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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tell%20%28archaeology%29
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Tell (archaeology)
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In archaeology, a tell or tel (borrowed into English from , , 'mound' or 'small hill'), is an artificial topographical feature, a species of mound consisting of the accumulated and stratified debris of a succession of consecutive settlements at the same site, the refuse of generations of people who built and inhabited them, and of natural sediment.
Tells are most commonly associated with the ancient Near East, but they are also found elsewhere, such as Southern and parts of Central Europe, from Spain to Hungary, Bulgaria, and Greece, and in North Africa. Within the Near East, they are concentrated in less arid regions, including Upper Mesopotamia, the Southern Levant, Anatolia and Iran, which had more continuous settlement. Eurasian tells date to the Neolithic, the Neolithic/Chalcolithic, and the Bronze Age/Iron Age era. In the Southern Levant the time of the tells ended with the conquest by Alexander the Great, which ushered in the Hellenistic period with its own, different settlement-building patterns. Many tells across the Near East continue to be occupied and used until today.
Etymology
The word tell is first attested in English in an 1840 report in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society. It is derived from the Arabic () meaning 'mound' or 'hillock'. Variant spellings include tall, tel, til, and tal.
The Arabic word has many cognates in other Semitic languages, such as Akkadian tillu(m), Ugaritic tl, and Hebrew tel (). The Akkadian form is similar to Sumerian DUL, which can also refer to a 'pile' of any material, like grain, but it is not known whether the similarity reflects a borrowing from that language, or if the Sumerian term itself was a loanword from an earlier Semitic substrate language. If Akkadian tillu is related to another word in that language, til'u, meaning 'woman's breast', there exists a similar term in the South Semitic classical Ethiopian language of Geʽez, namely təla, 'breast'. Hebrew tel first appears in the biblical book of Deuteronomy (ca. 500–700 BCE), describing a heap or small mound, and appearing in the books of Joshua and Ezekiel with the same meaning.
There are lexically unrelated equivalents for this geophysical concept of a town-mound in other Southwest Asian languages, including kom in Egyptian Arabic, tepe or tappeh (Turkish/), or (Turkish), and chogha (, from Turkish 'çokmak' and derivatives 'çoka' etc.). These often appear in place names, and the word itself is one of the most common prefixes for Palestinian toponyms. The Arabic word khirbet, also spelled khirbat (), meaning 'ruin', also occurs in the names of many archaeological tells, such as Khirbet et-Tell (roughly meaning 'heap of ruins').
Formation
A tell can only be formed if natural and man-produced material accumulates faster than it's being removed by erosion and human-caused truncation, which explains the limited geographical area they occur in.
Tells are formed from a variety of remains, including organic and cultural refuse, collapsed mudbricks and other building materials, water-laid sediments, residues of biogenic and geochemical processes, and aeolian sediment. A classic tell looks like a low, truncated cone with sloping sides and a flat, mesa-like top. They can be more than high.
Occurrence
Southwest Asia
It is thought that the earliest examples of tells are to be found in the Jordan Valley, such as at the 10 meter-high mound, dating back to the proto-Neolithic period, at Jericho in the West Bank. Upwards of 5,000 tells have been detected in the area of ancient Israel, (including the area covered by modern Israel and Palestine) and Jordan. Of these Paul Lapp calculated in the 1960s that 98% had yet to be touched by archaeologists.
In Syria, tells are abundant in the Upper Mesopotamia region, in which they scatter along the Euphrates, including Tell al-'Abr, Tell Bazi, Tell Kabir, Tell Mresh, Tell Saghir and Tell Banat. The latter is thought to be the site of the oldest war memorial (known as the White Monument), dated back to the 3rd millennium BC.
Europe
Tells can be found in Europe in countries like Spain, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, North Macedonia, and Greece.
Northeastern Bulgaria has a rich archaeological heritage of eneolithic tells from the 5th millennium BCE.
In Neolithic Greece, there is a contrast between the northern Thessalian plain where rainfall was sufficient to permit densely populated settlements based on dry-farming and the more dispersed sites in southern Greece, such as the Peloponesus, where early villages sprang up around the smaller arable tracts close to springs, lakes and marshes. There are two models to account for the tell structures of this part of southern Europe, one developed by Paul Halstead and the other by John Chapman. Chapman envisaged the tell as witness to a nucleated communal society, whereas Halstead emphasized the idea that they arose as individual household structures. Thessalian tells often reflect small hamlets with a small population of around 40–80.
The Toumbas of Macedonia and the Magoulas of Thessaly are the local names for tell sites in these regions of Greece.
See also
List of tells
Acropolis
Archaeological site
Midden
Mound
Notes and references
Explanatory notes
Notes
References
External links
Ancient Near East
Archaeological sites in the Near East
Mounds
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211184
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad%20Zaidan
|
Muhammad Zaidan
|
Muhammad Zaidan (10 December 1948 – 8 March 2004), also known as Abu Abbas ( Abū ʿAbbās ) or Muhammad Abbas, was (with Tal'at Ya'qoub) the founder and a leader of the Palestine Liberation Front (PLF) Organization.
Political background
Zaidan was born in 1948 in Safed, Palestine, though other sources state that he was born in a Syrian refugee camp.
He studied at the Damascus University where he joined the radical, pro-Syrian Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command (PFLP-GC) under Ahmed Jibril in 1968. In 1977, major disagreements arose between the PFLP-GC, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), and other Palestinian factions based in Lebanon. Zaidan, who opposed Syrian involvement in the Lebanese war, left the PFLP-GC and created the PLF with Talaat Yaacoub, which eventually split into three separate factions (and then later re-merged). Zaydan's faction of the PLF, which was the largest of the three, moved its headquarters to Tunisia.
PLF leader
Since its inception in 1977, the Abbas-led PLF was a member of the Palestine Liberation Organization and received support from both the PLO and Yasser Arafat's Fatah movement. Unlike the PFLP-GC, the PLF has supported peace negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians. Zaidan was elected to the Executive Committee of the PLO in 1984 and represented the Palestinian National Council (PNC) in 1989 during peace negotiations with Israel. Although Zaidan was wanted by Israel for his involvement in guerrilla attacks against Israel (including attacks against civilians) throughout the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s, Israel allowed him to travel freely in the Gaza Strip throughout the 1990s because he supported the peace negotiations. One notable attack by the PLF under Zaidan's leadership resulted in the deaths of Danny Haran (age 28) and his two daughters, Einat (4) and Yael (2) in April 1979 in their Nahariya, Israel home by Samir Kuntar.
Achille Lauro hijacking
Throughout the 1980s, the PLF launched attacks on both civilian and military targets in the north of Israel, across the Lebanese border. In 1985 he masterminded the hijacking of the Italian cruise ship Achille Lauro. During the hijacking, 69-year-old wheelchair-bound American Jewish passenger Leon Klinghoffer was shot dead and thrown overboard. The four hijackers, fearful of United States military intervention, surrendered to Egypt in return for safe passage out of Egypt, based on the pretext that they had done no harm to any of the passengers. Four F-14 aircraft from the U.S. 6th Fleet intercepted the plane carrying the hijackers to Tunisia and escorted it to Sigonella, a NATO base in Italy. There they discovered that Zaidan and PLO political officer Hassan were also on the plane. Insider deals within the Italian government made them both flown from Sigonella to Rome. From there, Zaidan and Hassan boarded a Yugoslav civilian airliner bound for Belgrade, Yugoslavia. Despite American requests for the extradition of Zaidan from Yugoslavia, he was not extradited because of Yugoslav relations with the PLO. He then flew to Aden, South Yemen and from there to Baghdad, where Saddam Hussein sheltered him from extradition to Italy. He remained in Iraq and commanded the PLF (reunited in 1989) until the American invasion of Iraq in 2003.
Italy sentenced Zaidan in absentia to five terms of life imprisonment for his role in the Achille Lauro hijacking. He was also wanted in the US for crimes including terrorism, piracy and murder. In 1996, he apologized for the Achille Lauro hijacking and the murder of Leon Klinghoffer and advocated peace talks between Palestinians and Israel; the apology was rejected by the US government and Klinghoffer's family.
Death in custody
On 14 April 2003, Zaidan was captured by American forces in Iraq while attempting to flee from Baghdad to Syria. Italy subsequently requested his extradition. The Pentagon reported on 9 March 2004 that Zaidan had died the previous day, of natural causes, while in U.S. custody. The PLF accused the Americans of assassinating their leader. The U.S. authorities agreed to give Abbas' body to the Palestine Red Crescent Society for burial in Ramallah on the West Bank. However, his burial there was blocked by the Israeli authorities, and he was buried in the Martyrs' Cemetery in Damascus instead.
References
External links
Achille Lauro hijacking, BBC H2G2
U.S. captures mastermind of Achille Lauro hijacking, David Ensor, CNN, 16 April 2003
The World Should Know What He Did to My Family, Smadar Haran Kaiser, Washington Post (mirror), 18 May 2003
1948 births
2004 deaths
Fugitives
Fugitives wanted by Iraq
Hijackers
MS Achille Lauro
Palestinian Liberation Front members
Palestine Liberation Organization members
Palestinian Arab nationalists
Palestinian nationalists
Palestinian people who died in prison custody
Palestinian terrorism
People imprisoned on charges of terrorism
Prisoners who died in United States military detention
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jebtsundamba%20Khutuktu
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Jebtsundamba Khutuktu
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The Jebtsundamba Khutuktu (, Jawzan Damba Khutagt ; ; , THL Jetsün Dampa Hutuktu "Venerable Excellent incarnate lama") are the spiritual heads of the Gelug lineage of Tibetan Buddhism in Mongolia. They also hold the title of Bogd Gegeen, making them the top-ranked lamas in Mongolia.
History
The first Jebtsundamba, Zanabazar (1635–1723), was identified as the reincarnation of the scholar Taranatha of the Jonang school of Tibetan Buddhism. Zanabazar was the son of the Tüsheet Khan Gombodorj, ruler of central Khalkha Mongolia, and himself became the spiritual head of the Khalkha Mongols.
On May 29, the Jebtsundamba Khutukhtu paid homage to the Kangxi Emperor in 1691 at Dolonnor.
Like Zanabazar, the 2nd Jebtsundamba Khutughtu was a member of Mongolia's highest nobility and direct descendant of Genghis Khan. After Chingünjav's rebellion and the demise of the second Jebtsundamba Khutugtu, the Qianlong Emperor decreed in 1758 that all future reincarnations were to be found from among the population of Tibet.
When northern Mongolia declared independence in 1911, the eighth Jebtsundamba (1869–1924) was elevated to theocratic ruler, called Bogd Khan. He was the head of state until his death in 1924. The communist government of the Mongolian People's Republic, which replaced the theocracy in 1924, declared that there were to be no further reincarnations.
A reincarnation was in fact found almost at once in north Mongolia, and some high lamas of the dead Khutughtu's suite went to interview the child's mother, Tsendjav, and to instruct her in the details of the life of the former incarnation, so that she could familiarize the child-candidate with the tests which he would have to undergo. Faced with the possibility of a new Khutughtu who was born within Mongolia and was not even a foreigner from Tibet, the Central Committee of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party decided in July 1925 to turn the matter over to the elderly 13th Dalai Lama in Lhasa. The Dalai Lama's decision would nonetheless be subject to new Mongolian legislation for the separation of church and state. In February 1929, the installation of any further Khutughtus was forbidden.
A 9th Jebtsundamba Khutughtu was installed by the 14th Dalai Lama as the head of a reinvigorated Jonang lineage. He was born Jampal Namdol Chökyi Gyaltsen in 1932 and he died in early 2012. Despite the Chinese government's claim to have inherited the authority and ultimate decision right for the choice of successor of all high lamas in Mongolia and Tibet, the 9th Jebstundamba will be reincarnated within the independent Mongolia and the selection will be confirmed by the Dalai Lama. This puts China in a dilemma of endangering their foreign affairs with Mongolia for the choice of the next Lama or to forfeit this right that they claim to have control of religious affairs, ultimately giving up their authority over the choice of the next Dalai Lama and putting their current choice of the Panchen Lama in question.
List of Jebtsundamba Khutuktus
Bogdo gegeen (Mongolian and ceremonial Tibetan language names)
1635–1723: Öndör Gegeen Zanabazar (), 1st Jebtsundamba Khutughtu
1724–1757: Luvsandambiydonmi (), 2nd Jebtsundamba Khutughtu
1758–1773: Ishdambiynyam (), 3rd Jebtsundamba Khutughtu
1775–1813: Luvsantüvdenvanchug (), 4th Jebtsundamba Khutughtu
1815–1841: Luvsanchültimjigmed (), 5th Jebtsundamba Khutughtu
1843–1848: Luvsantüvdenchoyjijaltsan (), 6th Jebtsundamba Khutughtu
1850–1868: Agvaanchoyjivanchugperenlaijamts (), 7th Jebtsundamba Khutughtu
1870–20 May 1924: Agvaanluvsanchoyjindanzanvaanchigbalsambuu (), 8th Jebtsundamba Khutughtu and Bogd Khan
1936–1 March 2012: Jambalnamdolchoyjijantsan (Jampal Namdrol Chokye Gyeltsen), 9th Jebtsundamba Khutughtu (b. 1933; from 1991, recognized by the Dalai Lama; in Tibet exile to 1959, then in India; died in Ulan Bator)
On November 23, 2016 during a visit to Mongolia, the Dalai Lama announced his belief that the 10th Jebtsundamba Khutughtu had been reborn in Mongolia and that a process for identifying him had begun.
References
External links
The Zanabazar quadratic script, Ragchaagiin Byambaa
Online biography of Zanabazar, the first Khalkha Jebtsundamba
List of the first eight Jebtsundamba Khutuktus (in Mongolian)
Gelug Buddhists
Tulkus
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211191
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venous%20thrombosis
|
Venous thrombosis
|
Venous thrombosis is blockage of a vein caused by a thrombus (blood clot). A common form of venous thrombosis is deep vein thrombosis (DVT), when a blood clot forms in the deep veins. If a thrombus breaks off (embolizes) and flows to the lungs to lodge there, it becomes a pulmonary embolism (PE), a blood clot in the lungs. The conditions of DVT only, DVT with PE, and PE only, are all captured by the term venous thromboembolism (VTE).
The initial treatment for VTE is typically either low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) or unfractionated heparin, or increasingly with direct acting oral anticoagulants (DOAC). Those initially treated with heparins can be switched to other anticoagulants (warfarin, DOACs), although pregnant women and some people with cancer receive ongoing heparin treatment. Superficial venous thrombosis or phlebitis affects the superficial veins of the upper or lower extremity and only require anticoagulation in specific situations, and may be treated with anti-inflammatory pain relief only.
Various other less common forms of venous thrombosis also exist; some of these can also lead to pulmonary embolism. Venous thromboembolism and superficial vein thrombosis account for about 90% of venous thrombosis. Other rarer forms include retinal vein thrombosis, mesenteric vein thrombosis (affecting veins draining blood from the gastrointestinal organs), cerebral venous sinus thrombosis, renal vein thrombosis, and ovarian vein thrombosis.
Classification
Common forms
Superficial venous thromboses cause discomfort but generally not serious consequences, as do the deep vein thromboses (DVTs) that form in the deep veins of the legs or in the pelvic veins. Nevertheless, they can progress to the deep veins through the perforator veins or, they can be responsible for a lung embolism mainly if the head of the clot is poorly attached to the vein wall and is situated near the sapheno-femoral junction.
When a blood clot breaks loose and travels in the blood, this is called a thromboembolism. The abbreviation DVT/PE refers to a VTE where a deep vein thrombosis (DVT) has moved to the lungs (PE or pulmonary embolism).
Since the veins return blood to the heart, if a piece of a blood clot formed in a vein breaks off it can be transported to the right side of the heart, and from there into the lungs. A piece of thrombus that is transported in this way is an embolus: the process of forming a thrombus that becomes embolic is called a thromboembolism. An embolism that lodges in the lungs is a pulmonary embolism (PE). A pulmonary embolism is a very serious condition that can be fatal depending on the dimensions of the embolus.
Rare forms
While venous thrombosis of the legs is the most common form, venous thrombosis may occur in other veins. These may have particular specific risk factors:
Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis, cavernous sinus thrombosis and jugular vein thrombosis: thrombosis of the veins of the brain and head
Central retinal vein occlusion and branch retinal vein occlusion: despite the name these conditions have much more in common with arterial thrombosis and are not treated with anticoagulants
Paget–Schroetter disease: thrombosis of the veins of the arms (axillary and subclavian veins)
Budd-Chiari syndrome (thrombosis of the hepatic vein)
Thrombosis of the hepatic portal system, also known as splanchnic venous thrombosis:
Thrombosis of the superior mesenteric vein, which may cause mesenteric ischemia (insufficient blood flow to the intestine)
Portal vein thrombosis
Thrombosis of the splenic vein
Renal vein thrombosis (thrombosis of the veins of the kidneys)
Ovarian vein thrombosis
Parodoxical embolism
Systemic embolism of venous origin can occur in patients with an atrial or ventricular septal defect, or an arteriovenous connection in the lung, through which an embolus may pass into the arterial system. Such an event is termed a paradoxical embolism. When this affects the blood vessels of the brain it can cause stroke.
Causes
Venous thrombi are caused mainly by a combination of venous stasis and hypercoagulability—but to a lesser extent endothelial damage and activation. The three factors of stasis, hypercoagulability, and alterations in the blood vessel wall represent Virchow's triad, and changes to the vessel wall are the least understood. Various risk factors increase the likelihood of any one individual developing a thrombosis.
Risk factors
Acquired
Older age
Major surgery, orthopedic surgery, neurosurgery
Cancers, most particularly pancreatic, but not cancers of the lip, oral cavity, and pharynx
Immobilization, as in orthopedic casts, the sitting position, and travel, particularly by air
Pregnancy and the postpartum period
Antiphospholipid syndrome (such as lupus anticoagulant)
Trauma and minor leg injury
Previous VTE
Oral contraceptives
Hormonal replacement therapy, esp. oral
Central venous catheters
Inflammatory diseases/some autoimmune diseases
Nephrotic syndrome
Obesity
Infection
HIV
Myeloproliferative neoplasms including essential thrombocytosis and polycythemia vera
Chemotherapy
Heart failure
Inherited
Antithrombin deficiency
Protein C deficiency
Protein S deficiency (type I)
Factor V Leiden
Prothrombin G20210A
Dysfibrinogenemia
Non O-blood type
Mixed
Low free protein S
Activated protein C resistance
High factor VIII levels
Hyperhomocysteinemia
High fibrinogen levels
High factor IX levels
High factor XI levels
The overall absolute risk of venous thrombosis per 100,000 woman years in current use of combined oral contraceptives is approximately 60, compared to 30 in non-users. The risk of thromboembolism varies with different types of birth control pills; Compared with combined oral contraceptives containing levonorgestrel (LNG), and with the same dose of estrogen and duration of use, the rate ratio of deep vein thrombosis for combined oral contraceptives with norethisterone is 0.98, with norgestimate 1.19, with desogestrel (DSG) 1.82, with gestodene 1.86, with drospirenone (DRSP) 1.64, and with cyproterone acetate 1.88. Venous thromboembolism occurs in 100–200 per 100,000 pregnant women every year.
Regarding family history, age has substantial effect modification. For individuals with two or more affected siblings, the highest incidence rates is found among those ≥70 years of age (390 per 100,000 in male and 370 per 100,000 in female individuals), whereas the highest incidence ratios compared to those without affected siblings occurred at much younger ages (ratio of 4.3 among male individuals 20 to 29 years of age and 5.5 among female individuals 10 to 19 years of age).
Pathophysiology
In contrast to the understanding for how arterial thromboses occur, as with heart attacks, venous thrombosis formation is not well understood. With arterial thrombosis, blood vessel wall damage is required for thrombosis formation, as it initiates coagulation, but the majority of venous thrombi form without any injured epithelium.
Red blood cells and fibrin are the main components of venous thrombi, and the thrombi appear to attach to the blood vessel wall endothelium, normally a non-thrombogenic surface, with fibrin. Platelets in venous thrombi attach to downstream fibrin, while in arterial thrombi, they compose the core. As a whole, platelets constitute less of venous thrombi when compared to arterial ones. The process is thought to be initiated by tissue factor-affected thrombin production, which leads to fibrin deposition.
The valves of veins are a recognized site of VT initiation. Due to the blood flow pattern, the base of the valve sinus is particularly deprived of oxygen (hypoxic). Stasis exacerbates hypoxia, and this state is linked to the activation of white blood cells (leukocytes) and the endothelium. Specifically, the two pathways of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) and early growth response 1 (EGR-1) are activated by hypoxia, and they contribute to monocyte and endothelial activation. Hypoxia also causes reactive oxygen species (ROS) production that can activate HIF-1, EGR-1, and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), which regulates HIF-1 transcription.
HIF-1 and EGR-1 pathways lead to monocyte association with endothelial proteins, such as P-selectin, prompting monocytes to release tissue factor-filled microvesicles, which presumably initiate fibrin deposition (via thrombin) after binding the endothelial surface.
Prevention
Evidence supports the use of heparin in people following surgery who have a high risk of thrombosis to reduce the risk of DVTs; however, the effect on PEs or overall mortality is not known. In hospitalized non-surgical patients, mortality does not appear to change. It does not appear, however, to decrease the rate of symptomatic DVTs. Using both heparin and compression stockings appears better than either one alone in reducing the rate of DVT.
In hospitalized people who have had a stroke and not had surgery, mechanical measures (compression stockings) resulted in skin damage and no clinical improvement. Data on the effectiveness of compression stockings among hospitalized non-surgical patients without stroke is scarce.
The American College of Physicians (ACP) gave three strong recommendations with moderate quality evidence on VTE prevention in non-surgical patients:
that hospitalized patients be assessed for their risk of thromboembolism and bleeding before prophylaxis (prevention);
that heparin or a related drug is used if potential benefits are thought to outweigh potential harms;
and that graduated compression stockings not be used.
As an ACP policy implication, the guideline stated a lack of support for any performance measures that incentivize physicians to apply universal prophylaxis without regard to the risks. Goldhaber recommends that people should be assessed at their hospital discharge for persistent high-risk of venous thrombosis and that people who adopt a heart-healthy lifestyle might lower their risk of venous thrombosis.
People who have cancer have a higher risk of VTE and may respond differently to anticoagulant preventative treatments and prevention measures. For people undergoing chemotherapy for cancer who are able to walk (ambulatory), low molecular weight heparins treatment (LMWH) decreases the risk of VTE. Due to potential concerns of bleeding its routine use is not recommended. For people who are having surgery for cancer, it is recommended that they receive anticoagulation therapy (preferably LMWH) in order to prevent a VTE. LMWH is recommended for at least 7–10 days following cancer surgery, and for one month following surgery for people who have a high risk of VTEs.
In adults who have had their lower leg casted, braced, or otherwise immobilized for more than a week, LMWH may decrease the risk and severity of deep vein thrombosis, but does not have any effect on the incidence of pulmonary embolism . LMWH is recommended for adults not in hospital with an above-knee cast and a below-knee cast, and is safe for this indication.
Following the completion of warfarin in those with prior VTE, the use of long-term aspirin has been show to be beneficial.
Treatment
American evidence-based clinical guidelines were published in 2016 for the treatment of VTE. In the UK, guidelines by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) were published in 2012, updated in 2020. These guidelines do not cover rare forms of thrombosis, for which an individualized approach is often needed. Central and branch retinal vein occlusion does not benefit from anticoagulation in the way that other venous thromboses do.
Anticoagulation
If diagnostic testing cannot be performed swiftly, many are commenced on empirical treatment. Traditionally this was heparin, but several of the DOACs are licensed for treatment without initial heparin use.
If heparin is used for initial treatment of VTE, fixed doses with low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) may be more effective than adjusted doses of unfractionated heparin (UFH) in reducing blood clots. No differences in mortality, prevention of major bleeding, or preventing VTEs from recurring were observed between LMWH and UFH. No differences have been detected in the route of administration of UFH (subcutaneous or intravenous). LMWH is usually administered by a subcutaneous injection, and a person's blood clotting factors do not have to be monitored as closely as with UFH.
Once the diagnosis is confirmed, a decision needs to be made about the nature of the ongoing treatment and its duration. USA recommendations for those without cancer include anticoagulation (medication that prevents further blood clots from forming) with the DOACs dabigatran, rivaroxaban, apixaban, or edoxaban rather than warfarin or low molecular weight heparin (LMWH).
For those with cancer, LMWH is recommended, although DOACs appear safe in the majority of situations. For long-term treatment in people with cancer, LMWH is probably more effective at reducing VTEs when compared to vitamin K antagonists. People with cancer have a higher risk of experiencing reoccurring VTE episodes ("recurrent VTE"), even while taking preventative anticoagulation medication. These people should be given therapeutic doses of LMWH medication, either by switching from another anticoagulant or by taking a higher dose of LMWH.
In pregnancy, warfarin and DOACs are not considered suitable and LMWH is recommended.
For those with a small pulmonary embolism and few risk factors, no anticoagulation is needed. Anticoagulation is, however, recommended in those who do have risk factors.
Thrombolysis
Thrombolysis is the administration of medication (a recombinant enzyme) that activates plasmin, the body's main enzyme that breaks down blood clots. This carries a risk of bleeding and is therefore reserved for those who have a form of thrombosis that may cause major complications. In pulmonary embolism, this applies in situations where heart function is compromised due to lack of blood flow through the lungs ("massive" or "high risk" pulmonary embolism), leading to low blood pressure. Deep vein thrombosis may require thrombolysis if there is a significant risk of post-thrombotic syndrome. Thrombolysis may be administered by intravenous catheter directly into the clot ("catheter-directed thrombolysis"); this requires a lower dose of the medication and may carry a lower bleeding risk but evidence for its benefit is limited.
Inferior vena cava filters
Inferior vena cava filters (IVCFs) are not recommended in those who are on anticoagulants. IVCFs may be used in clinical situations where a person has a high risk of experiencing a pulmonary embolism, but cannot be on anticoagulants due to a high risk of bleeding, or they have active bleeding. Retrievable IVCFs are recommended if IVCFs must be used, and a plan should be created to remove the filter when it is no longer needed.
Superficial venous thrombosis
While topical treatments for superficial venous thrombosis are widely used, the evidence is strongest for the heparin-like drug fondaparinux (a factor Xa inhibitor), which reduces extension and recurrence of superficial venous thrombosis as well as progression to symptomatic embolism.
Prognosis
After an episode of unprovoked VTE, the risk of further episodes after completing treatment remains elevated, although this risk diminishes over time. Over ten years, 41% of men and 29% of women can expect to experience a further episode. For each episode, the risk of death is 4%.
See also
Portal vein thrombosis
Arterial thrombosis
References
External links
Postgraduate Medicine Journal: A Clinical Review of Venous Thromboembolism
Hematology
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boutros%20Boutros-Ghali
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Boutros Boutros-Ghali
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Boutros Boutros-Ghali (; , , ; 14 November 1922 – 16 February 2016) was an Egyptian politician and diplomat who was the sixth Secretary-General of the United Nations (UN) from January 1992 to December 1996. An academic who previously served as Acting Foreign Minister and Vice Foreign Minister of Egypt, Boutros-Ghali oversaw the UN over a period coinciding with several world crises, including the breakup of Yugoslavia and the Rwandan genocide. He went on to serve as the first Secretary-General of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie from 16 November 1997 to 31 December 2002.
Early life and education
Boutros Boutros-Ghali was born in Cairo, Egypt, on 14 November 1922 into a Coptic Christian family. His father Yusuf Butros Ghali was the son of Boutros Ghali Bey then Pasha (also his namesake), who was Prime Minister of Egypt from 1908 until he was assassinated in 1910. His mother Safela Mikhail Sharubim was daughter of Mikhail Sharubim (1861–1920), a prominent public servant and historian.
Boutros-Ghali graduated from Cairo University in 1946. He received a PhD in international law from the Faculty of Law of Paris (University of Paris) and diploma in international relations from the Sciences Po in 1949. During 1949–1979, he was appointed Professor of International Law and International Relations at Cairo University. He became President of the Centre of Political and Strategic Studies in 1975 and President of the African Society of Political Studies in 1980. He was a Fulbright Research Scholar at Columbia University from 1954 to 1955, Director of the Centre of Research at The Hague Academy of International Law from 1963 to 1964, and Visiting Professor at the Faculty of Law at the Faculty of Law of Paris from 1967 to 1968. In 1986 he received an honorary doctorate from the Faculty of Law at Uppsala University, Sweden. He was also the Honorary Rector of the Graduate Institute of Peace Studies, a branch of Kyunghee University Seoul.
Political career
Boutros Boutros-Ghali's political career developed during the presidency of Anwar El Sadat. He was a member of the Central Committee of the Arab Socialist Union from 1974 to 1977. He served as Egypt's Minister of State for Foreign Affairs from 1977 until early 1991. He then became Deputy Minister for Foreign Affairs for several months before moving to the UN. As Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, he played a part in the peace agreements between President Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin.
According to investigative journalist Linda Melvern, Boutros-Ghali approved a secret $26 million arms sale to the government of Rwanda in 1990 when he was Foreign Minister, the weapons stockpiled by the Hutu regime as part of the fairly public, long-term preparations for the subsequent genocide. He was serving as UN Secretary-General when the killings occurred four years later.
Secretary-General of the United Nations (1992–1996)
1991 selection
Boutros-Ghali ran for Secretary-General of the United Nations in the 1991 selection. The top post in the UN was opening up as Javier Pérez de Cuéllar of Peru reached the end of his second term, and Africa was next in the rotation. Boutros-Ghali tied Bernard Chidzero of Zimbabwe in the first two rounds of polling, edged ahead by one vote in round 3, and fell behind by one vote in round 4. After several countries withdrew their support for Chidzero, fed by fears that the United States was trying to eliminate both of the leading candidates, Boutros-Ghali won a clear victory in round 5.
Tenure
Boutros-Ghali's term in office remains controversial. In 1992, he submitted An Agenda for Peace, a suggestion for how the UN could respond to violent conflict. He set three goals: for the UN to be more active in promoting democracy, for the UN to conduct preventative diplomacy to avert crises, and to expand the UN's role as peacekeeper. Although the goals were consistent with those of American President George H. W. Bush, he nevertheless clashed repeatedly with the United States, especially with his efforts to involve the UN more deeply in the civil wars in Somalia 1992 and in Rwanda in 1994. The United States refused to send peace enforcement units under UN leadership. Boutros-Ghali was criticised for the UN's failure to act during the 1994 Rwandan genocide, which left over one million people dead according to the Constitution of Rwanda, although the real number killed might be substantially lower. Boutros-Ghali also appeared unable to muster support in the UN for intervention in the continuing Angolan Civil War. One of the hardest tasks during his term was dealing with the crisis of the Yugoslav Wars after the disintegration of the former Yugoslavia. The UN peacekeeping force was ineffective in Bosnia, forcing the intervention by NATO in December 1995. His reputation became entangled in the larger controversies over the effectiveness of the UN and the role of the United States in the UN.
Some Somalis believed he was responsible for an escalation of the Somalia crisis by undertaking a personal vendetta against Mohamed Farrah Aidid and his Habr Gidr clan, favouring their rivals, the Darod the clan of the former dictator Mohamed Siad Barre. It was believed that he demanded the 12 July 1993 US helicopter attack on a meeting of Habr Gidr clan leaders, who were meeting to discuss a peace initiative put forward by the leader of the UN Mission in Mogadishu, retired U.S. Admiral Jonathan Howe. It is generally believed that the majority of the clan elders were eager to arrange a peace and to rein in the provocative activities of their clan leader, Mohamed Farrah Aidid, but, after this attack on a peaceful meeting, the clan was resolved on fighting the Americans and the UN, leading to the Battle of Mogadishu on 3–4 October 1993.
Second term vetoed
Boutros-Ghali ran unopposed for the customary second term in 1996, despite efforts by the United States to unseat him. U.S. ambassador Madeleine Albright asked Boutros-Ghali to resign and offered to establish a foundation for him to run, an offer that other Western diplomats called "ludicrous." American diplomatic pressure also had no effect, as other members of the Security Council remained unwavering in their support for Boutros-Ghali. He won 14 of the 15 votes in the Security Council, but the sole negative vote was a U.S. veto. After four deadlocked meetings of the Security Council, France offered a compromise in which Boutros-Ghali would be appointed to a short term of two years, but the United States rejected the French offer. Finally, Boutros-Ghali suspended his candidacy, becoming the only Secretary-General ever to be denied a second term by a veto.
Later life
Boutros Boutros-Ghali's wife, Leia Maria Boutros-Ghali, born Leia Nadler, was raised in an Egyptian Jewish family in Alexandria and converted to Catholicism as a young woman.
From 1997 to 2002, Boutros-Ghali was Secretary-General of La Francophonie, an organisation of French-speaking nations. From 2003 to 2006, he served as the chairman of the board of the South Centre, an intergovernmental research organisation of developing countries. Boutros-Ghali played a "significant role" in creating Egypt's National Council for Human Rights, and served as its president until 2012.
Boutros-Ghali supported the Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly and was one of the initial signatories of the Campaign's appeal in 2007. In a message to the Campaign, he stressed the necessity to establish democratic participation of citizens at the global level. From 2009 to 2015 he also participated as jury member for the Conflict Prevention Prize, awarded every year by the Fondation Chirac.
Death
Boutros-Ghali died aged 93 in a Cairo hospital, after having been admitted for a broken pelvis or leg, on 16 February 2016. A military funeral was held for him with prayers led by Coptic Pope Tawadros II. He is buried at Petrine Church in Abbassia, Cairo.
Honorary degrees
Honorary degree from Sciences Po, Russian Academy of Sciences, Catholic University of Leuven, Université Laval, Université de Moncton, Carleton University, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Charles III University of Madrid, University of Bucharest, Baku State University, Yerevan State University, University of Haifa, University of Vienna, University of Melbourne, Seoul National University, Waseda University, University of Bordeaux, and Uppsala University.
Awards and recognition
The World Affairs Council Christian A. Herter memorial award, Boston (March 1993)
The Arthur A. Houghton Jr. Star Crystal Award for Excellence de l'Institut afro- américain, New York (November 1993)
Member of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques
Honorary membership of the Order of Canada
Honorary membership of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences, Moscow (April 1994)
Honorary foreign membership of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow (April 1994)
Honorary foreign membership of the Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Minsk, (April 1994)
Fellow of Berkeley College, Yale University (March 1995)
The recipient of the Onassis Award for International Understanding and Social Achievement (July 1995)
Honours
Egyptian national honours
Foreign honors
Published works
As Secretary-General, Boutros-Ghali wrote An Agenda for Peace. He also published other memoirs:
In English
The Arab League, 1945–1955: Ten Years of Struggle, ed. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, New York, 1954
New Dimensions of Arms Regulations and Disarmament in the Post Cold War, ed. United Nations, New York, 1992
An Agenda for Development, ed. United Nations, New York, 1995
Confronting New Challenges, ed. United Nations, New York, 1995
Fifty Years of the United Nations, ed. William Morrow, New York, 1995
The 50th Anniversary: Annual Report on the Work of the Organization, ed. United Nations, New York, 1996
An Agenda for Democratization, ed. United Nations, New York, 1997
Egypt's Road to Jerusalem: A Diplomat's Story of the Struggle for Peace in the Middle East, ed. Random House, New York, 1998
Essays on Leadership (with George H. W. Bush, Jimmy Carter, Mikhail Gorbachev, and Desmond Tutu), ed. Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, Washington, 1998
Unvanquished: A US-UN Saga, ed. I. B. Tauris, New York, 1999
The Papers of United Nations Secretary (with Charles Hill), ed. Yale University Press, New York, 2003
The Arab League, 1945–1955: International Conciliation,, ed. Literary Licensing Publisher, London, 2013
In French
Contribution à l’étude des ententes régionales, ed. Pedone, Paris, 1949
Cours de Diplomatie et de Droit Diplomatique et consulaire, ed. Librairie Anglo-égyptienne, Cairo, 1951
Le problème du canal de Suez, ed. Société égyptienne du droit international, Cairo, 1957
Le principe d’égalité des États et des organisations internationales, ed. Académie de droit international, Leiden, 1961
Contribution à une théorie générale des alliances, ed. Pedone, Paris, 1963
Le Mouvement afro-asiatique, ed. Presses universitaires de France, Paris, 1969
L'organisation de l'Unité africaine, ed. Armand Colin, Paris, 1969
Les difficultés institutionnelles du panafricanisme, ed. Institut Universitaire des Hautes études Internationales, Geneva, 1971
Les conflits des frontières en Afrique, ed. Techniques et Économiques, Paris, 1972
Contribution à une théorie générale des alliances, ed. Pedone, Paris, 1991
L'interaction démocratie et développement [eds.], ed. Unesco, Paris, 2002
Démocratiser la mondialisation, ed. Rocher, Paris, 2002
Émanciper la Francophonie, ed. L'Harmattan, Paris, 2003
60 Ans de conflit israélo-arabe : Témoignages pour l'Histoire (with Shimon Peres), ed. Complexes, Paris, 2006
See also
List of prominent Copts
Secretary-General of the United Nations
References
Citations
Further reading
Burgess, Stephen Franklin. The United Nations under Boutros Boutros-Ghali, 1992-1997 (Gale Biographical Index Series, 2001).
Rushton, Simon. "The UN Secretary-General and norm entrepreneurship: Boutros Boutros-Ghali and democracy promotion." ''Global governance// 14 (2008): 95+.
External links
Boutros Boutros-Ghali papers at the United Nations Archives
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1922 births
2016 deaths
Cairo University alumni
Coptic politicians
Cairo University faculty
Egyptian diplomats
Egyptian people of Coptic descent
Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Foreign ministers of Egypt
The Hague Academy of International Law people
Honorary Companions of the Order of Canada
International Law Commission officials
Members of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques
Officers of the Order of Merit of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
People of the Rwandan genocide
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Star of Romania
Columbia University alumni
Sciences Po alumni
Secretaries-General of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie
Secretaries-General of the United Nations
Accidental deaths from falls
Egyptian officials of the United Nations
Boutros Ghali family
|
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] |
211203
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pump%20Up%20the%20Valuum
|
Pump Up the Valuum
|
Pump Up the Valuum is the eighth studio album by the American punk rock band NOFX. It was released on June 13, 2000, on Epitaph Records, their last through the company.
Production
The album's title deliberately misspells the trademark "Valium" to avoid a lawsuit, similar to the one The Melvins faced for their album Lysol. This is explained in the 45 Or 46 Songs... album booklet.
The initial song, "And Now for Something Completely Similar," is a parody of the famous saying "And Now for Something Completely Different" from Monty Python skits. As a prank, the intro sounds very similar to "Linoleum" from the band's 1994 album Punk in Drublic, right down to El Hefe warming up his voice before the song begins, while the solo bass part echoes Shadows of Defeat from Good Riddance. Both similarities are addressed in the song's lyrics.
The song "Dinosaurs Will Die" features a part of the intro skit from The F.U.'s song "Civil Defense" off the album 'Kill For Christ'. The words which are spoken during this intro ("This is not a test of the emergency broadcast system") also appear in the Bad Religion song "Los Angeles Is Burning", on their 2004 album "The Empire Strikes First".
The band recorded eight more songs that were left off the final version of the album. According to Fat Mike, "...the title track 'Pump Up the Valuum' got cut from the album. That's weird. We gave it to Epitaph for Punk O Rama 5." Three other songs were mentioned in the Pump Up the Valuum booklet, which appeared elsewhere: "Medio-core" (later in The War on Errorism, 2003); "Insulted By Germans" (later in 7" of the Month #1, 2005, and Wolves In Wolves' Clothing, 2006); and "One Way Ticket to Fuckneckville" (later in Aggropop Now 2003, The War on Errorism, and 7" of the Month #7, 2005). Other outtakes include "Pods and Gods", "Lower", "Bath of Least Resistance", "San Francisco Fat", and "Pump Up the Valium"..
Release
On November 19, 1999, it was reported that NOFX's next album would be titled Pump Up the Valuum. On March 23, 2000, the album was announced for release in June. "Take Two Placebos and Call Me Lame" was posted on Epitaph's website for free download on April 16, 2000. "Bottles to the Ground" was sent to radio in May 2000. In May and June 2001, the band went on a tour of North-western US, and the western Canada. The band embarked on a brief US tour in October and November 2001, with support from Frenzal Rhomb and the Mad Caddies. In February 2002, the band toured across Australia with Frenzal Rhomb. The band played 10 shows in the US with Rancid in April 2002.
Critical reception
In 2005, Pump Up the Valuum was ranked number 331 in Rock Hard magazine's book of The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time. The album was included at number 17 on Rock Sounds "The 51 Most Essential Pop Punk Albums of All Time" list.
Track listing
Personnel
Fat Mike - vocals, bass
Eric Melvin - guitar, accordion
El Hefe - guitar
Erik Sandin - drums
Spike Slawson - additional vocals
Bill Hansson - accordion
Ryan Greene, Fat Mike - producers
Ryan Greene - mixing, recording
Adam Krammer - additional engineer
Charts
References
Citations
Sources
External links
NOFX official website
Epitaph Records
Fat Wreck Chords
Pump Up the Valuum at YouTube (streamed copy where licensed)
NOFX albums
2000 albums
Epitaph Records albums
Albums produced by Ryan Greene
|
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] |
211208
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kieren%20Perkins
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Kieren Perkins
|
Kieren John Perkins, OAM (born 14 August 1973) is a former Australian freestyle swimmer. He specialised in the 1500-metre freestyle and won successive Olympic gold medals in this event in the 1990s. He won his first at the 1992 Olympics which he won in world record time and then at the 1996 Olympics when he defended his title. In total he won four Olympic medals.
Early life
Perkins was born in Brisbane, Queensland. He attended Indooroopilly State Primary School and graduated from Brisbane Boys' College in the inner city suburb of Toowong.
He began swimming regularly at age eight as part of his rehabilitation from a serious leg injury incurred after running through a plate glass window.
At age 13 his potential became obvious, and with coach John Carew guiding him he won his first medal at the Australian Championships in Melbourne in 1989.
Early international career (1990–1992)
1990 Commonwealth Games
Perkins's first major international meet was the 1990 Commonwealth Games in Auckland, New Zealand.
Perkins won the silver medal in the 1500 metre freestyle behind fellow Queenslander Glen Housman. Both Housman (14:55.25) and Perkins (14:58.08) broke 15 minutes which was the first time Perkins had recorded a sub-fifteen-minute 1500 metres.
1991 World Championships
There was much expectation around Perkins at the 1991 World Aquatics Championships in Perth in the 1500 m freestyle, but he was beaten in the final by just 0.22 seconds by German Jörg Hoffmann who set a new world-record time. Perkins swam 14:50.58 which was also far under the previous world record.
1992 Olympic Games
Perkins was favorite for the men's 1500-metre freestyle at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, Spain. The fastest qualifier for the final, Perkins broke his own world record by 5 seconds to 14:43.48. This was the only gold medal won by an Australian swimmer at these Games.
Earlier in the meet, Perkins finished second in the 400 m final. Russian Yevgeny Sadovyi representing the Unified Team won the race in a world record time. Perkins also broke the world record as he finished 0.16 behind.
Perkins was the Australian flag bearer at the closing ceremony.
Peak international career (1993–1996)
1994 Commonwealth Games
At the 1994 Commonwealth Games in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, Perkins won four gold medals in the 200 m, 400 m, 1500 m and 4 x 200 m freestyle relay all in world record time.
1994 World Championships
Two weeks after the Commonwealth Games, Perkins competed in the 1994 World Aquatics Championships in Rome. He won two gold medals in the 400 m and 1500 m, the 400 m in World Record time. His 400 m and 1500 m world records made that year stood until 1999 and 2001 respectively, broken by fellow Australians Ian Thorpe and Grant Hackett. His performances in that year earned him the Male World Swimmer of the Year award from Swimming World magazine.
He later described the Olympic Pool in Rome as his favourite pool.
1996 Olympic Games
At the time of the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Perkins was out of form and long-time Australian rival Daniel Kowalski was regarded as the favourite. In fact his form was so poor that he almost failed to make the Australian team. Perkins qualified for the 1500-metre freestyle final by a mere 0.24 seconds to be the slowest of the top 8 qualifiers, and it was later revealed that before the race he felt unwell and considered not swimming. From lane eight, Perkins dominated the race being the only swimmer to go under 15 minutes (14:56.40), again relegating Kowalski, who had to fight all the way and just held off Graeme Smith. Perkins became just the third swimmer to win consecutive gold medals in this event. He became the only Australian since Dawn Fraser to defend an individual Olympic championship successfully.
Era of Dominance Over (1998–2000)
1998 Commonwealth Games
Perkins carried the flag at the opening ceremony for the 1998 Commonwealth Games held in Kuala Lumpur. In the 1500 m freestyle, he won bronze behind 18 year old heir apparent Grant Hackett and Ryk Neethling.
2000 Olympic Games
Perkins was in Monte Carlo in 1993 the night Sydney won the right to host the games and managed to qualify for his 3rd Olympic Games.
Despite being just 27, he was now the elder statesman of the team.
It was a reverse of four years earlier where Perkins was the fastest qualifier heading into the final, but Grant Hackett won gold with Perkins winning silver. Perkins joined Frank Beaurepaire as one of two swimmers to win three medals in this event.
Legacy
With the nickname of Super Fish, Perkins retired from swimming in 2000 having amassed 23 medals at international competitions.
He set 11 world records, holding the 1500 m freestyle record for nine years, the 800 m for ten years and the 400 m freestyle for five years.
He is the first person in history to hold the Olympic, World, Commonwealth and Pan Pacific titles simultaneously.
He broke over 40 Australian records during a career spanning from 1989 to 2000.
Perkins won two of the 16 gold medals Australia won at the 1992 and 1996 Olympic Games. He was one of 6 Australians to win gold medals at both of these Games. Perkins won 2 of the 3 swimming gold Australia won during this time. There was a mythology in Australia with the 1500 m freestyle that Perkins revived and brought into modern times. Australian swimmers won Olympic gold in the 1500 m from 1956 to 1964 but nothing for 28 years until Perkins broke the drought. Australia has won the event more times than any other nation.
Honours
In the Australia Day Honours of 1992, Perkins was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia (OAM).
Awards
Perkins was named 1992 Young Australian of the Year.
Also named an Australian Living Treasure, he was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 2002. In 2009 Perkins was inducted into the Queensland Sport Hall of Fame. Also in 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, Kieren Perkins was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for his role as a "sports legend".
Perkins was awarded an honorary degree by the University of Queensland.
Post swimming career
Since his retirement, he has occasionally worked in the broadcast media. He joined National Australia Bank in 2009. Perkins was part of the team that conducted a review of the Australian swimming team at the 2012 Olympics.
In November 2020, Perkins was appointed as President of Swimming Australia.
He was a director of the Starlight Foundation.
On 17 December 2021, Perkins was named the new CEO of the Australian Sports Commission, overseeing Sport Australia and the Australian Institute of Sport.
Personal life
Perkins married in 1997 and has three children, Harry, Georgia and Charlie, with ex-wife Symantha. In June 2012 Perkins announced he and Symantha had separated. In October 2014, Perkins married Karen Davis in Positano, Italy.
See also
List of members of the International Swimming Hall of Fame
Commonwealth Games records in swimming
List of Commonwealth Games medallists in swimming (men)
List of Olympic medalists in swimming (men)
World record progression 400 metres freestyle
World record progression 800 metres freestyle
World record progression 1500 metres freestyle
References
Further reading
Carew, J., et al. (1997) "Kieren Perkins". Sydney, Pan Macmillan, .
External links
Kieren Perkins's Complete Biography
1973 births
Living people
Swimmers from Brisbane
People educated at Brisbane Boys' College
Olympic swimmers of Australia
Swimmers at the 1990 Commonwealth Games
Swimmers at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Swimmers at the 1994 Commonwealth Games
Swimmers at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Swimmers at the 1998 Commonwealth Games
Swimmers at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Olympic gold medalists for Australia
Olympic gold medalists in swimming
Olympic silver medalists for Australia
Olympic silver medalists in swimming
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for Australia
Commonwealth Games silver medallists for Australia
Commonwealth Games bronze medallists for Australia
Commonwealth Games medallists in swimming
Australian Swimmers of the Year
World record setters in swimming
World Aquatics Championships medalists in swimming
Australian male freestyle swimmers
Recipients of the Medal of the Order of Australia
Sport Australia Hall of Fame inductees
|
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] |
211220
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/With%20This%20Ring%20%28TV%20series%29
|
With This Ring (TV series)
|
With This Ring (originally known as Happily Ever After) was a prime time panel show aired by the DuMont Television Network on Sundays from January 21, 1951, to March 11, 1951.
The show featured engaged white, opposite-sex couples discussing marriage and marital problems. The show was initially hosted by Bill Slater, but the show quickly changed hosts to Martin Gabel, then left the air. Beatrice Straight appeared on at least one episode.
This show is not related in any way to a 15-minute syndicated program of the same name that aired weekly (usually on Sundays) on local stations throughout the U.S. for about 25 years beginning in the early 1970s. The latter program was a Roman Catholic-produced show concerning the church's doctrinal and moral positions on marriage and family life, and was produced at WJBK-TV in Detroit.
See also
List of programs broadcast by the DuMont Television Network
List of surviving DuMont Television Network broadcasts
References
Bibliography
David Weinstein, The Forgotten Network: DuMont and the Birth of American Television (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004)
Alex McNeil, Total Television, Fourth edition (New York: Penguin Books, 1980)
Tim Brooks and Earle Marsh, The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network TV Shows, Third edition (New York: Ballantine Books, 1964)
External links
With This Ring at IMDB
DuMont historical website
DuMont Television Network original programming
1950s American game shows
1951 American television series debuts
1951 American television series endings
Black-and-white American television shows
Lost television shows
|
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] |
211221
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Wizard%20of%20Odds
|
The Wizard of Odds
|
The Wizard of Odds is an American television game show hosted by Alex Trebek that aired on NBC from July 16, 1973, to June 28, 1974, in which people from the studio audience vied in a number of rounds, primarily games revolving around statistical questions. John Harlan announced the pilot; Los Angeles radio personality Sam Riddle was the show's first announcer; towards the end of the run, Charlie O'Donnell replaced him.
Broadcast history
Relatively short-lived, The Wizard of Odds replaced Sale of the Century at 11:00 a.m. Eastern (10:00 Central). The show did not perform well against CBS' Gambit (later replaced by Now You See It) and NBC dropped it after less than a year.
Wizard was Trebek's first American game show, after starting his broadcast career in his native Canada. He later hosted two more NBC games, High Rollers (which replaced Wizard), from 1974 to 1976 and again from 1978 to 1980, as well as Classic Concentration from 1987 to 1991. Beginning in 1984, he hosted the syndicated TV hit game Jeopardy! until his death in 2020.
Episode status
It is believed that the series was wiped as per network policy of the era, with NBC continuing this policy until 1979. The May 20, 1974 episode with special guest actor Don DeFore exists in the UCLA Film & Television Archive. An audio recording of the finale also exists.
Rules of the game
Contestants were selected from the studio audience and answered questions based on statistical information, all for cash and prizes.
"The Wizard" (Trebek) began the show by choosing three contestants and asking them questions based on the law of averages, with cash and prizes awarded accordingly for correct answers; an example of a question was "What are the odds a man will recover his lost wallet if there is more than $20 inside it?"
The next three players were given a series of phrases and told to pick the one that did not match. The person with the most correct answers was given the chance to pick one of five prizes, located behind windows that were either "open" or "locked". This person could continue to play or stop at any time, keeping the prizes; however, selecting a window that was locked lost all prizes accumulated up to that point.
Every contestant selected had his or her name added to the "Wizard's Wheel of Fortune."
Wizard's Wheel of Fortune
At the end of the show, Trebek spun the wheel and the person it landed on was eligible for bonus gifts. A list of averages was then brought out, with a number above it. The contestant had to pick a group of items whose average added up to exactly the target number. If the contestant was correct, he or she won the bonus gifts, including a brand new car.
Theme
The theme song was composed and sung by Alan Thicke, who was also one of the show's producers.
Lawsuit
Nearly a week after the show debuted, Leo Guild (who has created numerous radio and television shows, books, and newspaper columns) filed a $2 million lawsuit against NBC for stealing his Wizard title, which had been used as a newspaper column during the late 1940s.
References
External links
NBC original programming
American game shows
1970s American game shows
1973 American television series debuts
1974 American television series endings
English-language television shows
Lost television shows
|
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] |
211224
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woman%20to%20Woman%20%28radio%29
|
Woman to Woman (radio)
|
Woman to Woman (1983) was a female-oriented discussion show, syndicated nationally in America.
Hosted by Pat Mitchell, from Hour Magazine, Woman to Woman featured one topic each day. It was recorded in front of an all-female audience.
A unique feature of the show's syndication was the fact that it was available to stations in both an hour- and half-hour-long format.
External links
Woman to Woman Videotapes, 1983-1984. Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.
1983 American television series debuts
1984 American television series endings
1980s American television talk shows
First-run syndicated television programs in the United States
History of women in the United States
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winsock
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Winsock
|
In computing, the Windows Sockets API (WSA), later shortened to Winsock, is an application programming interface (API) that defines how Windows network application software should access network services, especially TCP/IP. It defines a standard interface between a Windows TCP/IP client application (such as an FTP client or a web browser) and the underlying TCP/IP protocol stack. The nomenclature is based on the Berkeley sockets API used in BSD for communications between programs.
Background
Early Microsoft operating systems, both MS-DOS and Microsoft Windows, offered limited networking capability, chiefly based on NetBIOS. In particular, Microsoft did not offer support for the TCP/IP protocol stack at that time. A number of university groups and commercial vendors, including the PC/IP group at MIT, FTP Software, Sun Microsystems, Ungermann-Bass, and Excelan, introduced TCP/IP products for MS-DOS, often as part of a hardware/software bundle. When Windows 2.0 was released, these vendors were joined by others such as Distinct and NetManage in offering TCP/IP for Windows.
The drawback faced by all of these vendors was that each of them used their own API (Application Programming Interface). Without a single standard programming model, it was difficult to persuade independent software developers to create networking applications which would work with any vendor's underlying TCP/IP implementation. Add to this the fact that end users were wary of getting locked into a single vendor and it became clear that some standardization was needed.
The Windows Sockets project had its origins in a Birds Of A Feather session held at Interop '91 in San Jose on October 10, 1991. It is based on socket specifications created by NetManage and which it put into public domain at this meeting. At the time the NetManage socket was the only 100% DLL based, multi-threaded product for Windows 3.0 available. The first edition of the specification was authored by Martin Hall, Mark Towfiq of Microdyne (later Sun Microsystems), Geoff Arnold of Sun Microsystems, and Henry Sanders and J Allard of Microsoft, with assistance from many others. There was some discussion about how best to address the copyright, intellectual property, and potential anti-trust issues, and consideration was given to working through the IETF or establishing a non-profit foundation. In the end, it was decided that the specification would simply be copyrighted by the five authors as (unaffiliated) individuals.
All the participating developers resisted the shortening of the name to simple Winsock for a long time, since there was much confusion among users between the API and the DLL library file (winsock.dll) which only exposed the common WSA interfaces to applications above it. Users would commonly believe that only making sure the DLL file was present on a system would provide full TCP/IP protocol support.
Technology
The Windows Sockets API specification defines two interfaces: the API used by application developers, and the SPI, which provides a means for network software developers to add new protocol modules to the system. Each interface represents a contract. The API guarantees that a conforming application will function correctly with a conforming protocol implementation from any network software vendor. The SPI contract guarantees that a conforming protocol module may be added to Windows and will thereby be usable by an API-compliant application. Although these contracts were important when Windows Sockets was first released, since network environments required multi-protocol support (see above) they are now of only academic interest. Included in the Windows Sockets API version 2.0 are functions to use IPX/SPX, although the protocol was all but obsolete already at the time WSA 2.0 shipped. Microsoft has shipped the TCP/IP protocol stack with all recent versions of Windows, and there are no significant independent alternatives. Nor has there been significant interest in implementing protocols other than TCP/IP.
Windows Sockets code and design are based on BSD sockets, but provides additional functionality to allow the API to comply with the regular Windows programming model. The Windows Sockets API covered almost all the features of the BSD sockets API, but there were some unavoidable obstacles which mostly arose out of fundamental differences between Windows and Unix (though Windows Sockets differed less from BSD sockets than the latter did from STREAMS). All function calls in the API begin with the moniker , e.g. for sending data on a connected socket.
However it was a design goal of Windows Sockets that it should be relatively easy for developers to port socket-based applications from Unix to Windows. It was not considered sufficient to create an API which was only useful for newly written Windows programs. For this reason, Windows Sockets included a number of elements which were designed to facilitate porting. For example, Unix applications were able to use the same variable to record both networking errors and errors detected within standard C library functions. Since this was not possible in Windows, Windows Sockets introduced a dedicated function, , to retrieve error information. Such mechanisms were helpful, but application porting remained extremely complex. Many original TCP/IP applications had been implemented by using system features specific to Unix, such as pseudo terminals and the fork system call, and reproducing such functionality in Windows was problematic. Within a relatively short time, porting gave way to the development of dedicated Windows applications.
Specifications
Version 1.0 (June 1992) defined the basic operation of Winsock. It was kept very close to the existing interface of Berkeley sockets to simplify porting of existing applications. A few Windows-specific extensions were added, mainly for asynchronous operations with message-based notifications.
Although the document didn't limit support to TCP/IP, TCP and UDP were the only protocols explicitly mentioned. Most vendors only delivered TCP/IP support, although Winsock from DEC included DECNet support as well.
Version 1.1 (January 1993) made many minor corrections and clarifications of the specification. The most significant change was the inclusion of the function.
Winsock 2 was a backwards-compatible extension of Winsock 1.1. It added support for protocol-independent name resolution, asynchronous operations with event-based notifications and completion routines, layered protocol implementations, multicasting, and quality of service. It also formalized support for multiple protocols, including IPX/SPX and DECnet. The new specification allowed sockets to be optionally shared between processes, incoming connection requests to be conditionally accepted, and certain operations to be performed on socket groups rather than individual sockets. Although the new specification differed substantially from Winsock 1, it provided source- and binary-level compatibility with the Winsock 1.1 API. One of the lesser known additions was the Service Provider Interface (SPI) API and Layered Service Providers.
Versions 2.0.x (May 1994 onwards) had internal draft status, and were not announced as public standards.
Version 2.1.0 (January 1996) was the first public release of the Winsock 2 specification.
Version 2.2.0 (May 1996) included many minor corrections, clarifications, and usage recommendations. It was also the first version to remove support for 16-bit Windows applications.
Version 2.2.1 (May 1997) and Version 2.2.2 (August 1997) introduced minor functionality enhancements. Mechanisms were added for querying and receiving notification of changes in network and system configuration.
The IPv6 Technical Preview for Windows 2000 (December 2000) saw the first implementation of RFC 2553 (March 1999, later obsoleted by RFC 3493), a protocol-independent API for name resolution, which would become part of Winsock in Windows XP.
Updates in Windows 8
Windows 8 includes the "RIO" (Registered IO) extensions for Winsock.
These extensions are designed to reduce the overhead of the user to kernel mode transition for the network data path and the notification path, but use the rest of the regular Windows TCP and UDP stack (and uses existing network cards). The setup path (for example, the "connect" function) is unchanged from the regular Winsock path.
Implementations
Microsoft implementations
Microsoft did not supply an implementation of Winsock 1.0.
Version 1.1 of Winsock was supplied in an add-on package (called Wolverine) for Windows for Workgroups (code named Snowball). It was an integral component of Windows 95 and Windows NT from versions 3.5 and onwards (the initial commercially available version of Windows NT, version 3.1, included only a proprietary and quite incomplete implementation of TCP/IP based on the AT&T UNIX System V "STREAMS" API ).
Version 2.1 of Winsock was supplied in an add-on package for Windows 95. It was an integral component of Windows 98, Windows NT 4.0, and all subsequent Windows releases. (Microsoft did not supply implementations of Winsock 2 for Windows 3.x or Windows NT 3.x.)
Recent versions of Winsock 2.x have been delivered with new Windows releases or as part of service packs.
Winsock 2 is extensible by a mechanism known as a Layered Service Provider (LSP). Winsock LSPs are available for a wide range of useful purposes, including Internet parental controls, web content filtering, QoS etc. The layering order of all providers is kept in the Winsock Catalog. In previous versions of Windows, removing a buggy LSP could result in corruption of the Winsock catalog in the registry, potentially resulting in a loss of all network connectivity. Winsock in Windows XP Service Pack 2, Windows Server 2003 Service Pack 1 and all later Windows operating systems has the ability to self-heal after a user uninstalls such an LSP.
Other implementations
Among the other vendors offering Winsock-compliant TCP/IP and UDP/IP stacks were (alphabetically) 3Com, Beame & Whiteside, DEC, Distinct, FTP Software, Frontier, IBM, Microdyne, NetManage, Novell, Sun Microsystems and Trumpet Software International.
Trumpet Winsock by Peter Tattam was one of the few Winsock 1.0 implementations that could be installed under Windows 3.0, which had no built-in support for Winsock. Trumpet was also the most popular shareware implementation of Winsock for Windows 3.x. Trumpet Winsock 5.0 is available for Windows 95/98 and Windows NT and includes a Winsock 1.1 compliant IPv6 stack for these operating systems.
The Wine project contains a source and binary compatible reimplementation of Winsock on top of the BSD sockets API.
See also
Berkeley sockets
Layered Service Provider (Winsock LSP)
References
External links
MSDN - Winsock2 Reference
MSDN - Winsock2 Home
Sockets FAQ - Windows Sockets FAQ
Client / Server Programming with TCP/IP Sockets - Winsock C++ Programming
Porting Berkley Socket programs to Winsock
Windows Network Development blog — Microsoft developer blog covering Winsock, WSK, WinINet, Http.sys, WinHttp, QoS and System.Net, with a focus on features being introduced in Windows Vista
Brief History of Microsoft on the Web
WinSock Development Information
Winsock Programmer's FAQ
Network socket
History of the Internet
1992 software
Windows communication and services
Microsoft application programming interfaces
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richmond%2C%20London
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Richmond, London
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Richmond is a town in south-west London, west-southwest of Charing Cross. It is on a meander of the River Thames, with many parks and open spaces, including Richmond Park, and many protected conservation areas, which include much of Richmond Hill. A specific Act of Parliament protects the scenic view of the River Thames from Richmond.
Richmond was founded following Henry VII's building of Richmond Palace in the 16th century, from which the town derives its name. (The palace itself was named after Henry's earldom of Richmond, North Yorkshire, the original Richmond.) During this era, the town and palace were particularly associated with Elizabeth I, who spent her last days there. During the 18th century, Richmond Bridge was completed, and many Georgian terraces were built, particularly around Richmond Green and on Richmond Hill. Those that have survived remain well preserved and many have been designated listed buildings on account of their architectural or historic significance. The opening of Richmond railway station in 1846 was a significant event in the absorption of the town into a rapidly expanding London.
Richmond was formerly part of the ancient parish of Kingston upon Thames in the county of Surrey. In 1890, the town became a municipal borough, which was later extended to include Kew, Ham, Petersham and part of Mortlake (North Sheen). The municipal borough was abolished in 1965, when, as a result of local government reorganisation, Richmond was transferred from Surrey to Greater London.
Richmond is now part of the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames and has a population of 21,469 (consisting of North Richmond and South Richmond wards). It has a significant commercial and retail centre with a developed day and evening economy. The name Richmond upon Thames is often used, incorrectly, to refer to the town of Richmond: in fact (unlike nearby Kingston upon Thames), the suffix should properly be used only in reference to the London Borough.
History
Name
The area was known in the medieval period as Shene, a name first recorded (as Sceon) in the 10th century, and which survives in the neighbouring districts of East Sheen (also known as Sheen) and North Sheen. The manor entered royal hands, and the manor house eventually became known as Sheen Palace, before being largely destroyed by fire in 1497. Henry VII rebuilt it and in 1501 named it Richmond Palace, in allusion to his earldom of Richmond and his ancestral honour of Richmond in Yorkshire. The associated settlement took the same name, although for some years the two names were often used in conjunction (for example, "Shene otherwise called Richemount").
Royal residence
Henry I lived briefly in the King's house in "Sheanes". In 1299, Edward I, the "Hammer of the Scots", took his whole court to the manor house at Sheen, a little east of the bridge and on the riverside, and it thus became a royal residence; William Wallace was executed in London in 1305, and it was in Sheen that the Commissioners from Scotland went down on their knees before Edward.
Edward II, following his defeat by the Scots at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, founded a monastery for Carmelites at Sheen. When the boy-king Edward III came to the throne in 1327, he gave the manor to his mother Isabella. Edward later spent over £ 2,000 on improvements, but in the middle of the work, Edward himself died at the manor, in 1377. Richard II was the first English king to make Sheen his main residence, which he did in 1383. Twelve years later, Richard was so distraught at the death of his wife Anne of Bohemia at the age of 28 that, according to Holinshed, the 16th-century English chronicler, he "caused it [the manor] to be thrown down and defaced; whereas the former kings of this land, being wearie of the citie, used customarily thither to resort as to a place of pleasure, and serving highly to their recreation". It was rebuilt between 1414 and 1422, but destroyed by fire in 1497.
Following that fire, Henry VII built a new residence at Sheen, and in 1501 he named it Richmond Palace. The theatre company to which Shakespeare belonged performed some plays there during the reign of Elizabeth I. As Queen, Elizabeth spent much of her time at Richmond, as she enjoyed hunting stags in the "Newe Parke of Richmonde" (now Old Deer Park). She died at the palace on 24 March 1603. The palace was no longer in residential use after 1649, but in 1688, James II ordered its partial reconstruction, this time as a royal nursery. The bulk of the palace had decayed by 1779, but surviving structures include the Wardrobe, Trumpeters' House (built around 1700), and the Gate House, built in 1501. This has five bedrooms and was made available on a 65-year lease by the Crown Estate Commissioners in 1986.
18th- and 19th-century development
Beyond the grounds of the old palace, Richmond remained mostly agricultural land until the 18th century. White Lodge, in the middle of what is now Richmond Park, was built as a hunting lodge for George II, and during this period the number of large houses in their own grounds – such as Asgill House and Pembroke Lodge – increased significantly. These were followed by the building of further important houses, including Downe House, Wick House and The Wick on Richmond Hill, as this area became an increasingly fashionable place to live. Richmond Bridge was completed in 1777 to replace a ferry crossing that connected Richmond town centre on the east bank with its neighbouring district of East Twickenham. Today, this, together with the well-preserved Georgian terraces that surround Richmond Green and line Richmond Hill to its crest, now has listed building status.
As Richmond continued to prosper and expand during the 19th century, much luxurious housing was built on the streets that line Richmond Hill, as well as shops in the town centre to serve the increasing population. In July 1892, the Corporation formed a joint-stock company, the Richmond (Surrey) Electric Light and Power Company, and this wired the town for electricity by around 1896.
World Wars
Like many other large towns in Britain, Richmond lost many young people in the First and Second World Wars. In the Second World War, 96 people were killed in air raids, which also resulted in the demolition of 297 houses. The Richmond War Memorial, which now commemorates both wars, was installed in 1921 at the end of Whittaker Avenue, between the Old Town Hall and the Riverside.
Governance
Current
The town of Richmond is in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames which is governed by Richmond upon Thames London Borough Council. The most recent election was in 2018 when the Liberal Democrats won control of the council.
Richmond town forms part of the Richmond Park constituency for the UK Parliament. The Member of Parliament, since 2019, is Sarah Olney from the Liberal Democrats. Richmond is also part of the South West constituency for the London Assembly, which has been represented by Nicholas Rogers from the Conservative Party since 2021.
Historical
Richmond, earlier known as Shene, was part of the large ancient parish of Kingston upon Thames in the Kingston hundred of Surrey. Split off from Kingston upon Thames from an early time, the parish of Richmond St Mary Magdalene formed the Municipal Borough of Richmond from 1890. The municipal borough was expanded in 1892 by the addition of Kew, Petersham and the North Sheen part of Mortlake; in 1933, Ham was added to the borough. In 1965, the parish and municipal borough were abolished by the London Government Act 1963, which transferred Richmond to Greater London. Together with the former Municipal Borough of Twickenham and the former Municipal Borough of Barnes, it formed a new borough, the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames.
Geography
Richmond sits opposite East Twickenham on what is technically the south bank of the River Thames, but owing to the way this stretch of the river's meanders, the town is immediately north and north-east of its nearest stretch of river. The Thames curves around the town, and then Kew, in its course; starting from Petersham, it reverts to a more definitively west–east axis. The river is still tidal at Richmond, so, to allow major passenger and goods traffic to continue to operate during low tide, a half-tide lock was opened in 1894 and is used when the adjacent weir is in position. This weir ensures that there is always a minimum depth of water of 5 ft. 8in. (1.72 m) toward the middle of the river between Richmond and Teddington, whatever the state of the tide. Above the lock and weir there is a small footbridge.
Richmond is well endowed with green and open spaces accessible to the public. At the heart of the town sits Richmond Green, which is roughly square in shape and together with the Little Green, a small supplementary green stretching from its southeast corner, is 12 acres (0.05 km2) in size. The Green is surrounded by well-used metalled roads that provide for a fair amount of vehicle parking for both residents and visitors. The south corner leads into the main shopping area of the town; at the west corner is the old gate house which leads through to other remaining buildings of the palace; at the north corner is pedestrian access to Old Deer Park (plus vehicle access for municipal use). The park is a Crown Estate landscape extending from the town along the riverside as far as the boundary with the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This contains wide green lawns and sports facilities, and the Grade I listed former King's Observatory erected for George III in 1769. The town's main shopping street, George Street, is also named after the king.
The town centre lies just below 33 ft (10m) above sea level. South of the town centre, rising from Richmond Bridge to an elevation of 165 ft (50m), is Richmond Hill. Just beyond the summit of Richmond Hill is Richmond Park, an area of 2,360 acres (9.55 km2; 3.7 sq mi) of wild heath and woodland originally enclosed for hunting, and now forming London's largest royal park. The park is a national nature reserve, a Site of Special Scientific Interest and a Special Area of Conservation and is included, at Grade I, on Historic England's Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England. It was created by Charles I in 1634 as a deer park and now has 630 red and fallow deer that roam freely through much of the park. The park has a number of traffic and pedestrian gates leading to the surrounding areas of Sheen, Roehampton, Putney, Kingston and Ham.
Nearest places
Barnes
Brentford
East Sheen
Ham
Hampton
Hounslow
Isleworth
Kew
Kingston
Mortlake
Petersham
Roehampton
St Margarets
Strawberry Hill
Teddington
Twickenham
Whitton
Wimbledon
Economy
The London Borough of Richmond upon Thames, of which Richmond North and South make up two of its wards, has the least poverty in London. The town of Richmond has the largest commercial centre in the borough and is classified a major centre according to the London Plan. It is an established up-market shopping destination. Its compact centre has approximately 50,000m2 of retail floor-space that is largely focused on George Street, The Quadrant and Hill Street. It comprises almost exclusively high street chains, the largest of which are Marks & Spencer, Boots, Tesco Metro and Waitrose. A Whole Foods Market with 20,000 ft2 of floor space within a new development opened in 2013. The remaining town centre stores are largely single units.
Mostly independent businesses line the narrow alleyways running off George Street towards Richmond Green and up Richmond Hill, and there is a farmers' market in Heron Square on Saturdays. Richmond has one large stand-alone supermarket, Sainsbury's, with parking for 420 cars to the east of the town, near North Sheen railway station.
A range of convenience shopping, restaurants and cafes can be found on the crest of Richmond Hill lining Friars Stile Road, as well as along Kew Road towards the Botanical Gardens, and on Sheen Road.
Richmond also offers a wide variety of office accommodation and is the UK/European headquarters of several multi-national companies, including eBay, PayPal and The Securitas Group, as well as the head offices of a number of national, regional and local businesses. London's Evening Standard has described Richmond as "the beating heart of London's growing technology industry".
Places of interest
Richmond Riverside
The Thames is a major contributor to the interest that Richmond inspires in many people. It has an extensive frontage around Richmond Bridge, containing many bars and restaurants. Richmond Riverside owes much of its neo-Georgian style to the architect Quinlan Terry, who was commissioned to restore the area (1984–87). Within the river itself at this point are the leafy Corporation Island and the two small Flowerpot Islands. The Thames-side walkway provides access to residences, pubs and terraces, and various greens, lanes and footpaths through Richmond. The stretch of the Thames below Richmond Hill is known as Horse Reach and includes Glover's Island. There are towpaths and tracks along both sides of the river, and they are much used by pedestrians, joggers and cyclists. Westminster Passenger Services Association boats, licensed by
London River Services, sail daily between Kew and Hampton Court Palace, calling at Richmond in each direction.
Richmond Green
Richmond Green, which has been described as "one of the most beautiful urban greens surviving anywhere in England", is essentially square in shape and its open grassland, framed with broadleaf trees, extends to roughly twelve acres. On summer weekends and public holidays the Green attracts many residents and visitors. It has a long history of hosting sporting events; from the 16th century onwards tournaments and archery contests have taken place on the green, while cricket matches have occurred since the mid 18th century, continuing to the present day. Until recently, the first recorded inter-county cricket match was believed to have been played on Richmond Green in 1730 between Surrey and Middlesex. It is now known, however, that an earlier match between Kent and Surrey took place in Dartford in 1709.
To the west of the Green is Old Palace Lane, running gently down to the river. One of the oldest roads in Richmond, it was originally a route from the river, where goods were loaded and unloaded by crane, to the "tradesman's entrance" to Richmond Palace. Adjoining to the left is the renowned terrace of well-preserved three-storey houses known as Maids of Honour Row. These were built in 1724 for the maids of honour (trusted royal wardrobe servants) of Queen Caroline, the queen consort of George II. As a child, the Victorian explorer Richard Burton lived at number 2.
Today the northern, western and southern sides of the Green are residential while the eastern side, linking with George Street, is largely retail and commercial. Public buildings line the eastern side of the Little Green and pubs and cafés cluster in the corner by Paved Court and Golden Court – two of a number of alleys that lead from the Green to the main commercial thoroughfare of George Street. These alleys are lined with mostly privately owned boutiques.
Richmond Hill
Partway up Richmond Hill is the Poppy Factory, staffed mainly by disabled ex-servicemen and women, which produces the remembrance poppies sold each November for Remembrance Day.
The view from the top westward to Windsor has long been famous, inspiring paintings by masters such as J. M. W. Turner and Sir Joshua Reynolds and also poetry. One particularly grand description of the view can be found in Sir Walter Scott's novel The Heart of Midlothian (1818). It is a common misconception that the folk song "Lass of Richmond Hill" relates to this hill, but the young woman in the song lived in Hill House at Richmond in the Yorkshire Dales.
Apart from the great rugby stadium at Twickenham and the aircraft landing and taking off from Heathrow, the scene has changed little in two hundred years. The view from Richmond Hill now forms part of the Thames Landscape Strategy which aims to protect and enhance this section of the river corridor into London.
A broad, gravelled walk runs along the crest of the hill and is set back off the road, lined with benches, allowing pedestrians an uninterrupted view across the Thames valley with visitors' information boards describing points of interest. Sloping down to the River Thames are the Terrace Gardens that were laid out in the 1880s and were extended to the river some 40 years later.
A commanding feature on the hill is the former Royal Star and Garter Home; in the 2010s it was sold for development and converted into residential apartments. During World War I an old hotel on this site, the Star and Garter, which had been a popular place of entertainment in the 18th and 19th centuries but had closed in 1906, was taken over and used as a military hospital. After the war it was replaced by a new building providing accommodation and nursing facilities for 180 seriously injured servicemen. This was sold in 2013 after the charitable trust running the home concluded that the building no longer met modern requirements and could not be easily or economically upgraded. The trust opened an additional home in Solihull, West Midlands, and the remaining residents in Richmond moved in 2013 to a new purpose-built building in Surbiton.
Richmond Park
At the top of Richmond Hill, opposite the former Royal Star and Garter Home, sits the Richmond Gate entrance to Richmond Park. The park is a national nature reserve, a Site of Special Scientific Interest, and a Special Area of Conservation. The largest of London's Royal Parks, it was created by Charles I in 1634 as a deer park and now has over 600 red and fallow deer. Richmond Gate remains open to traffic between dawn and dusk.
King Henry's Mound, a Grade II listed Neolithic burial barrow, is the highest point within the park. From the mound there is a protected view, established in 1710, of St Paul's Cathedral in the City of London over 10 miles (16 km) to the east. At various times the mound's name has been connected with Henry VIII or with his father Henry VII. However, there is no evidence to support the legend that Henry VIII stood on the mound to watch for the sign from St Paul's that Anne Boleyn had been executed at the Tower and that he was then free to marry Jane Seymour.
King Henry's Mound is in the grounds of Pembroke Lodge, which is Grade II listed. In 1847 this house became the home of the then Prime Minister, Lord John Russell, who conducted much government business there and entertained Queen Victoria, foreign royalty, aristocrats, writers (Dickens, Thackeray, Longfellow, Tennyson) and other notable people of the time, including Garibaldi. It was later the childhood home of Lord John Russell's grandson, the philosopher, mathematician and social critic Bertrand Russell. It is now a popular restaurant with views across the Thames Valley.
Also in the park and Grade II listed is Thatched House Lodge, a royal residence. Since 1963 it has been the home of Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy, a cousin of Queen Elizabeth II. During the Second World War it was the home of General Dwight D Eisenhower, who later became President of the United States.
Museums and galleries
The Museum of Richmond, in Richmond's Old Town Hall, close to Richmond Bridge, has displays relating to the history of Richmond, Ham, Petersham and Kew. Its rotating exhibitions, education activities and a programme of events cover the whole of the modern borough. The museum's highlights include 16th-century glass from Richmond Palace and a painting, The Terrace and View from Richmond Hill, Surrey by Dutch draughtsman and painter Leonard Knyff (1650–1722), which is part of the Richmond upon Thames Borough Art Collection. Admission to the museum is free.
The Riverside Gallery, also at the Old Town Hall, features temporary exhibitions by local artists including paintings, prints and photographs. Admission is free.
Theatres and cinemas
Richmond has two theatres. The Richmond Theatre on Little Green is a late Victorian structure designed by Frank Matcham and restored and extended by Carl Toms in 1990. The theatre has a weekly schedule of plays and musicals, usually given by professional touring companies, and pre-West End shows can sometimes be seen. There is a Christmas and New Year pantomime tradition and many of Britain's greatest music hall and pantomime performers have appeared here.
Close to Richmond railway station is the Orange Tree Theatre which was founded in 1971 in a room above the Orange Tree pub. As audience numbers increased there was pressure to find a more accommodating space and, in 1991, the company moved to its current premises within a converted primary school. The 172-seat theatre was built specifically as a theatre in the round. Exclusively presenting its own productions, it has acquired a national reputation for the quality of its work for staging new plays, and for discovering undeservedly forgotten old plays and neglected classics.
The town has two cinemas, the arthouse Curzon in Water Lane and an Odeon cinema with a total of seven screens in two locations, the foyer of one having the accolade of being the only high street building visible from Richmond Bridge, and the second set being situated nearby in Red Lion Street. The Odeon on Hill Street, built in 1930, is in Art Deco style and is Grade II listed.
Pubs and bars
Numerous public houses and bars scattered throughout Richmond's town centre, and along the river and up the hill, with enough variety to cater to most tastes. One of the oldest is The Cricketers, serving beer since 1770, though the original building was burned down in 1844. It was soon replaced by the present building. Samuel Whitbread, founder of Whitbread Brewery, part-owned it with the Collins family who had a brewery in Water Lane, close to the old palace. Grade II listed pubs include the White Cross, the Old Ship and the Britannia.
Restaurants and cafes
Many of the major restaurant chains can be found within 500 metres of Richmond Bridge. There are also plenty of privately owned restaurants with culinary offerings from around the world, including French, German, Indian, Japanese, Korean, Russian, Spanish and Thai.
The Bingham Riverhouse hotel was awarded its first Michelin star in 2010. The hotel, which overlooks the Thames, is in a Grade II listed building that dates from about 1760.
Societies
The Richmond Local History Society explores the local history of Richmond, Kew, Petersham and Ham. It organises a programme of talks on historical topics and visits to buildings of historical interest. The Society publishes a newsletter three times a year, an indexed annual journal (Richmond History) and other publications.
The Richmond Society is a civic society and conservation group which was founded in 1957 by a group of local residents, originally to fight against the proposal to install modern lamp posts around Richmond Green. It acts as a pressure group concerned with preserving Richmond's natural and built environment, monitoring and influencing development proposals and presenting annual awards for buildings and other schemes which make a positive contribution to Richmond. It also organises meetings on topics of local interest and a programme of guided walks and visits, and publishes a quarterly newsletter. Anita Anand, Professor Ian Bruce , Sir Trevor McDonald , Ronny, Baroness van Dedem and Lord Watson of Richmond are the Society's patrons.
Richmond Opera (formerly Isleworth Baroque) holds rehearsals in Richmond and gives performances in the local area.
Leisure activities
With a third of the borough being green and open space, Richmond has much to offer in the way of leisure activities.
Boating
Skiffs (fixed seat boats) can be hired by the hour from local boat builders close to the bridge, with opportunities to row upstream towards the historic properties Ham House and Marble Hill House. In addition, Richmond Canoe Club, founded in 1944 and now Britain's biggest canoe club, is also on the towpath south of Richmond Bridge.
Cycling
Richmond is part of the London Cycle Network, offering on and off-road cycle paths throughout the area, including along the Thames Towpath and in Richmond Park.
Equestrian activities
Richmond Park also has bridle paths and horses can be rented from a number of stables around the perimeter of the park.
Ham Polo Club is on the Petersham Road at the bottom of Richmond Hill. The club was established in 1926 and is now the only polo club in London; it is popular with picnickers during the summer months.
Field sports
Old Deer Park provides open recreation areas, football, rugby and other pitches, and has a leisure centre, Pools on the Park, run by the borough council, with 33m indoor and outdoor pools and a fitness centre. The park also includes the Royal Mid-Surrey Golf Club with both golf and pitch and putt courses, and the Richmond Athletic Ground, home to Richmond F.C. and London Scottish rugby clubs. An additional sports ground is home to both the Richmond Cricket Club and the London Welsh Rugby Union club, as well as tennis courts and a bowling green.
The Prince's Head Cricket Club holds fixtures on Richmond Green throughout the summer.
Running
Parkrun events take place every Saturday morning at Old Deer Park and Richmond Park.
Education
Richmond University – a private institution, also known as Richmond, the American International University in London – is based here. Its degrees are accredited in the US and validated in the UK.
Demography and housing
In 2011, Richmond was 66.5% White British, 1.2% Black, 6.3% Asian, 3.5% Mixed and 18.6% Other White.
German residents
The town and the borough of Richmond have been popular destinations for German expatriates and German British since at least the 19th century. Richmond resident Sir Max Waechter, a German-born businessman and advocate of a federal Europe, donated Glover's Island to the local council in 1900. The German School London opened in nearby Petersham in 1971, continuing the popularity of Richmond for German families settling in London.
Transport
Thirty per cent of Richmond households do not have a car or van. This figure is well above the borough average of 24%, which may be related to the excellent transport links in the area and the lower proportion of families as reported in the 2001 census. A half of households have one car, in line with the borough average.
Tube/trains
Richmond station
District line towards Kew Gardens and Upminster
London Overground towards Kew Gardens, Willesden Junction and Stratford
Waterloo to Reading line and three branch line services call at the station en route to Windsor and Weybridge. One service calls at Richmond station on its return to the central London terminus via Kingston upon Thames.
North Sheen station
Waterloo to Reading line
Buses
Richmond is served by a number of Transport for London bus routes.
Roads
Richmond's main arterial road, the A316, running between Chiswick and the M3 motorway, bisects Old Deer Park and the town to its north. The town's only dual carriageway, it was built in the 1930s, cutting off Richmond from Kew and entailing the construction of Twickenham Bridge. This road expands into three lanes and motorway status three and five miles west respectively.
The town centre is on the A307, which used to be the main link between London and north-west Surrey, and was previously one of the main routes of the Portsmouth Road before that was diverted.
Nearest hospitals
Richmond Royal Hospital, on Kew Foot Road in Richmond, is a mental health facility operated by South West London and St George's Mental Health NHS Trust.
Queen Mary's Hospital, Roehampton is a community hospital in Roehampton in the London Borough of Wandsworth. It is run by St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust.
The nearest acute hospitals, both of which include accident & emergency units and maternity units, are:
Kingston Hospital in Kingston upon Thames, which is managed by the Kingston Hospital NHS Foundation Trust.
West Middlesex Hospital in Isleworth, which is operated by the Chelsea and Westminster Hospital NHS Foundation Trust.
Places of worship
Almshouses
Richmond has eight groups of almshouses. They are all managed by Richmond Charities, which also manages Candler Almshouses and Wright's Almshouses in Twickenham. Six are of historical interest and some were founded in the 16th century:
A seventh set of almshouses, Benn's Walk (now with five almshouses), was built in 1983.
An eighth set of almshouses is 10–18 Manning Place (with nine almshouses), just off Queen's Road. The property was built in 1993 and was purchased by The Richmond Charities in 2017.
Local newspapers
The Richmond and Twickenham Times has been published since 1873. The Twickenham & Richmond Tribune, a weekly online newspaper, has been published since 2016.
Notable residents
For centuries, Richmond was home to the country's royal family. It also has a long list of famous residents, both past and present.
List of current and former residents of Richmond upon Thames
Film locations
Richmond is a popular filming location. Richmond Park has featured in many films and TV series.
A locomotive runs through the park and crashes into a tree in the film The Titfield Thunderbolt (1955).
In the 1968 film Performance, James Fox crosses Richmond Park in a Rolls-Royce car.
The park was the backdrop for the classic historical film Anne of the Thousand Days (1969), with Richard Burton and Geneviève Bujold, which looks back to Richmond Park in the 16th century. The film tells the story of King Henry VIII's courtship of Anne Boleyn and their brief marriage.
An Indian dust storm was filmed in the park for the film Heat and Dust (1983).
The Royal Ballet School in Richmond Park featured in the film Billy Elliot (2000).
In 2010, director Guy Ritchie filmed parts of Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows (2011) in the park with Robert Downey Jr. and Jude Law.
Some of the scenes from Into the Woods (2014), the Disney fantasy film featuring Meryl Streep, were filmed in the park.
As well as a location for films, Richmond Park is regularly featured in television programmes, corporate videos and fashion shoots. It has made an appearance on Blue Peter, Inside Out (the BBC regional current affairs programme) and BBC Springwatch. In 2014 it was featured in a video commissioned by The Hearsum Collection and in 2017 in a television film featuring and narrated by David Attenborough, which was produced by the Friends of Richmond Park.
The village green, divided into The Green and Little Green, has Georgian splendour, stately listed buildings and paved alleyways leading to the high street. It is a magnet for film crews, particularly when recreating a city square or row of townhouses of bygone years. In 2011, The Crimson Petal and the White was filmed there, as was Downton Abbey in July 2014. Many other films and TV shows have featured The Green or Little Green, including Agatha Christie's Poirot, Simon Schama's Power of Art, Peter Rabbit 2 and the 2020 sports comedy TV series Ted Lasso.
Richmond Theatre ranks as a major film location; it has featured in the Peter Sellers comedy The Naked Truth (1957), Bugsy Malone (1976), The Krays (1990), Evita (1996), Bedazzled (2000), The Hours (2002), Finding Neverland (2004) and The Wolfman (2010).
See also
List of people in Richmond town and Richmond Park
Notes
References
Further reading
Cloake, John (1990). Richmond's Great Monastery: The Charterhouse of Jesus of Bethlehem of Shene. Richmond Local History Society. .
Cloake, John (1991). Richmond Past: A Visual History of Richmond, Kew, Petersham and Ham. London: Historical Publications. . Recounts the history of the Richmond area – including Kew, Petersham and Ham – from 1501 and is illustrated with drawings, paintings and photographs.
Cloake, John (1995). The Palaces and Parks of Richmond and Kew 1: The Palaces of Shene and Richmond. Chichester: Phillimore & Co Ltd. . .
Cloake, John (1996). The Palaces and Parks of Richmond and Kew 2: Richmond Lodge and the Kew Palaces. Chichester: Phillimore & Co Ltd. . . OL 8627654M.
Cloake, John (2001). Cottages and Common Fields of Richmond and Kew. Chichester: Phillimore & Co Ltd. .
Cloake, John (2001). Richmond Palace: Its History and Its Plan. Richmond Local History Society. .
Richmond Local History Society (Third edition, 2019). The Streets of Richmond and Kew. .
Robinson, Derek; Fowler, Simon (Second edition, 2020). Old Palace Lane: Medieval to Modern Richmond. Richmond Local History Society and Museum of Richmond. .
External links
The Richmond Society
Richmond Local History Society
Royal Richmond timeline
1501 establishments in England
Areas of London
Districts of London on the River Thames
Districts of the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames
Major centres of London
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dire%20Straits%20%28album%29
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Dire Straits (album)
|
Dire Straits is the debut studio album by the British rock band Dire Straits released on 9 June 1978 by Vertigo Records internationally, Warner Bros. Records in the United States and Mercury Records in Canada. The album has the hit single "Sultans of Swing", which reached number 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and number 8 on the UK Singles Chart. The album reached the top of the album charts in Germany, Australia and France, number 2 in the United States and number 5 in the United Kingdom. Dire Straits was later certified double platinum in both the United States and the United Kingdom.
Background
Dire Straits came about through a musical collaboration between brothers Mark and David Knopfler. After graduating from university with a degree in English, Mark Knopfler took a job writing for the Yorkshire Evening Post. Wanting to pursue a career in music, he took a teaching position at Loughton College while playing music at night, performing with pub bands around town, including Brewer's Droop and Cafe Racers. Following a divorce and struggling financially, Mark moved into his brother David's flat, where John Illsley also lived. In 1977, Mark, John and David decided to form a band. They recruited drummer Pick Withers and began rehearsing. Brinsley Schwarz, a friend of Mark's, helped give the group their name, a reference to their financial situation. After a few months of rehearsals, the band borrowed enough money to record a five-song demo, which included the song "Sultans of Swing". They took the tape to disc jockey Charlie Gillett, who had a radio show called "Honky Tonk" on BBC Radio London. The band respected Gillett and sought out his advice. Gillett liked what he heard and started playing "Sultans of Swing" on his show. Two months later, Dire Straits signed a recording contract with the Vertigo Records division of Phonogram Inc.
Recording
Dire Straits was recorded at Basing Street Studios in London from 13 February to 5 March 1978. Knopfler used a few guitars for the recording, including a pair of red Fender Stratocasters—one from 1961 (serial number 68354) and one from 1962 (serial number 80470). He played his 1938 National Style O 14 fret guitar (serial number B1844) on "Water of Love" and "Wild West End". He also used a black Telecaster Thinline (serial number 226254) on "Setting Me Up". David played a black Fender Stratocaster and a Harmony Sovereign acoustic guitar. The album was produced by Muff Winwood, and engineered by Rhett Davies,assisted by Greg Cobb
Release
The album was released in October 1978. The first single released was "Sultans of Swing" which first broke into the United States top five early in the spring of 1979, becoming a hit a full five months after the album was released there, and then reached number eight in the UK Singles Chart. "Water of Love" was also released as a single in some countries, and charted in Australia, reaching number 54, and in the Netherlands, reaching number 28.
"Sultans of Swing" was re-released as a single in the UK in November 1988 to promote the greatest hits compilation Money for Nothing, released in October that year.
The album was remastered and reissued with the rest of the Dire Straits catalogue in 1996 to most of the world excluding the U.S. and on 19 September 2000 in the United States.
Artwork
The album cover artwork is designed by Hothouse, who commissioned the cover painting from Chuck Loyola. The Dire Straits Fender logo, which appears on the back cover, was designed by Geoff Halpern.
Touring
Dire Straits promoted the release of their first single and album with the Dire Straits Tour, which started on 6 June 1978 at the Lafayette Club in Wolverhampton, included 55 shows, ending on 18 November 1978 at the College of Education in Hitchin. The European tour included concerts in the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands. These concerts presented Dire Straits with their largest audiences to that date. The first leg of the tour promoted their first single, "Sultans of Swing". This first leg took the band around Great Britain in June and July 1978, performing in England, Scotland and Wales. The band typically performed in small halls with a maximum capacity of 1,000. The second leg of the tour promoted the band's debut album. This leg took the band to several European countries, where they met journalists and performed on television programmes.
Critical reception
In a retrospective review for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album four out of five stars, calling it "remarkably accomplished for a debut". Erlewine praised Knopfler's "spare, tasteful guitar lines and his husky warbling" and his "inclination toward Dylanesque imagery, which enhances the smoky, low-key atmosphere of the album".
In his review for Rolling Stone magazine, Ken Tucker wrote that the band "plays tight, spare mixtures of rock, folk and country music with a serene spirit and witty irony. It's almost as if they were aware that their forte has nothing to do with what's currently happening in the industry, but couldn't care less." Tucker singled out "Sultans of Swing" for its "inescapable hook" and "Bob Dylan-like snarl in its vocal". He also praised "Setting Me Up" as a "heavenly number, funny and bitter".
Track listing
The original album contained a slightly shorter version of "Sultans of Swing", omitting the last seconds of the guitar solo at the end of the song. The full-length version was included on the remastered edition of the album. Cassette versions of the album often featured the sides in reverse order from the original vinyl album — side A consisting of tracks 6–9 and side B consisting of 1–5. The French issue of the cassette had "Down to the Waterline" and "Wild West End" interchanged in the order listed above to allow for more equal playing time on each side.
The composition of the song "Southbound Again" is remarkably similar to the song "Down Along the Cove" by Bob Dylan released on his 1967 album John Wesley Harding 11 years earlier, although the lyrics are different.
Personnel
Dire Straits
Mark Knopfler – vocals, lead and rhythm guitars
David Knopfler – rhythm guitar, backing vocals
John Illsley – bass guitar, backing vocals
Pick Withers – drums
Production
Rhett Davies – engineer
Paddy Eckersley – photography
Chuck Loyola – cover painting
Bob Ludwig – remastering
Alan Schmidt – art direction
Muff Winwood – producer
Charts
Dire Straits spent 132 weeks on the UK Albums Chart.
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications and sales
References
Notes
Citations
External links
Dire Straits at Mark Knopfler official website
Dire Straits at Radio3Net
Dire Straits albums
1978 debut albums
Albums produced by Muff Winwood
Vertigo Records albums
Warner Records albums
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communiqu%C3%A9%20%28Dire%20Straits%20album%29
|
Communiqué (Dire Straits album)
|
Communiqué is the second studio album by the British rock band Dire Straits, released on 5 June 1979 by Vertigo Records internationally, Warner Bros. Records in the United States and Mercury Records in Canada. The album produced the single "Lady Writer", which reached number 45 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and number 51 on the UK Singles Chart. The album reached number one on album charts in Germany, New Zealand, and Sweden, number 11 in the United States and number 5 in the United Kingdom. Communiqué was later certified gold in the United States, platinum in the United Kingdom and double-platinum in France.
Recording
After the Dire Straits Tour finished in Hitchin on 18 November 1978, Dire Straits set to work on recording their second album. The recording sessions for Communiqué took place from 28 November to 12 December 1978 at Compass Point Studios in Nassau. The album was mixed in January 1979 at Muscle Shoals Sound Studio in Alabama. The album was produced by Jerry Wexler and Barry Beckett, veteran producers from Muscle Shoals Sound Studio. Beckett (credited as B. Bear) also contributed keyboards to some of the album's nine tracks.
Release
Communiqué was released on vinyl LP and cassette on 15 June 1979, eight months after the release of their first album, Dire Straits. It entered the German charts at number one in its first week of release, while their debut album, Dire Straits was still at the number three position. It was later released on compact disc.
"Lady Writer" was the first single released from the album, which continued in a similar vein as its predecessor, displaying the expanding scope of Knopfler's lyricism on the opening track, "Once Upon a Time in the West".
Communiqué was remastered and reissued with the rest of the Dire Straits catalogue in 1996 for most of the world outside the United States and on 19 September 2000 in the United States.
Dire Straits toured throughout 1979 after the recording sessions were completed. The Communiqué Tour started in February 1979 in Rotterdam, four months before the album's release on 15 June. Dire Straits would play a total of 116 concerts in Europe and North America, the final concert taking place on 21 December 1979 in London.
Communiqué was the last album to feature David Knopfler, who left Dire Straits over creative differences with his brother during the recording of their third album in August 1980.
Artwork
The album cover was designed by Hothouse, art directed by Alan Schmidt with the cover illustration by Geoff Halpin.
Critical reception
In a 1979 review for the Birmingham Daily Post, Jonathan Daümler-Ford called it a "competent record", but wrote that "the songs sound like pale imitations, or the cuts which were not good enough for Dire Straits".
In his retrospective review for AllMusic, William Ruhlmann gave the album two and a half out of five stars, writing that the second album "seemed little more than a carbon copy of its predecessor with less compelling material."
Track listing
Personnel
Dire Straits
Mark Knopfler – vocals, lead and rhythm guitars
David Knopfler – rhythm guitar, backing vocals
John Illsley – bass guitar, backing vocals
Pick Withers – drums
Additional personnel
Barry Beckett (credited as B. Bear) – keyboards and producer
Geoff Halpin – illustrations
Gregg Hamm – mix engineer
Bobby Hata – mastering
Bob Ludwig – remastering
Jack Nuber – engineer
Thelbert Rigby – tape operator
Alan Schmidt – art direction
Jerry Wexler – producer
Paul Wexler – mastering supervisor
Charts
Communiqué spent 32 weeks on the UK Albums Chart.
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Sales and certifications
References
Notes
Citations
External links
Communiqué at Mark Knopfler official website
Dire Straits albums
1979 albums
Albums produced by Jerry Wexler
Albums produced by Barry Beckett
Vertigo Records albums
Warner Records albums
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaus%20Kinski
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Klaus Kinski
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Klaus Kinski (, born Klaus Günter Karl Nakszynski; 18 October 1926 – 23 November 1991) was a German actor, equally renowned for his intense performance style and notorious for his volatile personality. He appeared in over 130 film roles in a career that spanned 40 years, from 1948 to 1988. He played leading parts in five films directed by Werner Herzog (Aguirre, the Wrath of God, 1972; Nosferatu the Vampyre, 1979; Woyzeck, also 1979; Fitzcarraldo, 1982; Cobra Verde, 1987), who later chronicled their tumultuous relationship in the documentary My Best Fiend (1999).
Kinski's roles spanned multiple genres, languages, and nationalities, including many Spaghetti Westerns (such as For a Few Dollars More, 1965; A Bullet for the General, 1966; The Great Silence, 1968; And God Said to Cain, 1970), horror films, war movies, dramas, and Edgar Wallace krimi pictures. His infamy was elevated by a number of eccentric creative endeavors, including a one-man show based on the life of Jesus Christ, a self-directed biographical film of violinist Niccolò Paganini, and over 20 spoken word albums.
During his lifetime, Kinski was a controversial and aggressive figure, prone to emotional and often violent outbursts directed at his directors and fellow cast members, issues further complicated by a history of mental illness. Herzog described him as "one of the greatest actors of the century, but also a monster and a great pestilence." Posthumously, his legacy has been further tangled by accusations of physical and sexual abuse by his daughters Pola and Nastassja, themselves actresses. His notoriety and prolific output has developed into a widespread cult following and a reputation as a popular icon.
Early life
Klaus Günter Karl Nakszynski was born to German nationals in Zoppot, Free City of Danzig (now Sopot, Poland) in 1926. His father, Bruno Nakszynski, was a failed opera singer turned pharmacist; his mother, Susanne (née Lutze), was a nurse and the daughter of a local pastor. Klaus had three older siblings: Inge, Arne and Hans-Joachim.
Due to the Great Depression, the family was unable to make a living in Danzig and moved to Berlin in 1931, where they also struggled. They settled in a flat in the Wartburgstraße 3, in the district of Schöneberg, and took German citizenship. In 1936, Kinski attended the Prinz-Heinrich-Gymnasium in Schöneberg.
During the Second World War, Kinski was conscripted at the age of 17 into the German Wehrmacht some time in 1943, and served with the German Air Force (Luftwaffe) as an elite paratrooper (Fallschirmjäger). He saw no action until the winter of 1944, when his unit was transferred to the Netherlands. He was captured by the British on his second day of combat.
Kinski gave a different version of events in his 1988 autobiography. He said that he made a conscious decision to desert; he had been captured by the Germans, court-martialed as a deserter and sentenced to death, but he escaped and hid in the woods. A British patrol opened fire on him, he was wounded in the arm and they took him captive. After being treated for his injuries and interrogated, Kinski was transferred to a prisoner of war camp in Britain. The ship transporting him was torpedoed by a German U-boat, but arrived safely. He was held at the prisoner of war Camp 186 in Berechurch Hall in Colchester, Essex.
Werner Herzog, in his 1999 documentary about Kinski titled My Best Fiend, claimed that Kinski had fabricated much of his autobiography, including claims of maternal sexual abuse and incest, and childhood poverty. According to Herzog, Kinski was actually raised in a financially-stable upper-middle-class family.
Career
While in Berechurch Hall, Kinski played his first roles on stage, taking part in variety shows intended to maintain morale among the prisoners. By May 1945, at the end of the war in Europe, the German POWs were anxious to return home. Kinski had heard that sick prisoners were to be returned first, and tried to qualify by standing outside naked at night, drinking urine and eating cigarettes. He remained healthy however, and was finally returned to Germany in 1946, after spending a year and four months in captivity.
Arriving in Berlin, he learned his father had died during the war, and his mother had been killed in an Allied air attack on the city.
Theatrical career
After his return to Germany, Kinski started out as an actor, first at a small touring company in Offenburg, where he used his newly adopted name of Klaus Kinski. In 1946, he was hired by the renowned Schlosspark-Theater in Berlin. The next year, he was fired by the manager due to his unpredictable behavior. Other companies followed, but his unconventional and emotionally volatile behavior regularly got him into trouble.
For three months in 1955, Kinski lived in the same boarding house as a 13-year-old Werner Herzog, who would later direct him in a number of films. In the 1999 documentary My Best Fiend, Herzog described how Kinski locked himself in the communal bathroom for 48 hours and broke everything in the room to pieces.
In March 1956, he made a single guest appearance at Vienna's Burgtheater in Goethe's Torquato Tasso. Although respected by his colleagues, among them Judith Holzmeister, and cheered by the audience, Kinski did not gain a permanent contract. The Burgtheater's management became aware of the actor's earlier difficulties in Germany. He unsuccessfully tried to sue the company.
Living jobless in Vienna, Kinski reinvented himself as a monologist and spoken word artist. He presented the prose and verse of François Villon, William Shakespeare and Oscar Wilde, amongst others. He established himself as an actor touring Austria, Germany, and Switzerland with his shows.
Film work
Kinski's first film role was a small part in the 1948 film Morituri. He appeared in several German Edgar Wallace movies, and had bit parts in the American war films Decision Before Dawn (1951), A Time to Love and a Time to Die (1958), and The Counterfeit Traitor (1962). In Alfred Vohrer's Die toten Augen von London (1961), his character refused any personal guilt for his evil deeds and claimed to have only followed the orders given to him. Kinski's performance reflected post-war Germany's reluctance to take responsibility for what had happened during World War II.
During the 1960s and 1970s, he appeared in various European exploitation film genres, as well as more acclaimed works such as Doctor Zhivago (1965), featured in a supporting role as an anarchist prisoner on his way to the Gulag.
He relocated to Italy during the late 1960s, and had roles in numerous Spaghetti Westerns, including For a Few Dollars More (1965), A Bullet for the General (1966), The Great Silence (1968), Twice A Judas (1969), and A Genius, Two Partners and a Dupe (1975). In 1977, he starred as the guerrillero Wilfried Böse in Operation Thunderbolt, based on the events of the 1976 Operation Entebbe.
Kinski's work with director Werner Herzog brought him international recognition. They made five films together: Aguirre: The Wrath of God (1972), Woyzeck (1978), Nosferatu the Vampyre (1979), Fitzcarraldo (1982) and Cobra Verde (1987). Despite their collaborations, Herzog had threatened, on occasion, to murder Kinski. In one incident, Kinski was said to have been saved by his dog who attacked Herzog as he crept up to supposedly burn down the actor's house. Herzog has refused to comment on his numerous other plans to kill Kinski. However, he did pull a gun on Kinski, or at least threatened to do so, on the set of Aguirre, the Wrath of God, after the actor threatened to walk off the set.
In 1980, Kinski refused the lead villain role of Major Arnold Toht in Raiders of the Lost Ark, telling director Steven Spielberg, "This script is a yawn-making, boring pile of shit" and "moronically shitty". Kinski would go on to play Kurtz, an Israeli intelligence officer, in The Little Drummer Girl, a feature film by George Roy Hill in 1984. It also starred Diane Keaton as Charlie.
Kinski co-starred as an evil killer from the future in a 1987 Sci-Fi based TV film Timestalkers with William Devane and Lauren Hutton. His last film (which he wrote and directed) was Kinski Paganini (1989), in which he played the legendary violinist Niccolò Paganini.
Personal life
Kinski was married three times. He married his first wife, singer Gislinde Kühlbeck, in 1952. The couple had a daughter, Pola Kinski. They divorced in 1955. Five years later he married actress Ruth Brigitte Tocki. They divorced in 1971. Their daughter Nastassja Kinski was born in January 1961. He married his third and final wife, model Minhoi Geneviève Loanic, in 1971. Their son Nikolai Kinski was born in 1976. They divorced in 1979.
Kinski published his autobiography, All I Need Is Love, in 1988 (reprinted in 1996 as Kinski Uncut). The book infuriated many and prompted his second daughter Nastassja Kinski to file a libel suit against him, which she afterward withdrew. Kinski's elder daughter Pola played with the original title of her fathers memoir when she published her own autobiography "Kindermund".
Mental illness
In 1950, Kinski stayed in Karl-Bonhoeffer-Nervenklinik, (de) a psychiatric hospital, for three days because he stalked his theatrical sponsor and eventually tried to strangle her. Medical records from the period listed a preliminary diagnosis of schizophrenia but the conclusion was psychopathy (antisocial personality disorder). Around this time Kinski became unable to secure film roles, and in 1955 he attempted suicide twice according to one source.
Sexual abuse
In 2013, more than 20 years after her father's death, Pola Kinski published an autobiography titled Kindermund (or From a Child's Mouth), in which she claimed her father had sexually abused her from age of 5 to 19.
In an interview published by the German tabloid Bild on 13 January 2013, Kinski's younger daughter and Pola's half-sister, Nastassja, said their father would embrace her in a sexual manner when she was 4–5 years old but never had sex with her. Nastassja has expressed support for Pola and said that she was always afraid of their father, whom she described as an unpredictable tyrant.
Death
Kinski died on 23 November 1991 of a sudden heart attack at his home in Lagunitas, California at age 65. His body was cremated and his ashes were scattered into the Pacific Ocean.
Of his three children, only his son Nikolai attended the funeral.
Legacy
Werner Herzog, in his 1999 documentary about Kinski titled My Best Fiend, claimed that Kinski had fabricated much of his autobiography, and told of the difficulties in their working relationship. Director David Schmoeller released a short 1999 film titled Please Kill Mr. Kinski, which examined the stories of Kinski's erratic and disruptive behavior on the set of his 1986 film Crawlspace. The film features behind-the-scenes footage of Kinski's various confrontations with director and crewmembers, along with Schmoeller's account of the events, in which he claims a producer offered to murder Kinski for his life insurance money.
In 2006, Christian David published the first comprehensive biography of Kinski, based on newly discovered archived material, personal letters and interviews with the actor's friends and colleagues. Peter Geyer published a paperback book of essays on Kinski's life and work.
Filmography and discography
Bibliography
Ich bin so wild nach deinem Erdbeermund. München: :de:Rogner & Bernhard 1975
All I need is love. New York : Random House, 1988.
Paganini. München: Heyne Verlag 1992
Kinski uncut the autobiography of Klaus Kinski. London: Bloomsbury 1997
(with Peter Geyer) Jesus Christus Erlöser und Fieber – Tagebuch eines Aussätzigen. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 2006
References
External links
1926 births
1991 deaths
People from Sopot
Naturalized citizens of Germany
German male film actors
German people of Polish descent
German spoken word artists
German male stage actors
German prisoners of war in World War II held by the United Kingdom
20th-century German male actors
People from Marin County, California
People from the Free City of Danzig
German Film Award winners
People with antisocial personality disorder
Fallschirmjäger of World War II
Male Spaghetti Western actors
Deaths from coronary thrombosis
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln%20Center
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Lincoln Center
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Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts (also simply known as Lincoln Center) is a complex of buildings in the Lincoln Square neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. It has thirty indoor and outdoor facilities and is host to 5 million visitors annually. It houses nationally and internationally renowned performing arts organizations including the New York Philharmonic, the Metropolitan Opera, and the New York City Ballet. Juilliard School of Music also became part of the Lincoln Center complex.
History
Planning
A consortium of civic leaders and others led by, and under the initiative of, John D. Rockefeller III built Lincoln Center as part of the "Lincoln Square Renewal Project" during Robert Moses' program of urban renewal in the 1950s and 1960s. Respected architects were contracted to design the major buildings on the site.
Rockefeller was appointed as the Lincoln Center's inaugural president in 1956, and once he resigned, became its chairman in 1961. He is credited with raising more than half of the $184.5 million in private funds needed to build the complex, including drawing from his own funds; the Rockefeller Brothers Fund also contributed to the project. Numerous architects were hired to build different parts of the center (see ). The center's first three buildings, David Geffen Hall (formerly Avery Fisher Hall, originally named Philharmonic Hall), David H. Koch Theater (formerly the New York State Theater) and the Metropolitan Opera House were opened in 1962, 1964 and 1966, respectively.
It is unclear whether the center was named as a tribute to U.S. President Abraham Lincoln or for its location in the Lincoln Square Neighborhood. The name was bestowed on the area in 1906 by the New York City Board of Aldermen, but records give no reason for choosing that name. There has long been speculation that the name came from a local landowner, because the square was previously named Lincoln Square. However, property records from the New York Municipal Archives from that time have no record of a Lincoln surname; they only list the names Johannes van Bruch, Thomas Hall, Stephan de Lancey, James de Lancey, James de Lancey Jr. and John Somerindyck. One speculation is that references to President Lincoln were omitted from the records because the mayor in 1906 was George B. McClellan Jr., son of General George B. McClellan, who was general-in-chief of the Union Army early in the American Civil War and a bitter rival of Lincoln's.
Historical timeline
April 21, 1955: The Mayor's Slum Clearance Committee chaired by Robert Moses is approved by the New York City Board of Estimate to designate Lincoln Square for urban renewal.
November 8, 1955: John D. Rockefeller III is elected as chairman.
June 22, 1956: Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, Inc. incorporated.
October 31, 1956: Lincoln Square Development Plan is approved, many changes to the area are proposed.
May 14, 1959: Ground-breaking ceremony with U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower.
April 6, 1964: Lincoln Center Fountain, named for Charles Revson, opens.
April 23, 1964: New York State Theater opens.
October 14, 1965: Vivian Beaumont Theater and the Forum (now Mitzi E. Newhouse Theater) open.
November 30, 1965: The Library & Museum of the Performing Arts opens.
August 1, 1966: The first indoor festival in the United States, the Midsummer Serenades - A Mozart Festival begins.
September 16, 1966: The Metropolitan Opera House opens.
May 22, 1969: Damrosch Park and the Guggenheim Band Shell opens.
September 11, 1969: Alice Tully Hall (named for Alice Tully) opens.
October 26, 1969: Juilliard School opens.
May 20, 1974: The Lincoln Center Institute is officially founded.
October 22, 1974: The Avery Fisher Artist Program is founded to give outstanding American instrumentalists significant recognition on which to continue to build their careers. It includes both The Avery Fisher Prize and the Avery Fisher Career Grants.
January 30, 1976: The first live telecast of Live from Lincoln Center is broadcast over PBS.
October 19, 1976: Avery Fisher Hall re-opens after renovation to improve acoustics.
December 4, 1981: The Big Apple Circus marks its first performances at its winter home in Damrosch Park. The circus has performed every winter at Lincoln Center through the 2016 season when it was forced to liquidate its assets due to continued financial losses.
September 7, 1982: New York State Theater re-opens after renovation to improve acoustics.
August 3, 1987: Classical Jazz, Lincoln Center's first concert series devoted exclusively to jazz, begins in Alice Tully Hall.
November 19, 1990: The Samuel B. and David Rose Building opens housing the Walter Reade Theater, the Stanley H. Kaplan Penthouse, the Daniel and Joanna S. Rose Rehearsal Studio, the Clark Studio Theater, the School of American Ballet, Juilliard School student residences, and office space for a number of the member organizations.
January 27, 1991: The Mozart Bicentennial at Lincoln Center opens with concerts held at Avery Fisher Hall and the Metropolitan Opera House, making it the world's largest and most comprehensive tribute to the life and works of Mozart.
June 13, 1994: Beverly Sills is elected Chairman of the Board of the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, Inc. She is the first woman and the first professional musician to be elected to this position, serving until May 1, 2002.
January 18, 2001: The Lincoln Center Constituent Development Project is established to implement and oversee the comprehensive reconstruction, renovation, and modernization of Lincoln Center.
October 18, 2004: Jazz at Lincoln Center opens. The hall is made up of three theaters: the Rose Theater, the Allen Room, and Dizzy's Club Coca-Cola.
March 20, 2006: Preliminary construction on the West 65th Street Project begins. The Promenade Project, a plan to renovate Josie Robertson Plaza and the Columbus Avenue frontage to the Lincoln Center campus, is announced.
June 8, 2006: Lincoln Center announces plans to transform the nearby Harmony Atrium into a public space for the arts open to the public, neighbors, students, and center patrons.
February 22, 2009: Alice Tully Hall reopens after redevelopment.
September 30, 2009: Opening of the redesigned Charles H. Revson Fountain.
May 21, 2010: Renovation plans of central and north plazas unveiled.
June 4, 2012: Claire Tow Theater opens.
October 1, 2012: The President's Bridge opens over West 65th Street.
May 15, 2013: Jed Bernstein begins tenure as president.
October 1, 2013: The New York City Opera files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy reorganization and ceases operation.
September 24, 2015: Avery Fisher Hall renamed David Geffen Hall.
January 22, 2016: The New York City Opera resumes performances in the Rose Theater.
November 16, 2016: Debora Spar becomes Lincoln Center's first woman president after the sudden departure of Jed Bernstein.
Construction milestones
In 1955, the first city institution to commit to be part of the Lincoln Square Renewal Project, an effort to revitalize the city's west side with a new performing arts complex that would become the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, was the Fordham Law School of Fordham University. In 1961, Fordham Law School was the first building to open as part of the renewal project, and in 1968, Fordham College at Lincoln Center welcomed its first students.
The development of the condominium at 3 Lincoln Center, completed in 1991, designed by Lee Jablin of Harman Jablin Architects, made possible the expansion of The Juilliard School and the School of American Ballet.
The center's cultural institutions also have since made use of facilities located away from the main campus. In 2004, the center expanded through the addition of Jazz at Lincoln Center's newly built facilities, the Frederick P. Rose Hall, at the new Time Warner Center, located a few blocks to the south. In March 2006, the center launched construction on a major redevelopment plan that modernized, renovated, and opened up its campus. Redevelopment was completed in 2012 with the completion of the President's Bridge over West 65th Street.
Renovations
When first announced in 1999, Lincoln Center's campuswide redevelopment was to cost $1.5 billion over 10 years and radically transform the campus. The center management held an architectural competition, won by the British architect Norman Foster in 2005, but did not approve a full scale redesign until 2012, in part because of the need to raise $300 million in construction costs and the New York Philharmonic's fear that it might lose audiences and revenue while it was displaced. Among the architects that have been involved were Frank Gehry; Cooper, Robertson & Partners; Skidmore, Owings & Merrill; Beyer Blinder Belle; Fox & Fowle; Olin Partnership; and Diller & Scofidio.
In March 2006, the center launched the 65th Street Project part of a major redevelopment plan continuing through the fall of 2012 to create a new pedestrian promenade designed to improve accessibility and the aesthetics of that area of the campus. Additionally, Alice Tully Hall was modernized and reopened to critical and popular acclaim in 2009 and Film at Lincoln Center expanded with the new Elinor Bunin Munroe Film Center. Topped by a sloping lawn roof, the film center is part of a new pavilion that also houses a destination restaurant named Lincoln, as well as offices. Subsequent projects were added which addressed improvements to the main plazas and Columbus Avenue Grand Stairs. Under the direction of the Lincoln Center Development Project, Diller Scofidio + Renfro in association with FXFOWLE Architects and Beyer Blinder Belle Architects provided the design services. Additionally, Turner Construction Company and RCDolner, LLC were the construction managers for the projects. Another component to redevelopment was the addition of the David Rubenstein Atrium designed by Tod Williams Billie Tsien Architects, a visitors' center and a gateway to the center that offers free performances, day-of-discount tickets, food, and free Wi-Fi.
Architects
Architects who designed buildings at the center include:
Diller Scofidio + Renfro: Public spaces, Hypar Pavilion and Lincoln Ristorante, The Juilliard School, Alice Tully Hall, School of American Ballet, Josie Robertson Plaza, Revson Fountain, President's Bridge (over 65th Street) and Infoscape
Max Abramovitz: David Geffen Hall, original design of Josie Robertson Plaza (with Wallace K. Harrison and Philip Johnson)
Pietro Belluschi: The Juilliard School (including Alice Tully Hall). Modified by Diller Scofidio + Renfro in association with FXFOWLE Architects
Gordon Bunshaft: The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts.
Wallace Harrison: the center's master plan, the Metropolitan Opera House, and original design of Josie Robertson Plaza (with Max Abramovitz and Philip Johnson)
Lee S Jablin: 3 Lincoln Center, the adjacent condominium built by a private developer
Philip Johnson: New York State Theater, now known as the David H. Koch Theater, original design of Josie Robertson Plaza (with Wallace K. Harrison and Max Abramovitz) and original Revson Fountain
Eero Saarinen: Vivian Beaumont Theater
Davis, Brody and Associates: The Samuel B. and David Rose Building.
