critic at The Sunday Times until 1979 – a compilation of her reviews was published in 1989 as The Golden Screen – but from 1976 she also began writing about films on television, which she continued to do until the end of her life. Her last piece, a review of Barry Lyndon, appeared in The Times on the day of her death. She also served as film critic for Punch until its first closure in 1992.
Powell, a Philhellene, made frequent visits to Greece, including attending the British School at Athens' excavations at Emporio on Chios in 1954 in order to report on the excavations for The Sunday Times. She was the author of several books about the country, including Remember Greece (1941); An Affair of the Heart (1958), describing her repeated visits to the village of Perachora, site of Payne's excavations of the Heraion; and The Villa Ariadne (1973), a memoir of the archaeologists associated with the house built by Sir Arthur Evans near the palace of Knossos, including several, such as John Pendlebury, who were active in the Cretan Resistance during World War II. Other works include a biography of Payne, The Traveller's Journey is Done (1943). Powell served as President of the Classical Association from 1966–7, giving her presidential address at the University of Reading on 5 April 1967. She was only the second female President of the Classical Association, following Professor Dorothy Tarrant (President 1958-9). Powell was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1974, awarded a British Film Institute Fellowship in 1983, and made an Honorary Fellow of Somerville College, Oxford University, in 1991. Powell was a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature.
In 1991, the Dilys Powell Award was established in her honour, and awarded to Dirk Bogarde; the award is given annually, and recipients have included Helena Bonham Carter, Kristin Scott Thomas, Judi Dench, and Kate Winslet.
Publications
Descent from Parnassus (1934), London: Cresset Press (essays on modern poets)
Remember Greece (1941), London: Hodder & Stoughton
The Traveller’s Journey is Done (1943), London: Hodder & Stoughton (Humfry Payne at the British School of Archaeology at Athens)
Films since 1939 (1947), London: Longmans, Green & Co (for the British Council)
Coco (1952), London: Hodder & Stoughton (biography of a dog)
An Affair of the Heart (1958), London: Hodder & Stoughton
The Mirror of the Present (1967), London: John Murray (presidential address to the Classical Association at the University of Reading)
The Villa Ariadne (1973), London: Hodder and Stoughton. New edition by Eland in 2016:
The Golden Screen: Fifty Years at the Films (1989), London: Pavilion, (ed. George Perry)
The Dilys Powell film reader (1991), Manchester: Carcanet,
References
1901 births
1995 deaths
Alumni of Somerville College, Oxford
English film critics
English women journalists
English radio personalities
People educated at Talbot Heath School
People from Bournemouth
People from Bridgnorth
The Sunday Times people
English film people
Women film critics
20th-century British women writers
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
20th-century English women
20th-century English people
|
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211808
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon%20Court%20de%20105%20M%28montagne%29%20modele%201909%20Schneider
|
Canon Court de 105 M(montagne) modele 1909 Schneider
|
The Canon Court de 105 M(montagne) modèle 1909 Schneider (105 mm mle.1909) was a French mountain gun, manufactured by Schneider et Cie. According to Kennblätter fremden Geräts, Germany used the former French gun as the 10.5 cm GebH 343(f). The gun could be towed by a horse or mule.
According to Russian sources the 105 M Mle 1909 was evaluated and found suitable for Russian use, but needed to be rebuilt to accept 107mm Russian ammunition and was never used by Russian army. (Encyclopedia of the Soviet Artillery by Shirokorad A. B. and others).
Gallery
Notes
See also
Mountain artillery
List of mountain artillery
World War I mountain artillery of France
World War II weapons of France
World War II mountain artillery
Artillery of France
105 mm artillery
Schneider Electric
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My%20Music%20%28radio%20programme%29
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My Music (radio programme)
|
My Music was a radio panel show which premiered on the BBC Home Service on 3 January 1967. It was a companion programme to My Word!, and like that show featured comic writers Denis Norden and Frank Muir. The show was last recorded in November 1993 and broadcast in January 1994, then rebroadcast until 2011. It was also broadcast via the BBC World Service. There was also a television version on BBC2 which ran for seven series between 1977 and 1983.
Description
My Music followed My Word!s pattern of two teams of two competing in a series of challenges, based this time on music rather than words. Again, the quiz element was subordinate to the entertainment. In later years, each episode featured a final round in which each contestant was required to sing a song, regardless of his vocal ability. Initially, this was a genuine test of whether the contestants knew the songs, but later the songs were always ones that they were certain to know. Indeed, towards the end Denis Norden decided what song he would sing, supplying some rather bizarre ones. Many of these were written by the English music hall songwriters R. P. Weston and Bert Lee.
The teams were:
1967–1973: Ian Wallace and Denis Norden versus David Franklin and Frank Muir
1973: Ian Wallace and Denis Norden versus Owen Brannigan and Frank Muir
1974–1994: Ian Wallace and Denis Norden versus John Amis and Frank Muir (these four participants also contested the TV version)
The show was hosted for its entire run by composer Steve Race, who also set the challenges (after an early period in which they were set by show creator Edward J. Mason) and provided piano accompaniment where appropriate (except in the first five series, in which accompaniment was provided by Graham Dalley on mellotron). Neither Race nor Wallace missed a single one of the more than 520 episodes broadcast.
Graham Dalley, the show's first accompanist, also composed the signature tune, and his original mellotron version was used from 1967 to 1975. A new arrangement of the theme, featuring trumpets, bass guitar, electric guitar, conga drums, and cabasa, was used from 1976, and was succeeded in 1983 by an arrangement for piano and harpsichord, composed by Steve Race.