Billie Tsien, Tod William: The David Rubenstein Atrium
Hugh Hardy/H3 Hardy Collaboration Architecture LLC: The Claire Tow Theater
WET Design: Revson Fountain
Nina Rappaport and Ken Smith
Constituent structures
The center has 30 indoor and outdoor performance facilities including:
Metropolitan Opera House: a 3,900-seat opera house; the home stage of the Metropolitan Opera; as well as List Hall
David Geffen Hall (formerly Philharmonic Hall and Avery Fisher Hall): a 2,738-seat symphony hall; the home stage of the New York Philharmonic
David H. Koch Theater (formerly New York State Theater): a 2,586-seat theater; constructed as the home of the New York City Ballet, it is also the former home of the New York City Opera and the Music Theater of Lincoln Center companies
Alice Tully Hall: a 1,095-seat concert hall located within the Juilliard School building; the home stage of The Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center
Vivian Beaumont Theater: a 1,080-seat Broadway theater; operated since 1985 as the main stage of Lincoln Center Theater; previously occupied by The Repertory Theater of Lincoln Center (1965–1973) and The New York Shakespeare Festival (1973–1977)
Mitzi E. Newhouse Theater (originally known as the Forum): a 299-seat theater; operated by Lincoln Center Theater for its Off-Broadway-style productions
The Walter Reade Theater: a 268-seat movie theater; used by Film at Lincoln Center; features a raised dais used for post-screening filmmaker discussions
Claire Tow Theater: a 131-seat theater operated by Lincoln Center Theater to house more experimental productions
Elinor Bunin Munroe Film Center: home to the Francesca Beale Theater, Howard Gilman Theater, and the Amphitheater
Bruno Walter Auditorium at the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts
The David Rubenstein Atrium: a facility on Broadway between 62nd and 63rd Streets; includes a public visitors' and discount-ticketing facility with amenities that include free performances and a café
The Clark Studio Theater: a 120-seat dance theater; a part of the facilities of Lincoln Center Education
Damrosch Park: an outdoor amphitheater with a bowl-style stage known as the Guggenheim Band Shell; used for free Lincoln Center Out of Doors presentations and with a special dance floor for Midsummer Night Swing.
Daniel and Joanna S. Rose Rehearsal Studio
Josie Robertson Plaza: the center's central plaza, featuring its iconic fountain; the three main buildings (Metropolitan Opera House, David Geffen Hall, and David H. Koch Theater) face onto this plaza; used as an outdoor venue during Lincoln Center Out of Doors presentations
Juilliard School: a facility housing the school of the same name: building also incorporates Morse Recital Hall, Paul Recital Hall, the Juilliard Drama Theater and the Peter Jay Sharp Theater
Stanley H. Kaplan Penthouse: a nightclub-style venue; used for intimate concerts, "Meet the Artist" and Great Performers events, lectures, and other events where a small, intimate space is preferred; was also used for jazz performances prior to the construction of the new Jazz at Lincoln Center facilities
Jazz at Lincoln Center: while a part of the center, it is located separately in the Frederick P. Rose Hall complex within the Time Warner Center at Columbus Circle. It consists of the following performance and related facilities:
The Appel Room: a 508-seat amphitheater with glass wall overlooking Central Park and Columbus circle; from 2011 to 2013, it was used as the studio for Anderson Live, a daytime-television talk show hosted by Anderson Cooper
Dizzy's Club Coca-Cola: a nightclub-style venue that allows jazz to be performed in its traditional venue
Rose Theater: a 1,094-seat concert hall designed for jazz performances. Rose Theater is the largest performing space in the Lincoln center. It consists of three floors. The first floor is orchestra, the second floor is Mezzanine, and the third floor is balcony.
Irene Diamond Education Center: a rehearsal, recording and classroom facility
Other outdoor venues include Hearst Plaza, Barclay's Capital Grove, and Broadway Plaza.
Resident organizations
The center serves as home for twelve resident arts organizations:
The Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center
Film at Lincoln Center (sponsor of the New York Film Festival)
Jazz at Lincoln Center
Juilliard School
Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts
Lincoln Center Theater
Metropolitan Opera
New York City Ballet
New York City Opera
New York Philharmonic
New York Public Library for the Performing Arts
School of American Ballet
Lincoln Center Education
The Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center
The Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center is, along with New York Philharmonic, New York City Ballet, Lincoln Center Theater, and the Metropolitan Opera, one of the eleven constituents of the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts. Alice Tully Hall is the venue for the CMS activities (such as performances, education programs, recording sessions, broadcast activities) since it opened in 1969. The co-artistic directors are David Finckel (cellist of Emerson String Quartet) and Wu Han (pianist).
In an attempt to achieve international recognition and reach, the CMS has different season projects outside the country and a nationally televised broadcast, international radio series, regular broadcasts on SiriusXM and the possibility to enjoy live streamed performances on the CMS website.
Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts
Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts (LCPA) is one of the twelve resident organizations, and serves as presenter of artistic programming, leader in arts and education and community relations, and manager of the center's campus. LCPA has some 5,000 programs, initiatives, and events annually, and its programs include American Songbook, Great Performers, Lincoln Center Festival, Lincoln Center Out of Doors, Midsummer Night Swing, the Mostly Mozart Festival, Target Free Thursdays, the White Light Festival and the Emmy Award–winning Live from Lincoln Center.
In July 2006, the LCPA announced it would join with publishing company John Wiley & Sons to publish at least 15 books on performing arts, and would draw on the Lincoln Center Institute's educational background and archives.
Jazz at Lincoln Center
In 1987, Classical Jazz had their first jazz concert series and jazz division was created with Wynton Marsalis. He was the artistic director of JALC and also the music director of the Lincoln Center Jazz Orchestra in 1996. This ensemble performs classic jazz works as well as premiere new pieces. The orchestra performed many new compositions from composers such as Benny Carter, Benny Golson, Geri Allen, Marcus Roberts, Melba Liston, and John Lewis. There are performances from jazz musicians like Duke Ellington, Count Basie, Fletcher Henderson, Thelonious Monk, Mary Lou Williams, Dizzy Gillespie, and Charles Mingus.
The LCJO (Lincoln Center Jazz Orchestra) first toured in Europe during 1995, then to Russia, China, Taiwan, Japan and Australasia. In early 2000, there was a United States tour for a program of jazz and dance.
Cultural Innovation Fund
Lincoln Center Cultural Innovation Fund is the first of its kind as a grant program that seeks to make the arts accessible to all people, focusing on those who live in some of New York City's poorest neighborhoods. Partnering with the Rockefeller Foundation, the new pilot grant program offers one-time grants to non-profit organizations to provide cultural activities in these communities in the diverse neighborhoods of Central Brooklyn and the South Bronx. Each of the 12 grantees will receive support and financial backing for their project based on organizational budget size. These are one-year long projects, and grant amounts range from $50,000-$100,000. The over-all goal of the program is to support non-profit organizations in creating cultural innovative strategies that cultivate participation in the arts as well as increase the range and availability of cultural activities to underserved communities.
Corporate sponsors
200 Amsterdam
American Express
Bank of America
BNY Mellon
Colgate-Palmolive
First Republic Bank
Google
Holland America
J.C.C.I
Mitsubishi Corporation(Americas)
Mitsui & Co. (U.S.A.), Inc.
Morgan Stanley
Movado
NBCUniversal
NewYork-Presbyterian
Nippon Steel & Sumitomo Metal U.S.A., Inc.
Nordstrom
Omnicom
PepsiCo
PGIM
Sumitomo Corporation of America
Zabar's and Zabars.com
The Walt Disney Company
In popular culture
Lincoln Center is featured in multiple works of art and media. Examples include:
Films:
A Thousand Clowns (1965), shown while under construction.
No Way to Treat a Lady (1968), in which Kate Palmer (Lee Remick) works there as a tour guide.
The Producers (1968), in which the theatrical producers Max Bialystock (Zero Mostel) and Leo Bloom (Gene Wilder) meet at the Revson Fountain to discuss their scheme to defraud their investors; the climax of the scene is provided by the eruption of the plaza's fountain while Bloom dances around.
Ghostbusters (1984), Peter meets Dana by the fountain after her rehearsal with a guest conductor.
Moonstruck (1987), Loretta and Ronny attend a performance of La bohème at the Metropolitan Opera.
Pitch Perfect (2012), in which the final competition takes place at Lincoln Center.
John Wick: Chapter 2 (2017), in which a shootout takes place in the plaza before moving into the Subway.
West Side Story (2021) is set in a working-class neighborhood that is being demolished to make way for Lincoln Center.
Television:
The King of Queens: Main characters Doug (Kevin James) and Carrie Heffernan (Leah Remini) attend a cello concert in the Season 1 episode "Cello, Goodbye".
Video games:
In Marvel's Spider-Man for the PlayStation 4, many Manhattan landmarks are recreated, including Lincoln Center.
The building is recreated as a placeable landmark in the 2003 video game SimCity 4
See also
Essentially Ellington High School Jazz Band Competition and Festival
List of museums and cultural institutions in New York City
References
Notes
Bibliography
Young, Edgar B. (1980). Lincoln Center: The Building of an Institution. New York: New York University Press. . .
External links
lincolncenter.org, the center's official website
Lincoln Center with Patti LuPone—Documentary produced by Treasures of New York
Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts at Google Cultural Institute
Culture of Manhattan
Institutions founded by the Rockefeller family
Music venues in Manhattan
Performing arts centers in New York City
Robert Moses projects
Lincoln Square, Manhattan
Tourist attractions in Manhattan
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211241
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scopwick
|
Scopwick
|
Scopwick is a small village and civil parish in the district of North Kesteven, Lincolnshire, England, situated south from Lincoln. The population of the civil parish at the 2011 census was 815. The parish includes Kirkby Green, a hamlet to the east of Scopwick. The village main road runs parallel to a narrow stream.
The name Scopwick comes from old English. Scaep was an old word for sheep and wick meant farm.
The village cemetery includes a War Graves site for airmen from RAF Coleby Grange and RAF Digby (originally RAF Scopwick), and includes that of the young Second World War poet and aviator John Gillespie Magee.
Part of the brick tower of Scopwick Tower Mill, which was built in 1827 and fell into disuse around 1912, remains standing.
History
Bronze Age burials and barrows have been found in Scopwick. There is evidence of a Roman settlement (coins, pottery, burials and a dwelling). A Saxon coin found in the village depicts Offa and has been dated to 757–796 AD.
The village is mentioned in the 1066 Domesday Book as Scapeuic/Scapewic.
Geography and ecology
A limestone stream runs through the village toward Kirkby Green and terminates near the railway. Wildlife on the stream includes moorhen, mallard, water mint and hart's tongue fern. Around Scopwick Hall there is a small deciduous woodland. To the northwest of the village is a quarry.
References
External links
Scopwick Village website
Scopwick Tower Mill
John Gillespie Magee's grave
Whites 1842 Lincolnshire entry for Scopwick
Villages in Lincolnshire
Civil parishes in Lincolnshire
North Kesteven District
|
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211244
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry%20Clark
|
Larry Clark
|
Lawrence Donald Clark (born January 19, 1943) is an American film director, photographer, writer and film producer who is best known for his controversial teen film Kids (1995) and his photography book Tulsa (1971). His work focuses primarily on youth who casually engage in illegal drug use, underage sex, and violence, and who are part of a specific subculture, such as surfing, punk rock, or skateboarding.
Early life
Clark was born in Tulsa, Oklahoma. He learned photography at an early age. His mother was an itinerant baby photographer, and he was enlisted in the family business from the age of 13. His father was a traveling sales manager for the Reader Service Bureau, selling books and magazines door-to-door, and was rarely home. In 1959, Clark began injecting amphetamines with his friends.
Clark attended the Layton School of Art in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where he studied under Walter Sheffer and Gerhard Bakker.
Career
In 1964, he moved to New York City to freelance, but was drafted within two months into the United States Army. From 1964 to 1965, he served in the Vietnam War in a unit that supplied ammunition to units fighting in the north. His experiences there led him to publish the 1971 book Tulsa, a photo documentary illustrating his young friends' drug use in black and white.
Routinely carrying a camera, from 1963 to 1971 Clark produced pictures of his drug-shooting coterie that have been described by critics as "exposing the reality of American suburban life at the fringe and ... shattering long-held mythical conventions that drugs and violence were an experience solely indicative of the urban landscape."
His follow-up was Teenage Lust (1983), an "autobiography" of his teen past through the images of others. It included his family photos, more teenage drug use, graphic pictures of teenage sexual activity, and young male hustlers in Times Square, New York City. Clark constructed a photographic essay titled "The Perfect Childhood" that examined the effect of media in youth culture. His photographs are part of public collections at several art museums including the Whitney Museum of American Art, Museum of Photographic Arts, and the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.
In 1993, Clark directed Chris Isaak's music video "Solitary Man". This experience developed into an interest in film direction. After publishing other photographic collections, Clark met Harmony Korine in New York City and asked Korine to write the screenplay for his first feature film Kids, which was released to controversy and mixed critical reception in 1995. Clark continued directing, filming a handful of additional independent feature films in the several years after this.
In 2001, Clark shot three features Bully, Ken Park, and Teenage Caveman over a span of nine months. As of 2017, they are his last films to feature professional actors.
In 2002, Clark spent several hours in a police cell after punching and trying to strangle Hamish McAlpine, the head of Metro Tartan, the UK distributor for Ken Park. According to McAlpine, who was left with a broken nose, the incident arose from an argument about Israel and the Middle East, and he claims that he did not provoke Clark.
In a 2016 interview, Clark discussed his lifelong struggle with drug abuse, although stating he maintained total sobriety while filmmaking. He confessed that the only exception made to his practice of abstinence while filming was Marfa Girl. Clark explained that while filming that movie he used opiates for pain due to double knee replacement surgery.
Films
Directors such as Gus Van Sant and Martin Scorsese have stated that they were influenced by Clark's early photography, according to Peter Biskind's book Down and Dirty Pictures.
Roger Ebert was a fan of his work, giving positive reviews to Kids, Another Day in Paradise, Bully, and Wassup Rockers.
Kids
In Kids (1995), his most widely known film, boys portrayed as being as young as 12 are shown to be casually drinking alcohol and using other drugs. The film received an NC-17 rating, and was later released without a rating when Disney bought Miramax.
Other work
Ken Park is a more sexually and violently graphic film than Kids, including a scene of auto-erotic asphyxiation and ejaculation by an emotionally rattled high-school boy (portrayed by James Ransone, then in his early 20s). , it has not been widely released or distributed in the United States.
In 2015, Clark collaborated alongside notable skateboard and clothing brand, Supreme, to celebrate the 20th anniversary of Kids with a collection of decks, T-shirts, and sweatshirts that feature stills from the iconic film. The collection was released on May 21, 2015, in Supreme's New York, Los Angeles, and London locations and on May 23 in their Japan location.
In Australia, Ken Park was banned for its graphic sexual content, and a protest screening held in response was immediately shut down by the police. Australian film critic Margaret Pomeranz, co-host of At the Movies, was almost arrested for screening the film at a hall. The film was not released in the United States, but Clark says that it was because of the producer's failure to get releases for the music used.
Clark has won the top prizes at the Cognac Festival du Film Policier (for Another Day in Paradise), the Stockholm Film Festival (for Bully) and the Rome Film Festival (for Marfa Girl). He has also competed for the Golden Palm (Kids) and Golden Lion (Bully).
Filmography
Kids (1995)
Another Day in Paradise (1998)
Bully (2001)
Teenage Caveman (2002, television film)
Ken Park (2002, co-directed with Edward Lachman)
Wassup Rockers (2005)
Destricted (2006, segment "Impaled")
Marfa Girl (2012)
The Smell of Us (2014, French)
Marfa Girl 2 (2018)
A Day in a Life (2021, French short film co-directed with Jonathan Velasquez)
References
External links
1943 births
Living people
United States Army personnel of the Vietnam War
Artists from Tulsa, Oklahoma
20th-century American photographers
21st-century American photographers
Film directors from Oklahoma
Photographers from Oklahoma
Military personnel from Oklahoma
United States Army soldiers
Skate photographers
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon%20Bunshaft
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Gordon Bunshaft
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Gordon Bunshaft, (May 9, 1909 – August 6, 1990), was an American architect, a leading proponent of modern design in the mid-twentieth century. A partner in the architectural firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM), Bunshaft joined in 1937 and remained for more than 40 years. The long list of his notable buildings includes Lever House in New York, the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University, the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden in Washington, D.C., the National Commercial Bank in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, 140 Broadway (Marine Midland Grace Trust Co.) and Manufacturers Hanover Trust Branch Bank in New York; the last was the first post-war "transparent" bank on the East Coast.
Early life
Bunshaft was born in Buffalo, New York, to Russian Jewish immigrant parents, and attended Lafayette High School. He received both his undergraduate (1933) and his master's (1935) degrees from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, studied in Europe on a Rotch Traveling Scholarship from 1935 to 1937.
Career
After his traveling scholarship, Bunshaft worked briefly for Edward Durell Stone and industrial designer Raymond Loewy before joining SOM. Bunshaft's early influences included Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier.
In the 1950s, Bunshaft was hired by the State Department's Office of Foreign Building Operations as a collaborator on the design for several U.S. consulates in Germany.
Bunshaft's only single-family residence was the 2300 square foot (210 m²) Travertine House, built for his own family. On his death he left the house to MoMA, which sold it to Martha Stewart in 1995. Her extensive remodelling stalled amid an acrimonious planning dispute with a neighbour. In 2005, she sold the house to textile magnate Donald Maharam, who described the house as "decrepit and largely beyond repair" and demolished it.
Awards and honors
Bunshaft was elected to the National Institute of Arts and Letters and was the recipient of numerous other honors and awards. He received the Brunner Prize of the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters in 1955, and its gold medal in 1984. He also received the American Institute of Architects Twenty-five Year Award for Lever House, in 1980, and the Pritzker Architecture Prize, in 1988. In 1958, he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, and became a full member in 1959. From 1963 to 1972, he was a member of the Commission of Fine Arts in Washington.
Upon receiving the Pritzker Prize in 1988, for which he nominated himself, he gave the shortest speech of any winner in the award's history, stating:
In 1928, I entered the MIT School of Architecture and started my architectural trip. Today, 60 years later, I've been given the Pritzker Architecture Prize for which I thank the Pritzker family and the distinguished members of the selection committee for honoring me with this prestigious award. It is the capstone of my life in architecture. That's it.
Bunshaft was a trustee of the Museum of Modern Art. He also received the Medal of Honor of the New York Chapter of the American Institute of Architects.
Legacy
Bunshaft's personal papers are held by the Department of Drawings & Archives in the Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library at Columbia University; his architectural drawings remain with SOM.
Buildings
1942 – Great Lakes Naval Training Center, Hostess House – Great Lakes, Illinois
1951 – Lever House – New York City
1952 – Manhattan House – New York City
1953 – Manufacturers Trust Company Building – New York City
1956 – Ford World Headquarters – Dearborn, Michigan, with Natalie de Blois
1956 – Consular Agency of the United States, Bremen – Bremen, Germany
1957 – Connecticut General Life Insurance Company Headquarters – Bloomfield, Connecticut
1955 – Istanbul Hilton – Istanbul, Turkey
1958 – Reynolds Metals Company International Headquarters – Richmond, Virginia
1960 – 500 Park Avenue (Pepsi-Cola Company World Headquarters) – New York City
1961 – 28 Liberty Street (Chase Manhattan Bank) – New York City
1962 – CIL House – Montreal, Quebec
1962 – Albright-Knox Art Gallery addition – Buffalo, New York
1963 – Travertine House – East Hampton, New York
1963 – Beinecke Library – Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
1965 – American Republic Insurance Company Headquarters – Des Moines, Iowa
1965 – Banque Lambert – Brussels, Belgium
1965 – Heinz Corporate Headquarters – Hillingdon, England
1965 – New York Public Library for the Performing Arts (interiors) – New York City
1965 – Hayes Park Central & South Buildings – Hayes, United Kingdom
1965 – Warren P. McGuirk Alumni Stadium – University of Massachusetts , Amherst, Massachusetts
1967 – 140 Broadway – New York City
1970 – American Can Company Headquarters – Greenwich, Connecticut
1971 – Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum – Austin, Texas
1972 – Carlton Centre – Johannesburg, South Africa
1973 – New York City Convention and Exhibition Center (not built) – New York City
1973 – Uris Hall, Cornell University – Ithaca, New York
1974 – Solow Building – 9 West 57th Street, New York City
1974 – W. R. Grace Building – New York City
1974 – Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden – Washington, D.C.
1983 – National Commercial Bank – Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Gallery
Personal life
In 1943, Bunshaft married Nina Wayler (d. 1994). They were avid collectors of contemporary art and owned many major pieces including works by Joan Miró, Dubuffet, Giacometti, Léger and Noguchi. They lived in the Manhattan House Apartments in New York's Upper East Side, which he helped design, and at the Travertine House in East Hampton, which was his only single-family residence.
He is buried next to his wife and parents in the Temple Beth El cemetery on Pine Ridge Road in Buffalo, New York.
References
Further reading
Carol Herselle Krinsky, Gordon Bunshaft of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, MIT Press, 1988
External links
Discussion and links about preservation and rebuilding of the Bunshaft Residence, aka "Travertine House.".
Gordon Bunshaft architectural drawings and papers, 1909-1990 (bulk 1950-1979). Held by the Department of Drawings & Archives, Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University.
1909 births
1990 deaths
Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni
Modernist architects from the United States
20th-century American architects
Architects from Buffalo, New York
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
Jewish architects
Pritzker Architecture Prize winners
Fellows of the American Institute of Architects
Lafayette High School (Buffalo, New York) alumni
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211253
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean%20Charest
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Jean Charest
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John James "Jean" Charest (; born June 24, 1958) is a Canadian politician who briefly served as the fifth deputy prime minister of Canada in 1993 and, thereafter, as 29th premier of Quebec, from 2003 to 2012; the leader of the federal Progressive Conservative Party of Canada from 1993 to 1998; and the leader of the Quebec Liberal Party from 1998 to 2012. He became Premier after winning the 2003 election; after he lost the 2012 election he announced that he would be resigning as Quebec Liberal Leader and leaving politics. Charest sits as an advisor to Canada's Ecofiscal Commission. Charest is currently a consultant for Huawei on the Meng Wanzhou case and for its 5G network plans in Canada.
Early life and education
Charest was born on June 24, 1958, in Sherbrooke, in the Eastern Townships. His parents are Rita (born Leonard), an Irish Quebecer, and Claude "Red" Charest, a French Canadian. He obtained a law degree from the Université de Sherbrooke and was admitted to the Barreau du Québec in 1981. He is married to Michèle Dionne (since June 21, 1980) and they have three children, Amélie, Antoine, and Alexandra. Charest is fully bilingual in French and English.
In the 1980 sovereignty referendum, Charest failed to vote, stating he was too busy.
Some have claimed that Charest downplays his legal first name John by presenting himself in French as Jean so as to appeal more to francophone Quebecers. For example, in the 1997 federal election, Bloc Québécois MP Suzanne Tremblay attacked Charest by saying, "First, let's recall who Jean Charest really is ... his real name is John, that's what's on his birth certificate, not Jean." Charest responded that, his mother being an Irish Quebecer, it was the Irish priest who baptized him that wrote John on the baptism certificate, but that he was always known as Jean in his family and with his peers as well. He also went to French schools.
Federal politics
Charest worked as a lawyer until he was elected Progressive Conservative member of the Parliament of Canada for the riding (electoral district) of Sherbrooke in the 1984 election. From 1984 to 1986, Charest served as Assistant Deputy Chair of Committees of the Whole of the House of Commons.
Ministries in the Mulroney government
In 1986, at age 28, Charest was appointed to the Cabinet of then Prime Minister Brian Mulroney as Minister of State for Youth. He was thus the "youngest cabinet minister in Canadian history".
Charest was appointed Minister of State for Fitness and Amateur Sport in 1988, but had to resign from cabinet in 1990 after improperly speaking to a judge about a case regarding the Canadian Track and Field Association.
Charest returned to cabinet, somewhat chastened, as Minister of the Environment in 1991.
Leadership bids and leadership of the PCs
When Mulroney announced his retirement as PC leader and prime minister, Charest was a candidate for the leadership of the party at the 1993 Progressive Conservative leadership convention.
Karlheinz Schreiber alleged he gave $30,000 in cash to Charest's campaign for the Tory leadership in 1993. However Charest himself says it was only $10,000 although federal leadership election rules permitted such cash donations. As of 2007, rules against such donations for provincial party leadership campaigns still do not exist in Québec.
Charest impressed many observers and party members and placed a strong second to Defence Minister Kim Campbell, who had held a large lead going into the convention. Charest served as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Industry, Science and Technology in Campbell's short-lived cabinet.
In the 1993 election, the PCs suffered the worst defeat for a governing party at the federal level. Only two of the party's 295 candidates were elected, Charest and Elsie Wayne. Charest himself was re-elected fairly handily in Sherbrooke, taking 56 percent of the vote. As the only surviving member of what turned out to be the last PC Cabinet, Charest was appointed interim party leader and confirmed in the post in April 1995. Charest, therefore, became the first (and as it turned out, only) person of francophone descent to lead the Progressive Conservative Party.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Charest was involved in the constitutional debate that resulted from Quebec's refusal to sign the Canadian Constitution of 1982. He was a special committee member charged with examining the Meech Lake Accord in 1990, which would have given the province of Quebec the status of a "distinct society". The accord ultimately failed.
During the 1995 referendum on Quebec's sovereignty, Charest was vice-president of the "No" campaign (Comité national des Québécoises et des Québécois pour le NON).
In the 1997 federal election, Charest campaigned in favour of Quebec's being constitutionally recognized as a distinct society. In the election, the Tories received 19 percent of the vote and won 20 seats, mostly in Atlantic Canada. The party was back from the brink, but Charest considered the result a disappointment. While the Tories finished only a point behind Reform, their support was too dispersed west of Quebec to translate into seats. They were also hampered by vote-splitting with Reform in rural central Ontario, a traditional Tory stronghold where Reform had made significant inroads.
Provincial politics
In April 1998, Charest gave in to considerable public and political pressure, especially among business circles, to leave federal politics and become leader of the Quebec Liberal Party. Charest was considered by many to be the best hope for the federalist QLP to defeat the sovereigntist Parti Québécois government.
In the 1998 election, the Quebec Liberals received more votes than the PQ, but because the Liberal vote was concentrated in fewer ridings, the PQ won enough seats to form another majority government. Charest won his own riding of Sherbrooke with a majority of 907 votes.
In the April 2003 election, Charest led the Quebec Liberals to a majority, ending nine years of PQ rule. He declared he had a mandate to reform health care, cut taxes, reduce spending and reduce the size of government. Charest's Liberals won 76 seats, forming a majority government, and won his own riding of Sherbrooke with a majority of 2597 votes.
Premier of Quebec
Charest's first two years as Premier of Quebec were marked by stiff and vocal opposition to his policies by Quebec labour unions. Indeed, the Charest government consistently sought new sources of revenue, increasing hydro rates, raising auto insurance premiums, increasing fees for various government services, and imposing a carbon tax on businesses. They did, however, refrain from raising the Provincial Sales Tax to make up for the loss of revenue caused by the decision of the federal government to reduce the Goods and Services Tax to 5 per cent. They also continued the Parti Québécois drive to provide subsidies and tax breaks for families with children.
During his mandate as Premier, he made some efforts to expand the place of Québec in the international community. The province was granted representation at UNESCO, the cultural branch of the United Nations. Charest also voiced some support for the Calgary Declaration (1997), which recognized Quebec as "unique."
Much of the fiscal policy of the Charest government was based upon the expectation that new revenues could be obtained from a resolution of the fiscal imbalance believed to exist between the federal and provincial governments. The Harper government was widely expected to address this issue through increased equalization payments, while falling short of Quebec's overall demands.
Charest also attempted to distinguish himself on the issue of the environment. His vocal opposition to the federal decision to opt out of the Kyoto Accord, and his insistence that Quebec would seek to meet its own Kyoto targets has earned him considerable support. His government set ambitious greenhouse gas reduction targets, petroleum royalties, and a 2011-2020 Action Plan for Electric Vehicles. He also established the Sustainable Development Act, which adds to the Charter of Rights and Freedoms the right for every person to live in a healthful environment in which biodiversity is preserved. On May 9, 2011, Charest launched the Plan Nord, the work of a generation that brings together the imperatives of environmental, social and economic growth and sustainability. In 2012, Charest was awarded the Fray International Sustainability Award for is work and advocacy towards sustainable development in politics.
In the 2003 election, Charest had promised to allow the cities that had been forcibly merged by the Parti Québécois government to hold referendums which would allow to demerge and return to their previous situation. This promise was seen as key to his victory in many ridings, such as those in the suburbs around Longueuil and Quebec City and the continued support of the Anglophone community in the West Island of Montreal. In office, however, Charest retreated from his promise. Municipalities were allowed to hold demerger referendums if at least 10 percent of the electorate signed a petition calling for them, and only if more than 35 percent participated in the voting process. In some former municipalities, such as Saint Laurent on the Island of Montreal, the turnout of the vote was of 75.2 percent in favour of a demerger, but it was invalidated because the voter turnout was just 28.6 percent.
The demerger process also resulted in the restructuring of the existing megacities, with both these and the demerged cities handing over massive powers over taxation and local services to the new "agglomeration councils". The makeup of these councils was based on the population of the municipalities involved, with the mayors having the right to unilaterally appoint all of the individuals who would represent their cities on the council. The resulting structure was seen by many to be less democratic than the one which had preceded it, as demerged municipalities were denied an effective voice, and the city councils of the major cities were substantially weakened by the power of the mayors to go over the heads of opposition councillors and exercise power through their appointees to the agglomeration body.
During the debate in the Parliament of Canada over recognizing Quebec as a nation within Canada, Charest stated that Quebec was a "nation" no matter what other parts of Canada said—that this was not up to anyone else to define.
The Charest government was deeply unpopular during its first years in office, enjoying a public approval rating of below 50 per cent in most opinion polls and falling to the low twenties in voter support. In the first few weeks after André Boisclair was elected leader of the PQ, polls showed that Charest and the Liberals would be roundly defeated in the next election. Boisclair did not perform well as Leader of the Opposition, and Charest's numbers recovered somewhat. A poll conducted by Léger Marketing for Le Devoir placed the Liberals at 34 per cent against 32 per cent for the PQ and 24 per cent for the ADQ, with Charest obtaining a higher personal approval rating than the PQ leader. Liberal support, however remained heavily concentrated in Anglophone and Allophone ridings in the west of Montreal, meaning that the increase in support would not necessarily translate into seats.
Charest faced no real challenges to his leadership. There was, however, significant tension between himself and members of the party, most notably the former Bourassa cabinet minister Pierre Paradis (whom Charest excluded from his cabinet) and the resignations of several important members of his cabinet, notably Finance Minister Yves Séguin, Justice Minister Marc Bellemare, and Environment Minister Thomas Mulcair.
On December 6, 2007, the Opposition urged Charest to testify to the House of Commons of Canada Ethics Committee in its investigation of Karlheinz Schreiber. Schreiber told the committee he paid $30,000 in cash to Charest's brother to help fund the current Prime Minister's 1993 leadership bid for the federal Progressive Conservative party.
2007 Quebec election
On February 21, 2007, Charest asked the Lieutenant-Governor to dissolve the National Assembly and call an election on March 26, 2007. Charest conducted an extraordinary session the day before with Finance Minister Michel Audet delivering the 2007 budget.
Prior to his call for an election, Charest revealed his platform which included income tax cuts of about $250 million. In the last week of the campaign, Charest promised an additional $700 million in tax cuts—some of it coming for the additional equalization money from the 2007 federal budget; reduction of hospital wait times; improvement and increase of French courses at school; an increase of the number of daycare spaces; and an increase in tuition fees for university students ($50 per semester until 2012). The last measure was met with criticism from students' associations, and a more-radical student association, the Association pour une solidarité syndicale étudiante (formerly known as the CASSEE) had also considered a strike.
Charest won a minority government in the election, and held onto his own seat. On election night, early numbers had shown Charest losing his seat of Sherbrooke to his PQ opponent; however, this situation was reversed once it became apparent that the advanced poll ballot boxes which heavily favoured Charest had not yet been counted. The resulting minority government was the first since 1878 when Charles Boucher de Boucherville was Premier.
2008 Quebec election
In November 2008, arguing that Quebecers needed a majority government during difficult economic times, Charest called a snap election for December 8. His party captured a historic third consecutive term as he brought the Liberals back to majority governance. It was the first time a party had won a third consecutive term in Quebec since the Quiet Revolution.
2012 student protests
In 2011, the Charest government decided to increase the tuition fees in all Quebec universities. Three major student unions began to organise demonstrations in Montreal and in Quebec City. In March 2012, many CEGEPs and universities voted for a student strike. The government faced major challenges when students demonstrated and went on strike by boycotting classes to protest planned tuition increases. Every month large demonstrations took place in several cities across Quebec. The Premier and his government were accused by some, including the students unions, the PQ and Québec Solidaire of being too hard. On May 4, 2012, the Quebec Liberal Party held a party conference in Victoriaville and a student demonstration was suppressed by Sûreté du Québec police. On May 14, 2012, then Deputy Premier and Education minister, Line Beauchamp resigned and Michelle Courchesne was appointed Deputy Premier and Minister of Education. The government passed Bill 78 to impose restrictions on protests; this caused controversy, with the Barreau du Québec, among others, expressing concern about possible infringement of constitutional rights. Bill 78 was revoked by the Pauline Marois government.
2012 Quebec election
On August 1, 2012, Jean Charest launched his electoral campaign for the 2012 Quebec general election from the Quebec Jean-Lesage International Airport with the slogan For Quebec. The QLP focused its campaign on the issues of respect of the law and civil order, referencing the demonstrations of the previous months. They claimed to be the party of the silent majority who did not support the student protest movement. It was the first provincial election in Quebec to feature the newly-formed CAQ party lead by François Legault on the ballot. On the night of September 4, Jean Charest and his party lost the general election. The result was a hung parliament, with the Parti Québécois of Pauline Marois being the party with the most seats (54). The Quebec Liberal Party became the official opposition with 50 seats. Jean Charest lost his own seat of Sherbrooke, in The Eastern Townships, a seat that he had held since 1984, both in the federal and provincial legislatures. Jean Charest announced, on September 5th, in Quebec City that he would resign as Quebec Liberal Party leader.
Honours
125th Anniversary of the Confederation of Canada Medal (1992)
Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal (2002)
Bavarian Order of Merit (2007)
Commander of France's Legion of Honour (February 2, 2009)
See also
1995 Quebec referendum
Quebec federalist movement
Politics of Quebec
Quebec general elections
Timeline of Quebec history
Politics of Canada
List of Canadian federal general elections
Nicknames of politicians and personalities in Quebec
List of Irish Quebecers
Plan Nord
References
External links
1958 births
Anglophone Quebec people
Canadian people of French descent
Canadian people of Irish descent
Deputy Prime Ministers of Canada
French Quebecers
Quebec people of Irish descent
Lawyers in Quebec
Living people
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Quebec
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Politicians from Sherbrooke
Premiers of Quebec
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada MPs
Quebecers of French descent
Quebec Liberal Party MNAs
Quebec political party leaders
Université de Sherbrooke alumni
Commandeurs of the Légion d'honneur
Members of the 24th Canadian Ministry
Members of the 25th Canadian Ministry
21st-century Canadian politicians
|
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] |
211254
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical
|
Cervical
|
In anatomy, cervical is an adjective that has two meanings:
of or pertaining to any neck.
of or pertaining to the female cervix: i.e., the neck of the uterus.
Commonly used medical phrases involving the neck are
cervical collar
cervical disc (intervertebral disc)
cervical lymph nodes
cervical nerves
cervical vertebrae
cervical rib
Phrases that involve the uterine cervix include
cervical cancer
cervical smear or Pap smear
|
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211255
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gish
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Gish
|
Gish is the debut studio album by American alternative rock band the Smashing Pumpkins, released in May 1991 through Caroline Records. Frontman Billy Corgan has variously described Gish as a "very spiritual album" and "an album about spiritual ascension".
Despite initially peaking at only number 195 on the Billboard 200 upon its release, Gish received positive reviews from critics, and was eventually certified platinum (one million copies shipped in the US) by the RIAA. On April 1, 2019 Rolling Stone magazine ranked Gish the 32nd greatest grunge album of all time.
Music and composition
As a writer, Billy Corgan wanted to find the balance between classic rock of bands playing heavy riffs like Black Sabbath and Led Zeppelin, and the sensuality and grace of alternative bands like the Cure, Siouxsie and the Banshees and My Bloody Valentine. "For us, it was trying to become this balance point between what felt like dumb riff rock and then the stuff we were really attracted to coming out of the U.K. And then we put those pieces together with the Beatles somewhere in the middle". A song like "Rhinoceros" reflected that balance and what Corgan wanted to achieve: "we could be beautiful, pretty, psychedelic, and then flip the switch and be heavy and play a ripping lead." When composing the songs, Corgan was experimenting taking LSD to get a psychedelic feeling: "LSD gave me the confidence to attempt these things on kind of a weird tightrope wire act".
Recording
Gish was recorded from December 1990 to March 1991 in Butch Vig's Smart Studios in Madison, Wisconsin with a budget of $20,000. Vig and Corgan worked together as co-producers, at the time Vig was still a relatively unknown producer. The longer recording period and larger budget were unprecedented for Vig, who later recalled
(Corgan) wanted to make everything sound amazing and see how far he could take it; really spend time on the production and the performances. For me that was a godsend because I was used to doing records for all the indie labels and we only had budgets for three or four days. Having that luxury to spend hours on a guitar tone or tuning the drums or working on harmonies and textural things... I was over the moon to think I had found a comrade-in-arms who wanted to push me, and who really wanted me to push him.
The inclusion of a massive production style reminiscent of ELO and Queen was unusual for an independent band at the time. Whereas many albums at the time used drum sampling and processing, Gish used unprocessed drum recordings, and an exacting, unique guitar sound. Corgan also performed nearly all of the guitar and bass parts on the record, which was confirmed by Vig in a later interview.
The album's sessions, lasting 30 working days, were brisk by Pumpkins' standards, largely because of the group's inexperience. The recording sessions put an intense strain on the band, with bassist D'arcy Wretzky later commenting that she did not know how the band survived it, and Corgan explaining he suffered a nervous breakdown.
Regarding the album's thematic content, Corgan would later say,
The album is about pain and spiritual ascension. People ask if it's a political album. It's not a political album, it's a personal album. In a weird kind of way, Gish is almost like an instrumental album—it just happens to have singing on it, but the music overpowers the band in a lot of places. I was trying to say a lot of things I couldn't really say in kind of intangible, unspeakable ways, so I was capable of doing that with the music, but I don't think I was capable of doing it with words.
Title
The album was named after silent film icon Lillian Gish. In an interview, Corgan said, "My grandmother used to tell me that one of the biggest things that ever happened was when Lillian Gish rode through town on a train, my grandmother lived in the middle of nowhere, so that was a big deal ..." Later, Corgan joked that the album was originally going to be called "Fish", but was changed to "Gish" to avoid comparisons to jam band Phish.
Critical reception
Gish was met with largely enthusiastic reviews. On the month of its release, Chris Heim of the Chicago Tribune credited producer Butch Vig for helping the band achieve a "clearly defined" and "big, bold, punchy" sound for the album. Heim also indicated that the varied styles of the album would be a good addition to the alternative music culture of Chicago at the time—a culture that was sometimes perceived as inaccessible for new bands. Jon Pareles of The New York Times picked up on the eclectic mix of musical style on Gish as well, complementing its "pummeling hard rock", "gentle interludes", and "psychedelic crescendos". In an end-of-year recap of 1991 releases, Heim noted that the album constituted a "smashing local success story" for the Chicago area. Greg Kot, also of the Tribune, called Gish "perhaps the most audacious and accomplished" of all 1991 albums released by local bands; in an article later that year, Kot listed the album among the best of 1991. Rolling Stone called it "awe-inspiring" with "meticulously calculated chaos" and a "swirling energy".
Many substantive reviews of Gish emerged only with the 1993 release of Siamese Dream, when mainstream critics took their first look into the back-catalog of a band whose popularity was exploding. Derek Weiler of the Toronto Star noted that songs on Gish contained "either galloping riffs or trippy feedback hazes" and that the latter were especially effective and entertaining.
In 1992, Gish and the Smashing Pumpkins earned recognition at the Chicago Musician Awards, for which local music publication Illinois Entertainer polled readers and Chicago music industry figures such as critics, writers, and club owners. In separate polls, readers and industry figures chose Gish as the "best local album". Jimmy Chamberlin and James Iha won individual honors for their performances on the album, and the band as a whole earned the "best hometown national act" award.
Commercial performance
Gish spent one week on the Billboard 200, peaking at number 195 (later re-peaking at number 146 upon its 2011 re-release); however, the album reached number one on the College Music Journal chart, which tracks airplay and popularity on college radio stations. It also had a six-week run on the New Zealand Albums Chart, peaking at number 40. Despite an inauspicious start, the album sold 100,000 copies in less than a year, far exceeding the expectations of indie label Caroline Records, a subsidiary of Virgin Records. In the US, the album was certified gold by RIAA on March 14, 1994. Until the release of the Offspring album Smash in 1994, Gish was the highest-selling independently released album of all time. Gish would later be reissued under the Virgin label, and was certified platinum in the US on February 5, 1999.
Release history
The first mastering of Gish on CD was from Digital Audio Tape and appeared on Caroline Records, a subsidiary of Virgin Records. In 1994, after the success of follow-up Siamese Dream, the album was given a slight remaster and redesign and was reissued on the Virgin label. Both editions credit Howie Weinberg as mastering engineer. In 2008, the Smashing Pumpkins announced a 17th anniversary box set re-release of the album that would include older bonus material, but this set experienced delays. After finally negotiating the rights, Gish was re-issued in November 2011, being remastered on CD and Vinyl with extra tracks and packaging.
Track listing
All tracks are written by Corgan, except where noted.
Personnel
Those involved in the making of Gish are:
The Smashing Pumpkins
Billy Corgan – lead vocals, guitar, bass, production
James Iha – guitar, backing vocals
D'arcy Wretzky – bass, backing vocals, lead vocals on "Daydream", layouts
Jimmy Chamberlin – drums
Additional musicians
Mary Gaines – cello on "Daydream"
Chris Wagner – violin and viola on "Daydream"
Production
Bob Knapp – photography
Michael Lavine – photography
Butch Vig – production, engineering
Doug "Mr. Colson" Olson – engineering
Howie Weinberg – mastering (1991 and 1994 releases)
Chart positions
Singles
Certifications
References
External links
1991 debut albums
Albums produced by Billy Corgan
Albums produced by Butch Vig
Caroline Records albums
Grunge albums
Hard rock albums by American artists
Psychedelic rock albums by American artists
The Smashing Pumpkins albums
Lillian Gish
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tara%20Maclay
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Tara Maclay
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Tara Maclay is a fictional character created for the action-horror/fantasy television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997–2003). She was developed by Joss Whedon and portrayed by Amber Benson. Tara is a shy young woman with magical talents who falls in love with Willow Rosenberg, one of the core characters. Together, they help Buffy Summers, who has been given superhuman powers to defeat evil forces in the fictional town of Sunnydale.
Willow was a popular character when Tara was introduced, and the onset of their relationship was met with some resistance from fans. Tara grows from a reserved girl who is unsure of herself to being the moral center of Buffy's circle of friends, named the Scooby Gang. Her relationship with Willow is consistently positive, and the first recurring depiction of a lesbian couple on prime time network series television in the United States. Tara is killed by a stray gunshot toward the end of the sixth season, causing Willow to go on a rampage. Series writers and producers received angry protests from some fans when Tara was killed. Whedon upheld that it was the necessary course to take to propel Willow's story arc further; both the show's producers and Amber Benson deny that there was any malicious intent behind the decision. Tara was included in AfterEllen.com's Top 50 Lesbian and Bisexual Characters, ranking at No. 15.
Creation and casting
Tara is introduced in the fourth season episode "Hush" as a college student who attends a Wicca meeting where Willow Rosenberg (Alyson Hannigan) goes to find some like-minded people. Tara is hesitant to speak out during the meeting and has a pronounced stammer that returns throughout the series when she is upset. She reacts positively during the meeting to Willow's suggestion that the Wiccan group discuss spellcasting, but the rest of the group scoff at the suggestion and silence Tara and Willow. Tara was created to appear in only a few episodes as a friend with whom Willow could learn magic and develop her skills. Amber Benson had known Hannigan previously, but did not tell her she was up for the part. Benson almost missed a callback audition because she left town, but the casting department postponed the session so she could return and read. When she did, Hannigan found her on set and upon learning she was up for the role, told Whedon to hire Benson at the same moment Benson got the call from her agent that she had won the part. Benson and Hannigan had such chemistry that the relationship was written to be more intimate. In "Hush", Tara and Willow each individually attempt to use magic to move a heavy object, without success. They then join hands and easily fling the object across the room. Whedon and the producers found the scene to be very sensual. Network executives also noticed the chemistry between the actresses. After some discussion, Whedon informed Benson and Hannigan that the characters would become lovers.
Willow was featured from the beginning of the series and already had a strong fanbase. Earlier in the fourth season, she had a boyfriend named Oz (Seth Green), who abruptly left town. Oz returns in the episode "New Moon Rising", determined to win Willow back. That episode marked the first time Tara is introduced to the Scooby Gang as a whole, and Willow is faced with choosing between Tara and Oz. She favors Tara in the end, causing some of the show's fans to react angrily on the fansite message boards, with some leaving homophobic remarks and characterizing Benson as overweight and unattractive. Benson, who was referred to as "astoundingly non-Hollywood" by a Scottish journalist, frequented the boards and read the comments, finding them hurtful and taking some of them personally. She responded, protesting that she was, at and , quite slender, although she appears larger than her more petite costars. She went on to write:
Network executives encouraged the lesbian element in the relationship, but put strict guidelines on what could be shown. For several episodes in the fourth season, Tara and Willow's friendship grows as they practice magic. To work within the censorship imposed on their relationship, writers used allusions to spells and witchcraft to symbolize their affection and growing sexuality. Willow does not tell her friends about Tara for several episodes, instead just expressing the wish to spend time with Tara, where she can have something just for herself. Tara is unwaveringly supportive and committed to Willow.
Seasons
4 and 5
When Tara and Willow meet, their proficiency at magic is about the same, but Tara's knowledge of the craft far exceeds Willow's. Tara reveals that she has been practicing magic for most of her life, as her deceased mother had also been a powerful witch. Throughout season 4, Tara acts as a partner and guide in Willow's witchcraft, teaching Willow spells and performing magic together. Willow, however, is inherently talented, despite being new to the craft, and begins to progress much faster than Tara in the fifth season, including experimentations in dark magic. Tara struggles with understanding her place among the Scoobies with Buffy (Sarah Michelle Gellar), the leader, with whom she has a very friendly relationship; Xander Harris (Nicholas Brendon), Willow's friend since childhood; and Rupert Giles (Anthony Stewart Head), their mentor. Tara's primary role throughout the series is that of Willow's partner. She feels somewhat useless until the fifth season episode "Family" when the entire Scooby Gang (Spike included) makes it clear that she is unquestionably a part of them. The episode introduces some of Tara's blood family: a cold, authoritarian father who has lied to her all her life (telling her that her magical powers are a result of her being part-demon on her mother's side); an overbearing brother; and a judgmental, repressed and repressive cousin; all of whom Tara dismisses at the end of the episode. Tara later reveals in "The Body" that her mother had died when she was 17. In the following episode, when Dawn is acting out, Tara confides to Buffy that she had to deal with her brother after her mother's death. No more of her backstory is revealed in the series.
As Willow's character grows more self-assured and powerful through the seasons, Tara takes over some of the role of being placed in peril and needing to be rescued. The fifth season's primary villain, or Big Bad, is Glory, a goddess too powerful for Buffy to fight alone. Glory tortures Tara in order to gain information on the Key, but Tara asserts willpower and resists Glory, resulting in Glory stealing her sanity, and prompting Willow to go searching for retribution. Glory states she feels "buzzed" after feeding on Tara's mind, indicating Tara's powerful intellect (and possibly suggesting her power as a witch).
Buffy scholar Ian Shuttleworth writes that Benson was able to "admirably" portray the same range of emotions inherent in Tara although the character loses her identity. Willow's powers are significant enough that she is able to battle Glory more effectively than Buffy, if not completely successfully. In the final episode of season 5, Willow uses her magic to restore Tara's sanity, significantly weakening Glory in the process.
Tara also becomes a guide of sorts, and a maternal figure. She appears to Buffy in a dream in the fourth season finale "Restless" to tell her about the arrival of Buffy's sister Dawn (Michelle Trachtenberg) and act as a translator for the voiceless First Slayer. Following the death of Joyce Summers and Buffy's sacrifice to save the world at the end of the fifth season, Tara and Willow move into the Summers house, taking Joyce's bedroom and becoming Dawn's surrogate parents.
6 and comics
Tara becomes more outspoken during the sixth season about the ethics of Willow's use of magic, cautioning Willow that she depends too much on it. The dynamics of their relationship suddenly turn during "Once More, with Feeling". Willow had cast a spell on Tara to alter her memory in the preceding episode and Tara finds out about it during "Once More, with Feeling", the musical episode of the series. Tara was given a prominent role in the musical due to the skill of Benson's voice: she sings a love ballad to Willow, a duet with Giles, and backup in two other songs. The musical nature of the episode compelled the characters to express what they had been feeling secretly, or had refused to admit to themselves. Tara's song is a fervent and explicit expression of love for Willow which she had not made clear to the audience until this point. Tara later sings with Giles that she will leave Willow if she does not change. Self-conscious about her singing abilities, Hannigan requested not to be given a song and sings only a few lines in the episode. Critics saw this as Tara's personality becoming more forceful as Willow begins to show signs of weakness as she is overtaken by her addiction. Tara challenges Willow to go for a week without using any magic. Willow almost immediately breaks her promise, however, and Tara leaves her at the end of "Tabula Rasa". Tara remains a part of the group, spending time with Dawn, and non-judgmentally acting as Buffy's confessor when Buffy divulges she has a painful and compulsive sexual relationship with Spike, a vampire whom she loathes.
Despite their separation, Tara remains devoted to Willow's recovery and supports her in her decision to abstain from using magic. She is, according to author Lorna Jowett, one of the few characters who is never seduced by evil. Shuttleworth notes that most Buffy characters go through a rite of transformation except for Tara. Among female characters she is the most virtuous. Like the other Buffy characters in the series whose names have symbolic interpretations, Tara's name resembles the Latin terra, meaning "earth." She is solidly grounded, with Willow attached to her, and Benson's body more naturally representative of women. Tara is wholly feminine both in dress and demeanor, as opposed to Buffy and (less) Willow mostly dressed with trousers and jackets, but never seeks male approval. She is clad in earthy, natural colors, long flowing skirts and clinging blouses, with an intent to comfort instead of arouse as other women on the show are dressed. Her admonishments to other characters are always made with love, with their best interests at heart. Even Tara's last words, commenting that Willow's shirt is stained (with Tara's own blood), indicate her preoccupation with the welfare of others.
Tara has also appeared in The Long Way Home, Always Darkest, Retreat, and the one-off Willow.
Death and response
After tentatively courting each other in "Entropy", Tara returns to Willow, and they reconcile through the next episode, "Seeing Red". Throughout the season, Buffy is dogged by three techno-nerds calling themselves The Trio, who envision themselves to be supervillains, with Buffy their nemesis. She continues to foil their plans, and during "Seeing Red", Warren Mears, one of the Trio, arrives at Buffy's house with a gun. He shoots several rounds, hitting Buffy, and the last stray shot hits Tara through the heart, killing her as Willow looks on. Willow is taken over by a dark alter ego, going on a rampage, torturing Warren and skinning him alive. She then attempts to murder the other two members of the Trio, but is unsuccessful. To end her pain, she attempts to end the world. Xander stops her by forcing her to deal with her grief in a healthy, non-violent way.
During the fifth season, Whedon informed Benson that Tara would be killed off. He saw it as necessary to further Willow's character; she had to deal with her dark powers, but nothing short of Tara's death would allow them to come out so forcefully. Tara had become popular among fans, and Whedon and series writer David Fury decided that her death would elicit a strong response, something that Whedon felt sure was the correct course to take. He was unprepared, however, for how forcefully viewers reacted to Tara's death. Fans were so upset that some stopped watching. Because the death came at the end of an episode where Willow and Tara were portrayed in bed between sexual encounters, critics accused Whedon of implying that lesbian sex should be punishable by death, a familiar trope in film. Producers were inundated with mail from people—women especially—who expressed their anger, sadness, and frustration with the writing team. Series writer and producer Marti Noxon was unable to read some of the mail because it was so distressing, but she counted the response as a natural indication that television simply had few strong female role models, and no lesbian representation.
Benson defended Whedon in 2007, saying he "is 100 percent behind the LGBT community. I know this for a fact." Author Rhonda Wilcox writes that Tara's death is made more poignant by her earthy naturalness representing the "fragility of the physical". Roz Kaveney comments that Tara's murder is "one of the most upsetting moments of the show's seven seasons", and Nikki Stafford states that the episode in which Tara dies is possibly the most controversial of the series, causing divisions about whether it was necessary, or assertions that Tara was created only to be killed. In response to fans and critics who accused the writers of being motivated by homophobia, Stafford comments, "they seem to forget that it was those same writers who created such an amazing, gentle, and realistic portrait in the first place; that Tara is certainly not the first character to be killed off on the show; and Tara was a lot more than just 'the lesbian', and her character deserves better than that." Kaveney concurs with the opinion that the series avoided playing a cliché, "proving that it is possible for a queer character to die in popular culture without that death being the surrogate vengeance of the straight world".
While other deaths of main characters in the Buffy universe have been reversed in some form (as has been the case with Buffy herself, Cordelia, Giles, Angel, Spike, Anya, Connor, Gunn, Fred, Illyria and Wesley), Tara remains dead as of the season 10 comic series. She remains one of only three main characters not to have been resurrected in any way, the others being Doyle and Lorne (whose actors have died).
Cultural impact
Although lesbianism had been addressed on U.S. television before Tara was introduced to Buffy, her relationship with Willow was heralded as a milestone. Previously depicted lesbian relationships had not shown characters as sexual beings, or even touching each other. Despite this, Tara and Willow's relationship was not heralded with any specific fanfare on the show; they are treated as other couples. Their relationship was frequently the subject of storylines, but no specific focus was on their identity as lesbians or the coming out process. Limited to what could be shown by the network, Tara and Willow are shown as consistently affectionate but not overly sexual. Manda Scott in The Herald wrote in 2002 that the lack of realistic displays of touching or kissing between Willow and Tara made their relationship implausible, but because no other portrayals of lesbian relationships were on television, its importance is undeniable. Tara and Willow did not kiss until the fifth season episode "The Body", which focused on the death of Joyce Summers. Not until Buffy moved from the WB to UPN in 2001 were Tara and Willow shown in sexual situations. Benson later recalled the issues of working with censors:
Like Whedon, Benson was surprised at the strength of the reaction to Tara's death. It indicated to her what kind of impact the characters had:
The Big Bad of the seventh season is the First Evil, who taunts Buffy and her friends by appearing as loved ones who previously died. Whedon asked Benson to appear as Tara to Willow in "Conversations with Dead People", but Benson turned down the role, concerned about what fans of the show would think about an evil Tara. Instead, the producers used Cassie, a character who dies early in the seventh season and speaks for Tara, telling Willow to kill herself. Whedon also considered bringing Tara back in a storyline where Buffy would be given one wish to be granted, but the possibility did not come to fruition.
Writer Peg Aloi calls the backlash at Whedon "staggering", and summarizes Tara's effect with Willow, stating that they were a single unit the moment they met: "Willow's need for approval and Tara's need for unconditional love allowed their supernova trajectory its singular, incendiary thrust toward its triumphant but tragic end; like all witches who burn, martyred by flames, they move on to a place where their gods are the right ones."
References
Bibliography
Holder, Nancy; Mariotte, Jeff; Hart, Maryelizabeth (2000). Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Watcher's Guide, Volume 2, Pocket Books.
Jowett, Lorna (2005). Sex and the Slayer: A Gender Studies Primer for the Buffy Fan, Wesleyan University Press.
Kaveney, Roz (ed.) (2004). Reading the Vampire Slayer: The New, Updated, Unofficial Guide to Buffy and Angel, Tauris Parke Paperbacks.
Mitchell, Claudia; Reid-Walsh, Jacqueline (2008). Girl Culture: Studying Girl Culture — A Readers' Guide, ABC-CLIO.
Ruditis, Paul (2004). Buffy the Vampire Slayer: The Watcher's Guide, Volume 3, Simon & Schuster.
Stafford, Nikki (2007). Bite Me! The Unofficial Guide to Buffy the Vampire Slayer, ECW Press.
Tropiano, Stephen (2002). Prime Time Closet: A History of Gays and Lesbians on TV, Applause Theater and Cinema Books.
Wilcox, Rhonda (2005). Why Buffy Matters: The Art of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, I. B. Tauris.
Yeffeth, Glenn (ed.) (2003). Seven Seasons of Buffy: Science Fiction and Fantasy Authors Discuss Their Favorite Television Show, Benbella Books.
External links
http://www.imdb.com/character/ch0004937/
Buffy the Vampire Slayer characters
Buffyverse characters who use magic
Female characters in television
Fictional characters from California
Fictional college students
Fictional LGBT characters in television
Fictional lesbians
Fictional witches
LGBT characters in comics
Television characters introduced in 1999
Fictional characters with precognition
Fictional demon hunters
Fictional vampire hunters
Fictional telekinetics
Fictional stutterers
Fictional murdered people
American female characters in television
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] |
211259
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/76%20mm%20mountain%20gun%20M1909
|
76 mm mountain gun M1909
|
The 76 mm Mountain Gun Model 1909 (Russian 76-мм горная пушка образца 1909 года, 3-дюймовая пушка системы Шнеидера) was a rapid-fire mountain gun based on the Schneider-Danglis mountain gun that was used by the Imperial Russian Army during World War I and the Red Army during World War II
History
In 1893, the Greek engineer Colonel Panagiotis Danglis developed a design for a 75 mm mountain cannon and submitted it to the Greek Ministry of War. However, he would have to wait ten years before his project was authorized. In 1905, Danglis proposed to the French firm Schneider that a prototype of his gun should be entered in the next competition for the Greek Army. Schneider developed its own carriage for the gun and the revised design was known as the Schneider-Danglis mountain gun. The prototype was tested in France in May 1906 and in April the gun was tested in Greece, after which the gun was adopted for service by the Greek Army. Early in 1909, the Schneider company had produced enough guns to arm six batteries.
Design
The 76 mm Mountain Gun Model 1909 was a breech-loaded howitzer made of steel with an interrupted screw breech and used fixed quick-fire ammunition. It had a box trail carriage, gun shield, two wooden-spoked steel-rimmed wheels, and a hydro-pneumatic recoil mechanism. For transport, the gun could be dismantled into seven mule loads or hooked to a limber and caisson for towing by a horse team when assembled.
Imperial Russian Army
At the beginning of 1908, a Schneider-Danglis gun was demonstrated to the inspector general of artillery of the Imperial Russian Army, Grand Duke Sergei Mikhailovich. At his request, Nicholas II instructed the army to perform competitive tests of rapid-fire mountain guns from Schneider and the Škoda Works. Two guns from Schneider and Škoda were tested by the army in December 1908. An advantage of the Škoda system was its lower weight that made it easier to transport. While the Schneider-Danglis cannon had better ballistics and a reliable hydro-pneumatic recoil mechanism instead of the Škoda spring recoil system.
As a result of the tests, the Artillery Committee obtained a production license from Schneider. On February 25, 1909, the Artillery Committee requested the adoption of the gun to Emperor Nicholas II which he authorized on February 26. Based on the test results, it was decided to replace the original wheels and the sight of the Schneider company with Okhremenko wheels and Hertz panoramic sights produced by the Obukhov Plant. The new gun would also use 76.2 × 191 mm R fixed quick-fire ammunition. Tests revealed that only the ammunition packs met the stipulated weight and the rest of the packs weighed from which was too heavy for Russian packhorses. The joints of the carriage also wobbled and rattled while being towed.
Production
It is believed 2,060 M1909s were produced between 1909-1938. On January 1, 1912, all 214 guns of the first order from the Putilov Plant were delivered. Between 1911-1916, the Putilov Plant received orders for another 772 guns. By June 20, 1917, the Putilov Plant had delivered 636 guns from these orders. Another 349 guns were built between 1914-1917, at the St. Petersburg Gun Factory.
Production of the M1909 resumed during the 1920s at plant No. 8 (St. Petersburg Gun Factory, evacuated in 1918 to the village of Podlipki). Between 1924 and 1931, 110 guns were produced there. After that, production was transferred to plant No. 92 (Novoye Sormovo). No guns were produced at plant No. 92 during 1932, 1934, and 1936.
Variants
The 76 mm counter-assault gun Model 1910 - was a revised version of the M1909. The barrel, breech, and recoil mechanism of the M1909 was installed on a new one-piece box trail carriage which was designed to be light to improve its maneuverability. The M1910 was a fortress gun or flanking gun that was designed to fire shrapnel rounds at short distances and low angles into massed formations of enemy infantry attacking Russian fortifications. The M1910 fired the same projectiles as the M1909, but with a reduced propellant charge to reduce recoil. Serial production of the M1910 began at the Putilov Plant in 1911 and continued until mid-1915. In total, 407 guns were produced during this period in two batches. The M1910 was also used to arm Garford-Putilov Armored Cars.
The 76 mm infantry gun Model 1913 - was a revised version of the M1909/M1910 that was designed to be an infantry support gun. An early criticism of the M1910 was that its carriage was too flimsy to be towed over rough ground so once again barrel, breech, and recoil mechanism of the M1909 was installed on a new rugged one-piece box trail carriage that was able to withstand rough use. The M1913 was tested and put into production at the Putilov plant in 1914 and also entered service in 1914. 173 M1913 guns were produced by the Putilov Plant.
The 7.62 cm Infanteriegeschütz L/16.5 - was a German infantry support gun that mated the barrel, breech, and recoil mechanism of captured M1910s on a rugged one-piece box trail carriage built by Krupp. Large numbers of M1910's had been captured early in the war in Poland and Krupp was ordered to adapt them for German use.
The 76 LK/10/13 - was a Finnish-built gun that mounted the barrel, breech, and recoil mechanism from captured M1910s on a Finnish-built box trail carriage that was an exact copy of the Russian M1913 carriage. The 76 LK/10/13 was also used as an infantry support gun.
See also
76 mm regimental gun M1927 - The design of the M1913 was used as the pattern for the M1927. The M1927 could be towed by a horse team and was later modified for motor traction by adding a sprung axle and pneumatic tires.
Users
- A number of captured M1910 barrels were mated to newly built carriages by Krupp and used by the German Army.
- On November 1, 1936, the Red Army had 622 M1909 guns in service, of which 572 were serviceable, 34 were training guns and 1 was unusable. 80 guns took part in the Winter War and 8 were lost. On June 22, 1941, the Red Army had 1,121 M1906 guns, of which 366 were in reserve.
- Romania may have operated an unknown number of captured M1909s that had been converted to fire 75 mm ammunition. The Romanians had also bought 24 Schneider-Danglis 75 mm guns in 1912 that they designated Tunul de munte Schneider, calibrul 75 mm, md. 1912.
- Poland may have operated an unknown number under the designation 76.2 mm Armata górska wz. 1909.
- Finland captured 49 M1910 and 76 M1913 guns during the Finnish Civil War and gave them the designations 76 LK/10 and 76 LK/13. Finland later bought another 45 guns. Finland converted 40 captured M1910 guns by putting them on Finnish-built M1913 carriages and gave them the designation 76 LK/10/13.
- In 1941, the Germans captured an unknown number of M1909s, which they designated 7.62 cm GebK 293(r).
Gallery
Museum examples
Polish Army Museum in Warsaw
The Artillery Museum of Finland in Hämeenlinna
Air Defense History Museum in Zarya in Moscow Oblast
"King Ferdinand" National Military Museum in Bucharest
Monument in Ukraine in Kyiv
References
Mountain artillery
World War I mountain artillery
World War I mountain artillery of France
World War II artillery of the Soviet Union
76 mm artillery
Schneider Electric
pl:76 mm armata górska wz. 1909
ru:76-мм горная пушка образца 1909 года
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schenkerian%20analysis
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Schenkerian analysis
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Schenkerian analysis is a method of analyzing tonal music, based on the theories of Heinrich Schenker (1868–1935). The goal is to demonstrate the organic coherence of the work by showing how it relates to an abstracted deep structure, the Ursatz. This primal structure is roughly the same for any tonal work, but a Schenkerian analysis shows how, in an individual case, that structure develops into a unique work at the "foreground", the level of the score itself. A key theoretical concept is "tonal space". The intervals between the notes of the tonic triad in the background form a tonal space that is filled with passing and neighbour tones, producing new triads and new tonal spaces that are open for further elaborations until the "surface" of the work (the score) is reached.
The analysis uses a specialized symbolic form of musical notation. Although Schenker himself usually presents his analyses in the generative direction, starting from the fundamental structure (Ursatz) to reach the score and showing how the work is somehow generated from the Ursatz, the practice of Schenkerian analysis more often is reductive, starting from the score and showing how it can be reduced to its fundamental structure. The graph of the Ursatz is arrhythmic, as is a strict-counterpoint cantus firmus exercise. Even at intermediate levels of reduction, rhythmic signs (open and closed noteheads, beams and flags) display not rhythm but the hierarchical relationships between the pitch-events.
Schenkerian analysis is an abstract, complex, and difficult method, not always clearly expressed by Schenker himself and not always clearly understood. It mainly aims to reveal the internal coherence of the work – a coherence that ultimately resides in its being tonal. In some respects, a Schenkerian analysis can reflect the perceptions and intuitions of the analyst.
Fundamentals
Goals
Schenker intended his theory as an exegesis of musical "genius" or the "masterwork", ideas that were closely tied to German nationalism and monarchism. The canon represented in his analytical work therefore is almost entirely made up of German music of the common practice period (especially that of Johann Sebastian Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Schubert, and Johannes Brahms), and he used his methods to oppose more modern styles of music such as that of Max Reger and Igor Stravinsky. This led him to seek the key to an understanding of music in the traditional disciplines of counterpoint and figured bass, which was central to the compositional training of these composers. Schenker's project was to show that free composition (freier Satz) was an elaboration, a "prolongation", of strict composition (strenger Satz), by which he meant species counterpoint, particularly two-voice counterpoint. He did this by developing a theory of hierarchically organized levels of elaboration (Auskomponierung), called prolongational levels, voice-leading levels (Stimmführungsschichten), or transformations (Verwandlungen), the idea being that each of the successive levels represents a new freedom taken with respect to the rules of strict composition.
Because the first principle of the elaboration is the filling in of the tonal space by passing notes, an essential goal of the analysis is to show linear connections between notes which, filling a single triad at a given level, remain closely related to each other but which, at subsequent levels, may become separated by many measures or many pages as new triads are embedded in the first one. The analyst is expected to develop a "distance hearing" (Fernhören), a "structural hearing".
Harmony
The tonic triad, that from which the work as a whole arises, takes its model in the harmonic series. However,
the mere duplication of nature cannot be the object of human endeavour. Therefore ... the overtone series ... is transformed into a succession, a horizontal arpeggiation, which has the added advantage of lying within the range of the human voice. Thus the harmonic series is condensed, abbreviated for the purposes of art".
Linking the (major) triad to the harmonic series, Schenker merely pays lip service to an idea common in the early 20th century. He confirms that the same derivation cannot be made for the minor triad:
Any attempt to derive even as much as the first foundation of this [minor] system, i.e., the minor triad itself, from Nature, i.e., from the overtone series, would be more than futile. ... The explanation becomes much easier if artistic intention rather than Nature herself is credited with the origin of the minor mode.".
The basic component of Schenkerian harmony is the Stufe (scale degree, scale-step), i.e. a chord having gained structural significance. Chords arise from within chords, as the result of the combination of passing notes and arpeggiations: they are at first mere embellishments, mere voice-leading constructions, but they become tonal spaces open for further elaboration and, once elaborated, can be considered structurally significant: they become scale-steps properly speaking. Schenker recognizes that "there are no rules which could be laid down once and for all" for recognizing scale steps, but from his examples one may deduce that a triad cannot be recognized as a scale-step as long as it can be explained by passing or neighboring voice-leading.
Schenkerian analyses label scale-steps with Roman numerals, a practice common in 19th- and 20th-century Vienna, developed by the theoretic work of Georg Joseph Vogler and his student Gottfried Weber, transmitted by Simon Sechter and his disciple Anton Bruckner, the classes of whom Schenker had followed in the Konservatorium in Vienna.
Schenker's theory is monotonal: the Ursatz, as the diatonic unfolding of the tonic triad, by definition cannot include modulation. Local "tonicisation" may arise when a scale-step is elaborated to the point of becoming a local tonic, but the work as a whole projects a single key and ultimately a single Stufe (the tonic).
Counterpoint, voice-leading
Two-voice counterpoint remains for Schenker the model of strict writing. Free composition is a freer usage of the laws of strict counterpoint. One of the aims of the analysis is to trace how the work remains subject to these laws at the deepest level, despite the freedom taken at subsequent levels.
One aspect of strict, two-voice writing that appears to span Schenker's theory throughout the years of its elaboration is the rule of "fluent melody" (fließender Gesang), or "melodic fluency". Schenker attributes the rule to Luigi Cherubini, who would have written that "fluent melody is always preferable in strict counterpoint." Melodic fluency, the preference for conjunct (stepwise) motion, is one of the main rules of voice leading, even in free composition. It avoids successive leaps and produces "a kind of wave-like melodic line which as a whole represents an animated entity, and which, with its ascending and descending curves, appears balanced in all its individual component parts". This idea is at the origin of that of linear progression (Zug) and, more specifically, of that of the Fundamental Line (Urlinie).
Ursatz
Ursatz (usually translated as "fundamental structure") is the name given by Schenker to the underlying structure in its simplest form, that from which the work as a whole originates. In the canonical form of the theory, it consists of the Urlinie, the "fundamental line", supported by the Bassbrechung, the "arpeggiation of the bass". The fundamental structure is a two-voice counterpoint and as such belongs to strict composition. In conformity with the theory of the tonal space, the fundamental line is a line starting from any note of the triad and descending to the tonic itself. The arpeggiation is an arpeggiation through the fifth, ascending from I to V and descending back to I. The Urlinie unfolds the tonal space in a melodic dimension, while the Bassbrechung expresses its harmonic dimension.
The theory of the fundamental structure is the most criticized aspect of Schenkerian theory: it has seemed unacceptable to reduce all tonal works to one of a few almost identical background structures. This is a misunderstanding: Schenkerian analysis is not about demonstrating that all compositions can be reduced to the same background, but about showing how each work elaborates the background in a unique, individual manner, determining both its identity and its "meaning". Schenker has made this his motto: Semper idem, sed non eodem modo, "always the same, but never in the same manner".
Fundamental line
The idea of the fundamental line comes quite early in the development of Schenker's theory. Its first printed mention dates from 1920, in the edition of Beethoven's Sonata Op. 101, but the idea obviously links with that of "fluent melody", ten years earlier. Schenker first conceived the Urlinie, the "fundamental line", as a kind of motivic line characterized by its fluency, repeated under different guises throughout the work and ensuring its homogeneity. He later imagined that a musical work should have only one fundamental line, unifying it from beginning to end. The realization that such fundamental lines usually were descending led him to formulate the canonical definition of the fundamental line as necessarily descending. It is not that he rejected ascending lines, but that he came to consider them hierarchically less important. "The fundamental line begins with , or and moves to via the descending leading tone ". The initial note of the fundamental line is called its "head tone" (Kopfton) or "primary tone". The head note may be elaborated by an upper neighbour note, but not a lower one. In many cases, the head note is reached through an ascending line (Anstieg, "initial ascent") or an ascending arpeggiation, which do not belong to the fundamental structure properly speaking.
Arpeggiation of the bass and the divider at the fifth
The arpeggiation through the fifth is an imitation of the overtone series, adapted to man [sic] "who within his own capacities can experience sound only in a succession". The fifth of the arpeggiation coincides with the last passing note of the fundamental line. This at first produces a mere "divider at the fifth", a complex filling in of the tonal space. However, as a consonant combination, it defines at a further level a new tonal space, that of the dominant chord, and so doing opens the path for further developments of the work. It would appear that the difference between the divider at the fifth and the dominant chord properly speaking really depends on the level at which the matter is considered: the notion of the divider at the fifth views it as an elaboration of the initial tonal space, while the notion of dominant chord conceives it as a new tonal space created within the first. But the opinions of modern Schenkerians diverge on this point.
Schenkerian notation
Graphic representations form an important part of Schenkerian analyses: "the use of music notation to represent musical relationships is a unique feature of Schenker's work". Schenkerian graphs are based on a "hierarchic" notation, where the size of the notes, their rhythmic values and/or other devices indicate their structural importance. Schenker himself, in the foreword to his Five Graphic Analyses, claimed that "the presentation in graphic form has now been developed to a point that makes an explanatory text unnecessary". Even so, Schenkerian graphs represent a change of semiotic system, a shift from music itself to its graphical representation, akin to the more usual change from music to verbal (analytic) commentary; but this shift already exists in the score itself, and Schenker rightly noted the analogy between music notation and analysis. One aspect of graphic analyses that may not have been enough stressed is the desire to abolish time, to represent the musical work as something that could be apprehended at a glance or, at least, in a way that would replace a "linear" reading by a "tabular" one.
The first step of the analytic rewriting often takes the form of a "rhythmic" reduction, that is one that preserves the score, but "normalizes" its rhythm and its voice-leading content. This type of reduction has a long tradition, not only in counterpoint treatises or theory books, but also in the simplified notation of some Baroque works, e.g. the Prelude to Händel's Suite in A major, HWV 426, or early versions of Bach's C major Prelude of Book I of the Well Tempered Keyboard. One indirect advantage of rhythmic reduction is that it helps reading the voice leading: Czerny's example hereby transforms Chopin's arpeggios into a composition in four (or five) voices. Edward Aldwell and Carl Schachter write that the first rewriting should "produce a setting that is reasonably close to note-against-note." Allen Cadwallader and David Gagné suggest a special type of rhythmic reduction that they call "imaginary continuo", stressing the link between the rhythmic reduction and a notation as a melody with figured bass. Basically, it consists in imagining a figured bass line for the work analyzed, and writing a chordal realization of it.
Schenker himself usually began his analyses with a rhythmic reduction that he termed Urlinietafel. From 1925 onwards, he complemented these with other levels of representation, corresponding to the successive steps leading to the fundamental structure. At first, he mainly relied on the size of the note shapes to denote their hierarchic level, but later abandoned this system as it proved too complex for contemporary techniques of musical engraving. Allen Cadwallader and David Gagné propose a description of Schenker's system of graphic notation which, they say, "is flexible, enabling musicians to express in subtle (and sometimes different) ways what they hear and how they interpret a composition". They discuss open noteheads, usually indicating the highest structural level, and filled-in noteheads for tones of lower levels; slurs, grouping tones in an arpeggio or in linear motions with passing or neighbor tones; beams, for linear motions of higher structural level or for the arpeggiation of the bass; broken ties, for repeated or sustained tones; diagonal lines to realign displaced notes; diagonal beams, connecting successive notes that belong to the same chord ("unfolding"); etc.
Techniques of prolongation
The meat of a Schenkerian analysis is in showing how a background structure expands until it results in the succession of musical events on the surface of the composition itself. Schenker refers to this process under the term Auskomponierung, literally "composing out", but more often translated as "elaboration". Modern Schenkerians usually prefer the term "prolongation", stressing that elaborations develop the events along the time axis.
Schenker writes:
In practical art the main problem is how to realize the concept of harmony in a live content. In Chopin's Prelude, Op. 28, No 6, thus, it is the motif
that gives life to the abstract concept of the triad, B, D, F-sharp.
The elaboration of the triad, here mainly in the form of an arpeggio, loads it with "live content", with meaning. Elaborations take the form of diminutions, replacing the total duration of the elaborated event by shorter events in larger number. By this, notes are displaced both in pitch and in rhythmic position. The analysis to some extent aims at restoring displaced notes to their "normal" position and explaining how and why they were displaced.
One aspect of Schenkerian analysis is that it does not view the work as built from a succession of events, but as the growth of new events from within events of higher level, much as a tree develops twigs from its branches and branches from its trunk: it is in this sense that Schenkerian theory must be considered organicist. The example shown here may at first be considered a mere elaboration of an F major chord, an arpeggiation in three voices, with passing notes (shown here in black notes without stem) in the two higher voices: it is an exemplification of the tonal space of F major. The chord labelled (V) at first merely is a "divider at the fifth". However, the meeting of the fifth (C) in the bass arpeggiation with the passing notes may also be understood as producing a dominant chord, V, arising from within the tonic chord I. This is the situation found at the beginning of Haydn's Sonata in F major, Hob. XVI:29, where the (incomplete) dominant chord appears at the very end of bar 3, while the rest of the fragment consists of arpeggios (with neighbor notes) of the F chord:
Arpeggiation, neighbour note, passing note
Arpeggiation is the simplest form of elaboration. It delimits a tonal space for elaboration, but lacks the melodic dimension that would allow further developments: it "remains a harmonic phenomenon". From the very structure of triads (chords), it follows that arpeggiations remain disjunct and that any filling of their space involves conjunct motion. Schenker distinguishes two types of filling of the tonal space: 1) neighbor notes (Nebennoten), ornamenting one single note of the triad by being adjacent to it. These are sometimes referred to generically as "adjacencies";
2) passing notes, which pass by means of stepwise motion from one note to another and fill the space in between, and are thus sometimes referred to as "connectives".
Both neighbor notes and passing notes are dissonances. They may be made consonant by their coinciding with other notes (as in the Haydn example above) and, once consonant, may delimit further tonal spaces open to further elaborations. Insofar as chords consist of several voices, arpeggiations and passing notes always involve passing from one voice to another.
Linear progression
A linear progression (Zug) is the stepwise filling of some consonant interval. It usually is underlined in graphic analyses with a slur from the first note of the progression to the last.
The most elementary linear progressions are determined by the tonal space that they elaborate: they span from the prime to the third, from the third to the fifth or from the fifth to the octave of the triad, in ascending or descending direction. Schenker writes: "there are no other tonal spaces than those of 1–3, 3–5, and 5–8. There is no origin for passing-tone- progressions, or for melody" Linear progressions, in other words, may be either third progressions (Terzzüge) or fourth progressions (Quartzüge); larger progressions result from a combination of these.
Linear progressions may be incomplete (deceptive) when one of their tones is replaced by another, but nevertheless suggested by the harmony. In the example below, the first bars of Beethoven's Sonata Op. 109, the bass line descends from E3 to E2. F2 is replaced by B1 in order to mark the cadence, but it remains implicit in the B chord. In addition, the top voice answers the bass line by a voice exchange, E4–F4–G4 above G2–(F2)–E2, in bar 3, after a descending arpeggio of the E major chord. The bass line is doubled in parallel tenths by the alto voice, descending from G4 to G3, and the tenor voice alternatively doubles the soprano and the bass, as indicated by the dotted slurs. It is the bass line that governs the passage as a whole: it is the "leading progression", on which all the other voices depend and which best expresses the elaboration of the E major chord.
Schenker describes lines covering a seventh or a ninth as "illusory", considering that they stand for a second (with a register transfer): they do not fill a tonal space, they pass from one chord to another.
Lines between voices, reaching over
Passing tones filling the intervals of a chord may be considered forming lines between the voices of this chord. At the same time, if the chord tones themselves are involved in lines from one chord to another (as usually is the case), lines of lower level unfurl between lines of higher level. The most interesting case is when the lines link an inner voice to the upper voice. This may happen not only in ascending (a case usually described as a "line from an inner voice"), but also in descending, if the inner voice has been displaced above the upper line by a register transfer, a case known as "reaching over" (Übergreifen, also translated as superposition or overlapping). In the example from Schubert's Wanderers Nachtlied below, the descending line G–F–E–D at the end of the first bar may be read as a reaching over.
Unfolding
Unfolding (Ausfaltung) is an elaboration by which several voices of a chord or of a succession of chords are combined in one single line "in such a manner that a tone of the upper voice is connected to a tone of the inner voice and then moves back, or the reverse". At the end of Schubert's Wanderers Nachtlied op. 4 no. 3, the vocal melody unfolds two voices of the succession I–V–I; the lower voice, B–A–G, is the main one, expressing the tonality of G major; the upper voice, D–C–B, is doubled one octave lower in the right hand of the accompaniment:
In his later writings (from 1930 onwards), Schenker sometimes used a special sign to denote the unfolding, an oblique beam connecting notes of the different voices that are conceptually simultaneous, even if they are presented in succession in the single line performing the unfolding.
Register transfer, coupling
"Register transfer" is the motion of one or several voices into a different octave (i.e. into a different register). Schenker considers that music normally unfolds in one register, the "obligatory register" (Ger. Obligate Lage), but at times is displaced to higher or lower registers. These are called, respectively, "ascending register transfer" (Ger. Höherlegung) and "descending register transfer" (Ger. Tieferlegung). Register transfers are particularly striking in piano music (and that for other keyboard instruments), where contrasts of register (and the distance between the two hands) may have a striking, quasi orchestral effect.
"Coupling" is when the transferred parts retain a link with their original register. The work, in this case, appears to unfold in two registers in parallel.
Voice exchange
Voice exchange is a common device in counterpoint theory. Schenkerians view it as a means of elaborating a chord by modifying its position. Two voices exchange their notes, often with passing notes in between. At the end of the example of Beethoven's Op. 109 above, the bass and soprano exchange their notes: G is transferred from bass to soprano, while E is transferred from soprano to bass. The exchange is marked by crossed lines between these notes.
Elaboration of the fundamental structure
The elaborations of the fundamental structure deserve a specific discussion because they may determine the form of the work in which they occur.
Initial ascent, initial arpeggiation
The starting point of the fundamental line, its "head note" (Kopfton), may be reached only after an ascending motion, either an initial ascending line (Anstieg) or an initial arpeggiation, which may take more extension than the descending fundamental line itself. This results in melodies in arch form. Schenker decided only in 1930 that the fundamental line should be descending: in his earlier analyses, initial ascending lines often are described as being part of the Urlinie itself.
First-order neighbor note
Schenker stresses that the head note of the fundamental line often is decorated by a neighbor note "of the first order", which must be an upper neighbor because "the lower neighboring note would give the impression of the interruption". The neighbor note of the first order is –– or ––: the harmony supporting it often is the IVth or VIth degree, which may give rise to a section of the work at the subdominant.
Articulation of the span from I to V in the bass arpeggiation
The canonic form of the bass arpeggiation is I–V–I. The second interval, V–I, forms under – the perfect authentic cadence and is not susceptible of elaboration at the background level. The first span, I–V, on the other hand, usually is elaborated. The main cases include:
I–III–V
This is the complete arpeggiation of the triad. Once elaborated, it may consist in a succession of three tonalities, especially in pieces in minor. In these cases, III stands for a tonicisation of the major relative. This often occurs in Sonata forms in minor, where the first thematic group elaborates degree I, the second thematic group is in the major relative, degree III, and the development leads to V before the recapitulation in the tonic key.
I–IV–V or I–II–V
Even though he never discussed them at length, these elaborations occupy a very special place in Schenker's theory. One might even argue that no description of an Ursatz properly speaking is complete if it does not include IV or II at the background level. Schenker uses a special sign to denote this situation, the double curve shown in the example hereby, crossing the slur that links IV (or II) to V. That IV (here, F) is written as a quarter note indicates that it is of lower rank than I and V, notated as half notes. Here there is an unexpected link between Schenkerian theory and Riemann's theory of tonal functions, a fact that might explain Schenker's reluctance to be more explicit about it. In modern Schenkerian analysis, the chord of IV or II is often dubbed the "predominant" chord, as the chord that prepares the dominant one, and the progression may be labelled "T–P–D–T", for tonic–predominant–dominant–tonic.
I–II–III–IV–V
The dominant chord may be linked to the tonic by a stepwise linear progression. In such case, one of the chords in the progression, II, III or IV, usually takes preeminence, reducing the case to one or the other described above.
Interruption
The interruption (Unterbrechung) is an elaboration of the fundamental line, which is interrupted at its last passing note, , before it reaches its goal. As a result, the bass arpeggiation itself is also interrupted at the divider at the fifth (V). Both the fundamental line and the bass arpeggiation are bound to return to their starting point and the fundamental structure repeats itself, eventually reaching its goal. The interruption is the main form-generating elaboration: it often is used in binary forms (when the first part ends on the dominant) or, if the elaboration of the "dividing dominant", above V, takes some importance, it may produce ternary form, typically sonata form.
Mixture
Schenker calls "mixture" (Mischung) the change of mode of the tonic, i.e. the replacement of its major third by the minor one, or of its minor third by the major one. The elaboration of the resulting chord may give rise to a section in minor within a work in major, or the reverse.
Transference of the fundamental structure
The forms of the fundamental structure may be repeated at any level of the work. "Every transferred form [of the fundamental structure] has the effect of a self-contained structure within which the upper and lower voices delimit a single tonal space". That is to say that any phrase in a work could take the form of a complete fundamental structure. Many classical themes (e.g. the theme to the set of variations in Mozart's K. 331 piano sonata) form self-contained structure of this type. This resemblance of local middleground structures to background structures is part of the beauty and appeal of Schenkerian analysis, giving it the appearance of a recursive construction.
Legacy and responses
Europe before World War II
Schenker himself mentioned in a letter of 1927 to his student Felix-Eberhard von Cube that his ideas continued "to be felt more widely: Edinburgh [with John Petrie Dunn], (also New York [probably with George Wedge]), Leipzig [with Reinhard Oppel], Stuttgart [with Herman Roth], Vienna (myself and [Hans] Weisse), [Otto] Vrieslander in Munich […], yourself [von Cube] in Duisburg, and [August] Halm [in Wickersdorf, Thuringia]." Von Cube, with Moritz Violin, another of Schenker's students, founded the Schenker Institut in Hamburg in 1931. Oswald Jonas published Das Wesen des musikalischen Kunstwerkes in 1932, and Felix Salzer Sinn und Wesen des Abendländischen Mehrstimmigkeits in 1935, both based on Schenkerian concepts. Oswald Jonas and Felix Salzer founded and edited together the short-lived Schenkerian journal Der Dreiklang (Vienna, 1937–1938).
World War II brought European studies to a halt. Schenker's publications were placed under Nazi ban and some were confiscated by the Gestapo. It is in the United States that Schenkerian analysis knew its first important developments. This history has been contextualized by comments on both sides of the Atlantic, notably by Martin Eybl and Philip A. Ewell,
Early reception in the US
George Wedge taught some of Schenker's ideas as early as 1925 in the Institute of Musical Arts, New York. Victor Vaughn Lytle, who had studied with Hans Weisse in Vienna, wrote what may be the earliest English-language essay dealing with Schenkerian concepts, "Music Composition of the Present" (The American Organist, 1931), without however really crediting Schenker for them. Weisse himself, who had studied with Schenker at least from 1912, immigrated to the United States and began teaching Schenkerian analysis at the Mannes School of Music in New York in 1931. One of his students, Adele T. Katz, devoted an article to "Heinrich Schenker's Method of Analysis" in 1935, then an important book, Challenge to Musical Tradition, in 1945, in which she applied Schenkerian analytical concepts not only to some of Schenker's favorite composers, Johann Sebastian and Philipp Emmanuel Bach, Haydn and Beethoven, but also to Wagner, Debussy, Stravinsky and Schoenberg: this certainly represents one of the earliest attempts to widen the corpus of Schenkerian analysis.
The opinions of the critics were not always positive, however. Roger Sessions published in Modern Music 12 (May–June 1935) an obituary article under the title "Heinrich Schenker's Contribution" where, after having recognized some of Schenker's achievements, he criticizes the development of the last years, until Der freie Satz (which he admits is not yet available in the US) and concludes that "It is precisely when Schenker's teachings leave the domain of exact description and enter that of dogmatic and speculative analysis that they become essentially sterile". The most raging attack against Schenker came in the "Editorial" that Paul Henry Lang devoted in The Musical Quarterly 32/2 (April 1946) to the recently published book by Adele Katz, Challenge to Musical Tradition, which he opposed to Donald Tovey's Beethoven, also published in 1945; his attacks also target Schenker's followers, probably the American ones. He writes:
Schenker's and his disciples' musical theory and philosophy is not art, its whole outlook – at least as expressed in their writings – lacks feeling. There was seldom a colder spirit than theirs; the only warmth one feels is the warmth of dogmatism. Music interests them only insofar as it fits into their system ... In reality music serves only to furnish grist for the mill of their insatiable theoretical mind, not for their heart or imagination. There is no art, no poetry, in this remarkable system which deals with the raw materials of music with a virtuoso hand. Schenker and his disciples play with music as others play chess, not even suspecting what fantasy, what sentimental whirlpools lie at the bottom of every composition. They see lines only, no colors, and their ideas are cold and orderly. But music is color and warmth, which are the values of a concrete art.
After World War II
Translations
Schenker left about 4000 pages of printed text, of which the translations at first were astonishingly slow. Nearly all have been translated into English, and the project Schenker Documents Online is busy with the edition and translation of more than 100 000 manuscript pages. Translations in other languages remain slow.
1904 Ein Beitrag zur Ornamentik.
1976 Transl. by H. Siegel, Music Forum 4, pp. 1–139.
1979 Japanese translation by A. Noro and A. Tamemoto.
1906 Harmonielehre.
1954 Harmony, transl. by Elisabeth Mann Borgese, edited and annotated by Oswald Jonas (with editorial cuts in text and music examples)
1990 Spanish transl. by R. Barce.
1910 Kontrapunkt I.
1987 Counterpoint I, transl. by J. Rothgeb and J. Thym.
1912 Beethovens neunte Sinfonie, 1912
1992 Beethoven's Ninth Symphony: a Portrayal of its Musical Content, with Running Commentary on Performance and Literature as well, transl. by J. Rothgeb, 1992.
2010 Japanese transl. by H. Nishida and T. Numaguchi.
1913 Beethoven, Sonate E dur op. 109 (Erläuterungsausgabe).
2012 Japanese transl. by M. Yamada, H. Nishida and T. Numaguchi.
2015 English transl. by J. Rothgeb.
1914 Beethoven, Sonate As dur op. 110 (Erläuterungsausgabe).
2013 Japanese transl. by M. Yamada, H. Nishida and T. Numaguchi.
2015 English transl. by J. Rothgeb.
1915 Beethoven, Sonate C moll op. 111 (Erläuterungsausgabe).
2015 English transl. by J. Rothgeb.
1920 Beethoven, Sonate A dur op. 101 (Erläuterungsausgabe).
2015 English transl. by J. Rothgeb.
1921–1924 Der Tonwille (10 vols.)
2004–2005 Der Tonwille, transl. under the direction of William Drabkin.
1922 Kontrapunkt II.
1987 Counterpoint II, transl. by J. Rothgeb and J. Thym.
1922 "Haydn: Sonate Es-Dur", Der Tonwille III, pp. 3–21.
1988 Transl. by W. Petty, Theoria 3, pp. 105–160.
1923 "J. S. Bach: Zwölf kleine Präludien Nr. 2 [BWV 939]", Der Tonwille IV, 1923, p. 7.
[2007] French transl. by N. Meeùs.
1923 "J. S. Bach: Zwölf kleine Präludien Nr. 5 [BWV 926]", Der Tonwille V, pp. 8–9.
[2006] French transl. by N. Meeùs.
1924 "Mendelssohn: Venetianisches Gondellied, op. 30, Nr. 6", Der Tonwille X, pp. 25–29.
[2011] French transl. by N. Meeùs.
1924 "Schumann: Kinderszenen Nr. 1, Von fremden Ländern und Menschen", Der Tonwille X, pp. 34–35.
[2011] French transl. by N. Meeùs.
1924 "Schumann: Kinderszenen op. 15, Nr. 9, Träumerei", Der Tonwille X, pp. 36–39.
[2011] French transl. by N. Meeùs.
1925 Beethovens V. Sinfonie. Darstellung des musikalischen Inhaltes nach der Handschrift unter fortlaufender Berücksichtigung des Vortrages und der Literatur, Vienne, Tonwille Verlag and Universal Edition. Reprint 1970.
1971 Ludwig van Beethoven: Symphony N. 5 in C minor, partial transl. by E. Forbes and F. J. Adams jr., New York, Norton, 1971 (Norton Critical Score 9), pp. 164–182.
2000 Japanese transl. by T. Noguchi.
1925–1930 Das Meisterwerk in der Musik, 3 vols.
1998 transl. under the direction of William Drabkin.
1925 "Die Kunst der Improvisation", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik I, pp. 9–40.
1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, "Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation," PhD diss., Northwestern University.
1925 "Weg mit dem Phrasierungsbogen", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik I, pp. 41–60.
1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, "Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation," PhD diss., Northwestern University.
1925 "Joh. S. Bach: Sechs Sonaten für Violine. Sonata III, Largo", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik I, pp. 61–73.
1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, "Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation," PhD diss., Northwestern University.
1976 Transl. by J. Rothgeb, The Music Forum 4, pp. 141–159.
1925 "Joh. S. Bach: Zwölf kleine Präludien, Nr. 6 [BWV 940]", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik I, pp. 99–105.
[2010] French transl. by N. Meeùs.
1925 "Joh. S. Bach: Zwölf kleine Präludien, Nr. 12 [BWV 942]", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik I, 1925, pp. 115–123.
[2006] French transl. by N. Meeùs.
1925 "Domenico Scarlatti: Keyboard Sonata in D minor, [L.413]", Das Meisterwerk in der Music I, pp. 125–135.
1986 Transl. by J. Bent, Music Analysis 5/2-3, pp. 153–164.
1925 "Domenico Scarlatti: Keyboard Sonata in G major, [L.486]", Das Meisterwerk in der Music I, pp. 137–144.
1986 Transl. by J. Bent, Music Analysis 5/2-3, pp. 171–179.
1925 "Chopin: Etude Ges-Dur op. 10, Nr. 5", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik I, pp. 161–173.
1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, "Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation," PhD diss., Northwestern University.
1925 "Erläuterungen", Das Meisterwerk in der Music I, pp. 201–205. (Also published in Der Tonwille 9 and 10 and in Das Meisterwerk in der Musik II.)
1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, "Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation," PhD diss., Northwestern University.
1986 Transl. by J. Bent, Music Analysis 5/2-3, pp. 187–191.
[2011] French transl. by N. Meeùs.
1926 "Fortsetzung der Urlinie-Betrachtungen", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik II, pp. 9–42.
1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, "Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation," PhD diss., Northwestern University.
1926 "Vom Organischen der Sonatenform", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik II, pp. 43–54.
1968 Transl. by O. Grossman, Journal of Music Theory 12, pp. 164–183, reproduced in Readings in Schenker Analysis and Other Approaches, M. Yeston ed., New Haven, 1977, pp. 38–53.
1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, "Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation," PhD diss., Northwestern University.
1926 "Das Organische der Fuge, aufgezeigt an der I. C-Moll-Fuge aus dem Wohltemperierten Klavier von Joh. Seb. Bach", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik II, pp. 55–95
1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, "Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation," PhD diss., Northwestern University.
1926 "Joh. Seb. Bach: Suite III C-Dur für Violoncello-Solo, Sarabande", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik II, 1926, pp. 97–104.
1970 Transl. by H. Siegel, The Music Forum 2, pp. 274–282.
"Mozart: Sinfonie G-Moll", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik II, pp. 105–157.
1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, "Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation," PhD diss., Northwestern University.
"Haydn: Die Schöpfung. Die Vorstellung des Chaos", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik II, pp. 159–170.
1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, "Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation," PhD diss., Northwestern University.
"Ein Gegenbeispiel: Max Reger, op. 81. Variationen und Fuge über ein Thema von Joh. Seb. Bach für Klavier", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik II, pp. 171–192.
1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, "Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation," PhD diss., Northwestern University.
1930 "Rameau oder Beethoven? Erstarrung oder geistiges Leben in der Musik?", Das Meisterwerk in der Musik III, pp. 9–24.
1973 Transl. by S. Kalib, "Thirteen Essays from the Three Yearbooks Das Meisterwerk in der Musik: An Annotated Translation," PhD diss., Northwestern University.
1932 Fünf Urlinie-Tafeln.
1933 Five Analyses in Sketch Form, New York, D. Mannes Music School.
1969 New version with a glossary by F. Salzer: Five Graphic Music Analyses, New York, Dover.
1935/1956 Der freie Satz. Translations of the 2nd edition, 1956.
1979 Free Composition, transl. by E. Oster, 1979.
1993 L'Écriture libre, French transl. by N. Meeùs, Liège-Bruxelles, Mardaga.
1997 Chinese translation by Chen Shi-Ben, Beijing, People's Music Publications.
2004 Russian transl. by B. Plotnikov, Krasnoyarsk Academy of Music and Theatre.
Textbooks
Oswald Jonas, Das Wesen des musikalischen Kunstwerks, Wien, Universal, 1934; revised edition, Einführung in die Lehre Heinrich Schenkers. Das Wesen des musikalischen Kunstwerkes, Wien, Universal, 1972. English translation of the revised edition, Introduction to the Theory of Heinrich Schenker: The Nature of the Musical Work of Art, transl. J. Rothgeb, New York and London, Longman, 1982.
Felix Salzer, Structural Hearing: Tonal Coherence in Music, New York, Charles Boni, 1952.
Allen Forte and Steven E. Gilbert, Introduction to Schenkerian Analysis, 1982.
Allen Cadwallader and David Gagné, Analysis of Tonal Music. A Schenkerian Approach, New York, Oxford University Press, 3rd edition, 2011 (1st edition, 1998).
Edward Aldwell and Carl Schachter, Harmony and Voice Leading, Boston, Schirmer, Cengage Learning, 4th edition (with Allen Cadwallader), 2011 (1st edition, 2003).
Tom Pankhurst, Schenkerguide. A Brief Handbook and Website for Schenkerian Analysis, New York and London, Routledge, 2008 Schenkerguide website.
William Renwick and David Walker, Schenkerian Analysis Glossary.
Larry J. Solomon, A Schenkerian Primer.
Nicolas Meeùs, Análise schenkeriana, Portuguese (Brasil) translation from the French by L. Beduschi, 2008.
Luciane Beduschi and Nicolas Meeùs, Analyse schenkérienne (in French), 2013; several earlier versions archived on the same page. Albanian translation by Sokol Shupo, available on the same webpage.
See also
Glossary of Schenkerian analysis
Notes
References
Further reading
Blasius, Leslie D. (1996). Schenker's Argument and the Claims of Music Theory, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. .
Brown, Matthew (2005). Explaining Tonality: Schenkerian Theory and Beyond. University of Rochester Press. .
Berry, David Carson (2004). A Topical Guide to Schenkerian Literature: An Annotated Bibliography with Indices. Hillsdale, New York: Pendragon Press; . A thorough documentation of Schenker-related research and analysis. The largest Schenkerian reference work ever published, it has 3600 entries (2200 principal, 1400 secondary) representing the work of 1475 authors. It is organized topically: fifteen broad groupings encompass seventy topical headings, many of which are divided and subdivided again, resulting in a total of 271 headings under which entries are collected.
Cook, Nicholas (2007). The Schenker Project: Culture, Race, and Music Theory in Fin-de-siècle Vienna. Oxford University Press. .
Eybl, Martin and Fink-Mennel, Evelyn, eds. (2006). Schenkerian traditions. A Viennese school of music theory and its international dissemination. Vienna, Cologne, Weimar: Böhlau. .
Jonas, Oswald (1982). Introduction to the theory of Heinrich Schenker: the nature of the musical work of art. , translated by John Rothgeb. New York and London: Longman. "Most complete discussion of Schenker's theories."
Essays on the dissemination of Schenkerian thought in the U.S. by David Carson Berry:
Summaries
Katz, Adele T. (1945). Challenge to Musical Tradition. A New Concept of Tonality, New York, Alfred A. Knopf. (2011 reprint)
Pedagogical works
Forte, Allen and Gilbert, Steven E. (1982). Introduction to Schenkerian Analysis. W. W. Norton & Company. . Schenker never presented a pedagogical presentation of his theories, this being the first according to its authors.
Snarrenberg, Robert (1997). "Schenker's Interpretive Practice." Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .
Cadwallader, Allen and Gagné, David (1998). Analysis of Tonal Music: A Schenkerian Approach, Oxford: Oxford University Press, . The second major English-language textbook on Schenkerian analysis"
Kalib, Sylvan (1973). Thirteen Essays from The Three Yearbooks “Das Meisterwerk in Der Musik,” by Heinrich Schenker: An Annotated Translation. (Vols. I–III). Ph.D. diss., Northwestern University.
Westergaard, Peter (1975). An Introduction to Tonal Theory. New York: W.W. Norton.
Aldwell, Edward, and Schachter, Carl (2003). Harmony and Voice Leading. Schirmer. 2nd ed. 2008; 3rd ed. (with Allen Cadwallader), 2011. .
Pankhurst, Tom (2008), SchenkerGUIDE: A Brief Handbook and Web Site for Schenkerian Analysis, New York: Routledge. – an introduction for those completely new to the subject.
Expansions
Epstein, David (1979). Beyond Orpheus – Studies in Musical Structure. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Salzer, Felix (1952). Structural Hearing: Tonal Coherence in Music. New York: Charles Boni. "The first book to present a reorganization (as well as modification and expansion) of Schenker's writings from a pedagogical standpoint."
Westergaard, Peter (1975). An Introduction to Tonal Theory. New York: W.W. Norton.
Yeston, Maury, ed. (1977). Readings in Schenker Analysis and Other Approaches. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Post-tonal expansions
Rhythmic expansions
Komar, Arthur (1971/1980). Theory of Suspensions: A Study of Metrical Pitch Relations in Tonal Music. Princeton: Princeton University Press/Austin, Texas: Peer Publications.
Yeston, Maury (1976). The Stratification of Musical Rhythm. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Political issues
Clark, Suzannah (2007). "The Politics of the Urlinie in Schenker's Der Tonwille and Der freie Satz", Journal of the Royal Musical Association 132/1, pp. 141-164.
Cook, Nicholas (2007). The Schenker Project: Culture, Race, and Music Theory in Fin-de-siècle Vienna. Oxford University Press.
Eybl, Martin (1995). Ideologie und Methode. Zum ideengeschichtlichen Kontext von Schenkers Musiktheorie. Tutzing, Hans Schneider.
Federhofer, Hellmut Federhofer (1985). Heinrich Schenker. Nach Tagebüchern und Briefen in der Oswald Jonas Memorial Collection, Chapter V, Schenkers Weltanschauung''. Hildesheim, Olms, pp. 324-330.
Criticisms
External links
Schenker Guide by Tom Pankhurst
List of Schenker's writings concerning analysis on the Schenkerian site of Luciane Beduschi and Nicolas Meeùs (Paris)
Yale University's Gilmore Music Library provides an introduction to primary and secondary sources
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Bogotá
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Bogotá (, also , , ), officially Bogotá, Distrito Capital, abbreviated Bogotá, D.C., and formerly known as Santa Fe de Bogotá during the Spanish period and between 1991 and 2000, is the capital and largest city of Colombia, administered as the Capital District, as well as the capital of, though not part of, the surrounding department of Cundinamarca. Bogotá is a territorial entity of the first order, with the same administrative status as the departments of Colombia. It is the political, economic, administrative and industrial center of the country.
Bogotá was founded as the capital of the New Kingdom of Granada on 6 August 1538 by Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada after a harsh expedition into the Andes conquering the Muisca, the indigenous inhabitants of the Altiplano. Santafé (its name after 1540) became the seat of the government of the Spanish Royal Audiencia of the New Kingdom of Granada (created in 1550), and then after 1717 it was the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Granada. After the Battle of Boyacá on 7 August 1819, Bogotá became the capital of the independent nation of Gran Colombia. It was Simón Bolívar who rebaptized the city with the name of Bogotá, as a way of honoring the Muisca people and as an emancipation act towards the Spanish crown. Hence, since the Viceroyalty of New Granada's independence from the Spanish Empire and during the formation of present-day Colombia, Bogotá has remained the capital of this territory.
The city is located in the center of Colombia, on a high plateau known as the Bogotá savanna, part of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense located in the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes. Bogotá is the third-highest capital in South America and in the world after Quito and La Paz, at an average of above sea level. Subdivided into 20 localities, Bogotá has an area of and a relatively cool climate that is constant through the year.
The city is home to central offices of the executive branch (Office of the President), the legislative branch (Congress of Colombia) and the judicial branch (Supreme Court of Justice, Constitutional Court, Council of State and the Superior Council of Judicature) of the Colombian government. Bogotá stands out for its economic strength and associated financial maturity, its attractiveness to global companies and the quality of human capital. It is the financial and commercial heart of Colombia, with the most business activity of any city in the country. The capital hosts the main financial market in Colombia and the Andean natural region, and is the leading destination for new foreign direct investment projects coming into Latin America and Colombia. It has the highest nominal GDP in the country, responsible for almost a quarter of the nation's total (24.7%).
The city's airport, El Dorado International Airport, named after the mythical El Dorado, handles the largest cargo volume in Latin America, and is third in number of people. Bogotá is home to the largest number of universities and research centers in the country, and is an important cultural center, with many theaters, libraries and museums. Bogotá ranks 52nd on the Global Cities Index 2014, and is considered a global city type "Beta +" by GaWC in 2020.
Name
The name of Bogotá corresponds to the Spanish pronunciation of the Chibcha Bacatá (or Muyquytá) which was the name of a neighboring settlement located between the modern towns of Funza and Cota. There are different opinions about the meaning of the word Muyquytá, the most accepted being that it means "walling of the farmland" in the Chibcha language. Another popular translation argues that it means "The Lady of the Andes". Further, the word 'Andes' in the Aymara language means "shining mountain", thus rendering the full lexical signification of Bogotá as "The Lady of the shining mountain" (notice, however, that the language of the Muisca people was not Aymara but Chibcha). Others suggest that Bacatá was the name of the Muisca cacique who governed the land before the Spaniards arrived. Jiménez de Quesada gave the settlement the name of "Our Lady of Hope" but the Spanish crown gave it the name of Santafé (Holy Faith) in 1540 when it was appointed as a city. The Muisca, the indigenous inhabitants of the region, called the place on which the city was founded "Thybzaca" or "Old Town".
History
The area of modern Bogotá was first populated by groups of indigenous people who migrated south based on the relation with the other Chibcha languages; the Bogotá savanna was the southernmost Chibcha-speaking group that exists from Nicaragua to the Andes in Colombia. The civilization built by the Muisca, who settled in the valleys and fertile highlands of and surrounding the Altiplano Cundiboyacense (modern-day departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá and small parts of Santander), was one of the great civilizations in the Americas. The name Muisca Confederation has been given to a loose egalitarian society of various chiefs (caciques) who lived in small settlements of maximum 100 bohíos. The agriculture and salt-based society of the people was rich in goldworking, trade and mummification. The religion of the Muisca consisted of various gods, mostly related to natural phenomena as the Sun (Sué) and his wife, the Moon; Chía, rain Chibchacum, rainbow Cuchavira and with building and feasting (Nencatacoa) and wisdom (Bochica). Their complex luni-solar calendar, deciphered by Manuel Izquierdo based on work by Duquesne, followed three different sets of years, where the sidereal and synodic months were represented. Their astronomical knowledge is represented in one of the few extant landmarks of the architecture of the Muisca in El Infiernito outside Villa de Leyva to the north of Bogotá.
Pre-Columbian era
The first populations inhabiting the present-day Metropolitan Area of Bogotá were hunter-gatherers in the late Pleistocene. The oldest dated evidence thus far has been discovered in El Abra (12,500 BP), north of Zipaquirá. Slightly later dated excavations in a rock shelter southwest of the city in Soacha provided ages of ~11,000 BP; Tequendama. Since around 0 AD, the Muisca domesticated guinea pigs, part of their meat diet. The people inhabiting the Bogotá savanna in the late 15th century were the Muisca, speaking Muysccubun, a member of the Chibcha language family. Muisca means "people" or "person", making "Muisca people", how they are called, a tautology. At the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores, the Muisca population was estimated to be half a million indigenous people on the Bogotá savanna, and up to two million in the Muisca Confederation. They occupied the highland and mild climate flanks between the Sumapaz Mountains to the southwest and Cocuy's snowy peak to the northeast, covering an approximate area of , comprising Bogotá's high plain, a large portion of the modern-day department of Boyacá department portion and a small area in the Santander region.
Trade was the most important activity of the Muisca with other Chibcha-speaking neighbours, such as the Guane, Lache and U'wa and with Cariban-speaking groups such as the Muzo or "Emerald People". Their knowledge of salt production from brines, a task devoted exclusively to Muisca women, gave them the name of "Salt People". Tropical fruits that didn't grow on the cool highlands, as well as coca, cotton and gold were all traded at markets that took place every Muisca week; every four days. At these frequent markets, the Muisca obtained various luxury goods that appear worthless in a modern sense, as well as precious metals and gemstones that seem valuable to us and which became abundant and were used for various purposes. The Muisca warrior elite were allowed to wear feathered crowns, from parrots and macaws whose habitat was to the east of the Andes; the Arawkan-speaking Guayupe, Tegua and Achagua.
The Muisca cuisine consisted of a stable and varied diet of tubers, potatoes and fruits. Maize was the main ingredient of the Muisca, cultivated on elevated and irrigated terraces. Many words exist in Muysccubun for maize, corn and the various types and forms of it. The product was also the base for chicha; the alcoholic beverage of the people, still sold in central Bogotá today. It was the beverage used to celebrate the construction of houses, harvests and sowing, ritual practices around the various sacred sites of the Altiplano, music and dances, trade at special fairs with farther away trading indigenous groups of Colombia and to inaugurate the new highest regarded member of the community; zipas, zaques, caciques and the religious ruler iraca from Sacred City of the Sun Sugamuxi.
Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada expedition and Spanish conquest
From 1533, a belief persisted that the Río Grande de la Magdalena was the trail to the South Sea, to Perú, legendary El Dorado. Such was the target of Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, the Granadanian conquistador who left Santa Marta on 6 April 1536 with 800 soldiers, heading towards the interior of current Colombia. The expedition divided into two groups, one under Quesada's command to move on land, and the other commanded by Diego de Urbino would go up river in four brigantine ships to, later on, meet Quesada troops at the site named Tora de las Barrancas Bermejas. When they arrived, they heard news about Indians inhabiting the south and making large salt cakes used to trade for wild cotton and fish. Jiménez de Quesada decided to abandon the route to Peru and cross the mountain in search of salt villages. They saw crops, trails, white salt cakes and then huts where they found corn, yucca and beans. From Tora, the expedition went up the Opón River and found indigenous people wearing very finely painted cotton mantles. When they arrived in Muisca territories in the Andean Plateau, on 9 March 1537, of the expedition leaving Santa Marta, only 162 men were left.
The zipa at the moment of Spanish conquest was Tisquesusa. His main bohío was in a small village called Bacatá with others in Funza and Cajicá, giving name to the present day capital of Colombia. Bacatá was actually located near to the modern location of the city of Funza. A prophecy in his life came true; he would be dying, bathing in his own blood. Defending Funza with a reduced army of guecha warriors against the heavily exhausted but heavily armed strangers, his reign fell in the hands of Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada and his younger brother Hernán Pérez on 20 April 1537. Upon his death, his brother Sagipa became the last zipa, against the inheritance tradition of the Muisca. Sagipa used to be a main captain for Tisquesusa but quickly submitted to the Spanish rulers. The first encomenderos asked high prices in valuable products and agricultural production from the indigenous people. On top of that epidemics of European viruses razed through the population, of which in current Boyacá 65–85 % of the Muisca were killed within 100 years.
Jiménez de Quesada decided to establish a military campament in the area in 1538, in the site today known as the Chorro de Quevedo square. The foundation was performed by the construction of 12 houses of reed, referring to the Twelve Apostles, and the construction of a preliminary church, also of reed. With the celebration of the first mass in the campament, celebrated by Dominican friar Domingo de las Casas the city was founded with the name of Nuestra Señora de la Esperanza (Our Lady of Hope) on 6 August 1538. Quesada placed his right foot on the bare earth and said simply, "I take possession of this land in the name of the most sovereign emperor, Charles V."
This founding, however, was irregular as no town council was formed nor were town officials appointed, as well as lacking some other juridical requirements for an official founding. As a consequence, the official founding only occurred about eight months later, on 27 April 1539, in a site close to one of the recreational lands of the zipa, called Theusa or Theusaquillo. This official founding involved an official ceremony appointing a council and officials, and the demarcation of streets and lands, and in it fellow conquistadores Sebastián de Belalcázar and Nikolaus Federmann were present. While this was the official date of founding, traditionally it is the 6 August 1538 that is considered the date of the actual foundation.
The village obtained the title of City by way of a decree from Charles V on 27 July 1540, which changed the name of the city from Our Lady of Hope to Santa Fe (Holy Faith), after the name of a town nearby Granada where Jiménez de Quesada grew up. Jiménez de Quesada and conquerors De Belalcázar and Federmann left for Spain in April 1539, founding Guataquí together on 6 April 1539. The rule over the newly created New Kingdom of Granada was left to Jiménez de Quesada's brother, Hernán Pérez de Quesada. The first mayors of the city were captains Pedro de Arevalo y Jeronimo de Inzar. The city obtained the Title of Muy Noble y Muy Leal (Very Noble and Loyal) on 17 August 1575 by a decree from Phillip II. Bogotá, then called Santa Fe, later became the capital of the later Viceroyalty of New Granada. Following the independence from Spain, Bogotá became capital of Gran Colombia and later the capital of the Republic of Colombia.
Spanish colonization
The city mayor and the chapter formed by two councilmen, assisted by the constable and the police chief, governed the city. For better administration of these domains, in April 1550, the Audiencia of Santafé was organized. Santa Fe (or Santafé) became the seat of the government of the New Kingdom of Granada . Fourteen years later in 1564, the Spanish Crown designated the first Royal Audiencia chairman, Andrés Díaz Venero de Leyva. The Chapter and the Royal Audience were located on the other side of what is today the Plaza de Bolívar (then called, Plaza Mayor or Major Square). The street connecting the Major Square and the Square of Herbs— now Santander Park— was named Calle Real (Royal Street), now Carrera Séptima (or "Seventh Street"; counted from the mountains to the east of the city). After 1717 Santafé became the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Granada.
Formed by Europeans, mestizos, indigenous people, and slaves, from the second half of the 16th century, the population began to grow rapidly. The 1789 census recorded 18,161 inhabitants, and by 1819 the city population reached 30,000 inhabitants distributed in 195 blocks. Importance grew when the Diocese was established.
Nineteenth century
Political unease over the Spanish monarchy and the rights of citizens born in the Americas had been feeling all over Spanish colonies in America, and it was expressed in New Granada in many different ways, accelerating the movement to independence. One of the most transcendent was the Insurrection of the Comuneros, a riot by the locals that started in Villa del Socorro —current Department of Santander—in March 1781. Spanish authorities suppressed the riot, and José Antonio Galán, the leader, was executed. He left an imprint, though. One of the soldiers witnessing his execution was an intellectually curious, noble teenager named Antonio Nariño, who was deeply impressed by both the insurrection and the execution. Nariño went on to become a politician in Santafé, and he became acquainted with the liberal ideas in vogue in Europe. He started organizing clandestine meetings with other intellectuals and politicians to discuss and promote the independence of the American colonies from the Spanish crown. In 1794, Nariño clandestinely translated and published in Santa Fe the Declaration of the Rights of Men and of the Citizen, and copies of his translation were distributed all over the continent and started creating a stirring in the political mentalities of the time. The Spanish government had banned the distribution of the pamphlet and soon discovered the material and burned any copy that they could find. Nariño was arrested on 29 August 1794, and sentenced to ten years of imprisonment and to have all of his properties confiscated, and was sent to exile the year after. Those suspected of being part of Nariño's intellectual circle were also persecuted, but his ideas had become widespread.
In 1807, following the French invasion of Spain and the subsequent abdication of the House of Bourbon in Spain, pressed by Napoleon to give the crown to his brother Joseph, resulting in the destruction of the Spanish administration, many in Spain and in the American colonies created local resistance governments called Juntas. The dissolution of the Supreme Central Junta, following a series of military defeats in the Spanish troops promoted the creation of local juntas all throughout Latin America, which very soon consolidated the independentist ideas already in vogue. After the establishment of a junta in Cartagena de Indias on 22 May 1810, and in many other cities throughout the Viceroyalty, the Junta de Santa Fe was established on 20 July 1810, in what is often called the Colombian Declaration of Independence. The Junta adopted the name of "Supreme Junta of the New Kingdom of Granada", and first swore allegiance to Viceroy Antonio José Amar y Borbón, and appointed him as president, but then he was deposed and arrested five days later. After declaring independence from Spain the different juntas attempted to establish a congress of provinces, but they were unable to do so and military conflicts soon emerged.
The period between 1810 and 1816 was marked by intense conflict between federalist and centralist factions over the nature of the new government of the recently emancipated juntas, a period that has become known as la Patria Boba. The Province of Santafé became the Free and Independent State of Cundinamarca, which soon became embroiled in a civil war against other of the local juntas which banded together to form the United Provinces of New Granada and advocated for a federalist government system. Following a failed military campaign against Quito, General Simón Bolívar of the United Provinces led a campaign that led to the surrender of the Cundinamarca province in December 1814.
In Spain, the war had ended and the Spanish monarchy was restored on 11 December 1813. King Ferdinand VII of Spain declared the uprisings in the colonies illegal and sent a large army to quell the rebellions and reconquer the lost colonies, for which he appointed General Pablo Morillo. Morillo led a successful military campaign that culminated in the capture of Santafé on 6 May 1816.
In 1819, Bolívar initiated his campaign to liberate New Granada. Following a series of battles, the last of which was the Battle of Boyacá, the republican army led by Bolívar cleared its way to Santafé, where he arrived victorious on 10 August 1819. It was Simón Bolívar who rebaptized the city with the name of Bogotá, to honor the Muisca people and to emphasize the emancipation from Spain. Bogotá then became the capital of the Gran Colombia.