Producers of the programme included Tony Shryane and Pete Atkin.
In the United States, the show was syndicated on the WFMT Fine Arts Network until 1 October 2013, when BBC ended US distribution.
Episode Guide Series 1 (3 January – 28 March 1967 - 13 episodes)The programmes were broadcast each Tuesday night at 9.00 pm on the BBC Home Service and were recorded before an invited audience at the 'Paris' Studio, Lower Regent Street, London.
Tuesday 3 January 1967 (recorded 31 July 1967)
Tuesday 10 January 1967
Tuesday 17 January 1967
Tuesday 24 January 1967
Tuesday 31 January 1967
Tuesday 7 February 1967
Tuesday 14 February 1967
Tuesday 21 February 1967 (Lionel Hale stands in for Frank Muir who is indisposed)
Tuesday 28 February 1967
Tuesday 7 March 1967
Tuesday 14 March 1967
Tuesday 21 March 1967
Tuesday 28 March 1967Series 2 (4 October 1967 to 10 January 1968 - 15 episodes)The programmes were broadcast each Wednesday night at 7.00 pm and repeated the following Tuesday at 12.25 pm on BBC Radio 4.
There was no broadcast on Wednesday 22 November 1967; the evening was devoted to a recording of CARMEN from the 1967 Salzburg Festival which was made available by courtesy of Austrian Radio. Researchers have indicated that while My Music was not broadcast on this date, it was broadcast in its repeat slot on 28 Nov 67. It would appear that this episode was not included in BBC Transcription Service LP’s of the programme.
Wednesday 4 October 1967 repeated Tuesday 10 October 1967
Wednesday 11 October 1967 repeated Tuesday 17 October 1967
Wednesday 18 October 1967 repeated Tuesday 24 October 1967
Wednesday 25 October 1967 repeated Tuesday 31 October 1967
Wednesday 1 November 1967 repeated Tuesday 7 November 1967
Wednesday 8 November 1967 repeated Tuesday 14 November 1967
Wednesday 15 November 1967 repeated Tuesday 21 November 1967
Tuesday 28 November 1967
Wednesday 29 November 1967 repeated Tuesday 5 December 1967
Wednesday 6 December 1967 repeated Tuesday 12 December 1967
Wednesday 13 December 1967 repeated Tuesday 19 December 1967
Wednesday 20 December 1967 repeated Tuesday 26 December 1967
Wednesday 27 December 1967 repeated Tuesday 2 January 1968
Wednesday 3 January 1968 repeated Tuesday 9 January 1968
Wednesday 10 January 1968 repeated Tuesday 16 January 1968Series 3 (29 April to 22 July 1968 – 13 episodes)The programmes were broadcast each Monday night at 7.00 pm and repeated the following Sunday at 12.25 pm on BBC Radio 4.
Monday 29 April 1968 repeated Sunday 5 May 1968
Monday 6 May 1968 repeated Sunday 12 May 1968
Monday 13 May 1968 repeated Sunday 19 May 1968
Monday 20 May 1968 repeated Sunday 26 May 1968
Monday 27 May 1968 repeated Sunday 2 June 1968 (Michael Flanders stands in for Frank Muir)
Monday 3 June 1968 repeated Sunday 9 June 1968
Monday 10 June 1968 repeated Sunday 16 June 1968
Monday 17 June 1968 repeated Sunday 23 June 1968
Monday 24 June 1968 repeated Sunday 30 June 1968
Monday 1 July 1968 repeated Sunday 7 July 1968
Monday 8 July 1968 repeated Sunday 14 July 1968
Monday 15 July 1968 repeated Sunday 21 July 1968
Monday 22 July 1968 repeated Sunday 28 July 1968Series 4 (10 March to 2 June 1969 – 13 episodes)The programmes were broadcast each Monday night at 7.00 pm and repeated the following Sunday at 12.25 pm on BBC Radio 4.
Monday 19 March 1969 repeated Sunday 16 March 1969
Monday 17 March 1969 repeated Sunday 23 March 1969
Monday 24 March 1969 repeated Sunday 30 March 1969 (Barry Took stands in for Frank Muir)
Monday 31 March 1969 repeated Sunday 6 April 1969
Monday 7 April 1969 repeated Sunday 13 April 1969
Monday 14 April 1969 repeated Sunday 20 April 1969
Monday 21 April 1969 repeated Sunday 27 April 1969
Monday 28 April 1969 repeated Sunday 4 May 1969
Monday 5 May 1969 repeated Sunday 11 May 1969
Monday 12 May 1969 repeated Sunday 18 May 1969
Monday 19 May 1969 repeated Sunday 25 May 1969
Monday 26 May 1969 repeated Sunday 1 June 1969
Monday 2 June 1969 repeated Sunday 8 June 1969Series 5 (28 December 1969 to 29 March 1970 - 14 episodes)The programmes were broadcast each Sunday night at 6.30 pm and repeated the following Friday at 7.00pm.