Between 1819 and 1849, there were no fundamental structural changes from the colonial period. By the mid-19th century, a series of fundamental reforms were enacted, some of the most important being slavery abolition and religious, teaching, print and speech industry and trade freedom, among others. During the decade of the 70s, radicalism accelerated reforms and state and social institutions were substantially modified. However, during the second half of the century, the country faced permanent pronouncements, declarations of rebellions between states, and factions which resulted in civil wars: the last and bloodiest was the Thousand Days' War from 1899 to 1902.
In 1823, a few years after the formation of Gran Colombia, the Public Library, now the National Library, was enlarged and modernized with new volumes and better facilities. The National Museum was founded. Those institutions were of great importance to the new republic's cultural development. The Central University was the first State school, precursor of the current National University, founded in 1867 and domiciled in Bogotá.
Regeneration
President Rafael Núñez declared the end of Federalism, and in 1886 the country became a centralist republic ruled by the constitution in force – save some amendments – up to 1981. In the middle of political and administration avatars, Bogotá continued as the capital and principal political center of the country.
From a base of only 20,000 people in 1793, the city grew to approximately 117,000 people in 1912. Population growth was rapid after 1870, largely because of emigration from the eastern highlands.
Twentieth century
Early in the 20th century, Colombia had to face devastating consequences from the One Thousand Days War, which lasted from 1899 to 1902, and the loss of Panama. Between 1904 and 1909, the lawfulness of the liberal party was re-established and President Rafael Reyes endeavored to implement a national government. Peace and state reorganization generated the increase of economic activities. Bogotá started deep architectural and urban transformation with significant industrial and artisan production increases. In 1910, the Industrial Exposition of the Century took place at Park of Independence. Stands built evidenced industrial, artisan work, beaux arts, electricity and machinery progress achieved. The period from 1910 to 1930 is designated conservative hegemony. Between 1924 and 1928, hard union struggles began, with oil fields and banana zone workers' strikes, leaving numerous people dead.
Bogotá had practically no industry. Production was basically artisan work grouped in specific places, similar to commercial sectors. Plaza de Bolívar and surroundings lodged hat stores, at Calle del Comercio –current Carrera Seventh– and Calle Florián –now Carrera Eight– luxurious stores selling imported products opened their doors; at Pasaje Hernández, tailor's shops provided their services, and between 1870 and 1883, four main banks opened their doors: Bogotá, Colombia, Popular and Mortgage Credit banks.
Following the banana zone killings and conservative party division, Enrique Olaya Herrera took office in 1930. The liberal party reformed during 16 years of the so-called Liberal Republic, agricultural, social, political, labor, educational, economic and administrative sectors. Unionism strengthened and education coverage expanded.
The celebration produced a large number of infrastructure works, new construction and work sources. Following the 1946 liberal party division, a conservative candidate took presidential office again in 1948, after the killing of liberal leader Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, Bogotá's downtown was virtually destroyed as violence reigned. From then, Bogotá's urban, architectural and population sectors were substantially reorganized.
Twenty-first century
The city begins the 21st century with important changes in its urban space and public transport, looking to plan a demographic and economic growth that would position it as a strategic hub for international business in Latin America. Some of the main interventions initiated in this century looked to develop projects contained in the Plan of Territorial Ordering (POT), which will guide the development of the city for the next two centuries.
One of the most important interventions in the city for this time was its transportation system. In 1967, there were 2,679 urban buses in Bogotá that transported, on average, 1,629,254 passengers per day. The city had a little more than a million inhabitants and 8,000 hectares in length, the service was relatively reasonable and comfortable. But as the city grew and reached more than five million inhabitants and an area greater than 30,000 hectares, not only did the car fleet increase substantially to reach more than 20,000 vehicles, but chaos multiplied, as well as pollution and the inefficiency of the only existing transportation system.
By the end of the 20th century, the situation was critical. There was no real urban public transport system that would serve as an alternative to the private vehicle - which further incentivized its use - and the city had low levels of competitiveness in Latin America, as well as an unsatisfactory quality of life for the vast majority of its inhabitants.
The administrations of mayors Andrés Pastrana (1988–1990) and Jaime Castro (1992–1994), in addition to the first one of Antanas Mockus (1995–1997), formulated proposals to solve the problem of public transport, with limited results. It was during the mayoralty of the latter when there was an insistent talk about the possibility of establishing a mass transportation system that would help remedy the problem of mobility in Bogotá.
Under the second administration of Antanas Mockus, Bogotá opened a 'zone of tolerancia' which legalized prostitution in a large swath of the center of the city in the Santa Fe neighborhood.
Mayor Enrique Peñalosa (whose first term was 1998–2000) included in his government program as a priority project a solution to the problem of public transport. Consequently, in the execution of the development plan "For the Bogotá we Want" in terms of mobility and in a concrete way to the massive transportation system project, the construction of a special infrastructure exclusively for its operation was determined. This system would include specialized bus corridors, equipped with single-use lanes, stations, bridges, bike paths and special pedestrian access platforms, designed to facilitate the user's experience in the system. However, Peñalosa became infamous for his campaign against the poor, saying he would rather see robbers on the streets rather than people selling candies. Peñalosa also served a second term (2016–2019).
After getting elected in 2011, Gustavo Petro, clashed with conservative political establishment after remunicipalization of the city's garbage collection system. The inspector general, Alejandro Ordoñez deposed Petro for alleged constitutional overreach and when he tried to replace the city's private trash collectors. Petro was reinstated weeks later after a Bogotá court ruled that Ordoñez had overstepped his authority.
Although the proposal for biarticulated diesel buses called "Transmilenio" was in its early stages a success, due in part to the small numbers of passengers that it transported, in the long term it became an inefficient and contaminating system, saturated for a metro population of almost ten million inhabitants, guilty of environmental deterioration and air pollution.
For its part, the cultural equipment plan of Bogotá has given as one of its most significant results the construction of three large public libraries in different sectors of the city, in addition to the provision of existing ones. The new libraries were located in sectors that allow a wide coverage, have easy access by public transport and bike paths; and their projects were commissioned to distinguished architects of the city. They are those of El Tunal, in the south, projected by the architect Suely Vargas of El Tintal, in the west, the work of the architect Daniel Bermúdez, and the Virgilio Barco Vargas library, located in the Simón Bolívar park in the central area, work of the architect Rogelio Salmona. The three libraries, in addition to their excellent architecture, offer spaces for the educational and cultural development of the citizens of Bogota.
As for 2019, the city's distribution is composed of nine main business centers (Av. El Dorado Business Corridor, Centro Internacional, Parque de la 93, El Lago, North Point, Calle 100, Santa Barbara Business Center, Zona Industrial Montevideo & Parque Industrial Zona Franca). Grittier sides sit south and southwest, where working-class barrios continue to battle their reputations for drugs and crime. In the ritzier north you'll find boutique hotels, corporate offices and well-heeled locals piling into chic entertainment districts such as the Zona Rosa and Zona G.
Protests against police brutality started in Bogotá following the death of Javier Ordóñez while in police custody on 9 September 2020. , 13 people have died and over 400 have been injured as part of the protests.
Geography
Bogotá is located in the southeastern part of the Bogotá savanna (Sabana de Bogotá) at an average altitude of above sea level. The Bogotá savanna is popularly called "savannah" (sabana), but constitutes actually a high plateau in the Andes mountains, part of an extended region known as the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, which literally means "high plateau of Cundinamarca and Boyacá". Bogotá is the largest city in the world at its elevation; there is no urban area that is both higher and more populous than Bogotá.
In the extreme south of Bogotá's District, the world's largest continuous paramo ecosystem can be found; Sumapaz Páramo in the locality Sumapaz.
The Bogotá River running NE-SW crosses the sabana, forming Tequendama Falls (Salto del Tequendama) to the south. Tributary rivers form valleys with flourishing villages, whose economy is based on agriculture, livestock raising and artisanal production.
The sabana is bordered to the east by the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes mountain range. The Eastern Hills, which limit city growth, run from south to north, and form east of the center the Guadalupe and Monserrate mountains. The western city limit is the Bogotá River. The Sumapaz Paramo (moorland) borders the south and to the north Bogotá extends over the plateau up to the towns of Chía and Sopó.
Most of the wetlands in the Bogotá region have disappeared. They covered nearly 50,000 hectares in the 1960s, compared to only 727 in 2019, for a disappearance rate of 98%.
Climate
Bogotá has an oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb) bordering on a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Csb). The average temperature is , varying from on sunny days to on rainy days. Dry and rainy seasons alternate throughout the year. The driest months are December, January, July and August. The warmest month is March, bringing a maximum of . The coolest nights occur in January, with an average of in the city; fog is very usual in early morning, 220 days per year, whilst clear sky sunny full days are quite unusual.
The official highest temperature recorded within the city limits is , and the lowest temperature recorded is , both at the Guaymaral Airport.
The rainiest months are April, May, September, October, and November, in which typical days are mostly overcast, with low clouds and some winds, bringing maximum temperatures of and lows of .
Because of its low latitude and high altitude, Bogotá has an average of 12 daylight hours and 11+ ultraviolet radiation year-round.
Urban layout and nomenclature
The colonial city, from 1539 to 1810, barely changed its urban layout and culture. Santafe was slowly leaving behind the colonialism after the independence revolution from 1810 to 1819. Entering the 19th century, the city of Bogotá was still the political and demographic core of Nueva Granada but remained a small city as compared with similar cities, such as Lima and Buenos Aires. At the year of 1801, the city had 173 blocks and 21,394 inhabitants marking a slow population growth during the 18th century. In the beginning of the 19th century, city life was marked by the lack of cultural activity and public services as well as by the excessive Catholic religiosity in its inhabitants, which almost controlled the whole life of people, as a journalist traveler wrote in 1822 (Biblioteca Luis Angel Arango, 1990,2 ).
The city’s urban shape remained the same in the 19th century as the 1557 urban landscape as a checkerboard with the Plaza as its core. In other words, the city grew in area adding new square blocks but kept the same urban fabric. Buildings were low rise, as a traveler wrote in 1830 (Bibliotheca Luis Angel Arango, 1990,2), where most city buildings had one floor, and a few had no more than two. One special characteristic of those houses with two floors, which were the houses of the wealthiest families of Bogotá, were their balconies. The building facades of Bogotá were very simplistic without ornaments, meaning no more than a wall with windows and the entry door. However, due to the poor street conditions because of the potholes and waste, in addition to the lack of cultural and social activity at night, the ornaments were reserved to indoors where Bogotanos spent most of their time. One of the few outdoor activities of the people of Bogotá during the first half of the 19th century was going to the Plaza or the “altozano” as the locals called it. The Plaza was the social core of the city, where fresh fruits were sold and where inhabitants from all socioeconomic backgrounds converged (Bibliotheca Luis Angel Arango, 1990,2).
The landscape of Bogotá was very similar from the 16th century to 19th century. Nonetheless, after the milestone fact of the independence from the Spanish, which was a process that lasted at least ten years from 1810 to 1819, some changes started to happen. Those changes were happening slowly while the new republican order was getting power. Trying to make a difference from the colonial ages, the new Republic began changing the name of the plazas, streets and even the name of the city, from Santafe to Bogotá. The names of colonial streets were changed to numbers and the name of plazas were changed to the founding fathers of Colombia. Thereafter, the empty plazas of the colonial ages turned into ornamented plazas with plenty of trees and civic statues. For instance, the first civil statue placed in a plaza in Colombia was the figure of Bolivar, the main founding father of Colombia. The statue of Bolivar was unveiled on July 20, 1846, which is the Independence Day of Colombia, trying to strengthen the patriotism of the new republic in people of Bogotá and Colombia.
The last quarter of the 19th century, from 1870 to 1900, more clearly marked a new urban landscape of Bogotá. The constant rural migration to Bogotá had been one of the most important factors that allowed the city to maintain its influential power in the region both during the colonial ages and during the republic. In 1847, the city governor and the council tried to expand the urban area of Bogotá beyond the colonial limits, whereas, only until the 1860s was that expansion encouraged by the president of Colombia Tomas Cipriano de Mosquera. The Mosquera plan included lotting the western part of Bogotá, building bridges and wider roads and plazas, but that plan was only partially implemented. In the following decade, other urban initiatives emerged but this time from the private sector. A group of businessmen, tired of the city’s slow growth and development, proposed the construction of sewars, theaters, electric systems and new roads in order to hasten the development of Bogotá. Because of the 1876 civil war, the plan could not be implemented, but from that initiative, the council adopted the first urban code of Bogotá in 1875. These initiatives tried to update the undeveloped city to the new technologies of the 1800s; however, the pace remained slow, and only after 1882, when the train and the trolley came to Bogotá, some urban development projects progressed more quickly.
Today Bogotá has 20 localities, or districts, forming an extensive network of neighborhoods. Areas of higher economic status tend to be located in the north, close to the Eastern Hills in the districts of Chapinero, Usaquén and the east of Suba. The lower middle class inhabit the central, western and northwestern parts of the city.. The working-class neighborhoods are located in the south, some of them squatter areas.
The urban layout in the center of the city is based on the focal point of a square or plaza, typical of Spanish-founded settlements, but the layout gradually becomes more modern in outlying neighborhoods. The types of roads are classified as Calles (streets), which run from west to east horizontally, with street numbers increasing towards the north, and also towards the south (with the suffix "Sur") from Calle 0 down south. Carreras (roads) run from north to south vertically, with numbering increasing from east to west. (with the suffix "Este" for roads east of Carrera 0). At the southeast of the city, the addresses are logically sur-este. Other types of roads more common in newer parts of the city may be termed Eje (Axis), Diagonal or Transversal.
The numbering system for street addresses recently changed, and numbers are assigned according to street rank from main avenues to smaller avenues and local streets. Some of Bogotá's main roads, which also go by a proper name in addition to a number, are:
Norte-Quito-Sur or NQS (North Quito South Avenue, from 9th Rd at north following railway to 30th Rd, or Quito City Avenue, and Southern Highway)
Autopista Norte-Avenida Caracas (Northern Highway, or 45th Rd, joined to Caracas Avenue, or 14th Rd)
Avenida Circunvalar (or 1st Rd)
Avenida Suba (60th transversal from 100th St the Suba Hills; 145th St from Suba Hills westward)
Avenida El Dorado (El Dorado Avenue, or 26th St)
Avenida de las Américas (Avenue of the Americas, from 34th street at east to 6th street at west)
Avenida Primero de Mayo (May First Avenue, or 22nd St South)
Avenida Ciudad de Cali (Cali City Avenue, or 86th Rd)
Avenida Boyacá (Boyacá Avenue, or 72nd Rd)
Autopista Sur (Southern Highway)
Localities (districts)
Surrounding towns
Demographics
The largest and most populous city in Colombia, Bogotá had 7,412,566 inhabitants within the city's limits (2018 census), with a population density of approximately 4,310 inhabitants per square kilometer. Only 25,166 people are located in rural areas of Capital District. 47.8% of the population are male and 52.2% women.
In Bogotá, as in the rest of the country, urbanization has accelerated due to industrialization as well as complex political and social reasons such as poverty and violence, which led to migration from rural to urban areas throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. A dramatic example of this is the number of displaced people who have arrived in Bogotá due to the internal armed conflict.
Some estimates show that Bogotá's floating population may be as high as 4 million people, most of them being migrant workers from other departments and displaced people. The majority of the displaced population lives in the Ciudad Bolívar, Kennedy, Usme, and Bosa sections.
Ethnic groups
The ethnic composition of the city's population includes minorities of Afro-Colombian people (0.9%), and Indigenous Amerindians (0.3%); 98.8% of the population has no ethnic affiliation, but are mestizos and whites.
In Bogotá, the accelerated urbanization process is not exclusively due to industrialization, since there are complex political and social reasons such as poverty and violence, which have motivated migration from the countryside to the city throughout the 20th century, determining an exponential growth of the population in Bogotá and the establishment of misery belts in its surroundings. According to the Consultancy for Human Rights, Codhes, in the period 1999-2005 more than 260,000 displaced people arrived in Bogotá, approximately 3.8% of the total population of Bogotá. The locations where the majority of the displaced population is concentrated are Ciudad Bolivar, Kennedy, Bosa and Usme.
Crime
Bogotá has gone to great lengths to change its formerly notorious crime rate and its image with increasing success after being considered in the 1990s to be one of the most violent cities in the world. In 1993 there were 4,352 murders at a rate of 81 per 100,000 people; in 2007 Bogotá suffered 1,401 murders at a rate of 20 per 100,000 inhabitants, and had a further reduction to 14 per 100,000 inhabitants in 2017 (the lowest since 1979). This success was mainly the result of a participatory and integrated security policy; "Comunidad Segura", that was first adopted in 1995 and continues to be enforced. 1.2 percent of street addresses account for 99 percent of homicides.
Government
Bogotá is the capital of the Republic of Colombia, and houses the Congress, Supreme Court of Justice and the center of the executive administration as well as the residence of the President (Casa de Nariño). These buildings, along with the Office of the Mayor, the Lievano Palace (Palacio Liévano), are located within a few meters from each other on the Bolívar Square (Plaza de Bolívar). The square is located in the city's historical center, La Candelaria, which features architecture in Spanish Colonial and Spanish Baroque styles.
The Mayor of Bogotá and the City Council – both elected by popular vote – are responsible for city administration. In 2019 Claudia López was elected Mayor; her term runs from 2020 to 2023.
The city is divided into 20 localities: Usaquén, Chapinero, Santa Fe, San Cristóbal, Usme, Tunjuelito, Bosa, Kennedy, Fontibón, Engativá, Suba, Barrios Unidos, Teusaquillo, Los Mártires, Antonio Nariño, Puente Aranda, La Candelaria, Rafael Uribe Uribe, Ciudad Bolívar and Sumapaz.
Each of the 20 localities is governed by an administrative board elected by popular vote, made up of no fewer than seven members. The Mayor designates local mayors from candidates nominated by the respective administrative board.
Economy
Bogotá is the main economic and industrial center of Colombia.
The Colombian government fosters the import of capital goods, Bogotá being one of the main destinations of these imports.
Tourism
Travel and tourism's share of the city's overall GDP stands at 2.5%. Bogotá is responsible for 56% of the tourism that arrives to Colombia and is home to 1,423 multinational companies. Bogotá also ranked highly as a global city where business is done and meetings are held. Bogotá is a growing international meetings destination.
During the last year, Bogotá has won 50 major international events, with 12 more world-class events in progress. The 16th World Summit of Nobel Peace Laureates took place from 2 to 5 February 2017 in Bogotá, Colombia. One Young World is the preeminent global forum for young leaders, aged 18–30. Bogotá, Colombia is the host city for Summit 2017.
The hotels in the historical center of La Candelaria and its surrounding areas cater to lovers of culture and the arts. This area also has the bulk of hostels in the city as well. In La Candelaria, there are many museums, including the Botero Museum and the Gold Museum. Close to La Candelaria is the Cerro Monserrate, which you can reach by cable car or funicular. The hotels located near Ciudad Salitre are intended for visitors who make short stops in Bogotá and near El Dorado International Airport.
Important landmarks and tourist stops in Bogotá include the botanical garden José Celestino Mutis, the Quinta de Bolívar, the national observatory, the planetarium, Maloka, the Colpatria observation point, the observation point of La Calera, the monument of the American flags, and La Candelaria (the historical district of the city). There is also Usaquen, a colonial landmark where brunch and a flea market on Sundays is a traditional activity. The city has numerous green parks and amusement parks like Salitre Magico or Mundo Aventura.
Green areas surrounding Bogotá are perfect locations for eco-tourism and hiking activities. In the eastern mountains of the city, just a few minutes walking from main roads, there are Quebrada La vieja and Chapinero Waterfalls, two of many green spots for sightseeing and tourism with clean air.
There are also several areas of the city where fine restaurants can be found. The G Zone, the T Zone, and La Macarena are well known for their gastronomic offerings.
Since the 2000s, major hotel chains have established themselves in the city. Bogotá has a great cultural diversity, coming from different regions of the country, which allows tourists to know the multiculturalism of the country without the need to travel to other cities, this includes gastronomy and different festivals.
Shopping malls
Bogotá's economy has been significantly boosted due to new shopping malls built within the last few years. , over 160 new malls are planned in addition to the existing 100 malls. Notable malls include:
Centro Andino
Centro Mayor
Santafé
Gran Estación
Portal de la 80
Titán Plaza
Calima
Atlantis Plaza
Unicentro
Hayuelos
Media
Bogotá is home to several television stations like Canal Capital and Citytv which are local stations, Canal 13 is a regional station, and is home to the national channels Caracol TV, RCN TV, Canal Uno, Canal Institucional, and Señal Colombia. It has multiple satellite television services like Telefónica, Claro and DirecTV and several satellite dishes which offer hundreds of international channels, plus several exclusive channels for Bogotá.
In Bogotá, all the major radio networks in the country are available, in both AM and FM; 70% of the FM stations offer RDS service.
There are several newspapers, including El Tiempo, El Espectador and El Nuevo Siglo, plus economical dailies La República and Portafolio, tabloids El Espacio, Q'Hubo, and Extra. Bogotá also offers three free newspapers, two Spanish, ADN and Publimetro, and one English, The Bogotá Post.
Infrastructure
Energy and sewer bills are stratified based on the location of owner's residence, The system is the classification of the residential properties that should receive public services. Although the system does not consider the income per person and the rules say that the residential real estate should stratify and not households. All mayors should do the stratification of residential properties of their municipality or district.
Bogotá's social strata have been divided as follows and have been extensively used by the government as a reference to develop social welfare programs, statistical information and to some degree for the assignment of lands.
Estrato 1 (lowest)
Estrato 2 (low)
Estrato 3 (mid-low)
Estrato 4 (mid-high)
Estrato 5 (high)
Estrato 6 (highest)
Transport
Bogotá's growth has placed a strain on its roads and highways, but since 1998 significant efforts to upgrade the infrastructure have been undertaken. Private car ownership forms a major part of the congestion, in addition to taxis, buses and commercial vehicles. Buses remain the main means of mass transit. There are two bus systems: the traditional system and the TransMilenio.
The traditional system runs a variety of bus types, operated by several companies on normal streets and avenues: Bus (large buses), Buseta (medium size buses) and Colectivo (vans or minivans). The bigger buses were divided into two categories: Ejecutivo, which was originally to be a deluxe service and was not to carry standing passengers, and corriente or normal service. Since May 2008, all buses run as corriente services. Bogotá is a hub for domestic and international bus routes. The Bogotá terminal serves routes to most cities and towns in Colombia and is the largest in the country. There is international service to Ecuador, Perú and Venezuela.
The TransMilenio system was created during Enrique Peñalosa's mayoral term, and is a form of bus rapid transit that has been deployed as a measure to compensate for the lack of a subway or rail system. TransMilenio combines articulated buses that operate on dedicated bus roads (busways) and smaller buses (feeders) that operate in residential areas, bringing passengers to the main grid. TransMilenio's main routes are: Caracas Avenue, Northern Highway (Autopista Norte), 80th Street, Americas Avenue, Jiménez Avenue, and 30th Avenue (also referred to as Norte Quito Sur or N.Q.S. for short). Routes for Suba Avenue and Southern Highway (Autopista Sur), the southern leg of the 30th Avenue, were opened in April 2006. The third phase of the system will cover 7th Avenue, 10th Avenue, and 26th Street (or Avenida El Dorado). The system is planned to cover the entire city by 2030. Although the Transmilenio carries commuters to numerous corners of the city, it is more expensive (US$0.80 or 2300 COP) than any public transport, except taxis.
In addition to TransMilenio, the Peñalosa administration and voter-approved referenda helped to establish travel restrictions on cars with certain license plate numbers during peak hours called Pico y placa; of Ciclovía on Sundays and major holidays; a massive system ( ) of bicycle paths and segregated lanes called ciclorrutas; and the removal of thousands of parking spots in an attempt to make roads more pedestrian-friendly and discourage car use. Ciclorrutas is one of the most extensive dedicated bike path networks of any city in the world, with a total extension of . It extends from the north of the city, 170th Street, to the south, 27th Street, and from Monserrate on the east to the Bogotá River on the west. The ciclorruta was started by the 1995–1998 Antanas Mockus administration with a few kilometers, and considerably extended afterwards with the development of a Bicycle Master Plan and the addition of paths hundreds of kilometers in extent. Since the construction of the ciclorruta bicycle use in the city has increased, and a car free week was introduced in 2014.
Airports
Bogotá's main airport is El Dorado International Airport, with an approximate area of located west of the city's downtown in the Fontibón Locality. It is the third most important airport in Latin America after Mexico City International Airport and São Paulo–Guarulhos International Airport and it is the most important airport in Colombia. Construction of the airport was ordered by Gustavo Rojas Pinilla (19th President of Colombia) in 1955 to replace the Aeropuerto de Techo. Due to its central location in Colombia and in Latin America, it is a hub for Colombia's Flagship Carrier Avianca, Copa Airlines Colombia and LATAM Colombia. It is also serviced by a number of international airlines including American, Delta, United, Air France, KLM, Turkish Airlines, Jet Blue, and Lufthansa. The national airport has begun to take more responsibility due to the congestion at the international airport. In response to the high demand of approximately 27 Million passengers per year, a new airport, El Dorado II, is planned to be built by 2021, to help alleviate traffic at the main airport.
A secondary airport, CATAM, serves as a base for Military and Police Aviation. This airport, which uses the runways of El Dorado will eventually move to Madrid, a nearby town in the region of Cundinamarca, leaving further space to expand El Dorado.
Guaymaral Airport is another small airport located in the northern boundaries of Bogotá. It is used mainly for private aviation activities.
Urban and suburban railways
Bogotá has little railway transit infrastructure, following the collapse of the tram network, although a number of plans hope to change that. The Bogotá Metro has been pushed forward by two successive governments, and construction began in 2020 with opening planned for 2028. Plans to construct railways in and out of the city, replacing defunct routes, have been delayed due to the pressing need for transport within the city. A tram train line using right-of-way from the defunct Bogotá Savannah Railway, known as RegioTram, will be opening in 2023.
Bicycle infrastructure
Bogotá is the Colombian city with the most extensive and comprehensive network of bike paths. Bogotá's bike paths network or Ciclorutas de Bogotá in Spanish, designed and built during the administration of Mayors Antanas Mockus and Enrique Peñalosa, is also one of the most extensive in the world and the most extensive in Latin America. The network is integrated with the TransMilenio bus system which has bicycle parking facilities.
Bogotá implemented a healthy habit called "Ciclovia" where principal highways are closed from 7:00 a.m. until 2:00 pm on Sundays and public holidays; therefore, the People ride their bikes to enjoy the city as well as exercise. In the same way just on December the same activity is carried out in the night, there are some special activities such as fireworks, street theater performances, and street food just to mention a few.
Since 4 April 2016 the carrera 11 has been reduced from four to three car lanes and a new bike lane (cicloruta) has been inaugurated.
Tramway
On 25 December 1884, the first tramway pulled by mules was inaugurated and covered the route from Plaza de Bolívar to Chapinero, and in 1892, the line connecting Plaza de Bolívar and La Sabana Station started operating. The tramway ran over wooden rails and was easily derailed, so steel rails imported from Britain were eventually installed. In 1894, a tramway car ran the Bogotá–Chapinero line every 20 minutes. The tram system eventually grew to cover most of the city and its surrounding suburbs. But during the Bogotazo riots of 1948, the system suffered heavy damage and was forced to close. The economic effects of the subsequent civil war that followed prevented the damage from being repaired. Parts of the system continued to operate in a reduced state until 1951, when they were replaced by buses. Most of the streetcar tracks were eventually paved over, but exposed tracks can still be seen on many of the older roads of the city, especially downtown and in the La Candelaria area, although it has been about 70 years since any vehicles have run on them.
Bogotá public transportation statistics
The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Bogotá, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 97 min. 32% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 20 min, while 40% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 8 km, while 16% travel for over 12 km in a single direction.
Education
Known as the Athens of South America, Bogotá has an extensive educational system of both primary and secondary schools and colleges. Due to the constant migration of people into the nation's capital, the availability of quotas for access to education offered by the State free of charge is often insufficient. The city also has a diverse system of colleges and private schools.
There are a number of universities, both public and private. In 2002, there were a total of 113 higher education institutions; in Bogotá there are several universities, most partially or fully accredited by the NAC (National Accreditation Council): National University of Colombia, University of the Andes, Colombia, District University of Bogotá, La Salle University, Colombia, University of La Sabana, Pontifical Xavierian University, Our Lady of the Rosary University, Universidad Externado de Colombia, Military University Nueva Granada, Central University, Colombia, El Bosque University, University of America, Sergio Arboleda University, Jorge Tadeo Lozano University, Pilot University of Colombia, Catholic University of Colombia, Saint Thomas Aquinas University and Universidad Pedagógica Nacional.
The city has a University City at the National University of Colombia campus located in the traditional sector Teusaquillo. It is the largest campus in Colombia and one of the largest in Latin America.
Culture
Bogotá has many cultural venues including 58 museums, 62 art galleries, 33 library networks, 45 stage theaters, 75 sports and attraction parks, and over 150 national monuments. Many of these are renowned globally such as:
The Luis Ángel Arango Library, the most important in the region which receives well over 6 million visitors a year;
The Colombian National Museum, one of the oldest in the Americas, dating back to 1823;
The Ibero-American Theater Festival, largest of its kind in the world, receives 2 million attendees enjoying over 450 performances across theaters and off the street;
The Bogotá Philharmonic is the most important symphony orchestra in Colombia, with over 100 musicians and 140 performances a year. The city has been a member of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network in the category of music since March 2012.
The Cristóbal Colón Theater, the country's oldest Opera House, opened in 1892. It is home to the National Symphony Association's major act, the National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia.
Rock al Parque or Rock at the Park is an open air rock music festival. Recurring annually, it gathers over 320,000 music fans who can enjoy over 60 band performances for free during three days a year. The series have been so successful during its 15 years of operation that the city has replicated the initiative for other music genres, resulting in other recent festivals like Salsa at the Park, Hip Hop at the Park, Ballet at the Park, Opera at the Park, and Jazz at the Park.
Kids' Choice Awards Colombia, are the most important awards given in the city by Nickelodeon and the first ceremony was given in 2014 by the singer Maluma and in Corferias the ceremony has been the home of shows given by artists like Austin Mahone, Carlos Peña, Don Tetto and Riva among others.
Bogotá has worked in recent years to position itself as leader in cultural offerings in South America, and it is increasingly being recognized worldwide as a hub in the region for the development of the arts.
In 2007, Bogotá was awarded the title of Cultural Capital of Ibero-America by the UCCI (Union of Ibero-American Capital Cities), and it became the only city to have received the recognition twice, after being awarded for the first time in 1991.
Cultural history
Bogotá gave the Spanish-speaking world José Asunción Silva (1865–1896), Modernism pioneer. His poetic work in the novel De sobremesa has a place in outstanding American literature. Rafael Pombo (1833–1912) was an American romanticism poet who left a collection of fables essential part of children imagination and Colombian tradition.
Architecture
The urban morphology and typology of colonial buildings in Bogotá have been maintained since the late nineteenth century, long after the independence of Colombia (1810). This persistence of the colonial setting is still visible, particularly in La Candelaria, the historical center of Bogotá. Also kept up are the colonial houses of two stories, with courtyards, gabled roofs, ceramic tiles and balconies. In some cases, these balconies were enclosed with glass windows during the Republican period, a distinguishing feature of the architecture of the sector (for example, the House of Rafael Pombo).
"Republican Architecture" was the style that prevailed between 1830 and 1930. Although there were attempts to consolidate a modern architectural language, the only examples seen are University City and White City at the National University of Colombia (constructed 1936 to 1939). This work was developed by German architect Leopold Rother, although architects of rationalist trends participated in the design of campus buildings. There are also architecture trends such as art deco, expressionism and organic architecture. This last trend was typified by Bogotan architects in the second half of the twentieth century such as Rogelio Salmona.
In 2015 BD Bacatá was inaugurated, surpassing the Colpatria Tower to become the tallest building of the city and of Colombia. The building its expected to be the beginning of the city's downtown renovation.
Libraries and archives
In 2007, Bogotá was named World Book Capital by UNESCO. Bogotá is the first Latin American city to receive this recognition, and the second one in the Americas after Montreal. It stood out in programs, the library network and the presence of organizations that, in a coordinated manner, are working to promote books and reading in the city. Several specific initiatives for the World Book Capital program have been undertaken with the commitment of groups, both public and private, engaged in the book sector.
The city is home to the Biblored, an institution which administers 16 small and four large public libraries (Biblioteca Virgilio Barco, Biblioteca El Tintal, Biblioteca El Tunal and Biblioteca Julio Mario Santodomingo). It also has six branches of the Library Network of the Family Compensation Fund Colsubsidio and libraries and documentation centers attached to institutions like the Museo Nacional de Colombia (specializing in old books, catalogs and art), Bogotá Museum of Modern Art, the Alliance Française, and the Centro Colombo Americano.
Another set of libraries are the new collaborative initiatives between the state, city and international agencies. Examples are the Cultural Center Gabriel García Marquez, custom designed by the Fondo de Cultura Economica in Mexico, and the Spanish Cultural Center, which will begin construction with public funds and of the Spanish government in downtown Bogotá.
The National Library of Colombia (1777), a dependence of the Ministry of Culture and the Biblioteca Luis Angel Arango (1958), a dependence of the Bank of the Republic are the two largest public libraries in the city. The first is the repository of more than two million volumes, with an important collection of ancient books. The latter has almost two million volumes, and with in size, it hosts 10,000 visitors a day; the Library Alfonso Palacio Rudas is also a dependence of the Bank of the Republic, and is located at the north of the city, with about 50,000 volumes. Other large public libraries are the Library of Congress in Colombia (with 100,000 volumes), of the Instituto Caro y Cuervo (with nearly 200,000 volumes, the largest Latin American library in Philology and Linguistics), the Library of the Academy of History The Library of the Academy of Language, the Library of the Colombian Institute of Anthropology and History ICANH, and many university libraries.
Bogotá is home to historical records housed in the General National Archive, a collection of about 60 million documents, one of the largest repositories of primary historical sources in Latin America. Bogotá is also home to the Musical Archive of the Cathedral of Bogotá (with thousands of books and choral song-colonial period), the Archdiocesan Archive, the Archive of the Conciliar Seminary of Bogotá, the Archive History National University of Colombia and the Archive of the Mint in Bogotá, under the Bank of the Republic.
Museums and galleries
The city offers 58 museums and over 70 art galleries. The Colombian National Museum has acquisitions divided into four collections: art, history, archeology and ethnography. The Gold Museum, with 35,000 pieces of tumbaga gold, along with 30,000 objects in ceramic, stone and textiles, represents the largest collection of pre-Columbian gold in the world.
The Botero Museum has 123 works of Fernando Botero and 87 works by international artists. The Bogotá Museum of Modern Art has a collection of graphic arts, industrial design and photography. The Museum of Colonial Art is home to an important collection of colonial art from Colombia. Fundación Gilberto Alzate Avendaño hosts activities related to the performing arts and shows temporary exhibits of art in its halls and galleries.
Among the scientific museums are the Archeological Museum – Casa del Marqués de San Jorge, which has about 30 thousand pieces of pre-Columbian art, Instituto de Ciencias Naturales (UN), one of the four largest museums of natural sciences in Latin America, and the Geological Museum, which has a collection specializing in Geology and Paleontology.
Bogotá has historical museums like the Jorge Eliecer Gaitan Museum, the Museum of Independence (Museo de la Independencia), the Quinta de Bolívar and the Casa Museo Francisco José de Caldas, as well as the headquarters of Maloka and the Children's Museum of Bogotá. New museums include the Art Deco and the Museum of Bogotá.
Theater and arts
Besides the Ibero-American Theater Festival, the largest theater festival in the world, the city has forty-five theaters; the principal ones are the Colon Theater, the newly built Teatro Mayor Julio Mario Santo Domingo, the National Theater with its two venues, the traditional TPB Hall, the Theater of La Candelaria, the Camarin del Carmen (over 400 years old, formerly a convent), the Colsubsidio, and a symbol of the city, the renovated Teatro Jorge Eliecer Gaitan, León de Greiff Auditorium (home of the Bogotá Philharmonic Orchestra), and the Open Air Theater "La Media Torta", where musical events are also held.
The Ibero-American Theater Festival, is not the only acclaimed festival. There are many other regional and local theater festivals that are celebrated and maintain the city active year-round . Amongst these is the "Alternative Theater Festival".
Bogotá has its own film festival, the Bogotá Film Festival, and many theaters, showing both contemporary films and art cinema. Bogotá's international art fair, ArtBo, takes place in October of every year and showcases thousands of works covering arts across all formats, movements, and concepts.
The main cultural center of the city is the La Candelaria, historic center of the city, with a concentration of universities and museums. In 2007 Bogotá was designated the Ibero-American cultural Capital of Iberoamerica.
Religion
Before the Spanish conquest, the beliefs of the inhabitants of Bogotá formed part of the Muisca religion. From the colonial period onwards, the city has been predominantly Roman Catholic. Proof of this religious tradition is the number of churches built in the historic city center. The city has been seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bogotá since 22 March 1564. The seat of the Archbishop is the Primatial Cathedral of Bogotá; the archdiocese itself is located in new buildings in the north of the city. However a large group of the population nowadays declares itself non-practicing.
The city has a mosque located in the area of Chapinero called the Estambul mosque, a mosque being built on the Calle 80 with Cra 30 called Abou Bakr Al-Siddiq Mosque and which is the first in the city to have the traditional Islamic architecture, and an Islamic Center called Al-Qurtubi.
The main Ashkenazi Jewish synagogue (there are a total of 4 synagogues in Bogotá) is located on 94th street (also called State of Israel avenue).
An Eastern Orthodox church and the San Pablo Anglican Cathedral, the mother church of the Episcopal Church in Colombia, are both located in Chapinero. The Bogotá Colombia Temple of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is located in the Niza neighborhood. There are four Buddhist centers located in the north of the city. There is also a wide variety of Protestant churches in different parts of the city, including the Bogotá Baptist Chapel, the non-denominational Union Church, and the St. Matthaus Evangelical Lutheran Church which holds services in German as well as Spanish for the German-Colombian community.
Cuisine
There is a broad array of restaurants in Bogotá that serve typical and international food. Parque de la 93, Usaquén, Zona T, The G Zone, La Macarena, La Candelaria, The parkway and the International Center are some of the main sectors where a number of international restaurants are found, ranging from Argentinian, Peruvian, Venezuelan, Brazilian, Mexican, American establishments to Arabic, Asian, French, Italian, Russian and British bistros, rotisseries, steakhouses and pubs, just to name a few.
Typical dishes of Bogotá include the ajiaco, a soup prepared with chicken, a variety of potatoes, corn on the cob, and guascas (an herb), usually served with sour cream and capers, and accompanied by avocado and rice.
Tamales is a very traditional Bogotá dish. Colombian tamal is a paste made with rice, beef, pork and/or chicken (depending on the region), chickpea, carrot, and spices, wrapped in plantain leaves and steam-cooked.
Figs with arequipe, strawberries with cream, postre de natas and cuajada con melao are some of the main desserts offered in the city. Canelazo is a hot drink from the Altiplano prepared with aguapanela, cinnamon and aguardiente. Another hot beverage is the carajillo, made with coffee (tinto as it is known in Colombia) and aguardiente.
Parks and recreation
There are numerous parks in Bogotá, many with facilities for concerts, plays, movies, storytellers and other activities.
Simón Bolívar Park is a large park regularly used to stage free concerts (such as the annual Rock al Parque festival).
The public Parque Nacional (National Park) has green spaces, ponds, games for children, foot and bicycle paths, and venues for entertainment such as public screenings of movies and concerts and events organized by the Council of Bogotá
The Bogotá Botanical Garden (Jardín Botánico de Bogotá)
Parque de la 93 has day-time leisure activities and nightlife. Several of the top restaurants and bars in the city are in this park, the park is known around the world like the Colombian Pike Place by having the first Starbucks in all the country and Carl's Jr. as well.
Mundo Aventura is an amusement park, with an entry charge and charges for the different attractions. It has rides for adults and children, a petting zoo, and the "cerdodromo", where pigs race.
Salitre Mágico is another amusement park with rides and attractions. The park is near the Simón Bolívar park, where concerts are held throughout the year.
Parque del Chicó has trees, gardens, artificial creeks and ponds, and a colonial style house converted into a museum; Museo del Chicó
To the north of Bogotá, in the municipality of Tocancipá; Jaime Duque Park has rides, a giant map of Colombia, various exhibits, a zoo, and a big hand holding the world symbolizing God. There is a reproduction of the Taj Mahal in the park with a collection of reproductions of famous paintings. The park is also used for large concerts, mainly electronic music ones.
Maloka is an interactive museum of sciences
Tourist train is a sightseeing train, popular with Bogotá residents, which runs to outlying towns Zipaquirá, Cajicá and Nemocón along the lines of the former Bogotá Savannah Railway on weekends. The route to Zipaquirá (known for its salt cathedral) is long. Another line goes towards the north for and ends at Briceño.
The Usaquén Park is another of the most important parks in the city several of the best restaurants in this city are located there, is recognized to have street performers such as storytellers, magicians, jugglers, etc. and also for being one of the most decorated parks in the city during Christmas time.
Sports
The District Institute for Recreation and Sport promotes recreation, sports and use of the parks in Bogotá.
Football has been declared a symbol of Bogotá, and is widely played in the city. There are three professional clubs in the city, Santa Fe, Millonarios, and La Equidad. The main stadium in the city is The Campín Stadium (Estadio Nemesio Camacho El Campín) home of the local teams Santa Fe and Millonarios, In 2001 The Campín Stadium has been the place for the 2001 Copa América final between the Colombia national football and the Mexico national football, final score 1–0 in favor of the home team and finally getting their first continental cup. The other soccer venue is the multi-use Techo Metropolitan Stadium which is the home of La Equidad.
Other major sporting venues are the covered Coliseum El Campín, the Simón Bolívar Aquatic Complex, the Sports Palace, the El Salitre Sports Venue which includes the Luis Carlos Galán Velodrome (which hosted the 1995 UCI Track Cycling World Championships), the El Salitre Diamond Ballpark and the BMX track "Mario Andrés Soto".
Bogotá hosted the first Bolivarian Games held in 1938. The city hosted the National Games in 2004, winning the championship. It was a sub-venue Bolivarian Pan American Games. In addition, the city on the route of the Tour of Colombia.
After being a major venue city for the 2011 FIFA U-20 World Cup that was held in Colombia, Bogotá was one of the venue cities hosting the 2016 FIFA Futsal World Cup.
Sports teams
Symbols
The flag originated with the insurgency movement against the colonial authorities which began on 20 July 1810, during which the rebels wore armbands with yellow and red bands, as these colors were those of the Spanish flag used as the flag for the New Kingdom of Granada.
On 9 October 1952, exactly 142 years after these events, decree 555 of 1952 officially adopted the patriotic armband as the flag of Bogotá. The flag of Cundinamarca follows the same pattern, plus a light blue tile which represents the Virgin Mary's cape.
The flag itself is a yellow band above a red one. The yellow denotes the gold from the earth, as well as the virtues of justice, clemency, benevolence, the so-called "mundane qualities" (defined as nobility, excellence, richness, generosity, splendor, health, steadfastness, joy and prosperity), long life, eternity, power and constancy. The red denotes the virtue of charity, as well as the qualities of bravery, nobility, values, audacity, victory, honor and furor, Colombians call it the blood of their people.
The coat of arms of the city was granted by emperor Charles V (Charles I of Spain) to the New Kingdom of Granada, by royal decree given in Valladolid, Spain on 3 December 1548. It contains a black eagle in the center, which symbolizes steadfastness. The eagle is also a symbol of the Habsburgs, which was the ruling family of the Spanish empire at the time. The eagle is crowned with gold and holds a red pomegranate inside a golden background. The border contains olive branches with nine golden pomegranates on a blue background. The two red pomegranates symbolize audacity, and the nine golden ones represent the nine states which constituted the New Kingdom of Granada at the time. In 1932 the coat of arms was officially recognized and adopted as the symbol of Bogotá.
Bogotá's anthem lyrics were written by Pedro Medina Avendaño; the melody was composed by Roberto Pineda Duque. The song was officially declared the anthem by decree 1000 31 July 1974, by then Mayor of Bogotá, Aníbal Fernandez de Soto.
International relations
Twin towns – sister cities
Bogotá is twinned with:
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Cádiz, Spain
Chicago, United States
León, Mexico
London, England, United Kingdom
Lima, Peru
Madrid, Spain
La Paz, Bolivia
Quito, Ecuador
Santa Fe, Spain
Seoul, South Korea
Union of Ibero-American Capital Cities
Bogotá is part of the Union of Ibero-American Capital Cities established on 12 October 1982.
Partnerships and cooperations
In addition, Bogotá cooperates with:
New York City, United States
Panoramas
See also
Carnival of Bogotá
List of largest cities
Rail transport in Colombia
Transport in Colombia
References
Further reading
External links
Bogota Official Tourism site
1538 establishments in South America
1538 establishments in the Spanish Empire
Capital districts and territories
Capitals in South America
Capitals of Colombian departments
Populated places established in 1538
Subdivisions of Colombia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akathisia
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Akathisia
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Akathisia is a movement disorder characterized by a subjective feeling of inner restlessness accompanied by mental distress and an inability to sit still. Usually, the legs are most prominently affected. Those affected may fidget, rock back and forth, or pace, while some may just have an uneasy feeling in their body. The most severe cases may result in aggression, violence or suicidal thoughts.
Antipsychotic medication, particularly the first generation antipsychotics, are a leading cause. Other agents responsible for this side-effect may also include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, metoclopramide, and reserpine. It may also occur upon stopping antipsychotics. The underlying mechanism is believed to involve dopamine. Diagnosis is based on the symptoms. It differs from restless leg syndrome in that akathisia is not associated with sleeping.
Treatment may include switching to an antipsychotic with a lower risk of the condition. The antidepressant mirtazapine has demonstrated benefit, and there is tentative evidence of benefit for diphenhydramine, trazodone, benzatropine and beta blockers.
The term was first used by Czech neuropsychiatrist Ladislav Haškovec, who described the phenomenon in 1901. It is from Greek a-, meaning "not", and kathízein, meaning "to sit", or in other words an "inability to sit".
Classification
Akathisia is usually grouped as a medication-induced movement disorder but is also seen to be a neuropsychiatric concern as it can be experienced purely subjectively with no apparent movement abnormalities. Akathisia is generally associated with antipsychotics but it was already described in Parkinson's disease, and other neuropsychiatric disorders. It also presents with the use of non-psychiatric medications, including calcium channel blockers, antibiotics, anti-nausea and anti-vertigo drugs.
Signs and symptoms
Symptoms of akathisia are often described in vague terms such as feeling nervous, uneasy, tense, twitchy, restless, and an inability to relax. Reported symptoms also include insomnia, a sense of discomfort, motor restlessness, marked anxiety, and panic. Symptoms have also been said to resemble symptoms of neuropathic pain that are similar to fibromyalgia and restless legs syndrome. When due to psychiatric drugs, the symptoms are side effects that usually disappear quickly and remarkably when the medication is reduced or stopped. However, tardive akathisia which has a late onset, may go on long after the medication is discontinued, for months and sometimes years.
When misdiagnosis occurs in antipsychotic-induced akathisia, more antipsychotic may be prescribed, potentially worsening the symptoms. If symptoms are not recognised and identified akathisia can increase in severity and lead to suicidal thoughts, aggression and violence.
Visible signs of akathisia include repetitive movements such as crossing and uncrossing the legs, and constant shifting from one foot to the other. Other noted signs are rocking back and forth, fidgeting and pacing. However not all observable restless motion is akathisia. For example, mania, agitated depression, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder may look like akathisia, but the movements feel voluntary and not due to restlessness.
Jack Henry Abbott, who was diagnosed with akathisia, described the sensation in 1981 as: “You ache with restlessness, so you feel you have to walk, to pace. And then as soon as you start pacing, the opposite occurs to you; you must sit and rest. Back and forth, up and down you go … you cannot get relief …“
Causes
Medication-induced
Medication-induced akathisia is termed acute akathisia and is frequently associated with the use of antipsychotics. Antipsychotics block dopamine receptors, but the pathophysiology is poorly understood. Additionally, drugs with successful therapeutic effects in the treatment of medication-induced akathisia have provided additional insight into the involvement of other transmitter systems. These include benzodiazepines, β-adrenergic blockers, and serotonin antagonists. Another major cause of the syndrome is the withdrawal observed in drug-dependent individuals. Since dopamine deficiency (or disruptions in dopamine signalling) appears to play an important role in the development of RLS, a form of akathisia focused in the legs, the sudden withdrawal or rapidly decreased dosage of drugs which increase dopamine signalling may create similar deficits of the chemical which mimic dopamine antagonism and thus can precipitate RLS. This is why sudden cessation of opioids, cocaine, serotonergics, and other euphoria-inducing substances commonly produce RLS as a side-effect.
Akathisia involves increased levels of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine, which is associated with mechanisms that regulate aggression, alertness, and arousal. It has been correlated with Parkinson's disease and related syndromes, and descriptions of akathisia predate the existence of pharmacologic agents.
Akathisia can be miscoded in side effect reports from antidepressant clinical trials as "agitation, emotional lability, and hyperkinesis (overactivity)"; misdiagnosis of akathisia as simple motor restlessness occurred, but was more properly classed as dyskinesia.
Diagnosis
The presence and severity of akathisia can be measured using the Barnes Akathisia Scale, which assesses both objective and subjective criteria. Precise assessment of akathisia is problematic, as there are various types making it difficult to differentiate from disorders with similar symptoms.
The primary distinguishing features of akathisia in comparison with other syndromes are primarily subjective characteristics, such as the feeling of inner restlessness and tension. Akathisia can commonly be mistaken for agitation secondary to psychotic symptoms or mood disorder, antipsychotic dysphoria, restless legs syndrome (RLS), anxiety, insomnia, drug withdrawal states, tardive dyskinesia, or other neurological and medical conditions.
The controversial diagnosis of "pseudoakathisia" is sometimes given.
Treatment
Acute akathisia induced by medication, often antipsychotics, is treated by reducing or discontinuing the medication. Low doses of the antidepressant mirtazapine may be of help. Benzodiazepines, such as lorazepam, beta blockers such as propranolol, anticholinergics such as benztropine, and serotonin antagonists such as cyproheptadine may also be of help in treating acute akathisia but are much less effective for treating chronic akathisia. Vitamin B, and iron supplementation if deficient, may be of help.
Epidemiology
As of 2007, published epidemiological data for akathisia was mostly limited to studies before the availability of second-generation antipsychotics. Prevalence rates may be lower for modern treatment as second-generation antipsychotics carry a lower risk of akathisia.
Approximately one out of four individuals treated with first-generation antipsychotics have akathisia.
History
The term was first used by Czech neuropsychiatrist Ladislav Haškovec, who described the phenomenon in a non-medication induced presentation in 1901.
Reports of medication-induced akathisia from chlorpromazine appeared in 1954. Later in 1960 there were reports of akathisia in response to phenothiazines (a related drug). Akathisia is classified as an extrapyramidal side effect along with other movement disorders that can be caused by antipsychotics.
In the former Soviet Union, akathisia-inducing drugs were allegedly used as a form of torture. Haloperidol, an antipsychotic medication, was used to induce intense restlessness and Parkinson's-type symptoms in prisoners.
In 2020 clinical psychologist and professor of psychology Jordan Peterson was diagnosed with akathisia after being treated for insomnia and depression with Benzodiazepines that was associated with an autoimmune disorder and was subsequently treated in Russia.
See also
Stimming
Notes
References
External links
Symptoms and signs: Nervous system
Articles containing video clips
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Swanwick
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Michael Swanwick
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Michael Swanwick is an American fantasy and science fiction author who began publishing in the early 1980s.
Writing career
Swanwick's fiction writing began with short stories, starting in 1980 when he published "Ginungagap" in TriQuarterly and "The Feast of St. Janis" in New Dimensions 11. Both stories were nominees for the Nebula Award for Best Short Story in 1981.
His first novel was In the Drift (an Ace Special, 1985), a look at the results of a more catastrophic Three Mile Island incident, which expands on his earlier short story "Mummer's Kiss". This was followed in 1987 by Vacuum Flowers, an adventurous tour of an inhabited Solar System, where the people of Earth have been subsumed by a cybernetic mass-mind. Some characters’ bodies contain multiple personalities, which can be recorded and edited (or damaged) as if they were wetware.
In the 1990s, Swanwick moved towards the intersection between science fiction and fantasy. Stations of the Tide (1991) is the story of a bureaucrat's pursuit of a magician on a world soon to be altered by its 50-year tide swell; it is set far in the future, blurring the line between magic and technology. The Iron Dragon's Daughter (1993) is a fantasy set in a Fairyland based on modern America, with elves wearing Armani suits and dragons serving as jet fighters. The main character, a changeling stolen from the real world, struggles to survive a factory, a high school, and a university, all the while being manipulated by a dragon. In Jack Faust (1997), a retelling of the Faust legend, the scholar does not gain magical power but modern scientific knowledge and, with which he begins the Industrial Revolution centuries early.
In the 2000s, Swanwick wrote several series of flash fictions, beginning with Puck Aleshire's Abecedary, a collection of 26 stories, each titled for a different letter of the alphabet. Other series included The Periodic Table of Science Fiction, 118 stories each themed about a different chemical element. These were originally published in Sci Fiction. Later, The Infinite Matrix published The Sleep of Reason, in which each story was based on one of Goya’s caprichos. In this period, he won several awards for short fiction; between 1999 and 2003, he had nine stories shortlisted for the Hugo Award for Best Short Story, and won in 1999, 2000, and 2002.
He also continued to write novels. Bones of the Earth (2002) is a time-travel story involving dinosaurs. The Dragons of Babel (2008) is set in the same world as The Iron Dragon's Daughter, although the setting and characters are different; The Iron Dragon’s Mother (2019) was a third volume in the series. He has written two novels featuring the posthuman rogues Darger and Surplus, who had already appeared in short stories: Dancing with Bears (2011) concerns their adventures in post-Utopian Russia, and in “Chasing the Phoenix” (2015) they travel to China. After Gardner Dozois’s death, Swanwick completed his unfinished novel City Under the Stars.
His short fiction has been collected in Gravity's Angels (1991), Moon Dogs (2000), Tales of Old Earth (2000), Cigar-Box Faust and Other Miniatures (2003), The Dog Said Bow-Wow (2007), and The Best of Michael Swanwick (2008). A novella, Griffin's Egg, was published in book form in 1991 and is also collected in Moon Dogs. He has collaborated with other authors on several short works, including Gardner Dozois ("Ancestral Voices", "City of God", "Snow Job") and William Gibson ("Dogfight").
Stations of the Tide won the Nebula for best novel in 1991, and several of his shorter works have won awards as well: the Theodore Sturgeon Memorial Award for "The Edge of the World" in 1989, the World Fantasy Award for "Radio Waves" in 1996, and Hugos for "The Very Pulse of the Machine" in 1999, "Scherzo with Tyrannosaur" in 2000, "The Dog Said Bow-Wow" in 2002, "Slow Life" in 2003, and "Legions in Time" in 2004.
Nonfiction writing
Swanwick has written about the field as well. He published two long essays on the state of the science fiction ("The User's Guide to the Postmoderns", 1986) and fantasy ("In the Tradition...", 1994), the former of which was controversial for its categorization of new SF writers into "cyberpunk" and "literary humanist" camps. Both essays were collected together in The Postmodern Archipelago 1997. A book-length interview with Gardner Dozois, Being Gardner Dozois, was published in 2001. He is a prolific contributor to the New York Review of Science Fiction. Swanwick wrote a monograph on James Branch Cabell, What Can Be Saved From the Wreckage?, which was published in 2007 with a preface by Barry Humphries, and a short literary biography of Hope Mirrlees, Hope-in-the-Mist, which was published in 2009.
Television and Film
Swanwick's short story "Ice Age" from Tales of Old Earth was adapted for an episode of the first season of the Netflix series Love, Death + Robots (2019).
Personal life
Swanwick thanks his wife, Marianne C. Porter, in all his books, referring to her as “the M. C. Porter Endowment for the Arts”.
He was a friend of Gardner Dozois and Susan Caspar for many years. From this friendship grew Being Gardner Dozois and several collaborations, including the novel City Under the Stars.
Bibliography
Novels
Stations of the Tide (1991), Nebula Award winner; 1991; Hugo and Campbell Awards nominee, 1992; Clarke Award nominee, 1993
The Iron Dragon's Daughter (1993), Clarke, Locus Fantasy, and World Fantasy Awards nominee, 1994
Jack Faust (1997), BSFA nominee, 1997; Hugo and Locus Fantasy Awards nominee, 1998
Bones of the Earth (2002), Nebula Award nominee, 2002; Hugo, Locus SF, and Campbell Awards nominee, 2003
The Dragons of Babel (2008), Locus Fantasy Award nominee, 2009
Dancing With Bears (2011) - a Darger and Surplus novel
Chasing the Phoenix (2015) - a Darger and Surplus novel
The Iron Dragon's Mother (2019)
City Under the Stars (2020) - with Gardner Dozois
Short fiction
Collections
Gravity's Angels (1991) Arkham House Publishers
A Geography of Unknown Lands (1997)
Moon Dogs (2000)
Puck Aleshire's Abecedary (2000)
Tales of Old Earth (2000) Tachyon Publications
Cigar-Box Faust and Other Miniatures (2003) Tachyon Publications
Michael Swanwick's Field Guide to the Mesozoic Megafauna (2004) Tachyon Publications
The Periodic Table of Science Fiction (2005)
The Dog Said Bow-Wow (2007) Tachyon Publications
The Best of Michael Swanwick (2008)
Not So Much, Said the Cat (2016) Tachyon Publications
Short stories
"The Feast of Saint Janis" (1980)
"Walden Three" (1981)
"The Man Who Met Picasso" (1982)
"The Transmigration of Philip K." (1985)
"The Gods of Mars" (1985) (with Gardner Dozois and Jack Dann)
"Dogfight" (1985) (with William Gibson)
"The Edge of the World" (1989) (Sturgeon Award winner)
"Griffin's Egg" (1991), long novella
"The Dead" (1996)
"The Very Pulse of the Machine" (1998) (Hugo Award winner )
"Radiant Doors" (1999) (Nebula Award nominee)
"Ancient Engines" (1999) (Nebula Award nominee)
"Scherzo with Tyrannosaur" (1999) (Hugo Award winner )
"The Dog Said Bow-Wow" (2001) (Hugo Award winner )
"Slow Life" (2002) (Hugo Award winner)
"'Hello,' Said the Stick" (2002) (Hugo Award nominee)
"Legions in Time" (2003) (Hugo Award winner)
"Tin Marsh" (2006)
"Urdumheim" (2007)
"The Little Cat Laughed to See Such Sport" (2008) - a Darger and Surplus tale
"For I Have Lain Me Down on the Stone of Loneliness and I'll Not Be Back Again" (2011)
"The Dala Horse" (2011), 3 "Best of" reprints
The Mongolian Wizard series
"The Mongolian Wizard" (2012)
"The Fire Gown" (2012)
"Day of the Kraken" (2012)
"House of Dreams" (2013)
"The Night of the Salamander" (2015)
"The Pyramid of Krakow" (2015)
"The Phantom in the Maze" (2015)
"Murder in the Spook House" (2019)
"The New Prometheus" (2019)
Essays
"User's Guide to the Postmoderns", Asimov's, 1986
"The Postmodern Archipelago" (1997) Tachyon Publications
What Can Be Saved from the Wreckage? James Branch Cabell in the 21st Century (2007)
Hope-in-the-Mist: The Extraordinary Career & Mysterious Life of Hope Mirrlees (2011)
References
External links
Swanwick's weblog
Michael Swanwick's online fiction at Free Speculative Fiction Online
"October Leaves", a photo-story at Flickr
Living people
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American short story writers
21st-century American male writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American novelists
21st-century American short story writers
American male non-fiction writers
American male novelists
American male short story writers
American science fiction writers
American speculative fiction critics
Asimov's Science Fiction people
Hugo Award-winning writers
The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction people
Nebula Award winners
Novelists from Pennsylvania
Science fiction critics
World Fantasy Award-winning writers
Writers from Philadelphia
Year of birth missing (living people)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Secret%20Seven
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The Secret Seven
|
The Secret Seven or Secret Seven Society is a fictional group of child detectives created by Enid Blyton and based on the publishers children. They appear in one of several adolescent detective series which Blyton wrote.
The Secret Seven consists of Peter (the society's head), Janet (Peter's sister), Pam, Barbara, Jack, Colin and George. Jack's sister Susie and her best friend Binkie make occasional appearances in the books; they hate the Secret Seven and delight in playing tricks designed to humiliate them, although this is partly fuelled by their almost obsessive desire to belong to the society.
Unlike most other Blyton series, this one takes place during the school term time because the characters go to day schools.
Continuing Blyton's series, Pamela Butchart wrote two new adventures in the series, adding elements of horror.
Origins
The names Secret Seven and Famous Five had already been used by the author Charles Hamilton, under the pen-name Frank Richards, in his long-running series of stories featuring Billy Bunter and Greyfriars School. The Secret Seven was the name of a secret society that featured in a series of eleven stories published in The Magnet magazine in 1934; the term "Famous Five" dates from 1910 and is applied to a group of the leading characters: Harry Wharton, Frank Nugent, Bob Cherry, Johnny Bull and Hurree Jamset Ram Singh.
It is not clear whether Enid Blyton was influenced by Hamilton's work. Blyton's elder daughter, Gillian Baverstock, describes a conversation between the author and her publisher that led to the inception of Blyton's Secret Seven. The publisher's own children, the eldest of whom was named Peter, had formed a secret society with their friends. They met in an old shed, used secret passwords and had badges inscribed with "SS".
After corresponding with the real-life Peter, in 1948 Blyton published her first Secret Seven story, which describes how her fictional society came to be formed. This was a short story titled "The Secret of the Old Mill". It followed an earlier short story, "At Seaside Cottage", which introduced the leading characters, Peter and Janet, prior to the formation of the society. There followed a further five short stories and fifteen full-length books.
Shorts
The Secret Seven appeared in seven short stories by Blyton, including a mini-novella explaining how the society was formed. These were left uncollected until 1997, when all but "At Seaside Cottage" were published in a single volume by Hodder Children's Books under the title of Secret Seven: Short Story Collection.
At Seaside Cottage (1947) – first published as a complete short story book
Secret of the Old Mill (1948) – first published in "Secret of the Old Mill"
The Humbug Adventure (1954) – first published in Enid Blyton's Magazine Annual No.1
Adventure on the Way Home (1955) – first published in Enid Blyton's Magazine Annual No.2
An Afternoon with the Secret Seven (1956) – first published in Enid Blyton's Magazine Annual No.3
Where Are the Secret Seven? (1956) – first published in the strip book of the same name
Hurry, Secret Seven, Hurry! (1957) – first published in Enid Blyton's Magazine Annual No.4
Full-length books
The Secret Seven (1949) – In the Secret Seven's first full-length adventure together, Jack witnesses suspicious activity on a snowy night after searching for his badge near a large house where only a deaf, cantankerous caretaker resides. Suspecting a person is being held prisoner, the Seven then investigate the mystery.
Secret Seven Adventure (1950) – While the Seven are playing Red Indians in a wood, Peter and Colin encounter a man who has just stolen Lady Lucy Thomas's pearl necklace from Milton Manor. The search for the thief leads the children to a circus field and lions.
Well Done Secret Seven (1951) – The Secret Seven build a tree house to escape the summer heat. There, they meet a dirty boy and his injured kitten. The boy gives them some clues to a mystery involving a planned mail heist.
Secret Seven on the Trail (1952) – A trick by Susie and her infuriating Famous Five group sends Jack and George on a night trek to Tigger's Barn. But the prank leads the Secret Seven to a group of train robbers.
Go Ahead Secret Seven (1953) – A little shadowing practice by George goes awry and his parents force him to resign from the Secret Seven. Scamper is installed as his temporary replacement. Some shadowing by Colin puts the Seven on the trail of a man who shoves dogs down a coal hole. The group must then solve the mystery of the stolen dogs. By the end of the book, George is reinstalled as a member.
Good Work Secret Seven (1954) – As Bonfire Night approaches, Susie and her friends play a prank on the Seven, leading them on a wild goose-chase to a shed. Later, Peter and Janet's father's car is stolen — with them inside — but the car is soon abandoned. The group's plans for Bonfire Night seem scuppered when Scamper unwittingly sets alight their collection of fireworks. The Seven investigate the car thieves, with Peter disguising himself as a guy to keep watch for suspects at a cafe.
Secret Seven Win Through (1955) – The Seven are evicted from their shed while it is painted, and find a new meeting place — a cave on Peter and Janet's father's property. They stock the cave with cushions, food, drinks and books, including Colin's set of Famous Five novels. When their provisions start to go missing, the children suspect Susie; but Scamper later uncovers a notebook leading to crooks and a search for scarecrows.
Three Cheers Secret Seven (1956) – Susie's model aeroplane launches the Secret Seven into their next adventure. Who is using the top room in the empty Barlett Lodge, and why?
Secret Seven Mystery (1957) – When a schoolgirl is reported missing the Seven begin their search, with Susie hindering them at every turn. Where is Elizabeth Sonning, and who stole the money from her school?
Puzzle for the Secret Seven (1958) – The Seven witness a house fire, and help the family in need to rebuild their lives — but who stole a valuable violin, and what is making the baffling wailing noises on the hills at night?
Secret Seven Fireworks (1959) – The Secret Seven are shocked when Jack's sister forms a rival club called the Tiresome Three. But surely Susie wouldn't really steal their guy's clothes and firework money? And who are the nasty looking men lurking in the hut on Peter's farm?
Good Old Secret Seven (1960) – Jack's new telescope promised hours of fun until Susie claimed her half share. But after Janet spots a strange face at the window of Torling Castle, The Seven must investigate.
Shock for the Secret Seven (1961) – An argument between Peter and Jack leads to Jack resigning from the group, which is forced to become the Secret Six. But when dogs start going missing all over town, and Scamper also disappears, the group must solve the mystery. In the end, though, it is Jack who finds the vital clue and saves the day, and the Secret Seven is back together once more.
Look Out Secret Seven (1962) – Medals belonging to a kindly old General have gone missing, and Colin promises to find them — but what can they do when there are no clues and the police are baffled?
Fun for the Secret Seven (1963) – There is no actual mystery in the Secret Seven's final outing. A boy named Bob Smith asks the Seven to help an elderly farm worker, Tolly, pay a vet's bill for a lame horse that is at risk of being euthanized with a bullet. The children save the horse. Toward the end of the book, some horse thieves are thwarted. During the story, Janet reads a Famous Five novel.
Characters
Peter – The society's leader and the most leadership of the group. Although smart and strong, he is easily slighted and angered. A strong and capable leader, he has a bossy streak, verging on being downright unreasonable (particularly about wearing badges and remembering the password), reducing Pam and Barbara to tears, and on one occasion, causing Jack to temporarily leave the group. He, Janet and Jack are often closer with each other than other members of the group. Peter sometimes teases his sister, but acknowledges her as a good member of the Society.
Janet – Peter's sister. Janet is very caring, brave and she does her work seriously. She is more headstrong and braver than the other girls in the group. Her arch-enemy is Susie. Janet is very good friends with Pam and also gets well along with Jack. She thinks of many good ideas. She is quite messy, and takes too long to write if trying to write neatly.
Jack – Peter's best friend. He is frequently annoyed by his younger sister, Susie, who takes advantage of his tendency to forget the password. He gets along well with everyone in the group, especially Peter, but is also the only member who will willingly stand up to Peter when he feels that he is behaving unreasonably, to the extent that he once walked out on the group after an argument with him (although they reconciled at the end). Jack lives very near to Peter and Janet. He thinks Janet is lot better than the other girls and wishes Susie was like Janet.
Pam – A girl at Janet's school. Her best friend is Barbara and she laughs a lot. Her full first name is Pamela. She sometimes proves herself a worthy member of the Secret Seven by getting brainwaves, but is sometimes careless, such as yelling out the password and squealing when Peter was nearly pushed out of their "secret" treehouse.
Barbara – Another girl at Janet's school. She and Pam generally work (and giggle) together when looking for clues or information. They are out a lot together, such as not being able to turn up to a meeting because they are going to the same party. Barbara was the only member to be chosen by Peter: the other four were all selected by Janet.
Colin – A boy at Peter's school. Colin is a valuable member of the society, though perhaps the quietest of the boys. He has a large family, most of whom live with him. He finds his family tiresome and is afraid of the dark. He made the mystery in "Secret Seven Adventure" warm up when he saw a man escaping from Lady Thomas's house.
George – A boy at Peter's school. His best friend is Colin. George's father once banned him from the society, but he later realized his mistake and let George rejoin. Not much else is known about him, as he is rather undeveloped as a character.
Scamper – Janet and Peter's pet dog and beloved companion. He is not an official member of the Secret Seven, but the children count him as one, due to his regular usefulness in the denouement of the stories. He has temporarily filled in for members when they have left the group for any reason. He is a friendly golden English Cocker Spaniel. He loves food, especially biscuits.
Supporting characters
Susie – Jack's younger sister who frequently aggravates him and the Society which she enjoys humiliating and tormenting with her quick wit. However, this stems from her burning desire to join the Society, which Peter regularly refuses her. This is actually something of a disadvantage for Peter, as Susie is considerably more clever and cunning than some of the other members, especially Barbara and Pam, and would potentially be a more valuable member. The Seven occasionally make a temporary truce with Susie, and sometimes she helps them solve the mysteries.
Binkie – Susie's best friend.
Bony - Susie's and Jack's French friend who appears in one book. His real name is Jean Baptiste Boneparte. He is very timid, shy and loves dogs. Dogs love him too and are often attracted to him. He is more friendly towards Susie than to Jack and is often annoyed with the S.S. He had been a member of Susie's club for a few days before he returned to France and soon after that the club broke up.
Jack the farmer – Jack the farmer is Peter and Janet's father. He is not as strict as some parents of the day, but has taught Peter some very strong ideas about right and wrong.
Peter and Janet's mother – Peter and Janet's mother is supportive of the Secret Seven and their good work. She frequently provides snacks for their meetings.
Jack's mother – Unlike Peter's mother, Jack's mother does not think the Secret Seven is particularly important and gets angry when Jack puts all his effort into fulfilling Peter's wishes although she does sometimes provide for the Seven.
Matt the Shepherd – Peter's father's elderly colleague, who works on the farm. He has a dog called Shadow who is stolen in a mystery but is later recovered. He is portrayed as a helpful and caring old man.
Shadow - Matt the shepherd's strong, heavy shepherd dog who loves his master very much. Matt too loves him like a brother. He is stolen in a mystery in the book Shock for Secret Seven but is later recovered.
The Inspector – The police inspector who the Secret Seven always report the cases to. He has become a good friend of the Seven Seven.
Postie the Postman – Postie was the postman of the area and almost all dogs were attracted towards him. He was found to be criminal in the book Shock for Secret Seven and was jailed.
The Gardener – Peter and Janet's gardener, who has a very bad temper but can be witty and even useful when he helps capture some criminals along with Matt the Shepherd and Peter's dad in Good Old Secret Seven.
French series
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Evelyne Lallemand wrote an additional series of 11 books about the Secret Seven, nine of which were translated into English by Anthea Bell and published in paperback by Knight Books. The English translations were published between 1983 and 1986. The full French series is as follows:
Les Sept à la chasse au lion 1976 (English title: The Seven and the Lion Hunt; English no.: 1)
Les Sept font du cinéma 1977 (English title: The Seven on Screen; English no.: 6)
Les Sept et le magicien 1977 (English title: The Seven and the Magician; English no.: 3)
Les Sept sont dans de beaux draps 1978 (English title: The Seven Go Haunting; English no.: 2)
Les Sept et les bulldozers 1978 (English title: The Seven to the Rescue; English no.: 5)
Les Sept et la déesse d'or 1979 (English title: The Seven Strike Gold; English no.: 4)
Les Sept et les soucoupes volantes 1979 (English title: The Seven and the UFOs; English no.: 7)
Les Sept à 200 à l'heure 1980 (English title: The Seven and the Racing Driver; English no.: 9)
Les Sept ne croient pas au père Noël 1981 (English title: The Seven and Father Christmas; English no.: 8)
Les Sept saluent Lucky Star 1982 (The Seven greet Lucky Star)
Les Sept et la boule de cristal 1984 (The Seven and the Crystal Ball)
Pamela Butchart books
In 2018, Hodder Children's Books published The Secret Seven Mystery of the Skull by Pamela Butchart in an effort to augment sales from the series. This was followed in 2019 by The Secret Seven and the Mystery of the Theatre Ghost.
Stage adaptations
The first ever stage adaptation based on The Secret Seven opened in Chester at the city's new Storyhouse theatre from 1 December 2017. It received good reviews.
Audio drama
A dramatized audio drama adaptation of several Secret Seven books was published by Rainbow Communications in 1983.
References
Book series introduced in 1949
Children's mystery novels
Enid Blyton series
Fictional amateur detectives
Fictional septets
Novel series
|
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211280
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahi-mahi
|
Mahi-mahi
|
The mahi-mahi () or common dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus) is a surface-dwelling ray-finned fish found in off-shore temperate, tropical, and subtropical waters worldwide. Also widely called dorado (not to be confused with Salminus brasiliensis, a fresh water fish) and dolphin, it is one of two members of the family Coryphaenidae, the other being the pompano dolphinfish. These fish are most commonly found in the waters around the Gulf of Mexico, Costa Rica, Hawaii and the Indian Ocean.
Nomenclature
The name mahi-mahi comes from the Hawaiian language and means "very strong", through the process of reduplication. By chance in Persian, mahi (ماهی) means fish, but the word mahi in Hawaiian has nothing to do with the Persian language. Though the species is also referred to as the common dolphinfish, the use of "dolphin" can be misleading as they are not related to dolphins; see Coryphaena for the possible etymologies of "dolphinfish". In parts of the Pacific and along the English-speaking coast of South Africa, the mahi-mahi is commonly referred to by its name in Spanish, dorado. In the Mediterranean island of Malta, the mahi-mahi is referred to as the lampuka.
Linnaeus named the genus, derived from the Greek word, κορυφή, koryphe, meaning top or apex, in 1758. Synonyms for the species include Coryphaena argyrurus, Coryphaena chrysurus, and Coryphaena dolfyn.
Description
Mahi-mahi have compressed bodies and a single long-based dorsal fin extending from the head almost to the tail. Mature males have prominent foreheads protruding well above the body proper. Females have a rounded head. Their caudal fins and anal fins are sharply concave. They are distinguished by dazzling colors - golden on the sides, and bright blues and greens on the sides and back. The pectoral fins of the mahi-mahi are iridescent blue. The flank is broad and golden.
Out of the water, the fish often change color (giving rise to their Spanish name, dorado, "golden"), going through several hues before finally fading to a muted yellow-grey upon death.
Mahi-mahi can live for up to five years, although they seldom exceed four. Females are usually smaller than males. Catches typically are and a meter in length. They rarely exceed , and mahi-mahi over are exceptional. Mahi-mahi are among the fastest-growing of fish. They spawn in warm ocean currents throughout much of the year, and their young are commonly found in rafts of Sargassum weeds. Young Mahi Mahi migrate past Malta where they are called Lampuki and Sicily where they are known as Lampuga or Capone; there they are fished using nets and floating mats of palm leaves under which they collect.
Mahi-mahi are carnivorous, feeding on flying fish, crabs, squid, mackerel, and other forage fish. They have also been known to eat zooplankton.
Males and females are sexually mature in their first year, usually by the age of 4–5 months. Spawning can occur at body lengths of . Females may spawn two to three times per year, and produce between 80,000 and 1,000,000 eggs per event. In waters at 28 °C/83 °F, mahi-mahi larvae are found year-round, with greater numbers detected in spring and fall.
Mahi-mahi fish are mostly found in the surface water. Their flesh is grey-white when raw, cooking to an attractive white with a clean, non-fishy flavour. The body is slightly slender and long, making them fast swimmers; they can swim as fast as 50 knots (92.6 km/h, 57.5 mph).
Recreational fishing
Mahi-mahi are highly sought for sport fishing and commercial purposes. Sport fishermen seek them due to their beauty, size, food quality, and healthy population. Mahi-mahi can be found in the Caribbean Sea, on the west coast of North and South America, the Pacific coast of Costa Rica, the Gulf of Mexico, the Atlantic coast of Florida and West Africa, Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal, South China Sea and Southeast Asia, Hawaii, Tahiti, and many other places worldwide.
Fishing charters most often look for floating debris and frigatebirds near the edge of the reef in about of water. Mahi-mahi (and many other fish) often swim near debris such as floating wood, five-gallon bucket lids, palm trees and fronds, or sargasso weed lines and around fish buoys. Frigatebirds search for food accompanying the debris or sargasso. Experienced fishing guides can tell what species are likely around the debris by the birds' behavior.
gear is more than adequate when trolling for mahi-mahi. Fly-casters may especially seek frigatebirds to find big mahi-mahis, and then use a bait-and-switch technique. Ballyhoo or a net full of live sardines tossed into the water can excite the mahi-mahis into a feeding frenzy. Hookless teaser lures can have the same effect. After tossing the teasers or live chum, fishermen throw the fly to the feeding mahi-mahi. Once on a line, mahi-mahi are fast, flashy, and acrobatic, with beautiful blue, yellow, green, and even red dots of color.
Commercial fishing
The United States and the Caribbean countries are the primary consumers of this fish, but many European countries are increasing their consumption every year. It is a popular food fish in Australia, usually caught and sold as a byproduct by tuna and swordfish commercial fishing operators. Japan and Hawaii are significant consumers. The Arabian Sea, particularly the coast of Oman, also has mahi-mahi. At first, mahi-mahi were mostly bycatch in the tuna and swordfish longline fishery. Now, they are sought by commercial fishermen on their own merits.
In French Polynesia, fishermen use harpoons, using a specifically designed boat, the poti marara, to pursue it, because mahi-mahi do not dive. The poti marara is a powerful motorized V-shaped boat, optimized for high agility and speed, and driven with a stick so the pilot can hold his harpoon with his right hand. The method is also practiced by fishermen in the Philippines, especially in the northern province of Batanes, where the harpooning is called pagmamamataw.
Environmental and food safety concerns
Depending on how it is caught, mahi-mahi is classed differently by various sustainability rating systems:
The Monterey Bay Aquarium classifies mahi-mahi, when caught in the US Atlantic, as a best choice, the top of its three environmental-impact categories. The aquarium advises to avoid imported mahi-mahi harvested by long line, but rates troll and pole-and-line caught as a good alternative.
The Natural Resources Defense Council classifies mahi-mahi as a "moderate mercury" fish (its second-lowest of four categories), and suggests eating six servings or fewer per month.
The Environmental Defense Fund classifies mahi-mahi caught by line/pole in the US as "Eco-Best" in its three-category system, but classifies all mahi-mahi caught by longline as only "Eco-OK" or "Eco-Worst" due to longline "high levels [of] bycatch, injuring or killing seabirds, sea turtles and sharks."
The mahi-mahi is also a common vector for ciguatera poisoning. Although a very popular food dish in many parts of the world, there have been reports of ciguatera poisoning from human consumption of this fish. Ciguatera poisoning is caused by the accumulation of toxins (ciguatoxins and maitotoxin) in the flesh of the fish over time. These are produced by Gambierdiscus toxicus which grows together with marine algae, which causes fish like the mahi-mahi to consume them by accident.
References
Further reading
Atlantic mahimahi NOAA FishWatch. Retrieved 11 November 2012.
Pacific mahimahi NOAA FishWatch. Retrieved 11 November 2012.
External links
Monterey Bay Aquarium's Regional Seafood Watch
Blue Ocean Institute's Guide to Ocean Friendly Seafood
Dolphinfish
Commercial fish
mahi-mahi
Fish described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Fish of the Atlantic Ocean
Hawaiian cuisine
Hawaiian words and phrases
Pantropical fauna
Sport fish
Cuisine of the Southern United States
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malory%20Towers
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Malory Towers
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Malory Towers is a series of six novels by English children's author Enid Blyton. The series is based on a girls' boarding school that Blyton's daughter attended, Benenden School, which relocated during the war to the Cornish seaside. The series follows the protagonist, Darrell Rivers, on her adventures and experiences in boarding school. Darrell Rivers' name was inspired by that of Blyton's second husband, Kenneth Darrell Waters.
In 2009, six more books were added to the series by author Pamela Cox. Events in these take place after Darrell has left the school and focus on her younger sister, Felicity Rivers.
Plot
Darrell Rivers begins her first year at Malory Towers, a castle-like clifftop boarding school in Cornwall. Determined to do well and make friends, her first term is turbulent. Her temper causes problems, her efforts at playing the fool backfire, and the first book ends with Darrell becoming best friends with Sally Hope.
Darrell's career from this point is smoother, and she eventually covers herself in the personal, scholastic and sporting glory that was originally expected of her. She is head of the fourth form, games captain of the fifth, and head girl in her final year as well as being a successful lacrosse and tennis player. When she is in the fourth form, her younger sister, Felicity, joins her as a first former at the school. From then up until "Last Term at Malory Towers", we also focus on Felicity and the rest of her form, especially June, the troublesome cousin of Darrell's friend Alicia. In all of the books, Darrell plays a pivotal role, though she is not always successful in her endeavours and indeed is temporarily stripped of her fourth-form captaincy (when she is caught shaking June who was threatening to reveal the secret of a midnight feast held by the fourth formers out of personal spite), though she gets it back again by resolving a particularly complicated case of sibling rivalry. She is on friendly terms with most of her classmates and even makes her peace with vain, selfish class outcast Gwendoline Lacey when a personal tragedy strikes her.
At the end of her school life, Darrell is bound for the University of St Andrews with Sally, Alicia, and her friend Betty. She puts her younger sister Felicity in charge of upholding the standard that she and her classmates set.
The second series of six books follows Felicity from the third year to her final term. Sally's younger sister, Daffy, eventually joins the school as well. The final book of the new series, Goodbye Malory Towers, sees the return of the original cast for a school reunion, and the addition of Gwendoline Lacey to the teaching staff.
Characters
Darrell Rivers is the main character of the first six books. She is hot-tempered and this causes her many problems, but she learns to control it as she goes up the school, and she is also a very responsible, hard-working girl. She is very popular with her form, as is her best friend Sally Hope. When she gets into the upper school she becomes head-girl of the fourth form, games captain in the fifth and finally, in sixth form, Head Girl of the school. As she gets older at Malory Towers she begins to realise her talent for writing and goes on to be a writer. She is very well known in the school and was looked up to by all the smaller children in her time as Head Girl.
Gwendoline Lacey was a silly, spoilt and selfish girl, always thinking that she was good and most likeable, even though she did many underhanded and wrong things. Alicia especially liked to pick on her, making Gwen (Gwendoline's nickname) both afraid of and angry towards her. Her attitude only changed when her father fell very sick during her last term, and she was told that he would die. Realising that she had to stop being so fussy about things, she starts to wonder about her dreadful future. She had wished to go to a Swiss finishing school, but when her father became so ill, she realised he would not be able to afford it, and she would have to get a secretarial job.
Alicia Johns was the form joker. There was no end to the tricks she played on the poor teachers. Although she was very popular because of her pranks and jokes, she was also very sharp-tongued and scornful of those less talented or healthy than her. She had a very quick brain and if she really worked hard at something then it would be amazing however, she was far too busy playing the fool. Her years at Malory Towers did soften her, and she became less sharp-tongued and hard. She was never given any role of responsibility because she was far too fond of playing the fool.
Sally Hope was Darrell's best friend. Although at first she was very odd and quiet because of troubles at home, she soon blossomed into a calm, responsible young lady. The troubles at home were all because Sally was jealous of her younger sister, Daffy, for taking all her parents' attention. Poor Sally was so upset that she thought her parents sent her away to Malory Tower because they didn't want her. The issue was resolved when Sally fell ill and her parents left the baby at home and came all the way down to Cornwall, which was where the school was, to see Sally. Convinced that her parents did love her, she turned into a much nicer and happier girl and soon Sally and Darrell became best friends. Jealousy had always been an issue with Sally and she tried hard to get rid of it while she was at Malory Towers. In second form she became Head Of Form and then in the sixth became games captain.
Betty was Alicia's best friend from a different tower and she was very similar to Alicia. For this reason, Miss Grayling (the headmistress) would not let Betty move into Alicia's tower.
Mary-Lou was "a timid little thing" who was even scared of her own shadow when she first came. However, she did find courage in certain situations. She was initially Gwen's 'best friend' but Gwen was only using her. Later, she made a threesome with Darrell and Sally before she finally found a friend of her own, Daphne, who appeared in the second form.
Daphne was a silly, pretty girl who joined in the second form. She initially made friends with Gwendoline, before becoming a better person and befriending Mary-Lou.
Felicity Rivers was Darrell's younger sister who joins the first form when Darrell is in the fourth. She is the main character of Pamela Cox's sequel series.
June Johns was Alicia's cousin who was in Felicity's form. Like her cousin, she was extremely mischievous and troublesome, but not quite as good-hearted, and she ended up hurting many other girls' feelings. But she could be sensible and quite a kind person. When she became a games captain, the younger girls adored her!
Susan Blake was Felicity's best friend. She was very sensible and responsible but had a good sense of humour and therefore very popular among her form.
Miss Potts was the first form mistress and head of North Tower. She was very strict and always had an eye on mischief-makers such as Alicia and June.
Mam'zelle Dupont was one of the two French mistresses. She was somewhat silly and was afraid of many things, meaning that she was the victim of most of the girls' tricks and pranks, although she had a very hot temper. Because of her general jolliness and good-humour she was popular with the girls.
Mam'zelle Rougier was the other of the two french mistresses. She was as stern as Mam'zelle Dupont was strict and didn't care for jokes or tricks. Not many students dare to misbehave in her class as she hands out harsh punishments.
Miss Grayling was the headmistress. She was very sensible and strict, but also kind and gentle. Every girl in the school was in awe of her.
School building
The school has four towers that are four storeys high. The kitchen, dining hall and common rooms are on the ground floor, dormitories are on the first and second floors, teachers' rooms and storage are on the top floor.
The school forms a square with a courtyard in the middle. The sides of the school are three storeys high. Between the west and the north towers there are the classrooms. Between the north and east towers are the 'san' and the headmistress's rooms. Between the east and south towers are the entrance, gym, assembly hall, labs and art room. Between the south and west tower are the mistress's rooms.
The school also has a rose garden, stables, tennis courts, sports pitches and an outside, natural swimming pool.
Books
The six official books of the series are:
First Term at Malory Towers (1946)
Second Form at Malory Towers (1947)
Third Year at Malory Towers (1948)
Upper Fourth at Malory Towers (1949)
In the Fifth at Malory Towers (1950)
Last Term at Malory Towers (1951)
Pamela Cox wrote six sequels of the series in 2009 which focus on the adventures of Felicity Rivers, June Johns and Susan Blake:
New Term at Malory Towers (2009)
Summer Term at Malory Towers (2009)
Winter Term at Malory Towers (2009)
Fun and Games at Malory Towers (2009)
Secrets at Malory Towers (2009)
Goodbye Malory Towers (2009)
Related books
Blyton wrote two other series about boarding-school life: the St. Clare's and the Naughtiest Girl series.
Adaptations
German adaptation
The German version, published in the 1960s and 1970s underwent substantial changes to catch up with time (e.g. turntables instead of gramophones), to better resemble German grammar schools (playing handball instead of lacrosse). Furthermore, there were changes to character names - for instance, Darrell was re-named Dolly. From 1977 to 1997, twelve sequel books were published, telling Dolly's further life which always stays close to the school: after studying at a partner university, she works as a house mistress, marries one of the teachers, and has a child of her own. The story ends in the 18th book with old Miss Grayling's dignified retirement - and Dolly as her successor.
Stage musical
A stage production written and directed by Emma Rice and her company Wise Children has been touring theatres in 2019. It is a co-production with York Theatre Royal, in association with the Bristol Old Vic.
TV series
In 2019, it was announced that a television adaptation was being produced for British children's channel CBBC, in association with Canada's Family Channel. It was developed by Rachel Flowerday, who had previously worked on the television series Father Brown, and Sasha Hails. It specifically included a cast with members of BAME communities and actors with facial disfigurements. It premiered on 23 March 2020. Season 1 has 13 half-hour episodes about Darell's first year at Malory Towers. Two more seasons of 13 episodes have been commissioned, to be shot in 2021.
References
External links
Summaries of the six books in the Malory Towers series written by Enid Blyton at enidblyton.net
Book series introduced in 1946
20th-century British children's literature
British children's novels
British novels adapted into plays
British novels adapted into television shows
Children's books adapted into television shows
Novels set in Cornwall
Enid Blyton series
Fictional schools
Novels set in boarding schools
Series of children's books
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landfill
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Landfill
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A landfill site, also known as a tip, dump, rubbish dump, garbage dump, or dumping ground, is a site for the disposal of waste materials. Landfill is the oldest and most common form of waste disposal, although the systematic burial of the waste with daily, intermediate and final covers only began in the 1940s. In the past, refuse was simply left in piles or thrown into pits; in archeology this is known as a midden.
Some landfill sites are used for waste management purposes, such as temporary storage, consolidation and transfer, or for various stages of processing waste material, such as sorting, treatment, or recycling. Unless they are stabilized, landfills may undergo severe shaking or soil liquefaction of the ground during an earthquake. Once full the area over a landfill site may be reclaimed for other uses.
Operations
Operators of well-run landfills for non-hazardous waste meet predefined specifications by applying techniques to:
confine waste to as small an area as possible
compact waste to reduce volume
They can also cover waste (usually daily) with layers of soil or other types of material such as woodchips and fine particles.
During landfill operations, a scale or weighbridge may weigh waste collection vehicles on arrival and personnel may inspect loads for wastes that do not accord with the landfill's waste-acceptance criteria. Afterward, the waste collection vehicles use the existing road network on their way to the tipping face or working front, where they unload their contents. After loads are deposited, compactors or bulldozers can spread and compact the waste on the working face. Before leaving the landfill boundaries, the waste collection vehicles may pass through a wheel-cleaning facility. If necessary, they return to the weighbridge for re-weighing without their load. The weighing process can assemble statistics on the daily incoming waste tonnage, which databases can retain for record keeping. In addition to trucks, some landfills may have equipment to handle railroad containers. The use of "rail-haul" permits landfills to be located at more remote sites, without the problems associated with many truck trips.
Typically, in the working face, the compacted waste is covered with soil or alternative materials daily. Alternative waste-cover materials include chipped wood or other "green waste", several sprayed-on foam products, chemically "fixed" bio-solids, and temporary blankets. Blankets can be lifted into place at night and then removed the following day prior to waste placement. The space that is occupied daily by the compacted waste and the cover material is called a daily cell. Waste compaction is critical to extending the life of the landfill. Factors such as waste compressibility, waste-layer thickness and the number of passes of the compactor over the waste affect the waste densities.
Sanitary landfill life cycle
The term landfill is usually shorthand for a municipal landfill or sanitary landfill. These facilities were first introduced early in the 20th century, but gained wide use in the 1960s and 1970s, in an effort to eliminate open dumps and other "unsanitary" waste disposal practices. The sanitary landfill is an engineered facility that separates and confines waste. Sanitary landfills are intended as biological reactors (bioreactors) in which microbes will break down complex organic waste into simpler, less toxic compounds over time. These reactors must be designed and operated according to regulatory standards and guidelines (See environmental engineering).
Usually, aerobic decomposition is the first stage by which wastes are broken down in a landfill. These are followed by four stages of anaerobic degradation. Usually, solid organic material in solid phase decays rapidly as larger organic molecules degrade into smaller molecules. These smaller organic molecules begin to dissolve and move to the liquid phase, followed by hydrolysis of these organic molecules, and the hydrolyzed compounds then undergo transformation and volatilization as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), with rest of the waste remaining in solid and liquid phases.
During the early phases, little material volume reaches the leachate, as the biodegradable organic matter of the waste undergoes a rapid decrease in volume. Meanwhile, the leachate's chemical oxygen demand increases with increasing concentrations of the more recalcitrant compounds compared to the more reactive compounds in the leachate. Successful conversion and stabilization of the waste depend on how well microbial populations function in syntrophy, i.e. an interaction of different populations to provide each other's nutritional needs.:
The life cycle of a municipal landfill undergoes five distinct phases:
Initial adjustment (Phase I)
As the waste is placed in the landfill, the void spaces contain high volumes of molecular oxygen (O2). With added and compacted wastes, the O2 content of the landfill bioreactor strata gradually decreases. Microbial populations grow, density increases. Aerobic biodegradation dominates, i.e. the primary electron acceptor is O2.
Transition (Phase II)
The O2 is rapidly degraded by the existing microbial populations. The decreasing O2 leads to less aerobic and more anaerobic conditions in the layers. The primary electron acceptors during transition are nitrates and sulphates since O2 is rapidly displaced by CO2 in the effluent gas.
Acid formation (Phase III)
Hydrolysis of the biodegradable fraction of the solid waste begins in the acid formation phase, which leads to rapid accumulation of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) in the leachate. The increased organic acid content decreases the leachate pH from approximately 7.5 to 5.6. During this phase, the decomposition intermediate compounds like the VFAs contribute much chemical oxygen demand (COD). Long-chain volatile organic acids (VOAs) are converted to acetic acid (C2H4O2), CO2, and hydrogen gas (H2). High concentrations of VFAs increase both the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and VOA concentrations, which initiates H2 production by fermentative bacteria, which stimulates the growth of H2-oxidizing bacteria. The H2 generation phase is relatively short because it is complete by the end of the acid formation phase. The increase in the biomass of acidogenic bacteria increases the amount of degradation of the waste material and consuming nutrients. Metals, which are generally more water-soluble at lower pH, may become more mobile during this phase, leading to increasing metal concentrations in the leachate.
Methane fermentation (Phase IV)
The acid formation phase intermediary products (e.g., acetic, propionic, and butyric acids) are converted to CH4 and CO2 by methanogenic microorganisms. As VFAs are metabolized by the methanogens, the landfill water pH returns to neutrality. The leachate's organic strength, expressed as oxygen demand, decreases at a rapid rate with increases in CH4 and CO2 gas production. This is the longest decomposition phase.
Final maturation and stabilization (Phase V)
The rate of microbiological activity slows during the last phase of waste decomposition as the supply of nutrients limits the chemical reactions, e.g. as bioavailable phosphorus becomes increasingly scarce. CH4 production almost completely disappears, with O2 and oxidized species gradually reappearing in the gas wells as O2 permeates downwardly from the troposphere. This transforms the oxidation–reduction potential (ORP) in the leachate toward oxidative processes. The residual organic materials may incrementally be converted to the gas phase, and as organic matter is composted; i.e. the organic matter is converted to humic-like compounds.
Social and environmental impact
Landfills have the potential to cause a number of issues. Infrastructure disruption, such as damage to access roads by heavy vehicles, may occur. Pollution of local roads and watercourses from wheels on vehicles when they leave the landfill can be significant and can be mitigated by wheel washing systems. Pollution of the local environment, such as contamination of groundwater or aquifers or soil contamination may occur, as well.
Leachate
When precipitation falls on open landfills, water percolates through the garbage and becomes contaminated with suspended and dissolved material, forming leachate. If this is not contained it can contaminate groundwater. All modern landfill sites use a combination of impermeable liners several metres thick, geologically stable sites and collection systems to contain and capture this leachate. It can then be treated and evaporated. Once a landfill site is full, it is sealed off to prevent precipitation ingress and new leachate formation. However, liners must have a lifespan, be it several hundred years or more. Eventually, any landfill liner could leak, so the ground around landfills must be tested for leachate to prevent pollutants from contaminating groundwater.
Decomposition gases
Rotting food and other decaying organic waste create decomposition gases, especially CO2 and CH4 from aerobic and anaerobic decomposition, respectively. Both processes occur simultaneously in different parts of a landfill. In addition to available O2, the fraction of gas constituents will vary, depending on the age of landfill, type of waste, moisture content and other factors. For example, the maximum amount of landfill gas produced can be illustrated a simplified net reaction of diethyl oxalate that accounts for these simultaneous reactions:
4 C6H10O4 + 6 H2O → 13 CH4 + 11 CO2
On average, about half of the volumetric concentration of landfill gas is CH4 and slightly less than half is CO2. The gas also contains about 5% molecular nitrogen (N2), less than 1% hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and a low concentration of non-methane organic compounds (NMOC), about 2700 ppmv.
Landfill gases can seep out of the landfill and into the surrounding air and soil. Methane is a greenhouse gas, and is flammable and potentially explosive at certain concentrations, which makes it perfect for burning to generate electricity cleanly. Since decomposing plant matter and food waste only release carbon that has been captured from the atmosphere through photosynthesis, no new carbon enters the carbon cycle and the atmospheric concentration of CO2 is not affected. Carbon dioxide traps heat in the atmosphere, contributing to climate change. In properly managed landfills, gas is collected and flared or recovered for landfill gas utilization.
Vectors
Poorly run landfills may become nuisances because of vectors such as rats and flies which can spread infectious diseases. The occurrence of such vectors can be mitigated through the use of daily cover.
Other nuisances
Other potential issues include wildlife disruption due to occupation of habitat and animal health disruption caused by consuming waste from landfills, dust, odor, noise pollution, and reduced local property values.
Landfill gas
Gases are produced in landfills due to the anaerobic digestion by microbes. In a properly managed landfill this gas is collected and used. Its uses range from simple flaring to the landfill gas utilization and generation of electricity. Landfill gas monitoring alerts workers to the presence of a build-up of gases to a harmful level. In some countries, landfill gas recovery is extensive; in the United States, for example, more than 850 landfills have active landfill gas recovery systems.
Regional practice
Canada
Landfills in Canada are regulated by provincial environmental agencies and environmental protection legislation.
Older facilities tend to fall under current standards and are monitored for leaching. Some former locations have been converted to parkland.
European Union
In the European Union, individual states are obliged to enact legislation to comply with the requirements and obligations of the European Landfill Directive.
The majority of EU member states have laws banning or severely restricting the disposal of household trash via landfills.
India
Landfilling is currently the major method of municipal waste disposal in India. India also has Asia's largest dumping ground in Deonar, Mumbai. However issues frequently arise due alarming growth rate of landfills and poor management by authorities. On and under surface fires have been commonly seen in the Indian landfills over the last few years.
United Kingdom
Landfilling practices in the UK have had to change in recent years to meet the challenges of the European Landfill Directive. The UK now imposes landfill tax upon biodegradable waste which is put into landfills. In addition to this the Landfill Allowance Trading Scheme has been established for local authorities to trade landfill quotas in England. A different system operates in Wales where authorities cannot 'trade' amongst themselves, but have allowances known as the Landfill Allowance Scheme.
United States
U.S. landfills are regulated by each state's environmental agency, which establishes minimum guidelines; however, none of these standards may fall below those set by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Permitting a landfill generally takes between five and seven years, costs millions of dollars and requires rigorous siting, engineering and environmental studies and demonstrations to ensure local environmental and safety concerns are satisfied.
Types
Municipal solid waste: takes in household waste and nonhazardous material. Included in this type of landfill is a Bioreactor Landfill that specifically degrades organic material.
Industrial waste: for commercial and industrial waste. Other related landfills include Construction and Demolition Debris Landfills and Coal Combustion Residual Landfills.
Hazardous waste or PCB waste: Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) landfills that are monitored in the United States by the Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 (TSCA).
Microbial topics
The status of a landfill's microbial community may determine its digestive efficiency.
Bacteria that digest plastic have been found in landfills.
Reclaiming materials
One can treat landfills as a viable and abundant source of materials and energy. In third-world countries, waste pickers often scavenge for still-usable materials. In commercial contexts, companies have also discovered landfill sites, and many have begun harvesting materials and energy. Well-known examples include gas-recovery facilities.
Other commercial facilities include waste incinerators which have built-in material recovery. This material recovery is possible through the use of filters (electro filter, active-carbon and potassium filter, quench, HCl-washer, SO2-washer, bottom ash-grating, etc.).
Alternatives
In addition to waste reduction and recycling strategies, there are various alternatives to landfills, including waste-to-energy incineration, anaerobic digestion, composting, mechanical biological treatment, pyrolysis and plasma arc gasification. Depending on local economics and incentives, these can be made more financially attractive than landfills.
Restrictions
Countries including Germany, Austria, Sweden, Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, have banned the disposal of untreated waste in landfills. In these countries, only certain hazardous wastes, fly ashes from incineration or the stabilized output of mechanical biological treatment plants may still be deposited.
See also
Bioreactor landfill
Daily cover
Fly-tipping
Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill Performance (HELP) model
Land reclamation
Landfarming
Landfill diversion
Landfill restoration
Landfill tax
List of solid waste treatment technologies
Marine debris
Mechanical biological treatment
Milorganite
National Waste & Recycling Association
NIMBY
Open dump
Recycling rates by country
Sludge
Solid Waste Association of North America
Waste management
Midden
References
Further reading
Daniel A. Vallero, Environmental Biotechnology: A Biosystems Approach. 2nd Edition. Academic Press, Amsterdam, Netherlands and Boston MA, Print Book ; eBook . 2015.
External links
US National Waste & Recycling Association
Solid Waste Association of North America
https://waste-management-world.com/a/a-compact-guide-to-landfill-operation-machinery-management-and-misconceptions
Waste management
|
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] |
211288
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephantiasis
|
Elephantiasis
|
Elephantiasis is the enlargement and hardening of limbs or body parts due to tissue swelling. It is characterised by edema, hypertrophy, and fibrosis of skin and subcutaneous tissues, due to obstruction of lymphatic vessels. It may affect the genitalia. The term elephantiasis is often used in reference to (symptoms caused by) parasitic worm infections, but may refer to a variety of diseases where parts of a person's body swell to massive proportions.
Cause
Some conditions that present with elephantiasis include:
Elephantiasis nostras, due to longstanding chronic lymphangitis
Elephantiasis tropica (known as lymphatic filariasis), caused by a number of parasitic worms, particularly Wuchereria bancrofti. More than 120 million people, mostly in Africa and Southeast Asia, are affected.
Nonfilarial elephantiasis (or podoconiosis), an immune disease affecting the lymph vessels
Leishmaniasis
Elephantiasis, Grade 3 lymphedema which may occur in people with breast cancer
Genital elephantiasis, end result of lymphogranuloma venereum
Proteus syndrome, a genetic disorder best known as the condition possibly suffered by Joseph Merrick, the so-called "Elephant Man."
Other causes may include:
Repeated streptococcal infection
Lymphadenectomy
Hereditary birth defects
Pretibial myxedema
References
External links
Symptoms and signs: Skin and subcutaneous tissue
Diseases of veins, lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyde%20Park%2C%20London
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Hyde Park, London
|
Hyde Park is a Grade I-listed major park in Central London. It is the largest of four Royal Parks that form a chain from the entrance of Kensington Palace through Kensington Gardens and Hyde Park, via Hyde Park Corner and Green Park past the main entrance to Buckingham Palace. The park is divided by the Serpentine and the Long Water lakes.
The park was established by Henry VIII in 1536 when he took the land from Westminster Abbey and used it as a hunting ground. It opened to the public in 1637 and quickly became popular, particularly for May Day parades. Major improvements occurred in the early 18th century under the direction of Queen Caroline. Several duels took place in Hyde Park during this time, often involving members of the nobility. The Great Exhibition of 1851 was held in the park, for which The Crystal Palace, designed by Joseph Paxton, was erected.
Free speech and demonstrations have been a key feature of Hyde Park since the 19th century. Speakers' Corner has been established as a point of free speech and debate since 1872, while the Chartists, the Reform League, the suffragettes, and the Stop the War Coalition have all held protests there. In the late 20th century, the park was known for holding large-scale free rock music concerts, featuring groups such as Pink Floyd, The Rolling Stones and Queen. Major events in the park have continued into the 21st century, such as Live 8 in 2005, and the annual Hyde Park Winter Wonderland from 2007.
Geography
Hyde Park is the largest Royal Park in central London. It is bounded on the north by Bayswater Road, to the east by Park Lane, and to the south by Knightsbridge. Further north is Paddington, further east is Mayfair and further south is Belgravia. To the southeast, outside the park, is Hyde Park Corner, beyond which is Green Park, St. James's Park and Buckingham Palace Gardens. The park has been Grade I listed on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens since 1987.
To the west, Hyde Park merges with Kensington Gardens. The dividing line runs approximately between Alexandra Gate to Victoria Gate via West Carriage Drive and the Serpentine Bridge. The Serpentine is to the south of the park area. Kensington Gardens has been separate from Hyde Park since 1728, when Queen Caroline divided them. Hyde Park covers 142 hectares (350 acres), and Kensington Gardens covers 111 hectares (275 acres), giving a total area of 253 hectares (625 acres). During daylight, the two parks merge seamlessly into each other, but Kensington Gardens closes at dusk, and Hyde Park remains open throughout the year from 5 a.m. until midnight.
History
Early history
The park's name comes from the Manor of Hyde, which was the northeast sub-division of the manor of Eia (the other two sub-divisions were Ebury and Neyte) and appears as such in the Domesday Book. The name is believed to be of Saxon origin, and means a unit of land, the hide, that was appropriate for the support of a single family and dependents. Through the Middle Ages, it was property of Westminster Abbey, and the woods in the manor were used both for firewood and shelter for game.
16th–17th centuries
Hyde Park was created for hunting by Henry Vlll in 1536 after he acquired the manor of Hyde from the Abbey. It was enclosed as a deer park and remained a private hunting ground until James I permitted limited access to gentlefolk, appointing a ranger to take charge. Charles I created the Ring (north of the present Serpentine boathouses), and in 1637 he opened the park to the general public. It quickly became a popular gathering place, particularly for May Day celebrations. At the start of the English Civil War in 1642, a series of fortifications were built along the east side of the park, including forts at what is now Marble Arch, Mount Street and Hyde Park Corner. The latter included a strongpoint where visitors to London could be checked and vetted.
In 1652, during the Interregnum, Parliament ordered the then park to be sold for "ready money". It realised £17,000 with an additional £765 6s 2d for the resident deer. During the Great Plague of London in 1665, Hyde Park was used as a military camp. Following the Restoration of the Monarchy in 1660, Charles II retook ownership of Hyde Park and enclosed it in a brick wall. He restocked deer in what is now Buck Hill in Kensington Gardens. The May Day parade continued to be a popular event; Samuel Pepys took part in the park's celebrations in 1663 while attempting to gain the King's favour.
18th century
In 1689, William III moved his residence to Kensington Palace on the far side of Hyde Park and had a drive laid out across its southern edge which was known as the King's Private Road. The drive is still in existence as a wide straight gravelled carriage track leading west from Hyde Park Corner across the southern boundary of Hyde Park towards Kensington Palace and now known as Rotten Row, possibly a corruption of rotteran (to muster), Ratten Row (roundabout way), Route du roi, or rotten (the soft material with which the road is covered). It is believed to be the first road in London to be lit at night, which was done to deter highwaymen. In 1749, Horace Walpole was robbed while travelling through the park from Holland House. The row was used by the wealthy for riding in the early 19th century.
Hyde Park was a popular duelling spot during the 18th century, with 172 taking place, causing 63 deaths. The Hamilton–Mohun Duel took place there in 1712, when Charles Mohun, 4th Baron Mohun fought James Hamilton, 4th Duke of Hamilton. Baron Mohun was killed instantly, and the Duke died shortly afterwards. John Wilkes fought Samuel Martin in 1772, the year in which Richard Brinsley Sheridan duelled with Captain Thomas Mathews over the latter's libellous comments about Sheridan's fiancée, Elizabeth Ann Linley. Edward Thurlow, 1st Baron Thurlow, fought Andrew Stuart in a Hyde Park duel in 1770. Military executions were common in Hyde Park at this time; John Rocque's Map of London, 1746, marks a point inside the park, close to the Tyburn gallows, as "where soldiers are shot."
The first coherent landscaping in Hyde Park began in 1726. It was undertaken by Charles Bridgeman for King George I; after the king's death in 1727, it continued with approval of his daughter-in-law, Queen Caroline. Work was supervised by Charles Withers, the Surveyor-General of Woods and Forests. The principal effect work was to Hyde Park and create Kensington Gardens. The Serpentine was formed by damming the River Westbourne, which runs through the park from Kilburn towards the Thames. It is divided from the Long Water by a bridge designed by George Rennie in 1826.
The work was completed in 1733. The 2nd Viscount Weymouth was made Ranger of Hyde Park in 1739 and shortly after began digging the Serpentine lakes at Longleat. A powder magazine was built north of the Serpentine in 1805.
19th–21st centuries
Hyde Park hosted a Great Fair in the summer of 1814 to celebrate the Allied sovereigns' visit to England, and exhibited various stalls and shows. The Battle of Trafalgar was re-enacted on the Serpentine, with a band playing the National Anthem while the French fleet sank into the lake. The coronation of King George IV in 1821 was celebrated with a fair in the park, including an air balloon and firework displays.
One of the most important events to take place in Hyde Park was the Great Exhibition of 1851. The Crystal Palace was constructed on the south side of the park. The public did not want the building to remain after the closure of the exhibition, and its architect, Joseph Paxton, raised funds and purchased it. He had it moved to Sydenham Hill in South London. Another significant event was the first Victoria Cross investiture, on 26 June 1857, when 62 men were decorated by Queen Victoria in the presence of Prince Albert and other members of the Royal Family, including their future son-in-law Crown Prince Frederick William of Prussia.
The Hyde Park Lido sits on the south bank of the Serpentine. It opened in 1930 to provide improved support for bathing and sunbathing in the park, which had been requested by the naturist group, the Sunlight League. The Lido and accompanying Pavilion was designed by the Commissioner of Works, George Lansbury, and was half funded by a £5,000 (now £) donation from Major Colin Cooper (1892–1938). It still sees regular use in the summer into the 21st century.
Hyde Park has been a major venue for several Royal jubilees and celebrations. For the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria in 1887, a party was organised on 22 June where around 26,000 school children were given a free meal as a gift. The Queen and the Prince of Wales made an unexpected appearance at the event. Victoria remained fond of Hyde Park in the final years of her life and often drove there twice a day. As part of the Queen's Silver Jubilee in 1977, a Jubilee Exhibition was set up in Hyde Park, with the Queen and Prince Philip visiting on 30 June. In 2012, a major festival took place in the park as part of the Queen's Diamond Jubilee celebrations. On 6 February, the King's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery fired a 41-gun Royal Salute at Hyde Park Corner.
On 20 July 1982, a Provisional Irish Republican Army bomb killed four soldiers and seven horses. A memorial was constructed to the left of the Albert Gate to commemorate the soldiers and horses killed in the blast.
Since 2007, Hyde Park has played host to the annual Winter Wonderland event, which features numerous Christmas-themed markets, along with various rides and attractions, alongside bars and restaurants. It has become one of the largest Christmas events in Europe, having attracted over 14 million visitors as of 2016, and has expanded to include the largest ice rink in London, live entertainment and circuses.
On 18 September 2010, Hyde Park was the setting for a prayer vigil with Pope Benedict XVI as part of his visit to the United Kingdom, attended by around 80,000 people. A large crowd assembled along the Mall to see the Pope arrive for his address. An attempt to assassinate the Pope had been foiled after five people dressed as street cleaners were spotted within a mile of Hyde Park, and arrested along with a sixth suspect. They were later released without charge as police said they posed no credible threat.
Grand Entrance
During the late 18th century, plans were made to replace the old toll gate at Hyde Park Corner with a grander entrance, following the gentrification of the area surrounding it. The first design was put forward by Robert Adam in 1778 as a grand archway, followed by John Soane's 1796 proposal to build a new palace adjacent to the corner in Green Park.
Following the construction of Buckingham Palace, the improvement plans were revisited. The grand entrance to the park at Hyde Park Corner was designed by Decimus Burton, and was constructed in the 1820s. Burton laid out the paths and driveways and designed a series of lodges, the Screen/Gate at Hyde Park Corner (also known as the Grand Entrance or the Apsley Gate) in 1825 and the Wellington Arch, which opened in 1828. The Screen and the Arch originally formed a single composition, designed to provide a monumental transition between Hyde Park and Green Park, although the arch was moved in 1883. It originally had a statue of the Duke of Wellington on top; it was moved to Aldershot in 1883 when the arch was re-sited.
An early description reports:
"It consists of a screen of handsome fluted Ionic columns, with three carriage entrance archways, two-foot entrances, a lodge, etc. The extent of the whole frontage is about . The central entrance has a bold projection: the entablature is supported by four columns; and the volutes of the capitals of the outside column on each side of the gateway are formed in an angular direction, so as to exhibit two complete faces to view. The two side gateways, in their elevations, present two insulated Ionic columns, flanked by antae. All these entrances are finished by a blocking, the sides of the central one being decorated with a beautiful frieze, representing a naval and military triumphal procession. This frieze was designed by Mr. Henning, junior, the son of Mr. Henning who was well known for his models of the Elgin Marbles. The gates were manufactured by Messrs. Bramah. They are of iron, bronzed, and fixed or hung to the piers by rings of gun-metal. The design consists of a beautiful arrangement of the Greek honeysuckle ornament; the parts being well defined, and the raffles of the leaves brought out in a most extraordinary manner."
The Wellington Arch was extensively restored by English Heritage between 1999 and 2001. It is now open to the public, who can see a view of the parks from its platforms above the porticoes.
Features
Popular areas within Hyde Park include Speakers' Corner (located in the northeast corner near Marble Arch), close to the former site of the Tyburn gallows, and Rotten Row, which is the northern boundary of the site of the Crystal Palace.
Botany
Flowers were first planted in Hyde Park in 1860 by William Andrews Nesfield. The next year, the Italian Water Garden was constructed at Victoria Gate, including fountains and a summer house. Queen Anne's Alcove was designed by Sir Christopher Wren and was moved to the park from its original location in Kensington Gardens.
During the late 20th century, over 9,000 elm trees in Hyde Park were killed by Dutch elm disease. This included many trees along the great avenues planted by Queen Caroline, which were ultimately replaced by limes and maples. The park now holds of greenhouses which hold the bedding plants for the Royal Parks. A scheme is available to adopt trees in the park, which helps fund their upkeep and maintenance. A botanical curiosity is the weeping beech, which is known as "the upside-down tree". A rose garden, designed by Colvin & Moggridge Landscape Architects, was added in 1994.
Monuments
There are a number of assorted statues and memorials around Hyde Park. The Cavalry Memorial was built in 1924 at Stanhope Gate. It moved to the Serpentine Road when Park Lane was widened to traffic in 1961. South of the Serpentine is the Diana, Princess of Wales memorial, an oval stone ring fountain opened on 6 July 2004. To the east of the Serpentine, just beyond the dam, is London's Holocaust Memorial. The 7 July Memorial in the park commemorates the victims of 7 July 2005 London bombings.
The Standing Stone is a monolith at the centre of the Dell, in the east of Hyde Park. Made of Cornish stone, it was originally part of a drinking fountain, though an urban legend was established, claiming it was brought from Stonehenge by Charles I.
An assortment of unusual sculptures are scattered around the park, including: Still Water, a massive horse head lapping up water; Jelly Baby Family, a family of giant Jelly Babies standing on top of a large black cube; and Vroom Vroom, which resembles a giant human hand pushing a toy car along the ground. The sculptor Jacob Epstein constructed several works in Hyde Park. His memorial to the author William Henry Hudson, featuring his character Rima caused public outrage when it was unveiled in 1925.
There has been a fountain at Grosvenor Gate since 1863, designed by Alexander Munro. There is another fountain opposite Mount Street on the park's eastern edge.
A pet cemetery was established at the north edge of Hyde Park in the late 19th century. The last burial took place in 1976.
Debates
Hyde Park's Speakers' Corner has acquired an international reputation for demonstrations and other protests due to its tolerance of free speech. In 1855, a protest at the park was organised to demonstrate against Robert Grosvenor's attempt to ban Sunday trading, including a restriction on pub opening times. Karl Marx observed approximately 200,000 protesters attended the demonstration, which involved jeering and taunting at upper-class horse carriages. A further protest occurred a week later, but this time the police attacked the crowd.
In 1867 the policing of the park was entrusted to the Metropolitan Police, the only royal park so managed, due to the potential for trouble at Speakers' Corner. A Metropolitan Police station ('AH') is situated in the middle of the park. Covering Hyde Park and sixteen other royal parks (mostly in London), the 1872 Parks Regulation Act formalised the position of "park keeper" and also provided that "Every police constable belonging to the police force of the district in which any park, garden, or possession to which this Act applies is situate shall have the powers, privileges, and immunities of a park-keeper within such park, garden, or possession."
Speakers' Corner became increasingly popular in the late 19th century. Visitors brought along placards, stepladders and soap boxes in order to stand out from others, while heckling of speakers was popular. Donald Soper, Baron Soper was a regular visitor throughout the 20th century, until just before his death in 1998. The rise of the Internet, particularly blogs, has diminished the importance of Speakers' Corner as a political platform, and it is increasingly seen as simply a tourist attraction.
As well as Speakers' Corner, several important mass demonstrations have occurred in Hyde Park. On 26 July 1886, the Reform League staged a march from their headquarters towards the park, campaigning for increased suffrage and representation. Though the police had closed the park, the crowd managed to break down the perimeter railings and get inside, leading to the event being dubbed "The Hyde Park Railings Affair". After the protests turned violent, three squadrons of Horse Guards and numerous Foot Guards were sent out from Marble Arch to combat the situation. On 21 June 1908, as part of "Women's Sunday", a reported 750,000 people marched from the Embankment to Hyde Park protesting for votes for women. The first protest against the planned 2003 invasion of Iraq took place in Hyde Park on 28 September 2002, with 150,000–350,000 in attendance. A further series of demonstrations happened around the world, culminating in the 15 February 2003 anti-war protests, part of a global demonstration against the Iraq War. Over a million protesters are reported to have attended the Hyde Park event alone.
Concerts
The bandstand in Hyde Park was built in Kensington Gardens in 1869 and moved to its present location in 1886. It became a popular place for concerts in the 1890s, featuring up to three every week. Military and brass bands continued to play there into the 20th century.
The music management company Blackhill Enterprises held the first rock concert in Hyde Park on 29 June 1968, attended by 15,000 people. On the bill were Pink Floyd, Roy Harper and Jethro Tull, while John Peel later said it was "the nicest concert I’ve ever been to". Subsequently, Hyde Park has featured some of the most significant concerts in rock. The supergroup Blind Faith (featuring Eric Clapton and Steve Winwood) played their debut gig in Hyde Park on 7 June 1969. The Rolling Stones headlined a concert (later released as The Stones in the Park) on 5 July that year, two days after the death of founding member Brian Jones, and is now remembered as one of the most famous gigs of the 1960s. Pink Floyd returned to Hyde Park on 18 July 1970, playing new material from Atom Heart Mother. All of the early gigs from 1968 to 1971 were free events, contrasting sharply with the later commercial endeavours.
Queen played a free concert organised by Richard Branson in the park on 18 September 1976, partway through recording the album A Day at the Races. The band drew an audience of 150,000 – 200,000, which remains the largest crowd for a Hyde Park concert. The group were not allowed to play an encore, and police threatened to arrest frontman Freddie Mercury if he attempted to do so.
The British Live 8 concert took place in Hyde Park on 2 July 2005, as a concert organised by Bob Geldof and Midge Ure to raise awareness of increased debts and poverty in the third world. Acts included U2, Coldplay, Elton John, R.E.M., Madonna, The Who and Paul McCartney, and the most anticipated set was the reformation of the classic 1970s line-up of Pink Floyd (including David Gilmour and Roger Waters) for the first time since 1981. The gig was the Floyd's final live performance.
Acts from each of the four nations in the UK played a gig in the park as part of the opening ceremony for the 2012 Summer Olympics. The headliners were Duran Duran, representing England, alongside the Stereophonics for Wales, Paolo Nutini for Scotland and Snow Patrol for Northern Ireland. Since 2011, Radio 2 Live in Hyde Park has taken place each September.
Local residents have become critical of Hyde Park as a concert venue, due to the sound levels, and have campaigned for a maximum sound level of 73 decibels. In July 2012, Bruce Springsteen and Paul McCartney found their microphones switched off after Springsteen had played a three-hour set during the Park's Hard Rock Calling festival, and overshot the 10:30 pm curfew time.
Sports
Hyde Park contains several sporting facilities, including several football pitches and a Tennis centre. There are numerous cycle paths, and horse riding is popular.
In 1998 British artist Marion Coutts recreated Hyde Park, along with Battersea and Regent's Park, as a set of asymmetrical ping-pong tables for her interactive installation Fresh Air.
For the 2012 Summer Olympics, the park hosted the triathlon, which brothers Alistair Brownlee and Jonathan Brownlee took the Gold and Bronze medals for Team GB, and the 10 km open water swimming events. The park has also hosted the ITU World Triathlon Grand Final.
Transport
There are five London Underground stations located on or near the edges of Hyde Park and Kensington Gardens (which is contiguous with Hyde Park). In clockwise order starting from the south-east, they are:
Hyde Park Corner (Piccadilly line)
Knightsbridge (Piccadilly line)
Queensway (Central line)
Lancaster Gate (Central line)
Marble Arch (Central line)
Bayswater tube station, on the Circle and District lines, is also close to Queensway station and the north-west corner of the park. High Street Kensington tube station, on the Circle and District is very close to Kensington Palace located on the Southwest corner of Kensington Gardens. Paddington station, served by Bakerloo, Circle and District, and Hammersmith & City lines, is close to Lancaster Gate station and a short walk away from Hyde Park.
Several main roads run around the perimeter of Hyde Park. Park Lane is part of the London Inner Ring Road and the London Congestion Charge zone boundary. The A4, a major road through West London, runs along the southeastern edge of the park, while the A5, a major road to Milton Keynes and the Midlands runs northwest from Marble Arch.
Transport within the park for people lacking mobility and disabled visitors is provided free of charge by Liberty Drives, located at Triangle Carpark.
Cycle Superhighway 3 (CS3) begins at Lancaster Gate, on the northern perimeter of Hyde Park. It is one of several TfL-coordinated cycle routes to cross the Park. CS3 also crosses Hyde Park Corner on its route towards Westminster and the City of London. The route opened in September 2018 and is signposted and cyclists are segregated from other road traffic on wide cycle tracks.
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Map showing Hyde Park and Kensington Gardens
Venues of the 2012 Summer Olympics
Historic public gardens
Olympic swimming venues
Olympic triathlon venues
Parks and open spaces in the City of Westminster
Royal Parks of London
Great Exhibition
World's fair sites in England
Decimus Burton buildings
Grade I listed parks and gardens in London
Urban public parks in the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpetual%20check
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Perpetual check
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In the game of chess, perpetual check is a situation in which one player can a draw by an unending series of checks. This typically arises when the player who is checking cannot deliver checkmate, and failing to continue the series of checks gives the opponent at least a chance to win. A draw by perpetual check is no longer one of the rules of chess; however, such a situation will eventually result in a draw by either threefold repetition or the fifty-move rule. Players usually agree to a draw long before that, however. .
Perpetual check can also occur in other forms of chess, although the rules relating to it might be different. For example, giving perpetual check is not allowed in shogi and xiangqi, where doing so leads to an automatic loss for the giver.
Examples
In this diagram, Black is ahead a rook, a bishop, and a pawn, which would normally be a decisive advantage. But White, to move, can draw by perpetual check:
1. Qe8+ Kh7
2. Qh5+ Kg8
3. Qe8+ etc.
The same position will soon repeat for the third time and White can claim a draw by threefold repetition; or the players will agree to a draw.
Unzicker versus Averbakh
In the diagram, from Unzicker–Averbakh, Stockholm Interzonal 1952, Black (on move) would soon be forced to give up one of his rooks for White's c-pawn (to prevent it from promoting or to capture the promoted queen after promotion). He can, however, exploit the weakness of White's pawn structure with
1... Rxc7
2. Qxc7 Ng4!
Threatening 3...Qh2.
3. hxg4 Qf2+
Salvaging a draw by threefold repetition with checks by moving the queen alternatively to f2 and h4.
Hamppe versus Meitner
In a classic game Carl Hamppe–Philipp Meitner, Vienna 1872, following a series of sacrifices Black forced the game to the position in the diagram, where he drew by a perpetual check:
16... Bb7+!
17. Kb5
If 17.Kxb7 Kd7 18.Qg4+ Kd6 followed by ...Rhb8#.
17... Ba6+
18. Kc6
If 18.Ka4? Bc4 and 19...b5#.
18... Bb7+
Leko versus Kramnik
In the game Peter Leko–Vladimir Kramnik, Corus 2008, Black was able to obtain a draw because of perpetual check:
24... Qb4+
25. Ka2 Qa4+
26. Kb2 Qb4+
27. Kc1 Qa3+
28. Kb1 ½–½
If 28. Kd2? Rd8+ 29. Ke2 Qe7+
Fischer versus Tal
A perpetual check saved a draw for Mikhail Tal in the game Bobby Fischer–Tal, Leipzig 1960, played in the 14th Chess Olympiad, while Tal was World Champion. In this position Black played
21... Qg4+
and the game was drawn . (After 22.Kh1, then 22...Qf3+ 23.Kg1 Qg4+ forces perpetual check.)
Mutual perpetual check
A mutual perpetual check is not possible using only the orthodox chess pieces, but is possible using some fairy chess pieces. In the diagram to the right, the pieces represented as upside-down knights are nightriders: they move any number of knight-moves in a given direction until they are blocked by something along the path (that is, a nightrider is to a knight as a queen is to a king, ignoring the rules on check). There could follow:
1. Ke3+ Kd5+
2. Kd3+ Ke5+
3. Ke3+ Kd5+
and so on. This is in fact a mutual perpetual discovered check.
Noam Elkies devised a mutual discovered perpetual check position that only requires one fairy piece in 1999. The piece represented by an inverted knight here is a camel, a (3,1)-leaper. There could follow:
1. Nb5+ Cc5+
2. Nd4+ Cb2+
3. Nb5+ Cc5+
and so on.
Perpetual pursuit
Related to perpetual check is the perpetual pursuit, which differs in that the continually attacked piece is not the king. The result is similar, in that the opposing side's attack stalls because of the need to respond to the continuous threats.
In the study to the right, White's situation seems hopeless, as he is down a piece, cannot stop Black's h-pawn, and his passed a-pawn can easily be stopped by Black's bishop. But he can save himself by restricting the bishop's movement to set up a perpetual pursuit. He begins:
1. a6 Bxc4
A direct pawn race with 1... h3? fails, as White promotes first and covers the promotion square.
2. e4+!
This pawn sacrifice forces Black to limit his bishop's scope along the long diagonal.
2... Kxe4
Forced, as Black has to play Bd5 to stop the pawn.
3. a7 Bd5
4. c4!
Denying another square to the bishop, which must stay on the a8-h1 diagonal. This forces
4... Ba8
And White can then begin the perpetual pursuit:
5. Kb8 Bc6
6. Kc7 Ba8
Black can make no progress.
An example of perpetual pursuit being used in a game occurred in Bilek–Schüssler, Poutiainen Memorial 1978. Bilek thought he could win the enemy queen with the combination
10. Nf6+ gxf6
11. Bxf7+ Kxf7
12. Qxd8
However, Schüssler replied
12... Nd5! ½–½
and Bilek conceded the draw. His queen is now trapped, and with ...Bb4+ threatening to win it, he has nothing better than 13. 0-0 Bg7 14. Qd6 Bf8 15. Qd8 Bg7 with another perpetual pursuit.
History
The Oxford Encyclopedia of Chess Games, Volume 1 (1485–1866) includes all recorded games played up to 1800 . The earliest example of perpetual check contained in it is a game played by two unknown players in 1750:
versus Unknown, 1750 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Bc4 Bc5 4. 0-0 (the rules of castling not yet having been standardized in their current form, White moved his king to h1 and his rook to f1) Nf6 5. Nc3 Ng4 6. d3 0-0 (Black moved his king to h8 and his rook to f8) 7. Ng5 d6 8. h3 h6 9. Nxf7+ Rxf7 10. Bxf7 Qh4 11. Qf3 Nxf2+ 12. Rxf2 Bxf2 13. Nd5 Nd4 14. Ne7 Nxf3 15. Ng6+ Kh7 ½–½ in light of 16.Nf8+ Kh8 17.Ng6+ etc.
The next examples of perpetual check in the book are two games, both ending in perpetual check, played in 1788 between Bowdler and Philidor, with Philidor giving odds of pawn and move .
A draw by perpetual check used to be in the rules of chess , . Howard Staunton gave it as one of six ways to draw a game in The Chess-Player's Handbook . It has since been removed because perpetual check will eventually allow a draw claim by either threefold repetition or the fifty-move rule. If a player demonstrates intent to perform perpetual check, the players usually agree to a draw .
See also
Desperado
Rules of chess
Stalemate
References
Bibliography
(1985 Batsford reprint, )
External links
Perpetual Check by Hans Bodlaender, The Chess Variant Pages
Chess rules
Chess terminology
Chess tactics
he:תיקו (שחמט)#שח נצחי
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price
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Price
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A price is the (usually not negative) quantity of payment or compensation given by one party to another in return for goods or services. In some situation, the price of production has a different name. If the product is a "good" in the commercial exchange, the payment for this product will likely be called its "price". However, if the product is "service", there will be other possible names for this product's name. For example, the graph on the bottom will show some situations A good's price is influenced by production costs, supply of the desired item, and demand for the product. A price may be determined by a monopolist or may be imposed on the firm by market conditions.
Price can be quoted to currency, quantities of goods or vouchers
In modern economies, prices are generally expressed in units of some form of currency. (More specifically, for raw materials they are expressed as currency per unit weight, e.g. euros per kilogram or Rands per KG.)
Although prices could be quoted as quantities of other goods or services, this sort of barter exchange is rarely seen. Prices are sometimes quoted in terms of vouchers such as trading stamps and air miles.
In some circumstances, cigarettes have been used as currency, for example in prisons, in times of hyperinflation, and in some places during World War II. In a black market economy, barter is also relatively common.
In many financial transactions, it is customary to quote prices in other ways. The most obvious example is in pricing a loan, when the cost will be expressed as the percentage rate of interest. The total amount of interest payable depends upon credit risk, the loan amount and the period of the loan. Other examples can be found in pricing financial derivatives and other financial assets. For instance the price of inflation-linked government securities in several countries is quoted as the actual price divided by a factor representing inflation since the security was issued.
"Price" sometimes refers to the quantity of payment requested by a seller of goods or services, rather than the eventual payment amount. This requested amount is often called the asking price or selling price, while the actual payment may be called transaction price or traded price. Likewise, the bid price or buying price is the quantity of payment offered by a buyer of goods or services, although this meaning is more common in asset or financial markets than in consumer markets.
Economic price theory asserts that in a free market economy the market price reflects interaction between supply and demand: the price is set so as to equate the quantity being supplied and that being demanded. In turn, these quantities are determined by the marginal utility of the asset to different buyers and to different sellers. Supply and demand, and hence price, may be influenced by other factors, such as government subsidy or manipulation through industry collusion.
When a raw material or a similar economic good for sale at multiple locations, the law of one price is generally believed to hold. This essentially states that the cost difference between the locations cannot be greater than that representing shipping, taxes, other distribution costs and more.
Functions of prices
According to Milton Friedman, price has five functions in a free-enterprise exchange economy which is characterized by private ownership of the means of production:
Transmitting information about changes in the relative importance of different end-products and factors of production.
Providing an incentive to enterprise a) To produce those products valued most highly by the market； b) To use methods of production that economize relatively scarce factors of production；
Providing an incentive to owners of resources to direct them into the most highly remunerated uses；
Distributing output among the owners of resources；
Rationing fixed supplies of goods among consumers.；
Price and value
The paradox of value was observed and debated by classical economists. Adam Smith described what is now called the diamond – water paradox: diamonds command a higher price than water, yet water is essential for life and diamonds are merely ornamentation. Use value was supposed to give some measure of usefulness, later refined as marginal benefit while exchange value was the measure of how much one good was in terms of another, namely what is now called relative price.
Negative prices
Negative prices are very unusual but possible under certain circumstances. Effectively, the owner or producer of an item pays the "buyer" to take it off their hands.
In April 2020, for the first time in history, due to the global health/economic crisis situation, price of (futures contract for) West Texas Intermediate benchmark crude oil turned negative, with a barrel of oil at -$37.63 a barrel, a one-day drop of $55.90, or 306%, according to Dow Jones Market Data. "Negative prices means someone with a long position in oil would have to pay someone to take that oil off of their hands. Why would they do that? The main reason is a fear that if forced to take delivery of crude on the expiration of the May oil contract, there would be nowhere to put it as a glut of crude fills up available storage." In a sense the price is still positive, just the direction of payment reverses, i.e. in this case you are paid to take some goods.
Negative interest rates are a similar concept.
Austrian School theory
One solution offered to the paradox of the value is through the theory of marginal utility proposed by Carl Menger, one of the founders of the Austrian School of economics.
As William Barber put it, human volition, the human subject, was "brought to the centre of the stage" by marginalist economics, as a bargaining tool. Neoclassical economists sought to clarify choices open to producers and consumers in market situations, and thus "fears that cleavages in the economic structure might be unbridgeable could be suppressed".
Without denying the applicability of the Austrian theory of value as subjective only, within certain contexts of price behavior, the Polish economist Oskar Lange felt it was necessary to attempt a serious integration of the insights of classical political economy with neo-classical economics. This would then result in a much more realistic theory of price and of real behavior in response to prices. Marginalist theory lacked anything like a theory of the social framework of real market functioning, and criticism sparked off by the capital controversy initiated by Piero Sraffa revealed that most of the foundational tenets of the marginalist theory of value either reduced to tautologies, or that the theory was true only if counter-factual conditions applied.
One insight often ignored in the debates about price theory is something that businessmen are keenly aware of: in different markets, prices may not function according to the same principles except in some very abstract (and therefore not very useful) sense. From the classical political economists to Michał Kalecki it was known that prices for industrial goods behaved differently from prices for agricultural goods, but this idea could be extended further to other broad classes of goods and services.
Price as productive human labour time
Marxists assert that value derives from the volume of socially necessary labour time exerted in the creation of an object. This value does not relate to price in a simple manner, and the difficulty of the conversion of the mass of values into the actual prices is known as the transformation problem. However, many recent Marxists deny that any problem exists. Marx was not concerned with proving that prices derive from values. In fact, he admonished the other classical political economists (like Ricardo and Smith) for trying to make this proof. Rather, for Marx, price equals the cost of production (capital-cost and labor-costs) plus the average rate of profit. So if the average rate of profit (return on capital investment) is 22% then prices would reflect cost-of-production plus 22%. The perception that there is a transformation problem in Marx stems from the injection of Walrasian equilibrium theory into Marxism where there is no such thing as equilibrium.
Confusion between prices and costs of production
Price is commonly confused with the notion of cost of production, as in "I paid a high cost for buying my new plasma television"; but technically these are different concepts. Price is what a buyer pays to acquire products from a seller. Cost of production concerns the seller's expenses (e.g., manufacturing expense) in producing the product being exchanged with a buyer. For marketing organizations seeking to make a profit, the hope is that price will exceed cost of production so that the organization can see financial gain from the transaction.
Finally, while pricing is a topic central to a company's profitability, pricing decisions are not limited to for-profit companies. The behavior of non-profit organizations, such as charities, educational institutions and industry trade groups, also involve setting prices. For instance, charities seeking to raise money may set different "target" levels for donations that reward donors with increases in status (e.g., name in newsletter), gifts or other benefits; likewise educational and cultural nonprofits often price seats for events in theatres, auditoriums and stadiums. Furthermore, while nonprofit organizations may not earn a "profit", by definition, it is the case that many nonprofits may desire to maximize net revenue—total revenue less total cost—for various programs and activities, such as selling seats to theatrical and cultural performances.
Price point
The price of an item is also called the "price point", especially if it refers to stores that set a limited number of price points. For example, Dollar General is a general store or "five and dime" store that sets price points only at even amounts, such as exactly one, two, three, five, or ten dollars (among others). Other stores have a policy of setting most of their prices ending in 99 cents or pence. Other stores (such as dollar stores, pound stores, euro stores, 100-yen stores, and so forth) only have a single price point ($1, £1, €1, ¥100), but in some cases, that price may purchase more than one of some very small items.
Market price
7.1: In economics,
market price is the economic price for which a good or service is offered in the marketplace. It is of interest mainly in the study of microeconomics. Market value and market price are equal only under conditions of market efficiency, equilibrium, and rational expectations. Market price is measured during a specific period of time and is greatly affected by the supply and demand for a good or service. For example, if demand for a good increases and supply of the good is held constant, the price for the good will rise in a marketplace with open competition.
7.2: On restaurant menus,
"market price" (often abbreviated to m.p. or mp) is written instead of a specific price, meaning "price of dish depends on market price of ingredients, and price is available upon request",and is particularly used for seafood, notably lobsters and oysters.
Other terms
Basic Price: It is the amount that producer receive from buyer for a unit of good or service produced minus any taxes payable and plus subsidies payable on that unit as the result of its production or sales. It does not include any producer transport charges which involves separately.
Producer Price Index: It measures the average change of the selling price of domestic producers' products over time.
Purchase Price: It refers to the amount paid by the purchaser for receiving a unit of goods or services at the time and place required by the purchaser and any deductible taxes will not be included. The purchase price also include any transport charge for purchase to pick up the goods to specific location in the required time.
Price optimization is the use of mathematical techniques by a company to determine how customers will respond to different prices for its products and services through different channels.
See also
Notes
References
Milton Friedman, Price Theory.
George Stigler, Theory of Price.
Simon Clarke, Marx, marginalism, and modern sociology: from Adam Smith to Max Weber (London: The Macmillan Press, Ltd, 1982).
Makoto Itoh & Costas Lapavitsas, Political Economy of Money and Finance.
Pierre Vilar, A history of gold and money.
William Barber, A History of Economic Thought.
Vaggi G. The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics: Market Price
Further reading
Vianello, F. [1989], “Natural (or Normal) Prices. Some Pointers”, in: Political Economy. Studies in the Surplus Approach, 2, pp. 89–105.
External links
Prices and Wages by Decade library guide – Historical prices and wages research guide at the University of Missouri libraries
Pricing
|
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] |
211298
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Quincy
|
USS Quincy
|
Three United States Navy ships have been named USS Quincy, after the city of Quincy, Massachusetts.
was a German cargo ship seized during World War I.
was a heavy cruiser, sunk during World War II.
was a heavy cruiser, named to commemorate CA-39.
United States Navy ship names
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy%20the%20Elephant
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Lucy the Elephant
|
Lucy the Elephant is a six-story elephant-shaped example of novelty architecture, constructed of wood and tin sheeting in 1881 by James V. Lafferty in Margate City, New Jersey, approximately five miles (8 km) south of Atlantic City. Originally named Elephant Bazaar, Lucy was built to promote real estate sales and attract tourists. Today, Lucy is the oldest surviving roadside tourist attraction in America.
History
1881–1899
Patenting and construction
In 1881, the U.S. Patent Office granted James V. Lafferty a patent giving him the exclusive right to make, use or sell animal-shaped buildings for a duration of seventeen years. Lafferty funded the design and construction of his first elephant-shaped building at South Atlantic City, now called Margate. He employed Philadelphia architects William Free and J. Mason Kirby for the design. Lucy was modeled after Jumbo, the famous elephant with Barnum and Bailey's Greatest Show on Earth, and constructed at a cost of $25,000 - $38,000.
Initially named "Elephant Bazaar", the structure stands at 65 feet (19.7 m) in height, 60 feet (18.3 m) in length, and 18 feet (5.5 m) in width and weighs about 90 tons. It is listed as the 12th tallest statue in the United States. Lucy was constructed with nearly one million pieces of wood, and required 200 kegs of nails, 4 tons of bolts and iron bars; 12,000 square feet of tin covers the exterior. There are 22 windows placed throughout the structure.
Early use and sale
Originally, Lafferty brought potential real estate customers to view parcels of land from Lucy's howdah (carriage). The howdah offers unique views of Margate, Atlantic City's skyline, the beach, and the Atlantic Ocean and it serves as an observation deck for modern day visitors during tours.
The structure was sold to Anton Gertzen of Philadelphia in 1887 and remained in his family until 1970. Anton's daughter-in-law, Sophia Gertzen, reportedly dubbed the structure "Lucy the Elephant" in 1902. The shape of Lucy's head is characteristic of an Asian Elephant, and male elephants have tusks. Initially, the elephant was referred to as a male, but eventually became commonly known as a female.
1900–1999
Through the first half of the 20th century, Lucy served as a restaurant, business office, cottage, and tavern (the last closed by Prohibition). The building was depicted on many souvenir postcards, often referred to as "The Elephant Hotel of Atlantic City." (The actual hotel was in a nearby building, not inside the elephant.)
By the 1960s, Lucy had fallen into disrepair and was scheduled for demolition. In 1969, Edwin T. Carpenter and a group of Margate citizens formed the Margate Civic Association, which later became the Save Lucy Committee under Josephine Harron and Sylvia Carpenter. They were given a 30-day deadline to move the edifice or pay for its demolition. Various fund-raising events, the most successful a door-to-door canvass by volunteers, raised money.
On July 20, 1970, Lucy was moved about 100 yards to the west-southwest to a city owned lot and completely refurbished. It took about seven hours to move Lucy to her new location but she remained closed to visitors until 1974 when structural repairs and upgrades were complete. The building's original wooden frame was buttressed with new steel, and the deteriorated howdah was replaced with a replica. A plug of green glass set into the howdah platform refracts light into Lucy's interior.
In 1976, Lucy was designated a National Historic Landmark, during the United States Bicentennial celebration.
2000–present
Every July 20, the building's birthday is celebrated with children's games and much fanfare.
In 2006, Lucy was struck by lightning, blackening the tips of the tusks. In October 2012, Hurricane Sandy made landfall near Margate. Lucy remained unscathed, although the surge reached the building's toes and a small booth in the parking lot was blown over.
On July 23, 2016, Lucy's staff announced the building's fake candidacy for President of the United States at a celebration for her 135th birthday. In 2016, Lucy had 135,000 visitors at the site, 35,000 of whom took the guided tour.
On February 27, 2020, Lucy began allowing overnight stays. Lucy was listed on Airbnb for $138 per night on March 17, 18 and 19, 2020. It marked the first time Lucy had been inhabited by humans since it was rented as a home in the early 1900s.
On August 25, 2021, the Save Lucy Committee announced that Lucy the Elephant is having all of its metal skin replaced because more than 50% of its exterior has degraded beyond repair. Lucy will close on September 20, 2021, according to Richard Helfant, executive director of the Save Lucy Committee.
The new overhaul will cost $1.4 million and is funded in part by a grant from the Preserve New Jersey Preservation Fund administered by the New Jersey Historic Trust. During restorations, a weatherproof scaffolding will be built around Lucy. The target for reopening is Memorial Day 2022.
Other structures by Lafferty
Elephantine Colossus (1885–1896)
The Elephantine Colossus or Elephant Hotel, at Coney Island amusement park in Brooklyn, New York, stood 122 feet (37.2 m) tall, approximately twice the size of Lucy, with seven floors of rooms, and legs 60 feet in circumference. With the exception of the number and relative size of the windows, and the design of the howdah, its exterior was a nearly exact scaled-up replication of Lucy. It held a cigar store in one leg and a diorama in another, hotel rooms within the elephant proper, and an observation area at the top with panoramic sea views. It burned down in 1896.
Light of Asia (1884–1900)
Light of Asia (dubbed Old Jumbo by locals) opened in Cape May in 1884, and was a slightly smaller version of Lucy. It was not successful and was torn down within 16 years. Lafferty was not directly involved with the construction but granted patent rights to Theodore M. Rieger, a real estate developer like himself, who sought to do for Cape May what Lafferty did with Lucy for Atlantic City It is unclear whether the Light of Asia matched the quality of the other buildings; the only known surviving photo of Light of Asia appears to have been taken while still under construction with no metal skin and an incomplete head, and with yet another different howdah design. A video presented to visitors inside Lucy in 2009 includes that same photo with the narration describing it as Cape May's "inferior rendition" of Lucy.
Prospectus for 1893 World's Columbian Exposition
A prospectus was published in 1892 by Kirby (while Lafferty still owned the patent) for a fourth building, even larger than Elephantine Colossus and with a moving trunk, eyeballs, ears and tail as well as a Calliope in the throat, to be built for the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. No actual construction was ever attempted.
In popular culture
Movies
In 1972, Lucy appeared in the movie The King of Marvin Gardens, starring Jack Nicholson and Bruce Dern.
In 1980, Lucy can be briefly seen in the opening of the Oscar nominated film, Atlantic City, starring Burt Lancaster and Susan Sarandon.
In 1983, Lucy is shown on a postcard with a picture in the opening credits of the film, National Lampoon's Vacation.
An ice cream shop with a living area above shaped like Lucy appears in the 1991 Disney film The Rocketeer, although the film takes place in Southern California.
The Jardin the Paris Elephant, a real-life large elephant structure inspired by “Elephantine Colossus”, (a larger version of Lucy, built by Lafferty in 1885 on Coney Island), is featured as the location of the boudoir of Nicole Kidman's character in the 2001 film Moulin Rouge'''
In 2015, Lucy was featured in the opening credits of the film Vacation, similar to the original 1983 film, National Lampoon's Vacation.
Television
In 1979, Lucy appeared in the intro to the short-lived CBS drama series Big Shamus, Little Shamus which takes place in Atlantic City.
In 1986, Lucy appeared on an episode of Mister Rogers' Neighborhood, in which Fred Rogers took a short tour of Lucy.
In November 2006, the building was prominently featured in an advertisement for Proformance Insurance.
In 2006, the History Channel television series Weird U.S. featured Lucy in an episode.
In 2009, Lucy was featured in an episode of Life After People, which illustrated how the environment would take over the structure without people to maintain Lucy.
In a 2011 episode of Boardwalk Empire, Agent Van Alden mentions "a hotel shaped like an elephant" among the local attractions. Lucy is also briefly seen in the second-season episode "Gimcrack & Bunkum".
On April 2, 2014, Lucy appeared in a clip on an episode of Strange Inheritance, which mainly featured the World's tallest thermometer, another well-known roadside attraction.
On June 14, 2014, The Travel Channel's Monumental Mysteries featured Lucy the Elephant in an episode.
The 2017 movie The Dunning Man shows footage of the effort to preserve the building.
In 2021, Lucy appeared in an episode of the PBS series Drive By History which explored her cultural significance in American history.
Books/Print
Lucy was featured in the 2012 book, Stay Close'' by Harlan Coben ().
April 18, 2015: Lucy was featured in the Bill Griffith daily comic strip "Zippy the Pinhead".
See also
Cultural depictions of elephants
Elephant of the Bastille
Charles Ribart and his plan for the site of L'Arc de Triomphe
National Register of Historic Places listings in Atlantic County, New Jersey
Tillie, another colorful icon of the Jersey Shore
References
External links
Lucy the Elephant - Official website
Roadside America
Life after People (2009)
The Travel Channel's Monumental Mysteries featuring Lucy
HD Video taken 07 Aug 2009
Weird NJ Visits Lucy the Elephant (2007)
"House Built Like Elephant Contains Six Rooms", December 1932, Popular Mechanics
Commercial buildings completed in 1881
Novelty buildings in New Jersey
Roadside attractions in New Jersey
Buildings and structures in Atlantic County, New Jersey
National Historic Landmarks in New Jersey
Tourist attractions in Atlantic County, New Jersey
Historic American Buildings Survey in New Jersey
National Register of Historic Places in Atlantic County, New Jersey
Margate City, New Jersey
Elephants in art
New Jersey Register of Historic Places
1881 establishments in New Jersey
Landmarks in New Jersey
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbasilica%20of%20Saint%20John%20Lateran
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Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran
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The Cathedral of the Most Holy Savior and of Saints John the Baptist and John the Evangelist in the Lateran (), also known as the Papal Archbasilica of Saint John [in] Lateran, Saint John Lateran, or the Lateran Basilica, is the cathedral church of the Diocese of Rome in the city of Rome, and serves as the seat of the bishop of Rome, the pope. The archbasilica lies outside of Vatican City proper, which is located approximately to the northwest. Nevertheless, as properties of the Holy See, the archbasilica and its adjoining edifices enjoy an extraterritorial status from Italy, pursuant to the terms of the Lateran Treaty of 1929.
The church is the oldest and highest ranking of the four major papal basilicas as well as one of the Seven Pilgrim Churches of Rome, holding the unique title of "archbasilica". Originally founded in 324, it is the oldest public church in the city of Rome, and the oldest basilica of the Western world. It houses the cathedra of the Roman bishop, and has the title of ecumenical mother church of the Roman Catholic faithful. The building deteriorated during the Middle Ages and was badly damaged by two fires in the 14th century. It was rebuilt in the late 16th century during the reign of Pope Sixtus V. The new structure's interior was renovated in the late 17th century, and its façade was completed in 1735 under Pope Clement XII.
The current rector is Cardinal Archpriest Angelo De Donatis, Vicar General for the Diocese of Rome. The President of the French Republic, currently Emmanuel Macron, is ex officio the "First and Only Honorary Canon" of the archbasilica, a title that the heads of state of France have possessed since King Henry IV.
The large Latin inscription on the façade reads: Clemens XII Pont Max Anno V Christo Salvatori In Hon SS Ioan Bapt et Evang. This abbreviated inscription translates as: "Pope Clement XII, in the fifth year [of his Pontificate, dedicated this building] to Christ the Savior, in honor of Saints John the Baptist and [John] the Evangelist". The inscription indicates, with its full title (see below), that the archbasilica was originally dedicated to Christ the Savior and, centuries later, co-dedicated to Saint John the Baptist and Saint John the Evangelist. Christ the Savior remains its primary dedication, and its titular feast day is 6 August, the Transfiguration of Christ. As the Cathedral of the Pope as Bishop of Rome, it ranks superior to all other churches of the Roman Catholic Church, including Saint Peter's Basilica.
Name
The archbasilica's Latin name is , which in English is the Archbasilica of the Most Holy Savior and Saints John the Baptist and John the Evangelist at the Lateran, and in Italian .
Lateran Palace
The archbasilica stands over the remains of the Castra Nova equitum singularium, the "New Fort of the Roman imperial cavalry bodyguards". The fort was established by Septimius Severus in AD 193. Following the victory of Emperor Constantine the Great over Maxentius (for whom the Equites singulares augusti, the emperor's mounted bodyguards had fought) at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, the guard was abolished and the fort demolished. Substantial remains of the fort lie directly beneath the nave.
The remainder of the site was occupied during the early Roman Empire by the palace of the gens Laterani. Sextius Lateranus was the first plebeian to attain the rank of consul, and the Laterani served as administrators for several emperors. One of the Laterani, Consul-designate Plautius Lateranus, became famous for being accused by Nero of conspiracy against the Emperor. The accusation resulted in the confiscation and redistribution of his properties.
The Lateran Palace fell into the hands of the Emperor when Constantine I married his second wife Fausta, sister of Maxentius. Known by that time as the Domus Faustae or "House of Fausta," the Lateran Palace was eventually given to the Bishop of Rome by Constantine I. The actual date of the donation is unknown, but scholars speculate that it was during the pontificate of Pope Miltiades, in time to host a synod of bishops in 313 that was convened to challenge the Donatist schism, declaring Donatism to be heresy. The palace basilica was converted and extended, becoming the residence of Pope Saint Sylvester I, eventually becoming the Cathedral of Rome, the seat of the Popes as the Bishops of Rome.
Early Church
Pope Sylvester I presided over the official dedication of the archbasilica and the adjacent Lateran Palace in 324, changing the name from Domus Fausta to Domus Dei ("House of God"), with a dedication to Christ the Savior (Christo Salvatori).
When a cathedra became a symbol of episcopal authority, the papal cathedra was placed in its interior, rendering it the cathedral of the Pope as Bishop of Rome.
When Gregory the Great sent the Gregorian mission to England under Augustine of Canterbury, some original churches in Canterbury took the Roman plan as a model, dedicating a church both to Christ as well as one to Saint Paul, outside the walls of the city. The church name "Christ Church", so common for churches around the world today in Anglophone Anglican contexts, originally came from this Roman church, central to pre-medieval Christian identity.
The Middle Ages
On the archbasilica's front wall between the main portals is a plaque inscribed with the words "SACROS LATERAN ECCLES OMNIUM VRBIS ET ORBIS ECCLESIARVM MATER ET CAPUT" ("Most Holy Lateran Church, mother and head of all the churches in the city and the world"); a visible indication of the declaration that the basilica is the "mother church" of all the world. In the twelfth century the canons of the Lateran claimed that the high altar housed the Ark of the Covenant and several holy objects from Jerusalem. The basilica was thus presented as the Temple of the New Covenant.
The archbasilica and Lateran Palace were re-dedicated twice. Pope Sergius III dedicated them to Saint John the Baptist in the 10th century in honor of the newly consecrated baptistry of the archbasilica. Pope Lucius II dedicated them to John the Evangelist in the 12th century. Thus, Saint John the Baptist and Saint John the Evangelist became co-patrons of the archbasilica, while the primary Patron is still Christ the Savior, as the inscription in the entrance indicates and as is traditional for patriarchal cathedrals. Consequently, the archbasilica remains dedicated to the Savior, and its titular feast is the Feast of the Transfiguration of Christ on 6 August. The archbasilica became the most important shrine of the two Saint Johns, albeit infrequently jointly venerated. In later years, a Benedictine monastery was established in the Lateran Palace, and was devoted to serving the archbasilica and the two saints.
Every pope, beginning with Pope Miltiades, occupied the Lateran Palace until the reign of the French Pope Clement V, who in 1309 transferred the seat of the Papacy to Avignon, a Papal fiefdom that was an enclave in France. The Lateran Palace has also been the site of five ecumenical councils (see Lateran Councils).
Lateran fires
During the time the papacy was seated in Avignon, France, the Lateran Palace and the archbasilica deteriorated. Two fires ravaged them in 1307 and 1361. After both fires the pope sent money from Avignon to pay for their reconstruction and maintenance. Nonetheless, the archbasilica and Lateran Palace lost their former splendor.
When the papacy returned from Avignon and the pope again resided in Rome, the archbasilica and the Lateran Palace were deemed inadequate considering their accumulated damage. The popes resided at the Basilica di Santa Maria in Trastevere and later at the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore. Eventually, the Palace of the Vatican was built adjacent to the Basilica of Saint Peter, which existed since the time of Emperor Constantine I, and the popes began to reside there. It has remained the official residence of the pope (though Pope Francis unofficially resides elsewhere in the Vatican City).
Reconstruction
There were several attempts at reconstruction of the archbasilica before a definitive program of Pope Sixtus V. Sixtus V hired his favorite architect, Domenico Fontana, to supervise much of the project. The original Lateran Palace was demolished and replaced with a new edifice. On the square in front of the Lateran Palace is San Giovanni Addolorata Hospital and the largest standing ancient Egyptian obelisk in the world, known as the Lateran Obelisk. It weighs an estimated 455 tons. It was commissioned by the Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III and erected by Thutmose IV before the great Karnak temple of Thebes, Egypt. Intended by Emperor Constantine I to be shipped to Constantinople, the very preoccupied Constantius II had it shipped instead to Rome, where it was erected in the Circus Maximus in AD 357. At some time it broke and was buried under the Circus. In the 16th century it was discovered and excavated, and Sixtus V had it re-erected on a new pedestal on 3 August 1588 at its present site.
Further renovation of the interior of the archbasilica, ensued under the direction of Francesco Borromini, commissioned by Pope Innocent X. The twelve niches created by his architectural scheme were eventually filled in 1718 with statues of the Apostles, sculpted by the most prominent Roman Rococo sculptors.
The vision of Pope Clement XII for reconstruction was an ambitious one in which he launched a competition to design a new façade. More than 23 architects competed, mostly working in the then-current Baroque idiom. The putatively impartial jury was chaired by Sebastiano Conca, president of the Roman Academy of Saint Luke. The winner of the competition was Alessandro Galilei.
The façade as it appears today was completed in 1735. It reads in Latin: Clemens XII Pont Max Anno V Christo Salvatori In Hon SS Ioan Bapt et Evang; this highly abbreviated inscription is expanded thus: Clemens XII, Pont[ifex] Max[imus], [in] Anno V, [dedicavit hoc aedificium] Christo Salvatori, in hon[orem] [sanctorum] Ioan[is] Bapt[tistae] et Evang[elistae]. This translates as "Pope Clement XII, Pontifex Maximus, in the fifth year of his reign, dedicated this building to Christ the Savior, in honor of Saints John the Baptist and John the Evangelist". Galilei's façade removed all vestiges of traditional, ancient, basilical architecture and imparted a neo-classical facade.
Architectural history
An apse lined with mosaics and open to the air still preserves the memory of one of the most famous halls of the ancient palace, the "Triclinium" of Pope Leo III, which was the state banqueting hall. The existing structure is not ancient, but some portions of the original mosaics may have been preserved in the tripartite mosaic of its niche. In the center Christ gives to the Apostles their mission; on the left He gives the Keys of the Kingdom of Heaven to Pope Saint Sylvester I and the Labarum to Emperor Constantine I; and on the right Saint Peter gives the Papal stole to Pope Leo III and the standard to Charlemagne.
Some few remains of the original buildings may still be traced in the city walls outside the Gate of Saint John, and a large wall decorated with paintings was uncovered in the 18th century within the archbasilica behind the Lancellotti Chapel. A few traces of older buildings were also revealed during the excavations of 1880, when the work of extending the apse was in progress, but nothing of importance was published.
A great many donations from the Popes and other benefactors to the archbasilica are recorded in the Liber Pontificalis, and its splendor at an early period was such that it became known as the "Basilica Aurea", or "Golden Basilica". This splendor drew upon it the attack of the Vandals, who stripped it of all its treasures. Pope Leo I restored it around AD 460, and it was again restored by Pope Hadrian.
In 897, it was almost totally destroyed by an earthquake: ab altari usque ad portas cecidit ("it collapsed from the altar to the doors"). The damage was so extensive that it was difficult to trace the lines of the old building, but these were mostly respected and the new building was of the same dimensions as the old. This second basilica stood for 400 years before it burned in 1308. It was rebuilt by Pope Clement V and Pope John XXII. It burned once more in 1360, and was rebuilt by Pope Urban V.
Through vicissitudes the archbasilica retained its ancient form, being divided by rows of columns into aisles, and having in front a peristyle surrounded by colonnades with a fountain in the middle, the conventional Late Antique format that was also followed by the old Saint Peter's Basilica. The façade had three windows and was embellished with a mosaic representing Christ as the Savior of the world.
The porticoes were frescoed, probably not earlier than the 12th century, commemorating the Roman fleet under Vespasian, the taking of Jerusalem, the Baptism of Emperor Constantine I and his "Donation" of the Papal States to the Catholic Church. Inside the archbasilica the columns no doubt ran, as in all other basilicas of the same date, the whole length of the church, from east to west.
In one of the rebuildings, probably that which was carried out by Pope Clement V, a transverse nave was introduced, imitated no doubt from the one which had been added, long before this, to the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls. Probably at this time the archbasilica was enlarged.
Some portions of the older buildings survive. Among them the pavement of medieval Cosmatesque work, and the statues of Saint Peter and Saint Paul, now in the cloister. The graceful ciborium over the high altar, which looks out of place in its present surroundings, dates from 1369. The stercoraria, or throne of red marble on which the Popes sat, is now in the Vatican Museums. It owes its unsavory name to the anthem sung at previous Papal coronations, "De stercore erigens pauperem" ("lifting up the poor out of the dunghill", from Psalm 112).
From the 5th century, there were seven oratories surrounding the archbasilica. These before long were incorporated into the church. The devotion of visiting these oratories, which was maintained through the Mediaeval Ages, gave rise to the similar devotion of the seven altars, still common in many churches of Rome and elsewhere.
Of the façade by Alessandro Galilei (1735), the cliché assessment has ever been that it is the façade of a palace, not of a church. Galilei's front, which is a screen across the older front creating a narthex or vestibule, does express the nave and double aisles of the archbasilica, which required a central bay wider than the rest of the sequence. Galilei provided it, without abandoning the range of identical arch-headed openings, by extending the central window by flanking columns that support the arch, in the familiar Serlian motif.
By bringing the central bay forward very slightly, and capping it with a pediment that breaks into the roof balustrade, Galilei provided an entrance doorway on a more than colossal scale, framed in the paired colossal Corinthian pilasters that tie together the façade in the manner introduced at Michelangelo's palace on the Campidoglio.
In the narthex of the church, is a 4th century statue of emperor Constantine. It was found elsewhere in Rome, and moved to this site by order of Pope Clement XII.
Statues of the Apostles
The twelve niches created in Francesco Borromini's architecture were left vacant for decades. When in 1702 Pope Clement XI and Benedetto Cardinal Pamphili, archpriests of the archbasilica, announced their grand scheme for twelve larger-than-life sculptures of the Apostles (Judas Iscariot replaced by Saint Paul, with Saint Matthias missing) to fill the niches, the commission was opened to all the premier sculptors of late Baroque Rome. Each statue was to be sponsored by an illustrious prince with the Pope himself sponsoring that of Saint Peter and Cardinal Pamphili that of Saint John the Evangelist.
Most of the sculptors were given a sketch drawn by Pope Clement's favorite painter, Carlo Maratta, to which they were to adhere, but with the notable exception being Pierre Le Gros the Younger, who successfully refused to sculpt to Maratta's design and consequently was not given a sketch.
The sculptors and their sculptures follow and are dated according to Conforti (the dates reflect archival findings but models for most must have existed before):
Pierre-Étienne Monnot
Saint Paul (1704–1708)
Saint Peter (1704–1711)
Francesco Moratti
Saint Simon (1704–1709)
Lorenzo Ottoni
Saint Jude Thaddeus (1704–1709)
Giuseppe Mazzuoli
Saint Philip (1705–1711)
Pierre Le Gros
Saint Thomas (1705–1711)
Saint Bartholomew (c. 1705–1712)
Angelo de' Rossi
Saint James the Lesser (1705–1711)
Camillo Rusconi
Saint Andrew (1705–1709)
Saint John (1705–1711)
Saint Matthew (1711–1715)
Saint James the Greater (1715–1718)
South wall
North wall
Papal tombs
There are six extant papal tombs inside the archbasilica: Alexander III (right aisles), Pope Sergius IV (right aisles), Pope Clement XII Corsini (left aisle), Pope Martin V (in front of the confessio); Pope Innocent III (right transept); and Pope Leo XIII (left transept), by G. Tadolini (1907). The last of these, Pope Leo XIII, was the last pope not to be entombed in Saint Peter's Basilica.
Twelve additional papal tombs were constructed in the archbasilica starting in the 10th century, but were destroyed during the two fires that ravaged it in 1308 and 1361. The remains of these charred tombs were gathered and reburied in a polyandrion. The popes whose tombs were destroyed are: Pope John X (914–928), Pope Agapetus II (946–955), Pope John XII (955–964), Pope Paschal II (1099–1118), Pope Callixtus II (1119–1124), Pope Honorius II (1124–1130), Pope Celestine II (1143–1144), Pope Lucius II (1144–1145), Pope Anastasius IV (1153–1154), Pope Clement III (1187–1191), Pope Celestine III (1191–1198), and Pope Innocent V (1276). Popes who reigned during this period, whose tombs are unknown, and who may have been buried in the archbasilica include Pope John XVII (1003), Pope John XVIII (1003–1009), and Pope Alexander II (1061–1073). Pope John X was the first pope buried within the walls of Rome, and was granted a prominent burial due to rumors that he was murdered by Theodora during a historical period known as the saeculum obscurum. Cardinals Vincenzo Santucci and Carlo Colonna are also buried in the archbasilica.
The skull of Saint Peter is also claimed to reside in the archbasilica since at least the ninth century, alongside the skull of Saint Paul.
Lateran baptistery
The octagonal Lateran baptistery stands somewhat apart from the archbasilica. It was founded by Pope Sixtus III, perhaps on an earlier structure, for a legend arose that Emperor Constantine I was baptized there and enriched the edifice. The baptistery was for many generations the only baptistery in Rome, and its octagonal structure, centered upon the large basin for full immersions, provided a model for others throughout Italy, and even an iconic motif of illuminated manuscripts known as "the fountain of life".
Lateran cloister
Between the archbasilica and the city wall there was in former times a great monastery, in which dwelt the community of monks whose duty it was to provide the services in the archbasilica. The only part of it which still survives is the 13th century cloister, surrounded by graceful, twisted columns of inlaid marble. They are of a style intermediate between the Romanesque proper and the Gothic, and are the work of Vassellectus and the Cosmati.
Holy Stairs
The Scala Sancta, or Holy Stairs, are white marble steps encased in wooden ones. They form the staircase which once led to the praetorium of Pontius Pilate in Jerusalem and which, therefore, were sanctified by the footsteps of Jesus Christ during His Passion. The marble stairs are visible through openings in the wooden risers. Their translation from Jerusalem to the Lateran Palace in the 4th century is credited to Saint Empress Helena, the mother of the then-Emperor Constantine I. In 1589, Pope Sixtus V relocated the steps to their present location in front of the ancient palatine chapel named the Sancta Sanctorum. Ferraù Fenzoni completed some of the frescoes on the walls.
Feast of the Dedication of the Archbasilica
The anniversary of the dedication of this church has been observed as a feast in Roman Catholicism only since the 12th century, a time of increasing centralization of papal authority in the history of the Church. In the General Roman Calendar of the Catholic Church, 9 November is the feast of the Dedication of the (Arch)Basilica of the Lateran (Dedicatio Basilicae Lateranensis), and is referred to in older texts as the "Dedication of the Basilica of the Most Holy Savior". In view of its role as the mother church of the world, this liturgical day is ranked worldwide as a feast.
World War II
During the Second World War, the Lateran and its related buildings were used under Pope Pius XII as a safe haven from the Nazis and Italian Fascists for numbers of Jews and other refugees. Among those who found shelter there were Meuccio Ruini, Alcide De Gasperi, Pietro Nenni and others. The Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul and the sixty orphan refugees they cared for were ordered to leave their convent on the Via Carlo Emanuele. The Sisters of Maria Bambina, who staffed the kitchen at the Pontifical Major Roman Seminary at the Lateran offered a wing of their convent. The grounds also housed Italian soldiers.
Vincenzo Fagiolo and Pietro Palazzini, vice-rector of the seminary, were recognized by Yad Vashem for their efforts to assist Jews.
Archpriests
Pope Boniface VIII instituted the office of Archpriest of the Archbasilica circa 1299.
List of Archpriests of the Archbasilica:
Gerardo Bianchi (c.1299–1302)
Pietro Valeriano Duraguerra (1302)
Matteo Rosso Orsini (1302–1305)
Pietro Colonna (1306–1326)
Bertrand de Montfavez (1326–1342)
Giovanni Colonna (1342–1348)
Pierre Roger de Beaufort (1348–1370)
Ange de Grimoard (1371–1388)
Pietro Tomacelli (1388?–1389)
Francesco Carbone (1389–1405)
Antonio Caetani (seniore) (1405–1412)
Oddone Colonna (1412–1417)
Alamanno Adimari (1418–1422)
Guillaume Fillastre (1422–1428)
Alfonso Carillo de Albornoz (1428–1434)
Lucido Conti (1434–1437)
Angelotto Fosco (1437–1444)
António Martinez de Chaves (1444–1447)
Domenico Capranica (1447–1458)
Prospero Colonna (1458–1463)
Latino Orsini (1463–1477)
Giuliano della Rovere (1477–1503)
Giovanni Colonna (1503–1538)
Alessandro Farnese (1508–1534)
Giovanni Domenico de Cupis (1534–1553)
Ranuccio Farnese (1553–1565)
Mark Sitticus von Hohenems (1565–1588)
Ascanio Colonna (1588–1608)
Scipione Caffarelli-Borghese (1608–1620)
Giambattista Leni (1620–1627)
Francesco Barberini (1627–1629)
Girolamo Colonna (1629–1666)
Flavio Chigi (1666–1693)
Paluzzo Paluzzi Altieri degli Albertoni (1693–1698)
Benedetto Pamphili (1699–1730)
Pietro Ottoboni (1730–1740)
Neri Maria Corsini (1740–1770)
Mario Marefoschi Compagnoni (1771–1780)
Carlo Rezzonico (1781–1799)
Francesco Saverio de Zelada (1800–1801)
Leonardo Antonelli (1801–1811)
Bartolomeo Pacca (1830–1844)
Benedetto Barberini (28 April 1844 – 10 April 1863)
Lodovico Altieri (1863–1867)
Costantino Patrizi Naro (1867–1876)
Flavio Chigi (24 December 1876 – 1885)
Raffaele Monaco La Valletta (1885–1896)
Francesco Satolli (16 December 1896 – 8 January 1910)
Pietro Respighi (10 January 1910 – 22 March 1913)
Domenico Ferrata (7 April 1913 – 10 October 1914)
Basilio Pompili (28 October 1914 – 5 May 1931)
Francesco Marchetti-Selvaggiani (26 May 1931 – 13 January 1951)
Benedetto Aloisi Masella (27 October 1954 – 30 August 1970)
Angelo Dell'Acqua (7 November 1970 – 27 August 1972)
Ugo Poletti (26 March 1973 – 17 January 1991)
Camillo Ruini (1 July 1991 – 27 June 2008)
Agostino Vallini (27 June 2008 – 26 May 2017)
Angelo De Donatis (26 May 2017 – )
Gallery
See also
Early Christian art and architecture
Colegio de San Juan de Letran, a Philippine school named after the archbasilica
Index of Vatican City-related articles
Schola Castra Nova Equitum Singularium
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
High-resolution virtual tour of Saint John Lateran, from the Vatican.
Satellite Photo of Saint John Lateran
Constantine's obelisk
San Giovanni in Laterano
High-resolution 360° Panoramas and Images of Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran | Art Atlas
Interactive Nolli Map Website
John Lateran
Burial places of popes
Roman Catholic cathedrals in Italy
Properties of the Holy See
John Lateran
Baroque architecture in Rome
John Lateran
St John Lateran
|
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] |
211312
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live%20from%20New%20York%20City%2C%201967
|
Live from New York City, 1967
|
Live from New York City, 1967 is the second live album by Simon & Garfunkel, recorded at Philharmonic Hall at Lincoln Center in New York City, on 22 January 1967. The album was released on the Columbia Legacy CK 61513 label on 16 July 2002.
The performance was the first official live release by Simon and Garfunkel recorded in the 1960s. Recorded in 1967 prior to the duo's work on the soundtrack to The Graduate. It features many of the duo's early hits and album tracks, such as "Leaves That Are Green", "He Was My Brother", and "For Emily, Whenever I May Find Her".
Four of the tracks from the album were previously released on 1997's Old Friends box-set which contained five songs from the Lincoln Center concert, though "Red Rubber Ball" was not included on this release.
In contrast to the duo's other official live releases (The Concert in Central Park, Old Friends: Live on Stage, and Live 1969), this recording features Paul Simon and Art Garfunkel performing alone. This album does not capture the same show as the bootleg Live from New York City, 1966, despite similar material and packaging.
Track listing
All songs by Paul Simon, except where noted.
"He Was My Brother" – 3:21
"Leaves That Are Green" – 2:57
"Sparrow" – 3:06
"Homeward Bound" – 2:39
"You Don't Know Where Your Interest Lies" – 2:06
"A Most Peculiar Man" – 2:59
"The 59th Street Bridge Song (Feelin' Groovy)" – 1:49
"The Dangling Conversation" – 3:01
"Richard Cory" – 3:23
"A Hazy Shade of Winter" – 2:37
"Benedictus" (Traditional, arr. Simon & Art Garfunkel) – 2:45
"Blessed" – 3:45
"A Poem on the Underground Wall" – 4:45
"Anji" (Davy Graham) – 2:28
"I Am a Rock" – 2:57
"The Sound of Silence" – 3:25
"For Emily, Whenever I May Find Her" – 2:40
"A Church Is Burning" – 3:43
"Wednesday Morning, 3 A.M." – 3:35
Personnel
Paul Simon: Acoustic guitar, vocals
Art Garfunkel: Vocals
References
2002 live albums
Columbia Records live albums
Legacy Recordings live albums
Simon & Garfunkel live albums
Albums produced by Roy Halee
Albums recorded at the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts
Albums produced by Paul Simon
Albums produced by Art Garfunkel
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Wildman
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John Wildman
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Sir John Wildman (2 June 1693) was an English politician and soldier.
Biography
Wildman was born to Jeffrey and Dorothy Wildman in the Norfolk town of Wymondham. Jeffrey was a butcher and John was educated as a sizar (a poor scholar who had to work as a servant to pay his way) at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, receiving an MA in 1644. Wildman may have had legal training as he later described himself as an attorney or solicitor.
Civil War
In the English Civil War Wildman served briefly under Sir Thomas Fairfax. He became prominent, however, as a civilian adviser to the Army agitators, being in 1647 one of the leaders of that section of the army that opposed all compromise with King Charles I.
In December 1647 Wildman wrote a pamphlet, Putney Projects, that attacked Oliver Cromwell and Henry Ireton for betraying the New Model Army's Declaration of 14 June 1647 in the Heads of Proposals. He may have written parts of The Case of the Army Stated, and he put the views of his associates before the Council of the Army at the Putney Debates that were partly held in Putney parish church between 28 October and 11 November 1647. The soldiers, explained Wildman, "desired me to be their mouth", and he argued on their behalf that the engagements entered into with the King should be cancelled, monarchy and the House of Lords abolished, and manhood suffrage established. He also demanded that the officers should accept an Agreement of the People just put forth by the five regiments, a document that some modern historians consider he had the principal hand in drafting.
Wildman and John Lilburne attempted to build a movement to campaign for the Agreement of the People. The Earl of Clarendon alleged that preparations were made "for his trial and towards his execution". On 18 January 1648 George Masterson, minister of Shoreditch informed against Wildman and Lieutenant-Colonel John Lilburne for promoting a seditious petition. Wildman and Lilburne were summoned to the bar of the House of Commons, which committed both men to Newgate Prison. Bail was refused, and, in spite of frequent petitions for their release, they remained in prison until 2 August 1648. The historian C.H. Firth stated in the DNB (1900) that Wildman's speech at the bar of the house was very ineffective, and the pamphlet he published in answer to Masterson's charges, entitled Truth's Triumph, was derisively refuted by Masterson in the Triumph Stained.
On the release of the two prisoners the Levellers held a meeting at the Nag's Head tavern, in which, says Lilburne, "the just ends of the war were as exactly laid open by Mr. John Wildman as ever I heard in my life", and the party agreed to oppose the execution or deposition of the king until the fundamental principles of the future constitution were settled. To that end a new Agreement of the People was drawn up by sixteen representatives of different parties, but, after long debates in the Council of Officers, it was so altered by the officers that Lilburne and other leaders of the levellers refused to accept it, and published in May 1649 a rival Agreement, drawn up by themselves.
It seems that Wildman was satisfied with what the Council of Officers were suggesting because he abandoned further agitation, and in the winter of 1648–49 he joined the New Model Army as major in the regiment of horse of Colonel John Reynolds. However he did not accompany the regiment to Ireland in August 1649.
Commonwealth
Wildman remained in England and became one of the greatest speculators in the forfeited lands of royalists, clergy, and Roman Catholics. His purchases of land, either for himself or for others, were scattered over at least twenty counties. For himself he bought in 1655 the manor of Beckett near Shrivenham (then in Berkshire, now Oxfordshire), and other lands adjoining it, from his friend Henry Marten.
In 1654 Wildman was elected to the First Protectorate Parliament as MP for Scarborough, but he was probably one of those excluded for refusing the engagement not to attempt to alter the government. By the end of 1654 he was plotting the overthrow of the Protector Oliver Cromwell by means of a combined rising of Royalists and Levellers. Consequently, he was arrested on 10 February 1655 at the village of Easton, near Marlborough, Wiltshire, while dictating A Declaration of the free and well-affected People of England now in Arms against the Tyrant Oliver Cromwell, esq to his secretary William Parker. He was sent a prisoner first to Chepstow Castle, and afterwards to the Tower of London. Nearly a year and a half later, on 26 June 1656 a petition begging for Wildman's release was presented to the Protector by various persons engaged in business speculations with him, and on giving security for £10,000 he was provisionally set free.
For the rest of the Protectorate Wildman kept out of prison, though he still continued in intrigue. He was in frequent communication with Royalist agents, whom he contrived to persuade that he was working for the King's cause, and he signed the address presented to Charles II on behalf of the Levellers in July 1656. It is fairly certain that Cromwell's government was aware of these intrigues, and it is probable that Wildman purchased impunity by giving information of some kind to Cromwell's spy master John Thurloe. For this reason Edward Hyde and the wiser Royalists did not trust him. C.H. Firth speculated that Wildman's political object in this complicated web of treachery was probably to overthrow Cromwell, and to set up in his place either a republic or a monarchy limited by some elaborate constitution of his own devising.
In the late 1650s Wildman was associated with the Commonwealth Club, a Republican club meeting at a Covent Garden tavern called The Nonsuch in Bow Street. He was also in 1659 a member of James Harrington's Rota Club, a Republican debating club which determined its decisions by ballot.
In December 1659, when the Army had turned out the Long Parliament, Wildman was employed by the Council of Officers, in conjunction with Bulstrode Whitelocke, Charles Fleetwood, and others, to draw a form of government for a free state. At the same time he was plotting to overthrow the rule of the Army, and offered to raise three thousand horse if Whitelocke, who was constable of Windsor Castle, would declare for a free commonwealth. Whitelocke declined, and Wildman, seeing which way the tide was running, helped Colonel Henry Ingoldsby to seize the castle for the Long Parliament. On 28 December 1659 the House promised that the good service of those who had assisted Ingoldsby should be duly rewarded,
Restoration
At the Restoration of the English Monarchy information against Wildman was presented to Parliament, but thanks to these recent exploits and to his hostility to Cromwell, he escaped untroubled. In 1661 complaints were made that the officials of the General Post Office were his creatures, and he was accused of suspicious dealings with the letters. He was also suspected of complicity in the republican plots against the government, and on 26 November 1661 he was examined and committed to close imprisonment. For nearly six years he was a prisoner, first in the Tower, then in St Mary's, Isles of Scilly, and finally in Pendennis Castle. His captivity was shared by his son, and, according to Gilbert Burnet, he spent his time in studying law and physic.
After the fall of Clarendon, on 1 October 1667, Wildman was released on giving security to attempt nothing against the government. In December it was even rumoured that he was to be a member of the committee of accounts about to be appointed by Parliament, through the influence of the George, Duke of Buckingham. Sir William Coventry expressed his wonder at the proposal to Samuel Pepys, Wildman having been "a false fellow to everybody", and Sir John Talbot openly denounced Wildman in the House of Commons. The scheme fell through, and on 7 July 1670 Wildman obtained a license for himself, his wife and son to travel abroad for his health. His intimacy with Buckingham continued, and he was one of the trustees in whom on 24 December 1675 the unsold portion of Buckingham's estate was vested.
On his return to England, Wildman plunged once more into political intrigues, though keeping himself at first cautiously in the background. In the plots for armed resistance to the King which followed the dissolution of Charles II's last parliament in 1681 he appears to have played a considerable part. Wildman was closely associated with Algernon Sidney, both of whom were distrusted by the leaders of the Scottish malcontents, and by the English noblemen concerned, as too republican in their aims. Wildman drew up a manifesto to be published at the time of the intended insurrection, and, though not one of the "public managers", was privately consulted upon all occasions and applied unto as their "chief oracle"; He was also credited with suggesting the assassination of the King and the Duke of York, "whom he expressed by the name of stags that would not be impaled, but leapt over all the fences which the care and wisdom of the authors of the constitution had made to restrain them from committing spoils". On 26 June 1683 he was committed to the Tower of London for complicity in the Rye House Plot, but allowed out on bail on 24 November following, and finally discharged on 12 February 1684. The chief witness against him was Lord Howard, who testified that Wildman undertook to furnish the rebels with some guns, which the discovery of two small field-pieces at his house seemed to confirm.
When the reign of James II of England began, Wildman, undeterred by his narrow escape, entered into communication with the Duke of Monmouth, and was his chief agent in England. He sent a certain Robert Cragg, alias Smith, to Monmouth and the English exiles in Holland. According to Cragg, Monmouth complained of Wildman's backwardness in providing money for the expedition, and that Wildman would hinder the expedition from coming until Wildman judged the time right. Wildman, on the other hand, complained that Monmouth and a small group of exiles were resolved "to conclude the scheme of the government of the nation without the knowledge of any of the people in England", Other depositions represent him as advising Monmouth to take upon him the title of King, and encouraging him by citing the example of the 2nd Earl of Richmond (who became Henry VII) and Richard III. All accounts agree that he drew back at the last moment, did nothing to get up the promised rising in London, and refused to join Monmouth when he landed. At the beginning of June 1685 Wildman fled, and an order for his arrest was published in the London Gazette for 4–8 June 1685, followed on 26 July by a proclamation summoning him and others to surrender.
Glorious Revolution
Wildman, who had escaped to the Netherlands, remained there until the Glorious Revolution, probably living in Amsterdam. He was dissatisfied with the declaration published by the William, Prince of Orange to justify his expedition, regarding it as designed to conciliate the church party in England, and desiring to make it a comprehensive impeachment of the misgovernment of Charles and James. The Charles, Earl of Macclesfield, Lord Mordaunt, and others supported Wildman's view, but more moderate counsellors prevailed. With Lord Macclesfield, Wildman embarked on the Prince's fleet and landed in England. He wrote many anonymous pamphlets on the crisis, sat in the Convention Parliament called in January 1689 as member for Wootton Bassett and was a frequent speaker.
In the proceedings against Burton and Graham, charged with subornation of evidence in the state trials of the late reign, Wildman was particularly active, bringing in the report of the committee appointed to investigate the case, and representing the Commons at a conference with the House of Lords on the subject.
On 12 April 1689 he was made Postmaster General. But before long strong complaints were made that he was using his position to discredit the Tory adherents of William III by fictitious letters which he pretended to have intercepted; and there were also reports that he was intriguing with Jacobite emissaries. Accordingly, he was summarily dismissed from his post about the end of February 1691. Wildman, however, had been made a freeman of the City of London on 7 December 1689, became an alderman, and was knighted by William III in company with other aldermen at the Guildhall, London on 29 October 1692.
Wildman died on 2 June 1693, aged 72, and is buried at Shrivenham.
Posterity
By his will, according to the epitaph on his monument in St. Andrew's parish church, Wildman directed:
<blockquote>"that if his executors should think fit there should be some stone of small price set near to his ashes, to signify, without foolish flattery, to his posterity, that in that age there lived a man who spent the best part of his days in prisons, without crimes, being conscious of no offence towards man, for that he so loved his God that he could serve no man's will, and wished the liberty and happiness of his country and all mankind".</blockquote>
Baron Macaulay was less favourable. After describing a fanatical hatred to monarchy as the mainspring of Wildman's career, he adds:
"With Wildman's fanaticism was joined a tender care for his own safety. He had a wonderful skill in grazing the edge of treason. … Such was his cunning, that though always plotting, though always known to be plotting, and though long malignantly watched by a vindictive government, he eluded every danger, and died in his bed, after having seen two generations of his accomplices die on the gallows".
There is an engraved portrait of Wildman by William Faithorne, with the motto "Nil Admirari".
Works
Wildman was the author of numerous pamphlets, nearly all of them either anonymous or published under pseudonyms:
Putney Projects; or the Old Serpent in a New Form. By John Lawmind, 1647.
The Case of the Army stated, 1647 (Clarke Papers, i. 347, 356).
A Call to all the Soldiers of the Army by the Free People of England, justifying the Proceedings of the Five Regiments, 1647 (anon.)
Truth's Triumph, 1648 (answered by George Masterson in The Triumph Stained, 1648).
The Law's Subversion; or Sir John Maynard's Case truly stated. By J. Howldin, 1648 (cf. , The Picture of the Council of State, 1649, pp. 8, 19).
London's Liberties; or a Learned Argument between Mr. Maynard and Major Wildman, 1651.
In the Twelve Collections of Papers relating to the Present Juncture of Affairs in England (1688–9, 4to), there are several pamphlets probably written by Wildman, viz.:
v. 8, Ten Seasonable Queries proposed by an English Gentleman at Amsterdam to his Friends in Englandvi. 3, A Letter to a Friend advising in this Extraordinary Juncture how to free the Nation from Slavery for ever
viii. 5, Good Advice before it be too late, being a Breviate for the ConventionThree tracts are attributed to Wildman, jointly with others, in A Collection of State Tracts, published on occasion of the late Revolution and during the Reign of William III (1705, 3 vols. fol.), viz.:
A Memorial from the English Protestants to the Prince and Princess of Orange (i. 1)
A Defence of the Proceedings of the Late Parliament in England, anno 1689 (i. 209)
An Enquiry or Discourse between a Yeoman of Kent and a Knight of the Shire, upon the Prorogation of Parliament, &c. (ii. 330).
Family
Wildman's first wife was Frances, daughter of Sir Francis Englefield, and his second was Lucy, daughter of "Lord Lovelace".
Wildman had a son, John, who married Eleanor, daughter of Edward Chute of Bethersden, Kent, in 1676, and died childless in 1710, though he made John Shute, later Viscount Barrington, his chief heir, particularly of Beckett Hall, which the elder Wildman had bought in 1657 from the regicide Henry Marten (see above).
Notes
Footnotes
{{reflist|group=Controversy|refs=
<ref name=MC>
The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2004) (ODNB) states that Wildman's first wife was Frances, daughter of Sir Francis Englefield, while the second was Lucy "daughter of Lord Lovelace".
<p>
The ODNB account fails to identify its sources for the identity of either wife, so checking the secondary or primary sources used by the author of the ODNB article is difficult. The details of the first marriage as described by the ODNB match those of Ashley's work, and the ODNB may have used Ashley as a source, but Ashley does not cite another source (Ashley 17). The identity of Wildman's first wife therefore remains unclear pending the discovery of more reliable sources. However, it is noteworthy that, in 1689, Wildman sat as MP for Wootton Bassett in Wiltshire where the Englefields lived (Nash Ford 2010).
<p>
The ODNBs identification Lucy "daughter of Lord Lovelace" appears also to be based on Ashley, but his referenced source (Ashley 18, 304), the '13th Report of the Royal Commission on Historical Manuscripts', does not mention this marriage. Richmond, however, cites several items of direct primary source evidence that Lucy was the daughter of Anthony Richmond of Idstone at Ashbury in Berkshire (now Oxfordshire) (see Richmond, v. 3, p. 134-5), and Nash Ford states this is confirmed by the arms of Wildman impaling Richmond on the ledger stone above their grave in Shrivenham Church.(Nash Ford 2010; Ball & Ball, 2002) It seems that "Lord Lovelace" (presumably Richard Lovelace, 1st Baron Lovelace (1564–1634)) may not have a daughter named Lucy. There is certainly none recorded in the Hurley parish register with the rest of his children (Nash Ford 2010c). He did, however, have a daughter, Elizabeth, who married Henry Marten (Nash Ford 2010a) and Ford suggests the two have been confused (Nash Ford 2010).</ref>
}}
Citations
References
WebAttribution:'''
Further reading
External links
Transcription of the Members of Parliament for Scarborough, 1298 to 1807
1621 births
1693 deaths
Alumni of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge
Levellers
Roundheads
People of the Rye House Plot
People from Wymondham
People from Shrivenham
United Kingdom Postmasters General
English MPs 1654–1655
English MPs 1681
English MPs 1689–1690
English politicians convicted of crimes
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] |
27554047
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giulio%20Zignoli
|
Giulio Zignoli
|
Giulio Zignoli (19 April 1946 – 12 September 2010) was an Italian professional footballer, who played as a defender. He made 108 appearances in Serie A, most notably for Cagliari and Milan, during the late 1960s and 1970s. He died in Cantù, aged 64.
Honours
Club
Cagliari
Serie A: 1969–70
A.C. Milan
Coppa Italia: 1971–72, 1972–73
Cup Winners' Cup: 1972–73
References
External links
Profile at MagliaRossonera.it
Profile at EmozioneCalcio.it
1946 births
2010 deaths
Italian footballers
Serie A players
Serie B players
Association football defenders
Taranto F.C. 1927 players
S.S.C. Bari players
Cagliari Calcio players
A.C. Milan players
S.S.D. Varese Calcio players
U.S.D. 1913 Seregno Calcio players
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica%20of%20Saint%20Paul%20Outside%20the%20Walls
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Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls
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The Papal Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls (), commonly known as Saint Paul's Outside the Walls, is one of Rome's four major papal basilicas, along with the basilicas of Saint John in the Lateran, Saint Peter's, and Saint Mary Major, as well as one of the Seven Pilgrim Churches of Rome.
The Basilica is within Italian territory, but the Holy See owns the Basilica in a regime of extraterritoriality, with Italy recognizing its full ownership and conceding it "the immunity granted by international law to the headquarters of the diplomatic agents of foreign States".
James Michael Harvey was named Archpriest of the basilica in 2012.
History
The basilica was founded by the Roman Emperor Constantine I over the burial place of Saint Paul, where it was said that, after the Apostle's execution, his followers erected a memorial, called a cella memoriae. This first basilica was consecrated by Pope Sylvester in 324.
In 386, Emperor Theodosius I began erecting a much larger and more beautiful basilica with a nave and four aisles with a transept. It was probably consecrated around 402 by Pope Innocent I. The work, including the mosaics, was not completed until Leo I's pontificate (440–461). In the 5th century it was larger than the Old Saint Peter's Basilica. The Christian poet Prudentius, who saw it at the time of emperor Honorius (395–423), describes the splendours of the monument in a few expressive lines.
Under Leo I, extensive repair work was carried out following the collapse of the roof on account of fire or lightning. In particular, the transept (i.e. the area around Paul's tomb) was elevated and a new main altar and presbytery installed. This was probably the first time that an altar was placed over the tomb of Saint Paul, which remained untouched, but largely underground given Leo's newly elevated floor levels. Leo was also responsible for fixing the triumphal arch and for restoring a fountain in the courtyard (atrium).
Under Pope Saint Gregory the Great (590–604) the main altar and presbytery were extensively modified. The pavement in the transept was raised and a new altar was placed above the earlier altar erected by Leo I. The position was directly over Saint Paul's sarcophagus.
In that period there were two monasteries near the basilica: Saint Aristus's for men and Saint Stefano's for women. Masses were celebrated by a special body of clerics instituted by Pope Simplicius. Over time the monasteries and the basilica's clergy declined; Pope Saint Gregory II restored the former and entrusted the monks with the basilica's care.
As it lay outside the Aurelian Walls, the basilica was damaged in the 9th century during a Saracen raid. Consequently, Pope John VIII (872–82) fortified the basilica, the monastery, and the dwellings of the peasantry, forming the town of Johannispolis (Italian: Giovannipoli) which existed until 1348, when an earthquake totally destroyed it.
In 937, when Saint Odo of Cluny came to Rome, Alberic II of Spoleto, Patrician of Rome, entrusted the monastery and basilica to his congregation and Odo placed Balduino of Monte Cassino in charge. Pope Gregory VII was abbot of the monastery and in his time Pantaleone, a rich merchant of Amalfi who lived in Constantinople, presented the bronze doors of the basilica maior, which were executed by Constantinopolitan artists; the doors are inscribed with Pantaleone's prayer that the "doors of life" may be opened to him. Pope Martin V entrusted it to the monks of the Congregation of Monte Cassino. It was then made an abbey nullius. The abbot's jurisdiction extended over the districts of Civitella San Paolo, Leprignano, and Nazzano, all of which formed parishes.
The graceful cloister of the monastery was erected between 1220 and 1241.
From 1215 until 1964 it was the seat of the Latin Patriarch of Alexandria.
On 15 July 1823, a workman repairing the lead of the roof started a fire that led to the near total destruction of this basilica, which, alone among all the churches of Rome, had preserved much of its original character for 1435 years.
In 1825, Leo XII issued the encyclical Ad plurimas encouraging donations for the reconstruction. A few months later, he issued orders that the basilica be rebuilt exactly as it had been when new in the fourth century, though he also stipulated that precious elements from later periods, such as the medieval mosaics and tabernacle, also be repaired and retained. These guidelines proved unrealistic for a variety of reasons and soon ceased to be enforced. The result is a reconstructed basilica that bears only a general resemblance to the original, and is by no means identical to it. The reconstruction was initially entrusted to the architect Pasquale Belli, who was succeeded upon his death in 1833 by Luigi Poletti, who supervised the project until his death in 1869 and was responsible for the lion's share of the work. Many elements which had survived the fire were reused in the reconstruction. Many foreign rulers also made contributions. Muhammad Ali Pasha, Viceroy of Egypt gave columns of alabaster, while the Emperor of Russia donated precious malachite and lapis lazuli that was used on some of the altar fronts. The transept and high altar were consecrated in 1840 and that part of the basilica was then re-opened. The entire building was reconsecrated in 1854 in the presence of Pope Pius IX and fifty cardinals. Many features of the building were still be to executed at that date, however, and work ultimately extended into the twentieth century. The quadriporticus looking toward the Tiber was completed by the Italian Government, which declared the church a national monument. On 23 April 1891 an explosion at the gunpowder magazine at Forte Portuense destroyed the basilica's stained glass windows.
On 31 May 2005 Pope Benedict XVI ordered the basilica to come under the control of an archpriest and he named Archbishop Andrea Cordero Lanza di Montezemolo as its first archpriest.
Architecture and interior
The covered portico (or narthex) that precedes the façade is a Neo-classicist addition of the 19th-century reconstruction. On the right is the Holy Door, which is opened only during the Jubilees. On the inside is a second door, known as the Byzantine door,which was present in the pre-19th century basilica; it contains on one side 56 small square engraved bronze panels, and was commissioned in 1070 by Pantaleone, Consul of Amalfi in Constantinople, and putatively cast in Constantinople. It depicts a number of episodes in the life of Christ and the apostles.
The new basilica has maintained the original structure with one nave and four side aisles. It is long, -wide,
and -high, the second largest in Rome.
The nave's 80 columns and its wood and stucco-decorated ceiling are from the 19th century. All that remains of the ancient basilica are the interior portion of the apse with the triumphal arch. The mosaics of the apse were greatly damaged in the 1823 fire; only a few traces were incorporated in the restoration. The 5th-century mosaics of the triumphal arch are original (but also heavily reworked): an inscription in the lower section attest they were done at the time of Leo I, paid by Galla Placidia. The subject portrays the Apocalypse of John, with the bust of Christ in the middle flanked by the 24 Doctors of the Church, surmounted by the flying symbols of the four Evangelists. Saint Peter and Saint Paul are portrayed at the right and left of the arch, the latter pointing downwards (probably to his tomb).
From the inside, the windows may appear to be stained glass, but they are actually translucent alabaster.
The tabernacle of the confession of Arnolfo di Cambio (1285) belongs to the 13th century.
In the old basilica each pope had his portrait in a painted frieze extending above the columns separating the aisles from the nave. A 19th-century mosaic version can be seen now. The nave's interior walls were also redecorated with painted scenes from Saint Paul's life placed between the windows of the clerestory.
South of the transept is the cloister, considered "one of the most beautiful of the Middle Ages". Built by Vassalletto in 1205–1241, it has double columns of different shapes. Some columns have inlays with golden and colored-glass mosaics; the same decoration can be seen on the architrave and the inner frame of the cloister. Also visible are fragments from the destroyed basilica and ancient sarcophagi, one with scenes of the myth of Apollo.
Tomb of Saint Paul
According to tradition, Saint Paul's body was buried two miles away from the location of his martyrdom, in the sepulchral area along the Ostiense Way, which was owned by a Christian woman named Lucina. A tropaeum was erected on it and quickly became a place of veneration.
Constantine I erected a basilica on the tropaeum's site, and the basilica was significantly extended by Theodosius I from 386, into what is now known as Saint Paul Outside the Walls. During the 4th century, Paul's remains, excluding the head, were moved into a sarcophagus. (According to church tradition the head rests at the Lateran.) Paul's tomb is below a marble tombstone in the basilica's crypt, at below the altar. The tombstone bears the Latin inscription ("to Paul the apostle and martyr"). The inscribed portion of the tombstone has three holes, two square and one circular. The circular hole is connected to the tomb by a pipeline, reflecting the Roman custom of pouring perfumes inside the sarcophagus, or to the practice of providing the bones of the dead with libations. The sarcophagus below the tombstone measures long, wide and high.
The discovery of the sarcophagus is mentioned in the chronicle of the Benedictine monastery attached to the basilica, in regard to the 19th century rebuilding. Unlike other sarcophagi found at that time, this was not mentioned in the excavation papers.
On 6 December 2006, it was announced that Vatican archaeologists had confirmed the presence of a white marble sarcophagus beneath the altar, perhaps containing the remains of the Apostle. A press conference held on 11 December 2006 gave more details of the work of excavation, which lasted from 2002 to 22 September 2006, and which had been initiated after pilgrims to the basilica expressed disappointment that the Apostle's tomb could not be visited or touched during the Jubilee year of 2000. The sarcophagus was not extracted from its position, so that only one of its two longer sides is visible. In 2009 the Pope announced that radiocarbon dating confirmed that the bones in the tomb date from the 1st or 2nd century suggesting that they are indeed Paul's.
A curved line of bricks indicating the outline of the apse of the Constantinian basilica was discovered immediately to the west of the sarcophagus, showing that the original basilica had its entrance to the east, like Saint Peter's Basilica in the Vatican. The larger 386 basilica that replaced it had the Via Ostiense (the road to Ostia) to the east and so was extended westward, towards the river Tiber, changing the orientation diametrically.
Abbots
The complex includes an ancient Benedictine Abbey, restored by Odo of Cluny in 936.
1796–1799 Giovanni Battista Gualengo
1799–1799 Giustino Nuzi
1800–1800 Giovanni B. Gualengo
1803–1806 Stefano Alessandri
1806–1810 Giuseppe Giustino di Costanzo
1810–1815 Stefano Alessandri
1815–1821 Francesco Cavalli
1821–1825 Adeodato Galeffi
1825–1831 Giovanni Francesco Zelli
1831–1838 Vincenzo Bini
1838–1844 Giovanni Francesco Zelli
1844–1850 Paolo Theodoli
1850–1853 Mariano Falcinelli-Antoniacci
1853–1858 Simplicio Pappalettere
1858–1867 Angelo Pescetelli
1867–1895 Leopoldo Zelli Jacobuzi
1895–1904 Bonifacio Oslaender
1904–1918 Giovanni del Papa
1918–1929 Alfredo Ildefonso Schuster
1929–1955 Ildebrando Vannucci
1955–1964 Cesario D'Amato
1964–1973 Giovanni Battista Franzoni
1973–1980 Position empty
1980–1988 Giuseppe Nardin
1988–1996 Luca Collino
1996–1997 Position empty
1997–2005 Paolo Lunardon
2005–2015 Edmund Power
2015–2020 Roberto Dotta
2020-present Sede vacante; overseen by an appointed Papal Administrator, Arrigo Miglio
Archpriests
Cardinal Andrea Cordero Lanza di Montezemolo (31 May 2005 – 3 July 2009)
Cardinal Francesco Monterisi (3 July 2009 – 23 November 2012)
Cardinal James Michael Harvey (23 November 2012 – )
Other burials
Thibaud of Ostia
Gallery
See also
Bible of San Paolo fuori le Mura
Leonine Wall, first wall around Vatican City
List of Greco-Roman roofs
Notes
References
Further reading
Nicola Camerlenghi, St. Paul's Outside the Walls: A Roman Basilica from Antiquity to the Modern Era (Cambridge University Press, 2018).
Weitzmann, Kurt, ed., Age of spirituality: late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century, no. 439–440, 1979, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York,
Marina Docci, San Paolo fuori le mura: Dalle origini alla basilica delle origini (Roma: Gangemi Editore 2006).
External links
The Papal Basilica St Paul Outside-the-Walls, official site.
St. Paul's Outside the Walls: A Virtual Basilica
St. Paul's Tomb Unearthed in Rome on National Geographic News, including a photograph of a side of the sarcophagus.
The tombs of the apostles: Saint Paul
Reliquary of St. Anne's forearm venerated in a side chapel
Roman Catholic churches completed in 1823
Paolo fuori le mura, San
World Heritage Sites in Italy
4th-century churches
Rome Q. X Ostiense
Tombs of apostles
Major basilicas
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turaco
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Turaco
|
The turacos make up the bird family Musophagidae ( "banana-eaters"), which includes plantain-eaters and go-away-birds. In southern Africa both turacos and go-away-birds are commonly known as loeries. They are semi-zygodactylous: the fourth (outer) toe can be switched back and forth. The second and third toes, which always point forward, are conjoined in some species. Musophagids often have prominent crests and long tails; the turacos are noted for peculiar and unique pigments giving them their bright green and red feathers.
Traditionally, this group has been allied with the cuckoos in the order Cuculiformes, but the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy raises this group to a full order Musophagiformes. They have been proposed to link the hoatzin to the other living birds, but this was later disputed. Recent genetic analyses have strongly supported the order ranking of Musophagiformes.
Musophagidae is one of very few bird families endemic to Africa, one other being the mousebirds, Colliidae. All species are frugivorous, but they also eat leaves, buds, and flowers. Figs are an important part of their diet. They have rounded wings and long tails and strong legs, making them poor fliers, but good runners.
Turacos are medium-sized arboreal birds endemic to sub-Saharan Africa, where they live in forests, woodland and savanna. Turacos can occasionally be found outside of their native range as escapes from captivity
They are gregarious, non-migratory birds which move in family groups of up to 10. Many species are noisy, with the go-away-birds being especially noted for their piercing alarm calls, which alert other fauna to the presence of predators; their common name is onomatopoeia of this. Musophagids build large stick nests in trees, and lay 2 or 3 eggs. The young are born with thick down and open, or nearly-open, eyes.
Morphology
Most turacos are medium-sized birds – an exception being the large great blue turaco – with long tails and short, rounded wings. They range in length from . Their flight is weak, but they are strong climbers and are able to move nimbly on branches and through vegetation. Juveniles have claws on the wings that help them climb. They have a unique foot arrangement, where the fourth toe can be brought around to the back of the foot where it almost touches the first toe, or brought around so that it is near the second and third. In spite of this flexibility the toe is actually usually held at right angles to the axis of the foot.
The plumage of go-away-birds and plantain-eaters is mainly grey and white. The turacos on the other hand are brightly coloured birds, usually blue, green or purple. The green colour in turacos comes from turacoverdin, the only true green pigment in birds known to date. Other "greens" in bird colors result from a yellow pigment such as some carotenoid, combined with the prismatic physical structure of the feather itself which scatters the light in a particular way and giving a blue colour.
Turaco wings contain the red pigment turacin, unlike in other birds where red colour is due to carotenoids. Both pigments are derived from porphyrins and only known from the Musophagidae into the 21st century, but especially the little-researched turacoverdin might have relatives in other birds. The incidence of turacoverdin in relation to habitat is of interest to scientists, being present in forest species but absent in savanna- and acacia-living species.
Little is known about the longevity of wild turacos, but in captivity they are proving to be exceptionally long-lived, easily living to 30 years in captivity. A bird in the Cotswold Wildlife Park collection in England approached its 37th year.
Evolution and systematics
The fossil genus Veflintornis is known from the Middle Miocene of Grive-Saint-Alban (France). It was established as Apopempsis by Pierce Brodkorb in 1971, but this is pre-empted by Schenkling's 1903 use of the name for some beetles. "Apopempsis" africanus (Early Miocene of Kenya) might also belong there.
Further fossil material of putative musophagids was found in Egypt as well as in Late Oligocene deposits at Gaimersheim in Germany and Middle Miocene deposits at Grive-Saint-Alban and Vieux-Collonges (each in France). While it is not entirely certain that these fossils are indeed of turacos, it nonetheless appears as if the family evolved in the Oligocene of central Europe or perhaps northern Africa, and later on shifted its distribution southwards. The climate of those European regions during the late Paleogene was not too dissimilar to that of (sub)tropical Africa today; the Saharan desert was not yet present and the distance across the Mediterranean was not much more than what it is today. Thus such a move south may well have been a very slow and gradual shifting of a large and continuous range.
The Early Eocene Promusophaga was initially believed to be the oldest record of the turacos; it was eventually reconsidered a distant relative of the ostrich and is now in the ratite family Lithornithidae. Filholornis from the Late Eocene or Early Oligocene of France is occasionally considered a musophagid, but its relationships have always been disputed. It is not often considered a turaco in more recent times and has been synonymised with the presumed gruiform Talantatos, though it is not certain whether this will become widely accepted.
The phylogenetic analysis conducted by Field & Hsiang (2018) indicated that Eocene (Wasatchian) species Foro panarium known from the Fossil Butte Member of the Green River Formation (Wyoming, United States) was a stem-turaco.
Phylogeny
The IOC World Bird List (version 10.1) recognises 23 species of turaco in six genera. However, a phylogenetic analysis by Perktaş et al (2020) found genus Tauraco polyphyletic and a revised classification has been proposed based on molecular, morphological and biogeographic analysis. This study recognised 33 species-level taxa in seven genera corresponding to the major clades. The following phylogenetic tree is based on this proposal and uses their proposed genus and species names.
{{clade|style=font-size:95%;line-height:95%
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|label1=Corythaeolinae
|1=
|label2=Criniferinae |sublabel2=(Crinifer sensu lato)
|2=
}}
|label2=Musophaginae
|2=
}}
}}
Notes:
Species
The species of Musophagidae, arranged in taxonomic sequence and Paleofile.com websites are:
Order Musophagiformes Seebohm 1890
Genus †Foro Olson, 1992?
†F. panarium Olson, 1992
Family Musophagidae Lesson 1828 [Apopempsidae Brodkorb, 1971b; Veflintornithidae Kašin, 1976]
Genus †Veflintornis Kašin 1976 [Apopempsis Brodkorb 1971 non Schenkling 1903]
†V. meini (Ballmann 1969) Kašin 1976 [Musophaga meini Ballmann 1969; Apopempsis meini (Ballmann 1969) Brodkorb 1971]
†V. africanus (Harrison 1980) [Musophaga africanus Harrison 1980; Apopempsis africanus (Harrison 1980)]
Subfamily Corythaeolinae
Genus Corythaeola Heine 1860
Great blue turaco, Corythaeola cristata (Vieillot 1816) Heine 1860
Subfamily Criniferinae
Genus Crinifer Western plantain-eater, Crinifer piscator (Boddaert 1783)
Eastern plantain-eater, Crinifer zonurus (Rüppell 1835)
White-bellied go-away-bird, Crinifer leucogaster (Rüppell 1842) Roberts 1926
Grey go-away-bird, Crinifer concolor Bare-faced go-away-bird, Crinifer personatus Subfamily Musophaginae
Genus Gallirex Purple-crested turaco, Gallirex porphyreolophus Rwenzori turaco, Gallirex johnstoni Genus Menelikornis White-cheeked turaco, Menelikornis leucotis (Rüppell 1835)
Ruspoli's turaco, Menelikornis ruspolii Salvadori 1896
Genus Tauraco Bannerman's turaco, Tauraco bannermani (Bates 1923)
White-crested turaco, Tauraco leucolophus (Heuglin 1855)
Red-crested turaco, Tauraco erythrolophus (Vieillot 1819)
Guinea turaco, Tauraco persa (Linnaeus 1758)
Knysna turaco, Tauraco corythaix (Wagler 1827)
Livingstone's turaco, Tauraco livingstonii Gray 1864
Fischer's turaco, Tauraco fischeri (Reichenow 1878)
Black-billed turaco, Tauraco schuettii (Cabanis 1879)
Schalow's turaco, Tauraco schalowi (Reichenow 1891)
Hartlaub's turaco, Tauraco hartlaubi (Fischer & Reichenow 1884)
Yellow-billed turaco, Tauraco macrorhynchus (Fraser 1839)
Violet turaco, Tauraco violaceus Isert 1788
Ross's turaco, Tauraco rossae Gould 1852
Interaction with humans
The crimson flight feathers of turacos have been treasured as status symbols to royalty and paramount chiefs all over Africa. They are recorded as being valued by the Swazi and Zulu royal families. British ornithologist Constantine Walter Benson, who collected heavily in Africa, is alleged to have tasted every species he collected; he claimed that turacos tasted the best.
Footnotes
References
(French with English abstract)
International Turaco Society (Magazines 1993–2012), also website 2001, www.turacos.org
Mlíkovský, Jirí (2002): Cenozoic Birds of the World, Part 1: Europe''. Ninox Press, Prague. PDF fulltext
This is based on a now outdated classification, but does provide a detailed description of the morphology of some species.
Supplementary Material
External links
International Touraco Society
Turaco videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Higher-level bird taxa restricted to the Afrotropics
Extant Chattian first appearances
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casey%20Kasem
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Casey Kasem
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Kemal Amin "Casey" Kasem (April 27, 1932 – June 15, 2014) was an American disc jockey, actor, and radio personality, who created and hosted several radio countdown programs, notably American Top 40. He was the first actor to voice Norville "Shaggy" Rogers in the Scooby-Doo franchise (1969 to 1997 and 2002 to 2009).
Kasem began hosting the original American Top 40 on the weekend of July 4, 1970, and remained there until 1988. He would then spend nine years hosting another countdown titled Casey's Top 40, beginning in January 1989 and ending in February 1998, before returning to revive American Top 40 in 1998. Along the way, spin-offs of the original countdown were conceived for country music and adult contemporary audiences, and Kasem hosted two countdowns for the latter format beginning in 1992 and continuing until 2009. He also founded the American Video Awards in 1983 and continued to co-produce and host it until its final show in 1987.
Kasem also provided many commercial voiceovers, performed many voices for children's television (such as Sesame Street and the Transformers cartoon series), was "the voice of NBC" and helped with the annual Jerry Lewis telethon.
Early life
Kasem was born in Detroit, Michigan on April 27, 1932, to Lebanese Druze immigrants, Helen and Amin Kasem, who were grocers. He was named after Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, a man Kasem said his father respected. Kasem's parents did not allow their children to speak Arabic and insisted they assimilate into American life.
In the 1940s, "Make Believe Ballroom" reportedly inspired Kasem to follow a career in radio. Kasem received his first experience in radio covering sports at Northwestern High School in Detroit. He then attended Wayne State University, where he voiced children on radio programs such as The Lone Ranger and Challenge of the Yukon. In 1952, Kasem was drafted into the U.S. Army and sent to Korea. There, he worked as a DJ/announcer on the Armed Forces Radio Korea Network.
Career
Early career
After the war, Kasem began his professional broadcasting career in Flint, Michigan, then worked at Detroit's WJLB and WJBK—and portrayed children's television host "Krogo the Clown"—but left broadcasting to help tend to the family grocery store in Fenton, Michigan. Kasem unsuccessfully attempted work as a stage actor in New York City for six months, auditioning for a role in the off-Broadway production Ivan Of, but lost out to Ed Asner. Returning to Detroit, Kasem re-applied at WJBK but was promptly referred to co-owned WJW, which not only had a late-evening slot open but a hosting role for Cleveland Bandstand over WJW-TV as well. Cleveland's emerging status as a popular music epicenter appealed to Kasem, having been aware of WERE's Bill Randle dating back to when Randle worked in Detroit. Kasem identified himself as "Casey at the Mike" owning to varied misspellings of his name in both contemporary news accounts and station promos.
Kasem's tenure in Cleveland was a brief but successful one, entering the market "with a vengeance" against Top 40 stations WHK and KYW. Within three months, Kasem reached second place behind WHK in ratings surveys on weeknights and number one on Saturday nights. Kasem's predecessor in the time slot, Pete "Mad Daddy" Myers, partially inspired Kasem's presentation on-air, but Kasem felt compelled to develop a unique on-air persona to distinguish himself. The first three hours of his evening show remained devoted to R&B recordings in a "high-energy rock" style, while the fourth hour was more laidback with his news reader as a co-host. The R&B selections and "wild-tracking" by Kasem also distinguished himself from WJW's daytime pop-oriented fare, which typically featured Perry Como and The McGuire Sisters as core artists.
Nightly features included Kasem labeling songs as "...of the night", with random phrases or names as a descriptor. The payola scandal which enveloped Alan Freed's career emerged after Kasem joined WJW; in response, Kasem began a regular comedy bit called the "Payola Tune of the Night" which WJW management encouraged under the assumption it would dissuade listeners from thinking he was under investigation as well. Ultimately, Kasem's career was not negatively impacted by the payola scandal. One notable stunt involved Kasem and Diana Trask engaging in an 85-second-long kiss for a "world record" distinction on September 14, 1959, with his news reader describing the kiss on-air. While hosting Cleveland Bandstand, Kasem started to take pep pills to lose weight; one day he forgot them while en route to the station, with the resulting pang of conscience after retrieving them from his apartment prompted him to give up the habit entirely.
After WJW switched formats to beautiful music, which Kasem attributed directly to the payola scandal, he left WJW for Buffalo's WBNY but remained in contact with friends in the Cleveland area. At KYA in San Francisco, the general manager suggested he tone down his delivery and talk about the records instead. At KEWB in Oakland, California, Kasem was both the music director and an on-air personality. He said he was inspired by a Who's Who in Pop Music, 1962 magazine he found in the trash. He created a show that mixed biographical tidbits about the artists he played, and attracted the attention of Bill Gavin, who tried to recruit him as a partner. After Kasem joined KRLA in Los Angeles in 1963, his career began to blossom and he championed the R&B music of East L.A.
Kasem acted in a number of low-budget movies and radio dramas. While hosting "dance hops" on local television, he attracted the attention of Dick Clark, who hired him as co-host of a daily teenage music show called Shebang, starting in 1964. Kasem's roles on network TV series included Hawaii Five-O and Ironside. In 1967, he appeared on The Dating Game, and played the role of "Mouth" in the motorcycle gang film The Glory Stompers. In 1969, he played the role of Knife in the film Wild Wheels, and had a small role in another biker movie, The Cycle Savages, starring Bruce Dern and Melody Patterson, and The Incredible 2-Headed Transplant (also with Dern).
Kasem's voice was the key to his career. In 1964 during the Beatlemania craze, Kasem had a minor hit single called "Letter from Elaina", a spoken-word recording that told the story of a girl who met George Harrison after a San Francisco Beatles concert. At the end of the 1960s, he began working as a voice actor. In 1969, he started one of his most famous roles, the voice of Shaggy on Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!. He also voiced the drummer Groove from The Cattanooga Cats that year.
1970–1988: Acting/voiceover work and American Top 40
On July 4, 1970, Kasem, along with Don Bustany, Tom Rounds, and Ron Jacobs, launched the weekly radio program American Top 40 (AT40). At the time, top 40 radio was on the decline as DJs preferred to play album-oriented progressive rock. Loosely based on the TV program Your Hit Parade, the show counted down from #40 to #1 based on the Billboard Hot 100 weekly chart. Kasem mixed in biographical information and trivia about the artists, as well as flashbacks and "Long-Distance Dedication" segments in which he read letters from listeners wishing to dedicate songs to distant loved ones. Frequently, he mentioned a trivia fact about an unnamed singer before a commercial break, then provided the name of the singer after returning from the break. Kasem ended the program with his signature sign-off, "Keep your feet on the ground and keep reaching for the stars."
The show debuted on seven stations but soon went nationwide. In October 1978, the show expanded from three hours to four. American Top 40 success spawned several imitators, including a weekly half-hour music video television show, America's Top 10, hosted by Kasem himself. "When we first went on the air, I thought we would be around for at least 20 years," he later remarked. "I knew the formula worked. I knew people tuned in to find out what the number 1 record was." Because of his great knowledge of music, Kasem became known for his commentaries on music history that he interspersed with trivia about the artists.
In 1971, Kasem provided the character voice of Peter Cottontail in the Rankin/Bass production of Here Comes Peter Cottontail. In the same year, he appeared in The Incredible 2-Headed Transplant, in what is probably his best-remembered acting role. From 1973 to 1985, Kasem voiced Robin for several Super Friends franchise shows. In 1980, he voiced Merry in The Return of the King. He also voiced Alexander Cabot III on Josie and the Pussycats and Josie and the Pussycats in Outer Space, and supplied a number of voices for Sesame Street.
In the late 1970s, Kasem portrayed an actor who imitated Columbo in the Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries two-part episode "The Mystery of the Hollywood Phantom." He portrayed a golf commentator in an episode of Charlie's Angels titled "Winning is for Losers", and appeared on Police Story, Quincy, M.E. and Switch. In 1977, Kasem was hired as the narrator for the ABC sitcom Soap, but quit after the pilot episode because of the show's controversial content. Rod Roddy took his place on the program. In 1984, Kasem made a cameo in Ghostbusters, reprising his role as the host of American Top 40. For a period in the late 1970s, he was the staff announcer for the NBC television network.
In 1983 Kasem helped found the American Video Awards, an annual music video award show taped for distribution to television, which he also hosted and co-produced. His goal was to make it the "Oscars" of music videos. There were only five award shows. The final show aired in 1987.
1988–1998: Casey's Top 40
In 1988, Kasem left American Top 40 because of a contract dispute with ABC Radio Network. He signed a five-year, $15 million contract with Westwood One and started Casey's Top 40, which used a different chart, the Radio & Records Contemporary (CHR)/Pop radio airplay chart (also employed contemporaneously by Rick Dees Weekly Top 40). He also hosted two shorter versions of the show, Casey's Hot 20 and Casey's Countdown. During the late 1990s, Kasem hosted the Radio Hall of Fame induction ceremony.
Kasem voiced Mark in Battle of the Planets and several Transformers characters: Bluestreak, Cliffjumper, Teletraan I and Dr. Arkeville. He left Transformers during the third season because he believed the show contained offensive caricatures of Arabs and Arab countries. In a 1990 article, he explained:
From 1989 to 1998, Kasem hosted Nick at Nite's New Year's Eve countdown of the top reruns of the year. He also made cameo appearances on Saved by the Bell and ALF in the early 1990s. In 1997, Kasem quit his role as Shaggy in a dispute over a Burger King commercial, with Billy West and Scott Innes taking over the character in the late 1990s and early 2000s.
1998–2009: American Top 40 second run
The original American Top 40, hosted by Shadoe Stevens after Kasem's departure, was cancelled in 1995. Kasem regained the rights to the name in 1997, and the show was back on the air in 1998, on the AMFM Network (later acquired by Premiere Radio Networks).
At the end of 2003, Kasem announced he would leave AT40 once his contract expired and would be replaced by Ryan Seacrest. He agreed to a new contract to continue hosting his weekly adult contemporary countdown shows in the interim, which at the time were both titled American Top 20. In 2005 Kasem renewed his deal with Premiere Radio Networks to continue hosting his shows, one of which had been reduced to ten songs and was retitled American Top 10 to reflect the change.
In April 2005, a television special called American Top 40 Live aired on the Fox network, hosted by Seacrest, with Kasem appearing on the show. In 2008, Kasem did the voice-over for WGN America's Out of Sight Retro Night. He was also the host of the short-lived American version of 100% during the 1998–99 season.
In June 2009, Premiere announced it would no longer produce Kasem's two remaining countdowns, ending their eleven-year relationship. Kasem, by this point at age 77, decided against finding another syndicator or replacement host, citing a desire to explore other avenues such as writing a memoir. He sent a press release announcing he would retire from radio on the July 4 weekend, the 39th anniversary of the first countdown show.
Kasem also performed TV commercial voice-overs throughout his career, appearing in more than 100 commercials.
In 2002, Kasem returned to the role of Shaggy, agreeing to continue on the condition that his character returned to vegetarianism (based on his personal lifestyle). In 2009, he retired from voice acting, with his final performance being the voice of Shaggy in Scooby-Doo! and the Samurai Sword. He did voice Shaggy again for "The Official BBC Children in Need Medley", but went uncredited by his request. Although officially retired from acting, Kasem provided the voice of Colton Rogers, Shaggy's father, on a recurring basis for the 2010–2013 series Scooby-Doo! Mystery Incorporated, once again uncredited at his request.
As for his distinctive voice quality, "It's a natural quality of huskiness in the midrange of my voice that I call 'garbage,'" he stated to The New York Times. "It's not a clear-toned announcer's voice. It's more like the voice of the guy next door."
Personal life
Kasem was a dedicated vegan, supported animal rights and environmental causes, and was a critic of factory farming. He initially quit voicing Shaggy in the mid to late 1990s when asked to voice Shaggy in a Burger King commercial, but returned in 2002 after negotiating to have Shaggy become a vegetarian.
Kasem was active in politics, supporting Lebanese-American and Arab-American causes, an interest triggered by the 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon. He wrote a brochure published by the Arab American Institute entitled "Arab-Americans: Making a Difference". He called for a fairer depiction of heroes and villains on behalf of all cultures in Disney's 1994 sequel to Aladdin called The Return of Jafar. In 1996, he was honored as "Man of the Year" by the American Druze Society. Kasem campaigned against the Gulf War, advocating non-military means of pressuring Saddam Hussein into withdrawing from Kuwait, was an advocate of Palestinian independence and arranged conflict-resolution workshops for Arab Americans and Jewish Americans.
A political liberal, Kasem narrated a campaign ad for George McGovern's 1972 presidential campaign, hosted fundraisers for Jesse Jackson's presidential campaigns in 1984 and 1988, supported Ralph Nader for U.S. president in 2000, and supported progressive Democrat Dennis Kucinich in his 2004 and 2008 presidential campaigns. Kasem supported a number of other progressive causes, including affordable housing and the rights of the homeless.
Kasem was married to Linda Myers from 1972 to 1979. They had three children: Mike, Julie, and Kerri Kasem.
Kasem was married to actress Jean Thompson from 1980 until his death. They had one child, Liberty Jean Kasem.
In 1989, Kasem purchased a home built in 1954 and located at 138 North Mapleton Drive in Holmby Hills, Los Angeles, previously owned by developer Abraham M. Lurie, as a birthday present for his wife, Jean. In 2013, Kasem and his wife put the home on the market for US$43 million. After the dueling lawsuits between Kasem family members were settled, the property was re-listed in 2021 for US$37.9 million.
Illness and death
In October 2013, Kerri Kasem announced her father had Parkinson's disease, diagnosed in 2007. However, a few months later, she said he had Lewy body dementia, which is hard to differentiate from Parkinson's. His condition left him unable to speak during his final months.
As Kasem's health worsened in 2013, his wife Jean prevented any contact with him, particularly by his children from his first marriage. On October 1, the children protested in front of the Kasem home. Some of Kasem's friends and colleagues, and his brother Mouner, joined the protest. The older Kasem children sought conservatorship over their father's care. The court denied their petition in November.
Jean removed Kasem from his Santa Monica, California nursing home on May 7, 2014. On May 12, Kerri Kasem was granted temporary conservatorship over her father, despite her stepmother's objection. The court ordered an investigation into Casey Kasem's whereabouts after his wife's attorney told the court that Casey was "no longer in the United States". He was found soon afterward in Washington state.
On June 6, 2014, Kasem was reported to be in critical but stable condition in hospital in Washington state, receiving antibiotics for bedsores and treatment for high blood pressure. It was revealed he had been bedridden for some time. A judge ordered separate visitation times for Kasem's wife and his children from his first marriage. Judge Daniel S. Murphy ruled that Kasem had to be hydrated, fed and medicated as a court-appointed lawyer reported on his health status. Jean Kasem claimed he had been given no food, water or medication the previous weekend. Kerri Kasem's lawyer stated that she had him removed from artificial food and water on the orders of a doctor and in accordance with a directive her father signed in 2007 saying he would not want to be kept alive if it "would result in a mere biological existence, devoid of cognitive function, with no reasonable hope for normal functioning." Murphy reversed his order the following Monday after it became known that Kasem's body was no longer responding to the artificial nutrition, allowing the family to place Kasem on "end-of-life" measures over the objections of Jean Kasem.
On June 15, 2014, Kasem died at St. Anthony's Hospital in Gig Harbor, Washington at the age of 82. The immediate cause of death was reported as sepsis caused by an ulcerated bedsore. His body was handed over to his widow. Reportedly, Kasem wanted to be buried at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale.
By July 19, a judge had granted Kerri Kasem a temporary restraining order to prevent Jean Kasem from cremating the body in order to allow an autopsy to be performed. However, when Kerri Kasem went to give a copy of the order to the funeral home, she was informed that the body had been moved at the direction of Jean Kasem. Kasem's wife had the body moved to a funeral home in Montreal on July 14, 2014. On August 14, it was reported in the Norwegian newspaper Verdens Gang that Kasem was going to be buried in Oslo.
Jean Kasem had him interred at Oslo Western Civil Cemetery on December 16, 2014, more than six months after his death.
In November 2015, three of Kasem's children and his brother sued his widow for wrongful death. The lawsuit charges Jean Kasem with elder abuse and inflicting emotional distress on the children by restricting access before his death. A 2018 police investigation initiated by a private investigator working for Jean found that he had received appropriate medical care while in Washington, and that there was no evidence pointing to homicide. The suits were settled in 2019.
Honors
In 1981, Kasem was granted a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. He was inducted into the National Association of Broadcasters Hall of Fame radio division in 1985, and the National Radio Hall of Fame in 1992. Five years later, he received the Radio Hall of Fame's first Lifetime Achievement Award. In 2003, Kasem was given the Radio Icon award at the Radio Music Awards.
Filmography
Film
Television
Video games
Theme parks
See also
List of vegans
History of the Middle Eastern people in Metro Detroit
References
Further reading
External links
1932 births
2014 deaths
American radio DJs
Television personalities from Los Angeles
American Top 40
American male voice actors
American male film actors
American male television actors
American people of Lebanese descent
American people of Druze descent
NBC network announcers
Male actors from Detroit
Wayne State University alumni
Radio personalities from Detroit
Michigan Democrats
Hanna-Barbera people
Neurological disease deaths in Washington (state)
Deaths from Lewy body dementia
Druze people of American nationality
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
People from Holmby Hills, Los Angeles
Northwestern High School (Michigan) alumni
United States Army personnel of the Korean War
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Mark%27s%20Basilica
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St Mark's Basilica
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The Patriarchal Cathedral Basilica of Saint Mark (), commonly known as St Mark's Basilica (; ), is the cathedral church of the Roman Catholic Patriarchate of Venice in northern Italy; it became the episcopal seat of the Patriarch of Venice in 1807, replacing the earlier cathedral of San Pietro di Castello. It is dedicated to Saint Mark the Evangelist, the patron saint of the city, and it holds his relics.
The church is located on the eastern end of Saint Mark's Square, the former political and religious centre of the Republic of Venice, and is attached to the Doge's Palace. Prior to the fall of the republic in 1797, it was the chapel of the Doge and was subject to his jurisdiction, with the concurrence of the procurators of Saint Mark de supra for administrative and financial affairs. As the state sanctuary, it was the site of official religious and civic ceremonies, including the presentation of a new Doge to the people and the consignment to the capitano generale da mar of the banner of Saint Mark, symbol of the supreme authority to defend the republic on the sea in wartime. Here, peace treaties and alliances were also solemnized and victories celebrated. The church additionally served as the meeting hall of the Concio until the popular assembly's dissolution in 1423.
The present structure is the third church, begun probably in 1063 to express Venice's growing civic consciousness and pride. Like the two earlier churches, its model was the sixth-century Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, although accommodations were made to adapt the design to the limitations of the physical site and to meet the specific needs of Venetian state ceremonies. Middle-Byzantine, Romanesque, and limited Islamic influences are also evident, and Gothic elements were later incorporated. To convey the republic's wealth and power, the original brick façades and interior walls were embellished over time with precious stones and rare marbles, primarily in the thirteenth century. Many of the columns, reliefs, and sculptures were spoils stripped from the churches, palaces, and public monuments of Constantinople as a result of the Venetian participation in the Fourth Crusade. Among the plundered artefacts brought back to Venice were the four ancient bronze horses that were placed prominently over the entry.
The interior of the domes, the vaults, and the upper walls were slowly covered with roughly of gold-ground mosaics depicting saints, prophets, and biblical scenes. Many of these mosaics were later retouched or remade as artistic tastes changed and damaged mosaics had to be replaced, such that the mosaics represent eight hundred years of artistic styles. Some of them derive from traditional Byzantine representations and are masterworks of Medieval art; others are based on preparatory drawings made by prominent Renaissance artists from Venice and Florence, including Paolo Veronese, Tintoretto, Titian, Paolo Uccello, and Andrea del Castagno. For its singular importance, St Mark's Basilica was defined by the art historian and Byzantinist Otto Demus as "the key to the understanding of all of Venice, of its history, and of its art."
Background
Aquileia, Grado, and Venice
Legends that associate the foundation of important episcopal sees with the missionary activities of the apostles or their immediate disciples were common in the early Middle Ages. For the Patriarchate of Aquileia, such an association was made by Patriarch Paulinus II in the late eighth century when he claimed Saint Mark, as its founder. The assertion aimed at enhancing the prestige of Aquileia, elevating it to the rank of those patriarchates that traditionally traced their origins to the apostles, and even at claiming chronological precedence over the Patriarchate of Alexandria in Egypt, believed to have also been founded by Mark.
No historical evidence exists in support of Aquileia's claim to apostolic foundation. The first literary account of Mark's presence in the region and his evangelization of Aquileia is found in Paul the Deacon's , written between 783 and 786. However, the tradition is narrated in the , which may have been written as early as the fifth century, and it must have already been widely accredited by 628/630 when the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius donated the so-called throne of Saint Mark to the rival Patriarch of Grado.
To Grado, the seat of the Aquileian church had effectively been transferred in 568 when Bishop Paulinus I sought refuge there at the time of the Byzantine–Lombard wars: the territory of the episcopal see still encompassed Aquileia which was occupied by the Lombards, but the bishop now resided in Grado which remained a part of the Byzantine Empire. Subsequently, in 607, the Lombard duke of Friuli Gisulf and the Byzantine esarch of Ravenna Smaragdus backed rival candidates to succeed Bishop Severus after his death, and two bishops were elected. The original episcopal see was then formally divided in 716 between the Patriarch of Aquileia, who resided in Cormons under the protection of the Lombards, and the Patriarch of New Aquileia (Grado), who resided in Grado with the backing of Byzantium.
This balance changed after the Franks defeated the Lombards and gained control of the mainland in 774. Anxious to exert influence over Venetia, the Byzantine territories along the coast, the Franks looked with favour upon the initiatives of Patriarch Maxentius of Aquileia to re-establish the original ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the patriarchate in its entirety and to subjugate Grado, which meant extending his authority over Venetia. At the Maxentius once again appealed to the tradition that Saint Mark had founded the Patriarchate of Aquileia. In consequence, he argued, Aquileia was second only to Rome in all of Italy, and Grado was merely a parish. With the backing of the Franks, the conclusion of Mantua was foregone: Aquileia was recognized as the rightful metropolitan see.
For the Venetians, to fall under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of a metropolitan bishop who resided outside of their territory and whose loyalties lay with the Franks raised grave concerns: the Venetian bishops would have to vow obedience to the Patriarch of Aquileia and undertake a formal act of homage to the Frankish emperor. The adoption as their patron of Saint Mark, the source of Aquileia's legitimacy, consequently became a political expediency, and the appropriation of his relics was specifically the means to distinguish Venice as the true religious centre of the region. Not only would this undermine Aquileia's principal argument and counter Frankish influence, it would lay the groundwork for Venice's ecclesiastical independence. Simultaneously, the adoption of Saint Mark as patron would provide a unifying symbol for the nascent Venetian Republic by replacing the soldier-saint Saint Theodore, too closely associated with the East and the Byzantine Empire.
St Mark's relics
'Translatio'
The relics of Saint Mark are recorded in Venice as early as the ninth-century in both the will of Doge Giustiniano Participazio () and the travelogue of a Frankish monk on return from a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. However, the oldest surviving written account of the , the transfer of the relics from Alexandria in Egypt to Venice, dates only to the eleventh century, although earlier writings evidently existed and were used as sources.
As narrated, a fleet of ten Venetian trading vessels seeks shelter in the Muslim-controlled city of Alexandria during a storm. This is said to be 'by the will of God'; hence there is no intentional violation of the edict of Emperor Leo V that forbids commercial contact with the Muslims. In Alexandria, two of the Venetian merchants, Buono da Malamocco (Metamaucum) and Rustico da Torcello, go daily to pray at the tomb of Saint Mark, located in a church near the port, and there, they make the acquaintance of Theodore and Stauracius, a priest and monk respectively. Theodore, fearful for the dwindling Christian community under Islamic rule, makes it known that the Caliph Al-Ma'mun has ordered the demolition of the church in order to recover building materials for new mosques, and it is suggested that the body of the saint be safely removed to Venice. To avoid raising suspicion, the body is first substituted with the remains of Saint Claudia, which are present in the church. The relics, placed into a basket and covered in pork, are then successfully smuggled past the Muslim customs officials and embarked on the Venetians' ship, which is preserved from shipwreck during the voyage by Saint Mark who appears and warns the sailors of the imminent danger. Other miracles occur, confirming the authenticity of the relics, until finally the ship arrives in Venice where the body is received by the Bishop of Olivolo and then taken in solemn procession to the Doge.
Independently of the pious inventions, the overall narration serves to justify the right of Venice to possess the relics. It simultaneously affirms the primacy of the Venetian church, the rightful successor of the Patriarchate of Aquileia, even over the ancient metropolitan see of Alexandria. As Buono and Rustico declare, evoking the tradition that Mark preached in northern Italy, the Venetians are the "first-born sons" () of the Evangelist. The translation of the relics to Venice is therefore a return of Mark to his rightful resting place.
'Praedestinatio'
With the (also ) the possession of the relics is further legitimized, in this case as the fulfillment of a divine plan. Traceable to Martino da Canal's thirteenth century , the legend in its definitive form narrates that Saint Mark, after his mission to northern Italy and the evangelization of Aquileia, returns to Rome. Passing through the Venetian Lagoon, he beaches his boat for the night, and he has a vision on the very site of the future city of Venice in which an angel appears, greeting him "Peace to you Mark, my Evangelist" (). A prophecy follows announcing that his body will one day find rest in Venice () and that it will be venerated by a virtuous and pious people who will build a glorious and eternal city.
'Inventio'
The (also ) confirms the special bond between Saint Mark and the Venetians. The legend concerns the rediscovery of the body at the time of the reconstruction of the church in the eleventh century. Although it is found no earlier than Martino da Canal's thirteenth-century , it may derive from the actual public exposition of Saint Mark's relics prior to their entombment in the new crypt. As narrated, the body of Saint Mark is hidden to prevent theft during work on the church, and after years all knowledge of its hiding place, known only to the Doge and a few trusted officials, is lost. Finally, after three days of fasting and prayer, an earthquake breaks open a pillar, revealing the body, which in later variations reaches out to the pious Venetians.
History
Participazio church (–976)
The medieval Chronicon Venetum by John the Deacon narrates that the relics of Saint Mark were initially placed in a corner tower of the castrum (also castellum), the fortified residence of the Doge and seat of government located on the site of the present Doge's Palace. Doge Giustiniano Participazio subsequently stipulated in his will that his widow Felicita and his younger brother and successor Giovanni () were to erect a church dedicated to Saint Mark wherein the relics of the Evangelist would ultimately be housed. Giustiniano further specified that the new church was to be built between the castrum and the Church of Saint Theodore to the north, on property that served as the garden of the monastery of San Zaccaria. Provisions were also made to utilize some of the stones and building materials that Giustiniano had recuperated from Roman ruins on the mainland and destined for a family house on the island of Torcello and for the on the edge of the Venetian Lagoon. Construction of the new church may have already been underway during Giustinian's lifetime, as attested by John the Deacon, and was completed by 836 when the relics of Saint Mark were transferred.
Although the Participazio church was long believed to have been a rectangular structure with a single apse and a wooden roof, comparable to the Basilica of Sant' Apollinare in Classe in Ravenna, Santa Maria Assunta in Parentium, and the local cathedrals of Santa Maria Assunta in Aquileia, Sant'Eufemia in Grado, and Santa Maria Assunta in Torcello, soundings and excavations conducted in 1950 demonstrated that St Mark's was from the beginning a cruciform church with at least a central dome, likely in wood. It has not been unequivocally established if each of the four crossarms of the church had a similar dome or were instead covered with gabled wooden roofs.
The prototype was the Church of the Holy Apostles (demolished 1461) in Constantinople, the structure erected by Justinian that served as the imperial mausoleum. This radical break with the local architectural tradition of a rectangular plan in favour of a centrally planned Byzantine model reflected the growing commercial presence of Venetian merchants in the imperial capital as well as Venice's political ties with Byzantium, which were renewed in the early ninth century as a means of countering Carolingian influence. More importantly, it underscored that the Church of St Mark was intended not as an ecclesiastical seat but as a state sanctuary.