Sunday 28 December 1969 repeated Friday 2 January 1970
Sunday 4 January 1970 repeated Friday 9 January 1970
Sunday 11 January 1970 repeated Friday 17 January 1970
Sunday 18 January 1970 repeated Friday 23 January 1970
Sunday 25 January 1970 repeated Friday 30 January 1970
Sunday 1 February 1970 repeated Friday 6 February 1970
Sunday 8 February 1970 repeated Friday 13 February 1970
Sunday 15 February 1970 repeated Friday 20 February 1970
Sunday 22 February 1970 repeated Friday 27 February 1970
Sunday 1 March 1970 repeated Friday 6 March 1970
Sunday 8 March 1970 repeated Friday 13 March 1970
Sunday 15 March 1970 repeated Friday 20 March 1970
Sunday 22 March 1970 repeated Friday 27 March 1970
Sunday 29 March 1970 repeated Friday 3 April 1970Series 6 (28 January 1971 to 22 April 1971 – 13 episodes)The programmes were broadcast each Friday afternoon at 12.25 pm and repeated the following Monday evening at 7.30 pm
Thursday 28 January 1971 repeated Monday 1 February 1971
Thursday 4 February 1971 repeated Monday 8 February 1971
Thursday 11 February 1971 repeated Monday 15 February 1971
Thursday 18 February 1971 repeated Monday 22 February 1971
Thursday 25 February 1971 repeated Monday 1 March 1971
Thursday 4 March 1971 repeated Monday 8 March 1971
Thursday 11 March 1971 repeated Monday 15 March 1971
Thursday 18 March 1971 repeated Monday 22 March 1971
Thursday 25 March 1971 repeated Monday 29 March 1971
Thursday 1 April 1971 repeated Monday 5 April 1971
Thursday 8 April 1971 repeated Monday 12 April 1971
Thursday 15 April 1971 repeated Monday 19 April 1971
Thursday 22 April 1971 repeated Monday 26 April 1971Series 7 (26 December 1971 to – 15 episodes)The programmes were broadcast each Sunday evening at 7.00 pm and repeated the following Thursday afternoon 12.25 pm
Sunday 26 December 1971
Sunday 2 January 1972 repeated Thursday 6 January 1972
Sunday 9 January 1972 repeated Thursday 13 January 1972
Sunday 16 January 1972 repeated Thursday 20 January 1972
Sunday 23 January 1972 repeated Thursday 27 January 1972
Sunday 30 January 1972 repeated Thursday 3 February 1972
Sunday 6 February 1972 repeated Thursday 10 February 1972
Sunday 13 February 1972 repeated Thursday 17 February 1972
Sunday 20 February 1972 repeated Thursday 24 February 1972
Sunday 27 February 1972 repeated Thursday 2 March 1972
Sunday 5 March 1972 repeated Thursday 9 March 1972
Sunday 12 March 1972 repeated Thursday 16 March 1972
Sunday 19 March 1972 repeated Thursday 23 March 1972
Sunday 26 March 1972 repeated Thursday 30 March 1972
Sunday 2 April 1972 repeated Thursday 6 April 1972Special editions
Tuesday 20 June 1972 - a special edition for the 150th anniversary of the Royal Academy. TV cameras were present to film inserts for a David Franklyn programme 'One Pair of Eyes'.
Wednesday 15 November 1972 - special edition recorded before an invited audience at Pebble Mill, Birmingham to mark the B.B.C. 50th Anniversary recorded 13 November 19Series 8 (25 December 1972 to 25 March 1973 – 14 editions)Special editionMonday 25 December 1972 My Word! It’s My Music - A Christmas edition of the two radio panel games with Dilys Powell , David Franklin and Frank Muir who challenge Anne Scott-James , Ian Wallace and Denis Norden. In the chair Sir Jack Longland and Steve Race who compiled the questions. Broadcast at 7.30pm.Series 18 (9 June - 1 December 1982) Wednesday 9 June 1982 repeated Friday 11 June 1982
Wednesday 16 June 1982 repeated Friday 18 June 1982
Wednesday 23 June 1982 repeated Friday 25 June 1982
Wednesday 30 June 1982 repeated Friday 2 July 1982
Wednesday 7 July 1982 repeated Friday 9 July 1982
Wednesday 14 July 1982 repeated Friday 16 July 1982
Wednesday 21 July 1982 repeated Friday 23 July 1982
Wednesday 28 July 1982 repeated Friday 30 July 1982
Wednesday 4 August 1982 repeated Friday 6 August 1982
Wednesday 11 August 1982 repeated Friday 13 August 1982
Wednesday 18 August 1982 repeated Friday 20 August 1982
Wednesday 25 August 1982 repeated Friday 27 August 1982
Wednesday 1 September 1982 repeated Friday 3 September 1982
Wednesday 8 September 1982 repeated Friday 10 September 1982
Wednesday 15 September 1982 repeated Friday 17 September 1982
Wednesday 22 September 1982 repeated Friday 24 September 1982
Wednesday 29 September 1982 repeated Friday 1 October 1982
Wednesday 6 October 1982 repeated Friday 8 October 1982
Wednesday 13 October 1982 repeated Friday 15 October 1982
Wednesday 20 October 1982 repeated Friday 22 October 1982
Wednesday 27 October 1982 repeated Friday 29 October 1982
Wednesday 3 November 1982 repeated Friday 5 November 1982
Wednesday 10 November 1982 repeated Friday 12 November 1982
Wednesday 17 November 1982 repeated Friday 19 November 1982
Wednesday 24 November 1982 repeated Friday 26 November 1982
Wednesday 1 December 1982 repeated Friday 3 December 1982Series 25 (27 November 1989 - 22 January 1989 – 8 episodes)The programmes were broadcast each Monday afternoon at 12.25 pm on BBC Radio 4.
Monday 27 November 1993
Monday 3 December 1993
Monday 11 December 1993
Monday 18 December 1993
Monday 1 January 1994
Monday 8 January 1994
Monday 15 January 1994
Monday 22 January 1994 Series 26 (3 April 1990 – 22 May 1990 – 8 episodes)The programmes were broadcast each Tuesday afternoon at 12.25 pm on BBC Radio 4.