Remnants of the Participazio church likely survive and are generally believed to include the foundations and lower parts of several of the principal walls, including the western wall between the nave and the narthex, which underneath the subsequent marble encrustation shows signs of prolonged exposure to the outside. The great entry portal in the narthex may also date to the early church as well as the western portion of the crypt, under the central dome, which seems to have served as the base for a raised dais upon which the original altar was located.
Orseolo church (976–)
The Participazio church was severely damaged in 976 during the popular uprising against Doge Pietro IV Candiano () when the fire that angry crowds had set to drive the Doge from the castrum spread to the adjoining church. Although the structure was not completely destroyed, it was compromised to the point that the Concio, the general assembly, had to alternatively convene in the cathedral of San Pietro di Castello to elect Candiano's successor, Pietro I Orseolo (). Within two years, the church was repaired and at the sole expense of the Orseolo family, indications that the actual damage to the structure was relatively limited. Most likely, the wooden components had been consumed, but the walls and supports remained largely intact.
Nothing certain is known of the appearance of the Orseolo church. But given the short duration of the reconstruction, it is probable that work was limited to repairing damage with little innovation. It was at this time, however, that the tomb of Saint Mark, located in the main apse, was surmounted with brick vaults, creating the semi-enclosed shrine that would later be incorporated into the crypt when the floor of the chancel was raised during the construction of the third church.
Contarini church (–present)
Construction
Civic pride led many Italian cities in the mid-eleventh century to begin erecting or rebuild their cathedrals on a grand scale. Venice was similarly interested in demonstrating its growing commercial wealth and power, and probably in 1063, under Doge Domenico I Contarini (), St Mark's was substantially rebuilt and enlarged to the extent that the resulting structure appeared entirely new. Under the direction of an anonymous Greek architect from Constantinople, the church was once again modelled after the Holy Apostles, but more closely than had been possible in the early ninth century when Venice lacked both the technical skills and the financial means necessary to equal the great church of the imperial capital. The northern transept was lengthened, likely by incorporating the southern lateral nave of the Church of Saint Theodore. Similarly, the southern transept was extended, perhaps by integrating a corner tower of the castrum. Most significantly, the wooden domes were rebuilt in brick. This required strengthening the walls and piers in order to support the new heavy barrel vaults, which in turn were reinforced by arcades along the sides of the northern, southern, and western crossarms. The vaults of the eastern crossarm were supported instead by inserting single arches that also served to divide the chancel from the choir chapels in the lateral apses.
In front of the western façade, a narthex was built. To accommodate the height of the existing great entry, likely dating to the ninth-century Participazio church, the vaulting system of the new narthex had to be interrupted in correspondence to the portal, thus creating the shaft that opens above to the interior of the church. The crypt was also enlarged to the east, and the high altar was moved from under the central dome to the chancel, which was raised, supported by a network of fifty-six columns and vaults in the underlying crypt. By 1071, work had progressed far enough that the investiture of Doge Domenico Selvo () could take place in the unfinished church.
Work on the interior began under Selvo who collected fine marbles and stones for the embellishment of the church and personally financed the mosaic decoration, hiring a master mosaicist from Constantinople. The Pala d'Oro (golden altarpiece), ordered from Constantinople in 1102, was installed on the high altar in 1105. For the consecration under Doge Vitale Falier Dodoni (), various dates are recorded, most likely reflecting a series of consecrations of different sections. The consecration on 8 October 1094 is considered to be the dedication of the church and is commemorated as such in the Venetian liturgical calendar. On that day, the relics of Saint Mark were also placed into the new crypt.
Embellishment
As built, the Contarini church was a severe brick structure. Adornment inside was limited to the columns of the arcades, the balusters and parapets of the galleries, and the lattice altar screens. The wall surfaces were decorated with moulded arches that alternated with engaged brickwork columns as well as niches and a few cornices in relief with black 'niello' inlay. With the exception of the outside of the apse and the western façade that faced Saint Mark's Square, the stark brick exterior was enlivened only by receding concentric arches in contrasting brick around the windows. The western façade, comparable to middle-Byzantine churches erected in the tenth and eleventh centuries, was characterized by a series of arches set between protruding pillars. Similar to Panagia Chalkeon in Thessalonica, the walls were pierced by windows set in larger blind arches, while the intervening pillars were adorned with niches and circular patere made of rare marbles and stones that were surrounded with ornamental frames. Other decorative details, including friezes and corbel tables, reflected Romanesque trends, an indication of the taste and craftsmanship of the Italian workers.
With few exceptions, most notably the juncture of the southern and western crossarms, both the exterior and interior of the church were subsequently sheathed with revetments of marble and precious stones and enriched with columns, reliefs, and sculptures. Many of these ornamental elements were spolia taken from ancient or Byzantine buildings. Particularly in the period of the Latin Empire (1204–1261), following the Fourth Crusade, the Venetians pillaged the churches, palaces, and public monuments of Constantinople and stripped them of polychrome columns and stones, including black and white Aquitaine marble, both red and green Cipollino marble, Pavonazzo marble from Anatolia, precious Verd antique, found exclusively in the Peloponnese, both red and black porphyry from Egypt, and from Chios. As was customary, these artefacts could be used as ballast on board the Venetian trading vessels that were carrying lightweight merchandise back from the Eastern Mediterranean. Once in Venice, some of the columns were sliced for revetmets and patere; others were paired and spread across the façades or used as altars. In addition to aesthetic considerations, the placement of the stones was determined by their rarity and symbolism to indicate the more important parts of the church: red porphyry, associated with the regality and divinity of Christ, was used to mark the principal entry and to underscore the most sacred areas inside.
Despoliation continued in later centuries, notably during the Venetian–Genoese Wars. The Venetian architect Tommaso Temanza also attests in Vite dei più celebri architetti e scrittori veneziani (1778) that from the dilapidated Basilica of Santa Maria del Canneto in Pola, Jacopo Sansovino removed columns and marbles in 1550 and 1551 for St Mark's and the Doge's Palace. Venetian sculptors also integrated the spoils with local productions, copying the Byzantine capitals and friezes so effectively that some of their work can only be distinguished with difficulty from the originals.
Later modifications
In addition to the sixteen windows in each of the five domes, the church was originally lit by three or seven windows in the apse and probably eight in each of the lunettes of the eleven walls which, together with the apse, form the four crossarms. But many of these windows were later walled up to create more surface space for the mosaic decoration, with the result that the interior received insufficient sunlight, particularly the areas under the galleries which remained in relative darkness. The galleries were consequently reduced to narrow walkways with the exception of the ends of the northern, southern, and western crossarms where they remain. These walkways maintain the original relief panels of the galleries on the side facing the central section of the church. On the opposite side, new balustrades were erected. They have either Romanesque or Gothic protomes, suggesting that the reduction of the galleries occurred in two stages towards the end of the twelfth and the beginning of the thirteenth centuries. With the removal of the wooden floors of the galleries, the holes in the walls that once supported the beams were covered with friezes and corbel tables that were later integrated into the marble encrustation.
Studies of the masonry underlying the revetments, made possible during restoration, as well as stylistic considerations indicate that the narthex of the Contarini church was originally limited to the western side. As with other Byzantine churches, it extended laterally beyond the façade on both sides and terminated in niches, of which the northern remains. The southern terminus was separated by a wall in the early twelfth century, thus creating an entry hall that opened on the southern façade toward the Doge's Palace and the waterfront. In the early thirteenth century, the narthex was extended along the northern and southern sides to completely surround the western crossarm, perhaps in conjunction with work to repair structural damage from an earthquake in 1223.
Also, in the first half of the thirteenth century, the original low-lying brick domes, typical of Byzantine churches, were surmounted with higher, outer shells supporting bulbous lanterns with crosses. These wooden frames covered in lead provided more protection from weathering to the actual domes below and gave greater visual prominence to the church, necessary after Saint Mark's Square was enlarged in the late twelfth century. Various Near-Eastern models have been suggested as sources of inspiration and construction techniques for the heightened domes, including the Al-Aqsa and Qubbat aṣ-Ṣakhra mosques in Jerusalem and the conical frame erected over the dome of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in the early thirteenth century.
Architecture
Exterior
The three exposed façades result from a long and complex evolution. Particularly in the thirteenth century, the exterior appearance of the church was radically altered: the patterned marble encrustation was added, and a multitude of columns and sculptural elements was applied to enrich the state church. It is probable that structural elements were also added to the façades or modified.
Western façade
The exterior of the basilica is divided into two registers. On the western façade, the lower register is dominated by five deeply recessed portals that alternate with large piers, comparable to the arcaded pillars of middle-Byzantine churches erected in the tenth and eleventh centuries, such as Myrelaion and the Kilisse Camii, as well as the twelfth-century Monastery of the Pantocrator in Constantinople.
The lower register was later completely covered with two tiers of precious columns, largely spoils from the Fourth Crusade.
Consistent with Byzantine traditions, the sculptural elements are largely decorative: only in the arches that frame the doorways is there a functional use of sculpture that articulates the architectural lines. In the spandrels between the portals, six relief sculptures were inserted. Of these, the reliefs of Hercules with the Erymanthian boar and Saint Demetrius are ancient spoils, whereas the remaining four depicting Hercules with both the Ceryneian hind and the Lernean hydra, Saint George, the Virgin, and the Archangel Gabriel were carved locally in imitation of eastern prototypes. Together, the six reliefs present tutelary saints and heroes, the mythical Hercules allegorizing moral virtue that conquers vice. In addition to these reliefs, the sculpture at the lower level, relatively limited, includes narrow Romanesque bands, statues reminiscent of the Antelami school in northern Italy, and richly carved borders of foliage mixed with figures derived from Byzantine and Islamic traditions. The eastern influence is most pronounced in the tympana over the northern-most and southern-most portals, the decoration of the remaining two lateral portals having been lost in the fourteenth century when Gothic windows were inserted to allow more light into the narthex.
The iconographic programme is expressed primarily in the mosaics in the lunettes. In the lower register, those of the lateral portals narrate the translation of Saint Mark's relics from Alexandria to Venice. From right to left, they show the removal of the saint's body from Egypt, its arrival in Venice, its veneration by the Doge, and its deposition in the church. This last mosaic is the only one on the façade that survives from the thirteenth century; the others were remade in the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries on the basis of preliminary designs by Maffeo Verona, Pietro della Vecchia, Sebastiano Ricci, and Lattanzio Querena. The general appearance of the lost compositions is recorded in Gentile Bellini's Procession in Piazza San Marco (1496), which also documents the earlier gilding on the façade.
The upper register is enriched with an elaborate Gothic crowning, executed in the late-fourteenth/early-fifteenth centuries by Venetian and Tuscan sculptors, including Niccolò di Piero Lamberti. The original lunettes, transformed into ogee arches, are outlined with foliage and topped with statues of four military saints over the lateral lunettes and of Saint Mark flanked by angels over the central lunette, the point of which contains the winged lion of Saint Mark holding a book with the angelic salutation of the : "Peace to you Mark, my Evangelist" (). The intervening aediculae with pinnacles house figures of the four evangelists and on the extremities, facing one another, the Virgin and the Archangel Gabriel in allusion to Venice's legendary foundation on the 25 March 421, the feast of the Annunciation.
Culminating in the Last Judgment over the main portal, the sequence of mosaics in the lateral lunettes of the upper register present scenes of Christ's victory over death: from left to right, the Descent from the Cross, the Harrowing of Hell, the Resurrection, and the Ascension. The central lunette was originally blind and may have been pierced by several smaller windows; the present large window was inserted after the fire of 1419 destroyed the earlier structure, of which the four columns remain in place. The reliefs of Christ and the four evangelists, now inserted into the northern façade, may also survive from the original decoration of the central lunette.
The four gilded bronze horses were among the early spoils brought from Constantinople after the Fourth Crusade. Most likely of Roman origin, but influenced by earlier Greek statues, they were part of a quadriga adorning the Hippodrome and are the only equestrian team to survive from classical Antiquity. In Venice, they initially remained in the Arsenal, the government shipyard, with proposals to fuse them for their metal content. But in the mid-thirteenth century, they were installed prominently on the main façade of St Mark's as symbols of Venice's military triumph over Byzantium and of its newfound imperial status as the successor of the Byzantine Empire. Placed in relation to the reliefs of Christ and the evangelists in the central lunette, they were possibly intended to also evoke the image of the , the popular medieval allegory originating with Saint Jerome () that saw the four evangelists as the four-horse chariot of the Lord, carrying the Christian message throughout the world. Since 1974 the original four horses are preserved inside, having been substituted with copies on the balcony over the central portal.
Northern façade
The aediculae on the northern façade contain statues of the four original Latin Doctors of the Church: Jerome, Augustine, Ambrose, and Gregory the Great. Allegorical figures of Prudence, Temperance, Faith, and Charity top the lunettes.
Southern façade
The Gothic crowning continues in the upper register of the southern façade, the lunettes being topped with the allegorical figures of Justice and Fortitude and the aediculae housing statues of Saint Anthony Abbot and Saint Paul the Hermit.
The southern façade, the only side of the basilica visible from the water, was the principal vehicle for the Venetians to express the wealth and power of the republic: it is the most richly encrusted façade with rare marbles, spoils, and trophies, including the so-called pillars of Acre, the statue of the four tetrarchs embedded into the external wall of the treasury, and the porphyry imperial head on the south-west corner of the balcony, traditionally believed to represent Justinian II and popularly identified as Francesco Bussone da Carmagnola.
After a section of the narthex was partitioned off between 1100 and 1150 to create an entry hall, the niche that had previously marked the southern end of the narthex was removed, and the corresponding arch on the southern façade was opened to establish a second entry, which was given a monumental aspect suitable for the processions of the Doge and government officials arriving from the Doge's Palace on the occasion of important holy days and commemorative ceremonies. Like the entry on the western façade, the passage was distinguished with precious porphyry columns. On either side, couchant lions and griffins were placed. Presumably, the southern entry was also flanked by the two carved pillars long believed to have been brought to Venice from the Genoese quarter in St Jean d'Acre as booty of the first Venetian–Genoese war (1256–1270) but actually spoils of the Fourth Crusade, taken from the Church of St Polyeuctus in Constantinople.
Between 1503 and 1515, the entry hall was transformed into the funerary chapel of Giovanni Battista Cardinal Zen, bishop of Vicenza, who had bequeathed a large portion of his wealth to the Venetian Republic, asking to be entombed in St Mark's. The southern entrance was consequently closed, blocked by the altar and a window above, and although the griffins remain, much of the decoration was transferred or destroyed. The pillars were moved slightly eastward.
Entry hall (Zen Chapel)
The decoration of the southern entry hall to the church was redone in the thirteenth century in conjunction with work in the adjoining narthex; of the original appearance of the entry hall, nothing is known. The present mosaic cycle in the barrel vault forms the prelude to the mosaic cycle on the main façade, which narrates the translation of Saint Mark's relics from Alexandria in Egypt to Venice. The events depicted include the , the angelic prophecy that Mark would one day be buried in Venice, as a means of affirming Venice's divinely sanctioned right to possess the relics. The authority of Saint Mark is demonstrated in the scenes that show the writing of his gospel which is then presented to Saint Peter. Particular relevance is also given to the departure of Saint Mark for Egypt and his miracles there, which creates continuity with the opening scene on the façade, depicting the removal of the body from Alexandria.
Although largely redone in the nineteenth century, the apse above the doorway that leads into the narthex probably maintains the overall aspect of the decoration from the first half of the twelfth century with the Virgin flanked by angels, a theme common in middle-Byzantine churches.
Narthex
The decorative programme of the western and northern wings of the narthex seems to have been planned in its entirety in the thirteenth century when the eleventh-century narthex was extended along the northern and southern sides of the western crossarm. However, a stylistic change in the mosaics is evident in the northern wing, indicating that the execution of the programme was interrupted, presumably to await the completion of the vaulting system.
Unlike in middle-Byzantine churches where the theme of the Last Judgement is often represented in the narthex, the decorative programme narrates the stories of Genesis and Exodus: the main subjects are the Creation and the Tower of Babel along with the lives of Noah, Abraham, Joseph, and Moses. Special emphasis is given to the stories of the sacrifice of Abel and the hospitality of Abraham, located prominently in the lunettes on either side of the entry to the church, due to the analogies with Christ's death and the Eucharistic meal.
It has long been recognized that the individual scenes are very close to those of the Cotton Genesis, an important fourth or fifth-century Greek illuminated manuscript copy of the Book of Genesis: about a hundred of the 359 miniatures in the manuscript were used. Of Egyptian Origen, the manuscript may have reached Venice as a result of the commercial relations of the Venetians in the Eastern Mediterranean or as booty of the Fourth Crusade. The sixth-century Vienna Genesis was also in Venice in the early thirteenth century and may have influenced artistic choices. With regard to the Dome of Moses, the scenes most closely resemble Palaeologan art, suggesting an unknown manuscript from the third quarter of the thirteenth century as the iconographic source.
While the Byzantine renderings of the Old-Testament stories in illuminated manuscripts provided suitable models, Byzantine churches themselves did not generally give importance to the Old Testament in their decoration, considering the stories to be shadows of the history of salvation, inferior to the reality of the New Testament. The impetus for the Venetians to choose the Old Testament as the theme of the narthex was instead of western derivation and reflected an interest that had developed in Rome beginning in the late eleventh century.
The narration begins in correspondence to the former southern entry of the church with the Dome of the Creation, which opens with the spirit of God hovering above the waters and concludes with Adam and Eve cast out from the Garden of Eden. As in the Cotton Genesis, Christ is portrayed as the agent of creation. The arrangement of the twenty-four stories in three concentric circles likely derives from ancient and medieval cosmological representations and alludes to the Holy Trinity. Underneath, the pendentives contain cherubim, the guardians of Eden, and the lunettes illustrate the story of Cain and Abel. The stories of Noah and of the Tower of Babel with the confusion of tongues and the dispertion of the nations occupy the vaults on either side of the entry to the church. Sixteen scenes from the Cotton Genesis were used for the Dome of Abraham where the patriarch is intended as an Old-Testament type of Christ. The story of Joseph, also a type of Christ, occupies three domes, whereas the story of Moses is limited to the final bay.
Interior
Although St Mark's was modelled after the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, ceremonial needs as well as the limitations posed by the physical site and the pre-existing walls and foundations made it necessary to adapt the design. The overall cruciform plan with five domes was maintained. But the Holy Apostles was a true centrally planned church: the central dome, larger than the others, was alone pierced with windows, and the altar was located underneath. Also, there was no distinction between the four crossarms: no apse existed, and double-tiered arcades surrounded the interior on all sides. In contrast, the longitudinal axis was emphasized in St Mark's so as to create the space appropriate for the processions associated with state ceremonies. Both the central and western domes are larger, accentuating the progression along the nave, and by means of a series of increasingly smaller arches, the nave visually narrows towards the raised chancel in the eastern crossarm, where the altar stands. The crossarms of the transept are shorter and narrower. Optically, their height and width are further reduced by the insertion of arches, supported on double columns, within the barrel vaults. The domes of the transept and the chancel are also smaller.
As with the Holy Apostles, each of the domes rests on four barrel vaults, those of the central dome rising from quadripartite (four-legged) piers. But the two-tiered arcades that reinforced the vaults in the Holy Apostles were modified. In St Mark's there are no upper arcades, and as a result the aisles are less isolated from the central part of the church. The effect overall is of more unified sense of space and an openness that have parallels in other Byzantine churches constructed in the eleventh century, an indication that the chief architect was influenced by middle-Byzantine architectural models in addition to the sixth-century Church of the Holy Apostles.
Decorative programme
The location of the main altar within the apse necessarily affected the decorative programme. The Christ Pantocrator, customarily located in the central dome over the altar, was placed in the semi-dome of the apse, where normally the Virgin in prayer was depicted in middle-Byzantine churches. The large seated figure, now a sixteenth-century recreation, is surrounded with the inscription: "The King of all, made flesh for the love of sinners, do not despair of forgiveness while you have time." (). Below, interspersed with three windows, are late-eleventh and early-twelfth-century mosaics that portray Saint Nicholas of Myra, Saint Peter, Saint Mark, and Saint Hermagoras of Aquileia as the protectors and patrons of the state, Saint Nicholas being specifically the protector of seafarers. Saint Peter, Saint Mark, and Saint Hermagorus also indicate the apostolic foundation of the Aquileian church, of which Venice is understood to be the legitimate successor.
Over the high altar in the eastern crossarm is the Dome of Immanuel (God with us), which concerns the Incarnation. It presents a young, beardless Christ in the centre, surrounded by stars in allusion to his divine nature. Radially arranged underneath are standing figures of the Virgin, as the mother of Incarnate God (ΜΡ ΘΥ), and Old-Testament prophets, the latter bearing scrolls with passages that largely refer to the Incarnation. Rather than seraphim as was customary in middle-Byzantine churches, the pendentives of the dome show the symbols of the four evangelists.
An extensive cycle narrating the Life of Christ covers much of the interior, with the principal events located along the longitudinal axis. The eastern vault, between the central dome and the chancel, contains the major events of the infancy (Annunciation, Adoration of the Magi, Presentation in the Temple) along with the Baptism of Christ and the Transfiguration. In their present form, these mosaics date from the sixteenth century and are based on preliminary drawings by Tintoretto's workshop. The western vault depicts the events of the Passion of Jesus on one side (the kiss of Judas, the trial before Pilate, and the Crucifixion) and the Resurrection on the other side (the Harrowing of Hell and the post-resurrection appearances). Consistent with middle-Byzantine decorative programmes, the Crucifixion and the Harrowing of Hell, are placed opposite one another, and the resurrected Christ is portrayed as if walking toward the altar. A secondary series illustrating Christ's miracles is located in the transepts, but the arrangement of the episodes is not always chronological. The series, originally consisting of twenty-nine scenes, seems to have derived from an eleventh-century Byzantine Gospel. The transepts also contain a detailed cycle of the Life of the Virgin: these scenes were probably derived from an eleventh-century illuminated manuscript of the Protogospel of James from Constantinople. As a prelude, a Tree of Jesse showing the ancestors of Christ was added to the end wall of the northern crossarm between 1542 and 1551. Throughout the various narrative cycles, Old-Testament prophets are portrayed holding texts that relate to the New-Testament scenes nearby.
The Dome of the Ascension occupies the central position, whereas in the Church of the Holy Apostles it was located over the southern crossarm. The prominence given to the representation of the Ascension of Christ into heaven may have had political connotations as a reference to the civic celebrations on Ascension Day, which began with solemn mass in St Mark's and involved the Doge's ceremonial marriage of the Adriatic as a symbol of Venice's dominion on the sea. The dome, executed in the late twelfth century, is exemplary of middle-Byzantine prototypes in Constantinople. In the centre Christ ascends, accompanied by four angels and surrounded by standing figures of the Virgin, two angels, and the twelve apostles. As tradition in Byzantine art, two of the apostles have been substituted with Mark and Luke in order to have, together with Matthew and John, all four of the evangelists. The inscription derives from Acts 1:10 and anticipates the return of Christ and the Last Judgement: "Say, why do you stand looking into heaven? This Son of God, Jesus, o men of Galilee, as he departs from you, so shall he come as judge of the world, with right judgement to give all their due" (). As customary for the central dome in middle-Byzantine churches, the pendentives contain the four evangelists, each with his gospel. The addition, underneath, of the representations of the four rivers that flowed from the Garden of Eden indicates a western influence. Thematically, these rivers allegorize the live-giving water that flows from the Gospel. Distinctly western is also the inclusion of the virtues and beatitudes that alternate with the windows.
As in the Church of the Holy Apostles, the Dome of Pentecost is located over the western crossarm. In the centre is an hetoimasia, an empty throne with a book and dove. Radiating outward are silver rays which fall on the heads of the apostles and evangelists seated around the outer rim of the dome, each with a flame on his head. The circular inscription describes the infusion of the Holy Spirit on Pentecost: "The Spirit pours over them, strengthening them by filling the heart of each and uniting them by bonds of love. Then the nations become believers, seeing the miracle of the speaking in various tongues" (). The nations are represented by the groups of figures that are interspersed with the windows below, whereas the pendentives, rather than the nations as was typical for the Pentecost dome in Byzantine churches, contain angels.
In keeping with Pentecost, as the institution of the Church, the side vaults and walls of the western crossarm largely illustrate the subsequent missionary activities of all twelve of the apostles and their deaths as martyrs. The specific events in the lives of the various apostles and the manner of their deaths adhere to Western traditions, as narrated in Latin martyrologies that derive in part from the Book of Acts but to a greater extent from apocryphal sources. However, the single representations and the overall concept of presenting the lives of the saints in a composition that combines several events together in one scene have their parallels in Greek manuscript illustrations of the middle-Byzantine period. A number of the mosaics were later remade, using preliminary drawings by Antonio Vassilacchi, Palma Giovane, and Alessandro Varotari.
The western vault illustrates Saint John's vision of the Apocalypse and, as the end of the decorative programme, the Last Judgement. Several of these mosaics are no longer the originals, having been remade on the basis of preliminary drawings by Tintoretto, Domenico Tintoretto, Maffeo Verona, and Antonio Vassilacchi. On the wall below there is a thirteenth-century deesis with Christ enthroned between the Virgin and Saint Mark.
Floor
The floor dates to the first half of the twelfth century, perhaps to as early as the very late eleventh century. It is composed of geometric patterns and animal designs made from a wide variety of coloured limestones and marbles, serpentinite, and porphyry imported from Greece, Syria, Africa, Istria, the Alps, Verona, and Tuscany. It is executed primarily in opus sectile and to a lesser extent in opus tessellatum.
Although certain similarities exist with Romanesque floors found in Santa Maria Assunta in Aquileia and Pomposa Abbey, namely the use of polychrome and the compresence of geometric, vegetal, and zoomorphic elements, the inclusion of large slabs of marble surrounded with decorative cornices also suggests an influence from eastern prototypes: it is reminiscent of sixth-century Byzantine floors in the Holy Apostles, Hagia Irene, Hagia Sophia, and Hagia Euphemia as well as middle-Byzantine examples, most notably in Hosios Loukas and the Koimesis church in Nicaea. At St Mark's the large slabs are placed in correspondence to the central and western domes to emphasize the longitudinal axis. The frequent use of intertwined circles recalls medieval Italian cosmatesque floors, but close examples are also found in Hagia Sophia in Nicaea and the Church of Saint Nicholas in Myra. The animals represented, including lions, eagles, griffons, deer, dogs, peacocks, and others, largely derive from medieval bestiaries and have symbolic meanings.
Chancel and choir chapels
The chancel is enclosed by a Gothic altar screen, dated 1394. The work of and his brother , it is formed by eight columns made of marbles from southern France, Lesbos, and Anatolia and is surmounted by a bronze and silver Crucifix, flanked by statues of the Virgin and Saint Mark, together with the twelve apostles. On the left of the screen is the ambo for readings from Scripture. On the right is the platform from which the newly elected Doge was presented to the people. From here, important relics were also displayed on major holidays, notably the relic of the Precious Blood which was shown to the faithful on Maundy Thursday and again during the Easter Vigil.
Behind the screen, marble banisters with Jacopo Sansovino's bronze statues of the Evangelists and Girolamo Paliari's of the four Latin Doctors of the Church mark the limit of the choir, which after the reorganization by Doge Andrea Gritti () was utilized by the Doge, civic leaders, foreign ambassadors, and the knights of Saint Mark. The backs of the seats (dispersed) were inlaid with allegories of the theological and cardinal virtues and were covered for ceremonies with silk and gold thread tapestries by . The tribunes above, for musicians and singers, are faced with bronze reliefs by Sansovino that portray events in the life of Saint Mark and his miracles.
Beyond the banisters is the presbytery, reserved for the clergy, with the high altar which since 1835 contains the relics of Saint Mark, previously located in the crypt. The ciborium above the altar is composed of a canopy in Verd antique supported by four intricately carved columns, in , with scenes that narrate the lives of Christ and the Virgin. The age and provenance of the columns is disputed, with proposals ranging from sixth-century Byzantium to thirteenth-century Venice. According to tradition, they are spoils taken from the Basilica of Santa Maria del Cannetto in Pola by Doge Pietro II Orseolo (). The altarpiece, originally designed as an antependium, is the Pala d'Oro, a masterpiece of Byzantine enamels on gilded silver that incorporates 1,300 pearls, 300 sapphires, 300 emeralds, 400 garnets, 90 amethysts, 15 rubies, 75 spinels, and 4 topazes, all highly polished, unfaceted gems. The altarpiece was ordered from Constantinople in 1102 by Doge Ordelafo Faliero Dodoni (). It was enlarged in 1209 with enamels taken from the Monastery of the Pantocrator in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade. In its present form, the altarpiece dates to 1345 when the enamels were reorganized and the Gothic frame was added. Some of the enamels may come from the first altarpiece, ordered in Constantinople by Doge Pietro I Orseolo in 976.
The two choir chapels, located on either side of the chancel, occupy the space corresponding to the lateral aisles in the other crossarms. They are connected to the chancel through archways which also serve to reinforce the barrel vaults supporting the dome above.
The choir chapel on the northern side is dedicated to Saint Peter. Historically, it was the principal area for the clergy, probably in consideration of its proximity to the residences of the clerics to the north of the church. The altar contains the relics of Saints Peter, John the Evangelist, Matthew, Luke, and Bartholomew, which were likely acquired in the ninth century for the Participazio church. This was consistent with the tradition, that began with Saint Ambrose's fourth-century Basilica Apostolorum in Milan, whereby the possession of important relics, specifically those of the apostles, was necessary to distinguish the political and ecclesiastical importance of a city.
The mosaic decoration in the vault above the chapel largely narrates the life of Saint Mark in order to demonstrate the apostolic origins of the Patriarchate of Aquileia. It begins with Saint Peter's unhistorical consecration of Saint Mark as bishop of Aquileia and later of Saint Hermagoras as his successor and concludes with Saint Mark's departure for Alexandria, his martyrdom, and burial. The figures of 'Patriarch' Helias of Grado and Pope Pelagius II, located on the arch that connects the chapel to the chancel, refer to the alleged papal recognition of Grado as Aquileia's successor and of Grado's metropolitan jurisdiction over Venetia. Beginning in 1156, the Patriarch of Grado (after 1451 Patriarch of Venice) resided in Venice, and from at least the twelfth century, he had a seat on the northern side of the chancel of St Mark's, near the entry to the choir chapel of Saint Peter, from which he could assist at mass on the high altar.
Prior to the sixteenth century, the Doge's throne was located on the opposite side of the chancel, near the choir chapel of Saint Pope Clement I, which through the doorway opens to the courtyard of the Doge's Palace. The chapel was particularly reserved for the Doge's private use. From the window above, which communicates with his private apartments, it was also possible for the Doge to assist at mass in the church. Around the perimeter of the chapel, the inscription reminds the Doge that he shall be judged for his actions after his death, and it specifically exhorts him to love justice and to give everyone his due; to be a patron and benefactor of paupers, widows, minors, and orphans; and to not be influenced by fear, desire, hate, or greed.
Above the chapel, the mosaics in the vault continue to illustrate the story of Saint Mark with the events of the . They constitute the oldest surviving representation of the transfer of Saint Mark's relics to Venice and serve to demonstrate Venice's legitimate right to possess the relics. They also symbolically indicate the transfer of metropolitan authority from Aquileia/Grado to Venice. The altar contains the relics of early martyrs of the Roman Empire, particularly of Aquileia.
Side altars and chapels
The side altars in the transept were used primarily by the faithful. In the northern crossarm, the altar was originally dedicated to Saint John the Evangelist: the mosaics in the dome above show the aged figure of Saint John in an orant position, surrounded by five scenes of his life in Ephesus, including the destruction of the Temple of Artemis and the conversion of the Ephesians. The stone relief of Saint John, placed on the eastern wall of the crossarm in the thirteenth century, was later moved to the northern façade of the church, probably when the altar was rededicated in 1617 to the Madonna Nicopeia, a venerated Byzantine icon from the late-eleventh/early-twelfth century. The date and the circumstances of the icon's arrival in Venice are not documentable. Most likely one of many sacred images taken from Constantinople at the time of the Latin Empire, it was deposited in St Mark's treasury, with no specific importance associated. It began to acquire significance for the Venetians in the fourteenth century when it was framed with sixteen Byzantine enamels looted from the Pantokrator in Contantinople. At that time, it may have been first carried in public procession to invoke the Virgin's intercession in ridding the city of the Black Death. Certainly it was carried in procession on the Feast of the Assumption as early as 1500, and increasingly it was displayed for public veneration on other Marian feast days, including the Visitation, the Nativity of the Virgin, and the Annunciation. The icon acquired a political role as the palladium of Venice in the sixteenth century when it came to be identified as the sacred image that had been carried into battle by various Byzantine emperors. In 1589, the icon was transferred to the small Chapel of Saint Isidore where it was made accessible to the public, and subsequently it was placed on the side altar in the northern crossarm. It was first referred to as the Madonna Nicopeia (Nikopoios, Bringer of Victory) in 1645.
The altar in the southern crossarm was initially dedicated to Saint Leonard, the sixth-century Frankish saint who became widely popular at the time of the Crusades as his intercession was sought to liberate prisoners from the Muslims. He is shown in the dome above, together with other saints particularly venerated in Venice: Blaise, Nicholas, and Clement I. The altar was rededicated in 1617 to the True Cross, and since 1810, it has been the Altar of the Blessed Sacrament.
The Shrine of the Crucifix was placed in the nave in 1290, having been moved inside from Saint Mark's Square according to tradition.
The long-neglected relics of Saint Isidore of Chios, brought to Venice in 1125 by Doge Domenico Michiel () on return from his military expedition in the Aegean, were rediscovered in the mid-fourteenth century, and upon the initiative of Doge Andrea Dandolo (), the Chapel of Saint Isidore was constructed between 1348 and 1355 to house them. An annual feast (16 April) was also established in the Venetian liturgical calendar to commemorate the translation of the relics to Venice. Early Venetian chronicles and martyrologies do not indicate a particular devotion to Saint Isidore on the part of the Venetians, despite the possession of his relics. The newfound interest in the mid-fourteenth century seems to have been connected to the increasing military and commercial tensions in the Aegean between Venice and the Republic of Genoa, which in 1346 had seized the island of Chios from the Byzantines. In this context, the veneration of Saint Isidore, a military saint with ties to Chios, was intended to invoke divine favour and affirm Venice's historical rights in the Aegean. Hence the chapel's decorative program, beyond narrating the martyrdom of the saint during the persecutions of the Roman Emperor Decius, emphasizes Domenico Michiel's expedition in the Aegean and the translation of the saint's relics to Venice.
The Mascoli Chapel, utilized by the homonymous confraternity after 1618, was decorated under Doge Francesco Foscari () and dedicated in 1430.
Against the giant piers that support the central dome, on either side of the chancel, Doge Cristoforo Moro () erected at his personal expense two Renaissance altars dedicated to Saint Paul and Saint James. The pier behind the Altar of Saint James is where the relics of Saint Mark are said to have been rediscovered in 1094: the miraculous event is depicted in the mosaics on the opposite side of the crossarm.
Baptistery
The Chronica Agostini records that the southern wing of the narthex was the 'place of the infants' (i.e. baptistery) in the early fourteenth century, although a baptismal font may have been located there even earlier. Accessible to the general public, it served as one of the five baptisteries for the seventy parishes of the city. The date of construction is not known, but it is likely to have been under Doge Giovanni Soranzo (), whose tomb is located in the baptistery, an indication that he was responsible for the architectural adaptation. Similarly entombed in the baptistery is Doge Andrea Dandolo who carried out the decorative programme at his personal expense.
Following a tradition that began with the baptistery of the Cathedral of Parma, consecrated in 1270, the mosaics present scenes from the life of Saint John the Baptist on the walls and, in the ante-baptistery, the infancy of Christ. Directly above the bronze font, designed by Sansovino, the dome contains the dispersion of the apostles, each shown in the act of baptizing a different nationality in reference to Christ's command to preach the Gospel to all people. While the representation of the apostles in a baptistery became commonplace in the Middle Ages, following earlier examples in the fifth-century Orthodox baptistery and the sixth-century Arian baptistery in Ravenna, the specific composition, emphasizing the missionary activity of the apostles, seems to derive from a ninth-century Greek manuscript. The second dome, above the altar, presents Christ in glory surrounded by the nine angelic choirs. The altar is a large granite rock, which according to tradition was brought to Venice from Tyre following the Venetian conquest. It is said to be the rock upon which Christ stood to preach to the people of Tyre.
Sacristy
In 1486, Giorgio Spavento, as proto (consultant architect and buildings manager), designed a new sacristy, connected to both the presbytery and the choir chapel of Saint Peter; the location of the earlier sacristy is not known. It was Spavento's first project and the only one he oversaw to completion. Decoration began in 1493. The cabinets, used for storing reliquaries, monstrances, vestments, and liturgical objects and books, were inlaid by Antonio della Mola and his brother Paolo and show scenes from the life of Saint Mark. The mosaic decoration of the vault, depicting Old-Testament prophets, was designed by Titian and executed between 1524 and 1530 by Francesco Zuccato, Marco Luciano Riccio, and Alberto Zio.
Behind the sacristy is the church, also by Spavento, dedicated to Saint Theodore, the first patron saint of Venice. Constructed between 1486 and 1493 in an austere Renaissance style, it served as the private chapel for the canons attached to the basilica and, later, as the seat of the Venetian Inquisition.
Assessment
In describing the basilica, Francesco Sansovino mentions primarily individual artefacts. Travel writers such as Philippe de Commynes and Baron Montesquieu similarly reserve their praise for the single items in the treasury and only reference the overall splendour of the mosaics and the richness of the marbles in the church itself. But most critical assessments of St Mark's Basilica focus on the opulence of the decoration and the profusion of various forms and colours. Enlightenment writers largely condemn the medieval confusion. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe describes the basilica as "a giant crab" (); for Tommaso Temanza, it is a "magnificent grottesque" (). Jacob Burckhardt, although tolerant of medieval tendencies, inclines toward the geometry of Renaissance architecture and the organic unity of northern Gothic. As a result, he criticizes the façade of St Mark's, considering it to be "insignificant and clumsy" (). "The domes", he writes, "cancel each other out in effect; the facade is the most restless and scattered there is, without truly dominant lines and pronounced forces." (). Harsher is Mark Twain who, albeit fascinated by the basilica, sees it as "nobly" and "augustly ugly". Judging St Mark's to uniformly lack beauty, he considers it to be perfect: "… for its details are masterfully ugly, no misplaced and impertinent beauties are intruded anywhere; and the consequent result is a grand harmonious whole, of soothing, entrancing, tranquilizing soul-satisfying ugliness." He concludes that "Propped on its long row of low, thick-legged columns, its back knobbed with domes, it seemed like a vast warty bug taking a meditative walk." Of a different opinion is John Ruskin who reassessing Gothic architecture in The Stones of Venice writes that St Mark's is a "confusion of delight": "a multitude of pillars and white domes, clustered into a long low pyramid of colored light; a treasure heap, it seems, partly of gold and partly of opal and mother-of-pearl, hollowed beneath into five great vaulted porches, ceiled with fair mosaic and beset with sculpture of alabaster, clear as amber and delicate as ivory".
Influence
As the state church, St Mark's was a point of reference for Venetian architects. Its influence during the Gothic period seems to have been limited to decorative patterns and details, such as the portal and painted wall decoration in the Church of Santo Stefano and the portal of the Church of the Madonna dell'Orto, consisting of an ogee arch with flame-like relief sculture reminiscent of the crockets on St Mark's.
In the early Renaissance, despite the introduction of classical elements into Venetian architecture by Lombard stonecutters, faithfulness to local building traditions remained strong. In the façades of Ca' Dario and the Church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli, surface decoration in emulation of St Mark's is the principal characteristic, and the overall effect derives from the rich encrustration of shimmering coloured marbles and the circular patterns, derived from the basilica. Similarly, the Foscari Arch in the courtyard of the Doge's Palace is based on ancient triumphal arches but owes its detailing to the nearby basilica: the superimposed columns clustered together, the Gothic pinnacles, and the crowning statuary. At the Scuola Grande di San Marco, the reference to St Mark's is made in the series of lunettes along the roofline which recalls the profile of the basilica.
Mosaics
The oldest mosaics in St Mark's, located in the niches of the entry porch in the narthex, may date to as early as 1070. Although Byzantine in style, they are somewhat antiquated with respect to contemporary trends in Byzantium. They are dependent on late Macedonian art, having their closest parallel in the earlier mosaics of Hosios Loukas, and do not reflect the later developments of the Komnenian period. Most likely, they were executed by mosaicists who had left Constantinople in the mid-eleventh century to work on the Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta on the island of Torcello and then remained in the local area. More modern but still archaic in style are the figures in the main apse of the church which were done in the late-eleventh and early-twelfth centuries.
The most important period of decoration was the twelfth century when Venice's relations with Byzantium alternated between political tensions that limited artistic influence from the East and moments of intense trade and cooperation that favoured the Venetians' awareness of eastern prototypes as well as the influx of Byzantine mosaicists and materials. The three figures in the Dome of Immanuel that date to the first quarter of the century (Jeremiah, Hosea, and Habakkuk) are the work of highly skilled mosaicists, likely Greek-trained. They demonstrate the greater classicism and realism of middle-Byzantine painting in Constantinople but also local trends in the harsher and broken lines. In succeeding phases of work in the choir chapels and the transept, Byzantine miniatures were copied more or less faithfully for the mosaics, but any eastern influence that could reflect the latest artistic developments in Constantinople is hardly traceable. A new and direct awareness of artistic developments in Constantinople is indicated in the style of the Dome of Pentecost, executed sometime in the first half of the twelfth century.
In the last third of the twelfth century, a large portion of the mosaics in the Dome of Immanuel and the entirety of the Dome of the Ascension and of several vaults in the western crossarm had to be completely redone in consequence of a catastrophic event, the nature and date of which are not known. Local influence is evident. But the more vigorous poses, agitated draperies, expressiveness, and heightened contrast show the partial assimilation of the developing dynamic style in Constantinople. The mosaics in the Dome of the Ascension and those depicting the Passion in the nearby vault represent the maturity of the Venetian mosaic school and are one of the great achievements of Medieval art.
After the removal of the galleries, the mosaic decoration was extended onto the lower walls, beginning in the thirteenth century. The first mosaic, depicting the Agony in the Garden, represents a synthesizing of various traditions, both eastern and western. Traces remain of the complicated patterns of the late Komnenian period. But the statuesque quality of the figures, which are also more rounded, reflect contemporary developments in Byzantine art such as can be seen at Studenica Monastery. Concurrently, an elegance associated with western Gothic appears and is fused with the Byzantine traditions. The Gothic influence becomes more pronounced in later mosaics of the period with patterned backgrounds that derive from the stained-glass windows in French churches.
The interior mosaics were apparently complete by the 1270s, with work on the narthex continuing into the 1290s. Although some activity must have still been underway in 1308 when the Great Council allowed a glass furnace on Murano to produce mosaic material for St Mark's during the summer, by 1419 no competent mosaicist remained to repair the extensive damage to the main apse and western dome caused by a fire that year. The Venetian government had to consequently seek assistance from the Signoria of Florence which sent Paolo Uccello. Other Florentine artists, including Andrea del Castagno, were also active in St Mark's in the mid-fifteenth century, introducing a sense of perspective largely achieved with architectural settings. In this same period, Michele Giambono executed mosaics as did the Greek Byzantine painter Nikolaos Philanthropinos of Constantinople.
By the time a new fire in 1439 made repairs once again necessary, a number of Venetian mosaicists had been trained. Some of the replacement mosaics they created show a Florentine influence; others reflect Renaissance developments in the detailing and the modelling of the figures. But overall the replacement mosaics in this period closely imitated the design of the damaged works and were intended to look medieval.
Efforts to maintain the stylistic integrity of the medieval works whenever repairs and restorations became necessary were largely abandoned in the sixteenth century. Often in the absence of any need to restore mosaics but under the sole pretense of replacing old and outdated mosaics with Renaissance and Mannerist ones, renowned artists such as Titian, Tintoretto, Paolo Veronese, Giuseppe Salviati, Palma Giovane increasingly competed for work in the church, preparing preliminary sketches for 'modern' mosaics, considered artistically superior, with little attempt to stylistically integrate the new figures and scenes into the older compositions. Beginning in 1610, several decrees were emanated aimed at curbing the phenomenon, the primary objectives being to limit cost and to preserve the inscriptions of the decorative programme which were attributed to Joachim of Fiore and said to contain prophecies concerning the republic.
In addition to damage from fire and earthquake as well as from the vibrations that resulted whenever cannon and mortar were fired in salute from ships in the lagoon, the normal decay of the underlying masonry made it necessary to repeatedly repair the mosaics. In 1716, Leopoldo dal Pozzo, a mosaicist from Rome, was commissioned to assume responsibility for the repair and maintenance of the mosaics in St Mark's, the local craftsmen having once again largely died out. Dal Pozzo also executed a few new mosaics based on preliminary drawings by Giovanni Battista Piazzetta and Sebastiano Ricci. An exclusive contract for restoration was stipulated in 1867 with the mosaic workshop run by the Salviati glassmaking firm, whose highly criticized restoration work often involved removing and resetting the mosaics, usually with a considerable loss of quality. Although the original iconographic programme has been largely preserved, despite centuries of restoration and renewal, and roughly three-fourths of the mosaics maintain their earlier compositions and styles, only about a third can be considered original.
Administration
Under the Venetian Republic, St Mark's was the private chapel of the Doge: he was its patron () and governor (). The , responsible for the religious functions, was nominated by the Doge personally, and despite several attempts by the Bishop of Olivolo/Castello (after 1451 Patriarch of Venice) to claim jurisdiction over St Mark's, the remained subject to the Doge alone. After 1251, by concession of Pope Innocent IV, he was entitled to wear a mitre and ring and to carry a crosier for certain occasions. The Doge additionally appointed the vicar, the canons, the sacristan, and the sub-sacristans.
Beginning in the ninth century, the Doge also nominated a procurator , responsible for the financial administration of the church, its upkeep, and its decoration. By the mid-thirteenth century there were two procurators in charge of the church, denominated . Elected by the Great Council, they supervised the church , limiting the authority of the Doge. In 1442, there were three procurators who administered the church and its treasury. The procurators in turn nominated the sub-cannons, deacons, and sub-deacons. They also hired and paid the proto (consultant architect and buildings manager), directly responsible for overseeing construction, maintenance, and restoration. However, a decree of the Great Council in 1556 forbade the Doge and the procurators to undertake any construction in the church without the approval of the Minor Council, consisting in the Doge's counsellors, and the Council of Forty, responsible for fiscal affairs.
St Mark's ceased to be the private chapel of the Doge as a result of the fall of the Republic of Venice to the French in 1797, and the was required to take an oath of office under the provisional municipal government. At that time, plans began to transfer the seat of the Patriarch of Venice from San Pietro di Castello to St Mark's. However, no action was taken before Venice passed under Austrian control in 1798 by terms of the Treaty of Campo Formio. During the first period of Austrian rule (1798–1805), it was alternatively suggested that the episcopal seat be moved to the Church of San Salvador, but again no action was taken until 1807 when, during the second period of French domination (1805–1814), St Mark's became the patriarchal cathedral. The new status was confirmed by Emperor Francis I of Austria in 1816 during the second period of Austrian rule (1814–1866) and by Pope Pius VII in 1821.
Liturgy
Rite
From the patriarchates of Aquileia and Grado, Venice inherited the patriarchal rite (), which adhered closer than other western rites to the ancient liturgical rite of the Church. It also included adaptations for local and political circumstances as well as limited Greek features that reflected Venice's contacts in the East. Until 1456, the patriarchal rite was practiced throughout Venice, after which, by papal brief of Pope Callixtus III, it remained the state liturgy of St Mark's only. It was replaced by the Roman rite on 19 October 1807 when St Mark's became the cathedral church of the Patriarchate of Venice.
In practice, the patriarchal rite with respect to the Roman rite varied the use of liturgical colours, limiting black to periods of misfortune, particularly during the plague. A further distinction was made for female saints with the use of green for those who were neither virgins (white) nor martyrs (red). Most sacred services were longer in the patriarchal rite with forty-one invocations to the Virgin and more litanies of the saints sung in connection with the benedictions of sacred objects. There were also additions to specific rites and sacraments, notably the benediction of water on the vigil of Epiphany following Byzantine custom.
A special role in liturgical celebrations was exercised by the Doge. In some instances, such as the ceremonial washing of feet on Maundy Thursday, this role mirrored the functions performed by monarchs elsewhere in Europe. But other practices were unique to the patriarchal rite, which could be amended to reflect the wishes of the Doge.
Calendar
In addition to the Christian holy days of the Roman calendar, the Venetian liturgical calendar included specifically Venetian feasts that commemorated the (31 January) and the (25 June). The Feast of Saint Mark (25 April) was solemnly celebrated, as was the vigil. The feasts of Saint Pietro Orseolo (14 January) and of Saint Isidore (16 April) were also observed in St Mark's. For some holy days, the Doge attended mass in specific churches to commemorate historical events but then returned to St Mark's for a formal procession.
For major solemnities, the ducal cortege descended from the Doge's Palace and entered the church. The procession opened with eight standard bearers, followed by heralds and six trumpeters. Next came the squires of the foreign ambassadors, musicians, the cavalier of the Doge and sixteen ducal squires, the canons of St Mark's, and the Patriarch. The ducal symbols of the white candle and the corno ducale were carried, as was a faldstool. Ducal stewards, notaries of the Great Council, the Doge's chaplain, the Grand Chancellor, and the young Ballotino preceded the Doge who walked under a golden umbrella and was typically accompanied by the papal nuncio and the imperial orator, as the two highest-ranking ambassadors, and by a sword-bearer. The cortege concluded with the Signoria, the procurators, and other high-ranking government officials.
Music
An expense note for repairs from 1316 indicates that St Mark's already possessed more than one organ, presumably two located in the galleries on either side of the chancel. Over time, they were repeatedly renewed and replaced. Of the organs rebuilt in 1766 by , the 'small organ' () in the southern gallery remains, whereas the 'big organ' () in the northern gallery was again rebuilt in 1893, with components from Callido's organ. A smaller third organ for concerts was located on the floor level after 1588.
Documents also record the use of other instruments for liturgical celebrations, including violins, violas, viole da braccio, violoni, theorbos, cornetts, sackbuts, bassoons, and later flutes, trumpets, and oboes. The number of instruments was fixed at thirty-four in 1685, adjusted to thirty-five in 1786. Organists, singers, and instrumentalists were selected by the procurators of Saint Mark on the basis of a rigorous examination. Many of the early instrumentalists and singers were members of the clergy, but from the mid-seventeenth century, the orphanages attached to the four state hospices supplied the best musicians. Renowned musicians were also invited to perform for special functions.
Beginning in 1491, the procurators also appointed a choirmaster () who supervised and conducted all performances. He was assisted by the vice-maestro di cappella and by the maestro di concerti, the directors of the two choirs. The maestro di coro, established in 1514, supervised the plainchant sung by the clergy.
All musicians and singers were obligated to be present whenever the Doge attended mass for solemn occasions. They were positioned in the tribunes on either side of the chancel or in the pulpitum magnum cantorum, the large raised platform in front of the altarscreen on the right. For more elaborate compositions with multiple choirs in the seventeenth century, singers and musicians could also be positioned in the upper galleries.
This division of the choir into parts and their physical separation, , was integral to the Venetian polychoral style, the development of which was favoured by the particular acoustic qualities of St Mark's. The style was characterized by two groups, each having a self-sufficient four-part harmony without dissonance, singing alternatively or simultaneously for effect, particularly at the end of a composition. It originated in the early sixteenth century in several cities of the Venetian mainland, including Padua, Bergamo, Treviso, and was introduced into St Mark's by Adrian Willaert who was nominated choirmaster in 1527 at the behest of Doge Andrea Gritti. The style continued to develop and was popularized throughout Europe by means of the compositions of various choirmasters, including Cipriano de Rore, Gioseffo Zarlino, Giovanni Croce, and Claudio Monteverdi, as well as organists such as Claudio Merulo, Andrea Gabrieli, and his nephew Giovanni Gabrieli. Although plainchant and falsobordone continued to be used, psalms sung with coro spezzato were common for vespers and were specifically required for all major holy days.
Notes
References
Bibliography
pp. 145–170
pp. 194–233
External links
Satellite image from Google Maps
The Nicopeia Icon of San Marco
11th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Italy
Byzantine sacred architecture
Venice
Church buildings with domes
Gothic architecture in Venice
Venetian Gothic architecture
Piazza San Marco
Cathedrals in Veneto
Minor basilicas in Veneto
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington%20National%20Cathedral
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Washington National Cathedral
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The Cathedral Church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul in the City and Diocese of Washington, commonly known as Washington National Cathedral, is an American cathedral of the Episcopal Church. The cathedral is located in Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States. The structure is of Neo-Gothic design closely modeled on English Gothic style of the late fourteenth century. It is the second-largest church building in the United States, and the third-tallest building in Washington, D.C. The cathedral is the seat of both the Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church, Michael Bruce Curry, and the bishop of the Diocese of Washington, Mariann Edgar Budde. Over 270,000 people visit the structure annually.
The Protestant Episcopal Cathedral Foundation, under the first seven Bishops of Washington, erected the cathedral under a charter passed by the United States Congress on January 6, 1893. Construction began on September 29, 1907, when the foundation stone was laid in the presence of President Theodore Roosevelt and a crowd of more than 20,000, and ended 83 years later when the "final finial" was placed in the presence of President George H. W. Bush in 1990. Decorative work, such as carvings and statuary, is ongoing . The Foundation is the legal entity of which all institutions on the Cathedral Close are a part; its corporate staff provides services for the institutions to help enable their missions, conducts work of the Foundation itself that is not done by the other entities, and serves as staff for the board of trustees.
The cathedral stands at Massachusetts and Wisconsin Avenues in the northwest quadrant of Washington. It is an associate member of the recently organized inter-denominational Washington Theological Consortium. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 2007, it was ranked third on the List of America's Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects.
History
Construction
In 1792, Pierre L'Enfant's "Plan of the Federal City" specified a site for a "great church for national purposes". However he defined it as non-sectarian and nondenominational. Hamilton modified that plan and eliminated the "church" and several other proposed monuments and that plan was never reproduced. The working plan for the new city was subsequently produced by Andrew Ellicott and it varied in many respects from L'Enfant's although the essence remained. National Portrait Gallery now occupies that site. In 1891, a meeting was held to begin plans for an Episcopal cathedral in Washington. On January 6, 1893, the Protestant Episcopal Cathedral Foundation of the District of Columbia was granted a charter from Congress to establish the cathedral. The 52nd United States Congress declared in the act to incorporate the Protestant Episcopal Cathedral Foundation of the District of Columbia that the "said corporation is hereby empowered to establish and maintain within the District of Columbia a cathedral and institutions of learning for the promotion of religion and education and charity." The commanding site on Mount Saint Alban was chosen. Henry Yates Satterlee, first Episcopal bishop of the Diocese of Washington, chose George Frederick Bodley, Britain's leading Anglican church architect, as the head architect. Henry Vaughan was selected supervising architect.
Construction started on September 29, 1907, with a ceremonial address by President Theodore Roosevelt and the laying of the cornerstone. In 1912, Bethlehem Chapel opened for services in the unfinished cathedral, which have continued daily ever since. When construction of the cathedral resumed after a brief hiatus for World War I, both Bodley and Vaughan had died. Gen. John J. Pershing led fundraising efforts for the church after World War I. American architect Philip Hubert Frohman took over the design of the cathedral and was thenceforth designated the principal architect. Funding for Washington National Cathedral has come entirely from private sources. Maintenance and upkeep continue to rely entirely upon private support.
National role
From its earliest days, the cathedral has been promoted as more than simply an Episcopal cathedral. Planners hoped it would play a role similar to Westminster Abbey. They wanted it to be a national shrine and a venue for great services. For much of the cathedral's history, this was captured in the phrase "a house of prayer for all people." In more recent times the phrases "national house of prayer" and "spiritual home for the nation" have been used. The cathedral has achieved this status simply by offering itself and being accepted by religious and political leaders as playing this role.
Its initial charter was similar to those granted to American University, The Catholic University of America, and other not-for-profit entities founded in the District of Columbia around 1900. Contrary to popular misconception, the government has not designated it as a national house of prayer.
During World War II, monthly services were held there "on behalf of a united people in a time of emergency." Before and since, the structure has hosted other major events, both religious and secular, that have drawn the attention of the American people, as well as tourists from around the world.
Major events
Major services
State funerals for four American presidents have been held at the cathedral:
34th President Dwight D. Eisenhower (1969): lay in repose at the cathedral before lying in state
40th President Ronald Reagan (2004)
38th President Gerald Ford (2007)
41st President George H. W. Bush (2018)
Memorial services were also held at the cathedral for the following presidents:
(29th) Warren G. Harding
(27th) William Howard Taft
(30th) Calvin Coolidge
(33rd) Harry S. Truman
(37th) Richard Nixon
Presidential prayer services were held the day after the inaugurations for:
32nd President Franklin D. Roosevelt's second inauguration in January 1937
40th President Ronald Reagan's second inauguration in 1985
41st President George H. W. Bush's inauguration in 1989
43rd President George W. Bush's first and second inaugurations in 2001 and 2005
44th President Barack Obama's first and second inaugurations in 2009 and 2013
45th President Donald Trump's inauguration in 2017
46th President Joe Biden's inauguration in 2021
Other events have included:
Funeral for former first lady Edith Wilson (1961)
Memorial service for former first lady Eleanor Roosevelt (1962)
Memorial service for the casualties of the Vietnam War on November 14, 1982
Public funeral for Chief of Naval Operations, United States Navy, Admiral Jeremy Michael Boorda (1996)
Funeral for Secretary of Commerce Ronald Brown (1996)
Funeral for U.S. Ambassador to France Pamela Harriman (1997)
Funeral for The Washington Post newspaper publisher Katharine Graham (2001)
Memorial service for the victims of the September 11, 2001 attacks
Special evensong for the victims of the Virginia Tech shooting
Funeral for educator and national civil rights leader Dorothy Height (2010)
Memorial service for NASA astronaut and first person on the Moon Neil Armstrong (2012)
Funeral for Senator Daniel Inouye of Hawaii, President Pro Tempore of the Senate, and Medal of Honor recipient (2012)
Funeral for Charles Colson, founder of Prison Fellowship (2012)
Memorial service for former South African President and anti-apartheid activist Nelson Mandela (2014)
Interfaith service of Prayer and Remembrance: The Fifteenth Anniversary of the September 11, 2001 attacks, Sunday September 11, 2016
March for Our Lives Prayer Vigil: A vigil for "activists, students and pilgrims" participating in the March for Our Lives anti-gun violence rally in Washington, D.C. and other cities, Friday March 23, 2018
Funeral for U.S. Senator John McCain of Arizona (September 1, 2018)
Service of Thanksgiving and Remembrance for Matthew Shepard (October 26, 2018).
Funeral for U. S. Army General (Ret.), Former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and former Secretary of State Colin Powell (November 5, 2021).
Funeral for U.S. Senator Bob Dole of Kansas (December 10, 2021)
It was from Washington National Cathedral's "Canterbury Pulpit" that the Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his final Sunday sermon on March 31, 1968, just a few days before his assassination in April 1968. A memorial service for King was held at the cathedral later the same week.
2011 earthquake
The cathedral was damaged in August 2011 during the Virginia earthquake. Finial stones on several pinnacles broke off, and several pinnacles twisted out of alignment or collapsed entirely. Some gargoyles and other carvings were damaged, and a hole was punched through the metal-clad roof by falling masonry. Cracks also appeared in the flying buttresses surrounding the apse. Inside, initial inspections revealed less damage, with some mortar joints loose or falling out. The cathedral, which had no earthquake insurance, struggled to cope with the cost of the damage.
Washington National Cathedral closed from August 24 to November 7, 2011, as $2 million was spent to stabilize the structure and remove damaged or loose stone. Safety netting was erected throughout the nave to protect visitors from any debris that might fall from above. The cathedral reopened for the consecration and installation of Mariann Budde as the ninth Bishop of Washington on November 12, 2011. At that time, estimates of the cost of the damage were about $25 million.
Identifying the full extent of the damage and construction planning and studies over the next two years consumed another $2.5 million. In 2011, the cathedral received a $700,000 preservation work matching grant from the Save America's Treasures program, a public-private partnership operated by the nonprofit National Trust for Historic Preservation. The program, which is federally funded, required the cathedral to match the grant dollar-for-dollar with private funds and use the money solely for preservation work.
The Reverend Canon Gary R. Hall was chosen to be the 10th dean of Washington National Cathedral in July 2012.
Although fundraising to repair the damage began soon after the earthquake, it took the cathedral three years to raise the $15 million to complete the first phase of repairs. In August 2013, the cost of the repairs was re-estimated at $26 million. About $10 million had already been raised by this date to pay for the repairs, half of that coming from the Lilly Endowment. The cathedral began charging a $10 admission fee for tourists in January 2014, and started renting out its worship and other spaces to outside groups to raise cash. The cathedral also transformed the Herb Cottage (its old baptistry building adjacent to the cathedral) into a for-profit coffeehouse operated by the Open City café chain.
Phase I of the restoration, which cost $10 million, repaired the internal ceiling's stone and mortar and was completed in February 2015. The planned 10-year, $22 million Phase II will repair or replace the damaged stones atop the cathedral.
In June 2015, Washington National Cathedral leaders said the church needed $200 million, which would both complete repairs and establish a foundation to give the cathedral financial stability. The cathedral began working on a capital fundraising campaign, which The New York Times said was one of the largest ever by an American religious institution, to begin in 2018 or 2019. Hall said that the cathedral also planned to reopen its continuing education college and its Center for Prayer and Pilgrimage (a space on the cathedral's crypt level dedicated to prayer, meditation, and devotional practice). After three years of deficit spending, however, the cathedral also announced additional cuts to music programs to balance its budget.
Lee-Jackson stained glass windows
In June 2016, after an examination by a five-person task force it was announced that two Confederate battle flag images would be removed from stained glass windows commemorating the lives of Confederate generals Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson. The windows were installed in 1953 after lobbying by the United Daughters of the Confederacy. In its report, the task force wrote that it "is unanimous in its decision that the windows provide a catalyst for honest discussions about race and the legacy of slavery and for addressing the uncomfortable and too often avoided issues of race in America. Moreover, the windows serve as a profound witness to the cathedral's own complex history in relationship to race."
On September 6, 2017, the cathedral, in a statement signed by the Right Rev. Mariann Edgar Budde, bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Washington, the Very Rev. Randolph Marshall Hollerith, dean of the cathedral, and John Donoghue, chair of the cathedral chapter, announced its decision to deconsecrate and remove the stained glass windows honoring Lee and Jackson.
Financial concerns
In January 2003, the Reverend Nathan D. Baxter, dean of the cathedral, announced his retirement effective from June 30, 2003. Baxter had led the cathedral since 1991. After an 18-month search, Samuel T. Lloyd III was named dean and began his tenure on April 23, 2005. Using a $15 million bequest the cathedral received in 2000, Lloyd rapidly expanded the cathedral's programming. Meanwhile, the cathedral deferred maintenance and declined to make needed repairs. Construction also began in summer 2005 on a $34 million, four-level, 430-car underground parking garage. It opened in 2007. The structure was pushed by John Bryson Chane, bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Washington, and was mostly funded by debt. Payments on the garage were $500,000 per year, with a major increase in the annual debt service beginning in 2017. In early 2008, the National Cathedral Association, the church's fundraising donor network, was disbanded after cathedral leaders concluded that the building was "finished" and it was no longer necessary to raise significant funds for construction.
The 2008–2009 Great Recession hit the cathedral hard. By June 2010, the cathedral cut its budget from $27 million to $13 million, outsourced the operation of its gift shop, shut its greenhouse, cancelled its plans to replace the Skinner organ in the sanctuary, and ceased operation of the College of Preachers that had provided Episcopal clergy nationwide with continuing theological education. The cathedral also laid off 100 of its 170 staff members, including its art conservator and its liturgist (who researched and advocated the use of liturgies at the cathedral). It also significantly cut back on programming, music performances, and classes. To help stabilize its finances, the cathedral began an $11 million fundraising campaign and used $2.5 million of its $50 million endowment to plug budget holes. The National Cathedral Association was recreated as well.
In June 2010, the cathedral announced that it was exploring the sale of its rare book collection, the value of which was estimated to be several million dollars. It sold a number of books to a private collector in 2011 for $857,000 and in 2013 donated most of the remaining collection to Virginia Theological Seminary.
As the economic downturn continued, a report by cathedral staff identified $30 million in needed maintenance and repairs. Among the problems were cracked and missing mortar in the oldest sections of the building; broken HVAC, mechanical, and plumbing systems throughout the structure; extensive preservation needs; and a main organ in disrepair. Repointing the building was estimated to cost at least $5 million, while organ repair was set at $15 million.
Architecture
The cathedral's final design shows a mix of influences from the various Gothic architectural styles of the Middle Ages, identifiable in its pointed arches, flying buttresses, a variety of ceiling vaulting, stained-glass windows and carved decorations in stone, and by its three similar towers, two on the west front and one surmounting the crossing.
The structure consists of a long, narrow rectangular mass formed by a nine-bay nave with wide side aisles and a five-bay chancel, intersected by a six bay transept. Above the crossing, rising above the ground, is the Gloria in Excelsis Tower; its top, at above sea level, is the highest point in Washington. The Pilgrim Observation Gallery—which occupies a space about 3/4ths of the way up in the west-end towers—provides sweeping views of the city. Unique in North America, the central tower has two full sets of bells—a 53-bell carillon and a 10-bell peal for change ringing; the change bells are rung by members of the Washington Ringing Society. The cathedral sits on a landscaped plot on Mount Saint Alban. The one-story porch projecting from the south transept has a large portal with a carved tympanum. This portal is approached by the Pilgrim Steps, a long flight of steps wide.
Most of the building is constructed using a buff-colored Indiana limestone over a traditional masonry core. Structural, load-bearing steel is limited to the roof's trusses (traditionally built of timber); concrete is used significantly in the support structures for bells of the central tower, and the floors in the west towers.
The pulpit was carved out of stones from Canterbury Cathedral; Glastonbury Abbey provided stone for the bishop's formal seat, the cathedra. The high altar, the Jerusalem Altar, is made from stones quarried at Solomon's Quarry near Jerusalem, reputedly where the stones for Solomon's Temple were quarried. In the floor directly in front of that altar are set ten stones from the Chapel of Moses on Mount Sinai, representing the Ten Commandments as a foundation for the Jerusalem Altar.
There are many other works of art including over two hundred stained glass windows, the most familiar of which may be the Space Window, honoring mankind's landing on the Moon, which includes a fragment of lunar rock at its center; the rock was presented at the dedication service on July 21, 1974, the fifth anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission. Extensive wrought iron adorns the building, much of it the work of Samuel Yellin. A substantial gate of forged iron and carbon steel by Albert Paley was installed on the north side of the crypt level in 2008. Intricate woodcarving, wall-sized murals and mosaics, and monumental cast bronze gates can also be found. Most of the interior decorative elements have Christian symbolism, in reference to the church's Episcopal roots, but the cathedral is filled with memorials to persons or events of national significance: statues of Washington and Lincoln, state seals embedded in the marble floor of the narthex, state flags that hang along the nave, stained glass commemorating events like the Lewis and Clark expedition and the raising of the American flag at Iwo Jima.
The cathedral was built with several intentional "flaws" in keeping with an apocryphal medieval custom that sought to illustrate that only God can be perfect. Artistically speaking, these flaws (which often come in the form of intentional asymmetries) draw the observer's focus to the sacred geometry as well as compensate for visual distortions, a practice that has been used since the Pyramids and the Parthenon. The architects designed the crypt chapels in Norman, Romanesque, and Transitional styles predating the Gothic, as though the cathedral had been built as a successor to earlier churches, a common occurrence in European cathedrals.
Numerous grotesques and gargoyles adorn the exterior, most of them designed by the carvers; one of the more famous of these is a caricature of then-master carver Roger Morigi on the north exterior of the nave. There were also two competitions held for the public to provide designs to supplement those of the carvers. The second of these produced the famous Darth Vader grotesque which is high on the northwest tower, sculpted by Jay Hall Carpenter and carved by Patrick J. Plunkett.
The west facade follows an iconographic program of Creation rather than that of the Last Judgement as was traditional in medieval churches. All of the sculptural work was designed by Frederick Hart and features tympanum carvings of the creation of the Sun and Moon over the outer doors and the creation of man over the center. Hart also sculpted the three statues of Adam and Saints Peter and Paul. The west doors are cast bronze rather than wrought iron. The west rose window, often used as a trademark of the cathedral, was designed by Rowan LeCompte and is an abstract depiction of the creation of light. LeCompte, who also designed the clerestory windows and the mosaics in the Resurrection Chapel, chose a nonrepresentational design because he feared that a figural window could fail to be seen adequately from the great distance to the nave.
The cathedral contains a basement, which was intentionally flooded during the Cuban Missile Crisis to provide emergency drinking water in the event of a nuclear war.
Architects
The cathedral's master plan was designed by George Frederick Bodley (founder of Watts & Co.), a highly regarded British Gothic Revival architect of the late-19th and early-20th centuries, and was influenced by Canterbury. Landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. contributed a landscaping plan for the cathedral close and Nellie B. Allen designed a knot garden for the Bishop's Garden. After Bodley died in 1907, his partner Henry Vaughan revised the original design, but work stopped during World War I and Vaughan died in 1917. When work resumed, the chapter hired Boston architecture firm Frohman, Robb and Little to execute the building. Philip Hubert Frohman, who had designed his first fully functional home at the age of 14 and received his architectural degree at the age of 16, and his partners worked to perfect Bodley's vision, adding the carillon section of the central tower, enlarging the west façade, and making numerous smaller changes. Ralph Adams Cram was hired to supervise Frohman, because of his experience with the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York City, but Cram insisted on so many major changes to the original design that Frohman convinced the Cathedral Chapter to fire him. By Frohman's death in 1972, the final plans had been completed and the building was finished accordingly.
Images of architectural details
Leadership and funding
The cathedral is both the episcopal seat of the Bishop of Washington (currently the Right Reverend Mariann Edgar Budde) and the primatial seat of the Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church (currently the Most Reverend Michael Curry). Budde was elected by the Diocese of Washington in June 2011, to replace Bishop John Bryson Chane; upon her confirmation in November 2011 she became the ninth bishop of the diocese and the first woman to fill the role.
The National Cathedral Association (NCA) seeks to raise and provide funds for and promote the Washington National Cathedral. Across the United States, it has more than 14,000 members, more than 88 percent of whom live outside the Washington area, and who are divided into committees by state. Visitors to the cathedral provide another significant source of funds, through donations and group touring fees. Every year, each state has a state day at the cathedral, on which that state is recognized by name in the prayers. Over a span of about four years, each state is further recognized at a Major State Day, at which time those who live in the state are encouraged to make a pilgrimage to the cathedral and dignitaries from the state are invited to speak. American state flags were displayed in the nave until 2007; currently the display of the state flags alternates throughout the year with the display of liturgical banners hung on the pillars, reflecting the seasons of the Church year.
The budget, $27 million in 2008, was trimmed to $13 million in 2010. Staff was reduced from 170 to 70. There was an endowment of $50 million.
List of deans
In May 2016, Randolph Marshall Hollerith was named as the next dean of the cathedral. Hollerith comes to the National Cathedral from St. James Episcopal Church, where he was rector from 2000 to 2016.
Former deans:
Alfred Harding (de facto; 1909–1916)
George C. F. Bratenahl (1916–1936)
Noble C. Powell (1937–1941)
ZeBarney T. Phillips (1941–1942)
John W. Suter (1944–1950)
Francis B. Sayre Jr. (1951–1978)
John T. Walker (1978–1989; simultaneously bishop)
Nathan D. Baxter (1991–2003)
Samuel T. Lloyd III (2005–2011)
Gary R. Hall (2012–2015)
Randolph Marshall Hollerith (2016–present)
Worship
The worship department is, like the cathedral itself, rooted in the doctrine and practice of the Episcopal Church, and based in the Book of Common Prayer. Three services are held each weekday, including the daily Eucharist. Sunday through Thursday, the cathedral choirs sing Evensong. The 40-minute service is attended by roughly 50 to 75 people, with more on Sunday. Three services of the Eucharist are held on Sunday, along with Choral Evensong.
The cathedral also has been a temporary home to several congregations, including a Jewish synagogue and an Eastern Orthodox community. It has also been the site for several ecumenical and interfaith services. In October 2005, at the cathedral, the Rev. Nancy Wilson was consecrated and installed as moderator (denominational executive) of the Metropolitan Community Church, by its founding moderator, the Rev. Troy Perry.
Each Christmas, the cathedral holds special services, which are broadcast to the world. The service of lessons and carols is distributed by Public Radio International. Christmas at Washington National Cathedral is a live television broadcast of the 9:00 a.m. Eucharist on Christmas Day. It is produced by WJLA-TV and is shown on national affiliates in most cities around the United States. Some affiliates broadcast the service at noon. The Christmas service at the cathedral was broadcast to the nation on television from 1953 until 2010 and is still webcast live from the cathedral's homepage.
Music
The Washington National Cathedral Choir of Men and Boys, founded in 1909, is one of very few cathedral choirs of men and boys in the United States with an affiliated school, in the English choir tradition. The eighteen to twenty-two boys singing treble are of ages 8 to 14 and attend St. Albans School, the Cathedral school for boys, on vocal scholarships.
In 1997, the Cathedral Choir of Men and Girls was formed by Bruce Neswick, using the same men as the choir of the men and boys. The Choir consists of middle and high school girls attending the National Cathedral School on vocal scholarships. The two choirs currently share service duties and occasionally collaborate.
Both choirs have recently recorded several CDs, including a Christmas album; a U.S. premiere recording of Ståle Kleiberg's Requiem for the Victims of Nazi Persecution; and a patriotic album, America the Beautiful.
The choirs rehearse separately every weekday morning in a graded class incorporated into their school schedule. The choristers sing Evensong five days a week (the Boys Choir on Tuesdays and Thursdays and the Girls Choir on Mondays and Wednesdays). The choirs alternate Sunday worship duties, singing both morning Eucharist and afternoon Evensong when they are on call. The choirs also sing for numerous state and national events. The choirs are also featured annually on Christmas at Washington National Cathedral, broadcast nationally on Christmas Day.
The Great Organ was installed by the Ernest M. Skinner & Son Organ Company in 1938. The original instrument consisted of approximately 8,400 pipes. The instrument was enlarged by the Aeolian-Skinner Organ Company in 1963 and again between 1970 and 1975, during which time more than half of the original instrument was removed. The present instrument consists of 189 ranks and 10,647 pipes.
The organ was to be replaced with a new instrument built by Dobson Pipe Organ Builders, but this plan was scrapped in 2009. As of 2018, it is currently unknown whether the organ replacement will take place.
Michael McCarthy is the Canon Director of Music, Thomas Sheehan is the Cathedral Organist and Associate Director of Music, and George Fergus is the Assistant Organist. The carillonneur is Edward M. Nassor. Former organists and choirmasters include Edgar Priest, Robert George Barrow, Paul Callaway, Richard Wayne Dirksen, Douglas Major, Bruce Neswick, James Litton, Erik Wm. Suter, Scott Dettra, Christopher Betts and Benjamin Straley.
The resident symphonic chorus of Washington National Cathedral is the Cathedral Choral Society.
The cathedral is unique in North America in having both a carillon and a set of change ringing bells.
The ring of 10 bells (tenor in D) are hung in the English style for full circle ringing. All ten were cast in 1962 by Mears & Stainbank (now known as The Whitechapel Bell Foundry) of London, England.
The carillon has 53 bells ranging from to and was manufactured by John Taylor & Co of Loughborough, England in 1963. The bells are hung dead, meaning rigidly fixed, and are struck on the inside by hammers activated from the keyboard.
Burials
Several notable American citizens are buried in Washington National Cathedral and its columbarium:
Larz Anderson (ashes), diplomat, art collector. His wife Isabel Weld Perkins is entombed with him in the cathedral's St. Mary Chapel.
Thomas John Claggett, first bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Maryland
William Forman Creighton, fifth bishop of Washington
Joseph E. Davies (ashes), diplomat, presidential adviser. He gave a stained-glass window in the cathedral in honor of his mother, Rachel Davies (Rahel o Fôn)
George Dewey, United States Navy admiral
Angus Dun (ashes), fourth bishop of Washington
Philip H. Frohman (ashes), cathedral architect, following the death of Bodley
George A. Garrett, diplomat, first United States Ambassador to Ireland
Julia Dent Cantacuzène Spiransky-Grant, granddaughter of President Ulysses S. Grant
Alfred Harding, second Bishop of Washington
Cordell Hull, United States Secretary of State
Helen Keller (ashes), author, lecturer, advocate for the blind and deaf
John Raleigh Mott, evangelist and leader of the YMCA and World Christian Student Federation
A.S. Mike Monroney (ashes), U.S. representative, senator
Joe Allbritton, banker, publisher and philanthropist
Norman Prince, fighter pilot, member of the Lafayette Escadrille flying corps
Henry Y. Satterlee, first bishop of Washington
Francis Bowes Sayre Jr. (ashes), dean of the cathedral and grandson of President Woodrow Wilson, also interred there
Matthew Shepard (ashes), notable LGBT figure, victim of a hate crime
John Wesley Snyder, Secretary of the Treasury in the Truman administration
Leo Sowerby (ashes), composer, church musician
Anne Sullivan (ashes), tutor and companion to Helen Keller, first woman interred here
Stuart Symington, U.S. senator, presidential candidate
Henry Vaughan, architect, associate of Bodley
John T. Walker, sixth bishop of Washington
Thomas C. Wasson, diplomat and consul general for the United States in Jerusalem
Isabel Weld Perkins (ashes), author, wife of Larz Anderson
Edith Wilson, second wife of Woodrow Wilson and First Lady of the United States
Woodrow Wilson, 28th president of the United States. Wilson's tomb includes variants on the Seal of the President of the United States and the coat of arms of Princeton University. Wilson is the only American president buried in the District of Columbia. Only one other church in the United States contains a presidential tomb: the United First Parish Church in Quincy, Massachusetts, where the remains of both John Adams and his son John Quincy Adams, together with their first ladies, are buried in a family vault.
Schools
There are three private Episcopal schools on the grounds of Washington National Cathedral.
Beauvoir School, a co-ed school serving preschool through 3rd grade
St. Alban's School, an all-boys school serving grades four through twelve
National Cathedral School, an all-girls school serving grades four through twelve
Media
The Cathedral played a major role in The West Wing season 2 finale Two Cathedrals. In a scene following the funeral of a major character, President Bartlet engages in a one-sided argument with God which seamlessly blends English and Latin dialogue.
See also
List of the Episcopal cathedrals of the United States
List of cathedrals in the United States
All Hallows Guild Carousel
Washington National Cathedral Police
Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception
Church Center for the United Nations
References
Bibliography
Marjorie Hunt, The Stone Carvers: Master Craftsmen of Washington National Cathedral (Smithsonian, 1999).
David Hein, Noble Powell and the Episcopal Establishment in the Twentieth Century. Foreword by Peter W. Williams. Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 2001; Eugene, Ore.: Wipf & Stock, 2007. Includes a chapter on Powell when he was dean of WNC and warden of the College of Preachers.
Step by Step and Stone by Stone: The History of the Washington National Cathedral (WNC, 1990).
A Guide to the Washington Cathedral (National Cathedral Association, 1945).
Peter W. Williams, Houses of God: Region, Religion, and Architecture in the United States (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997).
Cathedral Age (magazine).
External links
Episcopal Diocese of Washington
Jay Hall Carpenter, gargoyle sculptor, 20 years at the cathedral
What does Darth Vader have to do with the Cathedral?
Outdoor sculptures at the Washington National Cathedral
Washington National Cathedral Documentary produced by WETA-TV
Three Things That Happened at the Nationals Cathedralblog post by Ghosts of DC
Video showing exterior and interior of the Cathedral from 2016
20th-century Episcopal church buildings
Anglican cemeteries in the United States
Bell towers in the United States
Carillons
Cathedrals in Washington, D.C.
Cemeteries in Washington, D.C.
Churches completed in 1990
Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington, D.C.
Episcopal cathedrals in the United States
Episcopal churches in Washington, D.C.
George Frederick Bodley church buildings
Gothic Revival church buildings in Washington, D.C.
Presidential churches in the United States
Tombs of presidents of the United States
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20birds%20of%20Great%20Britain
|
List of birds of Great Britain
|
This list of birds of Great Britain comprises all bird species that have been recorded in a wild state in Great Britain. It follows the official British List, maintained by the British Ornithologists' Union (BOU). Decisions relating to the British List are published by the British Ornithologists' Union Records Committee (BOURC) in its annual reports in the BOU's journal Ibis. These reports were formerly geographically based and included the whole of the British Isles, but records for the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland are now published by their own ornithological associations. Records from the Isle of Man are adjudicated by the Manx Ornithological Society.
Bird species admitted to the British List are those in BOU categories A, B or C:
A: species that have been recorded in an apparently natural state at least once since 1 January 1950.
B: species that were recorded in an apparently natural state at least once between 1 January 1800 and 31 December 1949, but have not been recorded subsequently.
C: species that, although originally introduced by humans, either deliberately or accidentally, have established breeding populations derived from introduced stock, which maintain themselves without necessary recourse to further introduction.
Birds can be listed in more than one category: for example the Canada goose has a large introduced population but there have also been a few naturally occurring vagrants, so it meets the criteria for both categories A and C.
Categories D and E (not listed here) are used for record keeping only, and species in these categories are not included in the British List:
D: species that would otherwise appear in categories A or B except that there is reasonable doubt that they have ever occurred in a natural state.
E: species that have been recorded as introductions, transportees, or escapees from captivity, and whose breeding populations (if any) are not believed to be self-sustaining.
A further category (not listed here) is being compiled:
F: species recorded before 1800, including fossil species.
As of 30 June 2021, there are 626 species of birds on the British List, the latest addition being the white-chinned petrel. Four species groups (birds that were not identified to species level) are included in an appendix – southern/northern giant petrel (Macronectes giganteus/halli), Fea's/Desertas petrel (Pterodroma feae/desertas), Black-bellied/White-bellied Storm Petrel (Fregetta tropica/grallaria), and Brown/South Polar skua (Stercorarius antarctica/maccormickii). Six further species are awaiting consideration by the British Ornithologists' Union Records Committee.
Species listed on this page as "rare" are those for which a full description is required for acceptance of the record by the British Birds Rarities Committee. Other species have an indication of their breeding and wintering status in Great Britain.
In general the avifauna of Britain is similar to that of the rest of Europe. Because of its mild winters, Great Britain has a considerable population of wintering species, particularly ducks, geese and swans. There are also a number of species, such as the oystercatcher, that are resident on the island of Great Britain, but migrants elsewhere. Britain receives a number of vagrants from Asia and North America. Some American gulls, ducks and waders are regular enough not to be considered rare, including the ring-billed gull, surf scoter and pectoral sandpiper. There is one endemic bird species found in Great Britain: the Scottish crossbill.
Ducks, geese and swans
Order: AnseriformesFamily: Anatidae
The swans, ducks and geese are medium to large birds that are adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet and bills which are flattened to a greater or lesser extent. In many ducks the male is colourful while the female is dull brown. The diet consists of a variety of animals and plants. The family is well represented in Britain, especially in winter when large numbers visit from Greenland, Scandinavia and Russia. There are 174 species worldwide with 62 in Britain.
Grouse
Order: GalliformesFamily: Tetraonidae
Grouse are sturdy, medium-sized terrestrial birds of the Northern Hemisphere. They have feathered feet and nostrils and short, rounded wings. They feed mainly on plant material and lay their eggs in a simple scrape on the ground. They are gamebirds and large numbers were shot in the past in moorland areas. There are 20 species worldwide, four in Britain.
Pheasants, partridges and quail
Order: GalliformesFamily: Phasianidae
These are terrestrial species, feeding and nesting on the ground. They are variable in size but generally plump, with broad and relatively short wings. There are about 155 species worldwide with six in Britain. Four of these were introduced for hunting or ornamental purposes but one has now apparently died out.
Divers
Order: GaviiformesFamily: Gaviidae
Divers are aquatic birds the size of a large duck, to which they are unrelated. They swim well and fly adequately but are almost helpless on land, because their legs are placed towards the rear of the body. They feed on fish and other aquatic animals. There are five species worldwide, all of which occur in Britain.
Albatrosses
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Diomedeidae
The albatrosses are among the largest flying birds, with long, narrow wings for gliding. The majority are found in the Southern Hemisphere with only vagrants occurring in the North Atlantic. There are 22 species worldwide with two in Britain.
Shearwaters and petrels
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Procellariidae
These are highly pelagic birds with long, narrow wings and tube-shaped nostrils. They feed at sea on fish, squid and other marine life. They come to land to breed in colonies, nesting in burrows or on cliffs. There are 95 species worldwide, 11 in Britain.
Austral storm petrels
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Oceanitidae
The austral storm-petrels are the smallest seabirds, feeding on plankton and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering. They nest in colonies on the ground, most often in burrows. There are eight species worldwide, with two in Britain.
Northern storm petrels
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Hydrobatidae
The northern storm-petrels are the smallest seabirds, feeding on plankton and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering. They nest in colonies on the ground, most often in burrows. There are 17 species worldwide, with three species in Britain.
Tropicbirds
Order: PhaethontiformesFamily: Phaethontidae
There are three species worldwide, with one in Britain occurring only as a vagrant.
Gannets and boobies
Order: SuliformesFamily: Sulidae
Gannets are large seabirds that plunge-dive for fish and nest in large colonies. They have a torpedo-shaped body, long, narrow, pointed wings and a fairly long tail. There are ten species worldwide with three in Britain.
Cormorants
Order: SuliformesFamily: Phalacrocoracidae
Cormorants are medium to large aquatic birds with mainly dark plumage and areas of coloured skin on the face. The bill is long, thin and sharply hooked for catching fish and aquatic invertebrates. They nest in colonies by water, usually by the sea or on the banks of rivers. There are 41 extant species worldwide, three in Britain.
Frigatebirds
Order: SuliformesFamily: Fregatidae
There are five species worldwide, with two species in Britain, both of which are rare.
Pelicans
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Pelecanidae
Pelicans are large water birds with a distinctive pouch under their beak. As with other members of the order Pelecaniformes, they have webbed feet with four toes. There are eight species worldwide, only one recorded in Britain.
Bitterns, herons and egrets
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Ardeidae
Herons and egrets are medium to large wading birds with long necks and legs. Bitterns tend to be shorter-necked and more secretive. They all fly with their necks retracted. The sharp bill is used to catch fish, amphibians and other animals. Many species nest in colonies, often in trees. There are 64 species worldwide and 14 in Britain.
Ibises and spoonbills
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Threskiornithidae
A family of long-legged, long-necked wading birds. Ibises have long, curved bills. Spoonbils have a flattened bill, wider at the tip. There are 34 species worldwide with two in Britain.
Storks
Order: CiconiiformesFamily: Ciconiidae
Storks are large, heavy, long-legged, long-necked wading birds with long stout bills and wide wingspans. They fly with the neck extended. There are 20 species worldwide with two occurring in Britain.
Grebes
Order: PodicipediformesFamily: Podicipedidae
Grebes are small to medium-large diving birds with lobed toes and pointed bills. They are seen mainly on lowland waters and coasts. They feed on aquatic animals and nest on a floating platform of vegetation. There are 22 species worldwide with six in Britain.
Buzzards, kites and allies
Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Accipitridae
A family of birds of prey which includes hawks, buzzards, eagles, kites and harriers. These birds have very large powerful hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons and keen eyesight. There are about 240 species worldwide, 16 in Britain.
Osprey
Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Pandionidae
A large fish-eating bird of prey belonging to a family of its own. It is mainly brown above and white below with long, angled wings.
Falcons
Order: FalconiformesFamily: Falconidae
A family of small to medium-sized, diurnal birds of prey with pointed wings. They do not build their own nests and mainly catch prey in the air. There are 65 extant species worldwide, 10 in Britain.
Rails, crakes and coots
Order: GruiformesFamily: Rallidae
These birds mainly occupy dense vegetation in damp environments near lakes, marshes or rivers. Many are shy and secretive birds, making them difficult to observe. Most species have strong legs and long toes which are well adapted to soft uneven surfaces. There are 156 species worldwide, 12 in Britain.
Cranes
Order: GruiformesFamily: Gruidae
Cranes are large, long-legged and long-necked birds. Unlike the similar-looking but unrelated herons, cranes fly with necks outstretched, not pulled back. Most have elaborate and noisy courting displays or "dances". There are fifteen species worldwide, two in Britain.
Bustards
Order: OtidiformesFamily: Otididae
Large, sturdy birds of open plains with long legs and necks and strong feet. There are twenty-six species worldwide, three in Britain. They are all rarities.
Oystercatchers
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Haematopodidae
The oystercatchers are large, obvious and noisy wading birds with strong bills used for smashing or prising open molluscs. There are eleven species worldwide with one in Britain.
Avocets and stilts
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Recurvirostridae
A family of fairly large wading birds. The avocets have long legs and long up-curved bills. The stilts have extremely long legs and long, thin, straight bills. There are ten species worldwide with two in Britain.
Thick-knees
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Burhinidae
A small family of medium to large waders with strong black bills, large yellow eyes and cryptic plumage. There are ten species worldwide with one in Britain.
Pratincoles and coursers
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Glareolidae
A family of slender, long-winged wading birds. There are 15 species worldwide, four in Britain.
Plovers and lapwings
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Charadriidae
Small to medium-sized wading birds with compact bodies, short, thick necks and long, usually pointed, wings. There are about 66 species worldwide, 16 in Britain.
Sandpipers and allies
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Scolopacidae
A large, diverse family of wading birds. Different lengths of legs and bills enable multiple species to feed in the same habitat, particularly on the coast, without direct competition for food. There are 97 species worldwide, 54 in Britain.
Skuas
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Stercorariidae
Medium to large seabirds with mainly grey or brown plumage, sharp claws and a hooked tip to the bill. They chase other seabirds to force them to drop their catches. There are seven species worldwide with four in Britain.
Gulls, terns, and skimmers
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Laridae
Medium to large seabirds with grey, white and black plumage, webbed feet and strong bills. Many are opportunistic and adaptable feeders. There are 102 species worldwide, with
41 in Britain.
Auks
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Alcidae
A family of seabirds which are superficially similar to penguins, with their black-and-white colours, upright posture and some of their habits, but which are able to fly. There are about 24 worldwide, 10 in Britain.
Sandgrouse
Order: PterocliformesFamily: Pteroclidae
Sturdy, medium-sized birds with a small head and long, pointed wings. There are sixteen species worldwide. One has occurred as a vagrant in Britain.
Pigeons and doves
Order: ColumbiformesFamily: Columbidae
Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills with a fleshy cere. There are 344 species worldwide, seven in Britain.
Parrots
Order: PsittaciformesFamily: Psittaculidae
Parrots are small to large birds with a characteristic curved beak shape. They are found mainly in areas with warm climates. There are 402 species in the world, with one introduced species in Britain.
Cuckoos
Order: CuculiformesFamily: Cuculidae
Birds of variable size with slender bodies and long tails. Some species are known for laying their eggs in the nests of other birds. There are 149 species worldwide, four in Britain.
Barn owls
Order: StrigiformesFamily: Tytonidae
Barn owls are medium to large owls with large heads and characteristic heart-shaped faces. They have long strong legs with powerful talons. There are twenty species worldwide with one in Britain.
Typical owls
Order: StrigiformesFamily: Strigidae
Typical owls are small to large solitary nocturnal birds of prey. They have large forward-facing eyes and ears, a hawk-like beak and a conspicuous circle of feathers around each eye called a facial disc. There are nearly 220 species worldwide, eight in Britain.
Nightjars
Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Caprimulgidae
Nightjars are medium-sized nocturnal birds that usually nest on the ground. They have long wings, short legs and very short bills. Their soft plumage is cryptically coloured to resemble bark or leaves. There are 98 species worldwide, four in Britain.
Swifts
Order: ApodiformesFamily: Apodidae
The swifts are small birds which spend the majority of their lives flying. These birds have very short legs and never settle voluntarily on the ground, perching instead only on vertical surfaces. There are 113 species worldwide, eight in Britain.
Kingfishers
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Alcedinidae
Kingfishers are medium-sized birds with large heads, long pointed bills, short legs and stubby tails. There are 114 species worldwide, two in Britain.
Bee-eaters
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Meropidae
A group of near-passerine birds characterised by richly coloured plumage, slender bodies and usually elongated central tail-feathers. There are 27 species worldwide, two in Britain.
Rollers
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Coraciidae
A small family of colourful, medium-sized birds with a crow-like shape that feed mainly on insects. There are thirteen species worldwide with one in Britain.
Hoopoe
Order: BucerotiformesFamily: Upupidae
A small family with a long curved bills, crests and black-and-white striped wings and tails. There are three species worldwide, with one found in Britain.
Woodpeckers
Order: PiciformesFamily: Picidae
Woodpeckers are small to medium-sized birds with chisel-like beaks, short legs, stiff tails and long tongues used for capturing insects. Many woodpeckers have the habit of tapping noisily on tree trunks with their beaks. There are 236 species worldwide, five in Britain.
Tyrant flycatchers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Tyrannidae
A large family from the Americas. There are 437 species, with five rare vagrants recorded in Britain.
Old World orioles
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Oriolidae
The orioles are medium-sized passerines, mostly with bright and showy plumage, the females often have duller plumage than the males The beak is long, slightly curved and hooked. Orioles are arboreal and tend to feed in the canopy. There are 36 species worldwide, one of which has been recorded in Great Britain.
Shrikes
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Laniidae
Shrikes are passerine birds known for their habit of catching other birds and small animals and impaling the uneaten portions of their bodies on thorns. A typical shrike's beak is hooked, like a bird of prey. There are 33 species worldwide, nine in Britain.
Vireos
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Vireonidae
The vireos are a group of small to medium-sized passerine birds restricted to the New World. There are 58 species worldwide. Three have occurred as vagrants in Britain.
Crows and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Corvidae
The crows and their relatives are fairly large birds with strong bills and are usually intelligent and adaptable. There are over 120 species worldwide with nine in Britain.
Kinglets
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Regulidae
A family of very small birds. There are seven species worldwide with three found in Britain.
Penduline tits
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Remizidae
Small birds with finely pointed bills that build purse-like nests hanging from a branch. There are 11 species worldwide with one in Britain.
Tits
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Paridae
Tits are mainly small, stocky, woodland species with short stout bills. They are adaptable birds, with a mixed diet including seeds and insects. There are 65 species worldwide, six in Britain.
Bearded tit
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Panuridae
A single species formerly placed in the Old World babbler family.
Larks
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Alaudidae
Larks are small terrestrial birds with often extravagant songs and display flights. Most larks are fairly dull in appearance. Their food is insects and seeds. There are 98 species worldwide, 10 in Britain.
Swallows and martins
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Hirundinidae
The family Hirundinidae is adapted to aerial feeding. They have a slender streamlined body, long pointed wings and a short bill with a wide gape. There are around 90 species worldwide, eight in Britain.
Bush warblers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cettiidae
A recently split family formerly placed in the Sylviidae family. There are 32 species worldwide, with one found in Britain.
Long-tailed tits
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Aegithalidae
Small, long-tailed birds that typically live in flocks for much of the year. There are 13 species worldwide with one in Britain.
Leaf warblers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Phylloscopidae
A recently split family of small insectivorous birds, formerly included within the Sylviidae. There are 81 species, with 16 in Britain.
Typical warblers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sylviidae
A group of small insectivorous birds. There are 34 species worldwide, with 16 in Britain.
Grasshopper warblers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Locustellidae
A recently split family, previously part of the family Sylviidae. There are 68 species, with five found in Britain.
Reed warblers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Acrocephalidae
A small, insectivorous and vocal group of species, formerly included within the family Sylviidae. There are 56 extant species, with 14 found in Britain.
Cisticolas
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cisticolidae
A group of insectivorous species, previously included within the family Sylviidae. There are 163 species worldwide, with one in Britain.
Waxwings
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Bombycillidae
The waxwings are a group of passerine birds characterised by soft, silky plumage and unique red tips to some of the wing feathers. There are three species worldwide, two in Britain.
Wallcreeper
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Tichodromadidae
One species, in its own family, a rare visitor to Britain.
Nuthatches
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sittidae
Nuthatches are small woodland birds with the unusual ability to climb down trees head-first, unlike other birds which can only go upwards. There are 28 species worldwide, two in Britain.
Treecreepers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Certhiidae
Treecreepers are small woodland birds, brown above and white below. They have thin, pointed, down-curved bills, which they use to extricate insects from bark. There are 10 species worldwide, two in Britain.
Wrens
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Troglodytidae
Wrens are small and inconspicuous birds, except for their loud songs. They have short wings and thin down-turned bills. There are around 80 species worldwide with one in Britain.
Mockingbirds and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Mimidae
Medium-sized passerine birds with long tails. Some are notable for their ability to mimic sounds such as other birds' songs. There are 35 species worldwide. Three have occurred as vagrants in Britain.
Starlings
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sturnidae
Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine birds with strong feet. Their flight is strong and direct and most are very gregarious. There are about 114 species worldwide with two in Britain.
Dippers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cinclidae
Dark, dumpy, aquatic birds which are able to forage for food on the beds of rivers. There are five species worldwide with one in Britain.
Thrushes
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Turdidae
The thrushes are plump, soft-plumaged, small to medium-sized insectivores or sometimes omnivores, often feeding on the ground. Many have attractive songs. There are 172 species worldwide, 20 in Britain.
Old World flycatchers and chats
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Muscicapidae. Subfamily: Muscicapinae
The flycatchers and chats are small, mainly insectivorous birds. The flycatchers fly out from a perch to catch insects in the air. There are 324 species worldwide, 31 in Britain.
Accentors
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Prunellidae
A small family of drab, unobtrusive, insectivorous birds with thin, pointed bills. There are thirteen species worldwide with three recorded in Britain.
Sparrows
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passeridae
Sparrows tend to be small, plump, brownish or greyish birds with short tails and short, powerful beaks. They are seed-eaters and they also consume small insects. There are 43 species worldwide, four in Britain.
Wagtails and pipits
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Motacillidae
Motacillidae is a family of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. They are slender, ground-feeding insectivores of open country. There are about 66 species worldwide, 16 in Britain.
Finches
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Fringillidae
Seed-eating passerine birds that are small to moderately large and have a strong beak, usually conical and in some species very large. There are 228 species worldwide, 22 in Britain.
Longspurs
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Calcariidae
A small family of migratory seed eating birds. There are six species worldwide, with two found in Britain.
Cardinals and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cardinalidae
Four species have been found in Great Britain, all as rare vagrants.
Buntings
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Emberizidae.
A large group of seed-eating passerine birds with a distinctively shaped bill. There are 44 species worldwide and 17 in Britain.
American sparrows
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passerellidae.
A seed eating group of species, recently split from the family Emberizidae. There are 136 species worldwide, with seven found in Britain as rare vagrants.
Icterids
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Icteridae.
There are 109 species worldwide, with four species found rarely in Britain.
New World warblers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Parulidae
A group of small, often colourful passerine birds restricted to the New World. Most are arboreal and insectivorous. There are 119 species worldwide. Eighteen have occurred as vagrants in Britain.
The links above lead to family accounts and individual species. Taxonomy is very fluid in the age of DNA analysis, so other arrangements may be found, as in Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy.
Species awaiting acceptance
The following species have been recorded recently and the British Ornithologists' Union Records Committee has not yet made a decision on whether to accept them onto the British List.
See also
List of non-native birds of Great Britain
List of birds of Leicestershire and Rutland
List of birds of Wales
List of birds of Ireland
British Birds Rarities Committee
British Birds (a long-established ornithology journal).
Birdwatching
European birds
Ornithology
Footnotes
References
List of British birds published by The British Ornithologists' Union.
Taxonomic Recommendations for European Birds
Taxonomic recommendations for British birds (both in PDF format).
The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) and RSPB A to Z of UK Birds
Splitting headaches? Recent taxonomic changes affecting the British and Western Palaearctic lists – Martin Collinson, British Birds vol 99 (June 2006), 306–323
British Trust for Ornithology surveys
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Trade%20Representative
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Office of the United States Trade Representative
|
The Office of the United States Trade Representative (USTR) is an agency of the United States federal government responsible for developing and promoting American trade policy. Part of the Executive Office of the President, it is headed by the U.S. Trade Representative, a Cabinet-level position that serves as the U.S. President's primary advisor, negotiator, and spokesperson on trade matters. USTR has more than two hundred employees, with offices in Geneva, Switzerland, and Brussels, Belgium.
USTR was established as the Office of the Special Trade Representative (STR) by the Trade Expansion Act of 1962, leads trade negotiations at bilateral and multilateral levels, and coordinates trade policy with other government agencies through the Trade Policy Committee (TPC), Trade Policy Committee Review Group (TPCRG), and Trade Policy Staff Committee (TPSC). Its areas of expertise include foreign direct investment, commodity agreements, trade-related intellectual property protection, and trade disputes before the World Trade Organisation. Based in Washington, D.C., Katherine Tai is the current United States Trade Representative.
Organization
Leadership
The head of the office holds the title of United States Trade Representative (USTR), which is a Cabinet-level position, though not technically within the Cabinet, as is the case with office heads not of US departments but rather of offices contained within the Executive Office of the President. To fill the post, the president nominates someone for the position, and the appointment is then approved or rejected by a simple majority of the Senate. The United States trade representative and deputy United States trade representatives (DUSTR) carry the title of Ambassador.
In the Obama administration, Michael Froman served as the US trade representative from 2013 to 2017, with Michael Punke and Robert Holleyman serving as deputy US trade representatives. Ambassador Punke also concurrently served as the U.S. ambassador to the World Trade Organization (WTO). Katherine Tai, the current U.S. trade representative, was nominated by Joe Biden and confirmed by the Senate on March 17, 2021, by a vote of 98–0. Tai is the first woman of color to lead the Office of the United States Trade Representative.
Office of WTO and Multilateral Affairs
The USTR participates in the World Trade Organization, which is currently in the Doha Development Round. This is partially managed by the USTR Office of WTO and Multilateral Affairs (WAMA). Relevant WTO agreements include the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) and the Generalized System of Preferences.
History of the United States Trade Representative
Trade negotiations became more complicated in the twentieth century with the rise of multilateral organizations and technological advances allowing for more commerce. As a result, the organization of the U.S. government (with Congress in charge of regulating foreign commerce and the executive branch in charge of treaties) became less efficient and in 1962 Congress passed a bill calling for the president to appoint a Special Representative for Trade Negotiations who would make suggestions to the president on the matters of trade. In the 1970s, Congress expanded this position, making it more accountable to Congress (the position has been called "a creature of congress"), and made it cabinet-level. Finally, in 1980 the position was renamed the United States Trade Representative.
The Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988 elevated the position's role to "coordinate trade policy, serve as the President's principal trade advisor and trade 'spokesperson', and lead U.S. international trade negotiations". It also "required the USTR to report to both the President and Congress".
Issue areas
Agriculture
Economy and trade
Enforcement
Environment
Government procurement
Industry and manufacturing
Intellectual property
Labor
Preference Programs
Services and Investment
Small Business
Textiles and apparel
Trade and development
Trade organizations (The World Trade Organization (WTO), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
Reports
National Trade Estimate
The National Trade Estimate Report on Foreign Trade Barriers (National Trade Estimate or NTE) is an annual series prepared by the USTR,which reports significant foreign barriers to U.S. exports. Since 1986, the NTE has provided, where feasible, quantitative estimates of the impact of these foreign practices on the value of U.S. exports. Information is also included on actions taken to eliminate barriers. It is based on information provided by USTR, the U.S. departments of commerce and agriculture, and other agencies and sources.
The Special 301 Report
The Special 301 Report is prepared annually by the USTR under Section 182 as amended of the Trade Act of 1974. The act states that the USTR must on an annual basis, by April of each year:
identify those foreign countries that deny adequate and effective protection of intellectual property rights, or deny fair and equitable markets access to United States persons that rely upon intellectual property protection, and those foreign countries identified under" this "paragraph that are determined by the Trade Representative to be priority foreign countries". The Act defines "priority foreign countries" as "those foreign countries that have the most onerous or egregious acts, policies, or practices that deny adequate and effective intellectual property rights, or deny fair and equitable market access to United States persons that rely upon intellectual property protection, whose acts, policies, or practices described in" this "paragraph have the greatest adverse impact (actual or potential) on the relevant United States products, and that are not entering into good faith negotiations, or making significant progress in bilateral or multilateral negotiations to provide adequate and effective protection of intellectual property rights.
The Uruguay Round Agreement Act furthermore states that countries may be identified under Special 301 "taking into account the history of intellectual property laws and practices of the foreign country, including any previous identifications" and "the history of efforts of the United States, and the response of the foreign country, to achieve adequate and effective protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights". It also states that compliance with the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights does not include a country from being identified as denying "adequate and effective protection of intellectual property rights".
Notorious markets
In 2006, along with the International Intellectual Property Alliance, the USTR published a list of places where large-scale copyright infringement takes place in the Special 301 Report. Since 2010, the notorious markets report has been published as a separate report.
List of United States trade representatives
See also
International Trade Administration
United States International Trade Commission
United States Commercial Service
References
External links
USTR website
Office of the United States Trade Representative in the Federal Register
USTR Reports and Publications.
Google Books
Foreign trade of the United States
Anti-dumping authorities
Trade Representative
Foreign relations agencies of the United States
Trade Representative
United States trade law
United States trade policy
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United States diplomacy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapezius
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Trapezius
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The trapezius is a large paired trapezoid-shaped surface muscle that extends longitudinally from the occipital bone to the lower thoracic vertebrae of the spine and laterally to the spine of the scapula. It moves the scapula and supports the arm.
The trapezius has three functional parts: an upper (descending) part which supports the weight of the arm; a middle region (transverse), which retracts the scapula; and a lower (ascending) part which medially rotates and depresses the scapula.
Name and history
The trapezius muscle resembles a trapezium, also known as a trapezoid, or diamond-shaped quadrilateral. The word "spinotrapezius" refers to the human trapezius, although it is not commonly used in modern texts. In other mammals, it refers to a portion of the analogous muscle. Similarly, the term "tri-axle back plate" was historically used to describe the trapezius muscle.
Structure
The superior or upper (or descending) fibers of the trapezius originate from the spinous process of C7, the external occipital protuberance, the medial third of the superior nuchal line of the occipital bone (both in the back of the head), and the ligamentum nuchae. From this origin they proceed downward and laterally to be inserted into the posterior border of the lateral third of the clavicle.
The middle fibers, or transverse of the trapezius arise from the spinous process of the seventh cervical (both in the back of the neck), and the spinous processes of the first, second, and third thoracic vertebrae. They are inserted into the medial margin of the acromion, and into the superior lip of the posterior border of the spine of the scapula.
The inferior or lower (or ascending) fibers of the trapezius arise from the spinous processes of the remaining thoracic vertebrae (T4–T12). From this origin they proceed upward and laterally to converge near the scapula and end in an aponeurosis, which glides over the smooth triangular surface on the medial end of the spine, to be inserted into a tubercle at the apex of this smooth triangular surface.
At its occipital origin, the trapezius is connected to the bone by a thin fibrous lamina, firmly adherent to the skin. The superficial and deep epimysia are continuous with an investing deep fascia that encircles the neck and also contains both sternocleidomastoid muscles.
At the middle, the muscle is connected to the spinous processes by a broad semi-elliptical aponeurosis, which reaches from the sixth cervical to the third thoracic vertebræ and forms, with that of the opposite muscle, a tendinous ellipse. The rest of the muscle arises by numerous short tendinous fibers.
It is possible to feel the muscles of the superior trapezius become active by holding a weight in one hand in front of the body and, with the other hand, touching the area between the shoulder and the neck.
Innervation
Motor function is supplied by the accessory nerve. Sensation, including pain and the sense of joint position (proprioception), travel via the ventral rami of the third (C3) and fourth (C4) cervical spinal nerves. Since it is a muscle of the upper limb, the trapezius is not innervated by dorsal rami, despite being placed superficially in the back.
Function
Contraction of the trapezius muscle can have two effects: movement of the scapulae when the spinal origins are stable, and movement of the spine when the scapulae are stable. Its main function is to stabilize and move the scapula.
Scapular movements
The upper fibers elevate the scapulae, the middle fibers retract the scapulae, and the lower fibers depress the scapulae.
In addition to scapular translation, the trapezius induces scapular rotation. The upper and lower fibers tend to rotate the scapula around the sternoclavicular articulation so that the acromion and inferior angles move up and the medial border moves down (upward rotation). The upper and lower fibers work in tandem with serratus anterior to upwardly rotate the scapulae, and work in opposition to the levator scapulae and the rhomboids, which effect downward rotation.
An example of trapezius function is an overhead press. When activating together, the upper and lower fibers also assist the middle fibers (along with other muscles such as the rhomboids) with scapular retraction/adduction.
The trapezius also assists in abduction of the shoulder above 90 degrees by rotating the glenoid upward. Injury to cranial nerve XI will cause weakness in abducting the shoulder above 90 degrees.
Spinal movements
When the scapulae are stable, a co-contraction of both sides can extend the neck.
Clinical significance
Dysfunction of the trapezius can result in winged scapula, sometimes further specified as "lateral winging" and in an abnormal mobility or function of the scapula (scapular dyskinesia). There are multiple causes of trapezius dysfunction.
Palsy
Trapezius palsy, due to damage of the spinal accessory nerve, is characterized by difficulty with arm adduction and abduction, and associated with a drooping shoulder, and shoulder and neck pain. Intractable trapezius palsy can be surgically managed with an Eden-Lange procedure.
Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy
The trapezius muscle is one of the commonly affected muscles in facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD). The lower and middle fibers are affected initially, and the upper fibers are commonly spared until late in the disease.
Underdevelopment
Although rare, underdevelopment or absence of the trapezius has been reported to correlate to neck pain and poor scapular control that are not responsive to physical therapy. Absence of the trapezius has been reported in association with Poland syndrome.
Society and culture
Exercises
The upper portion of the trapezius can be developed by elevating the shoulders. Common exercises for this movement are any version of the clean, particularly the hang clean, and the shoulder shrug. The uppermost area can be trained through neck extension.
Middle fibers are developed by pulling shoulder blades together. This adduction also uses the upper/lower fibers.
The lower part can be developed by drawing the shoulder blades downward while keeping the arms almost straight and stiff.
It is mainly used in throwing, with the deltoid muscle and rotator cuff.
References
External links
Superficial Back Dissection Video showing trapezius
Back anatomy
Muscles of the upper limb
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211364
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acromion
|
Acromion
|
In human anatomy, the acromion (from Greek: akros, "highest", ōmos, "shoulder", plural: acromia) is a bony process on the scapula (shoulder blade). Together with the coracoid process it extends laterally over the shoulder joint. The acromion is a continuation of the scapular spine, and hooks over anteriorly. It articulates with the clavicle (collar bone) to form the acromioclavicular joint.
Structure
The acromion forms the summit of the shoulder, and is a large, somewhat triangular or oblong process, flattened from behind forward, projecting at first lateralward, and then curving forward and upward, so as to overhang the glenoid cavity.
Surfaces
Its superior surface, directed upward, backward, and lateralward, is convex, rough, and gives attachment to some fibers of the deltoideus, and in the rest of its extent is subcutaneous. Its inferior surface is smooth and concave.
Borders
Its lateral border is thick and irregular, and presents three or four tubercles for the tendinous origins of the deltoid. Its medial border, shorter than the lateral, is concave, gives attachment to a portion of the trapezius, and presents about its center a small oval surface for articulation with the acromial end of the clavicle.
Variation
There are three morphologically distinct types of acromia and a correlation between these morphologies and rotator cuff tear:
Os acromiale
The acromion has four ossification centers called (from tip to base) pre-acromion, meso-acromion, meta-acromion, and basi-acromion. In most cases, the first three fuse at 15–18 years, whereas the base part fuses to the scapular spine at 12 years. However, in between 1% and 15% of cases, this osseous union fails and the acromion remains separate as an accessory bone. This condition is referred to as os acromiale, but rarely causes pain. Earlier estimates of its prevalence were as low as 1.4%, and this higher estimate was made by Sammarco in the year 2000, based on radiographic and anatomical studies.
Four types of os acromiale can be distinguished:
A non-union between the meso- and meta-acromia, the most common or typical os acromiale
A non-union between the pre- and meso-acromia
A non-union between the pre- and meso-acromia; and between the meso- and meta-acromia, atypical
A non-union between the pre- and meso-acromia; between the pre- and meso-acromia; and between the meta- and basi-acromia
This feature was common in skeletons recovered from the Mary Rose shipwreck: it is thought that in those men, much archery practice from childhood on with the mediaeval war bow (which needs a pull three times as strong as the modern standard Olympic bow) pulled at the acromion so much that it prevented bony fusion of the acromion with the scapula.
Although historically regarded as an incidental finding, the os acromiale may occasionally produce symptoms from subacromial impingement or instability at the site of non-union. In people with symptoms of os acromiale, dynamic ultrasound sometimes shows hypermobility in the area during shoulder movement, or .
In other animals
The acromion process of bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera) is particularly elongated compared to that of humans.
Turtles have an acromion that forms the anterior part of the triradiate pectoral girdle (together with the coracoid and scapula). In this highly specialized endoskeletal structure, the scapula is a dorsal (directed upwards) process attached to the first rib; the coracoid is a posteroventral (directed backward and down) process; and the acromion is a medioventral (directed inwards and down) process (also known as the prescapular process) located at the base of the scapula. This had led to some controversy regarding the evolutionary origin of turtles, because in both pareiasaurs and non-mammalian therapsids the acromion is located at the dorsal tip of the scapula.
In modern turtles, the acromion projects ventrally and articulates with the plastron (the flat lower part of the shell), but it evolved in a common ancestor of pareiasaurs and turtles long before the plastron. In these primitive ancestors, the acromion projected forward to form a strong and flexible articulation between the shoulder girdle and the clavicle. Notwithstanding these changes, the acromion of turtles retains its original function, to support the shoulder girdle and increase stride length.
Additional images
Notes
External links
Vertebrate anatomy
Scapula
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed%20Chalabi
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Ahmed Chalabi
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Ahmed Abdel Hadi Chalabi (; 30 October 1945 – 3 November 2015) was an Iraqi politician, a founder of the Iraqi National Congress (INC) and the President of the Governing Council of Iraq (37th Prime Minister of Iraq).
He was interim Minister of Oil in Iraq in April–May 2005 and December 2005 – January 2006 and Deputy Prime Minister from May 2005 to May 2006. Chalabi failed to win a seat in parliament in the December 2005 elections, and when the new Iraqi cabinet was announced in May 2006, he was not given a post. Once dubbed the "George Washington of Iraq" by American supporters, he was initially a CIA-backed operative, who later fell out of favor, with US Special Forces raiding his private residence in Baghdad only one year after the invasion of Iraq, he later came under investigation by several U.S. government agencies after switching his allegiances to become an instrument of pro-Iranian influence in Iraqi politics.
In the lead-up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the Iraqi National Congress (INC), with the assistance of lobbying powerhouse BKSH & Associates, provided a major portion of the information on which U.S. Intelligence based its condemnation of the Iraqi President Saddam Hussein, including reports of weapons of mass destruction and alleged ties to al-Qaeda. Most, if not all, of this information has turned out to be false and Chalabi has been called a fabricator. Along with this, Chalabi also subsequently boasted, in an interview with the British Sunday Telegraph, about the impact that their alleged falsifications had on American policy. These factors led to a falling out between him and the U.S. government. Furthermore, Chalabi was found guilty in the Petra Bank scandal in Jordan.
In January 2012, a French intelligence official stated that he believed Chalabi to be "acting on behalf of Iran".
Early life
Chalabi was the son of a prominent Shia family, one of the wealthy power elite of Baghdad. He was born in Kadhimiya in 1945. His family, who dated back 300 years to the Sultanate, ran Iraq's oldest commercial bank under the British-backed Kingdom of Iraq. His father, a wealthy grain merchant and member of the Iraqi parliament, became head of the senate when King Abdullah I of Jordan was assassinated.
His family retired from public life to a farmhouse near Baghdad when the military seized power. Chalabi left Iraq with his family in 1958, following the 14 July Revolution, and spent most of his life in the United States and the United Kingdom. He was educated at Baghdad College and Seaford College in Sussex, England before leaving for America.
Western education
In exile, following the Ba'ath party takeover, his family acted as the Iraqi Shia clergy's bankers. In the mid-1960s, he studied with cryptographer Whitfield Diffie at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from which he received a Bachelor of Science degree in mathematics. In 1969, he earned a PhD in mathematics from the University of Chicago under the direction of George Glauberman on the Theory of Knots. after which he took a position in the mathematics department at the American University of Beirut. He published three mathematics papers between 1973 and 1980, in the field of abstract algebra.
In 1971, Chalabi married Leila Osseiran, daughter of Lebanese politician Adel Osseiran. They had four children. Whilst still at Beirut the civil war broke out in 1975, so he moved to Jordan and found work as an interpreter.
Business career
Chalabi was a bold and shrewd investor, amassing a fortune of $100 million. During his life he was accused of corruption many times. In 1977, he founded the Petra Bank in Jordan with Crown Prince Hassan, the King's brother. In May 1989, the Governor of the Central Bank of Jordan, Mohammed Said Nabulsi, issued a decree ordering all banks in the country to deposit 35% of their reserves with the Central Bank. Petra Bank was the only bank that was unable to meet this requirement. An investigation was launched which led to accusations of embezzlement and false accounting. The bank failed, causing a $350 million bail-out by the Central Bank. Chalabi fled the country, in the trunk of a Jordanian prince's car, before the authorities could react. Chalabi was convicted and sentenced in absentia for bank fraud by a Jordanian military tribunal to 22 years in prison. Chalabi maintained that his prosecution was a politically motivated effort to discredit him sponsored by Saddam Hussein. It was widely reported that Chalabi escaped Jordan locked in the trunk of a car owned by Prince Hassan of Jordan.
Exile in the UK
Living abroad by 1992 in London, and unable to return home for fear of his life, he set up the Iraqi National Congress with an agenda of regime change for his homeland. The organization was open to all ethnic and religious groups of Iraq, including Arabs, Kurds, Sunni and Shia Muslims. Already a fluent English speaker, he turned his attention to Washington DC.