Tuesday 3 April 1990
Tuesday 10 April 1990
Tuesday 17 April 1990
Tuesday 24 April 1990
Tuesday 1 May 1990
Tuesday 8 May 1990
Tuesday 15 May 1990
Tuesday 22 May 1990 (The 500th edition)Series 27 (2 December 1991 to 20 January 1992 - 8 episodes)The programmes were broadcast each Monday afternoon at 12.25pm on BBC Radio 4.
Monday 2 December 1991
Monday 9 December 1991
Monday 16 December 1991
Monday 23 December 1991
Monday 30 December 1991
Monday 6 January 1992
Monday 13 January 1992
Monday 20 January 1992Series 28 (6 October 1992 to 24 November 1992 - 8 episodes)The programmes were broadcast each Tuesday afternoon at 12.25pm on BBC Radio 4.
Tuesday 6 October 1992
Monday 13h October 1992
Monday 20h October 1992
Monday 27 October 1992
Monday 3 November 1993
Monday 10 November 1993
Monday 17 November 1993
Monday 24 November 1993Series 29 (6 December 1993 – 24 January 1994 - 8 episodes)The programmes were broadcast each Monday afternoon at 12.25pm on BBC Radio 4.
Monday 6 December 1993
Monday 13 December 1993
Monday 20 December 1993
Monday 27 December 1993
Monday 3 January 1994
Monday 10 January 1994
Monday 17 January 1994
Monday 24 January 1994 (the final programme)
The Songs
In the later editions, the four contributors performed their 'Party Pieces', songs or musical items. Series 17Programme 1
Wonderful One (Frank)
La Precieuse (John)
Back in the Old Routine (Dennis)
The Orderly Song (Ian)
Programme 2
Auf Wiedershen My Dear (Frank)
Amor Ti Vieta (Fedora: Giordano) (John)
And Her Mother Came To (Dennis)
All the Things You Are (Ian)
Programme 3
In A Shady Nook (Frank)
Fairest Isle (John)
AI Don't Care What You Used to Be (Dennis)
In the Bath (Ian)
Programme 4
Rio Rita (Frank)
Sylvia (John)
Sarah Sarah (Dennis)
Juanita (Ian)
Programme 5
Time on My Hands (Frank)
Tristesse (John)
Too Many Rings Around Rosie (Dennis)
Tonga (Ian)
Programme 6
Should I (Frank)
Golden Slumbers Kiss Your Eyes (John)
Say It With Music (Dennis)
Smoke Gets in Your Eyes (Ian)
Programme 7
Maybe It's Because I'm A Londoner(Frank)
The Lark in the Clear Air (John)
The Kind of Girl That Men Forget (Dennis)
Somewhere A Voice is Calling (Ian)
Programme 8
The Party's Over (Frank)
I Hear You Calling Me (John)
Three Meals A Day (Dennis)
Shenandoah (Ian)
Programme 9
Have You Ever Been Lonely? (Frank)
In the Garden Where the Prates Grow (John)
Shepherd of the Hills (Dennis)
C'est Magnifique (Ian)
Programme 10
What A Difference A Day Made (Frank)
Carol (John)
I'll Lend You Anything (Dennis)
White Wings (Ian)
Programme 11
Perhaps Perhaps Perhaps (Frank)
None But the Weary Heart (John)
Poor Butterfly (Dennis)
In Other Words (Ian)
Programme 12
As Time Goes By (Frank)
Love Will Find A Way (John)
Liza Johnson (Dennis)
The Young May Moon (Ian)
Programme 13
I've Got A Pocketful of Dreams (Frank)
Unknown by Bellini (John)
Little White Lies (Dennis)
On A Clear Day You Can See Forever (Ian)
Programme 14
Dream Lover (Frank)
The Hunter in His Career (John)
Lily (Dennis)
A Farewell (Ian)
Programme 15
Now I HAVE TO Call Him Father (Frank)
Oh Waley Waley (John)
My Silver Bell (Dennis)
Edelweiss (Ian)Series 18Programme 1
After the Ball (Frank)
Die Schöne Müllerin (John)
Loving Sam (Dennis)
They Didn't Believe Me (Ian)
Programme 2
I Want to Be Happy (Frank)
If Music Be the Food of Love Sing On (John)
I'm Gonna Keep on Doing (Dennis)
They Didn't Believe Me (Ian)
Programme 3
You'd Be So Nice to Come Home to (Frank Muir)
Tom Bowley (John Amis)
My Old Brown Hat (Denis Norden)
Always (Ian Wallace)
Programme 4
The Rose of Tralee (Frank Muir)
Ch'ella mi creda from 'The Girl of the Golden West' by Puccini (John Amis)
Oh Ma, Leave the Door Ajar (Denis Norden)
My Love's An Arbutus (Ian Wallace)
Programme 5
Tiptoe Through the Tulips (Frank Muir)
Serenade from 'The Pearl Fishers' by Bizet (John Amis)
Three Little Words (Denis Norden)
Blackbird and Thrush Were Silent (Ian Wallace)
Programme 6
I'm in the Mood for Love (Frank Muir)
Aragonaise / Le Cid by Massinet (John Amis)
Georgie & Mary (Denis Norden)
The Girl That I Marry (Ian Wallace)
Programme 7
Why Do I Love You? (Frank Muir)
Cottlestone Pie (John Amis)
It's A Well Known Fact (Denis Norden)
A Cornish Lullaby (Ian Wallace)
Programme 8
Apple Blossom Time (Frank Muir)
Tell Me Tonight (John Amis)
Nostalgia (Denis Norden)
A Paradise for Two from 'Maid of the Mountains' (Ian Wallace)
Programme 9
I'll Be Your Sweetheart (Frank Muir)
Sally In Our Alley (John Amis)
In the Woodshed, She Would (Denis Norden)
Limehouse Reach (Ian Wallace)
Programme 10
Whispering Grass (Frank Muir)
Don Giovanni "Dalla sua pace" (John Amis)
Oh Timothy, Let's Have A Look at It (Denis Norden)
Annie Laurie (Ian Wallace)
Programme 11
Cuddle Up A Little Closer (Frank Muir)
Im wunderschönen Monat Mai from Dichterliebe By Schumann (John Amis)
Mr Carter's Wife (Denis Norden)
An Old Fashioned Town - The Witney Song (Ian Wallace)
Programme 12
Tea for Two (Frank Muir)
Thou art reposed peaceful rest - Schumann (John Amis)
Bon Vivant - lyrics by Johnny Mercer (Denis Norden)
Bless This House (Ian Wallace)
Programme 13
The Honeysuckle and the Bee (Frank Muir)
La belle est au jardin d'amour (John Amis)
There's A Girl In The Heart Of Wheeling, West Virginia (With A Watch That Belongs To Me) (written by Harry Ruby) (Denis Norden)
Love's Garden of Roses (Ian Wallace)
Programme 14
My Old Dutch (Frank Muir)
I Wonder as I Wander (John Amis)
He Treated Me More Like A Friend (Denis Norden)
Leanin’ (Ian Wallace)
Programme 15
Darling Je Vous Aime Beaucoup (Frank Muir)
The Shepherd’s Daughter (John Amis)
Louella (Denis Norden)
The Sunshine of Your Smile (Ian Wallace)
Programme 16
All of Me (Frank Muir)
The Flowers (John Amis)
A Strawberry Sunday (Denis Norden)
The Ash Grove (Ian Wallace)
Programme 17
Mean to Me (Frank Muir)
Humoresque (Dvořák) (John Amis)
She Don’t Wanna (Denis Norden)
Always (Jimmy Durenforth) (Ian Wallace)
Programme 18
Paper Doll (Frank Muir)
The Dickie-Bird Hop (John Amis)
Tonight’s My Night with Baby (Denis Norden)
A Brown Bird Singing (Ian Wallace)
Programme 19
The Hut Sut Song (Frank Muir)
Oh my love she was born in the North country wide (John Amis)
Oh Gussie! (Denis Norden)
Believe Me If All Those Endearing Young Charms (Ian Wallace)
Programme 20
Oh, You Beautiful Doll (Frank Muir)
"Nel cor più non mi sento" Giovanni Paisiello’s L'amor contrastato, (John Amis)
I Wonder How I Look When I'm Asleep (Denis Norden)
Beautiful Garden Of Roses (Ian Wallace)
Programme 21
The Band Played On (Frank Muir)
The Leafy Cool-kellure (John Amis)
When Paderewski Plays (Denis Norden)
Love Sends A Little Gift of Roses (Ian Wallace)
Programme 22
All Alone (Frank Muir)
Brindisi from La Traviata (John Amis)
No Place Like Home (When there’s Nowhere Else to Go) (Denis Norden)
The Bonnie Earl O' Moray (Ian Wallace)
Programme 23/24 - unknown
Programme 25
Wait Till the Sun Shines Nellie (Frank Muir)
Bold William Taylor (John Amis)
Oh, I Must Go Home Tonight (Denis Norden)
When You And I Were Young Maggie (Ian Wallace)
Programme 26 - unknownSeries 19Programme 1
At Sundown (Frank Muir)
The Trout -Schubert (John Amis)
Making Conversation When We Ought to Be Making Love (Denis Norden)
Love Is A Very Light Thing from 'Fanny' (Ian Wallace)
Programme 2
I Love My Baby (Frank Muir)
Song of the Iowa River Boatmen (John Amis)
My Cutie's Due At Two To Two (Denis Norden)
The Old Songs (written by Steve Race)(Ian Wallace)
Programme 3
Keep Your Sunny Side Up (Frank Muir)
Aria from The Merry Widow' (John Amis)
Sposin' (Denis Norden)
We Parted On The Shore (Ian Wallace)
Programme 4
The One I Love (Belongs to Somebody Else) (Frank Muir)
Rich & Rare (John Amis)
Have You Anything on, Matilda? (Denis Norden)
Little Gypsy Sweetheart by Victor Herbert (Ian Wallace)
Programme 5
Pennies from Heaven (Frank Muir)
I Will Give My Love An Apple (John Amis)
Looking at the World Through Rose Coloured Glasses (Denis Norden)
My Ain Folk (Ian Wallace)
Programme 6
Waiting for the Robert E. Lee (Frank Muir)
The Kerry Piper (John Amis)
Julius (Denis Norden)
Old Man River (Ian Wallace)
Programme 7
Hey Look Me Over (Frank Muir)
Oh Wailey Wailey (John Amis)
When My Ship Comes In (Denis Norden)
The Rio Grande (Ian Wallace)
Programme 8 - missing
Programme 9
My Melancholy Baby (Frank Muir)
Music from 'Un ballo in maschera' by Verdi (John Amis)
Your Mother's Son-in-Law (Denis Norden)
Going Home (Ian Wallace)
Programme 10
Yes Sir, That's My Baby (Frank Muir)
Love Thee Dearest (John Amis)
Your Baby Has Gone Down the Plughole (Denis Norden)
The Cricketers of Hambledon (Ian Wallace)
Programme 11
Good Morning (Frank Muir)