In 1995 after preparation and lobbying he persuaded President Bill Clinton to fund an expedition into northern Iraq to use subterfuge to start an insurgency. Chalabi was convinced that the Iraqi military would rise up to overthrow the dictator. The commanders to whom he had spoken, were the same who openly supported Saddam and crushed his opponents in the Kurdish and Shia revolts. The insurgency failed, lacking the promised ground troops, and 100 insurgents were killed by the military. The command structure of INC fell apart with factional infighting. Chalabi was banned from those frequent visits to CIA headquarters at Langley, Virginia. Nonetheless Chalabi was doggedly determined: in 1998 Congress passed the Iraq Liberation Act passing into American law the objective of "regime change" in Iraq.
It was reported by BBC News in May 2005 that the Jordanian government was considering whether to pardon Chalabi, in part to ease the relations between Jordan and the new Iraqi government of which Chalabi was a member. According to one report, Chalabi proposed a $32 million compensation fund for depositers affected by Petra Bank's failure. The website for Petra Bank contains a press release stating that Chalabi would refuse the pardon. Although Chalabi always maintained the case was a plot to frame him by Baghdad, the issue was revisited when the U.S. State Department raised questions about the accounting practices of the Iraqi National Congress (INC). According to The New York Times, "Chalabi insisted on a public apology, which the Jordanians refused to give."
Conservative pundit Arnaud de Borchgrave stated that following his escape from Jordan as a wanted fugitive, Chalabi established the Iraqi National Congress by sending out "...scores of all-expenses-paid invitations to Iraqi exiles to a conference in Vienna a month later. The conference created INC - and made Mr Chalabi its president..." Around the same time, the Jordan's Central Bank Governor, Mohammed Said Nabulsi, had referred to Chalabi as "one of the most notorious crooks in the history of the Middle East...". Chalabi headed the executive council of the INC, an umbrella Iraqi opposition group created in 1992 for the purpose of fomenting the overthrow of Saddam Hussein. The INC received major funding and assistance from the United States. Chalabi was involved in organizing a resistance movement among Kurds in northern Iraq in the early mid-1990s. When that effort was crushed and hundreds of his supporters were killed, Chalabi fled the country. Chalabi lobbied in Washington for the passage of the Iraq Liberation Act (passed October 1998). This earmarked US$97 million to support Iraqi opposition groups. Chalabi and the INC were widely reported to be active CIA assets in the pre-2003 period, with one report in the British Guardian newspaper estimating that CIA operatives had funnelled an estimated $100m to the INC, which had helped to finance the epic failure of the 1996 coup attempt by Kurdish forces. In 2001 it was revealed that INC was accused of false accounting and irregularities. During the period from March 2000 to September 2003, the U.S. State Department paid nearly $33 million to the INC, according to a General Accounting Office report released in 2004, some of which was used to purchase office artefacts.
Invasion of Iraq
Before the Iraq War (2003), Chalabi enjoyed close political and business relationships with some members of the U.S. government, including some prominent neoconservatives within the Pentagon. Chalabi was said to have had political contacts within the Project for the New American Century, most notably with Paul Wolfowitz, a student of nuclear strategist Albert Wohlstetter, and Richard Perle. He also enjoyed considerable support among politicians and political pundits in the United States, most notably Jim Hoagland of The Washington Post, who held him up as a notable force for democracy in Iraq. He was a special guest of First Lady Laura Bush at the 2004 State of the Union Address. Chalabi was flown back to Iraq after the invasion with a force of 700 US-trained militia and was, according to the Washinton Times, being paid over $300,000 a month by the US government, with the direct support of Vice President Dick Cheney, Deputy Defence Secretary Paul Wolfowitz, Richard Perle and Douglas Feith.
The CIA was largely skeptical of Chalabi and the INC, but information allegedly from his group (most famously from a defector codenamed "Curveball") made its way into intelligence dossiers used by President George W. Bush and British Prime Minister Tony Blair to justify an invasion of Iraq. "Curveball", Rafid Ahmed Alwan al-Janabi, fed officials hundreds of pages of bogus "firsthand" descriptions of mobile biological weapons factories on wheels and rails. Secretary of State Colin Powell later used this information in a U.N. presentation trying to garner support for the war, despite warnings from German intelligence that "Curveball" was fabricating claims. Since then, the CIA has admitted that the defector made up the story, and Powell said in 2011 the information should not have been used in his presentation. A later congressionally appointed investigation (Robb-Silberman) concluded that Curveball had no relation whatsoever to the INC, and that press reports linking Curveball to the INC were erroneous.
The INC often worked with the media, most notably with Judith Miller, concerning her WMD stories for The New York Times starting on 26 February 1998. After the war, given the lack of discovery of WMDs, most of the WMD claims of the INC were shown to have been either misleading, exaggerated, or completely made up while INC information about the whereabouts of Saddam Hussein's loyalists and Chalabi's personal enemies were accurate. Another of Chalabi's advocates was American Enterprise Institute's Iraq specialist Danielle Pletka. Chalabi received advice on media and television presentation techniques from the Irish scriptwriter and commentator Eoghan Harris prior to the invasion of Iraq.
In April as U.S. forces took control during the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, Chalabi entered with allied troops the southern town of Shatrah. 300 US-trained FIF (Freedom for Iraq Fighters) expected opposition, but none emerged. Thousands of Iraqis cheered the troops. Chalabi returned under their aegis and was given a position on the Iraq interim governing council by the Coalition Provisional Authority. He served as president of the council in September 2003. He denounced a plan to let the UN choose an interim government for Iraq. "We are grateful to President Bush for liberating Iraq, but it is time for the Iraqi people to run their affairs," he was quoted as saying in The New York Times.
In August 2003, Chalabi was the only candidate whose unfavorable ratings exceeded his favorable ones with Iraqis in a State Department poll. In a survey of nearly 3,000 Iraqis in February 2004 (by Oxford Research International, sponsored by the BBC in the United Kingdom, ABC in the U.S., ARD of Germany, and the NHK in Japan), only 0.2 percent of respondents said he was the most trustworthy leader in Iraq (see survey link below, question #13). A secret document written in 2002 by the British Overseas and Defence Secretariat reportedly described Chalabi as "a convicted fraudster popular on Capitol Hill."
In response to the WMD controversy, Chalabi told London's The Daily Telegraph in February 2004, We are heroes in error. As far as we're concerned, we've been entirely successful. That tyrant Saddam is gone and the Americans are in Baghdad. What was said before is not important. The Bush administration is looking for a scapegoat.
Falling out with the U.S., 2004–05
As Chalabi's position of trust with the Pentagon crumbled, he found a new political position as a champion of Iraq's Shia (Chalabi himself was Shia). Beginning 25 January 2004, Chalabi and his close associates promoted the claim that leaders around the world were illegally profiting from the Oil for Food program. These charges were around the same time that UN envoy Lakhdar Brahimi indicated that Chalabi would likely not be welcome in a future Iraqi government. Up until this time, Chalabi had been mentioned formally several times in connection with possible future leadership positions. Chalabi contended that documents in his possession detailed the misconduct, but he did not provide any documents or other evidence. The U.S. sharply criticized Chalabi's Oil for Food investigation as undermining the credibility of its own.
Additionally, Chalabi and other members of the INC were investigated for fraud involving the exchange of Iraqi currency, grand theft of both national and private assets, and many other criminal charges in Iraq. On 19 May 2004 the U.S. government discontinued their regular payments to Chalabi for information he provided. Iraqi police, supported by U.S. soldiers, raided his offices and residence on 20 May, taking documents and computers, presumably to be used as evidence. A major target of the raid was Aras Habib, Chalabi's long-term director of intelligence, who controlled the vast network of agents bankrolled by U.S. funding. The U.S. announced that they had stopped funding the INC, having previously paid the organization $330,000 per month.
In June 2004, it was reported that Chalabi gave U.S. state secrets to Iran in April, including the fact that one of the United States' most valuable sources of Iranian intelligence was a broken Iranian code used by their spy services. Chalabi allegedly learned of the code through a drunk American involved in the code-breaking operation. Chalabi denied all of the charges, which nothing ever came of.
An arrest warrant for alleged counterfeiting was issued for Chalabi on 8 August 2004, while at the same time a warrant was issued on murder charges against his nephew Salem Chalabi (at the time, head of the Iraqi Special Tribunal), while they both were out of the country. Chalabi returned to Iraq on 10 August planning to make himself available to Iraqi government officials, but he was never arrested. Charges were later dropped against Chalabi, with Judge Zuhair al-Maliki citing lack of evidence.
On 1 September 2004, Chalabi told reporters of an assassination attempt made on him near Latifiya, a town south of Baghdad. Chalabi reported he was returning from a meeting with Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani (whose trust Chalabi enjoyed) in Najaf, where a few days earlier a cease-fire had taken effect, ending three weeks of confrontations between followers of Muqtada al-Sadr and the U.S. military, at the time.
He regained enough credibility to be made deputy prime minister on 28 April 2005. At the same time he was made acting oil minister, before the appointment of Ibrahim Bahr al-Uloum in May 2005. On protesting IMF austerity measures, Al-Uloum was instructed to extend his vacation by a month in December 2005 by Prime Minister Ibrahim al-Jaafari, and Chalabi was reappointed as acting oil minister. Al-Uloum returned to the post in January 2006.
In November 2005, Chalabi traveled to the U.S. and met with top U.S. government officials, including Vice President Dick Cheney, Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, and National Security Advisor Stephen Hadley. At this time Chalabi also traveled to Iran to meet with Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.
Political activity in Iraq, 2005–15
The Iraqi National Congress, headed by Chalabi, was a part of the United Iraqi Alliance in the 2005 legislative election. After the election, Chalabi claimed that he had the support of the majority of elected members of United Iraqi Alliance and staked claim to be the first democratically elected Prime Minister of Iraq; however, Ibrahim al-Jaafari later emerged as the consensus candidate for prime minister.
Prior to the December 2005 elections, the Iraqi National Congress had left the United Iraqi Alliance and formed the National Congress Coalition, which ran in the elections but failed to win a single seat in Parliament, gaining less than 0.5% of the vote. Other groups joining the INC in this list included: Democratic Iraqi Grouping, Democratic Joint Action Front, First Democratic National Party, Independent List, Iraqi Constitutional Movement, Iraqi Constitutional Party, Tariq Abd al-Karim Al Shahd al-Budairi, and the Turkoman Decision Party. He was refused a seat in the cabinet. Dogged by allegations, still unproven, of corruption he retorted that he had never "participated in any scheme of intelligence against the United States."
Chalabi attended the 2006 Bilderberg Conference meeting outside of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. In October 2007, Chalabi was appointed by Prime Minister Nouri al Maliki to head the Iraqi services committee, a consortium of eight service ministries and two Baghdad municipal posts tasked with the "surge" plan's next phase, restoring electricity, health, education and local security services to Baghdad neighborhoods. "The key is going to be getting the concerned local citizens—and all the citizens—feeling that this government is reconnected with them.... [Chalabi] agrees with that," said Gen. David Petraeus. Chalabi "is an important part of the process," said Col. Steven Boylan, Petraeus' spokesman. "He has a lot of energy." In April 2008, journalist Melik Kaylan wrote about Chalabi, "Arguably, he has, more than anyone in the country, evolved a detailed sense of what ails Baghdadis and how to fix things."
After the invasion Chalabi was placed in charge of "de-Ba'athification"—the removal of senior office holders judged to have been close supporters of the deposed Saddam Hussein. The role fell into disuse, but in early 2010 Chalabi was accused of reviving this dormant post to eliminate his political enemies, especially Sunnis. The banning of some 500 candidates prior to the general election of 7 March 2010 at the initiative of Chalabi and his Iraqi National Congress was reported to have badly damaged previously improving relations between the Shia and Sunni.
On 26 January 2012, The New York Times reported Western intelligence officials expressing concern that Chalabi was working with the leading opposition group in Bahrain, Al Wefaq National Islamic Society. A French intelligence official said, "When we hear that some members of the opposition are in touch with Hezbollah or with shady figures like the Iraqi Ahmed Chalabi, of whom we think he is acting on behalf of Iran, then this worries us". The connection between Chalabi and Al Wefaq was acknowledged by Jawad Fairooz, secretary general of Wefaq and a former member of Parliament in Bahrain. Fairooz said, "Mr Chalabi has helped us with contacts in Washington like other people have done and we thank them."
During an interview in 2014, he was shown to be frail and depressed about his country's future:
Iraq is a mess. Daesh is organised, with one command, united and well run, and we are so fragmented. We have no discipline, no command structure, no effective plans.
Death
In death Chalabi proved to be as controversial as in life. The period leading up to his death was marked by regular pronouncements released by Chalabi in various formats in which he would expose alleged corruption of highest officials in the Paul Bremer-led Provisional Coalition Authority and in the Iraqi Government led by Nouri Al Maliki. Chalabi died on 3 November 2015, four days after his 70th birthday, having apparently suffered a heart attack at his home in Kadhimiya, Baghdad. Iraqi Press speculated at the time of his death that it came about as a result of being poisoned due to his ongoing efforts to expose regime corruption. When he died, he was a current Member of the Iraqi Parliament, serving as the chairman of the Finance Committee. Ahmed Chalabi was laid to rest at the Kadhimiya Holy Shrine, a high honour bestowed by Iraq's influential Shia theocratic establishment.
References
External links
1945 births
2015 deaths
Iraqi businesspeople
Iraqi dissidents
Iraqi National Congress politicians
Iraqi Shia Muslims
Iraqi mathematicians
Massachusetts Institute of Technology School of Science alumni
Oil ministers of Iraq
Osseiran family
People convicted in absentia
People educated at Seaford College
People from Kadhimiya
University of Chicago alumni
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] |
211371
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Be/X-ray%20binary
|
Be/X-ray binary
|
Be/X-ray binaries (BeXRBs) are a class of high-mass X-ray binaries that consist of a Be star and a neutron star. The neutron star is usually in a wide highly elliptical orbit around the Be star. The Be stellar wind forms a disk confined to a plane often different from the orbital plane of the neutron star. When the neutron star passes through the Be disk, it accretes a large mass of gas in a short time. As the gas falls onto the neutron star, a bright flare in hard X-rays is seen.
X Persei
X Persei is a binary system containing a γ Cassiopeiae variable and a pulsar. It has a relatively long period and low eccentricity for this type of binary, which means the x-ray emission is persistent and not usually strongly variable. Some strong x-ray flares have been observed, presumably related to changes in the accretion disc, but no correlations have been found with the strong optical variations.
LSI+61°303
LSI+61°303 is a possible example of a Be/X-ray binary star. It is a periodic, radio-emitting binary system that is also the gamma-ray source, CG135+01. It is also a variable radio source characterized by periodic, non-thermal radio outbursts with a period of 26.496 d. The 26.5 d period is attributed to the eccentric orbital motion of a compact object, possibly a neutron star, around a rapidly rotating B0 Ve star. Photometric observations at optical and infrared wavelengths also show a 26.5 d modulation. Although the mass of the compact object in the LS I +61 303 system is not known accurately, it is likely that it is too large to be a neutron star and so it is likely to be a black hole.
Of the 20 or so members of the Be/X-ray binary class, as of 1996, only X Persei and LSI+61°303 have X-ray outbursts of much higher luminosity and harder spectrum (kT ≈ 10–20 keV) vs. (kT ≤ 1 keV). LSI+61°303 also shows strong radio outbursts, more similar to those of the "standard" short-period high-mass X-ray binaries such as SS 433, Cyg X-3 and Cir X-1.
RX J0209.6-7427
RX J0209.6-7427 is a Be/X-ray binary star located in the Magellanic Bridge. A couple of rare outbursts have been observed from this source hosting a neutron star. The last outburst was detected in 2019 after about 26 years. The accreting neutron star in this Be/X-ray binary system is an ultraluminous X-ray Pulsar (ULXP) making it the second closest ULXP and the first ULXP in our neighbouring Galaxy in the Magellanic Clouds.
References
Be X-ray binary
Be X-ray binary
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council%20on%20Foreign%20Relations
|
Council on Foreign Relations
|
The Council on Foreign Relations (CFR), founded in 1921, is a United States nonprofit think tank specializing in U.S. foreign policy and international affairs. It is headquartered in New York City, with an additional office in Massachusetts. Its membership, which numbers 5,103, has included senior politicians, numerous secretaries of state, CIA directors, bankers, lawyers, professors, and senior media figures.
CFR meetings convene government officials, global business leaders and prominent members of the intelligence and foreign-policy community to discuss international issues. CFR has published the bi-monthly journal Foreign Affairs since 1922, and runs the David Rockefeller Studies Program, which influences foreign policy by making recommendations to the presidential administration and diplomatic community, testifying before Congress, interacting with the media, and publishing on foreign policy issues.
History
Origins, 1918 to 1945
Towards the end of World War I, a working fellowship of about 150 scholars called "The Inquiry" was tasked to brief President Woodrow Wilson about options for the postwar world when Germany was defeated. This academic band, including Wilson's closest adviser and long-time friend "Colonel" Edward M. House, as well as Walter Lippmann, met to assemble the strategy for the postwar world. The team produced more than 2,000 documents detailing and analyzing the political, economic, and social facts globally that would be helpful for Wilson in the peace talks. Their reports formed the basis for the Fourteen Points, which outlined Wilson's strategy for peace after war's end. These scholars then traveled to the Paris Peace Conference 1919 and participated in the discussions there.
As a result of discussions at the Peace Conference, a small group of British and American diplomats and scholars met on May 30, 1919 at the Hotel Majestic in Paris and decided to create an Anglo-American organization called "The Institute of International Affairs", which would have offices in London and New York. Ultimately, the British and American delegates formed separate institutes, with the British developing the Royal Institute of International Affairs or Chatham House in London. Due to the isolationist views prevalent in American society at the time, the scholars had difficulty gaining traction with their plan, and turned their focus instead to a set of discreet meetings which had been taking place since June 1918 in New York City, under the name "Council on Foreign Relations". The meetings were headed by the corporate lawyer Elihu Root, who had served as Secretary of State under President Theodore Roosevelt, and attended by 108 "high-ranking officers of banking, manufacturing, trading and finance companies, together with many lawyers". The members were proponents of Wilson's internationalism, but were particularly concerned about "the effect that the war and the treaty of peace might have on postwar business". The scholars from the inquiry saw an opportunity to create an organization that brought diplomats, high-level government officials, and academics together with lawyers, bankers, and industrialists to engineer government policy. On July 29, 1921, they filed a certification of incorporation, officially forming the Council on Foreign Relations. Founding members include its first honorary president, Elihu Root, and first elected president, John W. Davis; vice-president Paul D. Cravath; and secretary and treasurer Edwin F. Gay.
In 1922, Gay, who was a former dean of the Harvard Business School and director of the Shipping Board during the war, spearheaded the Council's efforts to begin publication of a magazine that would be the "authoritative" source on foreign policy. He gathered US$125,000 () from the wealthy members on the council, as well as by sending letters soliciting funds to "the thousand richest Americans". Using these funds, the first issue of Foreign Affairs was published in September 1922, and within a few years had gained a reputation as the "most authoritative American review dealing with international relations".
In the late 1930s, the Ford Foundation and Rockefeller Foundation began contributing large amounts of money to the Council. In 1938, they created various Committees on Foreign Relations, which later became governed by the American Committees on Foreign Relations in Washington, D.C., throughout the country, funded by a grant from the Carnegie Corporation. Influential men were to be chosen in a number of cities, and would then be brought together for discussions in their own communities as well as participating in an annual conference in New York. These local committees served to influence local leaders and shape public opinion to build support for the Council's policies, while also acting as "useful listening posts" through which the Council and U.S. government could "sense the mood of the country".
Beginning in 1939, and lasting for five years, the Council achieved much greater prominence within the government and the State Department, when it established the strictly confidential War and Peace Studies, funded entirely by the Rockefeller Foundation. The secrecy surrounding this group was such that the Council members who were not involved in its deliberations were completely unaware of the study group's existence. It was divided into four functional topic groups: economic and financial; security and armaments; territorial; and political. The security and armaments group was headed by Allen Welsh Dulles, who later became a pivotal figure in the CIA's predecessor, the Office of Strategic Services (OSS). CFR ultimately produced 682 memoranda for the State Department, which were marked classified and circulated among the appropriate government departments.
Cold War era, 1945 to 1979
A critical study found that of 502 government officials surveyed from 1945 to 1972, more than half were members of the Council. During the Eisenhower administration 40% of the top U.S. foreign policy officials were CFR members (Eisenhower himself had been a council member); under Truman, 42% of the top posts were filled by council members. During the Kennedy administration, this number rose to 51%, and peaked at 57% under the Johnson administration.
In an anonymous piece called "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" that appeared in Foreign Affairs in 1947, CFR study group member George Kennan coined the term "containment". The essay would prove to be highly influential in US foreign policy for seven upcoming presidential administrations. Forty years later, Kennan explained that he had never suspected the Russians of any desire to launch an attack on America; he thought that it was obvious enough and he did not need to explain it in his essay. William Bundy credited CFR's study groups with helping to lay the framework of thinking that led to the Marshall Plan and NATO. Due to new interest in the group, membership grew towards 1,000.
Dwight D. Eisenhower chaired a CFR study group while he served as President of Columbia University. One member later said, "whatever General Eisenhower knows about economics, he has learned at the study group meetings." The CFR study group devised an expanded study group called "Americans for Eisenhower" to increase his chances for the presidency. Eisenhower would later draw many Cabinet members from CFR ranks and become a CFR member himself. His primary CFR appointment was Secretary of State John Foster Dulles. Dulles gave a public address at the Harold Pratt House in New York City in which he announced a new direction for Eisenhower's foreign policy: "There is no local defense which alone will contain the mighty land power of the communist world. Local defenses must be reinforced by the further deterrent of massive retaliatory power." After this speech, the council convened a session on "Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy" and chose Henry Kissinger to head it. Kissinger spent the following academic year working on the project at Council headquarters. The book of the same name that he published from his research in 1957 gave him national recognition, topping the national bestseller lists.
On November 24, 1953, a study group heard a report from political scientist William Henderson regarding the ongoing conflict between France and Vietnamese Communist leader Ho Chi Minh's Viet Minh forces, a struggle that would later become known as the First Indochina War. Henderson argued that Ho's cause was primarily nationalist in nature and that Marxism had "little to do with the current revolution." Further, the report said, the United States could work with Ho to guide his movement away from Communism. State Department officials, however, expressed skepticism about direct American intervention in Vietnam and the idea was tabled. Over the next twenty years, the United States would find itself allied with anti-Communist South Vietnam and against Ho and his supporters in the Vietnam War.
The Council served as a "breeding ground" for important American policies such as mutual deterrence, arms control, and nuclear non-proliferation.
In 1962 the group began a program of bringing select Air Force officers to the Harold Pratt House to study alongside its scholars. The Army, Navy and Marine Corps requested they start similar programs for their own officers.
A four-year-long study of relations between America and China was conducted by the Council between 1964 and 1968. One study published in 1966 concluded that American citizens were more open to talks with China than their elected leaders. Henry Kissinger had continued to publish in Foreign Affairs and was appointed by President Nixon to serve as National Security Adviser in 1969. In 1971, he embarked on a secret trip to Beijing to broach talks with Chinese leaders. Richard Nixon went to China in 1972, and diplomatic relations were completely normalized by President Carter's Secretary of State, another Council member, Cyrus Vance.
Vietnam created a rift within the organization. When Hamilton Fish Armstrong announced in 1970 that he would be leaving the helm of Foreign Affairs after 45 years, new chairman David Rockefeller approached a family friend, William Bundy, to take over the position. Anti-war advocates within the Council rose in protest against this appointment, claiming that Bundy's hawkish record in the State and Defense Departments and the CIA precluded him from taking over an independent journal. Some considered Bundy a war criminal for his prior actions.
In November 1979, while chairman of CFR, David Rockefeller became embroiled in an international incident when he and Henry Kissinger, along with John J. McCloy and Rockefeller aides, persuaded President Jimmy Carter through the State Department to admit the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, into the US for hospital treatment for lymphoma. This action directly precipitated what is known as the Iran hostage crisis and placed Rockefeller under intense media scrutiny (particularly from The New York Times) for the first time in his public life.
In his book White House Diary, Carter wrote of the affair, "April 9 [1979] David Rockefeller came in, apparently to induce me to let the shah come to the United States. Rockefeller, Kissinger, and Brzezinski seem to be adopting this as a joint project".
Current status
Membership
The CFR has two types of membership: life membership; and term membership, which lasts for 5 years and is available only to those between the ages of 30 and 36. Only U.S. citizens (native born or naturalized) and permanent residents who have applied for U.S. citizenship are eligible. A candidate for life membership must be nominated in writing by one Council member and seconded by a minimum of three others. Visiting fellows are prohibited from applying for membership until they have completed their fellowship tenure.
Corporate membership (250 in total) is divided into "Associates", "Affiliates", "President's Circle", and "Founders". All corporate executive members have opportunities to hear speakers, including foreign heads of state, chairmen and CEOs of multinational corporations, and U.S. officials and Congressmen. President and premium members are also entitled to attend small, private dinners or receptions with senior American officials and world leaders.
Funding and controversies
In 2019, it was criticized for accepting a donation from Len Blavatnik, a Ukrainian-born English billionaire with close links to Vladimir Putin. It was reported to be under fire from its own members and dozens of international affairs experts over its acceptance of a $12 million gift to fund an internship program. Fifty-five international relations scholars and Russia experts wrote a letter to the organization's board and CFR's president, Richard N. Haass. "It is our considered view that Blavatnik uses his 'philanthropy'—funds obtained by and with the consent of the Kremlin, at the expense of the state budget and the Russian people—at leading western academic and cultural institutions to advance his access to political circles. We regard this as another step in the longstanding effort of Mr. Blavatnik—who ... has close ties to the Kremlin and its kleptocratic network—to launder his image in the West."
Board members
Members of CFR's board of directors include:
David M. Rubenstein (Chairman) – Cofounder and Co-Chief Executive Officer, The Carlyle Group. Regent of the Smithsonian Institution, chairman of the board for Duke University, co-chair of the board at the Brookings Institution, and president of the Economic Club of Washington.
Blair Effron (Vice Chairman) – Cofounder, Centerview Partners.
Jami Miscik (Vice Chairman) – Chief Executive Officer and Vice Chairman, Kissinger Associates, Inc. Ms. Miscik served as the global head of sovereign risk at Lehman Brothers. She also serves as a senior advisor to Barclays Capital. She currently serves on the boards of EMC Corporation, In-Q-Tel and the American Ditchley Foundation, and is a member of the President's Intelligence Advisory Board. Before entering the private sector, she had a twenty-year career as an intelligence officer, including a stint as the Central Intelligence Agency's Deputy Director for Intelligence (2002–2005), and as the Director for Intelligence Programs at the National Security Council (1995–1996).
Richard N. Haass (President) – Former State Department director of policy planning and lead U.S. official on Afghanistan and Northern Ireland (2001–2003), and principal Middle East adviser to President George H.W. Bush (1989–1993).
Thad W. Allen − Chair, National Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing Advisory Board, NASA.
Nicholas F. Beim – Partner, Venrock.
Afsaneh Mashayekhi Beschloss − Founder and Chief Executive Officer, RockCreek.
Sylvia Mathews Burwell – President, American University. Former United States Secretary of Health and Human Services (2014–2017) under President Barack Obama.
Ashton B. Carter – Director, Belfer Center at the Harvard Kennedy School. Former United States Secretary of Defense (2015–2017) under President Barack Obama.
Kenneth I. Chenault − Chairman and Managing Director, General Catalyst.
Tony Coles – Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, Cerevel Therapeutics.
Cesar Conde – Chairman, NBCUniversal News Group.
Nathaniel Fick – General Manager, Elastic Security.
Laurence D. Fink – Chairman and Chief Executive Officer BlackRock.
Stephen C. Freidheim − Chief Investment Officer and Senior Managing Partner, Cyrus Capital Partners L.P.
Timothy Geithner – President, Warburg Pincus. Geithner served as 75th United States Secretary of the Treasury.
James P. Gorman – Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, Morgan Stanley.
Stephen Hadley – Principal, RiceHadley Gates. He was the 21st National Security Advisor.
Margaret (Peggy) Hamburg − Foreign Secretary, National Academy of Medicine.
Laurene Powell Jobs – Founder and President, Emerson Collective.
Jeh Charles Johnson − Partner, Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison LLP. Former Homeland Security Secretary (2013-2017) under President Barack Obama.
James Manyika – Senior Partner, McKinsey & Company, Chairman and Director, McKinsey Global Institute.
William H. McRaven – Professor of National Security, Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs, The University of Texas at Austin.
Janet Napolitano – Professor of Public Policy, Goldman School of Public Policy, University of California, Berkeley, former U.S. Attorney (1993–1997), Attorney General of Arizona (1999–2003), Governor of Arizona (2003–2009), and President Barack Obama's first Homeland Security Secretary (2009–2013).
Meghan L. O'Sullivan − Jeane Kirkpatrick Professor of the Practice of International Affairs, Harvard Kennedy School.
Deven J. Parekh – Managing Director, Insight Partners.
Charles Phillips − Managing Partner and Cofounder, Recognize.
Richard L. Plepler – Chief Executive Officer, Eden Productions.
Ruth Porat – Senior Vice President and Chief Financial Officer, Alphabet and Google.
L. Rafael Reif − President, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).
Frances Fragos Townsend − Executive Vice President, Corporate Affairs, Activision Blizzard.
Tracey T. Travis – Executive Vice President of Finance and Chief Financial Officer, Estée Lauder Companies.
Margaret Warner – Practitioner in Residence, School of International Service, American University, previously reported for PBS NewsHour and The Wall Street Journal.
Daniel Yergin – Vice Chairman, IHS Markit.
Fareed Zakaria – Host, CNN's Fareed Zakaria GPS. Editor at large of Time magazine, and regular columnist for The Washington Post. From 2000 to 2010, Zakaria was the editor of Newsweek International, and managing editor of Foreign Affairs from 1992–2000.
Foreign Affairs
The council publishes the international affairs magazine Foreign Affairs. It also establishes independent task forces, which bring together various experts to produce reports offering both findings and policy prescriptions on foreign policy topics. CFR has sponsored more than fifty reports, including the Independent Task Force on the Future of North America that published report No. 53, entitled Building a North American Community, in May 2005.
As a charity
The council received a three star rating (out of a possible four stars) from Charity Navigator in fiscal year 2016, as measured by their analysis of the council's financial data and "accountability and transparency".
Publications
Periodicals
Foreign Affairs (quarterly)
The United States in World Affairs (annual)
Political Handbook of the World (annual)
Books
Tobin, Harold J. & Bidwell, Percy W. Mobilizing Civilian America. New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1940.
Savord, Ruth. American Agencies Interested in International Affairs. Council on Foreign Relations, 1942.
Barnett, A. Doak. Communist China and Asia: Challenge To American Policy. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1960.
Bundy, William P. (ed.). Two Hundred Years of American Foreign Policy. New York University Press, 1977.
Clough, Michael. Free at Last? U.S. Policy Toward Africa and the End of the Cold War. New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1991.
Mandelbaum, Michael. The Rise of Nations in the Soviet Union: American Foreign Policy and the Disintegration of the USSR. New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1991.
Gottlieb, Gidon. Nation Against State: A New Approach to Ethnic Conflicts and the Decline of Sovereignty. New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1993.
See also
Members of the Council on Foreign Relations
References
Sources
Parmar, Inderjeet (2004). Think Tanks and Power in Foreign Policy: A Comparative Study of the Role and Influence of the Council on Foreign Relations and the Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1939−1945. London: Palgrave.
External links
Archived website at Library of Congress (2001-2018)
Membership Roster
Council on Foreign Relations Papers at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University
"Multimedia Crisis Guides"
"For Educators" – "Academic Outreach Initiative": Resources for educators and students; links to selected CFR publications
1921 establishments in the United States
Foreign policy and strategy think tanks in the United States
Non-profit organizations based in Washington, D.C.
Organizations based in New York City
Think tanks established in 1921
Realist think tanks
Rockefeller Foundation
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211373
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee%20for%20the%20Liberation%20of%20Iraq
|
Committee for the Liberation of Iraq
|
The Committee for the Liberation of Iraq (CLI) was a non-governmental organization which described itself as a "distinguished group of Americans" who wanted to "free Iraq from Saddam Hussein".
History
The organization was founded in 2002. In a news release announcing its formation, the group said its goal was to "promote regional peace, political freedom and international security through replacement of the Saddam Hussein regime with a democratic government that respects the rights of the Iraqi people and ceases to threaten the community of nations." It had close links to the Project for the New American Century (PNAC) and the American Enterprise Institute (AEI), important shapers of the Bush administration's foreign policy.
The Washington Post reported in November 2002 that "the organization is modeled on a successful lobbying campaign to expand the NATO alliance. Members include former secretary of state George P. Shultz, Sen. John McCain (R-Ariz.) and former senator Bob Kerrey (D-Neb.). ... While the Iraq committee is an independent entity, committee officers said they expect to work closely with the administration. They already have met with Hadley and Bush political adviser Karl Rove. Committee officers and a White House spokesman said Rice, Hadley and Cheney will soon meet with the group."
With the successful removal of Saddam Hussein, the committee appears to have disbanded, and its once-prominent website no longer exists. However, its offices still remain on Pennsylvania Avenue and 10th Street.
Personnel
Randy Scheunemann, CLI's executive director, former chief national-security adviser to U.S. Senator Trent Lott, has also worked for Donald Rumsfeld as a consultant on Iraq policy. While working for Lott in 1998, Scheunemann drafted the "Iraq Liberation Act" that authorized $98 million for the Iraqi National Congress.
Evan Bayh, U.S. Senator (honorary co-chair)
Bruce P. Jackson, chairman, is the former vice president of weapons contractor Lockheed Martin. He also chaired the Republican Party Platform's subcommittee for National Security and Foreign Policy when George W. Bush ran for president in 2000.
Jonathan Pallant, Exeter University
Advisory Board
Mahdi Al-Bassam, Iraq Liberation Action Committee
Barry Blechman, DFI International, Co-founder of the Henry L. Stimson Center
Eliot Cohen, Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies
Thomas A. Dine, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, former Director of the American Israel Public Affairs Committee pro-Israel lobbying group
General Wayne Downing, U.S. Army (retired), has been a lobbyist for the Iraqi National Congress
Rend al-Rahim Francke, Iraq Foundation
Newt Gingrich, former Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives
Lt. General Buster Glosson, U.S. Air Force (retired)
James P. Hoffa, International Brotherhood of Teamsters
Howell Jackson, Professor of Law, Harvard Law School
Robert Kerrey, former U.S. presidential candidate
Jeane J. Kirkpatrick, American Enterprise Institute
William Kristol, The Weekly Standard, chairman of the Project for the New American Century
Bernard Lewis, Princeton University
Joseph Lieberman, U.S. senator (honorary co-chair)
General Barry McCaffrey, U.S. Army (retired); former U.S. "drug czar"
John McCain, U.S. senator (honorary co-chair)
Will Marshall, Progressive Policy Institute
Richard Perle, former Assistant Secretary of Defense, co-founder of the Project for the New American Century
Danielle Pletka, American Enterprise Institute
Gary Schmitt, executive director of the Project for the New American Century
George P. Shultz, Secretary of State under Ronald Reagan
Richard Shultz, The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy
Steve Solarz, former congressman
Ruth Wedgwood, Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies
Leon Wieseltier, The New Republic
Chris Williams, Johnston and Associates
R. James Woolsey, former CIA Director
International advisory board
Carl Bildt, former Prime Minister of Sweden, and current Swedish minister for Foreign Affairs
References
External links
Committee for the Liberation of Iraq (archived website 2003)
Foreign policy political advocacy groups in the United States
Iraq–United States relations
Causes and prelude of the Iraq War
Organizations established in 2002
Organizations disestablished in 2003
|
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211376
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randy%20Scheunemann
|
Randy Scheunemann
|
Randall James "Randy" Scheunemann (born January 12, 1960) is an American neoconservative lobbyist. He is the President of the Committee for the Liberation of Iraq, which was created by the Project for the New American Century (PNAC), of which he is a board member. He was Trent Lott's National Security Aide and was an advisor to Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld on Iraq. He is a paid lobbyist for the country of Georgia and was 2008 presidential candidate John McCain's foreign policy aide.
Family
Scheunemann moved with his parents to the neighborhood of River Hills, in Burnsville, Minnesota in 1965.
Father: Paul Scheunemann, born 1926, died 2003. Mayor of Burnsville 1978-1982. Stricken with polio at age 15; used a wheelchair thereafter.
Mother: Gladys (Olson), born 1932, died 2000
Education and early career
Scheunemann attended public school in Burnsville, Minnesota: Sioux Trail elementary school (1966–1972), John Metcalf Junior High School (1972–1975) and finally Burnsville High School (1975–1978) from which he graduated in 1978.
Scheunemann has a degree from the University of Minnesota, and did graduate work at Tufts University. He moved to Capitol Hill in 1986, working in the office of Republican Senator Dave Durenberger. In 1993, he moved onto the staff of Republican Senator Bob Dole, as a foreign policy advisor. He left Dole's staff to work for Republican Senate Majority Leader Trent Lott.
Lobbyist
In 1998, Scheunemann went to work for the public relations firm Mercury Group.
During the 2002 and early 2003 campaign by the George W. Bush administration to generate public support for the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Scheunemann had a close association with Iraq exile Ahmad Chalabi.
Until May 2008, Scheunemann was co-owner of a two-person Washington, D.C. lobbying firm, Orion Strategies, LLC. The firm has lobbied on behalf of the Open Society Policy Center, the Caspian Alliance, Lockheed Martin, BP, and the National Rifle Association, among foreign governments such as Latvia, Taiwan, Croatia, and Macedonia.
He is a member of the board of directors of the International Republican Institute.
2008 McCain presidential advisor
While the foreign affairs advisor to Republican presidential candidate John McCain, Scheunemann was also a registered foreign agent (lobbyist) for the Republic of Georgia.
On April 17, 2008, McCain spoke on the phone with Georgia President Mikheil Saakashvili about the situation in South Ossetia and Abkhazia, two troubled provinces that are considered part of Georgia but have been de facto independent since 1990. That same day, McCain issued a public statement condemning Russia and expressing strong support for the Georgian position. Also on that same day, Georgia signed a new, $200,000 lobbying contract with Scheunemann's firm, Orion Strategies. Scheunemann remained with Orion Strategies until May 15, when the McCain campaign imposed an anti-lobbyist policy and he was required to separate himself from the company.
In mid-July 2008, The Sunday Times linked Scheunemann to Stephen Payne, a lobbyist covertly filmed as he discussed a lobbying contract and offered to arrange meetings with Vice President Dick Cheney, Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, and others, and recommended donations to the George W. Bush Presidential Library. Payne said Scheunemann had been "working with me on my payroll for five of the last eight years."
In late October 2008, Politico regarded Scheunemann as a potential pick as the Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs if John McCain defeats Democratic candidate Barak Obama.
A day after the election, a CNN article claimed that Scheunemann had been fired by the McCain campaign a week earlier for "trashing" campaign staff and "positioning himself with Palin at the expense of John McCain's campaign message."
A later article, however, stated that Scheunemann had not been fired, but that many of McCain's top staff wanted him fired and removed his access to his campaign email and Blackberry.
After 2008
Scheunemann has been focusing on his consulting firm called Orion Strategies, not to be confused with the strategic communications firm Orion Strategies that is based out of West Virginia.
See also
References
External links
"Obama's Trip Is a Campaign Prop" - interview with Scheuneman, July 21, 2008
1960 births
American lobbyists
International Republican Institute
Living people
Minnesota Republicans
People from Burnsville, Minnesota
People from Fairfax County, Virginia
University of Minnesota alumni
Virginia Republicans
|
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] |
211378
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeland%20Security%20Advisory%20Council
|
Homeland Security Advisory Council
|
The Homeland Security Advisory Council (HSAC) is part of the Executive Office of the President of the United States. It was created by an Executive Order on March 19, 2002.
Council Members
On March 26, 2021, Alejandro Mayorkas, on behalf of the Biden administration, dismissed all 32 members of the Council.
References
2002 establishments in the United States
Executive Office of the President of the United States
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postage%20stamps%20and%20postal%20history%20of%20Canada
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Postage stamps and postal history of Canada
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The postal and philatelic history of Canada concerns postage of the territories which have formed Canada. Before Canadian confederation, the colonies of British Columbia and Vancouver Island, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Newfoundland issued stamps in their own names. The postal history falls into four major periods: French control (1604–1763), British control (1763–1841), colonial government control (1841–1867), and Canada, since 1867.
Origins
At St. John's, Newfoundland on 3 August 1527 the first known letter was sent from North America. While in St. John's, John Rut had written a letter to King Henry VIII on his findings and his planned voyage. The letter in part reads as follows: "Pleasing your Honourable Grace to heare of your servant John Rut with all his company here in good health thanks be to God." The conclusion of the letter reads: "...the third day of August we entered into a good harbour called St. John and there we found Eleuen Saile of Normans and one Brittaine and two Portugal barks all a fishing and so we are ready to depart towards Cap de Bras that is 25 leagues as shortly as we have fished and so along the Coast until we may meete with our fellowe and so with all diligence that lyes in me toward parts to that Ilands that we are command at our departing and thus Jesu save and keepe you Honourable Grace and all your Honourable Reuer. In the Haven of St. John the third day of August written in hast 1527, by your servant John Rut to his uttermost of his power."
French control
The earliest reference to a postal service is of couriers in 1705, namely the "first courier" Pedro da Silva, carrying the Governor's dispatches by boat, along with (for a fee) private letters. A regular postal system was proposed in 1721, but would have been too expensive at the time, and was not created until 1734, when a road existed between Montreal and Quebec. Post houses were established at intervals of nine miles (14 km) or so, along with ferries across the rivers. Fees were ten sols between the two major cities, and five sols to Trois-Rivières, Quebec.
British control
The British captured Montreal in 1760, and shortly thereafter established a military postal system that handled letters between Quebec and Montreal, and from Montreal to Albany, New York.
The peace treaty of 1763 inaugurated the development of a civilian post. The Postmasters General of the American colonies, Benjamin Franklin and William Foxcroft surveyed a route between New York and Quebec, and contracted Quebec-Montreal mail to a Hugh Finlay, who provided a weekly service at 8d per letter. Mail to New York took two weeks and cost about a shilling. The service was quite successful, the Quebec-Montreal route increasing to twice a week, and eventually branching out to include Skenesborough.
The American Revolutionary War disrupted mail to New York, and also showed the weakness in not having an all-British route to Halifax, Nova Scotia. In 1787 a complicated route was set up through Riviere du Loup, Fredericton, Digby, and Annapolis. Upper Canada had its own semi-monthly route through Kingston, Niagara, Detroit, and as far as Michilimackinac on Lake Huron.
Finlay was succeeded in 1800 by George Heriot, then in 1816 Daniel Sutherland took over as Postmaster General. By this time dozens of post offices were being opened. 1816 was also when the postal services of Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia were separated, and not rejoined until 1868.
Postmarks had been in use since 1764, Finlay having been introduced to them by Franklin. The earliest markings were town names in a straight line. As is typical of the period, the postal service introduced ever-more-complicated systems of rates for mail, depending on destination and distance. In 1840 Rowland Hill proposed a uniform rate for Great Britain that could be prepaid by postage stamps, and on May 25, 1849, the Legislative Assembly of Canada resolved to adopt the use of stamps in the Province of Canada.
Colonial Governments
The colonies co-operated in the local control of the postal system after they assumed the administration from the General Post office in London in 1851, but each colony issued its own stamps until it joined the confederation. All colonies ceased issuing postage stamps after joining the confederation.
British Columbia
The colonies of British Columbia and Vancouver Island jointly issued stamps valid in both colonies in 1860. In 1865, each colony issued its own series. After the two colonies were merged in 1866, the united colony issued stamps from 1867 to 1869.
Province of Canada
The Province of Canada began issuing stamps on April 23, 1851. The first were in the values of 3d, 6d, and 12d. Designed by Sir Sandford Fleming, the Threepenny Beaver depicted a beaver in an oval frame, and is considered the first Canadian postage stamp. It was the first stamp to picture an animal and not a monarch. It was the first official postage stamp anywhere to picture an animal, though an unofficial postmaster's provisional from St. Louis, Missouri showed two bears in 1845. The 6d was a portrait of Prince Albert from a drawing by William Drummond Esq. The 12d (1 shilling) was reproduced from a full-length painting of Queen Victoria done by Alfred Edward Chalon. All three stamps were produced by the firm of Rawdon, Wright, Hatch and Edson of New York.
In April 1851, the rate for inland letters to Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Cape Breton and Prince Edward Island was 3d per ½ oz. Letters to the USA was 6d per ½ oz, excluding California and Oregon, which was 9d per ½ oz. The first issues were made on laid paper, which did not stick as well to envelopes; thus in 1852 the printers switched to wove paper. All of these early stamps were imperforate issues. These earliest issues on laid paper are quite rare; a grand total of only 1,450 copies of the 12d were ever issued. Copies today, depending on their condition, may sell for US$50,000 or more.
Between 1852 and 1857, the postal service came out with new values: ½d, 7½d, and 10d, while removing the 12d. The first two depicting Victoria, and the 10d featuring a portrait of Jacques Cartier. The 7½d was unusual in that it was also denominated "6 Pence Sterling". In 1858 the first perforated stamps were issued in ½d, 3d, and 6d values, depicting Queen Victoria, a beaver and HRH Prince Albert.
In 1859 the province standardized on a single decimal monetary system, which also meant new stamps would be needed. Between 1859 and 1864, the American Bank Note Company, New York produced seven new stamps in: 1¢, 2¢, 5¢, (two) 10¢, 12½¢, and 17¢ values. In general, existing designs were used. These were the last stamps produced for the Province of Canada.
New Brunswick
New Brunswick first issued stamps in 1851; they were imperforate and denominated in pence. They consisted of a 3d red, 6d olive yellow, 1/- bright red violet and a 1/- dull violet issues, all on bluish paper. All four stamps were diamond-shaped and bore the New Brunswick coat of arms. In 1860, six new stamps, denominated in cents, were issued. The 1¢ depicted a steam locomotive, the 2¢, 5¢, and 10¢ values showed a young Queen Victoria, while the 12½¢ depicted a steamship and the 17¢ showed the Prince of Wales in Highland regalia.
Newfoundland
The colony and later the dominion of Newfoundland had a 90-year history of issuing postage stamps. The first issues were in 1857. The last issue was in 1947, two years before Newfoundland joined the confederation. Newfoundland stamps remain valid for mail posted anywhere in Canada.
Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia's first issue was from 1851 to 1857, in pence. The second issue, in cents, was from 1861 to 1863.
Prince Edward Island
Prince Edward Island issued stamps in pence from 1862 to 1865, and a second series from 1868 to 1870. The third series, in cents, was issued in 1872.
Canada
Victorian period
The Dominion came into existence July 1, 1867, assembled from colonies each of which had their own stamps, so the new government issued a new series of stamps on April 1, 1868, superseding all previous issues. These featured a profile of Queen Victoria, based on an engraving by Charles Henry Jeens and became known to philatelists as the "Large Queens". They ranged in value from ½¢ to 15¢. While mostly printed on wove paper, a few of the 1¢, 2¢, and 3¢ values were also printed on laid paper; only three examples of the Canada 2c Large Queen on laid paper are known, making it Canada's rarest stamp.
Except for the 15c value which was in use as late as 1897, the Large Queens had a relatively short life, being replaced in 1870 by the "Small Queens", smaller stamps of the same basic design, adopted to be able to produce more stamps more quickly. The Small Queens came in a number of printings between 1870 and 1897. In 1893 20¢ and 50¢ stamps came out with a 3/4 portrait of Victoria.
When Prince Edward Island became a Canadian province in 1873, it sold off all its remaining pre-Canadian stamps at discounted prices, flooding the market with over 1.5 million cheap stamps. Since these stamps had next to no value, forgers had no compelling reason to make copies. Today, since forged versions of Prince Edward Island stamps are harder to find than the original, the forgeries are more valuable. Library and Archives Canada holds a forged, lithographed version of a stamp from 1870 that features an engraving of Queen Victoria.
In 1897, the American Bank Note Company secured the contract to print stamps for Canada, which lasted until 1923. The company's first job was to print a series for the Diamond Jubilee celebrating the 60th year of Queen Victoria and the 30th year of confederation, the first commemorative stamps of Canada. The design was a side-by-side of the Chalon vignette of the young Victoria and the likeness photographed by Alexander Bassano in 1887. The series included 16 denominations ranging from ½¢ to five dollars, a princely sum in those days, and more aimed at collectors than mailers. Only 9,937 of the $4 value were ever sold, and unsurprisingly they are rare and expensive today.
1897 also saw the Maple Leaf Issue, regular stamps with the central design based on a Jubilee portrait for Victoria, with maple leaves in each corner. It was in use for only a few months before being replaced by a modified design that replaced the lower leaves with numerals of value, motivated by the French-speaking population who found it difficult to read the textual denomination on the original design. (The Universal Postal Union would require the use of Arabic numerals in 1907.)
In 1898, a first step towards Imperial Penny Postage happened when a number of Dominions agreed on a uniform rate of 1d (2¢ in Canada). Canada issued an interesting stamp depicting a map of the entire world, with British possessions marked in red, inscribed "XMAS 1898" (the rate took effect on Christmas Day), and "WE HOLD A VASTER EMPIRE THAN HAS BEEN" underneath, a line extracted from "A Song of Empire" composed by Sir Lewis Morris in 1887. The stamp was notable as the first multi-colour stamp of Canada, and also for the tremendous variability of the red highlighting, resulting in amusing geographical incongruities.
Edward VII
Seven stamps bearing Edward VII based upon his coronation painting were issued between 1903 and 1908. In addition, a commemorative tricentennial of Quebec stamp was issued in 1908 featuring Edward VII and Queen Alexandra.
George V
King George V was depicted in 1911 as Admiral of the Fleet in a widely admired design that continued in use until 1928.
1928 saw the "Scroll Issue", so-called because "CANADA" appeared in a scroll across the top. This was the first issue to be bilingual. The pictorials are among the finest stamps ever produced, especially the 50¢ value Bluenose stamp portraying the legendary schooner Bluenose.
The "Arch Issue" of 1930 was similarly elegant. The last issue for George V, in 1935, was called the "Dated Die Issue" because the year appeared in very small print in the design.
Edward VIII
Upon the accession of King Edward VII, the basic maple leaf was retained but updated with a portrait of Edward wearing the ermine Robes of State. Canada's first experiments with coil stamps occurred during this period. However, because it was so short, no stamps were issued to commemorate the reign of Edward VIII.
George VI
The dated die concept was used in 1937 as well, in the stamps issued for newly crowned King George VI. A group of three stamps in May 1939 marked a royal visit.
Soon after the Commonwealth was plunged into war; the War issue of 1942 highlighted Canada's contributions. While the low values showed the King wearing the uniforms of the different services, the higher values showed Canada's role in growing food and the production of munitions, including a Ram tank, a corvette, and a destroyer.
In 1946, the "Peace issue" showed scenes and economic activities around the country. From the late 1940s on, the issuance of commemoratives became a regular event, with two in 1947, but gradually increasing. The last regular stamps of George VI came out in 1951.
Elizabeth II
The first definitive issue for Elizabeth II's reign was based on a portrait by Yusuf Karsh, and was issued on a plain background in five values on May 1 1953.
The Karsh series was replaced in the following year by a new design based on the portrait by Dorothy Wilding that was also used in the United Kingdom. The 5¢ value was issued on April 1 with the introduction of the new domestic first class letter rate. Five more values in this series were introduced on June 10. With this series the post office began experimenting with fluorescence on stamps, resulting in a number of challenging varieties over the life of this and the next two series.
The Wilding series was replaced by the "Cameo" series, a horizontal design by Ernst Roch. The series began with the 5¢ value on 10 March 1962. The 1¢ and 4¢ values were released on 2 April 1963, and the 2¢ and 3¢ values followed on May 2.
From the 1960s on, Canadian stamp policies have favoured issuing a relatively large number of single commemoratives valued at the prevailing first-class rate. In its commemorative issues Canada has made extensive use of works by well-known artists and until very recently has not used images of living people on its stamps.
Definitive series have tended to be combinations of design types, each applying to a range of values. For instance, the definitives of the late 1980s featured native wildlife for values up to 80 cents, and Canadian architecture for the dollar values, while those of the early 1990s used berries for the lowest values, and fruit trees for the higher values, and continuing with architecture for the highest values.
In December 2003, Canada Post issued a new 49 cent definitive stamp bearing the image of Queen Elizabeth II using a photograph taken by rock star Bryan Adams. A similar redenominated stamp was issued in 2005 as a 50 cent denomination, and a 51 cent denomination in 2006 (see Queen Elizabeth II definitive stamp (Canada)).
See also
Canadian definitive postage stamps
History of Canada
List of people on stamps of Canada
People on stamps of Canadian provinces
Revenue stamps of Canada
References and sources
References
Sources
Stanley Gibbons: various catalogues.
Encyclopaedia of Postal Authorities
Rossiter, Stuart & John Flower. The Stamp Atlas. London: Macdonald, 1986.
Winthrop Smillie Boggs. (1945, reprinted 1974) The Postage Stamps and Postal History of Canada. Lawrence, Mass: Quarterman Publications.
Detecting the Truth: Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery, a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada
Dwight, Robin Harris. (1998) 1952-53 Karsh, 1954-62 Wilding, 1962-66 Cameo definitives.
Further reading
BNA Topics from the British North America Philatelic Society 1944 to 2005 online journals.
Hillson, John. (1989) Small Queens of Canada. 2nd Revised edition. London: Christie's-Robson Lowe.
Holmes' specialized philatelic catalogue of Canada and British North America published from 1935 to 1968.
Jarrett, Fred. Stamps of British North America.
Jarrett, Fred. (1929) Standard British North America Catalogue. Toronto.
Lowe, Robson. (1973) The Encyclopedia of British Empire Postage Stamps 1639-1952; Vol V North America. London: Robson Lowe.
Prest, Stephen F. (2008) A Study of the Plates, Papers & Gums of the 1937 1¢, 2¢ & 3¢ Mufti Issues of Canada.
Publications from: The Vincent Graves Greene Philatelic Research Foundation.
External links
Canadian stamps values and prices.
The British North American Philatelic Society.
The Canadian Philatelic Society of Great Britain.
The Canadian Philatelist Searchable Database.
The Canadian Postal System in the Canadian Encyclopedia.
The Large Queen Issue of Canada.
The Canadian Stamps Gallery.
The Royal Philatelic Society of Canada (RPSC).
The Stamps of Canada, by Bertram Poole, c. 1914.
Philately of Canada
Postal history of Canada
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Lugar
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Richard Lugar
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Richard Green Lugar (April 4, 1932 – April 28, 2019) was an American politician who served as a United States Senator from Indiana from 1977 to 2013. He was a member of the Republican Party.
Born in Indianapolis, Lugar graduated from Denison University and the University of Oxford. He served on the Indianapolis Board of School Commissioners from 1964 to 1967 before he was elected to two terms as mayor of Indianapolis, serving from 1968 to 1976. During his tenure as mayor, Lugar served as the president of the National League of Cities in 1971 and gave the keynote address at the 1972 Republican National Convention.
In 1974, Lugar ran his first campaign for the U.S. Senate. In the year's senate elections he lost to incumbent Democratic senator Birch Bayh. He ran again in 1976, defeating Democratic incumbent Vance Hartke. Lugar was reelected in 1982, 1988, 1994, 2000, and 2006. In 2012, Lugar was defeated by Indiana State Treasurer Richard Mourdock in the Republican primary, ending his 36-year tenure in the U.S. Senate. Lugar ran for the Republican nomination for President of the United States in the 1996 primaries but lack of success led to his withdrawal early in the campaign.
During Lugar's tenure, he served as Chairman of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations from 1985 to 1987 and from 2003 to 2007, serving as the ranking member of the committee from 2007 until his departure in 2013. Lugar also twice served as Chairman of the Senate Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry, from 1995 to 2001 and briefly again in part of 2001. Much of Lugar's work in the Senate was toward the dismantling of nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons around the world, co-sponsoring his most notable piece of legislation with Georgia Democrat Sam Nunn: the Nunn–Lugar Act.
Following his service in the Senate, Lugar created a nonprofit organization which specializes in the policy areas he pursued while in office.
Early life, education, and early career
Richard Lugar was born on April 4, 1932, in Indianapolis, Indiana, the son of Bertha ( Green) and Marvin Lugar. He was of part German descent. Lugar attended Indianapolis Public Schools. During this time he attained the rank of Eagle Scout, the Boy Scouts' highest. Later, he became a recipient of the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award from the Boy Scouts of America. He graduated first in his class at Shortridge High School in 1950 and from Denison University in 1954, where he was a member of Beta Theta Pi. He went on to attend Pembroke College, Oxford, England, as a Rhodes Scholar and received a second bachelor's degree and a master's degree in 1956. At Oxford, Lugar was a member of the Oxford University men's basketball team that won the 1955 A.B.B.A. National Championship. He served in the United States Navy from 1956 to 1960; one of his assignments was as an intelligence briefer for Admiral Arleigh Burke. He achieved the rank of Lieutenant, Junior Grade.
Lugar managed his family's Marion County corn, soybean and tree farm. Before entering public life, he helped his brother Tom manage the family's food machinery manufacturing business in Indianapolis.
Indianapolis politics and mayorship
Lugar served on the Indianapolis Board of School Commissioners from 1964 to 1967. He was elected mayor of Indianapolis in 1967, at the age of 35, defeating incumbent Democrat John J. Barton, and began serving the first of two mayoral terms in 1968. (A political cartoon of the time questioned how an Eagle Scout could survive in the world of politics.) He was closely associated with the adoption of Unigov in 1970, which unified the governments of Indianapolis and Marion County. The Unigov plan helped trigger Indianapolis's economic growth and earned Lugar the post of president of the National League of Cities in 1971. In 1972, Lugar was the keynote speaker at the Republican National Convention. During this time he became known as "Richard Nixon's favorite mayor", owing to his support for devolving federal powers to local communities. When Nixon visited Indianapolis in February 1970, he stated during a speech that he would meet with Lugar and other mayors ahead of a conference with Governors on environmental issues. On March 14, 1974, Lugar dismissed Police Chief Winston L. Churchill following allegations of widespread corruption in the Indianapolis Police Department. Lugar stated the dismissal came following meetings with dozens of policemen and after having had the counsel of a seven member committee of citizens to aid in the investigation.
U.S. Senate
Elections
Lugar first ran for the U.S. Senate in the 1974 election and lost to incumbent Democratic U.S. Senator Birch Bayh (51–46%). Two years later, he ran against Indiana's other U.S. senator, Democratic Senator Vance Hartke, defeating him in a massive landslide, 59%–40%.
In 1982, he defeated Democratic U.S. Congressman Floyd Fithian (54–46%) to win a second term, and six years later Lugar won reelection to a third term, defeating Democrat Jack Wickes (68–32%). In 1994, Lugar won a fourth term, defeating Democratic former U.S. Congressman Jim Jontz (67–31%). He became the first U.S. senator from Indiana elected to a fourth term.
Lugar went on to serve a total of six terms in the Senate, defeating Democrat David Johnson (67–32%) in 2000 and defeating Libertarian Steve Osborn (87–13%) in 2006 in a contest in which the Democratic Party did not field a candidate. His was the highest-percentage win of the 2006 Senate elections despite a Democratic takeover of Washington.
In 2012, Lugar ran for reelection to a seventh term. Due to Lugar's unpopularity among some Tea Party voters because of his positions regarding illegal immigration, voting to confirm then-U.S. Supreme Court nominees Sonia Sotomayor and Elena Kagan, the DREAM Act, the New START Treaty, some gun control bills, and congressional earmarks, he was challenged by Tea Party-backed State Treasurer Richard Mourdock in a Republican primary. Mourdock defeated Lugar, 61–39%, and went on to lose the general election to Democratic Rep. Joe Donnelly. Lugar carried only two counties, Boone and Marion. He was the first six-term U.S. senator to lose his seat in a primary election since Kenneth McKellar in 1952.
Tenure
1970s
Future Governor of Indiana Mitch Daniels served as Lugar's chief of staff from 1977 to 1982. During the 1980 Republican National Convention, Lugar was rumored as a potential Vice Presidential nominee for Presidential nominee Ronald Reagan.
In his first months, Lugar backed legislation prompting the Senate to adopt a stringent code of ethics intended to assist with the restoration of public confidence in Congress.
On June 30, 1978, the Senate voted to approve granting New York City long term federal loan guarantees of $1.5 billion that the city had cited as essential to its prevention of bankruptcy. The measure was a compromise proposal by Lugar and Wisconsin Senator William Proxmire. Later that day, during a news conference, Senator Jacob K. Javits thanked Lugar and Proxmire.
1980s
Lugar attended the January 7, 1980 signing ceremony of the Chrysler Corporation Loan Guarantee Act of 1979 in the Cabinet Room. Lugar addressed President Jimmy Carter during the ceremony by thanking him for signing what Lugar called "very humane and compassionate legislation" that was important for the United States.
In the early months of the Reagan administration, Lugar supported its program to eliminate all restrictions on planting and marketing of peanuts. An April 30, 1981 vote by members of the Senate Agriculture Committee continued the restrictions.
On May 11, 1981, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee voted in favor of implementing restrictions on American aid to El Salvador requiring President Reagan to verify the Salvadorian government was using the funds to implement human rights along with political and economic changes. The measure was opposed by Lugar who voted against the entirety of its conditions.
Lugar was one of four senators on the Senate Foreign Relations Committee to vote against the Senate rejecting the nomination of Ernest W. Lefever for Assistant Secretary of State for Human Rights on June 5, 1981.
On October 15, 1981, Lugar voted against the recommendation of the disapproval toward the Reagan administration's intent to sell Awacs radar surveillance planes and other air-combat equipment to Saudi Arabia.
On December 2, 1981, Lugar voted in favor of an amendment to President Reagan's MX missiles proposal that would divert the silo system by $334 million as well as earmark further research for other methods that would allow giant missiles to be based. The vote was seen as a rebuff of the Reagan administration.
In 1982, Lugar cosponsored a housing bill that would provide middle-class purchasers of new homes with mortgage subsidies, which he referred to as "an emergency jobs program" that would provide 700,000 Americans with jobs in the housing and related industries while costing $5 billion over the following five years. The cancellation of an April meeting of the Senate Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs Committee to discuss how far-reaching the bill should be was seen as crippling to its chances of implementation.
On December 23, 1982, Lugar voted in favor of a 5 cent a gallon increase on gasoline taxes across the U.S. imposed to aid the financing of highway repairs and mass transit. The bill passed on the last day of the 97th United States Congress.
On July 13, 1983, Lugar voted in favor of an authorization to appropriate $130 million toward the development of nerve gas bombs and shells.
Lugar led the February 2, 1984 hearing of William A. Wilson, the nominee of President Reagan for United States Ambassador to the Holy See.
In March 1984, Lugar voted in favor of a constitutional amendment authorizing periods in public school for silent prayer, and President Reagan's unsuccessful proposal for a constitutional amendment permitting organized school prayer in public schools.
Lugar voted against the May 1984 budget freeze meant to reduce the budget deficit.
United States Secretary of Transportation Elizabeth Dole announced President Reagan's support for legislation that would force states to raise the minimum drinking age to 21 during a news conference on June 13, 1984. Lugar was in attended the news conference and stated that Dole and himself had convinced President Reagan to change his mind through "the work of groups like MADD (Mothers Against Drunk Driving) and the concern of hundreds of high school organizations called SADD (Students Against Driving Drunk)". Lugar noted his commitment to working on bipartisan support for the legislation. The same month, Lugar voted in favor of legislation restricting federal highway funds for states that did not raise the minimum age for drinking to 21.
On May 9, 1986, Lugar held a news conference designed to coincide with the beginning of the Manila visit by Secretary of State George P. Shultz, during which he criticized the Reagan administration for what he perceived as a lack of support for the Philippine government under the rule of President of the Philippines Corazon Aquino and accused former Philippines President Ferdinand E. Marcos of using his Hawaii haven as an area to make hundreds of telephone calls to former allies still in Manila for the purpose of making his potential return to power of active speculation. The fiscal year of 1986 included the United States providing 236 million to the Philippines. President Reagan also sought an additional 100 million for economic aid and 50 million for military aid. During a June 3 panel on the subject of providing aid for Manila, Lugar stated his support for the United States providing another 100 million to the government of President Aquino and called on the chamber to recognize Aquino's government "is threatened not only by a communist insurgency but also by a possible challenge from the political right".
In November 1986, amid the Iran–Contra affair, Lugar stated that President Reagan did not understand the law requiring a president to inform Congress in a timely fashion over operations and that Reagan's rhetoric on the third party arm shipments had been confusing. He also stressed that the president had not been damaged in his credibility. Around this time, Lugar conferred with John Poindexter, a key figure in the scandal. After the 1987 State of the Union Address, Lugar stated that he believed President Reagan had taken responsibility for the Iran–Contra affair by acknowledging that the deal had been unsuccessful.
The 1986 midterm election featured 22 of the 53 Senate Republicans up for reelection. In late 1984, Lugar predicted that "a number of our people are not going to win in '86" unless there was economic growth. The Republicans lost eight seats that election cycle. Shortly after the midterms, on November 13, it was disclosed that Senator Jesse Helms would challenge Lugar for ranking Republican on the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Helms telling Lugar in a letter that the challenge would not have occurred had the Republicans maintained a majority in the Senate as "the ranking minority post is a different matter". On January 6, 1987, Republican members of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee voted unanimously to retain Lugar as their ranking member. After the results, Lugar stated that he saw his win as a vote of confidence in his leadership.
In January 1988, the Senate began work on the ratification of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty. Later that month, Lugar met with German Minister for Foreign Affairs Hans-Dietrich Genscher to discuss the INF Treaty, Lugar stating afterward that he was confident the treaty would eventually be ratified despite developments in the process. Lugar believed technical errors existed within the treaty, aligning him with Senate critics of the measure, but differed from them on when they should be improved. Lugar voted in favor of the treaty in May when it passed overwhelmingly in the Senate on May 27.
Lugar attended the July 11, 1988, White House meeting on the subject of legislation to provide financial relief to farmers affected by the showers in the Midwestern and Southern United States, Lugar during which he indicated that there was willingness on the part of his political party to support the measure. On August 11, 1988, President Reagan signed the Disaster Assistance Act of 1988 into law. During the ceremony, President Reagan noted Lugar as one of the members of Congress "who've done so much to make this possible".
After Vice President George H. W. Bush selected Lugar's fellow Indiana senator Dan Quayle for his running mate in the 1988 Presidential election, Lugar spoke with Bush by telephone, and the presidential candidate explained his pick of Quayle: "The Vice President told me he wanted somebody of a distinctly different generation. It was obvious he felt that was more important than some other considerations. I certainly understand that." In a September 28, 1988 news conference, Democratic vice-presidential nominee Lloyd Bentsen cited Lugar as one of three "heavyweight" Republican senators who were more qualified for the vice presidential nomination than Quayle. On December 12, 1988, Lugar attended Vice President-elect Quayle's first news conference following the election, during which Quayle stated the Bush administration would be seeking his aid along with that of Dan Coats in pushing their agenda through Congress.
1990s
In February 1990, Lugar announced that the congressional group President Bush named to observe Nicaragua elections the following month was disbanded following their being denied visas by the Nicaraguan government.
In 1990, after President Bush nominated James E. Cason to be Assistant Secretary for Natural Resources and Environment, the latter received scrutiny for his record during the Reagan administration. During a September hearing, Lugar "asked a series of probing questions on the spotted owl", and questioned him during a hearing the following month regarding his record at the Interior Department. On October 19, 1990, the Senate Agriculture Committee voted to recommend Cason for Assistant Agriculture Secretary.
on August 21, 1990, Lugar told reporters that the move to a marketing economy on the part of Vietnam had created the possibility for American investment provided that differences between Washington and Hanoi be resolved.
On October 2, 1990, Lugar voted in favor of the nomination of David Souter for Associate Justice on the United States Supreme Court.
In November 1990, amid President Bush's handling of the Persian Gulf crisis, Lugar observed that President Bush should "call back the Congress and get an affirmative vote to authorize our staying power over there so that the world knows that we're going to back up whatever the President is doing."
In June 1991, Lugar joined fellow Senators William Cohen and John Warner in revealing their dissent with space-based weapons, a central component of the Bush administration's version of the Strategic Defense Initiative, in a letter and speeches. The three offered an alternative that "would defer the deployment of 1,000 missile-destroying rockets in space, while calling for greater levels of ground-based missile defenses".
On November 25, 1991, the Senate voted in favor of approving the Bush administration-backed package to transfer $500 million of the Pentagon budget to assist with dismantling Soviet nuclear weapons. In support of the measure, Lugar said, "We can either seize the opportunity for cooperative efforts in this field now or witness a quantum leap in the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction in the next few years."
During the 1992 election cycle, Lugar stated President Bush needed to signal that his reelection campaign was "a new campaign with a new game plan and a new vigor" and the best results would be formed through a message on "growth and jobs".
In February 1993, after Secretary of State Warren Christopher declared that the United States would only use military power in seeking a settlement as it pertained to Bosnia, Lugar's spokesman stated that during a telephone conversation between Christopher and Lugar, the secretary of state said "that the United States could contribute as many as 5,000 to 10,000 American troops to a 40,000-member NATO force that would go to Bosnia under United Nations auspices after a new peace accord is concluded". Lugar attended the April 28, 1993 meeting between President Clinton and lawmakers over American involvement in Bosnia. Following its conclusion, Lugar stated the president's views: "He had a positive feeling towards lifting the embargo—that justice has to be served in that respect. But the President was much less certain about heading down the trail of air strikes." Weeks later, on May 11, Lugar met with President Clinton on the subject of Bosnia, Lugar stating afterward that President Clinton had developed "a plan that he has been pushing steadily" and was in favor of containing the Bosnia disaster. Lugar was of the view that the United States wanted a full partnership with Europeans that could only arise from "recognition on their side that our men and women in the armed forces are taking risks right now".
On November 20, 1993, Lugar voted in favor of the North American Free Trade Agreement. The trade agreement linked the United States, Canada, and Mexico into a single free trade zone, and was signed into law on December 8 by President Clinton.
In December 1994, President Clinton announced the nomination of Dan Glickman for Secretary of Agriculture. During the ceremony, Glickman stated that agriculture should not be immune to change and cited Lugar as an official "asking good questions about the next farm bill". During a March 1995 Senate hearing, Lugar indicated his distaste with Glickman not supporting the latest accord under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade the previous November. Lugar afterward spoke positively of Glickman.
On August 3, 1997, Lugar stated his support for convening a hearing for William Weld for United States Ambassador to Mexico and overlook Senator Jesse Helms, noting that a Senate chairman "cannot be dictatorial, ultimately, when a majority of the committee, a majority of the Senate, a majority of the American people, want action".
On February 12, 1999, Lugar voted in favor of both articles of impeachment against President Clinton, calling his relationship with White House intern Monica Lewinsky "shameless, reckless and indefensible", and criticizing him for creating a negative environment.
In October 1999, Lugar voted against the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty. The treaty was designed to ban underground nuclear testing and was the first major international security pact to be defeated in the Senate since the Treaty of Versailles.
2000–2008
During the August recess of 2005, Lugar and then-freshman Senator Barack Obama of neighboring Illinois visited Russia, Azerbaijan, and Ukraine to inspect nuclear facilities there. He was detained for three hours at an airport in the city of Perm, near the Ural Mountains, where they were scheduled to depart for a meeting with the President and the Speaker of the House of Ukraine. He was released after a brief dialogue between U.S. and Russian officials and the Russians later apologized for the incident. In January 2007, President Bush signed into law the Lugar–Obama Proliferation and Threat Reduction Initiative, which furthered Lugar's work with Senator Sam Nunn in deactivating weapons in the former Soviet Union. The Lugar–Obama program focuses on terrorists and their use of multiple types of weapons. In April 2006, Time magazine selected Lugar as one of America's 10 Best Senators.Although Lugar's party was then in the minority in the Senate, he had good relationships with President Obama and Vice President Joe Biden. Lugar was named an honorary co-chairman of their inauguration. On the day of the final 2008 presidential debate, Lugar gave a speech at the National Defense University praising Obama's foreign policy approach and warning against the isolationist, reactive policies espoused by John McCain. At that debate, Obama also listed Lugar as among the individuals "who have shaped my ideas and who will be surrounding me in the White House". There were rumors that either Obama or McCain would select Lugar to be Secretary of State, but that he preferred to keep his Senate seat.
Obama administration
On January 13, 2009, Lugar participated in the confirmation hearing for Secretary of State nominee Hillary Clinton, raising questions on the potential conflict of interest between her husband Bill's charitable activities and her new position. Lugar offered praise to Clinton as "the epitome of a big leaguer". Lugar's spokesman Andy Fisher said that before the hearing, Lugar offered Clinton's staff four ways in which to increase the transparency of former President Clinton's fundraising.
On March 18, 2009, Lugar cast his 12,000th Senate vote, putting him in 13th place for most votes. During his 32 years as a Senator, he had a 98% attendance record.
Committee assignments
Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry
Committee on Foreign Relations
1996 presidential campaign
Lugar ran for the Republican nomination for President in 1996. He declared his candidacy on April 19, 1995 in Indianapolis. However, the announcement was largely overshadowed by the Oklahoma City bombing, an event that was the largest act of domestic terrorism on U.S. soil up to that time. The primaries and caucuses began in January 1996. He ran on a campaign slogan of "nuclear security and fiscal sanity", but his campaign failed to gain traction.
He came in 7th in the Iowa caucuses on February 12 with 4%, and 4th in the New Hampshire primary on February 20 with 5%. In the Delaware primary on February 24 he also won 5%, and in the Arizona and North Dakota primaries on February 27 he came in last with 1%. He was on the ballot in seven of the nine contests on Super Tuesday on March 5, winning 1% in Colorado, Connecticut, and Maryland, 2% in Massachusetts, 3% in Maine and Rhode Island and 14% in Vermont, which was the best result he managed, though he still only came in 4th. He quit the race the next day, March 6. Lugar's fellow senator, and eventual Republican nominee, Bob Dole, had won all nine contests and Lugar endorsed him.
He remained on the ballot in a number of states, winning 2% of the vote in Florida, then 1% each in Oregon, Illinois, Ohio, and California, 5% in Pennsylvania and 1% in North Carolina and West Virginia. He finished sixth overall, with 127,111 votes, or 0.83%, and failed to win any contests or delegates. Due to an unfavorable political climate that penalized bipartisan outcomes, David Corn of Mother Jones called his presidential campaign "ludicrous".
Post-Senate career
On February 15, 2018, Lugar made a joint appearance with Lee H. Hamilton at DePauw University for the program "Can We Talk?: Restoring Civility in Public and Political Discourse in the U.S. and Abroad".
The Lugar Center
Following his service in the Senate, Lugar established The Lugar Center, a nonprofit public policy institution located in Washington, D.C.
Under the leadership of Lugar, the Lugar Center seeks to become a prominent voice in many of the global issues that defined the Senator's work in Congress. There are four "focus areas": Global Food Security, WMD Nonproliferation, Foreign Aid Effectiveness, and Bipartisan Governance. Since its inception in January 2013, the Lugar Center has served as a source of education and awareness on these pertinent issues.
The Center's initiatives include the following: working in conjunction with the McCourt School of Public Policy at Georgetown University to establish the Bipartisan Index, partnering with the Arms Control Association to establish the Bipartisan Nuclear and WMD Policy Dialogue Project, and compiling a comprehensive selection of bibliographical resources for researchers and policymakers interested in global food security. In addition, the Lugar Diplomacy Series brings together American policy- and opinion-makers and the Washington diplomatic community. Guests have included Elena Kagan, David Petraeus, and Howard Buffett.
In addition, the Lugar Center was awarded a grant by the Delegation of the European Union to conduct policy research regarding transatlantic cooperation. The grant permitted the Center to partner with the German Marshall Fund of the United States to work on bolstering trans-Atlantic energy security and economic cooperation, particularly in relation to the Trans-Atlantic Trade and Investment Partnership.
Political positions
Abortion
Lugar's 2007 rating from NARAL was 40%. His 2007–2008 rating from the National Right to Life Committee was 85%.
Agricultural reform
As Chairman of the Agriculture Committee, Lugar built bipartisan support for 1996 federal farm program reforms, ending 1930s-era federal production controls. He worked to initiate a biofuels research program to help increase U.S. utilization of ethanol and combustion fuels, and led initiatives to streamline the U.S. Department of Agriculture, reform the food stamp program, and preserve the federal school lunch program.
Bipartisan governance
Although Republican, Lugar often worked across the aisle, working alongside Democrats on many initiatives. For this reason, he commonly broke with traditional Republican lines, especially on non-domestic issues. Lugar's most well-known piece of legislation, the Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction Agreement, was co-sponsored with Sam Nunn, a Democratic Senator from Georgia. Lugar's bipartisan efforts earned him 24th place of 227 Senators' lifetime scores from 1993–2014 according to the Lugar Bipartisan Index, with a score of .668. Lugar continued to support bipartisan solutions and initiatives as one of the policy focus areas of The Lugar Center.
Climate change
Lugar was a firm believer in pragmatic, scientific solutions to climate change issues. In 2006, he co-sponsored Senate Resolution 312 with then-Senator Joe Biden, which encouraged American participation in international negotiations regarding mitigation agreements. Until his death, he continued to support multilateral initiatives for the deployment of innovative clean technology around the world.
Cuba
Lugar described U.S. sanctions on Cuba as a failed policy and wrote to President Obama that "additional measures are needed...to recast a policy that has not only failed to promote human rights and democracy, but also undermines our broader security and political interests". He supported the Freedom to Travel to Cuba Act (S.428), which would lift the restrictions on U.S. citizens visiting Cuba in place since the early 1960s.
Economy
Lugar took a conservative approach to economics. He voted for the Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001. He voted against the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009.
Gun control
Lugar was a supporter of gun control and backed a number of gun legislations and weapons bans. He had an F rating from the National Rifle Association of America. He had an F rating from Gun Owners of America and a 53% positive rating from the Brady Campaign to Prevent Handgun Violence.
Health care reform
Lugar opposed President Barack Obama's health reform legislation, voted against the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act in December 2009, and voted against the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010.
Immigration
Lugar had a generally liberal stance on immigration, supporting the DREAM Act during the Obama administration and the McCain–Kennedy Comprehensive Immigration Reform bill under the Bush administration, both of which died in Congress. Both were described by critics as "amnesty".
Iraq War
On June 25, 2007, Lugar, who had been "a reliable vote for President Bush on the war", said that "Bush's Iraq strategy [is] not working and... the United States should downsize the military's role".
Lugar's blunt assessment has been viewed as significant because it showed the growing impatience and dissatisfaction with President Bush's strategy in Iraq. After Lugar finished his remarks, Senate Majority Whip Richard Durbin (D-IL), a sharp critic of the war, praised Lugar's "thoughtful, sincere and honest" speech, which Durbin said was in the "finest tradition of the U.S. Senate". Durbin urged his Senate colleagues to take a copy of Lugar's speech home over the Fourth of July break and study it before returning to work. Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid said, in reaction to Lugar's speech: "When this war comes to an end, and it will come to an end, and the history books are written, and they will be written, I believe that Sen. Lugar's words yesterday could be remembered as a turning point in this intractable civil war in Iraq."
Two days later, on June 27, 2007, Lugar said that Congressional measures aimed at curtailing U.S. military involvement in Iraq – including "so-called timetables, benchmarks" – have "no particular legal consequence", are "very partisan", and "will not work".
Judicial nominees
Lugar believed that judicial confirmation decisions should not be purely partisan. His view was if an appointee is properly qualified for the position by their education, integrity, and other similar factors, that they should be confirmed by the Senate. Lugar introduced President George W. Bush's appointee, now Chief Justice John Roberts, to the Senate at the beginning of Roberts's confirmation process and was instrumental in securing votes to confirm Roberts for the Supreme Court. Lugar was among the few Republican Senators to support President Barack Obama's first Supreme Court nominee United States Circuit Court of Appeals, Judge Sonia Sotomayor, and also voted in favor of his second Supreme Court nominee, Solicitor General Elena Kagan.
LGBT issues
Lugar held a socially conservative approach on LGBT issues. He voted for the Federal Marriage Amendment, limiting the definition of marriage to one man and one woman. However, he has also voted in favor of the Matthew Shepard Act, which expanded the federal hate crime statutes to include sexual orientation and gender identity. In October 2010, Lugar voted against repeal of the Don't Ask, Don't Tell policy—which prevented gays and lesbians from serving openly in the armed forces. Although Senator Joe Lieberman of Connecticut announced on November 18, 2010, that Lugar promised to vote to repeal the policy the next time it comes up for a vote,
Lugar voted against DADT repeal in both the cloture and final votes on December 18, 2010.
Middle East
In a television interview on September 11, 1983, amid President Reagan not defining the penalties for American casualties in the Middle East, Lugar stated the US position in Lebanon was "clearly defensive", but concurred that issue was debatable.
On May 6, 1986, Lugar was among 22 senators to vote in favor of the Reagan administration-backed proposed arms sale to Saudi Arabia, warning other senators prior to voting that they "were taking a headlong plunge in opposition to the President of the United States". Lugar and fellow Senator Bob Dole, both of whom supported the arms sale proposal, stated that President Reagan would be crippled in his role in the Middle East peace settlement in the event that he was unable to deliver a reduced arms package to the moderate Arab state.
On August 7, 2012, Lugar called for the United States and Russia to work in collaboration to eliminate the stockpile of chemical weapons in Syria during an interview. He noted that the proposal had been turned down by Russian officials, who noted Syria had not previously supported the Chemical Weapons Convention, and that other countries saw the stockpile of Syrian weapons as "influencing very adversely the potential for peace and stability in the Middle East".
Nuclear stockpile
Lugar was influential in gaining Senate ratification of treaties to reduce the world's use, production and stockpiling of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, and spearheaded many bipartisan nonproliferation initiatives. In 1991 he initiated a partnership with then-Senate Armed Services Committee Chairman Sam Nunn aiming to eliminate latent weapons of mass destruction in the former Soviet Union. To date, the Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction program has deactivated more than 7,500 nuclear warheads. In 2004, Lugar and Nunn were jointly awarded the Heinz Awards Chairman's Medal for their efforts. He was an integral figure in the passing of the New START Treaty (which passed 71–26).
Pakistan
In October 2008, Lugar and Joe Biden, his partner in the Committee on Foreign Relations, received the Hilal-i-Pakistan (Crescent of Pakistan) Award from the government of Pakistan for their continued support of the country. In July 2008 Lugar and Biden introduced a plan that would give $1.5 billion in aid per year to support economic development in Pakistan.
Other international policy achievements
Senator Lugar supported Nelson Mandela's fight against South African apartheid. When President Reagan vetoed economic sanctions against South African leaders as a punitive measure for apartheid, Lugar turned against his own party and led the charge to overrule the veto successfully with bipartisan support. As Chair of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, he declared on the Senate floor, "We are against tyranny, and there is tyranny in South Africa."
Lugar was also instrumental to the fall of the dictatorial Marcos regime in the Philippines and overseeing the 1985 presidential election there, urging intervention from the Reagan administration.
In addition, Lugar coauthored the Cardin–Lugar Amendment to the Dodd–Frank Act, which required all U.S.-listed oil and mining companies to report their payments to governments. Nearly identical pro-transparency measures, aimed at curbing natural resource-related corruption in the developing world, were subsequently adopted by the European Union and Canada, making extractive industry payment disclosure a global standard.
Views on Trump administration
In a November 2017 interview, Lugar stated that President Donald Trump had not "demonstrated civility in his leadership" and that his usage of Twitter and "other bombastic avenues" were not solving issues.
Electoral history
Awards and honors
Lugar received numerous awards, including Guardian of Small Business, the Spirit of Enterprise, Watchdog of the Treasury, and 46 honorary doctorate degrees. In 1970, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. In 2001, Lugar received the Democracy Service Medal of the National Endowment for Democracy. In 2010, Lugar received the Benjamin Harrison Presidential Site Advancing American Democracy Award. In June 2012, he was conferred with the Grand Collar of the Order of Lakandula by President Benigno S. Aquino III for his contributions to the enhancement of the Philippine-US alliance and friendship as well as Poland's Knight of Freedom Award for his actions and support of the Polish accession process to NATO structures.
On August 8, 2013, President Barack Obama named Lugar as a recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom. The citation in the press release read as follows:
Lugar was knighted as a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) for his efforts to reduce Weapons of Mass Destruction and supporting NATO. Lugar was awarded the Grand Cross of the Order of Merit, from Germany, in 2013, for his work on fostering transatlantic cooperation. In 2014, Lugar received the Golden Laurel Branch award, the highest honor given by the Bulgarian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Lugar was recognized for his contributions to Bulgaria's accession to NATO.
In August 2016, President Petro Poroshenko of Ukraine awarded Richard Lugar with the highest award for foreigners — Order of Liberty. In November 2016 he was awarded the 2016 J. William Fulbright Prize for International Understanding. In 2005, Lugar was presented the Lifetime Contributions to American Diplomacy Award by the American Foreign Service Association.
Other outside activities
Lugar was a member the Indiana Society of the Sons of the American Revolution, as well as a member of the Society of Indiana Pioneers, based on his descent from very early settlers in the state. He joined the Rotary Club of Indianapolis in 1957 and spoke at the club annually during his time in the U.S. Senate. He remained an active Rotarian. On February 16, 2013, Lugar was named the Rotarian of the Century. He served on the Board of Directors of the National Endowment for Democracy from 1992 to 2001.
Lugar was a member of the board of the International Foundation for Electoral Systems, an organization involved in international elections. He was a member of the board of the Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI). Lugar was on the Board of Selectors of the Jefferson Awards for Public Service.
Richard G. Lugar Center for Public Health Research
A biological research facility in Tbilisi, Georgia, is named after Lugar in honor of his efforts to reduce nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons around the world. The Richard G. Lugar Center for Public Health Research is a biological research facility funded by the U.S. Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA) to contain and house dangerous pathogens and support international research efforts. It and other upgraded bio-threat reduction facilities in the region are designed to stop diseases like plague and African swine fever from spreading globally.
Lugar, utilizing the Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction Program (CTR) which helped former Soviet Union states dismantle weapons of mass destruction after the Cold War, worked with the country of Georgia on biosafety, biosecurity and biosurveillance efforts through CTR's Cooperative Biological Engagement Program (CBEP). The main goal was to improve the biosafety, biosecurity, disease surveillance, and establish the Central Public Health Reference Laboratory.
In 2012, Georgian authorities renamed the facility the Richard G. Lugar Center for Public Health Research; it belongs to and is run by the Georgian National Center for Disease Control and Public Health (NCDC). In 2014, then-U.S. Ambassador to Georgia at the time, Richard Norland, signed an agreement with then-Georgian Prime Minister Irakli Garibashvili to transfer custody of the Center to the NCDC during the 2014 World Congress on Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear Science & Consequence Management. At the invitation of the Georgian government, a contingent of U.S. scientists from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Global Disease Detection Program, and the U.S. Walter Reed Army Institute of Research are co-located in the facility. They work collaboratively alongside their Georgian counterparts.
Personal life and death
Lugar married Charlene Smeltzer on September 8, 1956. The couple had four sons. He was a member of the United Methodist Church.
Lugar died in Falls Church, Virginia, on April 28, 2019, shortly after his 87th birthday, from complications of chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy. He was buried in Arlington National Cemetery.
Legacy
John T. Shaw assessed the Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction as Lugar's landmark legislative accomplishment. The initiative would later be considered "one of the most prescient pieces of legislation ever passed, and the most important nonproliferation program ever".
In 2000, Eric Schmitt described Lugar as "a four-term senator, former presidential candidate and perhaps the most popular politician in Indiana history". Following Lugar's 2012 Senate loss, Peter Rusthoven stated, "Historically, this is not just one of the great senators now. This is one of the great senators in United States history. He is like a Daniel Webster, he is like a Henry Clay—names that I fear too many of our kids in grade school and high school don't even know anymore."
Lugar's defeat in the 2012 Senate Republican primary was written of as a sign of the national GOP base's escalation into strict support for the traditional views aligned with the right. Former Senator John Danforth said the loss told him "that there is an attempt by a lot of people to purge the Republican Party and to kick out of it people who do not hue a very strict party line". Geoffrey Kabaservice cast doubts on this view: "It may be that his bipartisanship and comparative moderation contributed to his loss, or his defeat may simply have reflected the political truism that young blood drives out the old. What's certain is that the Senate will miss his qualities, and in time so may we all."
On November 18, 2019, Secretary of the Navy Richard V. Spencer announced that the guided missile destroyer USS Richard G. Lugar (DDG-136) would be named in the late senator's honor.
In Indianapolis, a city park and a public housing apartment building are named in honor of Lugar. On the campus of Indiana University in Bloomington, the School of Global & International Studies was renamed to honor Lugar and former U.S. Congressman Lee Hamilton.
References
Further reading
Bergner, Jeffrey T., and Richard Lugar, eds. The Next American Century: Essays in Honor of Richard G. Lugar (Rowman & Littlefield, 2003)
External links
Foreign Service Journal article on his Lifetime Contributions to American Diplomacy Award.
The Lugar Center
The Richard G. Lugar Collection at the Digital Mayoral Archives, University of Indianapolis
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1932 births
2019 deaths
United States senators from Indiana
Republican Party United States senators
Candidates in the 1996 United States presidential election
Mayors of Indianapolis
Indiana Republicans
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American politicians
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Honorary Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Grand Collars of the Order of Lakandula
Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana, 1st Class
Sons of the American Revolution
Businesspeople from Indianapolis
American Rhodes Scholars
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Military personnel from Indiana
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Neurological disease deaths in Virginia
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Chairmen of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations
20th-century American businesspeople
20th-century Methodists
Shortridge High School alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Ridge
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Tom Ridge
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Thomas Joseph Ridge (born August 26, 1945) is an American politician and author who served as the Assistant to the President for Homeland Security from 2001 to 2003, and the first United States Secretary of Homeland Security from 2003 to 2005. Prior to this, Ridge was a member of the United States House of Representatives from 1983 to 1995 and the 43rd Governor of Pennsylvania from 1995 to 2001. He is a Republican.
Ridge was born in Munhall, Pennsylvania, and raised in veterans' public housing in Erie, Pennsylvania. After graduating from Harvard University with honors, Ridge served in the U.S. Army during the Vietnam War where he was awarded the Bronze Star. He then returned to Pennsylvania and completed his Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree at the Dickinson School of Law, graduating in 1972, and entered private practice.
As assistant district attorney in Erie, Ridge ran for Congress in his district, where he served six terms. He then ran for governor in 1994, despite being little-known outside of northwest Pennsylvania. He won the election, and was reelected in 1998 with the most votes for a Republican governor in Pennsylvania (where Democrats outnumber Republicans by almost 500,000) in more than half a century. As Governor of Pennsylvania, Ridge is credited for statewide advances in economic development, education, health care and the environment. As of , Ridge is the last Republican to win reelection as Pennsylvania's governor.
Following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, U.S. President George W. Bush named Ridge the first director of the newly created Office of Homeland Security. In January 2003, the Office of Homeland Security became an official Cabinet-level Department, the Department of Homeland Security, and Ridge became the first Secretary of Homeland Security. He served in these roles for Bush's first term as president, then retired and returned to the private sector.
Since re-entering the private sector, Ridge has served on the boards of The Home Depot, The Hershey Company and Exelon Corporation and as a senior advisor to Deloitte & Touche, and TechRadium. Ridge is also the founder and Chairman of Ridge Global, a Washington, D.C.–based security consulting firm. Ridge spent time campaigning with Senator John McCain during his 2008 bid for the presidency and was believed by some to have been on the short list of potential running mates.
Early life and education
Ridge was born in Munhall, Pennsylvania, in Pittsburgh's Steel Valley, the eldest of three children. His parents were Laura (née Sudimack) and Thomas Regis Ridge, who was a traveling salesman and Navy veteran. Ridge's maternal grandparents were Rusyn immigrants from the former Czechoslovakia (now Slovakia), and his paternal great-grandparents emigrated from Great Britain. Ridge was raised in veterans' public housing in Erie, Pennsylvania. He was educated at St. Andrews Elementary School and Cathedral Preparatory School and did well both academically and in sports. He attended Harvard College, where he paid his way through with construction work, played intramural baseball and football, and graduated with honors in 1967. In 1968, after his first year at the Dickinson School of Law, he was drafted into the United States Army.
Military service in Vietnam
Ridge waived an opportunity for officer training school because it would have required a longer service commitment. In November 1969, Ridge arrived as a sergeant in South Vietnam where he would serve for six months as a staff sergeant with Bravo Company, 1st Battalion, 20th Infantry, 11th Infantry Brigade, 23rd Infantry Division (Americal Division) during the Vietnam War.
In May 1970, a ruptured appendix cut short his tour of duty in Vietnam and he was sent home; his service also aggravated a childhood ear infection which caused him afterwards to have a hearing aid in his left ear.
For his service in Vietnam, Ridge received the Bronze Star with "V" Device, National Defense Service Medal, Vietnam Service Medal, Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross Unit Citation with Palm, Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal, and the Combat Infantryman Badge.
Military awards
Legal career
After returning to Pennsylvania, he completed his Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree at the Dickinson School of Law, graduating in 1972, and entered private practice.
Ridge became assistant district attorney in Erie County, Pennsylvania in 1980 and prosecuted 86 cases in two years.
Elected office
U.S. House of Representatives
In 1982 he won a seat in Congress from northwestern Pennsylvania by the margin of only 729 votes, and was re-elected five times.
Governor
In 1994, despite being little-known outside of northwest Pennsylvania, Ridge ran for governor. He won the election as a pro-choice Republican. He was reelected in 1998 with 57 percent of the vote in a four-way race. His share of the vote in that election was the highest for a Republican governor in Pennsylvania (where Democrats outnumber Republicans by almost 500,000) in more than half a century.
During his time as governor, Ridge promoted "law and order" policies, supporting a three-strikes law and a faster death penalty process. A death penalty supporter, Ridge signed more than 224 execution warrants – five times the number signed over a 25-year period by the two previous governors – but only three voluntary executions were carried out. On social issues, he opposed same-sex marriage but supported abortion rights.
Over Ridge's tenure, the Commonwealth's budget grew by two to three percent per fiscal year and combined tax reductions totaled over $2 billion. Ridge created and grew a "Rainy Day" Fund balance to over $1 billion to be utilized during an economic downturn or recession.
Ridge pushed for legislation permitting competition among electric utilities and enhanced federal and state support for the Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP). He separated the Commonwealth's environmental regulatory and conservation programs into two new agencies; the Department of Environmental Protection and the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.
Ridge proposed the creation of public charter schools in Pennsylvania and in establishing alternate schools for disruptive students. He launched new academic standards that established academic expectations for what students were expected to know in different grades. He proposed a school choice demonstration program.
Ridge oversaw a number of e-government projects including renewing drivers' licenses and vehicle registrations to viewing historical documents and library catalogs. The Commonwealth's portal won several national awards. One of the nation's first electronic grant systems was put into place at the Pennsylvania Department of Education. He created the Link-to-Learn initiative to increase the effective use of technology in public schools and universities.
Ridge signed two death warrants for African-American civil rights activist Mumia Abu-Jamal, who was convicted of killing a police officer at a traffic stop.
Ridge served as governor until he resigned to become the Director of Homeland Security in 2001, following the September 11 attacks.
2000 Presidential election
Ridge was a potential running mate for Bob Dole in 1996, and served as a close advisor to Republican presidential nominee George W. Bush, a close friend from their simultaneous tenures as governors, during the 2000 presidential campaign. In return, Bush named Ridge to his short list for possible running mates, along with New York Governor George Pataki, Michigan Governor John Engler, Oklahoma Governor Frank Keating, former Missouri Senator John Danforth, and former American Red Cross President Elizabeth Dole.
Homeland Security
Following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, U.S. President George W. Bush created the Office of Homeland Security within the White House, and named Ridge to head it. The charge to the nation's new director of homeland security was to develop and coordinate a comprehensive national strategy to strengthen the United States against terrorist threats or attacks. Ridge formally resigned as Pennsylvania's governor on October 5, 2001.
In January 2003 and after the passage of the Homeland Security Act of 2002, the Office of Homeland Security split into a Cabinet-level Department, the Department of Homeland Security, and the White House Homeland Security Advisory Council. Ridge left the White House and became the first Secretary of Homeland Security. The department's mission "is to (A) prevent terrorist attacks within the United States; (B) reduce the vulnerability of the United States to terrorism; and (C) minimize the damage, and assist in the recovery, from terrorist attacks that do occur within the United States" (From H.R. 5005-8 the Homeland Security Act of 2002). The newly created department was the most comprehensive reorganization of the Federal government since the National Security Act of 1947.
The Department of Homeland Security consolidates 22 agencies and 180,000 employees, unifying once-fragmented Federal functions in a single agency dedicated to protecting America from terrorism. Ridge worked with the employees from combined agencies to strengthen borders, provide for intelligence analysis and infrastructure protection, improve the use of science and technology to counter weapons of mass destruction, and to create a comprehensive response and recovery division.
In January 2004, Ridge was named among others in a lawsuit filed by a Syrian-born Canadian Maher Arar who said he was tortured in Syria after being deported by American authorities.
Retirement from public office and book
On November 30, 2004, Ridge submitted his resignation to the President, saying, "After more than 22 consecutive years of public service, it is time to give personal and family matters a higher priority."
In his book The Test of Our Times: America Under Siege...and How We Can Be Safe Again, Ridge says his resignation was due to an effort by senior Bush administration officials to raise the nation's terror alert level in the days before the 2004 presidential vote.
Work in the private sector
Ridge is the founder and Chairman of Ridge Global, an advisory firm in Washington, D.C.
Ridge served on a state-appointed incident review panel that investigated the Virginia Tech shooting.
Ridge also sits on the board of directors of the Atlantic Council.
Ridge Policy Group
In 2010, Ridge's two former Chiefs of Staff, Mark Campbell and Mark Holman, opened a lobbying firm after Ridge lent the firm his name. The full-service government affairs firm has offices in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, and Washington, D.C.
In July 2010, companies seeking to use hydraulic fracturing to extract natural gas from the Marcellus Shale formation engaged Ridge and Ridge Policy Group at $75,000 a month to help them gain support.
Board memberships and other corporate associations
Ridge has served on a variety of corporate boards of directors and in other roles. In 2005, he was named to the board of Home Depot, with an expected annual compensation of about $100,000. and in the same year was appointed to the board of the RFID company Savi Technology. He was appointed to the board of directors of the Exelon Corporation electric utility in 2006, with starting director compensation of $35,000 annual retainer plus a $1,500 meeting fee or per diem fee and (at the time) $60,000 in annual deferred stock units. In 2006, Ridge was announced as a senior advisor for Deloitte & Touche USA LLP. He was named to serve on the executive board of The Hershey Company in 2007, and was named senior advisor to Texas-based security technology company TechRadium, Inc. in 2008. In 2009, antimicrobial company PURE Bioscience named Ridge, along with former Wisconsin governor Tommy Thompson, to its advisory board.
Political activity
2008 Presidential election
Tom Ridge served as a senior aide to Republican presidential candidate Senator John McCain of Arizona, and was considered by some as a possible running mate for McCain.
Possible 2010 Senate candidacy
According to Fox News, many Republicans hoped Ridge would run for the United States Senate against the newly turned Democrat Arlen Specter, who stated he would seek re-election in 2010 in the Democratic primary. Already seeking the Republican nomination was former Representative Pat Toomey, who narrowly lost to Specter in the Republican primary in 2004. Some Republicans thought Ridge would have a better chance against Specter than would Toomey. A Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll conducted between April 30, 2009, and May 3, 2009, placed Ridge within three points of Specter in a hypothetical matchup between the two men.
Some Toomey supporters criticized the idea of a Ridge candidacy because, although Ridge was still registered to vote in Pennsylvania, he was actually living in Chevy Chase, Maryland. On May 7, 2009, Ridge announced that he would not be a candidate for the U.S. Senate in 2010.
2012 Presidential election
Ridge originally endorsed former Utah Governor Jon Huntsman for president, in September 2011. Mitt Romney announced an endorsement from Ridge on March 14, 2012.
Supreme Court brief
In 2013, Ridge was a signatory to an amicus curiae brief submitted to the Supreme Court in support of same-sex marriage during the Hollingsworth v. Perry case.
Stance on the People's Mujahedin of Iran
Ridge spoke at a conference in support of the removal of the People's Mujahedin of Iran (MEK, also PMOI, MKO) from the United States State Department list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations. The group was listed on the State Department list from 1997 until September 2012. They were placed on the list for killing six Americans in Iran during the 1970s and attempting to attack the Iranian mission to the United Nations in 1992. Ridge, along with other former government officials and politicians Ed Rendell, R. James Woolsey, Porter Goss, Louis Freeh, Michael Mukasey, James L. Jones, Rudy Giuliani, and Howard Dean, were criticized for their involvement with the group. Some were subpoenaed during an inquiry about who was paying the prominent individuals' speaking fees. Ridge and others wrote an article for the conservative publication National Review stating their position that the group should not be classified as a terrorist organization, raising the point that, at the time, only the United States and Iran still listed it as a terrorist group.
2015 Blue Ribbon Commission
In 2015, Ridge served as co-chair of the Blue Ribbon Study Panel on Biodefense, a commission that recommended changes to U.S. policy regarding biodefense. In order to address biological threats facing the nation, the Blue Ribbon Study Panel on Biodefense created a 33-step initiative for the U.S. Government to implement. Tom Ridge headed the organization with former Senator Joe Lieberman, and the Study Panel assembled in Washington D.C. for four meetings concerning current biodefense programs. The Study Panel concluded that the federal government had little to no defense mechanisms in case of a biological event. The Study Panel's final report, The National Blueprint for Biodefense, proposes a string of solutions and recommendations for the U.S. Government to take, including items such as giving the vice president authority over biodefense responsibilities and merging the entire biodefense budget. These solutions represent the Panel's call to action in order to increase awareness and activity for pandemic related issues.
2016 Presidential election
In 2016, Ridge endorsed Jeb Bush and subsequently John Kasich after Bush's withdrawal from the 2016 Republican presidential primaries. Ridge stated he would not endorse Donald Trump, following Trump becoming the presumptive nominee, or Hillary Clinton in the general election.
Criticisms of President Trump
In July 2020, Ridge criticized President Trump for saying in June that vote-by-mail leads to widespread voter fraud, responding that it is not a threat and that voters need a safe way to cast a ballot in the 2020 election, amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Ridge also said that it was "sad" that the President wants to quash the legitimacy of the election. In response to Ridge's comments, the RNC said lawsuits by Democrats to strip ballot safeguards are an attempt to delegitimize the election. Ridge is a co-chair of VoteSafe, a bi-partisan group that promotes safe voting by mail and in person.
Also in July 2020, Ridge slammed his former Department for sending in federal agents to detain rioters allegedly committing federal crimes in Portland, Oregon, after more than 50 days of protests and riots there. He also said, during an interview with radio host Michael Smerconish, that it would be a "cold day in hell" before he "would consent to an uninvited, unilateral intervention" in one of his cities in Pennsylvania. The White House cited federal law to support this use of federal law enforcement. Trump later slammed Ridge on Twitter, calling him "a failed RINO" and saying he "loved watching pathetic Never Trumpers squirm!".
2020 Presidential election
In September 2020, Ridge endorsed former Vice President Joe Biden for president in a Philadelphia Inquirer op-ed, which he confirmed to CNN on November 6, 2020, being also the first time he ever voted for a Democratic presidential candidate.
Ridge, along with more than 100 Republican former national security officials, signed a letter in November that stated that the delay of the presidential transition imperiled the security of the nation. The 9/11 Commission finding that the shortened transition to the administration of George W. Bush during the disputed 2000 presidential election "hampered the new administration in identifying, recruiting, clearing, and obtaining Senate confirmation of key appointees" was mentioned in the statement.
Memoir
Tom Ridge's book The Test of Our Times was published in September 2009. Written with Larry Bloom, it concerns Ridge's time as the head of the Department of Homeland Security. He explains the challenges and decision making processes of the newly formed department, and gives his own views as to the future of the security of the United States of America. The book further discusses
Ridge wrote in his memoir that then-Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld and then-Attorney General John Ashcroft pressured him to raise the terror alert level, running up to the 2004 elections, because of a pre-election message critical of President Bush from Osama Bin Laden.
Recognition
Presented with the Woodrow Wilson Award by the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
Erie International Airport was co-named Tom Ridge Field in honor of Ridge.
The Tom Ridge Environmental Center at Presque Isle State Park in Erie, Pennsylvania is named after the former governor. Ridge was instrumental in securing funds for the center.
His picture hangs in the moot court room at the Penn State Dickinson School of Law in Carlisle, Pennsylvania.
Presque Isle Downs in Erie, Pennsylvania runs the $100,000 Tom Ridge Stakes every meet.
Mercyhurst University named its Tom Ridge College of Intelligence Studies and Applied Science after the first U.S. Secretary of Homeland Security.
Personal life
Tom's wife, Michele Ridge, is the former executive director of the Erie County Library System. Married since 1979, they have two children: Lesley and Tommy.
Ridge was hospitalized in critical condition in Texas after a cardiac event on November 16, 2017.
On June 16, 2021, Ridge suffered a stroke while at his home in Bethesda, Maryland. He was hospitalized and underwent a successful procedure to remove a blood clot. Discharged in late June, Ridge began rehabilitation therapy in the Washington, D.C. area.
Gubernatorial electoral history
References
External links
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1945 births
American people of British descent
American people of Rusyn descent
Atlantic Council
Dickinson School of Law alumni
George W. Bush administration cabinet members
21st-century American politicians
Governors of Pennsylvania
Harvard Institute of Politics
Harvard College alumni
Living people
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania
Military personnel from Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania Republicans
People from Chevy Chase, Maryland
Politicians from Erie, Pennsylvania
People from Munhall, Pennsylvania
Politicians from Pittsburgh
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Republican Party state governors of the United States
The Home Depot people
United States Army personnel of the Vietnam War
United States Army soldiers
United States Secretaries of Homeland Security
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scapula
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Scapula
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In anatomy, the scapula (plural scapulae or scapulas), also known as the shoulder bone, shoulder blade, wing bone, speal bone or blade bone, is the bone that connects the humerus (upper arm bone) with the clavicle (collar bone). Like their connected bones, the scapulae are paired, with each scapula on either side of the body being roughly a mirror image of the other. The name derives from the Classical Latin word for trowel or small shovel, which it was thought to resemble.
In compound terms, the prefix omo- is used for the shoulder blade in medical terminology. This prefix is derived from ὦμος (ōmos), the Ancient Greek word for shoulder, and is cognate with the Latin , which in Latin signifies either the shoulder or the upper arm bone.
The scapula forms the back of the shoulder girdle. In humans, it is a flat bone, roughly triangular in shape, placed on a posterolateral aspect of the thoracic cage.
Structure
The scapula is a thick, flat bone lying on the thoracic wall that provides an attachment for three groups of muscles: intrinsic, extrinsic, and stabilizing and rotating muscles. The intrinsic muscles of the scapula include the muscles of the rotator cuff—the subscapularis, teres minor, supraspinatus, and infraspinatus. These muscles attach to the surface of the scapula and are responsible for the internal and external rotation of the shoulder joint, along with humeral abduction.
The extrinsic muscles include the biceps, triceps, and deltoid muscles and attach to the coracoid process and supraglenoid tubercle of the scapula, infraglenoid tubercle of the scapula, and spine of the scapula. These muscles are responsible for several actions of the glenohumeral joint.
The third group, which is mainly responsible for stabilization and rotation of the scapula, consists of the trapezius, serratus anterior, levator scapulae, and rhomboid muscles. These attach to the medial, superior, and inferior borders of the scapula.
The head, processes, and the thickened parts of the bone contain cancellous tissue; the rest consists of a thin layer of compact tissue.
The central part of the supraspinatus fossa and the upper part of the infraspinatous fossa, but especially the former, are usually so thin in humans as to be semitransparent; occasionally the bone is found wanting in this situation, and the adjacent muscles are separated only by fibrous tissue. The scapula has two surfaces, three borders, three angles, and three processes.
Surfaces
Front or subscapular fossa
The front of the scapula (also known as the costal or ventral surface) has a broad concavity called the subscapular fossa, to which the subscapularis muscle attaches. The medial two-thirds of the fossa have 3 longitudinal oblique ridges, and another thick ridge adjoins the lateral border; they run outward and upward. The ridges give attachment to the tendinous insertions, and the surfaces between them to the fleshy fibers, of the subscapularis muscle. The lateral third of the fossa is smooth and covered by the fibers of this muscle.
At the upper part of the fossa is a transverse depression, where the bone appears to be bent on itself along a line at right angles to and passing through the center of the glenoid cavity, forming a considerable angle, called the subscapular angle; this gives greater strength to the body of the bone by its arched form, while the summit of the arch serves to support the spine and acromion.
The costal surface superior of the scapula is the origin of 1st digitation for the serratus anterior origin.
Back
The back of the scapula (also called the dorsal or posterior surface) is arched from above downward, and is subdivided into two unequal parts by the spine of the scapula. The portion above the spine is called the supraspinous fossa, and that below it the infraspinous fossa. The two fossae are connected by the spinoglenoid notch, situated lateral to the root of the spine.
The supraspinous fossa, above the spine of scapula, is concave, smooth, and broader at its vertebral than at its humeral end; its medial two-thirds give origin to the Supraspinatus. At its lateral surface resides the spinoglenoid fossa which is situated by the medial margin of the glenoid. The spinoglenoid fossa houses the suprascpular canal which forms a connecting passage between the suprascapular notch and the spinoglenoid notch conveying the suprascapular nerve and vessels.
The infraspinous fossa is much larger than the preceding; toward its vertebral margin a shallow concavity is seen at its upper part; its center presents a prominent convexity, while near the axillary border is a deep groove which runs from the upper toward the lower part. The medial two-thirds of the fossa give origin to the Infraspinatus; the lateral third is covered by this muscle.
There is a ridge on the outer part of the back of the scapula. This runs from the lower part of the glenoid cavity, downward and backward to the vertebral border, about 2.5 cm above the inferior angle. Attached to the ridge is a fibrous septum, which separates the infraspinatus muscle from the Teres major and Teres minor muscles. The upper two-thirds of the surface between the ridge and the axillary border is narrow, and is crossed near its center by a groove for the scapular circumflex vessels; the Teres minor attaches here.
The broad and narrow portions above alluded to are separated by an oblique line, which runs from the axillary border, downward and backward, to meet the elevated ridge: to it is attached a fibrous septum which separates the Teres muscles from each other.
Its lower third presents a broader, somewhat triangular surface, the inferior angle of the scapula, which gives origin to the Teres major, and over which the Latissimus dorsi glides; frequently the latter muscle takes origin by a few fibers from this part.
Side
The acromion forms the summit of the shoulder, and is a large, somewhat triangular or oblong process, flattened from behind forward, projecting at first laterally, and then curving forward and upward, so as to overhang the glenoid cavity.
Angles
There are 3 angles:
The superior angle of the scapula or medial angle, is covered by the trapezius muscle. This angle is formed by the junction of the superior and medial borders of the scapula. The superior angle is located at the approximate level of the second thoracic vertebra. The superior angle of the scapula is thin, smooth, rounded, and inclined somewhat lateralward, and gives attachment to a few fibers of the levator scapulae muscle.
The inferior angle of the scapula is the lowest part of the scapula and is covered by the latissimus dorsi muscle. It moves forwards round the chest when the arm is abducted. The inferior angle is formed by the union of the medial and lateral borders of the scapula. It is thick and rough and its posterior or back surface affords attachment to the teres major and often to a few fibers of the latissimus dorsi. The anatomical plane that passes vertically through the inferior angle is named the scapular line.
The lateral angle of the scapula or glenoid angle also known as the head of the scapula is the thickest part of the scapula. It is broad and bears the glenoid cavity on its articular surface which is directed forward, laterally and slightly upwards, and articulates with the head of the humerus. The inferior angle is broader below than above and its vertical diameter is the longest. The surface is covered with cartilage in the fresh state; and its margins, slightly raised, give attachment to a fibrocartilaginous structure, the glenoidal labrum, which deepens the cavity. At its apex is a slight elevation, the supraglenoid tuberosity, to which the long head of the biceps brachii is attached.
The anatomic neck of the scapula is the slightly constricted portion which surrounds the head and is more distinct below and behind than above and in front. The surgical neck of the scapula passes directly medial to the base of the coracoid process.
Borders
There are three borders of the scapula:
The superior border is the shortest and thinnest; it is concave, and extends from the superior angle to the base of the coracoid process. It is referred to as the cranial border in animals.
At its lateral part is a deep, semicircular notch, the scapular notch, formed partly by the base of the coracoid process. This notch is converted into a foramen by the superior transverse scapular ligament, and serves for the passage of the suprascapular nerve; sometimes the ligament is ossified.
The adjacent part of the superior border affords attachment to the omohyoideus.
The axillary border (or "lateral border") is the thickest of the three. It begins above at the lower margin of the glenoid cavity, and inclines obliquely downward and backward to the inferior angle. It is referred to as the caudal border in animals.
It begins above at the lower margin of the glenoid cavity, and inclines obliquely downward and backward to the inferior angle.
Immediately below the glenoid cavity is a rough impression, the infraglenoid tuberosity, about . in length, which gives origin to the long head of the triceps brachii; in front of this is a longitudinal groove, which extends as far as the lower third of this border, and affords origin to part of the subscapularis.
The inferior third is thin and sharp, and serves for the attachment of a few fibers of the teres major behind, and of the subscapularis in front.
The medial border (also called the vertebral border or medial margin) is the longest of the three borders, and extends from the superior angle to the inferior angle. In animals it is referred to as the dorsal border.
Four muscles attach to the medial border. Serratus anterior has a long attachment on the anterior lip. Three muscles insert along the posterior lip, the levator scapulae (uppermost), rhomboid minor (middle), and to the rhomboid major (lower middle).
Development
The scapula is ossified from 7 or more centers: one for the body, two for the coracoid process, two for the acromion, one for the vertebral border, and one for the inferior angle. Ossification of the body begins about the second month of fetal life, by an irregular quadrilateral plate of bone forming, immediately behind the glenoid cavity. This plate extends to form the chief part of the bone, the scapular spine growing up from its dorsal surface about the third month. Ossification starts as membranous ossification before birth. After birth, the cartilaginous components would undergo endochondral ossification. The larger part of the scapula undergoes membranous ossification. Some of the outer parts of the scapula are cartilaginous at birth, and would therefore undergo endochondral ossification.
At birth, a large part of the scapula is osseous, but the glenoid cavity, the coracoid process, the acromion, the vertebral border and the inferior angle are cartilaginous. From the 15th to the 18th month after birth, ossification takes place in the middle of the coracoid process, which as a rule becomes joined with the rest of the bone about the 15th year.
Between the 14th and 20th years, the remaining parts ossify in quick succession, and usually in the following order: first, in the root of the coracoid process, in the form of a broad scale; secondly, near the base of the acromion; thirdly, in the inferior angle and contiguous part of the vertebral border; fourthly, near the outer end of the acromion; fifthly, in the vertebral border.
The base of the acromion is formed by an extension from the spine; the two nuclei of the acromion unite, and then join with the extension from the spine. The upper third of the glenoid cavity is ossified from a separate center (sub coracoid), which appears between the 10th and 11th years and joins between the 16th and the 18th years. Further, an epiphysial plate appears for the lower part of the glenoid cavity, and the tip of the coracoid process frequently has a separate nucleus. These various epiphyses are joined to the bone by the 25th year.
Failure of bony union between the acromion and spine sometimes occurs (see os acromiale), the junction being effected by fibrous tissue, or by an imperfect articulation; in some cases of supposed fracture of the acromion with ligamentous union, it is probable that the detached segment was never united to the rest of the bone.
Function
The following muscles attach to the scapula:
Movements
Movements of the scapula are brought about by the scapular muscles. The scapula can perform six actions:
Elevation: upper trapezius and levator scapulae
Depression: lower trapezius
Retraction (adduction): rhomboids and middle trapezius
Protraction (abduction): serratus anterior
Upward rotation: upper and lower trapezius, serratus anterior
Downward rotation: rhomboids, Levator Scapulae, and Pec Minor
Clinical significance
Scapular fractures
Because of its sturdy structure and protected location, fractures of the scapula are uncommon. When they do occur, they are an indication that severe chest trauma has occurred.
Scapular fractures involving the neck of the scapula have two patterns. One (rare) type of fracture is through the anatomical neck of the scapula. The other more common type of fracture is through the surgical neck of the scapula. The surgical neck exits medial to the coracoid process.
An abnormally protruding inferior angle of the scapula is known as a winged scapula and can be caused by paralysis of the serratus anterior muscle. In this condition the sides of the scapula nearest the spine are positioned outward and backward. The appearance of the upper back is said to be wing-like. In addition, any condition causing weakness of the serratus anterior muscle may cause scapular "winging".
Impingement syndrome
The scapula plays an important role in shoulder impingement syndrome.
Abnormal scapular function is called scapular dyskinesis. One action the scapula performs during a throwing or serving motion is elevation of the acromion process in order to avoid impingement of the rotator cuff tendons. If the scapula fails to properly elevate the acromion, impingement may occur during the cocking and acceleration phase of an overhead activity. The two muscles most commonly inhibited during this first part of an overhead motion are the serratus anterior and the lower trapezius. These two muscles act as a force couple within the glenohumeral joint to properly elevate the acromion process, and if a muscle imbalance exists, shoulder impingement may develop.
History
Etymology
Scapula/Scapulae
The name scapula as synonym of shoulder blade is of Latin origin. It is commonly used in medical English and is part of the current official Latin nomenclature, Terminologia Anatomica.
In classical Latin scapula is only used in its plural scapulae. Although some sources mention that scapulae is used to refer during Roman antiquity to the shoulders or to the shoulder blades, others persist in that the Romans used scapulae only to refer to the back, in contrast to the pectus, the Latin name for breast or chest.
Os latum scapularum and related
The Roman encyclopedist Aulus Cornelius Celsus who lived during the beginning of the era, also used scapulae to refer to the back. He used os latum scapularum to refer to the shoulder blade. This expressions can be translated as broad (Latin: latum) bone (Latin: os) of the back (Latin: scapularum).