O Mio Babbino Caro from 'Gianni Schicchi' by Puccini (John Amis)
Sweetheart (Denis Norden)
Donkey Riding (Ian Wallace)
Programme 12
Tea for Two (Frank Muir)
Thou art reposed peaceful rest - Schumann (John Amis)
Bon Vivant - lyrics by Johnny Mercer (Denis Norden)
Bless This House (Ian Wallace)
Programme 13
It Is Only Paper Moon (Frank Muir)
Love's Young Dream (John Amis)
In My Little Red Book (Denis Norden)
Down in the Glen (Ian Wallace)
Programme 14
Gilbert the Filbert (Frank Muir)
Folk Song orchestrated by Beethoven (John Amis)
A Bench in the Park (Denis Norden)
My Blue Eyed Mountain Queen (Ian Wallace)
Programme 15
Every Little Moment (Frank Muir)
She Wore A Wreath of Roses (John Amis)
Don't Be Cruel to A Vegetabuel (Denis Norden)
When that I was and a little tiny boy (Ian Wallace)
Programme 16
Nice Work if You Can Get It (Frank Muir)
Amor ti vieta from Fedora by Giordano (John Amis)
Mandy - Irving Berlin (Denis Norden)
My Heart Stood Still (Ian Wallace)
Programme 17 - missing
Programme 18
That Certain Party (Frank Muir)
Unknown Italian folk song (John Amis)
Why Should the Rich Man Have It All? (Denis Norden)
The Old Turf Fire (Ian Wallace)
Programme 19
Hello, Hello Who's Your Lady Friend? (Frank Muir)
Long Long Ago (John Amis)
Gigolo and Gigolette (Denis Norden)
The Very Thought of You (Ian Wallace)
Programme 20
My Ragtime Gal (Frank Muir)
The Lark in the Clear Air (John Amis)
A Noise Annoys An Oyster (Denis Norden)
Laura (Ian Wallace)
Programme 21
The Nipper's Lullaby (Frank Muir)
Yes We Have No Bananas (in German) (John Amis)
Believe It, Beloved (Denis Norden)
Beautiful Dreamer (Ian Wallace)
Programme 22
Easy Street (Frank Muir)
Ah, Moon of My Delight (John Amis)
At the Willows (Denis Norden)
The Old House (Ian Wallace)
Programme 23
Nobody's Using it Now (Frank Muir)
Died for Love (John Amis)
All Those Things That You Taught Me (Denis Norden)
When A Woman Smiles (Ian Wallace)
Programme 24 - missing
Programme 25
Auf Wiedersehen, My Dear (Frank Muir)
The Bell Song from 'Lakme' (John Amis)
Who's Stuffing Your Turkey This Christmas? (Denis Norden)
Just Because the Violets by Fred Weatherly (Ian Wallace)
Programme 26
Hello, Hello Who's Your Lady Friend? (Frank Muir)
Long Long Ago (John Amis)
Gigolo and Gigolette (Denis Norden)
The Very Thought of You (Ian Wallace)
1983 Christmas Special (21 December 1983)
Tiptoe Through the Tulips (Frank Muir)
Baby Born in Bethlehem (John Amis)
The Handsome Major (Denis Norden)
The Virgin Mary Had a Baby Boy (Ian Wallace)Series 20Programme 1
I'm On A See-Saw (Frank)
The Toy Trumpet (John)
Anytime (Dennis)
Drink to Me Only with Thine Eyes (Ian)
Programme 2
I've Got A Wonderful Feeling (Frank)
If My Complaints (John)
Linger Awhile (Dennis)
The Last Time I Saw Paris (Ian)
Programme 3
I'll See You Again (Frank Muir)
The Little Houses (John Amis)
I Love to Lie Awake in Bed (Denis Norden)
Some Enchanted Evening (Ian Wallace)
Programme 4
Get Out & Get Under (Frank Muir)
Schubert's Serenade (John Amis)
She's More to Be Pitied Than Censured (Denis Norden)
Down Below (Ian Wallace)
Programme 5
There's A Small Hotel (Frank Muir)
She Left Me With a Bunch of Watercress (John Amis)
Put a Bit of Powder on It Father (Denis Norden)
Sylvia (Ian Wallace)
Programme 6
Don't Have Any More Mrs Moore (Frank Muir)
unknown(John Amis)
A Personal Friend of Mine (Denis Norden)
A Nightingale Sang in Berkeley Square (Ian Wallace)
Programme 7
Did You Ever See A Dream Walking? (Frank Muir)
Tell Me Where Is Fancy Bread (John Amis)
Brown Eyes Why Are You Blue? (Denis Norden)
Oh Mistress Mine (Ian Wallace)
Programme 8
Deep Purple (Frank Muir)
My One & Only (John Amis)
I Love Me (Dennis Norden)
She's My Lovely (Ian Wallace)
Programme 9
Down the Road (Frank Muir)
Tis' the Gift to Be Simple (John Amis)
The Pig Got Up & Slowly Walked Away (Dennis Norden)
Smoke Gets in Your Eyes (Ian Wallace)
Programme 10
Ramona (Frank Muir)
Don't Put Your Daughter on the Stage Mrs Worthington - as Maurice Chevalier (John Amis)
I Love to Dance Like They Used to Dance (Denis Norden)
I'll Walk Beside You (Ian Wallace)
Programme 11
Lily of Laguna (Frank Muir)
Theme from 'Soap' (John Amis)
What Happens After the Ball? (Denis Norden)
Easter Parade (Ian Wallace)
Programme 12
Boiled Beef & Carrots (Frank Muir)
Song from 'Cymbeline' (John Amis)
Outside (Denis Norden)