A similar expression in ancient Greek can be seen in the writings of the Greek philosopher Aristoteles and in the writings of the Greek physician Galen. They both use the name ὠμοπλάτη to refer to the shoulder blade. This compound consists of ancient Greek ὦμος, shoulder and πλάτη, blade or flat or broad object. Πλάτη in its plural πλάται without ὦμο- was also used in ancient Greek to refer to the shoulder blades. In anatomic Latin, ὠμοπλάτη is Latinized as omoplata.
The Latin word umerus is related to ὦμος. The Romans referred with umerus to what is now commonly known in English as the following 3 bones: humerus or the upper bone of the arm, the clavicle or the collarbone and the scapula or the shoulder blade. The spelling humerus is actually incorrect in classical Latin.
Those three bones were referred to as the ossa (Latin: bones) umeri (Latin: of the umerus). Umerus was also used to refer specifically to the shoulder. This mirrors the use of ὦμος in ancient Greek as that could refer to the shoulder with the upper arm or to the shoulder alone.
Since Celsus, the os umeri could refer specifically to the upper bone of the arm. The 16th century anatomist Andreas Vesalius used humerus to refer to the clavicle. Besides the aforementioned os latum scapularum, Celsus used os latum umeri to refer to the shoulder blade. Similarly, Laurentius used the expression latitudo umeri (Latitudo = breadth, width ) to refer to the shoulder blade.
Pala
The Roman physician Caelius Aurelianus (5th century) used pala to refer to the shoulder blade. The name pala is normally used to refer to a spade in Latin and was therefore probably used by Caelius Aurelianus to describe the shoulder blade, as both exhibit a flat curvature.
Spathula/Σπάθη
During the Middle Ages spathula was used to refer to the shoulder blade. Spathula is a diminutive of spatha, with the latter originally meaning broad, two-edged sword without a point, broad, flat, wooden instrument for stirring any liquid, a spattle, spatula or spathe of the palm tree and its diminutive used in classical and late Latin for referring to a leg of pork or a little palmbranch.
The English word spatula is actually derived from Latin spatula, an orthographic variant of spathula. Oddly enough, classical Latin non-diminutive spatha can be translated as English spatula, while its Latin diminutive spatula is not translated as English spatula.
Latin spatha is derived from ancient Greek σπάθη. Therefore, the form spathula is more akin to its origin than spatula. Ancient Greek σπάθη has a similar meaning as Latin spatha, as any broad blade, and can also refer to a spatula or to the broad blade of a sword., but also to the blade of an oar. The aforementioned πλάται for shoulder blades was also used for blades of an oar. Concordantly σπάθη was also used to refer to the shoulder blade.
The English word spade, is cognate with σπάθη. Please notice, that the aforementioned term pala as applied by Roman physician Caelius Aurelianus, also means spade. Pala is probably related to the Latin verb pandere, to spread out, and to extend. This verb is thought to be derived from an earlier form spandere, with the root spa-. Σπάθη is actually derived from the similar root spē(i), that means to extend.
It seems that os latum scapularum, ὠμοπλάτη, πλάται, pala, spathula and σπάθη all refer to the same aspect of the shoulder blade, i.e. being a flat, broad blade, with the latter three words etymological related to each other.
Scapula after the Middle Ages
After the Middle Ages, the name scapula for shoulder blade became dominant. The word scapula can etymologically be explained by its relatedness to the ancient Greek verb σκάπτειν, to dig. This relatedness gives rise to several possible explanations.
First, the noun σκάπετος, trench, and the scapula related noun σκαφη, are both derived from this verb and might connect scapula to the notion of concavity. The name scapula then may be related to the concavity of the bone that exists due to its spine. The designation scapulae is additionally seen as synonym of ancient Greek συνωμία, the space between the shoulder blades, that is obviously concave. Συνωμία consists of σύν, together with, and ὦμος, shoulder.
Second, scapula, due to its relatedness to σκάπτειν might have originally meant shovel. Similarly to the Latin use of pala (spade), a resemblance might be felt between the shape of a shovel and the shoulder blade. Alternatively, the shoulder blade might have been used originally for digging and shoveling.
Shoulder blade
Shoulder blade is colloquial name for this bone. Shoulder is cognate to German and Dutch equivalents Schulter and schouder. There are a few etymological explanations for shoulder. The first supposes that shoulder can be literally translated as that which shields or protects, as its possibly related to Icelandic skioldr, shield and skyla, to cover, to defend. The second explanation relates shoulder to ancient Greek σκέλος, leg. The latter spots the possible root skel-, meaning to bend, to curve. The third explanation links the root skel- to to cleave. This meaning could refer to the shape of the shoulder blade.
In other animals
In fish, the scapular blade is a structure attached to the upper surface of the articulation of the pectoral fin, and is accompanied by a similar coracoid plate on the lower surface. Although sturdy in cartilagenous fish, both plates are generally small in most other fish, and may be partially cartilagenous, or consist of multiple bony elements.
In the early tetrapods, these two structures respectively became the scapula and a bone referred to as the procoracoid (commonly called simply the "coracoid", but not homologous with the mammalian structure of that name). In amphibians and reptiles (birds included), these two bones are distinct, but together form a single structure bearing many of the muscle attachments for the forelimb. In such animals, the scapula is usually a relatively simple plate, lacking the projections and spine that it possesses in mammals. However, the detailed structure of these bones varies considerably in living groups. For example, in frogs, the procoracoid bones may be braced together at the animal's underside to absorb the shock of landing, while in turtles, the combined structure forms a Y-shape in order to allow the scapula to retain a connection to the clavicle (which is part of the shell). In birds, the procoracoids help to brace the wing against the top of the sternum.
In the fossil therapsids, a third bone, the true coracoid, formed just behind the procoracoid. The resulting three-boned structure is still seen in modern monotremes, but in all other living mammals, the procoracoid has disappeared, and the coracoid bone has fused with the scapula, to become the coracoid process. These changes are associated with the upright gait of mammals, compared with the more sprawling limb arrangement of reptiles and amphibians; the muscles formerly attached to the procoracoid are no longer required. The altered musculature is also responsible for the alteration in the shape of the rest of the scapula; the forward margin of the original bone became the spine and acromion, from which the main shelf of the shoulder blade arises as a new structure.
In dinosaurs
In dinosaurs the main bones of the pectoral girdle were the scapula (shoulder blade) and the coracoid, both of which directly articulated with the clavicle. The clavicle was present in saurischian dinosaurs but largely absent in ornithischian dinosaurs. The place on the scapula where it articulated with the humerus (upper bone of the forelimb) is called the glenoid. The scapula serves as the attachment site for a dinosaur's back and forelimb muscles.
Gallery
See also
Scapulimancy/Oracle bone
References
Nickel, Schummer, & Seiferle; Lehrbuch der Anatomie der Haussäugetiere.
External links
- "Joints of the Upper Extremity: Scapula"
shoulder/bones/bones2 at the Dartmouth Medical School's Department of Anatomy
shoulder/surface/surface2 at the Dartmouth Medical School's Department of Anatomy
()
Bones of the upper limb
Flat bones
Shoulder
|
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211390
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anneli%20J%C3%A4%C3%A4tteenm%C3%A4ki
|
Anneli Jäätteenmäki
|
Anneli Tuulikki Jäätteenmäki (born 11 February 1955) is a Finnish politician who was the first female Prime Minister of Finland from 17 April 2003 to 24 June 2003. From 2004 until 2019, she served as a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) from Finland.
Background and career
Jäätteenmäki was born on a small farm in the forests of Ostrobothnia in Finland. Her brother was to take over the farm, so the daughters of the family went to school. Jäätteenmäki became a member of the Centre Party and was active in student politics. She earned a master's degree in law in 1980 and worked as a lawyer for the party's parliamentary group from 1981 until 1987, when she was elected to the Finnish Parliament (Eduskunta). Jäätteenmäki was Minister of Justice from 1994 to 1995, then her party became part of the opposition. She was elected as chairwoman of the Centre Party of Finland from 18 June 2000 to 5 October 2003, although the first year was as acting leader during Esko Aho's sabbatical leave to lecture at Harvard University.
Prime Minister
After eight years in opposition, she led the Centre Party of Finland to a narrow victory over the formerly largest party, the Social Democratic Party of Finland, in the parliamentary elections of 2003. According to the new constitution, which was in effect for the first time after this election, she was thereby given the first opportunity to form a new Cabinet. After successful coalition negotiations with the Social Democrats and the Swedish People's Party, she came to head a coalition cabinet which chiefly continued on the lines of its predecessor, Paavo Lipponen's second Cabinet, but introduced new measures to stimulate the economy, including tax cuts.
During her brief time in office, Finland was the only country in the world to have women as both prime minister and president, a situation underlined by the fact that half her cabinet were women; but at the same time there was another country, New Zealand, whose head of state Queen Elizabeth II (in office 1952 to the present), her New Zealand representative Governor-General Silvia Cartwright (in office 2001-6), Prime Minister Helen Clark (in office 1999–2008) and Chief Justice Sian Elias (in office 1999–2019) were all female. (Anneli Jäätteenmäki's short term as Prime Minister of Finland is, however, not the shortest in the history of Finland. Beside caretaker cabinets and temporary prime ministers appointed due to the death or disease of the predecessor, Juho Heikki Vennola headed a Cabinet which lasted only for a little more than a month February–March 1931, in connection with the Lapua Movement's vociferous anti-democratic demands for influence on the presidential election.)
Resignation
Anneli Jäätteenmäki resigned on 18 June 2003, under pressure resulting from the accusation that she had lied to Parliament and the public over how she had acquired confidential Foreign Ministry documents which she used for political purposes during the election campaign. The documents contained diplomatic information from a meeting between United States President George W. Bush and Finland's Prime Minister Paavo Lipponen about Finland's position regarding the U.S.'s Iraq war. Jäätteenmäki used the information to suggest that her rival, the Social Democrat leader Paavo Lipponen, had secretly offered Finnish support for the U.S.-led coalition, a substantial breach of the official policy of neutrality in Finland's foreign politics, and thus associated Finland with what many Finns considered an illegal war of aggression. Jäätteenmäki broke the traditional unity and silence behind Finland's security policies. As the elections turned out to be close, the defeated Social Democrats found reasons to suspect that her nontraditional campaign tactic was decisive in determining the outcome, which soured the relationship between the two major coalition partners.
After the leaked documents were published in several newspapers in March, the police launched a criminal investigation based on the Official Secrets Act. On 11 June Prime Minister Jäätteenmäki was heard as a witness by the police, which led to increasing pressure on her to come clean on her role in the leak. The same week, the incriminating minutes of a meeting of Centre Party leaders were leaked to the press, as later came clear, via the Centre Party second vice-chairman Hannu Takkula. On 16 June it came to light that a presidential aide, Martti Manninen, affiliated with the Centre Party, had leaked the foreign ministry documents. On 18 June Jäätteenmäki gave her "full explanation" to Parliament and apologised to the President, claiming that she had been faxed the documents without asking for them, and that she had not known of their secrecy. The Parliament was not satisfied with her account, and once Manninen (the same afternoon) publicly claimed that Jäätteenmäki had specifically and forcefully asked for the information, and that he would be able to prove it, her coalition partners made it clear that they had no trust in her leadership. She resigned the same evening, citing the lack of political trust, and without admitting any wrongdoing.
Consequently, she announced on 24 June that she would resign as leader of the Centre Party. Matti Vanhanen was elected as the new party leader on 5 October, and he succeeded her as Prime Minister.
The police investigation into the leak concluded, on 19 December 2003, that Jäätteenmäki should be prosecuted for aiding or abetting Manninen in revealing state secrets in contravention of the law. However, on 19 March 2004, the Helsinki District Court acquitted Jäätteenmäki on all counts.
Member of European Parliament
Jäätteenmäki served as an MEP for the Centre Party in the European Parliament. In the 2004 European Parliament elections, she received over 140,000 votes, the highest individual tally and approximately 8% of all votes cast.
In April 2006, Jäätteenmäki announced to the Finnish media that she was going to take some time out of her parliamentary work due to breast cancer, but she returned to politics following her successful recovery. Despite offers to return to Finnish national politics, she declined to become a candidate in the Finnish Parliament elections in 2007. She was reelected to the European Parliament in the 2009 European Parliament elections with the second highest tally of votes in Finland after Timo Soini.
She was reelected to the European Parliament for a third time and final term in 2014
Cabinets
Jäätteenmäki Cabinet
References
External links
Anneli Jäättenmäki's personal website (in Finnish only)
Official European Parliament web page
|-
|-
1955 births
Living people
People from Lapua
Centre Party (Finland) politicians
Prime Ministers of Finland
Ministers of Justice of Finland
Speakers of the Parliament of Finland
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1987–91)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1991–95)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1995–99)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1999–2003)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (2003–07)
Centre Party (Finland) MEPs
MEPs for Finland 2004–2009
MEPs for Finland 2009–2014
MEPs for Finland 2014–2019
21st-century women MEPs for Finland
Women government ministers of Finland
Women prime ministers
Female heads of government
Female justice ministers
Women members of the Parliament of Finland
20th-century Finnish women politicians
Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty%20of%20Trianon
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Treaty of Trianon
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The Treaty of Trianon (, ) was prepared at the Paris Peace Conference and was signed in the Grand Trianon château in Versailles on 4 June 1920. It formally ended World War I between most of the Allies of World War I and the Kingdom of Hungary. French diplomats played the major role in designing the treaty, with a mind to establishing a French-led coalition of the newly formed states. It regulated the status of the Kingdom of Hungary and defined its borders generally within the ceasefire lines established in November–December 1918 and left Hungary as a landlocked state that included , 28% of the that had constituted the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary (the Hungarian half of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy). The truncated Kingdom had a population of 7.6 million, 36% compared to the pre-war kingdom's population of 20.9 million. In the last census before the Treaty of Trianon held in 1910, which recorded population by language and religion, but not by ethnicity, speakers of the Hungarian language included approximately 48% of the entire population of the Kingdom of Hungary. Though the areas that were allocated to neighbouring countries had a majority of non-Hungarians (based on the 1910 census: 54% Romanians in Transylvania, 58% Slovaks in Upper Hungary, 40% Serbo-Croatians in Vojvodina, 54% Ruthenians in Carpathian Ruthenia, 62% Croats in Croatia, 48% Italians in Fiume, 74% Germans in Őrvidék, 80% Slovenes in Muravidék), in them lived 3.3 million Hungarians – 31% – who were now in a minority status. The treaty limited Hungary's army to 35,000 officers and men, and the Austro-Hungarian Navy ceased to exist. These decisions and their consequences have been the cause of deep resentment in Hungary ever since.
The principal beneficiaries were the Kingdom of Romania, the Czechoslovak Republic, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), and the First Austrian Republic. One of the main elements of the treaty was the doctrine of "self-determination of peoples", and it was an attempt to give the non-Hungarians their own national states. In addition, Hungary had to pay war reparations to its neighbours. The treaty was dictated by the Allies rather than negotiated, and the Hungarians had no option but to accept its terms. The Hungarian delegation signed the treaty under protest, and agitation for its revision began immediately.
The current boundaries of Hungary are the same as those defined by the Treaty of Trianon, with some minor modifications until 1924 regarding the Hungarian-Austrian border and the notable exception of three villages that were transferred to Czechoslovakia in 1947.
After World War I, in 1921, only one plebiscite (later known as the Sopron plebiscite) was allowed concerning disputed borders on the former territory of the Kingdom of Hungary. It settled a small dispute between Austria and Hungary. During the Sopron-area plebiscite, the polling stations were supervised by army officers of the Allied powers.
Background
First World War and Austro-Hungarian Armistice
On 28 June 1914, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, the Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist. This caused a rapidly escalating July Crisis resulting in Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia, followed quickly by the entry of most European powers into the First World War. Two alliances faced off, the Central Powers (led by Germany) and the Triple Entente (led by Britain, France and Russia). In 1918 Germany tried to overwhelm the Allies on the Western Front, but failed. Instead the Allies began a successful counteroffensive and forced the Armistice of 11 November 1918 that resembled a surrender by the Central Powers. Irredentism—that is the demand for reunification of Hungarian peoples became a central theme of Hungarian politics and diplomacy.
On 6 April 1917, the United States entered the war against Germany, and in December 1917 against Austria-Hungary. The American war aim was end aggressive militarism as shown by Berlin and Vienna. The United States never formally joined the Allies. President Woodrow Wilson acted as an independent force and his Fourteen Points was accepted by Germany as a basis for the armistice of November 1918. It outlined a policy of free trade, open agreements, and democracy. While the term was not used self-determination was assumed. It called for a negotiated end to the war, international disarmament, the withdrawal of the Central Powers from occupied territories, the creation of a Polish state, the redrawing of Europe's borders along ethnic lines, and the formation of a League of Nations to guarantee the political independence and territorial integrity of all states. It called for a just and democratic peace uncompromised by territorial annexation. Point ten announced Wilson's "wish" that the peoples of the Austria-Hungary be given autonomy—a point that Vienna rejected. Germany, the major ally of Austria-Hungary in World War I, suffered numerous losses during Hundred Days Offensive between August and November 1918 and was in negotiation of armistice with Allied Powers from beginning of October 1918. Between 15 and 29 September 1918, Franchet d'Espèrey, in command of a relative small army of Greeks (9 divisions), French (6 divisions), Serbs (6 divisions), British (4 divisions) and Italians (1 division), staged a successful Vardar Offensive in Vardar Macedonia that ended by taking Bulgaria out of the war. That collapse of the Southern Front was one of several developments that effectively triggered the November 1918 Armistice. The political collapse of Austria-Hungary itself was now only a matter of days away. By the end of October 1918, the Austro-Hungarian Army was so fatigued that its commanders were forced to seek a ceasefire. Czechoslovakia and the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs were proclaimed and troops started deserting, disobeying orders and retreating. Many Czechoslovak troops, in fact, started working for the Allied Cause, and in September 1918, five Czechoslovak Regiments were formed in the Italian Army. The troops of Austria-Hungary started a chaotic withdrawal in Battle of Vittorio Veneto and Austria-Hungary began to negotiate a truce on 28 October.
Aster Revolution and the First Hungarian Republic
During the war, Count Mihály Károlyi led a small but very active pacifist anti-war maverick faction in the Hungarian parliament. He even organized covert contacts with British and French diplomats in Switzerland during the war.
The Austro-Hungarian monarchy politically collapsed and disintegrated as a result of a defeat in the Italian Front. On 31 October 1918, in mid of armistice negotiations, the Aster Revolution in Budapest brought liberal Hungarian aristocrat Count Mihály Károlyi, a supporter of the Allied Powers, to power. King Charles had no other option than the appointment of Mihály Károlyi as prime minister of Hungary. On 25 October 1918 Károlyi had formed the Hungarian National Council. The Hungarian Royal Honvéd army still had more than 1,400,000 soldiers when Mihály Károlyi was announced as prime minister of Hungary. Károlyi yielded to U.S. President Woodrow Wilson's demand for pacifism by ordering the unilateral self-disarmament of the Hungarian army. This happened under the direction of Minister of War Béla Linder on 2 November 1918 Due to the full disarmament of its army, Hungary was to remain without a national defence at a time of particular vulnerability. The Hungarian self-disarmament made the occupation of Hungary directly possible for the relatively small armies of Romania, the Franco-Serbian army and the armed forces of the newly established Czechoslovakia. When Oszkár Jászi became the new Minister for National Minorities of Hungary, immediately offered democratic referendums about the disputed borders for minorities; however, the political leaders of those minorities refused the very idea of democratic referendums regarding disputed territories at the Paris peace conference. After the Hungarian self-disarmament, Czech, Serbian, and Romanian political leaders chose to attack Hungary instead of holding democratic plebiscites concerning the disputed areas.
On the request of the Austro-Hungarian Government, an armistice was granted to Austria-Hungary on 3 November 1918 by the Allies. Military and political events changed rapidly and drastically after the Hungarian unilateral disarmament:
on 5 November 1918, the Serbian army, with the help of the French army, crossed southern borders,
on 8 November, the Czechoslovak Army crossed the northern borders,
on 10 November d'Espérey's army crossed the Danube river and was poised to enter the Hungarian heartland,
on 11 November Germany signed an armistice with Allies, under which they had to immediately withdraw all German troops in Romania and in the Ottoman Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Russian Empire back to German territory and Allies to have access to these countries. and
on 13 November, the Romanian army crossed the eastern borders of the Kingdom of Hungary.
During the rule of Károlyi's pacifist cabinet, Hungary lost the control over approx. 75% of its former pre-WWI territories () without a fight and was subject to foreign occupation.
The Armistice of 3 November signed with Austria-Hungary was completed as regards Hungary on 13 November, when Károlyi signed the Armistice of Belgrade with the Allied nations, in order that a Treaty of Peace might be concluded. It limited the size of the Hungarian army to six infantry and two cavalry divisions. Demarcation lines defining the territory to remain under Hungarian control were made. The lines would apply until definitive borders could be established. Under the terms of the armistice, Serbian and French troops advanced from the south, taking control of the Banat and Croatia. Czechoslovakia took control of "Upper Hungary", consisting roughly of present day Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia. Romanian forces were permitted to advance to the River Mureș (Maros). However, on 14 November, Serbia occupied Pécs. General Franchet d'Espèrey followed up the victory by overrunning much of the Balkans and by the war's end, his troops had penetrated well into Hungary.
After King Charles's withdrawal from government on 16 November 1918 made Károlyi proclaim the First Hungarian Republic, with himself as provisional president of the republic.
Fall of the Hungarian liberal regime and communist coup d'état
The Károlyi government failed to manage both domestic and military issues and lost popular support. On 20 March 1919, Béla Kun, who had been imprisoned in the Markó Street prison, was released. On 21 March, he led a successful communist coup d'état; Károlyi was deposed and arrested. Kun formed a social democratic, communist coalition government and proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic. Days later the Communists purged the Social Democrats from the government. The Hungarian Soviet Republic was a small communist rump state. When the Republic of Councils in Hungary was established, it controlled only approximately 23 percent of the Hungary's historic territory.
The Communists remained bitterly unpopular in the Hungarian countryside, where the authority of that government was often nonexistent. Rather than divide the big estates among the peasants - which might have gained their support for the government, but would have created a class of small-holding farmers which by Marxist of the kind which Marxist theory regards as inherently conservative - the Communist government proclaimed the nationalization of the estates. But having no skilled people to manage the estates, the Communists had no choice but to leave the existing estate managers in place. These, while formally accepting their new government bosses, in practice retained their loyalty to the deposed aristocratic owners. The peasants felt that the Revolution had no real effect on their lives, and thus no reason to support it. The communist party and communist policies only had real popular support among the proletarian masses of large industrial centers – especially in Budapest – where the working class represented a high proportion of the inhabitants. The communist government followed the Soviet model: the party established its terror groups (like the infamous Lenin Boys) to "overcome the obstacles" in the Hungarian countryside. This was later known as the Red Terror in Hungary.
In late May, after the Entente military representative demanded more territorial concessions from Hungary, Kun attempted to "fulfill" his promise to adhere to Hungary's historical borders. The men of the Hungarian Red Army were recruited mainly from the volunteers of the Budapest proletariat. On 20 May 1919, a force under Colonel Aurél Stromfeld attacked and routed Czechoslovak troops from Miskolc. The Romanian Army attacked the Hungarian flank with troops from the 16th Infantry Division and the Second Vânători Division, aiming to maintain contact with the Czechoslovak Army. Hungarian troops prevailed and the Romanian Army retreated to its bridgehead at Tokaj. There, between 25–30 May, Romanian forces were required to defend their position against Hungarian attacks. On 3 June, Romania was forced into further retreat but extended its line of defence along the Tisza River and reinforced its position with the 8th Division, which had been moving forward from Bukovina since 22 May. Hungary then controlled the territory almost to its old borders; regained control of industrial areas around Miskolc, Salgótarján, Selmecbánya (Banská Štiavnica), Kassa (Košice).
In June, the Hungarian Red Army invaded the eastern part of the so-called Upper Hungary, now claimed by the newly forming Czechoslovak state. The Hungarian Red Army achieved some military success early on: under the leadership of Colonel Aurél Stromfeld, it ousted Czechoslovak troops from the north and planned to march against the Romanian Army in the east. Kun ordered the preparation of an offensive against Czechoslovakia, which would increase his domestic support by making good on his promise to restore Hungary's borders. The Hungarian Red Army recruited men between 19–25 years of age. Industrial workers from Budapest volunteered. Many former Austro-Hungarian officers re-enlisted for patriotic reasons. The Hungarian Red Army moved its 1st and 5th artillery divisions—40 battalions—to Upper Hungary.
Despite promises for the restoration of the former borders of Hungary, the communists declared the establishment of the Slovak Soviet Republic in Prešov (Eperjes) on 16 June 1919. After the proclamation of the Slovak Soviet Republic, the Hungarian nationalists and patriots soon realized that the new communist government had no intentions to recapture the lost territories, only to spread communist ideology and establish other communist states in Europe, thus sacrificing Hungarian national interests. The Hungarian patriots and professional military officers in the Red Army saw the establishment of the Slovak Soviet Republic as a betrayal, and their support for the government began to erode (the communists and their government supported the establishment of the Slovak Communist state, while the Hungarian patriots wanted to keep the reoccupied territories for Hungary). Despite a series of military victories against the Czechoslovak army, the Hungarian Red Army started to disintegrate due to tension between nationalists and communists during the establishment of the Slovak Soviet Republic. The concession eroded support of the communist government among professional military officers and nationalists in the Hungarian Red Army; even the chief of the general staff Aurél Stromfeld, resigned his post in protest.
When the French promised the Hungarian government that Romanian forces would withdraw from the Tiszántúl, Kun withdrew from Czechoslovakia his remaining military units who had remained loyal after the political fiasco with the Slovak Soviet Republic. Kun then unsuccessfully tried to turn the remaining units of the demoralized Hungarian Red Army on the Romanians.
Treaty preparation
The Hungarian "Conditions of Peace" were dated 15 January 1920, and their "Observations" handed in on 20 February. French diplomats played the major role in the drafting, and Hungarians were kept in the dark. Their long-term goal was to build a coalition of small new nations led by France and capable of standing up to Russia or Germany. This led to the "Little Entente" of Czechoslovakia, Romania and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (since 1929 Yugoslavia). The lengthy negotiation process was recorded on a daily basis by , deputy first secretary of the Hungarian delegation. The treaty of peace in final form was submitted to the Hungarians on 6 May and signed by them in Grand Trianon on 4 June 1920, entering into force on 26 July 1921. The United States did not ratify the Treaty of Trianon. Instead it negotiated a separate peace treaty with Hungary in 1921 that did not contradict the terms of the Trianon treaty.
Borders of Hungary
The Hungarian government terminated its union with Austria on 31 October 1918, officially dissolving the Austro-Hungarian state. The de facto temporary borders of independent Hungary were defined by the ceasefire lines in November–December 1918. Compared with the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary, these temporary borders did not include:
Part of Transylvania south of the Mureș River and east of the Someș River, which came under the control of Romania (cease-fire agreement of Belgrade signed on 13 November 1918). On 1 December 1918, the National Assembly of Romanians in Transylvania declared union with the Kingdom of Romania.
Slovakia was proclaimed as part of Czechoslovakia (status quo set by the Czechoslovak legions and accepted by the Entente on 25 November 1918). Afterwards, the Slovak politician Milan Hodža discussed with the Hungarian Minister of Defence, Albert Bartha, a temporary demarcation line that left between 650,000–886,000 Hungarians in the newly formed Czechoslovakia and between 142,000–399,000 Slovaks in the remainder of Hungary (the discrepancy was caused by the different way census was collected in Hungary and Czechoslovakia). That was signed on 6 December 1918.
South Slavic lands, which, after the war, were organised into two political formations – the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and Banat, Bačka and Baranja, which both came under control of South Slavs, according to the ceasefire agreement of Belgrade signed on 13 November 1918. Previously, on 29 October 1918, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia parliament, an autonomous kingdom within the Transleithania, terminated the union with the Kingdom of Hungary and on 30 October 1918 the Hungarian diet adopted a motion declaring that the constitutional relations between the two states had ended. Croatia-Slavonia was included in a newly formed State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs (which also included some other South Slavic territories, formerly administered by Austria-Hungary) on 29 October 1918. This state and the Kingdom of Serbia formed the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (Yugoslavia) on 1 December 1918.
The territories of Banat, Bačka and Baranja (which included most of the pre-war Hungarian counties of Baranya, Bács-Bodrog, Torontál, and Temes) came under military control by the Kingdom of Serbia and political control by local South Slavs. The Great People's Assembly of Serbs, Bunjevci, and other Slavs from Banat, Bácska and Baranya declared union of this region with Serbia on 25 November 1918. The ceasefire line had the character of a temporary international border until the treaty. The central parts of Banat were later assigned to Romania, respecting the wishes of Romanians from this area, which, on 1 December 1918, were present in the National Assembly of Romanians in Alba Iulia, which voted for union with the Kingdom of Romania.
The city of Fiume (Rijeka) was occupied by the Italian nationalists group. Its affiliation was a matter of international dispute between the Kingdom of Italy and Yugoslavia.
Croatian-populated territories in modern Međimurje remained under Hungarian control after the Armistice of Belgrade of 13 November 1918. After the Međimurje was occupied by forces led by Slavko Kvaternik on 24 December 1918, this region declared separation from Hungary and entry into Yugoslavia at the popular assembly of 9 January 1919.
After the Romanian Army advanced beyond this cease-fire line, the Entente powers asked Hungary (Vix Note) to acknowledge the new Romanian territorial gains by a new line set along the Tisza river. Unable to reject these terms and unwilling to accept them, the leaders of the Hungarian Democratic Republic resigned and the Communists seized power. In spite of the country being under Allied blockade, the Hungarian Soviet Republic was formed and the Hungarian Red Army was rapidly set up. This army was initially successful against the Czechoslovak Legions, due to covert food and arms aid from Italy. This made it possible for Hungary to reach nearly the former Galician (Polish) border, thus separating the Czechoslovak and Romanian troops from each other.
After a Hungarian-Czechoslovak cease-fire signed on 1 July 1919, the Hungarian Red Army left parts of Slovakia by 4 July, as the Entente powers promised to invite a Hungarian delegation to the Versailles Peace Conference. In the end, this particular invitation was not issued. Béla Kun, leader of the Hungarian Soviet Republic, then turned the Hungarian Red Army on the Romanian Army and attacked at the Tisza river on 20 July 1919. After fierce fighting that lasted some five days, the Hungarian Red Army collapsed. The Royal Romanian Army marched into Budapest on 4 August 1919.
The Hungarian state was restored by the Entente powers, helping Admiral Horthy into power in November 1919. On 1 December 1919, the Hungarian delegation was officially invited to the Versailles Peace Conference; however, the newly defined borders of Hungary were nearly concluded without the presence of the Hungarians. During prior negotiations, the Hungarian party, along with the Austrian, advocated the American principle of self-determination: that the population of disputed territories should decide by free plebiscite to which country they wished to belong. This view did not prevail for long, as it was disregarded by the decisive French and British delegates. According to some opinions, the Allies drafted the outline of the new frontiers with little or no regard to the historical, cultural, ethnic, geographic, economic and strategic aspects of the region. The Allies assigned territories that were mostly populated by non-Hungarian ethnicities to successor states, but also allowed these states to absorb sizeable territories that were mainly inhabited by Hungarian-speaking populations. For instance, Romania gained all of Transylvania, which was home to 2,800,000 Romanians, but also contained a significant minority of 1,600,000 Hungarians and about 250,000 Germans. The intent of the Allies was principally to strengthen these successor states at the expense of Hungary. Although the countries that were the main beneficiaries of the treaty partially noted the issues, the Hungarian delegates tried to draw attention to them. Their views were disregarded by the Allied representatives.
Some predominantly Hungarian settlements, consisting of more than two million people, were situated in a typically wide strip along the new borders in foreign territory. More concentrated groups were found in Czechoslovakia (parts of southern Slovakia), Yugoslavia (parts of northern Délvidék), and Romania (parts of Transylvania).
The final borders of Hungary were defined by the Treaty of Trianon signed on 4 June 1920. Beside exclusion of the previously mentioned territories, they did not include:
the rest of Transylvania, which together with some additional parts of the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary became part of Romania;
Carpathian Ruthenia, which became part of Czechoslovakia, pursuant to the Treaty of Saint-Germain in 1919;
most of Burgenland, which became part of Austria, also pursuant to the Treaty of Saint-Germain (the district of Sopron opted to remain within Hungary after a plebiscite held in December 1921, the only place where a plebiscite was held and factored in the decision);
Međimurje and the 2/3 of the Slovene March or Vendvidék (now Prekmurje), which became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.
By the Treaty of Trianon, the cities of Pécs, Mohács, Baja and Szigetvár, which were under Serb-Croat-Slovene administration after November 1918, were assigned to Hungary. An arbitration committee in 1920 assigned small northern parts of the former Árva and Szepes counties of the Kingdom of Hungary with Polish majority population to Poland. After 1918, Hungary did not have access to the sea, which pre-war Hungary formerly had directly through the Rijeka coastline and indirectly through Croatia-Slavonia.
Representatives of small nations living in the former Austria-Hungary and active in the Congress of Oppressed Nations regarded the treaty of Trianon for being an act of historical righteousness because a better future for their nations was "to be founded and durably assured on the firm basis of world democracy, real and sovereign government by the people, and a universal alliance of the nations vested with the authority of arbitration" while at the same time making a call for putting an end to "the existing unbearable domination of one nation over the other" and making it possible "for nations to organize their relations to each other on the basis of equal rights and free conventions". Furthermore, they believed the treaty would help toward a new era of dependence on international law, the fraternity of nations, equal rights, and human liberty as well as aid civilisation in the effort to free humanity from international violence.
Results and consequences
1910 census
The last census before the Treaty of Trianon was held in 1910. This census recorded population by language and religion, but not by ethnicity. However, it is generally accepted that the largest ethnic group in the Kingdom of Hungary in this time were the Hungarians. According to the 1910 census, speakers of the Hungarian language included approximately 48% of the entire population of the kingdom, and 54% of the population of the territory referred to as "Hungary proper", i.e. excluding Croatia-Slavonia. Within the borders of "Hungary proper" numerous ethnic minorities were present: 16.1% Romanians, 10.5% Slovaks, 10.4% Germans, 2.5% Ruthenians, 2.5% Serbs and 8% others. 5% of the population of "Hungary proper" were Jews, who were included in speakers of the Hungarian language. The population of the autonomous Croatia-Slavonia was mostly composed of Croats and Serbs (who together counted 87% of population).
Criticism of the 1910 census
The census of 1910 classified the residents of the Kingdom of Hungary by their native languages and religions, so it presents the preferred language of the individual, which may or may not correspond to the individual's ethnic identity. To make the situation even more complex, in the multilingual kingdom there were territories with ethnically mixed populations where people spoke two or even three languages natively. For example, in the territory what is today Slovakia (then part of Upper Hungary) 18% of the Slovaks, 33% of the Hungarians and 65% of the Germans were bilingual. In addition, 21% of the Germans spoke both Slovak and Hungarian beside German. These reasons are ground for debate about the accuracy of the census.
While several demographers (David W. Paul, Peter Hanak, László Katus) state that the outcome of the census is reasonably accurate (assuming that it is also properly interpreted), others believe that the 1910 census was manipulated by exaggerating the percentage of the speakers of Hungarian, pointing to the discrepancy between an improbably high growth of the Hungarian-speaking population and the decrease of percentual participation of speakers of other languages due to Magyarization in the kingdom in the late 19th century.
For example, the 1921 census in Czechoslovakia (only one year after the Treaty of Trianon) shows 21% Hungarians in Slovakia, compared to 30% based on 1910 census.
Some Slovak demographers (such as and Julius Mesaros) dispute the result of every pre-war census. Owen Johnson, an American historian, accepts the numbers of the earlier censuses up to the one in 1900, according to which the proportion of the Hungarians was 51.4%, but he neglects the 1910 census as he thinks the changes since the last census are too big. It is also argued that there were different results in previous censuses in the Kingdom of Hungary and subsequent censuses in the new states. Considering the size of discrepancies, some demographers are on the opinion that these censuses were somewhat biased in the favour of the respective ruling nation.
Distribution of the non-Hungarian and Hungarian populations
The number of non-Hungarian and Hungarian communities in the different areas based on the census data of 1910 (in this, people were not directly asked about their ethnicity, but about their native language). The present day location of each area is given in parenthesis.
According to another source, population distribution in 1910 looked as follows:
Hungarians outside the newly defined borders
The territories of the former Hungarian Kingdom that were ceded by the treaty to neighbouring countries in total (and each of them separately) had a majority of non-Hungarian nationals; however, the Hungarian ethnic area was much larger than the newly established territory of Hungary, therefore 30 percent of the ethnic Hungarians were under foreign authority.
After the treaty, the percentage and the absolute number of all Hungarian populations outside of Hungary decreased in the next decades (although, some of these populations also recorded temporary increase of the absolute population number). There are several reasons for this population decrease, some of which were spontaneous assimilation and certain state policies, like Slovakization, Romanianization, Serbianisation. Other important factors were the Hungarian migration from the neighbouring states to Hungary or to some western countries as well as decreased birth rate of Hungarian populations. According to the National Office for Refugees, the number of Hungarians who immigrated to Hungary from neighbouring countries was about 350,000 between 1918 and 1924.
Minorities in post-Trianon Hungary
On the other hand, a considerable number of other nationalities remained within the frontiers of the independent Hungary:
According to the 1920 census 10.4% of the population spoke one of the minority languages as mother language:
551,212 German (6.9%)
141,882 Slovak (1.8%)
36,858 Croatian (0.5%)
23,760 Romanian (0.3%)
23,228 Bunjevac and Šokac (0.3%)
17,131 Serbian (0.2%)
7,000 Slovene (0.08%)
The number of bilingual people was much higher, for example 1,398,729 people spoke German (17%), 399,176 people spoke Slovak (5%), 179,928 people spoke Croatian (2.2%) and 88,828 people spoke Romanian (1.1%). Hungarian was spoken by 96% of the total population and was the mother language of 89%. The percentage and the absolute number of all non-Hungarian nationalities decreased in the next decades, although the total population of the country increased. Bilingualism was also disappearing. The main reasons of this process were both spontaneous assimilation and the deliberate Magyarization policy of the state. Minorities made up 8% of the total population in 1930 and 7% in 1941 (on the post-Trianon territory).
After World War II approximately 200,000 Germans were deported to Germany, according to the decree of the Potsdam Conference. Under the forced exchange of population between Czechoslovakia and Hungary, approximately 73,000 Slovaks left Hungary and according to different estimations 120,500 or 45,000 Hungarians moved to present day Hungarian territory from Czechoslovakia. After these population movements, Hungary became a nearly ethnically homogeneous country.
Political consequences
Officially the treaty was intended to be a confirmation of the right of self-determination for nations and of the concept of nation-states replacing the old multinational Austro-Hungarian empire. Although the treaty addressed some nationality issues, it also sparked some new ones.
The minority ethnic groups of the pre-war kingdom were the major beneficiaries. The Allies had explicitly committed themselves to the causes of the minority peoples of Austria-Hungary late in World War I. For all intents and purposes, the death knell of the Austro-Hungarian empire sounded on 14 October 1918, when United States Secretary of State Robert Lansing informed Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister István Burián that autonomy for the nationalities was no longer enough. Accordingly, the Allies assumed without question that the minority ethnic groups of the pre-war kingdom wanted to leave Hungary. The Romanians joined their ethnic brethren in Romania, while the Slovaks, Serbs and Croats helped establish states of their own (Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia). However, these new or enlarged countries also absorbed large slices of territory with a majority of ethnic Hungarians or Hungarian speaking population. As a result, as many as a third of Hungarian language-speakers found themselves outside the borders of the post-Trianon Hungary.
While the territories that were now outside Hungary's borders had non-Hungarian majorities overall, there also existed some sizeable areas with a majority of Hungarians, largely near the newly defined borders. Over the last century, concerns have occasionally been raised about the treatment of these ethnic Hungarian communities in the neighbouring states. Areas with significant Hungarian populations included the Székely Land in Eastern Transylvania, the area along the newly defined Romanian-Hungarian border (cities of Arad, Oradea), the area north of the newly defined Czechoslovak–Hungarian border (Komárno, Csallóköz), southern parts of Subcarpathia and northern parts of Vojvodina.
The Allies rejected the idea of plebiscites in the disputed areas with the exception of the city of Sopron, which voted in favour of Hungary. The Allies were indifferent as to the exact line of the newly defined border between Austria and Hungary. Furthermore, ethnically diverse Transylvania, with an overall Romanian majority (53.8% – 1910 census data or 57.1% – 1919 census data or 57.3% – 1920 census data), was treated as a single entity at the peace negotiations and was assigned in its entirety to Romania. The option of partition along ethnic lines as an alternative was rejected.
Another reason why the victorious Allies decided to dissolve the Central-European great power, Austria-Hungary, a strong German supporter and fast developing region, was to prevent Germany from acquiring substantial influence in the future. The Western powers' main priority was to prevent a resurgence of the German Reich and they therefore decided that her allies in the region, Austria and Hungary, should be "contained" by a ring of states friendly to the Allies, each of which would be bigger than either Austria or Hungary. Compared to the Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary, post-Trianon Hungary had 60% less population and its political and economic footprint in the region was significantly reduced. Hungary lost connection to strategic military and economic infrastructure due to the concentric layout of the railway and road network, which the borders bisected. In addition, the structure of its economy collapsed, because it had relied on other parts of the pre-war Kingdom. The country also lost access to the Mediterranean and to the important sea port of Rijeka (Fiume), and became landlocked, which had a negative effect on sea trading and strategic naval operations. Furthermore, many trading routes that went through the newly defined borders from various parts of the pre-war kingdom were abandoned.
With regard to the ethnic issues, the Western powers were aware of the problem posed by the presence of so many Hungarians (and Germans) living outside the newly formed states of Hungary and Austria. The Romanian delegation to Versailles feared in 1919 that the Allies were beginning to favour the partition of Transylvania along ethnic lines to reduce the potential exodus and Prime Minister Ion I. C. Brătianu even summoned British-born Queen Marie to France to strengthen their case. The Romanians had suffered a higher relative casualty rate in the war than either Britain or France so it was considered that the Western powers had a moral debt to repay. In absolute terms, Romanian troops had considerably fewer casualties than either Britain or France, however. The underlying reason for the decision was a secret pact between The Entente and Romania. In the Treaty of Bucharest (1916) Romania was promised Transylvania and some other territories to the east of river Tisza, provided that she attacked Austria-Hungary from the south-east, where defences were weak. However, after the Central Powers had noticed the military manoeuvre, the attempt was quickly choked off and Bucharest fell in the same year.
By the time the victorious Allies arrived in France, the treaty was already settled, which made the outcome inevitable. At the heart of the dispute lay fundamentally different views on the nature of the Hungarian presence in the disputed territories. For Hungarians, the outer territories were not seen as colonial territories, but rather part of the core national territory. The non-Hungarians that lived in the Pannonian Basin saw the Hungarians as colonial-style rulers who had oppressed the Slavs and Romanians since 1848, when they introduced laws that the language used in education and in local offices was to be Hungarian. For non-Hungarians from the Pannonian Basin it was a process of decolonisation instead of a punitive dismemberment (as was seen by the Hungarians). The Hungarians did not see it this way because the newly defined borders did not fully respect territorial distribution of ethnic groups, with areas where there were Hungarian majorities outside the new borders. The French sided with their allies the Romanians who had a long policy of cultural ties to France since the country broke from the Ottoman Empire (due in part to the relative ease at which Romanians could learn French) although Clemenceau personally detested Bratianu. President Wilson initially supported the outline of a border that would have more respect to ethnic distribution of population based on the Coolidge Report, led by A. C. Coolidge, a Harvard professor, but later gave in, due to changing international politics and as a courtesy to other allies.
For Hungarian public opinion, the fact that almost three-fourths of the pre-war kingdom's territory and a significant number of ethnic Hungarians were assigned to neighbouring countries triggered considerable bitterness. Most Hungarians preferred to maintain the territorial integrity of the pre-war kingdom. The Hungarian politicians claimed that they were ready to give the non-Hungarian ethnicities a great deal of autonomy. Most Hungarians regarded the treaty as an insult to the nation's honour. The Hungarian political attitude towards Trianon was summed up in the phrases Nem, nem, soha! ("No, no, never!") and Mindent vissza! ("Return everything!" or "Everything back!"). The perceived humiliation of the treaty became a dominant theme in inter-war Hungarian politics, analogous with the German reaction to the Treaty of Versailles.
By the arbitrations of Germany and Italy, Hungary expanded its borders towards neighbouring countries before and during World War II. This started by the First Vienna Award, then was continued with the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1939 (annexation of the remainder of Carpathian Ruthenia and a small strip from eastern Slovakia), afterwards by the Second Vienna Award in 1940, and finally by the annexations of territories after the breakup of Yugoslavia. This territorial expansion was short-lived, since the post-war Hungarian boundaries in the Paris Peace Treaties, 1947 were nearly identical to those of 1920 (with three villages – Horvátjárfalu, Oroszvár, and Dunacsún – transferred to Czechoslovakia).
Legacy
The treaty's perceived disproportion has had a lasting impact on Hungarian politics and culture, with some commentators even likening it to a "collective pathology" that places Trianon into a much larger narrative of Hungarian victimhood at the hands of foreign powers. Within Hungary, Trianon is often referred to as a "diktat," "tragedy," and "trauma." According to a study, two-thirds of Hungarians agreed in 2020 that parts of neighbouring countries should belong to them, the highest percentage in any NATO countries. Such irredentism was one of the main contributing factors to Hungary's decision to enter World War II as an Axis Power; Adolf Hitler had promised to intervene on Hungary's behalf to restore majority-ethnic Hungarian lands lost after Trianon.
Hungarian bitterness at Trianon was also a source of regional tension after the Cold War ended in 1989. For example, Hungary attracted international media attention in 1999 for passing the "status law" concerning estimated three-million ethnic Hungarian minorities in neighbouring Romania, Slovakia, Serbia and Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia and Ukraine. The law aimed to provide education, health benefits and employment rights to these minorities as a means of providing reparations for Trianon's negative consequences.
Trianon's legacy is similarly implicated in the question of whether to grant extraterritorial ethnic Hungarians citizenship, an important issue in contemporary Hungarian politics. In 2004, a majority of voters approved extending citizenship to ethnic Hungarians in a referendum, which nonetheless failed due to low turnout. In 2011, Viktor Orbán's newly-formed government liberalized the nationality law by statute. Although Orbán depicted the new law as redressing Trianon, many commentators speculated about an additional political motivation; the law granted voting rights to extraterritorial Hungarians, who were seen as a reliable base of support for Orbán's national-conservative Fidesz party.
Economic consequences
The Austro-Hungarian Empire was one economic unit with autarkic characteristics during its golden age and therefore achieved rapid growth, especially in the early 20th century when GNP grew by 1.76%. (That level of growth compared very favourably to that of other European states such as Britain (1.00%), France (1.06%), and Germany (1.51%).) There was also a division of labour present throughout the empire: that is, in the Austrian part of the Monarchy manufacturing industries were highly advanced, while in the Kingdom of Hungary an agro-industrial economy had emerged. By the late 19th century, economic growth of the eastern regions consistently surpassed that of western, thus discrepancies eventually began to diminish. The key success of fast development was specialisation of each region in fields that they were best.
The Kingdom of Hungary was the main supplier of wheat, rye, barley and other various goods in the empire and these comprised a large portion of the empire's exports. Meanwhile, the territory of present-day Czech Republic (Kingdom of Bohemia) owned 75% of the whole industrial capacity of former Austria-Hungary. This shows that the various parts of the former monarchy were economically interdependent. As a further illustration of this issue, post-Trianon Hungary produced 500% more agricultural goods than it needed for itself and mills around Budapest (some of the largest ones in Europe at the time) operated at 20% level. As a consequence of the treaty, all the competitive industries of the former empire were compelled to close doors, as great capacity was met by negligible demand owing to economic barriers presented in the form of the newly defined borders.
Post-Trianon Hungary possessed 90% of the engineering and printing industry of the pre-war Kingdom, while only 11% of timber and 16% of iron was retained. In addition, 61% of arable land, 74% of public roads, 65% of canals, 62% of railroads, 64% of hard surface roads, 83% of pig iron output, 55% of industrial plants, and 67% of credit and banking institutions of the former Kingdom of Hungary lay within the territory of Hungary's neighbours. These statistics correspond to post-Trianon Hungary retaining only around a third of the Kingdom's territory before the war and around 60% of its population. The new borders also bisected transport links – in the Kingdom of Hungary the road and railway network had a radial structure, with Budapest in the centre. Many roads and railways, running along the newly defined borders and interlinking radial transport lines, ended up in different, highly introvert countries. Hence, much of the rail cargo traffic of the emergent states was virtually paralysed. These factors all combined created some imbalances in the now separated economic regions of the former Monarchy.
The disseminating economic problems had been also noted in the Coolidge Report as a serious potential aftermath of the treaty. This opinion was not taken into account during the negotiations. Thus, the resulting uneasiness and despondency of one part of the concerned population was later one of the main antecedents of World War II. Unemployment levels in Austria, as well as in Hungary, were dangerously high, and industrial output dropped by 65%. What happened to Austria in industry happened to Hungary in agriculture where production of grain declined by more than 70%. Austria, especially the imperial capital Vienna, was a leading investor of development projects throughout the empire with more than 2.2 billion crown capital. This sum sunk to a mere 8.6 million crowns after the treaty took effect and resulted in a starving of capital in other regions of the former empire.
The disintegration of the multi-national state conversely impacted neighbouring countries, too: In Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia, and Bulgaria a fifth to a third of the rural population could find no work, and industry was in no position to absorb them.
In comparison, by 1921 the new Czechoslovak state reached 75% of its pre-war production owing to their favourable position among the victors, and greater associated access to international rehabilitation resources.
With the creation of customs barriers and fragmented protective economies, the economic growth and outlook in the region sharply declined, ultimately culminating in a deep recession. It proved to be immensely challenging for the successor states to successfully transform their economies to adapt to the new circumstances. All the formal districts of Austria-Hungary used to rely on each other's exports for growth and welfare; by contrast, 5 years after the treaty, traffic of goods between the countries dropped to less than 5% of its former value. This could be attributed to the introduction of aggressive nationalistic policies by local political leaders.
The drastic shift in economic climate forced the countries to re-evaluate their situation and to promote industries where they had fallen short. Austria and Czechoslovakia subsidised the mill, sugar and brewing industries, while Hungary attempted to increase the efficiency of iron, steel, glass and chemical industries. The stated objective was that all countries should become self-sufficient. This tendency, however, led to uniform economies and competitive economic advantage of long well-established industries and research fields evaporated. The lack of specialisation adversely affected the whole Danube-Carpathian region and caused a distinct setback of growth and development compared to western and northern European regions as well as high financial vulnerability and instability.
Miscellaneous consequences
Romania, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia had to assume part of the financial obligations of the former Kingdom of Hungary on account of the parts of its former territory that were assigned under their sovereignty.
Some conditions of the Treaty were similar to those imposed on Germany by the Treaty of Versailles. After the war, the Austro-Hungarian navy, air force and army were disbanded. The army of post-Trianon Hungary was to be restricted to 35,000 men and there was to be no conscription. Heavy artillery, tanks and air force were prohibited. Further provisions stated that in Hungary, no railway would be built with more than one track, because at that time railways held substantial strategic importance economically and militarily.
Articles 54–60 of the Treaty required Hungary to recognise various rights of national minorities within its borders.
Articles 61–66 stated that all former citizens of the Kingdom of Hungary living outside the newly defined frontiers of Hungary were to ipso facto lose their Hungarian citizenship in one year.
Under articles 79 to 101 Hungary renounced all privileges in territories outside Europe, relating to Morocco, Egypt, Siam and China, which belonged to the former Austro-Hungarian monarchy.
See also
Union of Hungary and Romania
Millerand letter
Aftermath of World War I
Minority Treaties
Banat Republic
Republic of Prekmurje
Serbian-Hungarian Baranya-Baja Republic
Trianon Syndrome
Trianon Treaty Day
Notes
References
Further reading
Badescu, Ilie. "Peacebuilding in an Era of State-Nations: The Europe of Trianon." Romanian Journal of Sociological Studies 2 (2018): 87–100. online
Balogh, Eva S. "Peaceful Revision: The Diplomatic Road to War." Hungarian Studies Review 10.1 (1983): 43- 51. online
Bandholtz, H.H. An Undiplomatic Diary by the American Member of the Inter-Allied Military Mission to Hungary: 1919–1920. (1933) online
Bartha, Dezso. "Trianon and the Predestination of Hungarian Politics: A Historiography of Hungarian Revisionism, 1918–1944." (Thesis, University of Central Florida, 2006) online
Bihari, Peter. "Images of defeat: Hungary after the lost war, the revolutions and the Peace Treaty of Trianon." Crossroads of European histories: multiple outlooks on five key moments in the history of Europe (2006) pp: 165–171.
Deák, Francis. Hungary at the Paris Peace Conference: The Diplomatic History of the Treaty of Trianon (Howard Fertig, 1942).
Győri, Róbert, and Charles WJ Withers. "Trianon and its aftermath: British geography and the 'dismemberment’of Hungary, c. 1915-c. 1922." Scottish Geographical Journal 135.1–2 (2019): 68–97. online
Hanák, Peter. "Hungary on a fixed course: An outline of Hungarian history, 1918–1945." in Joseph Held, ed., Columbia history of Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century (1992) pp: 164–204.
Jeszenszky, Géza. "The Afterlife of the Treaty of Trianon." The Hungarian Quarterly 184 (2006): 101–111.
Király, Béla K. and László Veszprémy, eds. Trianon and East Central Europe: Antecedents and Repercussions (Columbia University Press, 1995).
Kurti, Laszlo. The Remote Borderland: Transylvania in the Hungarian Imagination (SUNY Press, 2014).
Macartney, Carlile Aylmer Hungary and Her Successors: The Treaty of Trianon and Its Consequences 1919–1937 (1937)
Macartney, Carlile Aylmer October Fifteenth – A History of Modern Hungary 1929–1945. Edinburgh University Press (1956)
Menyhért, Anna. "The Image of the "Maimed Hungary" in 20th Century Cultural Memory and the 21st Century Consequences of an Unresolved Collective Trauma: The Impact of the Treaty of Trianon." Environment, Space, Place 8.2 (2016): 69–97. online
Pastor, Peter. "Major trends in Hungarian foreign policy from the collapse of the monarchy to the peace treaty of Trianon." Hungarian Studies. A Journal of the International Association for Hungarian Studies and Balassi Institute 17.1 (2003): 3–12.
Pastor, Peter. "The United States' Role in the Shaping of the Peace Treaty of Trianon." Historian 76.3 (2014) pp 550–566.
Pastor, Peter. "Hungarian and Soviet Efforts to Possess Ruthenia" Historian (2019) 81#3 pp 398–425.
Aliaksandr Piahanau, Hungary's Policy Towards Czechoslovakia, 1918-36. PhD dissertation. Toulouse University, 2018
Putz, Orsolya. Metaphor and National Identity: Alternative conceptualization of the Treaty of Trianon (John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2019).
Romsics, Ignác. The Dismantling of Historic Hungary: The Peace Treaty of Trianon, 1920 (Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, 2002).
Romsics, Ignác. "The Trianon Peace Treaty in Hungarian Historiography and Political Thinking." East European Monographs (2000): 89–105.
Romsics, Ignác. "Hungarian Revisionism in Thought and Action, 1920–1941: Plans, Expectations, Reality" in Marina Cattaruzza ed., Territorial Revisionism and the Allies of Germany in the Second World War: Goals, Expectations, Practices (2013) pp. 92–101 online
Steiner, Zara S. The lights that failed: European international history, 1919–1933 (2007) Trianon in relation to powers and nearby countries.
Steiner, Zara. The triumph of the dark: European international history 1933–1939 (2011), continued,
Várdy, Steven Béla. "The Impact of Trianon upon Hungary and the Hungarian Mind: The Nature of Interwar Hungarian Irredentism." Hungarian Studies Review 10.1 (1983): 21+. online
Wojatsek, Charles. From Trianon to the First Vienna Arbitral Award: The Hungarian Minority in the First Czechoslovak Republic, 1918–1938 (Montreal: Institute of Comparative Civilizations, 1980).
External links
Zeidler, Miklós: Treaty of Trianon, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
Sharp, Alan: The Paris Peace Conference and its Consequences, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
Trianon Treaty text (in English)
Map of Hungarian borders in November–December 1918
Map of Europe and Treaty of Trianon at omniatlas.com
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Treaties of the Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)
Treaties of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)
Treaties of the Kingdom of Romania
Great Union (Romania)
Treaties of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia
Treaties of the Portuguese First Republic
Treaties of the Republic of China (1912–1949)
Treaties of the Second Polish Republic
Treaties of the United Kingdom (1801–1922)
Trianon
Yugoslav Croatia
Yugoslav Serbia
Greater Romania
Territorial evolution of Hungary
Territorial evolution of Romania
Dissolution of Austria-Hungary
Hungary–Romania relations
Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toe
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Toe
|
Toes are the digits (fingers) of the foot of a tetrapod. Animal species such as cats that walk on their toes are described as being digitigrade. Humans, and other animals that walk on the soles of their feet, are described as being plantigrade; unguligrade animals are those that walk on hooves at the tips of their toes.
Structure
There are normally five toes present on each human foot. Each toe consists of three phalanx bones, the proximal, middle, and distal, with the exception of the big toe (). For a minority of people, the little toe also is missing a middle bone. The hallux only contains two phalanx bones, the proximal and distal. The joints between each phalanx are the interphalangeal joints. The proximal phalanx bone of each toe articulates with the metatarsal bone of the foot at the metatarsophalangeal joint. Each toe is surrounded by skin, and present on all five toes is a toenail.
The toes are, from medial to lateral:
the first toe, also known as the hallux ("big toe", "great toe", "thumb toe"), the innermost toe;
the second toe, ("Index toe", "pointer toe"),
the third toe, ("middle toe");
the fourth toe, ("fore toe"); and (fourth toe)
the fifth toe, ("baby toe", "little toe", "pinky toe", "small toe"), the outermost toe.
Muscles
Toe movement is generally flexion and extension (movement toward the sole or the back of the foot, resp.) via muscular tendons that attach to the toes on the anterior and superior surfaces of the phalanx bones.
With the exception of the hallux, toe movement is generally governed by action of the flexor digitorum brevis and extensor digitorum brevis muscles. These attach to the sides of the bones, making it impossible to move individual toes independently. Muscles between the toes on their top and bottom also help to abduct and adduct the toes. The hallux and little toe have unique muscles:
The hallux is primarily flexed by the flexor hallucis longus muscle, located in the deep posterior of the lower leg, via the flexor hallucis longus tendon. Additional flexion control is provided by the flexor hallucis brevis. It is extended by the abductor hallucis muscle and the adductor hallucis muscle.
The little toe has a separate set of control muscles and tendon attachments, the flexor and abductor digiti minimi. Numerous other foot muscles contribute to fine motor control of the foot. The connective tendons between the minor toes account for the inability to actuate individual toes.
Blood supply
The toes receive blood from the digital branches of the plantar metatarsal arteries and drain blood into the dorsal venous arch of the foot.
Nerve supply
Sensation to the skin of the toes is provided by five nerves. The superficial fibular nerve supplies sensation to the top of the toes, except between the hallux and second toe, which is supplied by the deep fibular nerve, and the outer surface of the fifth toe, supplied by the sural nerve. Sensation to the bottom of the toes is supplied by the medial plantar nerve, which supplies sensation to the great toe and inner three-and-a-half toes, and the lateral plantar nerve, which supplies sensation to the little toe and half of the sensation of the fourth toe.
In humans, the hallux is usually longer than the second toe, but in some individuals, it may not be the longest toe. There is an inherited trait in humans, where the dominant gene causes a longer second toe ("Morton's toe" or "Greek foot") while the homozygous recessive genotype presents with the more common trait: a longer hallux. People with the rare genetic disease fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva characteristically have a short hallux which appears to turn inward, or medially, in relation to the foot.
Variation
Humans usually have five toes on each foot. When more than five toes are present, this is known as polydactyly. Other variants may include syndactyly or arachnodactyly. Forefoot shape, including toe shape, exhibits significant variation among people; these differences can be measured and have been statistically correlated with ethnicity. Such deviations may affect comfort and fit for various shoe types. Research conducted for the U.S. Army indicated that larger feet may still have smaller arches, toe length, and toe-breadth.
Function
The human foot consists of multiple bones and soft tissues which support the weight of the upright human. Specifically, the toes assist the human while walking, providing balance, weight-bearing, and thrust during gait.
Clinical significance
A sprain or strain to the small interphalangeal joints of the toe is commonly called a stubbed toe. A sprain or strain where the toe joins to the foot is called turf toe.
Long-term use of improperly sized shoes can cause misalignment of toes, as well as other orthopedic problems.
Morton's neuroma commonly results in pain and numbness between the third and fourth toes of the sufferer, due to it affecting the nerve between the third and fourth metatarsal bones.
The big toe is also the most common locus of ingrown nails, and its proximal phalanx joint is the most common locus for gout attacks.
Deformity
Deformities of the foot include hammer toe, trigger toe, and claw toe. Hammer toe can be described as an abnormal contraction or “buckling” of a toe. This is done by a partial or complete dislocation of one of the joints, which form the toes. Since the toes are deformed further, these may press against a shoe and cause pain. Deformities of the foot can also be caused by rheumatoid arthritis and diabetes mellitus. Deformities may predispose to ulcers and pain, especially when shoe-wearing.
A common problem involving the big toe is the formation of bunions. These are structural deformities of the bones and the joint between the foot and big toe, and may be painful. Similar deformity involving the fifth toe is described as tailor's bunion or bunionette.
In polydactyly (which can also affect the fingers) one or more extra toes are present.
In reconstruction
A favourable option for the reconstruction of missing adjacent fingers/multiple digit amputations, i.e. such as a metacarpal hand reconstruction, is to have a combined second and third toe transplantation. Third and fourth toe transplantation to the hand in replacing lost fingers is also a viable option.
History
Etymology
Ta
The Old English term for toe is tā (plural tān). This is a contraction of tāhe, and derives from Proto-Germanic *taihwǭ (cognates: Old Norse tá, Old Frisian tāne, Middle Dutch tee, Dutch teen (perhaps originally a plural), Old High German zēha, German Zehe). Perhaps originally meaning "fingers" as well (many Indo-European languages use one word to mean both fingers and toes, e.g. "digit"), and thus from PIE root *deyḱ- — "to show".
Hallux
In classical Latin hallex, allex, hallus and allus, with genitive (h)allicis and (h)alli, are used to refer to the big toe. The form hallux (genitive, hallucis) currently in use is however a blend word of the aforementioned forms. Compare pollex, the equivalent term for the thumb.
Evolution
Haeckel traces the standard vertebrate five-toed schema from fish fins via amphibian ancestors.
Other animals
In birds with anisodactyl or heterodactyl feet, the hallux is opposed or directed backwards and allows for grasping and perching.
While the thumb is often mentioned as one of the signature characteristics in humans, this manual digit remains partially primitive and is actually present in all primates. In humans, the most derived digital feature is the hallux.
See also
Ainhum
Finger, for the hand digits
Morton's toe
Nail (anatomy)
Polydactyly and Syndactyly
Runner's toe
Toe cleavage
Toe tag
Toecuffs
Webbed toes
References
Foot
Podiatry
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Run%20Run%20Shaw
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Run Run Shaw
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Sir Run Run Shaw (23 November 1907 – 7 January 2014), also known as Shao Yifu and Siu Yat-fu, was a Hong Kong entertainment mogul and philanthropist. He was one of the most influential figures in the Asian entertainment industry. He founded the Shaw Brothers Studio, one of the largest film production companies in Hong Kong, and TVB, the dominant television company in Hong Kong.
A well-known philanthropist, Shaw donated billions of Hong Kong dollars to educational institutions in Hong Kong and mainland China. More than 5,000 buildings on Chinese college campuses bear his name, as does Shaw College of the Chinese University of Hong Kong. He also established the Shaw Prize for Astronomy, Life Science & Medicine and Mathematical Sciences.
Early life
Shaw was born in Ningbo, Zhejiang, Qing China as the youngest of the six sons of Shanghai textile merchant Shaw Yuh Hsuen () (1866–1921) and his wife Wang Shun Xiang () (1871–1939). His name at birth was Shao Renleng (), which was later changed to Shao Yifu (邵逸夫) because he thought that the average Chinese person would not know how to pronounce the character (léng). There are a number of explanations given for the use of his English name Run Run Shaw, but Shaw reportedly said that it was simply a transcription of his birth name Shao Renleng in the Ningbo dialect.
There is some confusion surrounding Shaw's exact date of birth. He celebrated his birthdays on the 14th day of the 10th month of the Chinese calendar, which fell on 23 November in 2007, his 100th birthday. Many sources use 23 November 1907 as his birthdate. However, the 14th day of the 10th month of the Chinese calendar in 1907 corresponds to 19 November 1907 on the Gregorian calendar, which, according to China Daily was his birthdate.
As a child, his family moved to Shanghai. He graduated from the Shanghai YMCA School, where he learned English.
Career
Early ventures
In 1925, Shaw's brothers, led by the eldest brother Runje Shaw, established Tianyi Film Company (also called Unique Film Productions) in Shanghai, and Run Run Shaw began his film career doing odd jobs for the company. In 1927, Run Run Shaw, then 19 years old, went to Singapore to assist his third elder brother Runme Shaw in their business venture there, initially to market films to Southeast Asia's Chinese community. They established the company that would later become the Shaw Organisation, and were involved in distributing and producing films in Southeast Asia. Tianyi produced what is considered the first sound-on-film Chinese talkie in 1931, and made the first Cantonese sound film in 1932. It was highly successful, and Tianyi established a branch in Hong Kong in 1934.
Just before the Japanese invasion of Shanghai in 1937, Tianyi moved its operation to Hong Kong, shipping its equipment from Shanghai. Its studio in Shanghai was destroyed when the Japanese occupied the city. In Hong Kong, Tianyi was reorganised as Nanyang Studio, which later became Shaw Brothers Studio. Run Run Shaw was credited with scripting and directing the 1937 comedy film Country Bumpkin Visits His In-laws.
In his early days in Singapore, Run Run Shaw supervised the company's business while Runme travelled north to Malaya to establish ties with local theatre owners. In 1927, having noticed that there were few cinemas in Malaya, Runme decided to open four cinemas there to show their films. By 1939, the brothers owned a chain of 139 cinemas across the region; the chain would later include Singapore's first air-conditioned cinema, at Beach Road. They also established a number of amusement parks throughout the region, including Borneo, Thailand and Java, such as the Great World Amusement Park at Kim Seng Road. The brothers began to make Malay films in Singapore in 1937. Inspired by the success of films intended for Malay audiences, for example Leila Majnun in 1934, and other films from the Dutch East Indies, the brothers established Malay Film Productions (MFP). This company would eventually produce over 160 Malay films, many of them starring and directed by P. Ramlee, until their studio at Jalan Ampas ceased production in 1967. The period between the end of the 1940s and the beginning of the 1960s is known as the Golden Age of Malay Cinema, with over 300 films made between MFP and Cathay Keris. In 1941, the Japanese invaded Singapore and Malaya and confiscated their film equipment. According to Run Run Shaw, he and his brother went into hiding during the war and buried more than $4 million in gold, jewellery and cash in their backyard, digging it up after the war and using it to rebuild their business.
Shaw Brothers Studios
In 1957, Run Run Shaw moved to Hong Kong, which was emerging as the new centre of Chinese-language cinema, and reorganised Tianyi's operations there as Shaw Brothers Studio. Shaw copied Hollywood by setting up a permanent production site where his actors worked and lived on 46 acres purchased from the government in Clearwater Bay. At the opening of the Shaw Movietown in December 1961, Shaw Studios had the world's largest privately owned film-production outfit with about 1,200 workers shooting and editing films daily. Shaw productions ran up to two hours and cost as much as $50,000, a lavish sum by Asian standards in the 1960s.
By the 1960s, Shaw Brothers had become the biggest producer of movies in Asia. Notable films produced by Shaw include director Li Han-hsiang's The Magnificent Concubine, which took the Grand Prix at the 1962 Cannes Film Festival; the 1963 blockbuster musical film The Love Eterne, also directed by Li Han-hsiang; King Hu's 1966 pioneering wuxia film Come Drink with Me; and Chang Cheh's 1967 The One-Armed Swordsman, which broke box office records. His companies in Shanghai, Singapore and Hong Kong made more than 1,000 movies, with annual production peaking at 50 pictures in 1974 when Shaw was described as the "Czar of Asian Movies". The popular nostalgic costume dramas of Shaw Brothers celebrated traditional Chinese values and culture, which was in contrast to the then anti-traditional ideology of Communist mainland China (particularly during the Cultural Revolution), but fit with the policy of the Nationalist government of Taiwan and US anti-Communist strategy, while not conflicting with the less provocative approach of the colonial government of Hong Kong. Shaw Studios also popularised the kung fu genre that had great influence on Eastern and Hollywood directors such as John Woo and Quentin Tarantino.
The studio declined in the 1970s, partly due to competition from Golden Harvest formed by his ex-employee Raymond Chow, which came to prominence through kung fu star Bruce Lee whom Shaw Brothers had previously turned down. Shaw began to focus his efforts on television. Shaw also looked for opportunities in the United States and co-produced a handful of US films, including the 1982 sci-fi classic Blade Runner. In 2000, through his company, Shaw Brothers (Hong Kong) Limited, he sold his library of 760 classic titles to Celestial Pictures Limited. Shaw Studios also entered a new era with Shaw's majority investment (through his various holding companies) in the US$180,000,000 Hong Kong Movie City project, a studio and production facility in Tseung Kwan O.
Television Broadcasts Limited
In 1967, he co-founded TVB, the first free-to-air television station in Hong Kong, growing it into a multibillion-dollar TV empire with channels broadcast in 30 markets including the US, Canada and Taiwan, making it the world's largest producer of Chinese-language programs. Shaw took a greater interest in TVB after succeeding the deceased Harold Lee as its chairman in 1980. Shaw leased most of Shaw Brothers' filmmaking facilities to TVB in 1983. Under his chairmanship, TVB successfully launched the careers of international stars such as Chow Yun-fat and Maggie Cheung, singers such as Leslie Cheung and Anita Mui, and directors like Wong Kar-wai. In 2006, TVB had 80 percent of Hong Kong's viewers and 78 percent of the city's TV advertising market.
In 31 December 2011, Shaw retired as chairman of Television Broadcasts Ltd. at the age of 104 after more than 40 years at Hong Kong's biggest television company, after selling his controlling stake to a group of investors including HTC Corporation chairman Cher Wang and ITC Corporation chairman Charles Chan for HK$6.26 billion in March. He was then named chairman emeritus. Shaw was one of the largest shareholders in Macy's after buying 10 percent of its preferred shares for US$50 million when it was nearly bankrupt in 1991.
Community life
Shaw was an advocate and financial supporter of the Hong Kong Arts Festival in which he became the first chairman of the Festival. He was also the chairman of the Hong Kong Arts Centre's Board of Governors. He was a member of the Board of Trustees of United College, one of the colleges of the Chinese University of Hong Kong when the university began in 1967. He became the vice-chairman of the Board of Trustees in 1972 and was appointed to the University Council of the Chinese University in 1977. Other public posts included vice-president of the Hong Kong Girl Guides Association and the Hong Kong Society for Rehabilitation. He was also the first Asian president of the Hong Kong Red Cross, and a leading figure in the fund raising of the Community Chest of Hong Kong since its inception.
Philanthropy
Over the years, Shaw donated HK$6.5 billion to charities, schools and hospitals in Hong Kong and mainland China through the Sir Run Run Shaw Charitable Trust and the Shaw Foundation, including donations of HK$4.75 billion to educational institutions in mainland China, which helped to build 6,013 construction projects ranging from primary schools to university libraries. More than 5,000 buildings in China's college campuses bear Shaw's Chinese name, "Yifu", which has become so ubiquitous that many mistake it as a generic name. Shaw College, the fourth constituent college of the Chinese University of Hong Kong, is also named after him, whose donations made the establishment of the college possible. His other major donations include 10 million British pounds in 1990 to help establish the Run Run Shaw Institute of Chinese Affairs at Oxford University, and US$13 million for disaster relief after the 2008 Sichuan earthquake.
Shaw Prize
In 2002, Shaw established an international award, the Shaw Prize, for scientists in three areas of research, namely astronomy, mathematics, and life and medical science. The award is up to US$1 million, and the first prize was awarded in 2004.
Personal life
He was the sixth of the seven children in the Shaw family, and was nicknamed Uncle Six (Luk Sook). His three elder brothers, Runje Shaw, Runde Shaw and Runme Shaw were all heads of the Shaw Studio. Runme Shaw, the third elder brother who co-founded the Shaw Studio with him, died in 1985.
Shaw's first wife was Lily Wong Mee-chun, who died at age 85 in 1987. In 1997, he married Mona Fong in Las Vegas. A former singer, Mona Fong joined TVB as a procurement manager in 1969 and became the deputy chairman of TVB in 2000. Shaw had four children with his first wife: sons Vee Meng and Harold, and daughters Violet and Dorothy. All of his children studied at Oxford University.
Shaw was a lover of Rolls-Royce limousines and a keen practitioner of qigong. Mr. Bean was reportedly his favourite show.
Death
He died at his residence on 7 January 2014, aged 106, and survived by his four children, nine grandchildren and several great-grandchildren. The family did not give the cause of the death.
His body was transferred from the United Christian Hospital to the Hong Kong Funeral Home in North Point on 10 January 2014. Many local leaders attended the funeral that day, including former Chief Executives Tung Chee-wah and Donald Tsang. Shaw's remains were brought to the Cape Collinson Crematorium in Chai Wan later the same day. PRC President Xi Jinping, former Premier Wen Jiabao and National People's Congress Chairman Zhang Dejiang sent messages of respect.
Honours
In 1964, after their discovery of a small main belt asteroid between Mars and Jupiter, Chinese astronomers at the Purple Mountain Observatory named it "2899 Runrun Shaw" in Shaw's honour.
In 1974, Shaw was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE). He received a knighthood in 1977 from Queen Elizabeth II and the Grand Bauhinia Medal (GBM) from the Hong Kong government in 1998.
He was awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Social Science by the Chinese University of Hong Kong in 1981 for his contribution to the university and community. In 1984, he was awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Laws by the University of Hong Kong to honour an outstanding contribution to applied visual arts, as well as to the community and cultural developments.
In 2007, coinciding with his 100th birthday, he was honoured with the Lifetime Achievement Award at the Hong Kong Film Awards.
In 2013, Shaw received the BAFTA Special Award for his outstanding contribution to cinema.
See also
Shaw Professor of Chinese
Asteroid 2899 Runrun Shaw
Brothers Runje Shaw, Runme Shaw and Runde Shaw
Cinema of Hong Kong
List of centenarians (businesspeople)
References
Further reading
Wang, George Chun Han. (2010). King Hu and Run Run Shaw: The Clash of Two Cinema Legends. Journal of Chinese Cinemas, 4(2), pp. 127–142.
External links
Sir Run Run Shaw at the Hong Kong Movie Database
TVB (Television Broadcasts Limited)
Shaw Studios
Shaw Prize
1907 births
2014 deaths
Hong Kong centenarians
Hong Kong billionaires
Hong Kong Buddhists
Hong Kong film producers
Hong Kong philanthropists
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Knights Bachelor
Billionaires from Zhejiang
Businesspeople from Ningbo
Recipients of the Grand Bauhinia Medal
Shaw Brothers Studio
TVB
Asian film producers
Chinese film producers
Singaporean businesspeople
Singaporean film producers
Singaporean philanthropists
Singaporean people of Chinese descent
Hong Kong Affairs Advisors
Members of the Selection Committee of Hong Kong
Chinese centenarians
Men centenarians
20th-century philanthropists
Chinese emigrants to Hong Kong
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural%20induction
|
Structural induction
|
Structural induction is a proof method that is used in mathematical logic (e.g., in the proof of Łoś' theorem), computer science, graph theory, and some other mathematical fields. It is a generalization of mathematical induction over natural numbers and can be further generalized to arbitrary Noetherian induction. Structural recursion is a recursion method bearing the same relationship to structural induction as ordinary recursion bears to ordinary mathematical induction.
Structural induction is used to prove that some proposition P(x) holds for all x of some sort of recursively defined structure, such as
formulas, lists, or trees. A well-founded partial order is defined on the structures ("subformula" for formulas, "sublist" for lists, and "subtree" for trees). The structural induction proof is a proof that the proposition holds for all the minimal structures and that if it holds for the immediate substructures of a certain structure S, then it must hold for S also. (Formally speaking, this then satisfies the premises of an axiom of well-founded induction, which asserts that these two conditions are sufficient for the proposition to hold for all x.)
A structurally recursive function uses the same idea to define a recursive function: "base cases" handle each minimal structure and a rule for recursion. Structural recursion is usually proved correct by structural induction; in particularly easy cases, the inductive step is often left out. The length and ++ functions in the example below are structurally recursive.
For example, if the structures are lists, one usually introduces the partial order "<", in which L < M whenever list L is the tail of list M. Under this ordering, the empty list [] is the unique minimal element. A structural induction proof of some proposition then consists of two parts: A proof that P([]) is true and a proof that if P(L) is true for some list L, and if L is the tail of list M, then P(M) must also be true.
Eventually, there may exist more than one base case and/or more than one inductive case, depending on how the function or structure was constructed. In those cases, a structural induction proof of some proposition then consists of:
Examples
An ancestor tree is a commonly known data structure, showing the parents, grandparents, etc. of a person as far as known (see picture for an example). It is recursively defined:
in the simplest case, an ancestor tree shows just one person (if nothing is known about their parents);
alternatively, an ancestor tree shows one person and, connected by branches, the two ancestor subtrees of their parents (using for brevity of proof the simplifying assumption that if one of them is known, both are).
As an example, the property "An ancestor tree extending over g generations shows at most persons" can be proven by structural induction as follows:
In the simplest case, the tree shows just one person and hence one generation; the property is true for such a tree, since .
Alternatively, the tree shows one person and their parents' trees. Since each of the latter is a substructure of the whole tree, it can be assumed to satisfy the property to be proven (a.k.a. the induction hypothesis). That is, and can be assumed, where g and h denotes the number of generations the father's and the mother's subtree extends over, respectively, and p and q denote the numbers of persons they show.
In case , the whole tree extends over generations and shows persons, and , i.e. the whole tree satisfies the property.
In case , the whole tree extends over generations and shows persons by similar reasoning, i.e. the whole tree satisfies the property in this case also.
Hence, by structural induction, each ancestor tree satisfies the property.
As another, more formal example, consider the following property of lists:
length (L ++ M) = length L + length M [EQ]
Here ++ denotes the list concatenation operation, and L and M are lists.
In order to prove this, we need definitions for length and for the concatenation operation. Let (h:t) denote a list whose head (first element) is h and whose tail (list of remaining elements) is t, and let [] denote the empty list. The definitions for length and the concatenation operation are:
length [] = 0 [LEN1]
length (h:t) = 1 + length t [LEN2]
[] ++ list = list [APP1]
(h:t) ++ list = h : (t ++ list) [APP2]
Our proposition is that EQ is true for all lists M when L is . We want to show that is true for all lists . We will prove this by structural induction on lists.
First we will prove that P([]) is true; that is, EQ is true for all lists M when L happens to be the empty list []. Consider EQ:
length (L ++ M) = length ([] ++ M)
= length M (by APP1)
= 0 + length M
= length [] + length M (by LEN1)
= length L + length M
So this part of the theorem is proved; EQ is true for all M, when L is [], because the left-hand side and the right-hand side are equal.
Next, consider any nonempty list . Since is nonempty, it has a head item, x, and a tail list, xs, so we can express it as (x:xs). The induction hypothesis is that EQ is true for all values of M when L is xs:
length (xs ++ M) = length xs + length M (hypothesis)
We would like to show that if this is the case, then EQ is also true for all values of M when = (x:xs). We proceed as before:
length L + length M = length (x:xs) + length M
= 1 + length xs + length M (by LEN2)
= 1 + length (xs ++ M) (by hypothesis)
= length (x: (xs ++ M)) (by LEN2)
= length ((x:xs) ++ M) (by APP2)
= length (L ++ M)
Thus, from structural induction, we obtain that P(L) is true for all lists L.
Well-ordering
Just as standard mathematical induction is equivalent to the well-ordering principle, structural induction is also equivalent to a well-ordering principle. If the set of all structures of a certain kind admits a well-founded partial order, then every nonempty subset must have a minimal element. (This is the definition of "well-founded".) The significance of the lemma in this context is that it allows us to deduce that if there are any counterexamples to the theorem we want to prove, then there must be a minimal counterexample. If we can show the existence of the minimal counterexample implies an even smaller counterexample, we have a contradiction (since the minimal counterexample isn't minimal) and so the set of counterexamples must be empty.
As an example of this type of argument, consider the set of all binary trees. We will show that the number of leaves in a full binary tree is one more than the number of interior nodes. Suppose there is a counterexample; then there must exist one with the minimal possible number of interior nodes. This counterexample, C, has n interior nodes and leaves, where . Moreover, C must be nontrivial, because the trivial tree has and and is therefore not a counterexample. C therefore has at least one leaf whose parent node is an interior node. Delete this leaf and its parent from the tree, promoting the leaf's sibling node to the position formerly occupied by its parent. This reduces both n and by 1, so the new tree also has and is therefore a smaller counterexample. But by hypothesis, C was already the smallest counterexample; therefore, the supposition that there were any counterexamples to begin with must have been false. The partial ordering implied by 'smaller' here is the one that says that S < T whenever S has fewer nodes than T.
See also
Coinduction
Initial algebra
Loop invariant, analog for loops
References
Early publications about structural induction include:
Rózsa Péter, Über die Verallgemeinerung der Theorie der rekursiven Funktionen für abstrakte Mengen geeigneter Struktur als Definitionsbereiche, Symposium International, Varsovie septembre (1959) (On the generalization of the theory of recursive functions for abstract quantities with suitable structures as domains).
Logic in computer science
Mathematical logic
Mathematical proofs
Wellfoundedness
Mathematical induction
Graph theory
|
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] |
211403
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptilodontoidea
|
Ptilodontoidea
|
Ptilodontoidea is a group of extinct mammals from the Northern Hemisphere.
They were generally small, somewhat rodent-like creatures of the extinct order Multituberculata.
Some of these genera boast a great many species, though remains are generally sparse.
Ptilodus is among the best known, and there's a tendency to depict it as an analog of a squirrel.
Upper Cretaceous remains are known from North America and Europe. Later representatives (Paleocene - Eocene) hail from North America, Europe and Asia. These were some of the last multituberculates, and they are within the suborder Cimolodonta.
The superfamily is further divided into the following families:
Neoplagiaulacidae - 10 genera;
Ptilodontidae - 4 genera;
Cimolodontidae - possibly 3 genera.
The affinities of Neoliotomus are less clear, though it seems to fit somewhere within the superfamily.
References
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals." Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS; Ptilodontoidea, an Internet directory.
Cretaceous mammals
Paleocene mammals
Eocene mammals
Eocene extinctions
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald%20McClellan
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Gerald McClellan
|
Gerald Allen McClellan (born October 23, 1967) is an American retired professional boxer who competed from 1988 to 1995. He is a two-time middleweight world champion, having held the WBO title from 1991 to 1992, and the WBC title from 1993 to 1995. McClellan was forced to retire from boxing after a severe brain injury suffered during his final fight in 1995, a loss to WBC super middleweight champion Nigel Benn.
Known for his formidable punching power and one of the highest 1st-round-knockouts ratio in the history of boxing, McClellan was dubbed ‘a miniature Mike Tyson’ by his promoter Don King (Tyson himself, while being incarcerated, reportedly called McClellan ‘the best fighter in the world,’) The Ring magazine rated McClellan #27 on their list of "100 Greatest Punchers Of All Time". In 2007, McClellan was inducted into the World Boxing Hall of Fame in California, not to be confused with the more widely recognized International Boxing Hall of Fame in Canastota.
Amateur career
As an amateur, McClellan was a four-time Wisconsin Golden Gloves champion, 1984–1987, competing mostly in the junior middleweight division.
Highlights
In February 1995 it happened to his friend Gerald McClellan, when he lost to Britain's Nigel Benn in a particularly brutal WBC super-middleweight title fight. Stopped in the 10th round, McClellan, a dog-fighting fan who had beaten Jones as an amateur, slipped into a prolonged coma.
National Golden Gloves (147 lbs), Little Rock, Arkansas, March 1985:
1/4: Lost to Roy Richie DQ 3
U.S. Olympic Festival (156 lbs), Houston, Texas, July 1986:
Finals: Lost to Thomas Tate by split decision, 2–3
U.S. National Championships (156 lbs), Buffalo, New York, March–April 1987:
1/4: Defeated Keith Graves by unanimous decision, 5–0
1/2: Defeated Kevin Grantham by unanimous decision, 5–0
Finals: Defeated Tim Littles by unanimous decision, 5–0
U.S. Olympic Festival (156 lbs), Raleigh, North Carolina, July 1987:
1/2: Lost to Ray McElroy by split decision, 2–3
Pan Am Box-offs (156 lbs), International Center of the Broadmoor, Colorado Springs, Colorado, July 1987:
Lost to Frank Liles
U.S. National Championships (156 lbs), Olympic Sports Center, Colorado Springs, Colorado, March 1988:
1/8: Defeated Scott Felde RSC 2
1/4: Lost to Johnny Tapia DQ 2
National Golden Gloves (156 lbs), Omaha, Nebraska, May 1988:
1/4: Defeated David Gamble KO 2
1/2: Defeated Roy Jones Jr. by split decision, 3–2
Finals: Lost to Ray McElroy by split decision, 2–3
He trained with Kronk Gym being trained by Emanuel Steward. After turning pro, he also fought out of a Palmer Park gym run by Sugar Ray Leonard.
Professional career
McClellan turned professional in 1988. Trained by hall of fame trainer Emanuel Steward, his early career was notable for a propensity for quick victories by knockout: only two of his first 29 fights went beyond the third round, although he lost both of those on the scorecard (in 6 rounds against Dennis Milton, 8 against Ralph Ward, in successive fights.) However, these proved only a momentary check on his career, as he captured the vacant WBO middleweight title by knocking out John Mugabi in one round in 1991, and the WBC middleweight title by knocking out Julian Jackson in five rounds in May 1993, after McClellan had survived some brutally hard punches from Jackson in the second and third rounds. McClellan defended the WBC title three times, all first round stoppages, including a rematch with Jackson. In the fall of 1994, McClellan separated from his long-term trainer Emanuel Steward.
Benn vs McClellan
McClellan moved up in weight to challenge WBC super middleweight champion Nigel Benn in London on February 25, 1995. The fight was watched by an estimated 17 million people on television and 10,300 paying spectators.
In a savage bout, McClellan knocked Benn out of the ring in round one and scored another knockdown in round eight, but each time Benn was able to work his way back into the fight and kept landing hard power punches to the challenger. Referee Alfred Azaro was also roundly criticized for his officiating mistakes, which included impeding the challenger's progress when McClellan was trying to finish off Benn in round 1. McClellan was noticeably blinking repeatedly early in round ten, during which, after receiving a single hard blow from Benn who seemed to throw his shoulder into McClellan's eye, he voluntarily went down, taking a knee again. McClellan took the mandatory eight count and the fight was resumed, but he did not throw another punch, and moments later he dropped to his knee for a second time and allowed Azaro to count him out. After the fight was over, McClellan immediately stood up and walked to his corner under his own power. He then sat down on the canvas and leaned against the ring apron, but while being attended to by ring physicians he slumped onto his back and lost consciousness. McClellan was subsequently strapped to a stretcher and rushed to the hospital.
Aftermath
McClellan had emergency surgery to remove a blood clot from his brain. He spent eleven days in a coma and was found to have suffered extensive brain damage. He lost his eyesight, the ability to walk unassisted, and was reported as being 80 percent deaf. Sports Illustrated ran an article about the fight and its outcome one week after the fight. McClellan's family flew to London to be by his side, and he was later flown back to his home country. He has recently recovered some ability to walk with the assistance of a cane, but he has not recovered his eyesight. In addition to being blind, his short-term memory was also profoundly affected. His three sisters, particularly Lisa McClellan, are responsible for his care. In a 2011 documentary broadcast by ITV (which originally screened the fight live in the UK), Lisa stated that Gerald is in fact not deaf, but that he has trouble with comprehension when spoken to.
Tarick Salmaci, a Kronk Gym fighter, claimed later in an interview that he had sparred with McClellan over a year before the Benn fight, and that after McClellan was hit by a jab thrown by Salmaci, McClellan started to blink hard and the session had to be stopped. McClellan initially claimed that he was thumbed, but later admitted to Salmaci in the locker room that he was in fact seriously hurt. Salmaci said that he found it strange that a fighter with McClellan's chin wearing headgear was being hurt by a jab, and that when he noticed McClellan blinking during the Benn fight in the same way, Salmaci was immediately aware that McClellan was in serious trouble. Also notable in hindsight was McClellan complaining of getting regular headaches after his first fight with Julian Jackson in May 1993. In the fight, McClellan's chin resisted Jackson's formidable punching power before McClellan won the fight in Round 5, but Jackson's punches may have done some damage to McClellan's brain, such as concussions, that weren't noticed at the time.
Fundraising
McClellan has been the honoree at numerous banquets and award ceremonies, and fellow boxing world champion Roy Jones Jr., often pointed out as a rival middleweight champion during 1993–94 (indeed, McClellan actually beat Jones as an amateur), set up a foundation to help McClellan.
Nigel Benn himself has also helped to raise funds for McClellan's treatment, and the two men would meet again for the first time since their bout at a fundraiser held in London on February 24, 2007. Several items were auctioned off at the event and a total of £200,000 was raised.
In May 2012, the World Boxing Council publicly appealed for donations to a trust fund set up in McClellan's name in order to help his sister Lisa maintain his 24-hour care. In July 2017, McClellan took a turn for the worse, and underwent surgery to repair a malfunctioning colon. McClellan now uses a colostomy bag, and incurs colostomy supply expenses of about 500 dollars a month. Former world light middleweight champion Terry Norris, whose Final Fight Foundation acts to protect boxers, made an appeal for the Gerald McClellan Trust, noting, "McClellan's organs are starting to shut down because of his brain injury." Ring 10, a nonprofit organization that helps impoverished former fighters, provides McClellan with monthly food credit and raises funds to assist with payment of other necessities.
Dog fighting controversy
According to an article in The Observer, McClellan participated in dog fighting.
McClellan's trainer and family admitted that McClellan was involved with fighting pitbulls, and on one occasion had used tape to bind the jaws of a Labrador shut before allowing his pet Pitbull "Deuce" to kill it.
Professional boxing record
References
Further reading
After The Bell: The Gerald McClellan Story, by Wayne Lettice Lennon
External links
The Gerald McClellan Trust
1967 births
Boxers from Illinois
Living people
Middleweight boxers
People from Freeport, Illinois
World middleweight boxing champions
Blind people from the United States
American male boxers
World Boxing Council champions
World Boxing Organization champions
People with severe brain damage
|
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211405
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film%20producer
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Film producer
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A film producer is a person who oversees film production. Either employed by a production company or working independently, producers plan and coordinate various aspects of film production, such as selecting the script; coordinating writing, directing, editing; and arranging financing.
The producer is responsible for finding and selecting promising material for development. Then (unless the film is based on an existing script) the producer has to hire a screenwriter and oversee the development of the script. Then the producer leads a pitch to secure the financial backing (a "green light") to allow production to begin. The producer also supervises the pre-production, principal photography, and post-production stages of filmmaking. One of the most important tasks is to hire the director and other key crew members. Whereas the director makes the creative decisions during the production, the producer typically manages the logistics and business operations, though some directors also produce their own films. The producer is tasked with making sure the film is delivered on time and within budget. Finally, the producer will oversee the marketing and distribution.
For various reasons, producers cannot always supervise all of the production. In this case, the main producer or executive producer may hire and delegate work to associate producers, assistant producers, line producers or unit production managers.
Process and responsibilities
Development and pre-production
During this stage of the production process, producers bring together people like the film director, cinematographer, and production designer. Unless the film is supposed to be based on an original script, the producer has to find an appropriate screenwriter. If an existing script is considered flawed, they are able to order a new version or make the decision to hire a script doctor. The producer also has the final say on hiring the film director, cast members, and other staff. In some cases, they also have the last word when it comes to casting questions. A producer's role will also consist of approving locations, the studio hire, the final shooting script, the production schedule, and the budget. More time and money spent in pre-production can reduce the time and money wasted during production time.
Production
During production, the producer's job is to make sure the film stays on schedule and under budget. They will always be in contact with directors and other key creative team members.
For various reasons, producers cannot always personally supervise all parts of their production. For example, some producers run a company which also deals with film distribution. Also, cast and film crew often work at different times and places, and certain films even require a second unit.
Post-production
Even if the shooting has been finished, the producers can still demand that additional scenes be filmed. In the case of a negative test screening, producers may even demand and get an alternative film ending. For example, the audience reacted very negatively to Rambo's death in the test screening for the film First Blood, and the producers requested that the cast and crew shoot a new ending. Producers also oversee the sales, marketing and distribution rights of the film, often working with specialist third-party firms.
Types
Different types of producers and their roles within the industry today include:
Executive producer
The executive producer oversees all of the other producers working on the same project. They ensure that the producers are carrying out their responsibilities on the production. They are also usually in charge of managing the film's finances and handling all other business aspects of the film. On a TV series an executive producer or co-executive producer is often a writer and given the credit in a creative capacity. On a feature film or movie the executive producer is often the person directly funding the movie or the person who found the investors or company that provided the funding.
Line producer
The line producer manages the staff and day-to-day operations and oversees each and every physical aspect that is involved in the making of a film or television program. The line producer can be credited as "produced by" in certain cases.
Supervising producer
The supervising producer supervises the creative process of screenplay development and often aids in script re-writes. They can also fulfill the executive producer's role of overseeing other producers.
Producer
Within the production process, a producer can oversee, arrange, manage, and begin every aspect. They are involved in every stage of the overall production process.
Co-producer
A co-producer is a member of a team of producers that perform all of the functions and roles that a single producer would have in a single given project.
Coordinating producer or production coordinator
A coordinating producer coordinates the work/role of multiple producers who are trying to achieve a shared result.
Associate producer or assistant producer
The associate or assistant producer helps the producer during the production process. They can sometimes be involved in coordinating others' jobs, such as creating peoples' schedules and hiring the main talent.
Segment producer
A segment producer produces one or more single specific segments of a multi-segment film or television production.
Field producer
A field producer helps the producer by overseeing all of the production that takes place outside of the studio in specific locations for the film.
Labor relations
Considered executive employees in regard to the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 in the United States, producers represent the management team of a production and are charged by the studios to enforce the provisions of the union contracts negotiated by the Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers (AMPTP) with the below-the-line employees. Founded in 1924 by the U.S Trade Association as the Association of Motion Picture Producers, the AMPTP was originally responsible for negotiating labor contracts, but during the mid-1930s it took over all contract negotiation responsibilities previously controlled by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Today, the AMPTP negotiates with various industry associations when dealing with union contracts, including the International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees (IATSE), the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA), the Directors Guild of America (DGA), and the Screen Actors Guild (SAG). In 2012, the AMPTP negotiated over eighty industry-wide union agreements on behalf of 350 studios and independent production companies. Since 1982, the AMPTP has been responsible for negotiating these union agreements and is now considered the official contract negotiation representative for everyone within the film and television industry.
While individual producers are responsible for negotiating their own deals with the studios distributing their films, the Producers Guild of America offers guidance to protect and promote the interests of producers and the production team in film, television, and new media, offering the framework to provide health insurance and pension benefits, and assists in establishing safe working conditions and vetting the validity of screen credits.
Career process
Many producers start in a college, university or film school. On the occasion of announcing his own film school, 'École de la Cité, film producer Luc Besson admitted that at the beginning of his career, he would have appreciated the chance to attend a film school. Film schools and many universities offer degree courses that include film production knowledge, with some courses that are especially designed for future film producers. These courses focus on key topics like pitching, script development, script assessment, shooting schedule design, and budgeting. Students can also expect practical training regarding post-production. Training at a top producing school is one of the most efficient ways a student can show professionals they are not a rookie.
While education is one way to begin a career as a film producer, experience is also required to land a job. Internships are a great way to gain experience while in school and give students a solid foundation on which to build their career. Many internships are paid, which enable students to earn money while gaining hands-on skills from industry professionals. Through internships, students get to network with people in the film industry as well. This pays off in the end when looking for jobs after school. Once an internship is over, the next step typically will be to land a junior position, such as a production assistant.
Pay can vary based on a producer's role and the location of filming. In the United States, the salary can start anywhere from $20,000 to $70,000, even doubling when working in Los Angeles. The average annual salary for a producer in the U.S. is $109,844. When examining more than 15,000 producers in the Los Angeles metropolitan area, the average annual salary is $138,640. Producers can also have an agreement to take a percentage of a movie's sales.
There is no average workday for a film producer since their tasks are changing from day to day. A producer's work hours are often irregular and can consist of very long days with the possibility of working nights and weekends.
See also
List of highest-grossing film producers
List of film producers
References
Further reading
External links
Producers Guild of America
Entertainment occupations
Filmmaking occupations
Mass media occupations
|
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211406
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoliotomus
|
Neoliotomus
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Neoliotomus is a genus of North American mammal from the Paleocene. It existed in the age immediately following the extinction of the last dinosaurs and was a member of the extinct order Multituberculata. It lies within the suborder Cimolodonta and the superfamily Ptilodontoidea. Other than that, its affinities are somewhat unclear.
The genus Neoliotomus ("new Liotomus") was named by Jepsen G.L. in 1930, and is also known as Eucosmodon (partly).
Species
The species Neoliotomus conventus, named by Jepsen G.L. in 1930, is known from the Clarkforkian (Paleocene) DeBeque Formation of Wyoming and of the Fort Union Formation of Montana and Colorado, (United States). This is a fairly large multituberculate of around 1.9 kg. The holotype is in the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University.
The species Neoliotomus ultimus was named by Granger W. and Simpson G.G. in 1928. It has also been known as Eucosmodon ultimus (Granger & Simpson, 1928). Fossil remains were found in Clarkforkian (Paleocene) strata of Wyoming and Colorado. This species is known from a fair number of locations. It is another large multituberculate, which weighed perhaps 2 kg.
References
Jepsen (1930), "New vertebrate fossils from the Lower Eocene of the Bighorn Basin, Wyoming." Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. 69, p. 117-131, 4 pls.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals." Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS; Ptilodontoidea, an Internet directory.
Ptilodontoids
Paleocene mammals
Paleocene genus extinctions
Extinct mammals of North America
Prehistoric mammal genera
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] |
211408
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplagiaulacidae
|
Neoplagiaulacidae
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Neoplagiaulacidae is a family of mammal within the extinct order Multituberculata. Fossil remains are known from the Upper Cretaceous through to the latest Eocene/early Oligocene. Representatives have been found in North America, Europe and Asia. They are the last multituberculates known.
Neoplagiaulacinae (Ameghino 1890) has been seen as a sub-family within Ptilodontidae (Cope, 1887). More recent thinking has it as a family. Synonyms are Ectypodidae (Sloan & Van Valen 1965) and Ectypodontidae (Sloan & Van Valen 1965). Most fossils are restricted to teeth. The family is part of the suborder of Cimolodonta within the superfamily of Ptilodontoidea.
Notes
References
Ptilodontoids
Cretaceous mammals
Paleocene mammals
Eocene mammals
Eocene extinctions
Late Cretaceous first appearances
Oligocene mammals
Rupelian extinctions
Prehistoric mammal families
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] |
211411
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heteroptera
|
Heteroptera
|
The Heteroptera are a group of about 40,000 species of insects in the order Hemiptera. They are sometimes called "true bugs", though that name more commonly refers to the Hemiptera as a whole. "Typical bugs" might be used as a more unequivocal alternative, since the heteropterans are most consistently and universally termed "bugs" among the Hemiptera. "Heteroptera" is Greek for "different wings": most species have forewings with both membranous and hardened portions (called hemelytra); members of the primitive sub-group Enicocephalomorpha have completely membranous wings.
The name "Heteroptera" is used in two very different ways in modern classifications. In Linnean nomenclature, it commonly appears as a suborder within the order Hemiptera, where it can be paraphyletic or monophyletic depending on its delimitation. In phylogenetic nomenclature, it is used as an unranked clade within the Prosorrhyncha clade, which in turn is in the Hemiptera clade. This results from the realization that the Coleorrhyncha are just "living fossil" relatives of the traditional Heteroptera, close enough to them to be united with that group.
The infraorders Leptopodomorpha, Gerromorpha, and Nepomorpha, comprise a significant component of the world’s aquatic and semiaquatic insects. There are 23 families, 343 genera and 4,810 species group taxa within these three infraorders. Most of the remaining groups that are common and familiar are in the Cimicomorpha and Pentatomomorpha.
Classification
The use of the name "Heteroptera" has had the rank of order, dating back to 1810 by Pierre André Latreille. Only recently has it been relegated to a subsidiary rank within a larger definition of Hemiptera, so many reference works still include it as an order. Whether to continue treating it as a suborder is still a subject of some controversy, as is whether the name itself should ever be used, although three basic approaches ranging from abolishing it entirely to maintaining the taxonomy with a slight change in systematics is proposed, two of which (but not the traditional one) agree with the phylogeny. The competing classifications call for a preference for two suborders versus one when the "living fossil" family Peloridiidae is taken into consideration:
In one revised classification proposed in 1995, the name of the suborder is Prosorrhyncha, and Heteroptera is a rankless subgroup within it. The only difference between Heteroptera and Prosorrhyncha is that the latter includes the family Peloridiidae, which is a tiny relictual group that is in its own monotypic superfamily and infraorder. In other words, the Heteroptera and Prosorrhyncha sensu Sorensen et al. are identical except that Prosorrhyncha contains one additional infraorder, called Peloridiomorpha (comprising only 13 small genera). The ongoing conflict between traditional, Linnaean classifications and nontraditional classifications is exemplified by the problem inherent in continued usage of the name Heteroptera when it no longer can be matched to any standard Linnaean rank (as it falls below suborder but above infraorder). If this classification succeeds, then the "Heteroptera" grouping may be discarded, but in that case it is likely that no ranks will be used at all according to the standards of phylogenetic nomenclature.
In the traditional classification, the Peloridiidae are retained as their own suborder, called Coleorrhyncha; "Heteroptera" is treated the same. Functionally, the only difference between this classification and the preceding is that the former uses the name Prosorrhyncha to refer to a particular clade, while the traditional approach divides this into the paraphyletic Heteroptera and the monophyletic Coleorrhyncha. Many believe it is preferable to use only one name because the characteristics of the two traditional suborders are too closely related to be treated as separate.
Alternatively, the modified approach of placing Coleorrhyncha 'within' the Heteroptera can be used. Indeed, as that solution preserves the well-known Heteroptera at the taxonomic rank they traditionally hold while making them a good monophyletic group, it seems preferable to the paraphyletic "Heteroptera" used in older works. In that case, the "core" Heteroptera could be considered a section – as yet unnamed, mainly because the Prosorrhyncha were proposed earlier – within the "expanded" Heteroptera, or the latter could simply be described as consisting of a basal "living fossil" lineage and a more apomorphic main radiation. Whether the name "Coleorrhyncha" is to be retained for the basal lineage or whether the more consistent "Peloridiomorpha" is used instead is a matter of taste, as described below.
Separate from the question of the actual "closeness" of Heteroptera and Coleorrhyncha is the potential disruption to traditional construction of names; there seems to be reluctance among hemipterists to abandon the use of "Heteroptera". This can be seen by the name itself, as it is a violation of convention to use the ending "-ptera" for any rank above genus other than an order – though since it is a convention rather than a mandatory rule of Linnean nomenclature, taxonomists are technically free to violate it (which is why, for example, not all insect orders end in "-ptera", e.g., Odonata). However, in most cases when such conventions are violated, it does not create an internal conflict as in the present case (that is, the order Hemiptera has a suborder named Heteroptera, which is an internal conflict). At least some hemipterists argue that the name Heteroptera should be dropped entirely to eliminate this internal conflict, though the third possibility offers a workaround. In that case, to achieve full consistency of names "Coleorrhyncha" would probably be dropped in favor of "Peloridiomorpha".
References
Further reading
External links
Heteropteran Systematics Lab at University of California, Riverside http://heteroptera.ucr.edu
Identification guide to UK Hemiptera
Bugs – Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Insect suborders
Extant Triassic first appearances
|
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] |
211412
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homoptera
|
Homoptera
|
Homoptera is a suborder of order Hemiptera that is considered by some taxonomists to be paraphyletic, and therefore deprecated (obsolete). It was therefore split into the suborders Sternorrhyncha, Auchenorrhyncha, and Coleorrhyncha. The earlier work was based on nuclear DNA, but more recent phylogenetic analysis using mitochondrial DNA suggest that Homoptera may be a monophyletic group after all, a sister group of Heteroptera. The cause of the disparity in the analyses is suggested to be the long branch attraction effect in phylogenetic analysis, due to rapidly evolving DNA regions.
The Homoptera include the aphids, scale insects, cicadas, and leafhoppers, which all have sucking mouthparts.
References
Insect suborders
Hemiptera
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplagiaulax
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Neoplagiaulax
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Neoplagiaulax is a mammal genus from the Paleocene of Europe and North America. In the case of the latter continent, there may possibly be some slightly earlier, Upper Cretaceous material too. It existed in the age immediately following the extinction of the last dinosaurs. This animal was a member of the extinct order Multituberculata, lying within the suborder Cimolodonta and family Neoplagiaulacidae.
The genus Neoplagiaulax ("new Plagiaulax") was named by Lemoine V. in 1882.
Species
Neoplagiaulax annae (Vianey-Liaud M. 1986) has been found in Paleocene strata of Cernay, France.
?Neoplagiaulax burgessi (Archibald J.D. 1982) has been found in Maastrichtian (Upper Cretaceous) strata of Hell Creek, USA.
Neoplagiaulax copei (Lemoine V. 1885) has been found in Paleocene strata of Cernay, France. It has been cited as a possible descendant of N. hazeni.
Neoplagiaulax donaldorum (Scott C.S., Krause D.W. 2006) found in early Tiffanian (late Paleocene) strata in eastern Crazy Mountains, Montana.
Neoplagiaulax eocaenus (Lemoine V. 1880)is also known as N. eocänus and Plagiaulax eocaenus. It was found in Upper Paleocene of Cernay, France. It has also been cited as a possible descendant of N. hazeni.
Neoplagiaulax grangeri (Simpson G.G. 1935) (Gazin, 1969) is also known as Ectypodus? grangeri (Simpson, 1935). It was found in Torrejonian (Paleocene) of Gidley Quarry, Montana (USA). It was a further possible descendant of N. hazeni. Its weight was around 100 g, a quarter of that of a standard rat.
Neoplagiaulax hazeni (Jepsen G.L. 1940; Krause D.W. 1977) is also known as Ectypodus hazeni (Jepsen G.L. 1940) and N. fractus (partially). It is known from the Tiffanian (Middle-Upper Paleocene) of Princeton Quarry, Wyoming and North Dakota (USA). Its body weight has been estimated at 95 g. Further material, including the type fossil, can be visited at the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University.
Neoplagiaulax hunteri (Simpson G.G. 1936), (Krause DW, 1977) is also known as Ectypodus hunteri (Simpson, 1936).It was discovered in Torrejonian-Tiffanian (Middle Paleocene) strata of Scarritt Quarry in Montana, Wyoming and North Dakota and Alberta, Canada. Several specimens are at the Peabody Museum of Yale, where the name E. is sometimes employed. It likely weighed about 45 g.
Neoliotomus jepi (Sloan R.E. 1987) is known from the Tiffanian (Paleocene) of Cedar Point Quarry, Wyoming (USA).
Neoplagiaulax kremnus (Johnston P.A. and Fox R.C. 1984) was found in Puercan (Lower Paleocene) strata of Rav W-1 in Saskatchewan, Canada. The holotype is in the collection of the University of Alberta.
Neoplagiaulax macintyrei (Sloan R.E. 1981) was found in Puercan (Lower Paleocene) San Juan Basin of New Mexico and Utah (USA).
Neoliotomus macrotomeus (Wilson 1956; Sloan 1987) is also known as Ectypodus macrotomeus (Wilson 1956. It was found in Puercan-Torrejonian (Lower Paleocene) strata of the San Juan Basin of New Mexico (USA). It is possibly derived from Mesodma formosa. It weighed about 15 g.
Neoplagiaulax mckennai (Sloan R.E. 1987)is also known as N. mckennaiai. It was found in Tiffanian (Middle-Upper Paleocene) strata of Love Quarry in Wyoming and North Dakota. It weighed an estimated 60 g.
Neoplagiaulax nelsoni (Sloan R.E. 1987)was discovered in the Puercan-Torrejonian (Middle-Upper Paleocene) strata of Wyoming and Purgatory Hill of Montana and Alberta. The type fossil is from Keefer Hill (a.k.a. Shotgun) Wyoming. This species was mouse-sized, weighing about 25 g.
Neoplagiaulax nicolai (Vianey-Liaud M. 1986) was discovered in Paleocene strata of Cernay, France.
Neoplagiaulax sylvani (Vianey-Liaud M. 1986) was found in Paleocene strata of Cernay, France.
References
Lemoine (1885), "Étude sur quelqes mammifères de petite taille de la faune cernaysienne des environs de Reims." Bull. Soc. Géol. France 3, p. 203-217, pls. x-xii.
Archibald (1982), "A study of Mammalia and Geology across the Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary in Garfield County, Montana." University of California Publications in Geological Sciences, vol. 122, p. 242-243.
Simpson (1935), "New Paleocene mammals from the Fort Union of Montana." Proc. US Nation. Museum 83, p. 221-244.
Jepsen (1940), "Paleocene faunas of the Polecat Bench formation, Park County, Wyoming." Pro. Amer. Philos. Soc, 83, p. 217-340, 21 figs., 5p ls.
Krause (1977), "Paleocene multituberculates (Mammalia) of the Roche Percee Local Fauna, Ravenscrag Formation, Saskatchewan, Canada." Palaeontographica Abt. A 159, p. 1-36.
Johnston & Fox (1984), Paleocene and Late Cretaceous mammals from Skaksatchewan, Canada. Paleontogr. Abt. A: Paläozool., Stratigr. 186, p. 163-222.
Sloan (1981), "Systematics of Paleocene multituberculates from the San Juan Basin, New Mexico," p. 127-160, in Lucas et al. (eds), "Advances in San Juan Basin paleontology." University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals." Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Vianey-Liaud (1986), Les Multituberculés Thanétiens de France, et leurs rapports avec les Multituberculés Nord-Américains. Palaeontogr. Abt. A: Paläozool. Stratigr. 191 p. 85-171, 3 plates.
Ptilodontoids
Cretaceous mammals
Paleocene mammals
Paleocene mammals of North America
Paleocene animals of Europe
Paleogene mammals of Europe
Paleocene genus extinctions
Prehistoric mammal genera
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] |
211426
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnathostomata
|
Gnathostomata
|
Gnathostomata are the jawed vertebrates. The term derives from Greek: () "jaw" + () "mouth". Gnathostome diversity comprises roughly 60,000 species, which accounts for 99% of all living vertebrates. In addition to opposing jaws, living gnathostomes have true teeth, paired appendages (pectoral and pelvic fins), the elastomeric protein of elastin, and a horizontal semicircular canal of the inner ear, along with physiological and cellular anatomical characters such as the myelin sheaths of neurons, and an adaptive immune system that has the discrete lymphoid organs of spleen and thymus, and uses V(D)J recombination to create antigen recognition sites, rather than using genetic recombination in the variable lymphocyte receptor gene.
It is now assumed that Gnathostomata evolved from ancestors that already possessed a pair of both pectoral and pelvic fins. Until recently these ancestors, known as antiarchs, were thought to have lacked pectoral or pelvic fins. In addition to this, some placoderms were shown to have a third pair of paired appendages, that had been modified to claspers in males and basal plates in females—a pattern not seen in any other vertebrate group.
The Osteostraci are generally considered the sister taxon of Gnathostomata.
Jaw development in vertebrates is likely a product of the supporting gill arches. This development would help push water into the mouth by the movement of the jaw, so that it would pass over the gills for gas exchange. The repetitive use of the newly formed jaw bones would eventually lead to the ability to bite in some gnathostomes.
Newer research suggests that a branch of Placoderms was most likely the ancestor of present-day gnathostomes. A 419-million-year-old fossil of a placoderm named Entelognathus had a bony skeleton and anatomical details associated with cartilaginous and bony fish, demonstrating that the absence of a bony skeleton in Chondrichthyes is a derived trait. The fossil findings of primitive bony fishes such as Guiyu oneiros and Psarolepis, which lived contemporaneously with Entelognathus and had pelvic girdles more in common with placoderms than with other bony fish, show that it was a relative rather than a direct ancestor of the extant gnathostomes. It also indicates that spiny sharks and Chondrichthyes represent a single sister group to the bony fishes. Fossil findings of juvenile placoderms, which had true teeth that grew on the surface of the jawbone and had no roots, making them impossible to replace or regrow as they broke or wore down as they grew older, proves the common ancestor of all gnathostomes had teeth and place the origin of teeth along with, or soon after, the evolution of jaws.
Late Ordovician-aged microfossils of what have been identified as scales of either acanthodians or "shark-like fishes", may mark Gnathostomata's first appearance in the fossil record. Undeniably unambiguous gnathostome fossils, mostly of primitive acanthodians, begin appearing by the early Silurian, and become abundant by the start of the Devonian.
Classification
The group, Gnathostomata, is traditionally a infraphylum, broken into three top-level groupings: Chondrichthyes, or the cartilaginous fish; Placodermi, an extinct clade of armored fish; and Teleostomi, which includes the familiar classes of bony fish, birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians. Some classification systems have used the term Amphirhina. It is a sister group of the jawless craniates Agnatha.
References
External links
Tree of Life discussion of Gnathostomata
The Gill Arches: Meckel's Cartilage
Vertebrate taxonomy
Darriwilian first appearances
Extant Ordovician first appearances
Infraphyla
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual%20attraction
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Sexual attraction
|
Sexual attraction is attraction on the basis of sexual desire or the quality of arousing such interest. Sexual attractiveness or sex appeal is an individual's ability to attract other people sexually, and is a factor in sexual selection or mate choice. The attraction can be to the physical or other qualities or traits of a person, or to such qualities in the context where they appear. The attraction may be to a person's aesthetics or movements or to their voice or smell, among other things. The attraction may be enhanced by a person's adornments, clothing, perfume or style. It can be influenced by individual genetic, psychological, or cultural factors, or to other, more amorphous qualities. Sexual attraction is also a response to another person that depends on a combination of the person possessing the traits and on the criteria of the person who is attracted.
Though attempts have been made to devise objective criteria of sexual attractiveness and measure it as one of several bodily forms of capital asset (see erotic capital), a person's sexual attractiveness is to a large extent a subjective measure dependent on another person's interest, perception, and sexual orientation. For example, a gay or lesbian person would typically find a person of the same sex to be more attractive than one of the other sex. A bisexual person would find either sex to be attractive. Asexuality refers to those who do not experience sexual attraction for either sex, though they may have romantic attraction (homoromantic, biromantic or heteroromantic) or a non-directed libido. Interpersonal attraction includes factors such as physical or psychological similarity, familiarity or possessing a preponderance of common or familiar features, similarity, complementarity, reciprocal liking, and reinforcement.
The ability of a person's physical and other qualities to create a sexual interest in others is the basis of their use in advertising, film, and other visual media, as well as in modeling and other occupations.
In evolutionary terms, the ovulatory shift hypothesis posits that female humans exhibit different sexual behaviours and desires at points in their menstrual cycle, as a means to ensure that they attract a high quality mate to copulate with during their most fertile time. Hormone levels throughout the menstrual cycle affect a woman's overt behaviours, influencing the way a woman presents herself to others during stages of her menstrual cycle, in attempt to attract high quality mates the closer the woman is to ovulation.
Social and biological factors
Human sexuality has many aspects. In biology, sexuality describes the reproductive mechanism and the basic biological drive that exists in all sexually reproducing species and can encompass sexual intercourse and sexual contact in all its forms. There are also emotional and physical aspects of sexuality. These relate to the bond between individuals, which may be expressed through profound feelings or emotions. Sociologically, it can cover the cultural, political, and legal aspects; philosophically, it can span the moral, ethical, theological, spiritual, and religious aspects.
Which aspects of a person's sexuality attract another is influenced by cultural factors; it has varied over time as well as personal factors. Influencing factors may be determined more locally among sub-cultures, across sexual fields, or simply by the preferences of the individual. These preferences come about as a result of a complex variety of genetic, psychological, and cultural factors.
A person's physical appearance has a critical impact on their sexual attractiveness. This involves the impact one's appearance has on the senses, especially in the beginning of a relationship:
Visual perception (the symmetry of the face, physical attractiveness, health, and how they act or move, for example, while dancing);
Audition (how the other's voice and movements sound);
Olfaction (how the other smells, naturally or artificially; the wrong smell may be repellent).
As with other animals, pheromones may have an impact, though less significantly in the case of humans. Theoretically, the "wrong" pheromone may cause someone to be disliked, even when they would otherwise appear attractive. Frequently, a pleasant-smelling perfume is used to encourage the member of the opposite sex to more deeply inhale the air surrounding its wearer, increasing the probability that the individual's pheromones will be inhaled. The importance of pheromones in human relationships is probably limited and is widely disputed, although it appears to have some scientific basis.
Some people exhibit high levels of sexual fetishism and are sexually stimulated by other stimuli not normally associated with sexual arousal. The degree to which such fetishism exists or has existed in different cultures is controversial.
Pheromones have been determined to play a role in sexual attraction between people. They influence gonadal hormone secretion, for example, follicle maturation in the ovaries in females and testosterone and sperm production in males.