A Policeman's Lot (Ian Wallace)
Programme 13
Imagination (Frank Muir)
The Brisk Young Widow (John Amis)
The Girl With the Dreamy Eyes (Denis Norden)
If You Could Care for Me (Ian Wallace)
Programme 14
Margie (Frank Muir)
Down by the Sally Lunn (John Amis)
And Everything (Denis Norden)
Tis' the Last Rose of Summer (Ian Wallace)
Programme 15
Manhattan (Frank)
The Housewives Lament (John)
Never Let Your Braces Dangle (Dennis)
Stardust (Ian)
Programme 16 - unknown
Programme 17
The Pride of Idaho (Frank)
unknown Fritz Kreisler tune (John)
You Know What I Mean (Dennis)
Loch Lomond (Ian)
Programme 18
A Pretty Girl is Like A Melody (Frank)
She's Like the Swallow (John)
I Love to Go Swimming With Women (Dennis)
Mary's A Grand Old Name (Ian)
Programme 19
When You & I Were Seventeen (Frank)
Spare, Oh Spare My Baby's Chair (Dennis)
Ye Banks and Braes (Ian & John)
Programme 20
· If You Knew Susie (Frank Muir)
· Rufford Park (John Amis)
· If I Could Be With You One Hour Tonight (Denis Norden)
· Off to Philadelphia (Ian Wallace)
Programme 21
When We Are Married (Frank)
Aria by Cilea from L'arlesiana (John Amis)
Down Where the Cross Eyed Claras Go (Dennis)
I'm Old fashioned (Ian)
Programme 22
Don't Get Around Much Anymore (Frank)
unknown Scottish folk song (John Amis)
It's A Man Every Time (Dennis)
The Lost Chord (Ian)
Programme 23
Ain't Misbehavin' (Frank)
The Fathers of Zion (John)
Moonlight Saving Time (Denis)
Wandering the King's Highway (Ian)
Programme 24
Put Me Among the Girls (Frank)
Una Fair (John)
Mable (Denis)
Welcome Home (Ian)
Programme 25
I Want to Be Happy (Frank)
Aria from 'Manon' by Massinet (John)
I Do Like an Egg for My Tea (Denis)
Turn Ye Tae Me (Ian)
Programme 26 - unknown
Christmas Special
I'm Going to Get Lit Up (Frank)
All the days of Christmas (John Amis)
Give Me the Kingston Bypass (Dennis)
Let the punishment fit the crime - from the Mikado (Ian)Series 22/23/24 - unknownSeries 25Programme 1
I'll Be Your Sweetheart (Frank)
Toy Trumpet (John)
Nothing (Dennis)
The Sunshine of Your Smile (Ian)
Programme 2 - unknown
Programme 3
My Baby Just Cares for Me (Frank)
Drigo's Serenade (John)
Do You Want Any Dirty Work Done? (Dennis)
All the Things You Are (Kern) (Ian)
Programme 4
Don't Get Around Much Anymore (Frank)
Aria from The Girl of the Golden West by Puccini (John)
I'm Knitting A Singlet for Cecil (Dennis)
In An Old Fashioned Town (The Whitney Song) (Ian)
Programme 5
There's A Small Hotel (Rogers & Hart) (Frank)
Pavanne by Morton Gould (John)
Our Avenue (Dennis)
Oh Gin ! Were a Baron's Air (Ian)
Programme 6
Ma He's Making Eyes At Me (Frank)
Serenade from 'The Student Prince' (John)
One of the Thousand Islands (Dennis)
Fold Your Wings from 'Glamorous Night' by Ivor Novello (Ian)
Programme 7
Get Out and Get Under (Frank)
Oh Maiden, My Maiden from 'Frederica' by Lehar (John)
Are You Lonesome Tonight (parody) (Dennis)
Love Walked In (Ian)
Programme 8 - unknownSeries 26Programme 1
I've Got a Motto (Frank)
Pavanne by Faurre (John)
When I've Got my Bolshevik Blood Up (Dennis)
Old Father Thames (Ian)
Programme 2
J'Attendrai (Frank)
Black is the Colour of My True Love's Hair (John)
Little Willie's Woodbines (Dennis)
You Are My Honeysuckle (Ian)
Programme 3
Nellie Dean (Frank)
Polka from 'Facade' by Walton (John)
Since Charlie Did His Courting in A Chalk Pit (Dennis)
The Moment I Saw You (Ian)
Programme 4
If I Had a Talking Picture of You (Frank)
Bonnie at Morn (John)
One of the Best (Dennis)
Stardust (Ian)
Programme 5
Goodbye Sally (Frank)
Salut d'Amour (Elgar) (John)
Don't Mention My Name (Dennis)
If The Heart of a Man from 'The Beggar's Opera' (Ian)
Programme 6
Everybody's Doin' It (Frank)
The Sussex Mama's Carol (John)
The Tears Shed in London Tonight (Weston and Lee) (Dennis)
Where or When (Ian)
Programme 7
A Foggy Day (in London Town) (Frank)
La Ci Darem la Mano from 'Don Giovanni' by Mozart(John)
Love 'em and Leave 'em Joe (Dennis)
Turn Ye Tay Me (Ian)
Programme 8 (The 500th Programme)
My Dear Old Dutch (Frank)
The Rose (John)
He Was More Like A Friend Than A Husband (Dennis)
For You Alone (Ian)Series 27Programme 1
Music Maestro Please (Frank)
Love Song by Bach (John)
Don't Do Your Courting Round the Gate Post (Dennis)
Nature Boy (eden ardez) (Ian)
Programme 2
I've Told Every Little Star (Frank)
Dusk (Armstrong Gibbs) (Steve)
Waltz by Brahms (John)
You Ought To Know Better, A Big Girl Like You (Dennis)
Come to the Fair (Helen Taylor and Easthope Martin) (Ian)
Programme 3
Down the Road (Frank)
A Fairy Went A-Marketing (John)
Heaven Will Protect an Honest Girl (Dennis)
Songs For Our Time (Oly-ma-kitty-luca-chi-chi-chi) (Ian)
Programme 4
I Don't Know Why (I Just Do) (Frank)
Long Lonely Year (Swann) (John)
Hard to be Humble (Dennis)
Gentle Maiden (Steve)
Bonnie Mary of Argyll (Ian)
Programme 5
Just Like the Ivy (Frank)
Habanera from 'Carmen' (Bizet) (John)
Men of Harlech (parody) (Dennis)
A Gordon for Me (Ian)
Programmes 6/7/8 - unknownSeries 28Programme 1
The Sun Has Got His Hat On (Noel Gay and Ralph Butler) (Frank)
Lament by Cilea (John)
Lips that Touched Kipper Shall Never Touch Mine (Dennis)
(The Rollicking) Gay Highway (Ian)
Programme 2
The Galloping Major (Fred W. Leigh and George Bastow) (Frank)
Amazing Grace (John)
You are my Girl-ski (George Arthurs & Worton David) (Dennis)
She's the Perfect Wife (Ian)
Programme 3
Don't Bring Lulu (Billy Rose, Lew Brown, and Ray Henderson) (Frank)
Try to Remember (Tom Jones) (John)
Please Don't Send me Down A Baby Brother (Arthur Schwarz & Dorothy Fields) (Dennis)
Can I Forget You (Kern) (Ian)
Programme 4
She's Only A Bird in A Guided Cage (Frank)
Humoresque (Dvorak) (John)
Romeo (Dennis)
Brigg Fair (Steve)
She Moves Through the Fair (Ian)
Programme 5
I'm On A See-Saw (Vivian Ellis) (Frank)
Theme from 'Whistle Down the Wind' (Malcolm Arnold) (John)
Sophie (I go so far with Sophie and Sophie goes so far with me) (Dennis)
Love is a Very Light Thing (Ian)
Programme 6
What'll I Do (Berlin) (Frank)
Cara Nome from Rigoletto (Verdi) (John)
Mrs Binns Twins (Dennis)
Love is the Sweetest Thing (Steve)
The Very Thought of You (Ian)
Programme 7
You're Getting to Be A Habit With Me (Mercer) (Frank)
The Whistler and His Dog (Arthur Prior) (John)
What Percy's Picked up in the Park (Dennis)
Make Believe (Kern) (Steve)
Long Ago and far Away (Kern) (Ian)
Programme 8
Other Peoples Babies (Frank)
Oh Mistress Mine (Shakespeare) (John)
Are You Lonesome Tonight (parody) (Dennis)
Oh Marie!(Ian)Series 29'''
Programme 1
All Alone (Frank)
Saturday Night Waltz from the ballet 'Rodeo' by Aaron Copeland (John)
He Touched Me (Dennis)
In an Old-Fashioned Town (The Witney Song) (Ian)
Programme 2
After You’ve Gone (Frank)
Master Kilby (John)
You Have to Show It to Mother Before You Show It To Me (Dennis)
Laura (Ian)
Programme 3
C’est Magnifique (Frank)
Bilbow’s Last Song (John & Ian)
They're Moving Father's Grave to Build a Sewer (Dennis)
The Kashmiri Song (Pale hands I Loved Beside the Shalimar) (Steve)
The Old Songs (Ian)
Programme 4
Dream (Frank)
I Wonder As I Wander (John)
I Shan’t Mend Your Waistcoat Any More (Dennis)
Limehouse Reach (Ian)
Programme 5
Get Out & Get Under the Moon (Frank)
Theme by Borodin (John)
Will You Love Me When I’m Mutton? (Dennis)
The Gentle Maiden (Steve)
Oh Marie (Ian)
Programme 6
In A Shady Nook (By A Babbling Brook) (Frank)
King Henry (John)
Did Your First Wife Ever Do That? (Dennis)
Smoke Gets In Your Eyes (Ian)
Programme 7
What’ll I Do?
Habanera from Ravel’s 'Rhapsody Espagnol' (John)
Only Once A Night (Denis)
Bonnie Mary of Argyle (Ian)
Programme 8
Who’s Sorry Now (Frank)
The Blonde in the Gondola (John)
Sissy (Dennis)
I Love the Moon (Steve)
Moon River (Ian)
References
Further reading
Race, Steve (1979) My Music; with the contributions of Frank Muir, Denis Norden, Ian Wallace, John Amis and David Franklin; drawings by John Jensen. London: Robson (Based on the radio and television programme My Music, "the panel game originated by Edward J. Mason and Tony Shryane.")
See also
Face the Music (TV series) - a similarly lighthearted contest broadcast on BBC Television.
External links
My Music'' by Steve Race (1980)
My Music - WFMT (at Internet Archive)
Musical game shows
BBC Radio comedy programmes
International classical music radio programs
British classical music radio programmes
British radio game shows
1960s British game shows
1970s British game shows
1980s British game shows
1990s British game shows
1967 radio programme debuts
1994 radio programme endings
Radio game shows with incorrect disambiguation
|
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