High anxiety
Research conducted by Donald G. Dutton and Arthur P. Aron in the 1970s aimed to find the relation between sexual attraction and high anxiety conditions. In doing so, 85 male participants were contacted by an attractive female interviewer at either a fear-arousing suspension bridge or a normal bridge. Conclusively, it was shown that the male participants who were asked by the female interviewer to perform the thematic apperception test (TAT) on the fear-arousing bridge, wrote more sexual content in the stories and attempted, with greater effort, to contact the interviewer after the experiment than those participants who performed the TAT on the normal bridge. In another test, a male participant, chosen from a group of 80, was given anticipated shocks. With him was an attractive female confederate, who was also being shocked. The experiment showed that the male's sexual imagery in the TAT was much higher when self shock was anticipated and not when the female confederate shock was anticipated.
Enhancement
People consciously or subconsciously enhance their sexual attractiveness or sex appeal for a number of reasons. It may be to attract someone with whom they can form a deeper relationship, for companionship, procreation, or an intimate relationship, besides other possible purposes. It can be part of a courtship process. This can involve physical aspects or interactive processes whereby people find and attract potential partners, and maintain a relationship. These processes, which involve attracting a partner and maintaining sexual interest, can include flirting, which can be used to attract the sexual attention of another to encourage romance or sexual relations, and can involve body language, conversation, joking, or brief physical contact.
Sex and sexuality differences
Men have been found to have a greater interest in uncommitted sex compared to women. Some research shows this interest to be more sociological than biological. Men have a greater interest in visual sexual stimuli than women. However, additional trends have been found with a greater sensitivity to partner status in women choosing a sexual partner and men placing a greater emphasis on physical attractiveness in a potential mate, as well as a significantly greater tendency toward sexual jealousy in men and emotional jealousy in women.
Bailey, Gaulin, Agyei, and Gladue (1994) analyzed whether these results varied according to sexual orientation. In general, they found biological sex played a bigger role in the psychology of sexual attraction than orientation. However, there were some differences between homosexual and heterosexual women and men on these factors. While gay and straight men showed similar psychological interest in casual sex on markers of sociosexuality, gay men showed a larger number of partners in behaviour expressing this interest (proposed to be due to a difference in opportunity). Self-identified lesbian women showed a significantly greater interest in visual sexual stimuli than heterosexual women and judged partner status to be less important in romantic partnerships. Heterosexual men had a significantly greater preference for younger partners than homosexual men. People who identify as asexual may not be sexually attracted to anyone. Gray asexuality includes those who only experience sexual attraction under certain circumstances; for example, exclusively after an emotional bond has been formed. This tends to vary from person to person.
Sexual preferences and hormones
The ovulatory shift hypothesis is the theory that female humans tend to exhibit different sexual behaviours and desires at points in their cycle. Two meta-analyses published in 2014 reached opposing conclusions on whether the existing evidence was robust enough to support the prediction that women's mate preferences change across the cycle. A newer 2018 review does not show women changing the type of men they desire at different times in their fertility cycle.
In males, a masculine face has been positively correlated with fewer respiratory diseases and, as a consequence, masculine features offer a marker of health and reproductive success.
Ovulation and ornamentation
Hormone levels throughout the menstrual cycle affect a woman's behaviour in preferences and in their overt behaviours. The ornamentation effect is a phenomenon influenced by a stage of the menstrual cycle which refers to the way a woman presents herself to others, in a way to attract potential sexual partners. Studies have found that the closer women were to ovulation, the more provocatively they dress and the more attractive they are rated.
It is possible that women are sensitive to the changes in their physical attractiveness throughout their cycles, such that at their most fertile stages their levels of attractiveness are increased. Consequently, they choose to display their increased levels of attractiveness through this method of ornamentation.
During periods of hormonal imbalance, women exhibit a peak in sexual activity. As these findings have been recorded for female-initiated sexual activity and not for male-initiated activity, the causation appears to be hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle.
Research has also found that menstrual cycles affect sexual behaviour frequency in pre-menopausal women. For example, women who had weekly sexual intercourse with men had menstrual cycles with the average duration of 29 days, while women with less frequent sexual interactions tended to have more extreme cycle lengths.
Male response to ovulation
Changes in hormones during a female's cycles affect the way she behaves and the way males behave towards her. Research has found that men are a lot more attentive and loving towards their partners when they are in the most fertile phase of their cycles, in comparison to when they are in the luteal phases. Men become increasingly jealous and possessive over their partners during this stage.
See also
References
Notes
On peculiarities of Russian sex appeal, see
External links
Sexual Attraction Among Humans
FaceResearch – Scientific research and online studies on the role of faces in sexual attraction
Reunions Set Off Sex Urges, Article on sexual attraction among birth relatives sparked by reunion.
Physical attractiveness
Evolutionary psychology
|
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] |
211432
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipalities%20of%20Lapland%20%28Finland%29
|
Municipalities of Lapland (Finland)
|
The 21 municipalities of the Lapland Region (; ; ) in Finland are divided on six sub-regions:
Eastern Lapland sub-region
Kemijärvi
Pelkosenniemi
Posio
Salla
Savukoski ()
Kemi-Tornio sub-region
Kemi ()
Keminmaa
Simo
Tervola
Tornio (; )
Northern Lapland sub-region
Inari (; ; ; )
Sodankylä ()
Utsjoki (; )
Rovaniemi sub-region
Ranua
Rovaniemi ()
Torne Valley sub-region
Pello
Ylitornio ()
Fell Lapland sub-region
Enontekiö (; )
Kittilä ()
Kolari
Muonio
Former municipalities
Rovaniemen maalaiskunta (), merged with Rovaniemi in 2006.
Kemijärven maalaiskunta (), merged with Kemijärvi in 1973.
Petsamo, ceded to the Soviet Union in 1944.
External links
|
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] |
38999950
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Standard%20Time%20Daily
|
The Standard Time Daily
|
The Standard Time Daily () is a newspaper published in Burma. Due to law changes, the paper began freely publishing from 1 April 2013.
References
Daily newspapers published in Myanmar
Newspapers established in 2013
Burmese-language newspapers
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20prime%20ministers%20of%20Thailand
|
List of prime ministers of Thailand
|
The prime minister of Thailand (; ; , literally 'chief minister of state') is the head of government of the Kingdom of Thailand. The prime minister is also the chairman of the cabinet of Thailand and represents the government at home and the country abroad.
The post of prime minister has existed since 1932, after a bloodless revolution forced the absolutist King Prajadhipok to grant the people of Siam their first constitution. Under the newly established constitutional monarchy, the first prime minister of Siam was Phraya Manopakorn Nititada. At first, the office was called President of the People's Committee, it was later changed to Prime Minister of Siam when the king deemed it too communistic.
Constitutionally the prime minister is required to be a member of the lower house of the National Assembly (the House of Representatives). He must also gain their approval through a resolution before an official appointment by the king can take place. As a result, the prime minister might succumb to a vote of no confidence and removal in the House. However, this has never happened up to date.
Throughout the post's existence it has mostly been occupied by military leaders from the Royal Thai Army, three holding the rank of field marshal and seven the rank of general. The post of prime minister is currently held by General Prayut Chan-o-cha, who was formally appointed to the office on 24 August 2014. Previously he was the de facto head of government as leader of the National Council for Peace and Order, since the coup d'état on 22 May 2014.
Note: The list includes leaders of military juntas and acting prime ministers. However, they are not counted in the official list as provided by the Royal Thai Government.
List of prime ministers
Timeline
Living former prime ministers
As of , there are ten living former Thai prime ministers.
See also
Prime Minister of Thailand
Constitution of Thailand
Government of Thailand
Office of the Prime Minister (Thailand)
Cabinet of Thailand
-
References
Citations
Links
External links
LIST OF THAI PRIME MINISTERS with names also in Thai
Thailand
Prime Minister
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles-Augustin%20de%20Coulomb
|
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
|
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (; ; 14 June 1736 – 23 August 1806) was a French officer, engineer, and physicist. He is best known as the eponymous discoverer of what is now called Coulomb's law, the description of the electrostatic force of attraction and repulsion. He also did important work on friction.
The SI unit of electric charge, the coulomb, was named in his honor in 1880.
Life
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb was born in Angoulême, Angoumois county, France, to Henry Coulomb, an inspector of the royal demesne originally from Montpellier, and Catherine Bajet. He was baptised at the parish church of St. André.
The family moved to Paris early in his childhood, and he studied at Collège Mazarin.
His studies included philosophy, language and literature. He also received a good education in mathematics, astronomy, chemistry and botany.
When his father suffered a financial setback, he was forced to leave Paris, and went to Montpellier. Coulomb submitted his first publication to the Society of Sciences in Montpellier during this time. He went back to Paris and passed the exams for the École royale du génie de Mézières in 1760.
He graduated in 1761 and joined the French army as an engineer in the rank of lieutenant.
Over the next twenty years, he was posted to a variety of locations where he was involved in engineering: structural, fortifications, soil mechanics, as well as other fields of engineering. His first posting was to Brest but in February 1764 he was sent to Martinique, in the West Indies, where he was put in charge of building the new Fort Bourbon and this task occupied him until June 1772. His health suffered setbacks during the three years he spent in Martinique that would affect him for the rest of his life.
On his return to France, Coulomb was sent to Bouchain. However, he now began to write important works on applied mechanics and he presented his first work to the Académie des Sciences in Paris in 1773. In 1779 Coulomb was sent to Rochefort to collaborate with the Marquis de Montalembert in constructing a fort made entirely from wood near Île-d'Aix. During his period at Rochefort, Coulomb carried on his research into mechanics, in particular using the shipyards in Rochefort as laboratories for his experiments. Also in 1779 he published an important investigation of the laws of friction (), which was followed twenty years later by a memoir on fluid resistance.
Upon his return to France, with the rank of captain, he was employed at La Rochelle, the Isle of Aix and Cherbourg. He discovered first an inverse relationship of the force between electric charges and the square of its distance and then the same relationship between magnetic poles. Later these relationships were named after him as Coulomb's law.
In 1781, he was stationed at Paris. In 1787 with Tenon he visited the Royal Naval Hospital, Stonehouse and they were impressed by the revolutionary "pavilion" design and recommended it to the French government. On the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789, he resigned his appointment as intendant des eaux et fontaines and retired to a small estate which he possessed at Blois.
He was recalled to Paris for a time in order to take part in the new determination of weights and measures, which had been decreed by the Revolutionary government. He became one of the first members of the French National Institute and was appointed inspector of public instruction in 1802. His health was already very feeble and four years later he died in Paris.
Coulomb leaves a legacy as a pioneer in the field of geotechnical engineering for his contribution to retaining wall design. His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.
Research
In 1784, his memoir Recherches théoriques et expérimentales sur la force de torsion et sur l'élasticité des fils de metal (Theoretical research and experimentation on torsion and the elasticity of metal wire) appeared. This memoir contained the results of Coulomb's experiments on the torsional force for metal wires, specifically within a torsion balance. His general result is:
In 1785, Coulomb presented his first three reports on electricity and magnetism:
"Premier Mémoire sur l’Électricité et le Magnétisme". In this publication, Coulomb describes "How to construct and use an electric balance (torsion balance) based on the property of the metal wires of having a reaction torsion force proportional to the torsion angle." Coulomb also experimentally determined the law that explains how "two bodies electrified of the same kind of Electricity exert on each other." On page 574 he states:
"Second Mémoire sur l’Électricité et le Magnétisme". In this publication, Coulomb carries out the "determination according to which laws both the Magnetic and the Electric fluids act, either by repulsion or by attraction." On page 579, he states that the attractive force between two oppositely charged spheres is proportional to the product of the quantities of charge on the spheres and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the spheres.
"Troisième Mémoire sur l’Électricité et le Magnétisme". "On the quantity of Electricity that an isolated body loses in a certain time period, either by contact with less humid air or in the supports more or less idio-electric."
Four subsequent reports were published in the following years:
"Quatrième Mémoire" "Where two principal properties of the electric fluid are demonstrated: first, that this fluid does not expand into any object according to a chemical affinity or by an elective attraction, but that it divides itself between different objects brought into contact; second, that in conducting objects, the fluid, having achieved a state of stability, expands on the surface of the body and does not penetrate into the interior." (1786)
"Cinquième Mémoire" "On the manner in which the electric fluid divides itself between conducting objects brought into contact and the distribution of this fluid on the different parts of the surface of this object." (1787)
"Sixième Mémoire" "Continuation of research into the distribution of the electric fluid between several conductors. Determination of electric density at different points on the surface of these bodies." (1788)
"Septième Mémoire" "On magnetism" (1789)
Coulomb explained the laws of attraction and repulsion between electric charges and magnetic poles, although he did not find any relationship between the two phenomena. He thought that the attraction and repulsion were due to different kinds of fluids.
Coulomb also made a significant contribution to the field of tribology. He completed the most comprehensive study of friction undertaken in the eighteenth century and was named as one of the 23 "Men of Tribology" by Duncan Dowson.
See also
List of things named after Charles Coulomb
References
External links
Théorie des machines simples (1821)
Collection de mémoires relatifs à la physique (1884)
French National Library The Mémoires of Coulomb available in pdf format.
1736 births
1806 deaths
People from Angoulême
French physicists
Geotechnical engineers
French civil engineers
French Roman Catholics
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Metrologists
Tribologists
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Pride
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Thomas Pride
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Colonel Thomas Pride (died 23 October 1658) was a Parliamentarian commander during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, best known as one of the regicides of Charles I and as the instigator of Pride's Purge.
Personal details
Thomas Pride was born in Ashcott, Somerset, son of William Pride, a local tradesman. His exact date of birth is unknown but he was apprenticed to a City of London merchant in January 1622 and since the normal age for this was between 14 and 17 years old, he was probably born between 1606 and 1608.
Shortly after his seven-year apprenticeship finished in 1629, he married Elizabeth Tomson, daughter of another London merchant. His 1658 will made bequests to four sons, Thomas, Joseph, William and Samuel, and a daughter, Elizabeth.
Career
Pride went into business for himself as a brewer and by the early 1640s owned two brewhouses in Surrey and possibly one in Edinburgh. He was also an ensign in the London Trained bands and when the First English Civil War began in August 1642, he served as a captain in the New Model Army under Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex, and was eventually promoted to the rank of colonel. He distinguished himself at the Battle of Preston in 1648 and with his regiment took part in the military occupation of London in December 1648, which was the first step towards bringing King Charles I to trial.
Trial of King Charles I
The next step was the expulsion of the Presbyterian and Royalist elements in the House of Commons, who were thought to be prepared to reach a settlement with Charles. This action was resolved by the army council and ordered by the lord general, Fairfax, and was carried out by Colonel Pride's regiment. Taking his stand at the entrance of the House of Commons with a written list in his hand, he caused the arrest or exclusion of the members, who were pointed out to him. After about a hundred members had been thus dealt with, the reduced House of Commons, now reduced to about eighty in number, proceeded to bring the king to trial. This marked the end of the Long Parliament and the beginning of the Rump Parliament.
Pride was one of the trial judges and one of the regicides of King Charles I, having signed and sealed the king's death warrant. His coat of arms appears on his seal.
Subsequent career
Pride commanded an infantry brigade under Oliver Cromwell at the Battle of Dunbar (1650) and at the Battle of Worcester (1651). He purchased the estate of Nonsuch Palace in Surrey, and in 1655 was appointed Sheriff of Surrey.
Retirement and knighthood
When the Commonwealth of England was established he abandoned his involvement in politics, except in opposing the proposal to confer the kingly dignity on Cromwell. In 1656 he was knighted by Cromwell, then Lord Protector, and was appointed to the second house added to Parliament as a result of the Humble Petition and Advice.
Marriage
He married Elizabeth Monk (born 1628), a daughter of Thomas Monk of Potheridge in Devon by his wife Mary Gould, a daughter of William Gould of Hayes. Elizabeth's uncle was the royalist general George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle (1608–1670), KG, the key figure in effecting the Restoration of the Monarchy to King Charles II in 1660.
Death
Pride died in 1658 at his home of Worcester Park House, having bought it and the "Great Park" of Nonsuch Palace, Surrey. After the Restoration of 1660 his body was ordered dug up and suspended on the gallows at Tyburn along with those of Cromwell, Henry Ireton and John Bradshaw, though it is said that the sentence was not carried out, probably because his corpse was too far decayed.
Bibliography
Mark Noble, The lives of the English regicides. 1798.
George Bate, The lives, actions, and execution of the prime actors, and principall contrivers of that horrid murder of our late pious and sacred soveraigne, King Charles the First. 1661.
Thomas Carlyle, Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches 1845.
References
Sources
1658 deaths
Regicides of Charles I
People convicted under a bill of attainder
High Sheriffs of Surrey
Year of birth unknown
Roundheads
English generals
Military personnel of the English Civil War
1606 births
People from Sedgemoor (district)
|
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211445
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDP%E2%80%93Liberal%20Alliance
|
SDP–Liberal Alliance
|
The SDP–Liberal Alliance was a centrist and social liberal political and electoral alliance in the United Kingdom.
Formed by the Social Democratic Party (SDP) and the Liberal Party, the SDP–Liberal Alliance was established in 1981, contesting the 1982 United Kingdom local elections, 1983 United Kingdom local elections, 1983 general election, 1984 United Kingdom local elections, 1984 European election, 1985 United Kingdom local elections, 1986 United Kingdom local elections, 1987 United Kingdom local elections and 1987 general election.
The SDP–Liberal Alliance ceased to exist in 1988, when the two component parties merged to form the Social and Liberal Democrats, under which label they stood in the 1988 United Kingdom local elections, later renamed the Liberal Democrats.
History
Following the establishment of the Social Democratic Party (SDP) by the 'Gang of Four' (Roy Jenkins, David Owen, Bill Rodgers, Shirley Williams), who had left the Labour Party in March 1981, the SDP entered into an informal alliance with the Liberal Party, led by David Steel. The SDP fought its first by-election, in Warrington, with future leader Roy Jenkins standing as "SDP with Liberal support".
On 16 June 1981, this arrangement was formalised into an alliance, with both parties agreeing to stand down in each other's favour and govern as a coalition government if the two parties ever won enough seats between them for a majority. Between 1981 and 1983, the parties together won seats in by-elections in:
Croydon North West (Bill Pitt, a Liberal),
Crosby (Shirley Williams of the SDP),
Glasgow Hillhead (Roy Jenkins of the SDP), and
Bermondsey (Simon Hughes of the Liberals, with the largest swing ever recorded in any British election).
The formation of the SDP and the subsequent alliance came at a time when the British economy was in a deep recession and Margaret Thatcher's Conservative government was proving unpopular; since coming to power in May 1979, unemployment had risen from over 1,500,000 to 3,000,000 and beyond by 1982, due to the closure of many formerly state-subsidised factories. In 1981, there were riots in London's Brixton, Birmingham's Handsworth, Leeds' Chapeltown, Liverpool's Toxteth and Manchester's Moss Side.
Meanwhile, Labour had shifted dramatically to the left since the election in 1980 of Michael Foot as party leader. As much distaste as some voters had for Thatcher's Conservative government, many people were just as opposed to the prospect of Foot as Prime Minister. Many also viewed Tony Benn negatively. Having moved over to the hard left, he had been given the position of Shadow Minister without Portfolio which freed him up from formal ministerial obligations while still affording him high status. His public appearances at events organised by Militant, a far-left entryist group, alienated key Labour figures.
With an election not due until May 1984, the Alliance proved to be an instant hit with voters who were disgruntled with the Conservatives and Labour, as many opinion polls in late 1981 and early 1982 showed the Alliance leading opinion polling by a wide margin, peaking with a 50% showing – up to twice the level of support shown for the Conservatives around this time. Steel was so certain that the Liberals would be part of a government for the first time in over half a century that when he addressed the 1981 Liberal Party conference, he famously declared, "Go back to your constituencies, and prepare for government!"
However, a series of events followed which saw the political tables turn. Argentine forces invaded the British dependent territory of the Falkland Islands on 2 April 1982. A Security Council Resolution 502 was passed the next day demanding an immediate Argentine withdrawal, which was ignored, so Thatcher sent out a task force to recapture the islands—by military means, if necessary. The UK won the conflict on 14 June, and subsequent opinion polls showed the Conservatives firmly in the lead. With a general election due by May 1984, it seemed that the most anticipated outcome would be whether the Alliance or Labour formed the next opposition. A Conservative re-election was looking even more likely as 1982 drew to a close, as the recession came to an end and inflation had been cut to 4% from a massive 27% within four years, although unemployment remained above 3,000,000. She felt confident enough to hold an election in June 1983 – a year earlier than necessary.
The Alliance exploited the nation's mass unemployment in the run-up to the election, running a "Working Together for Britain" campaign which it promised would see unemployment reduced by up to 1,000,000.
1983 general election and aftermath
The Alliance won 25.4% of the national vote in the 1983 general election, compared to Labour's 27.6%. However, a mere 23 Alliance Members of Parliament (MPs) were elected, compared to Labour's 209. The SDP came second in many constituencies, including nearly 70% of the Conservative-won seats, though the bulk of Labour's defectors to the SDP in 1981 lost their seats. Due to the first past the post electoral system, this success did not translate into parliamentary seats. The SDP's support was spread out across the country, and was not concentrated in enough areas to win more seats. The split in the centre-left vote is claimed to have helped the Conservatives to win the election by a landslide.
Both the SDP and the Liberals were committed to proportional representation, under which system they would have elected more MPs to the House of Commons.
The Alliance came under heavy criticism from Foot in the aftermath of the 1983 election; he condemned them for "siphoning" support away from the Labour Party and enabling the Conservatives to win more seats.
The 1983 election had given the Conservatives a triple-digit majority, but within months a strong challenge to their power – and to the challenge posed by the Alliance – was showing as Foot stood down in favour of Neil Kinnock, who immediately reversed the party's hard-left turn. This resulted in a dramatic rise in Labour fortunes in the opinion polls – some of which showed them ahead of the Conservatives and the Alliance by March 1984. However, at least one opinion poll showed the Alliance ahead of the Conservatives and Labour as late as September 1985. By this stage, the recession had ended three years earlier and the battle against inflation had clearly been won; however unemployment – seen as a major factor in a string of inner city riots that autumn – was still above 3,000,000. With the economy further improving over the next 18 months and unemployment finally starting to fall, however, Thatcher felt confident to call a general election for 11 June 1987 – although the deadline for the election was 12 months later.
1987 general election and aftermath
The Alliance failed to maintain momentum. In the 1987 general election, each party's vote share fell slightly; the Liberals won 17 seats (the same as in 1983), while the SDP won five (one fewer than four years previously), while Labour were firmly established as Britain's second major political party with a much stronger showing than in 1983, although the Conservatives still achieved a third successive election win with Thatcher still at the helm.
1988 merger
By 1987, relations had become fraught. Despite this, Steel proposed a merger of the two parties following the 1987 general election. The majority of members of both parties agreed, and a merger was effected early in 1988. The new party was named the Social and Liberal Democrats, shortened in October 1989 to the Liberal Democrats.
Remaining factions
Small factions of both parties continued under the names of the SDP and the Liberal Party but, as each was made up of those members who least trusted the other party, there was no chance that the two 'continuing' parties would co-operate.
The SDP was re-established under the leadership of one of the founders of the SDP, David Owen, who had objected to the merger of the two parties. Owen and the party's national executive dissolved the party in 1990, but another group of party members continue the party under the SDP name.
The Liberal Party was re-established under the leadership of Michael Meadowcroft and continues to operate. However, many members of this continuity party, including Meadowcroft himself, have since joined the mainstream Liberal Democrats.
General Election results
See also
List of UK Liberal Party general election manifestos
Lib–Lab pact
Liberal Democrat Green Alliance
References
1981 in British politics
1981 establishments in the United Kingdom
Defunct political party alliances in the United Kingdom
History of the Liberal Democrats (UK)
Liberal Party (UK)
Social Democratic Party (UK)
1988 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Herring
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Richard Herring
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Richard Keith Herring (born 12 July 1967) is an English stand-up comedian and writer, whose early work includes the comedy double act Lee and Herring (alongside Stewart Lee). He is described by The British Theatre Guide as "one of the leading hidden masters of modern British comedy".
Towards the end of the double act, Herring also worked as a writer, producing four plays. After Lee and Herring went their separate ways he co-wrote the sitcom Time Gentlemen Please, but quickly returned to performance with concept-driven one-person shows like Talking Cock, Hitler Moustache and Christ on a Bike as well as regular circuit stand-up. Herring has created thirteen of these stand-up shows since 2004, performing them for eleven consecutive years at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, with annual tours and a final performance recorded for DVD. His 2016–17 show was a 'best of' tour, drawing from these shows.
He is recognised as a pioneer of comedy podcasting, initially with broadcaster Andrew Collins on The Collings and Herrin Podcast and more recently with high-profile comedians such as Simon Pegg, Russell Brand and Stephen Fry on Richard Herring's Leicester Square Theatre Podcast. He has maintained a daily blog called Warming Up without a break since 25 November 2002. His blog is archived by the British Library for purposes of UK documentary heritage.
Early life
Richard Herring was born in Pocklington, East Riding of Yorkshire, and grew up in Cheddar, Somerset. He is the youngest of three children. He attended The Kings of Wessex School, where his father was the headmaster and maths teacher. This later formed the basis of his 2008 stand-up show, The Headmaster's Son. Herring’s mother was also a teacher. The 2007 ITV comedy drama You Can Choose Your Friends, which he wrote and also starred in, was based on his family.
Herring was a student at St Catherine's College, Oxford, where he wrote and performed for a comedy troupe known as the Seven Raymonds as well as the Oxford Revue. He attained a 2:1 in History.
Career
Lee and Herring
Between 1992 and 2000, Richard was half of the stand-up comedy double act with Stewart Lee. Their television work included Fist of Fun and This Morning With Richard Not Judy, and they had been collaborating on stage and radio projects since the 1980s.
Lee and Herring wrote material for Chris Morris and Armando Iannucci's On the Hour in 1991 and the duo contributed to the creation of the character that was to be Alan Partridge. In 1992 and 1993, they wrote and performed Lionel Nimrod's Inexplicable World for Radio 4. For Radio 1, they wrote and performed one series of Fist of Fun in 1993, remaking it for television in 1995 and 1996. They hosted a series on Radio 1 in 1994 and 1995, called Lee and Herring. A final television partnership with Lee, This Morning With Richard Not Judy, ran for 18 episodes over two series was eventually cancelled "as a result of BBC management reshuffles".
Solo work
Herring has written and performed in thirteen one-person shows, eleven of them consecutively. A Herring show typically starts with a run at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, continues with an extensive UK tour and ends with a recorded performance for DVD.
For radio, Herring co-wrote and presented the history based sketch show That Was Then, This Is Now. For television he wrote Al Murray's sitcom Time Gentlemen Please. He also contributed to the third series of Little Britain as script editor.
In 2005, he presented a chat show called Heads Up with Richard Herring on the Pokerzone channel, in which he interviewed professional poker players and celebrities about their careers and their love of the game. There were 10 episodes in total.
In February 2007, filming began on Herring's comedy-drama You Can Choose Your Friends. As well as writing the script, he also acted alongside Gordon Kennedy, Claire Skinner, Rebecca Front, Sarah-Jane Potts, Robert Daws, Anton Rodgers and Julia McKenzie. The show was broadcast on ITV on 7 June 2007.
In January 2008 he began the Collings and Herrin (sic) podcast with Andrew Collins. They celebrated their two-year anniversary with a live "100th" podcast (it was actually the 105th recording) at the Leicester Square Theatre. On 30 January 2010 the pair began a tenure of sitting in for Adam and Joe on BBC Radio 6 Music on Saturdays mornings, a slot they occupied for more than a year.
Herring's 2008 stand-up set The Headmaster's Son earned four 5-star reviews and several 4-star reviews. The set covers his experience growing up in The Kings of Wessex School in Somerset where his father worked as headmaster and how this may have been the origin of his fondness for telling puerile jokes. The show was seen by critics as a thoughtful look at his upbringing, and his relationship with his father, to whom the show is dedicated.
Herring launched his show, Hitler Moustache in 2009 to see if he "could reclaim the toothbrush moustache for comedy – it was Chaplin's first, then Hitler ruined it." The show discusses broader issues, such as fascism and the British National Party. Herring and some of his contemporaries, including Dave Gorman, were angered when material from his show was misrepresented in a Guardian column by critic Brian Logan.
On 14 October 2010, his Radio 4 series Richard Herring's Objective was first broadcast. Here Herring attempts to reclaim controversial items, starting with the toothbrush moustache and moving onto the hoodie, Flag of England and Dolly the Sheep. An Edinburgh special about the See-you-Jimmy hat was broadcast in August 2011 and a second series was recorded in October 2011 with episodes about the golliwog, the wheelchair, Page 3 and the old school tie.
On 27 December 2010, Herring finished second on Celebrity Mastermind with a final score of 34 points. His specialist subject was Rasputin. He was The Pod Delusion "Comedian of the Year 2010."
In May 2011 it was announced that Fist of Fun would be released on DVD by Go Faster Stripe. The first series was released in December 2011 and the second in November 2012, winning 'Best DVD' at the 2013 Chortle Awards
In August and September 2015, he performed all 11 of his previous one man shows, plus a new one, Happy Now?, at the Leicester Square Theatre over the course of six weekends in a season called "The Twelve Shows of Herring". Happy Now? was taken on a 50-plus date UK tour between October 2015 and June 2016. His 2017 tour show was called Richard Herring — The Best. His 2017 Edinburgh Fringe show is called "Oh Frig, I'm 50!" This was taken on a UK tour in the Spring of 2018.
In 2020, Herring was a contestant on the tenth series of Taskmaster. He was the series' eventual winner.
Blogs, podcasts and internet
On 25 November 2002 Herring started his blog, Warming Up, as a way to overcome writer's block. He has written an entry for every day, and has over 7,000 consecutive entries. His regular readership is estimated to be around 3,000. Some ideas recorded in Warming Up have been used in his live shows. The first year of his blog is collected in two books, Bye Bye Balham and The Box Lady and Other Pesticles.
On 12 October 2009, he recorded the first episode of As It Occurs To Me, a weekly radio-style stand-up and sketch show made for the Internet. It stars him, Emma Kennedy, Dan Tetsell and Christian Reilly and currently stands at 18 episodes and 5 bonus mini-episodes. It was nominated for best internet show at the 2010 Sony Awards, though it failed to place. On 7 February 2011, As It Occurs to Me won the first Chortle Internet award On 20 March 2012 he retained it. In 2017, As It Occurs To Me returned as a six-episode web series.
In 2011 Herring began playing himself at snooker for an audio podcast called "Me1 vs Me2 Snooker". On 28 July 2016 he performed at the Tempting Failure extreme art festival In 2020 he started playing this with 32 personas on Twitch and appeared on Comedians: Home Alone on BBC2 in July with an edited frame of Me1 vs Me2.
In 2013, Herring won the Chortle Award for his Leicester Square Theatre Podcast, which again won the award in 2014. In 2012 he had recorded the first 16 episodes of the long-running Richard Herring's Leicester Square Theatre Podcast with guests including Tim Minchin, Stewart Lee, Adam Buxton, David Mitchell and Armando Iannucci. It was nominated for a Sony Award for Best Comedy alongside a list of BBC produced comedy shows in 2013. The show won the Bronze Award. In May and June 2013 he recorded nine podcasts with guests including Stephen Fry, Russell Brand and Mary Beard. His interview with Stephen Fry, was covered by national and international news media including the BBC and Sky News when Fry revealed a recent suicide attempt. The series continued with Harry Shearer, Eddie Izzard and David Cross.
On 17 November 2013, he recorded the first episode of a six-part internet stand-up, sketch and interview show Richard Herring's Meaning of Life, structured around the philosophical concepts of 'Creation', 'the Paranormal', 'Love', 'Death', 'Good & Evil' and 'the Shape of Things To Come', the episode being broadcast online between February 2014 and early 2015.
In February 2014, the first Richard Herring Show was broadcast on Fubar Radio. Herring presented this with comedian Lou Sanders weekly, before quitting the show together; their final episode was broadcast on 24 May 2014.
On 8 March 2018, in aid of International Women’s Day, Herring raised over £150,000 for domestic abuse charity Refuge by responding to anyone on Twitter who asked when International Men's Day was (it is 19 November). He did the same on 8 March 2019, raising almost £130,000. He repeated the exercise on 8 March 2020 and streamed himself responding to tweets live on Twitch. He raised a further £70,000. In 2020 he wrote a book about his experiences and toxic masculinity called The Problem With Men which was published on 5 November.
In March 2020 Herring started streaming regularly on Twitch as the world went into lockdown. He produced weekly remote episodes of his podcast, Richard Herring's Leicester Square Theatre Podcast, did a live feed of Stone Clearing most weekday mornings and played himself at Snooker (with 32 personas) in the evening. He also did occasional non-director's commentaries for films, as well as a newspaper review with his 128-year-old ventriloquist dummy called Ally and Herring's Twitch of Fun.
In 2020, Richard Herring appeared as a guest in the podcast Off Menu with Ed Gamble and James Acaster.
Motifs and tropes
Misspelling words for comic effect, most commonly by adding a superfluous 's' (as in 'John Majors') or 'g' (as in 'skellington')
Recurrence of the name Ian for characters, especially as a stand-in name for the imagined director of a company (as in 'Ian Starbucks').
Unlikely acronyms (as in for This Morning With Richard Not Judy) and complex, self-defeating mnemonics (as in for the genealogy of Christ.)
Suggesting ruinous philistine improvements to classic works, including "extra final scenes" for Thelma and Louise and Titanic or that a well-received film would be better "with a shrek in it".
Body of work
Stand up shows
Television
Plays
Radio
Podcasts/vodcasts
Miscellaneous home media
Books
Other writing
Warming Up blog (2002–present)
Guardian How To Write (contributor) edited by Philip Oltermann The Guardian (2009)
The Atheist Guide to Christmas Contributor (Editor Ariane Sherine) The Friday Project (2009)
Shouting at the Telly (Contributor) (Editor John Grindrod) Faber and Faber (2009)
Roger's Profanisaurus – Das Krapital Introduction Dennis Publishing (2010)
Metro newspaper weekly column (2012–2016)
Behind the Sofa: Celebrity Memories of Doctor Who (contributor) edited by Steve Berry Matador (2012)
Dead Funny (Contributor) (Editors Robin Ince and Johnny Mains) Salt Publishing (2014)
Goodbye Europe: Writers and Artists Say Farewell (contributor) W&N 2017
Slaughterhouse 5: 50th Anniversary Edition (contributor) Vintage 2019
Zippy and Me by Ronnie Le Drew (foreword) Unbound 2019
Awards and recognition
Chortle Awards Internet Award 2011
Chortle Awards Internet Award 2012
Chortle Awards Internet Award 2013
Radio Academy Awards Best Comedy – Bronze, 2013 (Richard Herring's Leicester Square Theatre Podcast)
Chortle Awards Internet Award 2014
Chortle Awards Internet Award 2018
Chortle Awards Legend of Lockdown 2021
Personal life
Herring was formerly in a relationship with the actress Julia Sawalha, some years after joking on Fist of Fun that "My ideal woman has the head of Julia Sawalha and the body of Julia Sawalha." He also dated Kelly Marcel and Sally Phillips.
In April 2012, Herring married author and comedian Catie Wilkins. They had their first child, a daughter, in February 2015, followed by a son in October 2017.
Herring has raised money for Scope since 2003, and ran the London Marathon in aid of the charity in 2004 as well as the Royal Parks Foundation Half Marathon in 2011, 2013 and 2014. In January 2011 he was nominated for a Just Giving Life Time Achievement Award for his extensive work in helping to raise money, awareness and support for Scope. In 2012 he was made a Patron of Scope.
In 2010 he was made a patron of Humanists UK (formerly The British Humanist Association) and said:
In February 2021 he had an orchidectomy to remove a cancerous testicle, undergoing one shot of chemotherapy a month later.
In November 2021 he ran the Hertfordshire Half Marathon and raised £30,000 for the hospitals that treated his condition.
See also
Richard Herring's interview podcasts
References
External links
RichardHerring.com
Interview with The Humourdor
Interview with BBC Somerset (March 2007)
Guardian Guide To Writing Comedy
Extensive Interview with Mustard Magazine
Independent interview about Hitler Moustache and AIOTM
Interview with Den of Geek
BBC news story about Hitler Moustache
Interview with Gigglesbeat
Interview with Dave
Interview with British Comedy Guide
Interview with John Fleming Part 1
Interview with John Fleming Part 2
Interview with John Fleming Part 3
1967 births
Alumni of St Catherine's College, Oxford
British humanists
British men podcasters
Comedians from Yorkshire
English male comedians
English podcasters
English radio writers
Living people
Twitch (service) streamers
People educated at The Kings of Wessex School
People from Pocklington
People from Sedgemoor (district)
Poker commentators
20th-century English comedians
21st-century English comedians
|
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211451
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20physical%20appearance
|
Human physical appearance
|
Human physical appearance is the outward phenotype or look of human beings.
There are infinite variations in human phenotypes, though society reduces the variability to distinct categories. The physical appearance of humans, in particular those attributes which regarded as important for physical attractiveness, are believed by anthropologists to affect the development of personality significantly and social relations. Humans are acutely sensitive to their physical appearance. Some differences in human appearance are genetic, others are the result of age, lifestyle or disease, and many are the result of personal adornment.
Some people have linked some differences with ethnicity, such as skeletal shape, prognathism or elongated stride. Different cultures place different degrees of emphasis on physical appearance and its importance to social status and other phenomena.
Aspects
Various aspects are considered relevant to the physical appearance of humans.
Physiological differences
Humans are distributed across the globe except for Antarctica and form a variable species. In adults, the average weight varies from around 40 kg (88 pounds) for the smallest and most lightly built tropical people to around 80 kg (176 pounds) for the heavier northern peoples. Size also varies between the sexes, with the sexual dimorphism in humans being more pronounced than that of chimpanzees, but less than the dimorphism found in gorillas. The colouration of skin, hair and eyes also varies considerably, with darker pigmentation dominating in tropical climates and lighter in polar regions.
Genetic, ethnic affiliation, geographical ancestry.
Height, body weight, skin tone, body hair, sexual organs, moles, birthmarks, freckles, hair color, hair texture, eye color, eye shape (see epicanthic fold and eyelid variations), nose shape (see nasal bridge), ears shape (see earlobes), body shape
Body deformations, mutilations and other variations such as amputations, scars, burns and wounds.
Long-term physiological changes
Aging
Hair loss
Short-term physiological changes
Blushing, crying, fainting, hiccup, yawning, laughing, stuttering, sexual arousal, sweating, shivering, nose bleeding, skin color changes due to sunshine or frost.
Clothing, including headgear and footwear; some clothes alter or mold the shape of the body (e.g. corset, support pantyhose, bra). As for footwear, high heels make a person look taller.
Style and colour of haircut (see also mohawk, dreadlocks, braids, ponytail, wig, hairpin, facial hair, beard and moustache)
Cosmetics, stage makeup, body paintings, permanent makeup
Body modifications, such as body piercings, tattoos, scarification, subdermal implants
Plastic surgery
Decorative objects (jewelry) such as a necklaces, bracelets, rings, earrings
Medical or body shape altering devices (e.g., tooth braces, bandages, casts, hearing aids, cervical collar, crutches, contact lenses of different colours, glasses, gold teeth). For example, the same person's appearance can be quite different, depending on whether they use any of the aforementioned modifications.
Exercises, for example, bodybuilding
Other functional objects, temporarily attached to the body
Capes
Goggles
Hair ornaments
Hats and caps
Headdresses
Headphones/handsfree phone headset
Jewelry
Masks
Prosthetic limbs
Sunglasses
Watches
See also
Beauty
Biometrics
Body image
Dress code
Eigenface
Face perception
Facial symmetry
Fashion
Female body shape
Hairstyle
Human variability
Human body
Hair coloring
Nudity
Sexual attraction
Sexual capital
Sexual selection
Somatotype
Vanity
References
Aesthetics
Biological anthropology
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stewart%20Lee
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Stewart Lee
|
Stewart Graham Lee (born 5 April 1968) is a British stand-up comedian, writer and director. In the mid-1990s, he was a member of the radio/TV comedy duo Lee and Herring, alongside Richard Herring. His stand-up is characterised by repetition, callbacks, deadpan delivery and a pronounced use of deconstruction, which he often discusses on stage.
In December 2011, he won British Comedy Awards for best male television comic and best comedy entertainment programme for his series Stewart Lee's Comedy Vehicle. A 2009 article in The Times referred to him as "the comedian's comedian, and for good reason" and named him "face of the decade". In June 2012, Lee was placed at number 9 in the Top 100 Most Influential People in UK Comedy. In 2018, The Times named him as the best current English-language comedian in the world.
He co-wrote and co-directed the West End hit musical Jerry Springer: The Opera, a critical success that sparked a backlash from Christian groups who staged a series of protests outside its early stagings. Lee has written music reviews for publications including The Sunday Times.
His influences include Ted Chippington, Jerry Sadowitz, Simon Munnery, Kevin McAleer and Johnny Vegas.
Early life
Lee was born in Wellington, Shropshire. He was adopted as a child and grew up in Solihull in the West Midlands – his adoptive parents separated when he was four, and he was raised by his mother. He attended Solihull School, a local independent school, on a part scholarship, and received what he calls a "waifs and strays bursary" due to his status as an adoptee. He participated in his school's mountain-walking club, which went on regular excursions to Snowdonia, Wales. The original members of the grindcore band Napalm Death also took part. As a teenager he suffered from ulcerative colitis, which he has said caused significant weight loss and made him look "cadaverously thin". Lee has described how, at the age of 16, he was "doing a lot of reading, going to gigs, buying records, and listening to the John Peel show". He later read English at St Edmund Hall, Oxford, and graduated with a 2:1.
Career
1989–1999: Stand-up and radio
While studying at Oxford in the 1980s, he wrote and performed comedy in a revue group called "The Seven Raymonds" with Richard Herring, Emma Kennedy and Tim Richardson, but did not perform in the well-known Oxford Revue, though he did write for and direct the 1989 Revue. Having moved to London and begun performing stand-up comedy after university, he rose to greater prominence in 1990, winning the prestigious Hackney Empire New Act of the Year competition.
With Herring, Lee wrote material for BBC Radio 4's On the Hour (1991), which was anchored by Chris Morris and was notable for the first appearance of Steve Coogan's celebrated character, Alan Partridge, for which Lee and Herring wrote much early material. After a disagreement with the rest of the cast, Lee and Herring did not remain with the group when On The Hour moved to television as The Day Today.
In 1992 and 1993, he and Herring wrote and performed Lionel Nimrod's Inexplicable World for BBC Radio 4, before moving to BBC Radio 1, for one series of Fist of Fun (1993), followed by three series of Lee and Herring. Throughout the late nineties he continued performing solo stand-up (even whilst in the double act Lee and Herring ) and has collaborated with, amongst others, Julian Barratt and Noel Fielding of The Mighty Boosh. Indeed, though Barratt and Fielding had worked together in the past, the first seeds of the Boosh were sown while working as part of Lee's Edinburgh show King Dong vs Moby Dick in which Barratt and Fielding played a giant penis and a whale, respectively. Lee returned the favour by going on to direct their 1999 Edinburgh show, Arctic Boosh, which remains the template for their live work.
2000–2004: Quitting stand-up
In 2001, Lee published his first novel, The Perfect Fool. In the same year he performed Pea Green Boat, a stand-up show which revolved around the deconstruction of the Edward Lear poem "The Owl and the Pussycat" and a tale of his own broken toilet. This would later be condensed to focus mainly on the poem itself, and a 15-minute version aired on Radio 4. In 2007, Go Faster Stripe released a 25-minute edit on CD and 10" Vinyl.
During late 2000 and early 2001, Lee gradually gave up being a stand-up comedian. and 2001 became the first year since 1987 that he did not perform at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe. While Lee found himself gradually performing less and less standup and moving away from the stage, he continued his directorial duties on television. Two pilots were made for Channel 4, Cluub Zarathustra and Head Farm, but neither was developed into a series. The former featured all the ingredients that would later appear in Attention Scum, a BBC Two series fronted by Simon Munnery's "League Against Tedium" character, which also featured Kevin Eldon, Johnny Vegas and Roger Mann, as well as Richard Thomas and opera singer Lore Lixenberg.
At the 2003 Edinburgh Festival Fringe, Lee directed Johnny Vegas' first DVD, Who's Ready For Ice Cream?. In 2004, he returned to stand-up comedy with the show Standup Comedian.
Lee is a regular music critic for The Guardian. In 2003, he said that his favourite bands include The Fall, Giant Sand and Calexico, and that he listens to "a lot of jazz, 60s and folk music but I really like Ms. Dynamite, and The Streets".
2005–2008: Jerry Springer: The Opera
In January 2005, Jerry Springer: The Opera, a satirical musical/opera written by Lee and Richard Thomas and based upon The Jerry Springer Show, was broadcast on BBC Two, following a highly successful West End run for several years, and as a prelude to the show's UK Tour. Christian Voice led a number of protest groups who claimed that the show was blasphemous and highly offensive. In particular, they were angered by the portrayal of Jesus. Disputes arose, with supporters claiming that most of the protesters had neither seen the show nor knew of its actual content. Others supported the right to freedom of speech. Several Christian groups protested at some of the venues used during the UK Tour. The show was broadcast with a record number of complaints prior to its transmission. In total, the BBC received 55,000 complaints. A private court case brought by Christian Voice against Lee and others involved with the production for blasphemy was rejected by a Magistrates' Court.
In 2006, finding himself "really broke" he appeared as a guest on three comedy panel shows. The first was Never Mind The Buzzcocks, where Simon Amstell made frequent mock-offended references to the controversy over Jerry Springer: The Opera. This was followed by appearances on Have I Got News For You and 8 Out of 10 Cats, before Lee decided to quit them altogether. A profile in the Financial Times in 2011 stated Lee didn't want to alienate his audience in exchange for quick money by such appearances, as working as a stand-up had been the only thing that had generated reliable income for him.
2009–2010: Comedy Vehicle
Stewart Lee's Comedy Vehicle, a new six-part comedy series featuring standup and sketches, began a six-episode run on 16 March 2009. The executive producer was Armando Iannucci and the script editor was Chris Morris. The first episode received positive reviews from The Independent. and the Daily Mirror. Lee himself wrote a negative review of the show in Time Out in which he described himself as "fat" and his performance as "positively Neanderthal, suggesting a jungle-dwelling pygmy, struggling to coax notes out of a clarinet that has fallen from a passing aircraft". The Guardian described it as "the kind of TV that makes you feel like you're not the only one wondering how we came to be surrounded by so much unquestioned mediocrity". One of the show's few negative reviews came in the Sunday Mercury, which stated: "His whole tone is one of complete, smug condescension". Lee used the line to advertise his next stand-up tour. Lee frequently uses negative reviews on his posters in order to put off potential audience members who are unlikely to be fans of his comedy style.
The first episode was watched by approximately one million viewers. The series was the BBC's second most downloaded broadcast during its run. In May 2010, the series was nominated for a BAFTA TV Award for best comedy programme. The series won a BAFTA TV Award for best comedy programme in 2012. The show was cancelled after four seasons on BBC Two.
2011–2019: Alternative Comedy Experience
Although Lee had been supported by less established acts on his comedy tours before (including Josie Long and Tony Law), 2011 marked a shift in his career towards doing a lot to promote other creative comedy talents. He curated At Last! The 1981 Show, featuring veteran alternative comedians Alexei Sayle and Norman Lovett at the Royal Festival Hall in May 2011 and by 2013 he was fronting a comedy showcase on Comedy Central called The Alternative Comedy Experience which featured 38 comedians who identified with alternative comedy, including Robin Ince, Sam Simmons and Eleanor Tiernan. The show ran for 25 episodes 2013–14, but in 2015 Lee confirmed that Comedy Central were not commissioning a third series.
2020–2022: Recent work
In September 2020, Asian Dub Foundation (a political band from London who had a Top 40 hit with "Buzzin'" in 1998) released a song called "Comin’ Over Here", which was based on a sketch from Lee's Comedy Vehicle about the then UKIP party leader Paul Nuttall. In December 2020, Lee teamed up with Asian Dub Foundation to release a video for the song, which was at that time part of an internet campaign (in the style of LadBaby, Rage Against The Machine et al.) to get the record to number one in time for the chart published by the Official Charts Company on 31 December 2020, thereby making the record the 'Brexit Day Number One'. On 1 December 2020, the song debuted at number 65, making it the week's highest new entry and the best selling single of the week (though "Comin’ Over Here" was absent from the Official Audio Streaming Chart Top 100).
Also in 2020, Lee wrote the documentary film King Rocker about the singer Robert Lloyd and the band The Nightingales. The film, directed by Michael Cumming, premiered on Sky Arts on 6 February 2021 and featured the likes of Frank Skinner, Marc Riley, Robin Askwith, Duran Duran's John Taylor and Samira Ahmed.
In February 2022, Lee pulled all of his material off Spotify amidst a controversy that had seen Neil Young boycott the platform due to its hosting of COVID-19 misinformation on The Joe Rogan Experience.
Style and material
Lee's influences include Ted Chippington, Jerry Sadowitz, Simon Munnery, Kevin McAleer and Johnny Vegas.
His comedy covers a wide range of forms and subject material. It is often topical, observational, self-deprecating or absurd. Notable routines have focused on topics like religion, political correctness and artistic integrity. He also employs metahumour, openly describing the structure and intent of the set while onstage, and abolishing the illusion of his routines as spontaneous acts.
Lee's delivery utilises various onstage personae, frequently alternating between that of an outspoken liberal hero and that of a depressed failure and champagne socialist. In an ironic manner, he often criticises the audience for not being intelligent enough to understand his jokes, saying they would prefer more simplistic material, or enjoy the work of more mainstream "arena" comedians such as Michael McIntyre or Lee Mack; inversely, he will also scold them as a bias-seeking "liberal intelligentsia". His routines often culminate in feigned depressive episodes and nervous breakdowns.
Lee caused controversy on his If You Prefer a Milder Comedian tour with a routine about Top Gear presenter Richard Hammond. Referring to Hammond's accident while filming in 2006, in which he was almost killed, Lee joked, "I wish he had been decapitated". When he was doorstepped by a Daily Mail journalist, Lee quoted the routine by replying "It's a joke, just like on Top Gear when they do their jokes". He said: "People who read things like that in the Mail on Sunday and who think Clarkson is funny aren’t going to come and see me, so it doesn’t matter." Explaining the joke, Lee said:
In an Observer interview, Sean O'Hagan says of the Hammond joke that Lee "operates out in that dangerous hinterland between moral provocation and outright offence, often adopting, as in this instance, the tactics of those he targets in order to highlight their hypocrisy".
In his stand-up shows, Lee has made critical statements against other successful comedians including Ben Elton, Ricky Gervais, Russell Brand, James Corden, Joe Pasquale and Patrick Kielty.
After accepting an honorary fellowship from St Edmund Hall, Oxford, Lee gave a lecture to aspiring writers in which he discussed the fact that performers such as Frankie Boyle, Michael McIntyre, Jack Whitehall and Andi Osho used writers who were not credited. He compared the practice to athletes using performance-enhancing drugs. Along with plagiarism and extremism, Lee has brought moral issues surrounding stand-up to the public's attention.
Personal life
Lee lives in Stoke Newington, London. He married fellow comic Bridget Christie in 2006 and the couple have two children. He is a patron of Humanists UK, an Honorary Associate of the National Secular Society and a member of Arts Emergency.
Selected works
Books
Stand-up DVD releases
Television DVD releases
Documentary film releases
Audio releases
90s Comedian [2007] (Go Faster Stripe, download)
Pea Green Boat [2007] (Go Faster Stripe, CD and 10" vinyl)
41st Best Stand Up Ever [2008] (Real Talent, CD)
What Would Judas Do? [2009] (Go Faster Stripe, CD)
The Jazz Cellar Tape [2011] (Go Faster Stripe, CD)
Evans The Death featuring Stewart Lee [2012] – Crying Song (B-side to Catch Your Cold)
John Cage – Indeterminacy – Steve Beresford, Tania Chen, and Stewart Lee [2012] (Knitted Records, CD)
Stand-up tours
References
External links
1968 births
Alumni of St Edmund Hall, Oxford
British humanists
English radio writers
British secularists
English adoptees
English atheists
English film directors
English male comedians
Comedians from Birmingham, West Midlands
English male television actors
English stand-up comedians
GMTV presenters and reporters
Living people
People educated at Solihull School
People from Wellington, Shropshire
20th-century English comedians
21st-century English comedians
|
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211455
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Preston
|
Battle of Preston
|
Two battles are known as the Battle of Preston:
The Battle of Preston (1648) was a victory for Oliver Cromwell over the Royalists during the English Civil War.
The Battle of Preston (1715) was a defeat for the rebels in the Jacobite Rising.
May also refer to:
The Battle of Prestonpans 1745, a victory for the Jacobites over the British government in 1745.
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament%20of%20Finland
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Parliament of Finland
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The Parliament of Finland ( ; ) is the unicameral and supreme legislature of Finland, founded on 9 May 1906. In accordance with the Constitution of Finland, sovereignty belongs to the people, and that power is vested in the Parliament. The Parliament consists of 200 members, 199 of whom are elected every four years from 13 multi-member districts electing 7 to 36 members using the proportional D'Hondt method. In addition, there is one member from Åland.
Legislation may be initiated by either the Government or one of the members of Parliament. The Parliament passes legislation, decides on the state budget, approves international treaties, and supervises the activities of the government. It may bring about the resignation of the Finnish Government, override presidential vetoes, and alter the constitution. To make changes to the constitution, amendments must be approved by two successive parliaments, with an election cycle in between, or passed as an emergency law with a 167/200 majority. Most MPs work in parliamentary groups which correspond with the political parties. The Parliament currently comprises nine parliamentary groups. Since the establishment of the Parliament in 1905, the parliamentary majority has been held once by a single party: the Social Democrats in the 1916 election. Thus, for the Government to gain a majority in the Parliament, coalition governments are favored. These are generally formed by at least two of the three historically major parties: the Social Democrats, Centre, and National Coalition. Ministers are often but not necessarily MPs. The Parliament meets in the Parliament House (, ), which is located in central Helsinki.
The most recent parliamentary election took place on 14 April 2019. The Social Democratic Party, the Centre Party, the Green League, the Left Alliance, and the Swedish People's Party cooperated to form the Rinne Cabinet, a centre-left coalition government. This was succeeded in December 2019 by the Marin Cabinet which is made up of the same parties.
Name
Finnish
The Parliament's Finnish name is , uncapitalized. The word was created in 1906 when the unicameral Parliament was established, with the approximate meaning of an 'Assembly of Representatives'. This word is used mostly to refer to Finland's legislature but can also be used as a general term for legislatures in any country.
Swedish
In Swedish, the Parliament's name is , uncapitalized. This is also the general term for the Swedish legislature. derives from the genitive of ('realm') referring to the independent state of Finland, and , meaning diet or conference. Before independence, until the Constitution Act of 1919, the Parliament was known, in Swedish, as , which was the old term for the Diet of Finland.
History
The Parliament of Finland was preceded by the Diet of Finland (; , modern ), which had succeeded the Riksdag of the Estates in 1809. When the unicameral Parliament of Finland was established by the Parliament Act in 1906, Finland was an autonomous grand duchy and principality under the Imperial Russian Tsar, who ruled as the Grand Duke, rather than as an absolute monarch. Universal suffrage and eligibility was implemented, making Finland the second country in the world to adopt universal suffrage. Women could both vote and run for office as equals, and this applied also to landless people, with no excluded minorities. The first election to the Parliament was arranged in 1907. The first Parliament had 19 female representatives, an unprecedented number at the time, which grew to 21 by 1913.
The first years of the new Parliament were difficult. Between 1908 and 1916 the power of the Finnish Parliament was almost completely neutralized by the Russian Tsar Nicholas II and the so-called "sabre senate" of Finland, a bureaucratic government formed by Imperial Russian Army officers during the second period of "Russification". The Parliament was dissolved and new elections were held almost every year.
The Finnish Parliament received the true political power for the first time after the February Revolution (First Revolution) of 1917 in Russia. Finland declared its independence on 6 December 1917, and in the winter and spring of 1918 endured a civil war in which the forces of the Senate, known as the White Guard, defeated the socialist Red Guard.
After the war, monarchists and republicans struggled over the country's form of government. The monarchists seemed to gain a victory when the Parliament elected a German prince as King of Finland in the fall of 1918. This decision was made on the basis of other Scandinavian countries also having monarchs. However, the king-elect abdicated the throne after Imperial Germany was defeated in World War I, on 11 November 1918. In the parliamentary election of 1919, the republican parties won three-quarters of the seats, extinguishing the monarchists' ambitions. Finland became a republic with a parliamentary system, but in order to appease the monarchist parties, which favoured a strong head of state, extensive powers were granted to the President of Finland.
When the Soviet Union attacked Finland in the Winter War, in early December 1939 Parliament was evacuated and the legislature temporarily relocated to Kauhajoki, a town in western Finland far away from the frontline. The parliament held 34 plenary sessions in Kauhajoki, with the last on 12 February 1940. Another temporary relocation was seen during the renovation of the Parliament House in 2015–2017 when the Parliament convened in the neighbouring Sibelius Academy.
The Constitution of 1919, which instituted a parliamentary system, did not undergo any major changes for 70 years. Although the government was responsible to the Parliament, the President wielded considerable authority, which was used to its full extent by long-standing President Urho Kekkonen. As the Constitution implemented very strong protections for political minorities, most changes in legislation and state finances could be blocked by a qualified minority of one third. This, in conjunction with the inability of some of the parties to enter into coalition governments, led to weak, short-lived cabinets.
During President Mauno Koivisto's tenure in the 1980s, cabinets sitting for the whole parliamentary term became the norm. At the same time, the ability of qualified minorities to block legislation was gradually removed and the powers of the Parliament were greatly increased in the constitutional reform of 1991.
The revised 2000 draft of the Finnish constitution removed almost all domestic powers of the President, strengthening the position of the cabinet and the Parliament. It also included the methods for the discussion of EU legislation under preparation in the Parliament.
Dissolutions of Parliament
The Parliament of Finland has been dissolved fourteen times during its existence. The most recent instance was on 4 June 1975.
Elections
The Parliament's 200 representatives are elected directly by ballot on the basis of proportional representation. A standard electoral period is four years. Elections have previously taken two days, but as early voting has become more popular, they are now conducted during one day; the third Sunday of April of an election year.
Every Finnish citizen who is at least 18 years of age on the election date is entitled to vote in general elections. There is normally no need to register as a voter, and citizens receive an invitation by mail. With certain exceptions, such as military personnel on active duty, high judicial officials, the President of the Republic, and persons under guardianship, any voter may also stand as a candidate for the Parliament. All registered parties are entitled to nominate candidates; individual citizens and independent electoral organizations must be endorsed by a sufficient number of voters through the form of to apply.
In parliamentary elections, Finland is divided into 13 electoral districts. The number of representatives granted to each district is proportional to its population, except for Åland, which always elects one representative. The provincial state offices appoint an election board in each electoral district to prepare lists of candidates and to approve the election results. The Ministry of Justice has the ultimate responsibility for holding elections.
The President of Finland can call for an early election. As per the version of the constitution currently in use, the president can do this only upon proposal by the Prime Minister and after consultations with the parliamentary groups while the Parliament is in session. In prior versions of the constitution, the President had the power to do this unilaterally.
There is no hard and fast election threshold to get a seat in Parliament. This results in a large number of parties being represented. In 2019, for instance, nine parties won seats, with six winning at least 15 seats. With so many parties and the lack of a threshold, it is nearly impossible for one party to win an outright majority. During the history of the Parliament, only one party has ever won an outright majority–when the Social Democrats won 103 seats in the election of 1916. Since independence in 1917, no party has ever won the 101 seats needed for a majority. Instead, most Finnish governments have been coalitions formed by three or more parties. Many of them have been grand coalitions between parties with varying ideological backgrounds, as the socialist and non-socialist blocs usually do not win enough seats between them to govern on their own.
The seats for each electoral district are assigned according to the D'Hondt method. Electoral districts were originally based on the historical lääni division of 1634, but there have been several subsequent changes. Although there is no set election threshold, many electoral districts have become smaller in terms of population in recent decades, and some now elect as few as six representatives. This makes it harder for small parties to win MPs in these districts.
Parliamentary groups
MPs work in parliamentary groups (). The parliamentary groups generally correspond to political parties, although occasionally dissidents can be removed from the party group and form their own. there are nine groups, one of which is a one-man group. A group generally tries to reach a unanimous decision on a common position, but failing to do so may take a vote. This position then defines voting in the parliamentary session proper according to party discipline. Exceptions to this principle are made on matters on which no party line or government policy exists. Parliamentary groups make their decisions independently of their party leadership, and group leaders of major parties accordingly rank alongside government ministers and party leaders as influential political leaders.
Each parliamentary group receives funding for its operations and may have staff of its own.
Formation of government
The President of Finland consults the Speaker of Parliament and representatives of parliamentary groups about the formation of a new Finnish Government. According to the Constitution of Finland, the Parliament elects the Prime Minister, who is appointed to office by the President. The Prime Minister is, in practice, the most powerful politician in the country. Other ministers are appointed by the President on the Prime Minister's proposal. While individual ministers are not appointed by the Parliament, they may be individually removed by a motion of no confidence. The government, as a whole, must also have the confidence of the Parliament and must resign on a motion of no confidence. The government has collective ministerial responsibility.
Before the Prime Minister is elected, the parliamentary groups (which correspond to their respective political parties) negotiate on the government platform and on the composition of the government. On the basis of the outcome of these negotiations, and after having consulted the Speaker of the house and the parliamentary groups, the President informs the Parliament of the nominee for Prime Minister. The parliament votes on the proposal, and if successful, the nominee is elected Prime Minister. Although Finland essentially always has multi-party coalition governments, the process is made smoother by party discipline: coalition MPs vote together to ensure a majority.
Sessions
The annual session of parliament generally begins in February and consists of two terms, the first from January to June, the second from September to December. At the start of an annual session, the nation's political leaders and their guests attend a special worship service at Helsinki Cathedral before the ceremonies continue at the Parliament House, where the President formally opens the session.
On the first day of each annual session, the Parliament selects a speaker and two deputy speakers from its members. This election is chaired by the oldest MP in office. The three members who are elected to serve as speaker and first deputy speaker and second deputy speaker respectively take the following solemn oath before the Parliament;"I, [name of the MP], affirm that in my office as Speaker I will to the best of my ability defend the rights of the people, Parliament and the government of Finland according to the Constitution."During each annual session of Parliament, Finland's delegations to the Nordic Council and the Council of Europe are assigned. The Parliament also elects five of its members to the bench of the High Court of Impeachment for the duration of the parliamentary term.
Committees
The Parliament has 17 committees. Most committees have 17 permanent members, except for the Grand Committee, which has 25; the Finance Committee, which has 21; and the Audit and Intelligence Oversight Committees, which have 11 each. In addition to these permanent members, each of the committees has a number of substitute members. On average, each member of the Parliament is also a member of two committees.
Most of the committees are special committees, while the Grand Committee deals with EU affairs, but also has a wider range of tasks. As Finland does not have a constitutional court, the role of the Constitutional Law Committee is to oversee constitutional affairs. The Committee for the Future is also noteworthy, as it does not usually deal with bills, but instead assesses factors relating to future developments and gives statements to other committees on issues relating to the future outlooks of their respective fields of speciality. The newest committee is the Intelligence Oversight Committee which was created in 2019.
Proceedings
Domestic legislation
Most of the bills discussed in the parliament originate within the Council of State. However, any member or group of members may introduce a bill, but usually these will not pass the committee phase. A third way to propose legislation was introduced in 2012: citizens may deliver an initiative for the parliament's consideration, if the initiative gains 50,000 endorsements from eligible voters within a period of six months. When delivered to the parliament, the initiative is dealt with in the same way as any other bill. Any bill introduced will initially be discussed by the members of the Parliament, prior to being sent to the committee to which it belongs. If the bill concerns several areas of legislation, the Grand Committee will first ask the other committees for opinions. If there is any concern about the constitutionality of the bill, the opinion of the Constitutional Committee is demanded. The Constitutional Committee works in non-partisan manner and uses the most distinguished legal scholars as experts. If the committee considers the bill to have unconstitutional elements, the bill must either be passed as a constitutional change or changed to be in concordance with the constitution. In most cases, the latter route is chosen.
The bills receive their final form in the parliamentary committees. The committees work behind closed doors but their proceedings are publicized afterwards. Usually the committees hear experts from special interest groups and various authorities after which they formulate the necessary changes to the bill in question. If the committee does not agree, the members in minority may submit their own version of the bill.
The committee statement is discussed by the parliament in two consecutive sessions. In the first session, the parliament discusses the bill and prepares its final form. In the first part of handling, a general discussion of the bill is undertaken. After this, the parliament discusses individual points of the bill and chooses between the bill proposed by the committee, minority opinions and the eventual other forms the members submit during the discussion. If the parliament wishes to do so, it may during the general discussion of the first handling submit the bill to the Grand Committee for further formulation. The bill is also always treated by the Grand Committee if the parliament decides to adopt any other form than the final opinion of the committee. The committee then formulates its own version of the bill and submits this to the parliament which then adopts either its former version or the version of the Grand Committee. The committee statements are influential documents in that they often used by the courts as indicative of the legislator's intent.
In the second session, the final formulation of the bill is either passed or dismissed. If the bill entails a change in constitution, the second session takes place only after the next election unless the parliament decides to declare the matter to be urgent by a majority of five-sixths. In constitutional matters, the bills are passed by a majority of two-thirds. In other cases, the simple majority of votes given is enough.
International treaties requiring changes to legislation are accepted by a simple majority in a single session. Treaties requiring changes to the constitution or changing the borders of Finland require a qualified majority of two-thirds.
EU legislation
The matters relating to the jurisdiction of the European Union are decided by the Council of the European Union and the European Parliament. However, as changes to European legislation are being prepared, the Parliament participates actively in formulating the government's position on these changes.
As the proceedings of the committees are public, European Union matters handled by the Parliament tend to become public after committee meetings. However, the government may ask the Parliament for a secret handling of an EU matter. This can be the case if the government does not want to reveal its position to foreign nations before the beginning of negotiations.
European Union legislation under preparation is brought to the Grand Committee by the Finnish government when they have received notice of the proposal from the European Commission. The Grand Committee discusses the matter behind closed doors, and if appropriate, requests opinions from the committees of the Parliament. Both the Grand Committee and the specialized committees hear expert opinions while preparing their opinions. Finally, the Grand Committee formulates its opinion of the proposal. However, in matters concerning the external relations of the European Union, the Finnish stance is formulated by the Committee for Foreign and Security Policy, rather than the Grand Committee.
The Finnish government is obligated by law to follow the parliamentary opinion when discussing the matter with the European Commission and other member states. The government may change the Finnish stance, but it is required to report such changes to the Parliament immediately.
After the European Union has made a legislative decision that is to be implemented by the Parliament, the matter is brought back to the parliament as with usual legislation. At this stage, the Finnish state is committed to passing a bill fulfilling the requirements demanded by the EU, and the Parliament must vote accordingly.
Other matters
Every member of parliament has the right to ask the government written questions. The questions are answered in writing within 21 days by a minister responsible for the matter and do not cause any further discussion. Furthermore, the parliament has a questioning session from time to time. In these, the members are allowed to ask short verbal questions, which are answered by the responsible ministers and then discussed by the parliament.
Any group of twenty members may interpellate. The motion of censure may be for the whole government or any particular minister. The motion takes the form of a question that is replied to by the responsible minister. If the parliament decides to approve the motion of censure, the committee responsible for the matter in question formulates the motion, which is then passed by the parliament.
The government may decide to make a report to the parliament in any matter. After discussion the parliament may either accept the report or pass a motion of censure. A passed motion of censure will cause the government to fall.
Any group of 10 members may raise the question of the legality of the minister's official acts. If such question is raised, the Constitutional Committee will investigate the matter, using all the powers of police. After the final report of the committee, the parliament decides whether to charge the minister in the High Court of Impeachment. The criminal investigation of the Constitutional Committee may also be initiated by the Chancellor of Justice, Parliamentary Ombudsman or by any parliamentary committee. Similar proceedings may also be initiated against the Chancellor of Justice, Parliamentary Ombudsman or the judges of the supreme courts. The President of Finland may be also the target of a criminal investigation of the Constitutional Committee, but the parliament must accept the indictment by a majority of three-fourths and the charge must be treason, high treason or a crime against humanity.
Members of the Parliament
Members of the Parliament are not employees and cannot voluntarily resign or be laid off. They can be granted leave or dismissal only with the consent of the Parliament. Members of the Parliament enjoy parliamentary immunity. Without the parliament's approval, members may not be prosecuted for anything they say in session or otherwise do in the course of parliamentary proceedings. MPs may not be prevented from carrying out their work as members of parliament. They may be charged with crimes they have committed in office only if the parliament gives a permission to that end with a majority of five-sixths of given votes. For other crimes, they may be arrested or imprisoned only for crimes which carry a minimum punishment of six months in prison, unless the parliament gives permission to arrest the member.
The members receive a monthly taxable remuneration (palkkio) of 6,407 €. Those who have served for 12 years or longer receive 6,887 €. It is not legally a salary. In addition, all MPs automatically receive 986.81 € as tax-free compensation of expenses, which can be increased up to 1,809.15 € with receipts. MPs from districts far from Helsinki can thus receive compensation for a second apartment in Helsinki. MPs may travel for free within the country by train, bus, or plane for purposes related to legislative work. Within Greater Helsinki, they may freely use taxis. Eduskunta is responsible for its own finances and the Minister of Finance is obliged to include their proposal to the state budget as is regardless of his own opinion.
MPs are aided in their work by personal assistants, although there are fewer assistants than MPs and not every MP has one. Assistants are formally employed by the Parliamentary Office, but can be selected and directed by the MP.
A member who is elected to the European Parliament must choose between the two parliaments because a double mandate is not permissible. On the other hand, the members may have any municipal positions of trust, and it is common for them to have a position in a municipal council. If MPs leave the parliament or die in office, they are replaced by candidates from the same list they were elected from in the previous election, in order of their electoral score (the D'Hondt quotient). Those so selected are from a substitute list, the substitutes being named at the same time as the eclectoral results are announced. Finland does not have a by-election system.
The members have an unlimited right to discuss the matters at hand. However, they must behave in a "solemn and dignified manner" and refrain from personal insults. If the member breaks against this rule in the session of parliament, they may be interrupted by the speaker. Grave breaches of order may be punished by two weeks' suspension from office by the decision of the Parliament. If a member is convicted of an intentional crime for a term in prison or of an electoral crime to any punishment, the parliament may decide to dismiss the member if two-thirds of the votes given are for dismissal.
Parliament House
Before the construction of the Parliament House, the Parliament met in various different locations. The Diet of Finland, the predecessor of the Parliament, was tetracameral and did not regularly meet together. The Diet of Porvoo (1809) met in various buildings in Porvoo, with Borgå gymnasium as the main hall, the noble and burgher estates meeting in the town hall and the peasants' estate in chief judge Orraeus' house. However, the Diet assembled only once and did not reconvene until 1863. In 1863, the Diet began regular meetings again, reconvening in the House of Nobility (Ritarikatu 1). This building still stands, but is no longer in governmental use. Whereas nobility continued to meet there, in 1891 a new House of the Estates was inaugurated for the other estates (clergy, burghers and peasants). This building is today owned by the state and occasionally used by the Government of Finland. When the modern 200-member Parliament was founded in 1906, they first met in the local voluntary fire brigade house (Keskuskatu 7), because there was not enough space for them in the House of Estates. The fire brigade house was demolished in 1967 and replaced by the Helsinki World Trade Center building. In 1911, the Heimola House, a building designed by Onni Tarjanne, was inaugurated at Yliopistonkatu 5. This building was demolished in 1969 and replaced by a 9-story office building.
In 1923 a competition was held to choose a site for a new Parliament House. Arkadianmäki, a hill beside what is now Mannerheimintie, was chosen as the best site. An architectural competition was held in 1924, and it was won by the firm Borg–Sirén–Åberg with their proposal, Oratoribus. Johan Sigfrid Sirén (1889–1961), who was mainly responsible for preparing the proposal, was tasked with designing the Parliament House. The building was constructed 1926–1931 and was officially inaugurated on 7 March 1931. Ever since then, and especially during the Winter War and Continuation War, it has been the scene of many key moments in the nation's political life.
Parliament House was designed in the classic style of the 1920s. The exterior is reddish Kalvola granite. The façade is lined by fourteen columns with Corinthian capitals. The first floor contains the main lobby, the Speaker's reception rooms, the newspaper room, the Information Service, the Documents Office, the messenger centre, the copying room, and the restaurant and separate function rooms. At both ends of the lobby are marble staircases leading up to the fifth floor.
The second or main floor is centered around the Chamber. Its galleries have seats for the public, the media and diplomats. Also located on this floor are the Hall of State, the Speaker's Corridor, the Government's Corridor, the cafeteria and adjacent function rooms.
The third floor includes facilities for the Information Unit and the media and provides direct access to the press gallery overlooking the Session Hall. The Minutes Office and a number of committee rooms are also located here.
The fourth floor is reserved for committees. Its largest rooms are the Grand Committee Room and the Finance Committee Room. The fifth floor contains meeting rooms and offices for the parliamentary groups. Additional offices for the parliamentary groups are located on the sixth floor, along with facilities for the media.
Notable later additions to the building include the library annex, completed in 1978, and a separate office block, called Pikkuparlamentti, completed in 2004.
The building underwent extensive renovations in the years 2007–2017 as part of the preparation for Finland's centennial independence celebration.
Election results
2019
Result of the election held on 14 April 2019:
See also
List of members of the Parliament of Finland, 2015–19
Parliament of Åland
Sámi Parliament of Finland
Politics of Finland
List of political parties in Finland
References
Sources
Apunen, Osmo (1987), Rajamaasta tasavallaksi. In: Blomstedt, Y. (ed.) Suomen historia 6, Sortokaudet ja itsenäistyminen, pp. 47–404. WSOY. .
External links
History of the Finnish Parliament
Findicator - Voting turnout in the Finnish Parliamentary Elections since 1908
1906 establishments in Finland
Finland
Finland
Finland
Töölö
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211458
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie%20Alfred%20Cornu
|
Marie Alfred Cornu
|
Marie Alfred Cornu (; 6 March 1841 – 12 April 1902) was a French physicist. The French generally refer to him as Alfred Cornu.
Life
Cornu was born at Orléans to François Cornu and Sophie Poinsellier. He was educated at the École polytechnique and the École des mines. Upon the death of Émile Verdet in 1866, Cornu became, in 1867, Verdet's successor as professor of experimental physics at the École polytechnique, where he remained throughout his life. Although he made various excursions into other branches of physical science, undertaking, for example, with Jean-Baptistin Baille about 1870 a repetition of Cavendish's experiment for determining the gravitational constant G, his original work was mainly concerned with optics and spectroscopy. In particular he carried out a classical redetermination of the speed of light by A. H. L. Fizeau's method (see Fizeau-Foucault Apparatus), introducing various improvements in the apparatus, which added greatly to the accuracy of the results. This achievement won for him, in 1878, the prix Lacaze and membership of the French Academy of Sciences (l'Académie des sciences), and the Rumford Medal of the Royal Society in England. In 1892, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1896, he became president of the French Academy of Sciences. Cornu was the President of the Société Astronomique de France (SAF), the French astronomical society, from 1897-1899. In 1899, at the jubilee commemoration of Sir George Stokes, he was Rede lecturer at Cambridge, his subject being the wave theory of light and its influence on modern physics; and on that occasion the honorary degree of D.Sc. was conferred on him by the university. He died at Romorantin on 12 April 1902.
The Cornu spiral, a graphical device for the computation of light intensities in Fresnel's model of near-field diffraction, is named after him. The spiral (or clothoid) is also used in geometric design of roads. The Cornu depolarizer is also named after him.
References
Attribution
1841 births
1902 deaths
French physicists
École Polytechnique alumni
Officers of the French Academy of Sciences
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
People from Orléans
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
|
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211461
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galton%20and%20Simpson
|
Galton and Simpson
|
Ray Galton OBE (17 July 1930 – 5 October 2018) and Alan Simpson OBE (27 November 1929 – 8 February 2017) were English comedy scriptwriters whose partnership lasted over 50 years. They met in 1948 whilst recuperating from tuberculosis at the Milford Sanatorium, near Godalming in Surrey. They are best known for their work with comedian Tony Hancock on radio and television between 1954 and 1961 and their long-running television situation comedy, Steptoe and Son, eight series of which were aired between 1962 and 1974.
Career
The partnership's break in comedy writing came with the Derek Roy vehicle Happy Go Lucky, although this was not a success. The Hancock connection began with their involvement with later radio variety series, and from November 1954 continued with Hancock's Half Hour on radio; a series featuring their scripts for Hancock ran on television between 1956 and 1961. In October that year Hancock ended his professional relationship with the writers, and with Beryl Vertue who worked with the writers' at their agency Associated London Scripts. This writers' co-operative had been founded by Eric Sykes and Spike Milligan, with others involved, including Hancock for a time.
After their association with Hancock had ended, they wrote a series of Comedy Playhouse (1961–62), ten one-off half-hour plays for the BBC. One play in the series, The Offer, was well received, and from this emerged Steptoe and Son (1962–74), about two rag and bone men, father and son, who live together in a squalid house in West London. This was the basis for the American series Sanford and Son and the Swedish series Albert & Herbert.
Their comedy is characterised by a bleak and somewhat fatalistic tone. Steptoe and Son in particular is, at times, extremely black comedy, and close in tone to social realist drama. Both the character played by Tony Hancock in Hancock's Half Hour and Harold Steptoe (Harry H. Corbett) are pretentious, would-be intellectuals who find themselves trapped by the squalor of their lives. This theme had been expanded upon in their script for Tony Hancock's film The Rebel (1961), about a civil servant who moves to Paris to become an artist. Gabriel Chevallier's novel Clochemerle (1934) was adapted by Galton and Simpson as a BBC/West German co-production in 1972. They contributed the book to Jacob's Journey, a musical accompaniment to a 1973 production of Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat, which was however soon dropped. Around this time an unbroadcast television pilot entitled Bunclarke With an E was recorded based on a Hancock's Half Hour script, with Arthur Lowe and James Beck, but Beck died before the project could be developed as a series. Another series from this period, Casanova '73 (1973) with Leslie Phillips in the lead, was described by The Times in its obituary of Galton as "disappointingly typical of their later work."
While both writers continued to work after Steptoe and Son ended, including several projects with Frankie Howerd, they had no further high-profile successes. Duncan Wood, the former Hancock and Steptoe producer by then at Yorkshire Television, commissioned The Galton & Simpson Playhouse, a seven-part series broadcast in 1977, featuring leading actors of the time such as Richard Briers, Leonard Rossiter and Arthur Lowe. None of these shows led to another series. Simpson retired from scriptwriting in 1978, becoming an after-dinner speaker, while Galton collaborated in several projects with Johnny Speight.
In 1996 and 1997, comedian Paul Merton revived several Hancock's Half Hour and other Galton and Simpson scripts for ITV to a mixed reception. Ray Galton's Get Well Soon, based on his and Simpson's early sanatorium experiences, was broadcast by the BBC in 1997.
In October 2005, Galton and John Antrobus premiered their play Steptoe and Son in Murder at Oil Drum Lane at the Theatre Royal, York. The play is set in the present day and relates the events that lead to Harold killing his father, and their eventual meeting thirty years later (Albert appearing as a ghost). A series of old plays updated for modern times, entitled Galton and Simpson's Half Hour, was broadcast on BBC Radio 2 in 2009. The series of four episodes was made to celebrate the duo's 60-year anniversary, and the cast consists of Frank Skinner, Mitchell and Webb, Rik Mayall, June Whitfield and Paul Merton. The successful Scandinavian television series Fleksnes Fataliteter and Albert & Herbert were based on Hancock's Half Hour and Steptoe and Son.
Awards
Galton and Simpson were both awarded OBEs in the 2000 honours list for their contribution to British television.
On Saturday 1 June 2013, the British Comedy Society unveiled a blue plaque to Simpson and Galton at Milford Hospital (formerly the sanatorium the pair first met in).
On 8 May 2016, the two men were awarded a BAFTA fellowship for their comedy writing.
References
External links
DVDCompare review of The Galton and Simpson Playhouse (1977)
English radio writers
English television writers
Screenwriting duos
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
|
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] |
211463
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray%20Galton
|
Ray Galton
|
Raymond Percy Galton (17 July 1930 – 5 October 2018) was an English radio and television scriptwriter, best known for the Galton and Simpson comedy writing partnership with Alan Simpson. Together they devised and wrote 1950s and 60s BBC sitcoms including Hancock's Half Hour (1954–1961), the first two series' of Comedy Playhouse (1961–1963), and Steptoe and Son (1962–1974).
Early life
Galton was born in Paddington, West London, and after leaving school he worked for the Transport and General Workers Union. He contracted tuberculosis aged 18 in 1948 and was admitted to Milford Sanatorium near Godalming in Surrey, where he met fellow patient Alan Simpson.
Galton and Simpson
Later career
Alan Simpson retired from scriptwriting in 1978 to concentrate on his business interests. Galton then often worked with Johnny Speight on scripts, including Spooner's Patch (1979–1982) about a corrupt police station. He also wrote scripts for sitcoms produced in Germany and Scandinavia. He co-wrote the ITV series Room at the Bottom (1986–1988) about television executives. His last sitcom was Get Well Soon in 1997 which he co-created with John Antrobus and which was based on his own experiences in a sanatorium. In October 2005, Galton and Antrobus premiered their play Steptoe and Son in Murder at Oil Drum Lane at the Theatre Royal, York. The play was set in the present day and related the events that led to Harold killing his father, and their eventual meeting thirty years later (Albert appearing as a ghost).
Honours and awards
Galton won two BAFTA awards among many others such as a British Comedy Award.
He accepted an OBE in 2000 and he and Simpson received a BAFTA Fellowship on 8 May 2016.
Personal life and death
Galton married Tonia Phillips in 1956, and they had three children; she died from cancer in 1995. He died on 5 October 2018. Galton's family said he died in his sleep at a family home after a long period suffering from dementia.
References
External links
1930 births
2018 deaths
English radio writers
English television writers
British television writers
BAFTA fellows
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
People from Paddington
English male writers
Neurological disease deaths in England
Deaths from dementia
British male television writers
English comedy writers
|
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] |
211465
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Simpson
|
Alan Simpson
|
Alan Simpson may refer to:
Alan Simpson (theatre director) (1920–1980), Irish theatre director
Alan Simpson (scriptwriter) (1929–2017), British screenwriter, of Galton and Simpson
Alan Simpson (American politician) (born 1931), former United States Senator from Wyoming
Alan Simpson (athlete) (born 1940), British runner
Alan Simpson (British politician) (born 1948), British Labour Party politician
Alan Simpson (actor) (born 1983), American actor
See also
Allan Simpson (born 1977), American baseball player
Allan Simpson (born 1948), Canadian baseball writer and founder of Baseball America
Simpson (name)
|
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211469
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australasian%20wren
|
Australasian wren
|
The Australasian wrens are a family, Maluridae, of small, insectivorous passerine birds endemic to Australia and New Guinea. While commonly known as wrens, they are unrelated to the true wrens. The family comprises 29 species (including fifteen fairywrens, three emu-wrens, and eleven grasswrens) in six genera.
Taxonomy and systematics
As with many other Australian creatures, and perhaps more than most, the species making up this family were comprehensively misunderstood by early researchers. They were variously classified as Old World flycatchers, Old World warblers, and Old World babblers. In the late 1960s morphological studies began to suggest that the Australo-Papuan fairywrens, the grasswrens, emu-wrens and two monotypic wren-like genera from New Guinea were related and, following Charles Sibley's pioneering work on egg-white proteins in the mid-1970s, Australian researchers adopted the family name Maluridae in 1975.
With further morphological work and the great strides made in DNA analysis towards the end of the 20th century, their position became clear: the Maluridae are one of the many families to have emerged from the great corvid radiation in Australasia. Their closest relatives are the honeyeaters (Meliphagidae), and the pardalotes (Pardalotidae). Their obvious similarity to the wrens of Europe and America is not genetic, but simply the consequence of convergent evolution between more-or-less unrelated species that share the same ecological niche.
A 2011 analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA found the broad-billed fairywren and Campbell's fairywren, both formerly lumped together in the genus Malurus, to lie in a clade with the two other monospecific New Guinea genera and as such, they were later re-classified as separate species within the genus Chenorhamphus.
Currently, there are 6 genera recognized:
Family Maluridae
Subfamily: Malurinae
Tribe Malurini – fairywrens
Genus Sipodotus – Wallace's fairywren
Genus Chenorhamphus – (2 species)
Genus Malurus – (12 species)
Genus: Clytomyias – Orange-crowned fairywren
Tribe Stipiturini Genus Stipiturus – emu-wrens (3 species)
Subfamily Amytornithinae' Genus Amytornis – grasswrens (13 species)
Description
Malurids are small to medium birds, inhabiting a wide range of environments from rainforest to desert, although most species inhabit grassland or scrub. The grasswrens are well camouflaged with black and brown patterns, but other species often have brilliantly coloured plumage, especially in the males.
They are insectivorous, typically foraging in underbrush. They build domed nests in areas of dense vegetation, and it is not unusual for the young to remain in the nest and assist in raising chicks from later clutches.
Fairywrens are notable for several peculiar behavioral characteristics. They are socially monogamous and sexually promiscuous, meaning that although they form pairs between one male and one female, each partner will mate with other individuals and even assist in raising the young from such pairings. Males of several species pluck petals of conspicuous colours and display them to females for reasons unknown.
The song of fairywrens is pleasant and complex, and at least two species (superb and splendid) possess, in addition to the alarm calls common to – and universally understood by – most small birds, another vocalization used when confronted by predators. This, termed "Type II Vocalization," is song-like and used when confronted by calling butcherbirds, and sometimes other predatory birds. Its purpose is, however, unknown; it does not seem to be a warning call.
References
Josep del Hoyo J.; Elliot, A. & Christie D. (editors). (2007). Handbook of the Birds of the World''. Volume 12: Picathartes to Tits and Chickadees. Lynx Edicions.
External links
Maluridae videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Meliphagoidea - Highlighting relationships of Maluridae on Tree Of Life Web Project
Bird families
Higher-level bird taxa restricted to the Australasia-Pacific region
Australasian realm fauna
|
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211471
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A4mmi
|
Mämmi
|
Mämmi (; ) is a traditional Finnish dessert, eaten around Easter.
Mämmi is traditionally made of water, rye flour, and powdered malted rye, seasoned salt, and dried powdered Seville orange zest. The mixture is then left to sweeten naturally before being baked in an oven until set by the Maillard reaction. After baking, the mämmi is chilled for three to four days before being ready to eat. Unlike traditional mämmi, which is left to sweeten naturally, commercially made mämmi is usually seasoned with dark molasses. Traditional mämmi has an aromatic and sweet flavour, consisting of just 2% sugar or less, whereas commercially produced mämmi can contain as much as 20% sugar and therefore is much different in flavour. Mämmi has up to 10% protein and is rich in trace elements. Traditionally, mämmi was stored in small bowls made of birch bark called tuokkonen or rove, the appearance of which is now mimicked by commercial packaging.
Typically, mämmi is eaten cold with either milk or cream and sugar, and less commonly with vanilla sauce. Traditionally, it was also eaten on sliced bread as a spread. There is a Finnish society for mämmi founded by Ahmed Ladarsi, the former chef at the Italian Embassy in Helsinki, who has developed around fifty recipes containing mämmi. There are a number of websites with recipes using mämmi, most of which are in Finnish. Mämmi is also used as a minor ingredient in a mämmi-beer by Laitilan Wirvoitusjuomatehdas.
History
Mämmi was first mentioned during the 16th century, in a dissertation (in Latin). It is claimed that it has been eaten in southwestern Finland ever since the 13th century.
Traditionally mämmi is eaten during the Easter season.
Today, Finns seldom make mämmi at home and most modern mämmi is factory-made. Traditional versions of mämmi are sold in Finland with the labels perinteinen (traditional) or luomu (organic). Some people of Finnish descent in North America and Australia still make mämmi at home.
See also
List of desserts
Samanu
References
External links
Nutrition of Mämmi (with malt), Sweetened Malt Porridge, Finnish Easter Pudding
Mämmi Maestro. Ahmed Ladarsi is an expert on a Finnish "delicacy"
Mämmi at Easter
Finnish desserts
Easter food
Rye-based dishes
Malt
National dishes
Citrus dishes
|
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] |
211473
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie%20Cornu
|
Marie Cornu
|
Marie Cornu may refer to:
Marie Alfred Cornu (1841–1902), French physicist
Marie Maxime Cornu (1843–1901), French botanist and mycologist
|
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211475
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20World%20oriole
|
Old World oriole
|
The Old World orioles (Oriolidae) are an Old World family of passerine birds.
Taxonomy and systematics
The family Oriolidae comprises the piopios, figbirds, pitohuis and the Old World orioles. The piopios were added 2011, having been formerly placed in the family Turnagridae. Several other genera have been proposed to split up the genus Oriolus. For example, the African black-headed species are sometimes placed in a separate genus, Baruffius. The family Oriolidae is not related to the New World orioles, despite their similar size, diet, behaviour and contrasting plumage patterns. Rather, these similarities are an example of convergent evolution.
Extant genera
There are three extant genera in the family Oriolidae:
Extinct genera
There are at least two extinct genera in the family Oriolidae:
Genus Turnagra – piopios (2 extinct species)
Genus Longmornis – Longmornis robustirostrata
Description
The orioles and figbirds are medium-sized passerines, around 20–30 cm in length, with the females only slightly smaller than the males. The beak is slightly curved and hooked, and, except in the figbirds, as long again as the head. The plumage of most species is bright and showy, although the females often have duller plumage than the males do. The plumage of many Australasian orioles mimics that of friarbirds (a genus of large honeyeaters), probably to reduce aggression against the smaller orioles.
Distribution and habitat
The family is distributed across Africa, Europe, Asia, and Australia. The few temperate nesting species are migratory, and some tropical species also show seasonal movements.
Behaviour and ecology
Breeding
Orioles are monogamous, breeding in territorial pairs (although the Australasian figbird, and possibly also the other figbirds, breed in loose colonies). Nesting sites may be chosen near aggressive species such as drongos, shrikes or friarbirds, which confer a degree of protection. The nest is a deep woven cup suspended like a hammock from a branch. They usually lay two or three eggs, but as many as six have been recorded.
Food and feeding
Orioles are arboreal and tend to feed in the canopy. Many species are able to survive in open forests and woodlands, although a few are restricted to closed forest. They are opportunistic omnivores, with the main components of their diet being fruit, berries, arthropods, and nectar.
References
Further reading
External links
Internet Bird Collection.com: Oriole videos
Passeri
Taxa named by Nicholas Aylward Vigors
|
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211482
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip%20house
|
Hip house
|
Hip house, also known as rap house or house rap, is a musical genre that mixes elements of house music and hip hop, that originated in both London, United Kingdom and Chicago, United States in the mid to late 1980s.
History
Minor controversy ensued in 1988 when a U.S. record called "Turn Up the Bass" by Tyree featuring Kool Rock Steady claimed it was the "first hip house record on vinyl". The Beatmasters disputed this, pointing out that "Rok da House" had originally been written and pressed to vinyl in 1986. The outfit then released "Who’s in the House?" featuring British emcee Merlin, containing the lines "Beatmasters stand to attention, hip house is your invention" and "Watch out Tyree, we come faster". More claims to the hip-house crown were subsequently laid down by Fast Eddie in "Yo Yo Get Funky!", Rob Base and DJ E-Z Rock with "It Takes Two", and Tony Scott's "That's How I'm Living".
After successful releases by the Beatmasters, Deskee, Tyree, KC Flightt, Doug Lazy and Mr. Lee, hip-house became popular in the acid house warehouse scene and nightclubs. Hip house also garnered substantial chart success. The style complemented sample-based records of the period, produced by artists such as S-Express, Bomb the Bass and M/A/R/R/S.
Hip house's further crossover success would come in the form of two ground breaking records: "I'll House You" by the Jungle Brothers and "It Takes Two" by Rob Base and DJ E-Z Rock. "I'll House You" is generally seen as a collaboration between New York City house-music producer Todd Terry and the Jungle Brothers (an Afrocentric hip-hop group from New York). "It Takes Two" was described by Hip Hop Connection magazine as "...the first palatable form of hip-house for hardcore hip hop fans."
Hip hop rappers that would receive the hip house remix treatment included Vitamin C, Sweet Tee, Raze, and the D.O.C.
Hip house tracks featured on popular dance compilations including Telstar's Deep Heat compilation series and was championed by DJs such as To Kool Chris and Chad Jackson.
As house music emerged as a worldwide industry by the late 1980s, U.S. acts such as C+C Music Factory would use the hip house formula in hits such as "Gonna Make You Sweat", as well as the Eurodance genre - particularly with hits by the Belgian Technotronic, German Snap!, and Italian Lee Marrow.
Influence on UK rave scene
Late 1980s hip house releases by UK artists such as Double Trouble and Rebel MC, Blapps Posse and Shut Up and Dance were an early influence towards the early 1990s UK rave scene and the breakbeat hardcore genre (and genres that developed from it such as jungle).
Hip house in the present day
A modern form of hip house became popular in the mid-2000s, known as electro hop, with artists enjoying mainstream success towards the end of the decade and into the 2010s. These artists included LMFAO, Pitbull (most notably with his albums Rebelution (2009) and Planet Pit (2011), Flo Rida, Far East Movement, Hyper Crush, Example (described as "rave-rap" or "rave-hop") and Azealia Banks. Electronic dance music DJs/producers also had hits in the genre, which featured vocals from rappers. These include "C'mon (Catch 'em by Surprise)" by Tiësto and Diplo with Busta Rhymes, and "Forever" by Wolfgang Gartner and will.i.am. French artist David Guetta had several hip house hits such as "Memories" with Kid Cudi, "Where Them Girls At" with Flo Rida and Nicki Minaj, "Gettin' Over You" with LMFAO and "Little Bad Girl" with Taio Cruz and Ludacris.
References
Hip hop genres
Music of Chicago
House music genres
Fusion music genres
American styles of music
British styles of music
British hip hop genres
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populism
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Populism
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Populism refers to a range of political stances that emphasize the idea of "the people" and often juxtapose this group against "the elite." The term developed in the late 19th century and has been applied to various politicians, parties and movements since that time, often as a pejorative. Within political science and other social sciences, several different definitions of populism have been employed, with some scholars proposing that the term be rejected altogether.
A common framework for interpreting populism is known as the ideational approach: this defines populism as an ideology which presents "the people" as a morally good force and contrasts them against "the elite," who are portrayed as corrupt and self-serving. Populists differ in how "the people" are defined, but it can be based along class, ethnic, or national lines. Populists typically present "the elite" as comprising the political, economic, cultural, and media establishment, depicted as a homogeneous entity and accused of placing their own interests, and often the interests of other groups—such as large corporations, foreign countries, or immigrants—above the interests of "the people." Populist parties and social movements are often led by charismatic or dominant figures who present themselves as "the voice of the people." According to the ideational approach, populism is often combined with other ideologies, such as nationalism, liberalism, or socialism. Thus, populists can be found at different locations along the left–right political spectrum, and there exist both left-wing populism and right-wing populism.
Other scholars of the social sciences have defined the term populism differently. According to the popular agency definition used by some historians of United States history, populism refers to popular engagement of the population in political decision making. An approach associated with the political scientist Ernesto Laclau presents populism as an emancipatory social force through which marginalised groups challenge dominant power structures. Some economists have used the term in reference to governments which engage in substantial public spending financed by foreign loans, resulting in hyperinflation and emergency measures. In popular discourse—where the term has often been used pejoratively—it has sometimes been used synonymously with demagogy, to describe politicians who present overly simplistic answers to complex questions in a highly emotional manner, or with opportunism, to characterise politicians who seek to please voters without rational consideration as to the best course of action.
In the 1960s the term became increasingly popular among social scientists in Western countries, and later in the 20th century it was applied to various political parties active in liberal democracies. In the 21st century, the struggle over the term intensified in political discourse, particularly in the Americas and Europe, with it being used to describe a range of left-wing, right-wing, and centrist groups that challenged the established parties.
Etymology and terminology
The word populism has been contested, mistranslated and used in reference to a diverse variety of movements and beliefs. The political scientist Will Brett characterised it as "a classic example of a stretched concept, pulled out of shape by overuse and misuse", while the political scientist Paul Taggart has said of populism that it is "one of the most widely used but poorly understood political concepts of our time".
The term originated as a form of self-designation, being used by members of the People's Party active in the United States during the late 19th century. In the Russian Empire during the same period, a completely different group referred to itself as the narodniki, which has often been mistranslated into English as populists, adding further confusion over the term. The Russian and American movements differed in various respects, and the fact that they shared a name was coincidental. In the 1920s, the term entered the French language, where it was used to describe a group of writers expressing sympathy for ordinary people.
Although the term began as a self-designation, part of the confusion surrounding it stems from the fact that it has rarely been used in this way, with few political figures openly describing themselves as "populists". As noted by the political scientist Margaret Canovan, "there has been no self-conscious international populist movement which might have attempted to control or limit the term's reference, and as a result those who have used it have been able to attach it a wide variety of meanings." In this it differs from other political terms, like "socialism" or "conservatism", which have been widely used as self-designations by individuals who have then presented their own, internal definitions of the word. Instead it shares similarities with terms such as "far left", "far right", or "extremist", which are often used in political discourse but rarely as self-designations.
In corporate-owned media, the term "populism" has often been conflated with other concepts like demagoguery, and generally presented as something to be "feared and discredited". It has often been applied to movements that are considered to be outside the political mainstream or a threat to democracy. The political scientists Yves Mény and Yves Surel noted that "populism" had become "a catchword, particularly in the media, to designate the newborn political or social movements which challenge the entrenched values, rules and institutions of democratic orthodoxy." Typically, the term is usually used against others, often in a pejorative sense to discredit opponents. Some of those who have repeatedly been referred to as "populists" in a pejorative sense have subsequently embraced the term while seeking to shed it of negative connotations. The French far-right politician Jean-Marie Le Pen for instance was often accused of populism and eventually responded by stating that "Populism precisely is taking into account the people's opinion. Have people the right, in a democracy, to hold an opinion? If that is the case, then yes, I am a populist." Similarly, on being founded in 2003, the centre-left Lithuanian Labour Party declared: "we are and will be called populists."
Following 2016, the year which saw the election of Donald Trump as president of the United States and the United Kingdom's vote to leave the European Union—both events linked to populism—the word populism became one of the most widely used terms by international political commentators. In 2017, the Cambridge Dictionary declared it the Word of the Year.
Use in academia
Until the 1950s, use of the term populism remained restricted largely to historians studying the People's Party, but in 1954 the US sociologist Edward Shils published an article proposing populism as a term to describe anti-elite trends in US society more broadly. Following on from Shils' article, during the 1960s the term "populism" became increasingly popular among sociologists and other academics in the social sciences. In 1967 a Conference on Populism was held at the London School of Economics, the participants of which failed to agree on a clear, single definition. As a result of this scholarly interest, an academic field known as "populism studies" emerged. Interest in the subject grew rapidly: between 1950 and 1960 about 160 publications on populism appeared, while between 1990 and 2000 that number was over 1500. From 2000–2015, about 95 papers and books including the term "populism" were catalogued each year by Web of Science. In 2016, it grew to 266; in 2017, it was 488, and in 2018, it was 615. Taggart argued that this academic interest was not consistent but appeared in "bursts" of research that reflected the political conditions of the time.
Canovan noted that "if the notion of populism did not exist, no social scientist would deliberately invent it; the term is far too ambiguous for that". From examining how the term "populism" had been used, she proposed that seven different types of populism could be discerned. Three of these were forms of "agrarian populism"; these included farmers' radicalism, peasant movements, and intellectual agrarian socialism. The other four were forms of "political populism", representing populist dictatorship, populist democracy, reactionary populism, and politicians' populism. She noted that these were "analytical constructs" and that "real-life examples may well overlap several categories", adding that no single political movement fitted into all seven categories. In this way, Canovan conceived of populism as a family of related concepts rather than as a single concept in itself.
The confusion surrounding the term has led some scholars to suggest that it should be abandoned by scholarship. In contrast to this view, the political scientists Cas Mudde and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser stated that "while the frustration is understandable, the term populism is too central to debates about politics from Europe to the Americas to simply do away with." Similarly, Canovan noted that the term "does have comparatively clear and definite meanings in a number of specialist areas" and that it "provides a pointer, however shaky, to an interesting and largely unexplored area of political and social experience". The political scientists Daniele Albertazzi and Duncan McDonnell thought that "if carefully defined, the term 'populism' can be used profitably to help us understand and explain a wide array of political actors". The political scientist Ben Stanley noted that "although the meaning of the term has proven controversial in the literature, the persistence with which it has recurred suggests the existence at least of an ineliminable core: that is, that it refers to a distinct pattern of ideas." Political scientist David Art argues that the concept of populism brings together disparate phenomena in an unhelpful manner, and ultimately obscures and legitimizes figures who are more comprehensively defined as nativists and authoritarians.
Although academic definitions of populism have differed, most of them have focused on the idea that it should reference some form of relationship between "the people" and "the elite", and that it entailed taking an anti-establishment stance. Beyond that, different scholars have emphasised different features that they wish to use to define populism. These differences have occurred both within specific scholarly disciplines and among different disciplines, varying for instance among scholars focusing on different regions and different historical periods.
Ideational definition
A common approach to defining populism is known as the ideational approach. This emphasises the notion that populism should be defined according to specific ideas which underlie it, as opposed to certain economic policies or leadership styles which populist politicians may display. In this definition, the term populism is applied to political groups and individuals who make appeals to "the people" and then contrast this group against "the elite".
Adopting this approach, Albertazzi and McDonnell define populism as an ideology that "pits a virtuous and homogeneous people against a set of elites and dangerous 'others' who are together depicted as depriving (or attempting to deprive) the sovereign people of their rights, values, prosperity, identity, and voice". Similarly, the political scientist Carlos de la Torre defined populism as "a Manichean discourse that divides politics and society as the struggle between two irreconcilable and antagonistic camps: the people and the oligarchy or the power block."
In this understanding, note Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser, "populism always involves a critique of the establishment and an adulation of the common people", and according to Ben Stanley, populism itself is a product of "an antagonistic relationship" between "the people" and "the elite", and is "latent wherever the possibility occurs for the emergence of such a dichotomy". The political scientist Manuel Anselmi proposed that populism be defined as featuring a "homogenous community-people" which "perceives itself as the absolute holder of popular sovereignty" and "expresses an anti-establishment attitude." This understanding conceives of populism as a discourse, ideology, or worldview. These definitions were initially employed largely in Western Europe, although later became increasingly popular in Eastern Europe and the Americas.
According to this approach, populism is viewed as a "thin ideology" or "thin-centred ideology" which on its own is seen as too insubstantial to provide a blueprint for societal change. It thus differs from the "thick-centred" or "full" ideologies such as fascism, liberalism, and socialism, which provide more far-reaching ideas about social transformation. As a thin-centred ideology, populism is therefore attached to a thick-ideology by populist politicians. Thus, populism can be found merged with forms of nationalism, liberalism, socialism, federalism, or conservatism. According to Stanley, "the thinness of populism ensures that in practice it is a complementary ideology: it does not so much overlap with as diffuse itself throughout full ideologies."
Populism is, according to Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser, "a kind of mental map through which individuals analyse and comprehend political reality".
Mudde noted that populism is "moralistic rather than programmatic". It encourages a binary world-view in which everyone is divided into "friends and foes", with the latter being regarded not just as people who have "different priorities and values" but as being fundamentally "evil". In emphasising one's purity against the corruption and immorality of "the elite", from which "the people" must remain pure and untouched, populism prevents compromise between different groups.
Right and left-wing
As a result of the various different ideologies with which populism can be paired, the forms that populism can take vary widely. Populism itself cannot be positioned on the left–right political spectrum, and both right and left-wing populisms exist. Populist movements can also mix divisions between left and right, for instance by combining xenophobic attitudes commonly associated with the far-right with redistributive economic policies closer to those of the left.
The ideologies with which populism can be paired can be contradictory, resulting in different forms of populism that can oppose each other. For instance, in Latin America during the 1990s, populism was often associated with politicians like Peru's Alberto Fujimori who promoted neoliberal economics, while in the 2000s it was instead associated with those like Venezuela's Hugo Chávez who promoted socialist programs. As well as populists of the left and right, populist figures like Italy's Beppe Grillo have been characterised as centrist and liberals, while groups like Turkey's Justice and Development Party have been described as combining populism with Islamism, and India's Bharatiya Janata Party has been seen as mixing populism with Hindu nationalism. Although populists of different ideological traditions can oppose each other, they can also form coalitions, as was seen in the Greek coalition government which brought together the left-wing populist Syriza and the right-wing populist Independent Greeks in 2015.
Adherents of the ideational definition have also drawn a distinction between left and right-wing populists. The latter are presented as juxtaposing "the people" against both "the elite" and an additional group who are also regarded as being separate from "the people" and whom "the elite" is seen to favour, such as immigrants, homosexuals, travellers, or communists.
Populist leaders thus "come in many different shades and sizes" but, according to Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser, share one common element: "a carefully crafted image of the vox populi". Stanley expressed the view that although there are "certain family resemblances" that can be seen between populist groups and individuals, there was "no coherent tradition" unifying all of them.
While many left-wing parties in the early 20th century presented themselves as the vanguard of the proletariat, by the early 21st century left-wing populists were presenting themselves as the "voice of the people" more widely. On the political right, populism is often combined with nationalism, with "the people" and "the nation" becoming fairly interchangeable categories in their discourse.
Some political scientists have also argued that populism can be divided into "inclusionary" and "exclusionary" forms.
"The people"
For populists, "the people" are presented as being homogeneous, and also virtuous. In simplifying the complexities of reality, the concept of "the people" is vague and flexible, with this plasticity benefitting populists who are thus able to "expand or contract" the concept "to suit the chosen criteria of inclusion or exclusion" at any given time. In employing the concept of "the people", populists can encourage a sense of shared identity among different groups within a society and facilitate their mobilisation toward a common cause. One of the ways that populists employ the understanding of "the people" is in the idea that "the people are sovereign", that in a democratic state governmental decisions should rest with the population and that if they are ignored then they might mobilise or revolt. This is the sense of "the people" employed in the late 19th century United States by the People's Party and which has also been used by later populist movements in that country.
A second way in which "the people" is conceived by populists combines a socioeconomic or class based category with one that refers to certain cultural traditions and popular values. The concept seeks to vindicate the dignity of a social group who regard themselves as being oppressed by a dominant "elite" who are accused of treating "the people's" values, judgements, and tastes with suspicion or contempt. A third use of "the people" by populists employs it as a synonym for "the nation", whether that national community be conceived in either ethnic or civic terms. In such a framework, all individuals regarded as being "native" to a particular state, either by birth or by ethnicity, could be considered part of "the people".
Populism typically entails "celebrating them the people", in Stanley's words.
The political scientist Paul Taggart proposed the term "the heartland" to better reflect what populists often mean in their rhetoric. According to Taggart, "the heartland" was the place "in which, in the populist imagination, a virtuous and unified population resides". Who this "heartland" is can vary between populists, even within the same country. For instance, in Britain, the centre-right Conservative Party conceived of "Middle England" as its heartland, while the far-right British National Party conceived of the "native British people" as its heartland.
Mudde noted that for populists, "the people" "are neither real nor all-inclusive, but are in fact a mythical and constructed sub-set of the whole population". They are an imagined community, much like the imagined communities embraced and promoted by nationalists.
Populism often entails presenting "the people" as the underdog. Populists typically seek to reveal to "the people" how they are oppressed. In doing so, they do not seek to change "the people", but rather seek to preserve the latter's "way of life" as it presently exists, regarding it as a source of good. For populists, the way of life of "the people" is presented as being rooted in history and tradition and regarded as being conducive to public good. Although populist leaders often present themselves as representatives of "the people", they often come from elite strata in society; examples like Berlusconi, Fortuyn, and Haider were all well-connected to their country's political and economic elites.
Populism can also be subdivided into "inclusionary" and "exclusionary" forms, which differ in their conceptions of who "the people" are. Inclusionary populism tends to define "the people" more broadly, accepting and advocating for minority and marginalised groups, while exclusionary populism defines "the people" in a much stricter sense, generally being focused on a particular sociocultural group and antagonistic against minority groups. However, this is not exactly a pure dichotomy – exclusive populists can still give voice to those who feel marginalised by the political status quo and include minorities if it is advantageous, while inclusive populists can vary significantly in how inclusive they actually are. In addition, all populisms are implicitly exclusionary, since they define "the people" against "the elite", thus some scholars argue that the difference between populisms is not whether a particular populism excludes but whom it excludes from its conception of "the people".
"The elite"
Anti-elitism is widely considered the central characteristic feature of populism, although Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser argued that anti-elitism alone was not evidence of populism. Rather, according to Stanley, in populist discourse the "fundamental distinguishing feature" of "the elite" is that it is in an "adversarial relationship" with "the people". In defining "the elite", populists often condemn not only the political establishment, but also the economic elite, cultural elite, academic elite, and the media elite, which they present as one homogeneous, corrupt group. In early 21st century India, the populist Bharatiya Janata Party for instance accused the dominant Indian National Congress party, the Communist Party of India, NGOs, academia, and the English-language media of all being part of "the elite".
When operating in liberal democracies, populists often condemn dominant political parties as part of "the elite" but at the same time do not reject the party political system altogether, instead either calling for or claiming to be a new kind of party different from the others. Although condemning almost all those in positions of power within a given society, populists often exclude both themselves and those sympathetic to their cause even when they too are in positions of power. For instance, the Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ), a right-wing populist group, regularly condemned "the media" in Austria for defending "the elite", but excluded from that the Kronen Zeitung, a widely read tabloid that supported the FPÖ and its leader Jörg Haider.
When populists take governmental power, they are faced with a challenge in that they now represent a new elite. In such cases—like Chávez in Venezuela and Vladimír Mečiar in Slovakia—populists retain their anti-establishment rhetoric by making changes to their concept of "the elite" to suit their new circumstances, alleging that real power is not held by the government but other powerful forces who continue to undermine the populist government and the will of "the people" itself. In these instances, populist governments often conceptualise "the elite" as those holding economic power. In Venezuela, for example, Chávez blamed the economic elite for frustrating his reforms, while in Greece, the left-wing populist Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras accused "the lobbyists and oligarchs of Greece" of undermining his administration. In populist instances like these, the claims made have some basis in reality, as business interests seek to undermine leftist-oriented economic reform.
Although left-wing populists who combine populist ideas with forms of socialism most commonly present "the elite" in economic terms, the same strategy is also employed by some right-wing populists. In the United States during the late 2000s, the Tea Party movement—which presented itself as a defender of the capitalist free market—argued that big business, and its allies in Congress, seeks to undermine the free market and kill competition by stifling small business. Among some 21st century right-wing populists, "the elite" are presented as being left-wing radicals committed to political correctness. The Dutch right-wing populist leader Pim Fortuyn referred to this as the "Church of the Left".
In some instances, particularly in Latin America and Africa, "the elites" are conceived not just in economic but also in ethnic terms, representing what political scientists have termed ethnopopulism. In Bolivia, for example, the left-wing populist leader Evo Morales juxtaposed the mestizo and indigenous "people" against an overwhelmingly European "elite", declaring that "We Indians [i.e. indigenous people] are Latin America's moral reserve". In the Bolivian case, this was not accompanied by a racially exclusionary approach, but with an attempt to build a pan-ethnic coalition which included European Bolivians against the largely European Bolivian elite. In South Africa, the populist Julius Malema has presented black South Africans as the "people" whom he claims to represent, calling for the expropriation of land owned by the white minority without compensation. In areas like Europe where nation-states are more ethnically homogenous, this ethnopopulist approach is rare given that the "people" and "elite" are typically of the same ethnicity.
For some populist leaders and movements, the term "the elite" also refers to an academic or intellectual establishment and, as such, entails scholars, intellectuals, experts, or organized science as a whole. Such leaders and movements may criticise scientific knowledge as abstract, useless, and ideologically biased, and instead demand common sense, experiential knowledge, and practical solutions to be "true knowledge". Examples of such a "science-related populism" are British Conservative Party politician Michael Gove suggesting that the British people "have had enough of experts" or US entrepreneur Peter Thiel praising common sense as an "incredible indictment of our elites".
In various instances, populists claim that "the elite" is working against the interests of the country. In the European Union (EU), for instance, various populist groups allege that their national political elites put the interests of the EU itself over those of their own nation-states. Similarly, in Latin America populists often charge political elites with championing the interests of the United States over those of their own countries.
Another common tactic among populists, particularly in Europe, is the accusation that "the elites" place the interests of immigrants above those of the native population. The Zambian populist Michael Sata for instance adopted a xenophobic stance during his campaigns by focusing his criticism on the country's Asian minority, decrying Chinese and Indian ownership of businesses and mines. In India, the right-wing populist leader Narendra Modi rallied supporters against Muslim Bangladeshi migrants, promising to deport them. In instances where populists are also antisemitic (such as Jobbik in Hungary and Attack in Bulgaria) the elites are accused of favouring Israeli and wider Jewish interests above those of the national group. Antisemitic populists often accuse "the elite" of being made up of many Jews as well. When populists emphasise ethnicity as part of their discourse, "the elite" can sometimes be presented as "ethnic traitors".
General will
A third component of the ideational approach to populism is the idea of the general will, or volonté générale. An example of this populist understanding of the general will can be seen in Chávez's 2007 inaugural address, when he stated that "All individuals are subject to error and seduction, but not the people, which possesses to an eminent degree of consciousness of its own good and the measure of its independence. Because of that its judgement is pure, its will is strong, and none can corrupt or even threaten it." For populists, the general will of "the people" is something that should take precedence over the preferences of "the elite".
As noted by Stanley, the populist idea of the general will is connected to ideas of majoritarianism and authenticity. Highlighting how populists appeal to the ideals of "authenticity and ordinariness", he noted that what was most important to populists was "to appeal to the of an authentic people" and to cultivate the idea that they are the "genuine" representatives of "the people". In doing so they often emphasise their physical proximity to "the people" and their distance from "the elites".
Sheri Berman notes that while populists often engage in democratic rhetoric, they frequently ignore or devalue norms of liberal democracy such as freedom of speech, freedom of the press, legitimate opposition, separation of powers and constraints on presidential power.
In emphasising the general will, many populists share the critique of representative democratic government previously espoused by the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau. This approach regards representative governance as an aristocratic and elitist system in which a country's citizens are regarded as passive entities. Rather than choosing laws for themselves, these citizens are only mobilised for elections in which their only option is to select their representatives rather than taking a more direct role in legislation and governance. Populists often favour the use of direct democratic measures such as referendums and plebiscites. For this reason, Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser suggested that "it can be argued that an elective affinity exists between populism and direct democracy", although Stanley cautioned that "support for direct democracy is not an essential attribute of populism." Populist notions of the "general will" and its links with populist leaders are usually based on the idea of "common sense".
Versus elitism and pluralism
Stanley noted that rather than being restricted purely to populists, appeals to "the people" had become "an unavoidable aspect of modern political practice", with elections and referendums predicated on the notion that "the people" decide the outcome. Thus, a critique of the ideational definition of populism is that it becomes too broad and can potentially apply to all political actors and movements. Responding to this critique, Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser argued that the ideational definition did allow for a "non-populism" in the form of both elitism and pluralism.
Elitists share the populist binary division but reverse the associations. Whereas populists regard the elites as bad and the common people as good, elitists view "the people" as being vulgar, immoral, and dangerous and "the elites" as being morally, culturally, and intellectually superior. Elitists want politics to be largely or entirely an elite affair; some—such as Spain's Francisco Franco and Chile's Augusto Pinochet—reject democracy altogether, while others—like Spain's José Ortega y Gasset and Austria's Joseph Schumpeter—support a limited model of democracy.
Pluralism differs from both elitism and populism by rejecting any dualist framework, instead viewing society as a broad array of overlapping social groups, each with their own ideas and interests. Pluralists argue that political power should not be held by any single group—whether defined by their gender, ethnicity, economic status, or political party membership—and should instead be distributed. Pluralists encourage governance through compromise and consensus in order to reflect the interests of as many of these groups as possible. Unlike populists, pluralists do not believe that such a thing as a "general will" exists. Some politicians do not seek to demonise a social elite; for many conservatives for example, the social elite are regarded as the bulwark of the traditional social order, while for some liberals, the social elite are perceived as an enlightened legislative and administrative cadre.
Other definitions
The popular agency definition to populism uses the term in reference to a democratic way of life that is built on the popular engagement of the population in political activity. In this understanding, populism is usually perceived as a positive factor in the mobilisation of the populace to develop a communitarian form of democracy. This approach to the term is common among historians in the United States and those who have studied the late 19th century People's Party.
The Laclauan definition of populism, so called after the Argentinian political theorist Ernesto Laclau who developed it, uses the term in reference to what proponents regard as an emancipatory force that is the essence of politics. In this concept of populism, it is believed to mobilise excluded sectors of society against dominant elites and changing the status quo. Laclau's initial emphasis was on class antagonisms arising between different classes, although he later altered his perspective to claim that populist discourses could arise from any part of the socio-institutional structure. For Laclau, socialism was "the highest form of populism". His understandings of the topic derived in large part from his focus on politics in Latin America. This definition is popular among critics of liberal democracy and is widely used in critical studies and in studies of West European and Latin American politics. Harry C. Boyte for example defined populism as "a politics of civic agency" which "develops the power of 'the people' to shape their destiny", as examples citing both the Russian narodniks and the South African Black Consciousness Movement.
The socioeconomic definition of populism applies the term to what it regards as an irresponsible form of economic policy by which a government engages in a period of massive public spending financed by foreign loans, after which the country falls into hyperinflation and harsh economic adjustments are then imposed. This use of the term was used by economists like Rudiger Dornbusch and Jeffrey Sachs and was particularly popular among scholars of Latin America during the 1980s and 1990s. Since that time, this definition continued to be used by some economists and journalists, particularly in the US, but was uncommon among other social sciences. This definition relies on focusing on socialist and other left-wing forms of populism; it does not apply to other groups commonly understood as populist which adopted right-wing stances on economic issues.
An additional framework has been described as the "political-strategic" approach. This applies the term populism to a political strategy in which a charismatic leader seeks to govern based on direct and unmediated connection with their followers. Kurt Weyland defined this conception of populism as "a political strategy through which a personalist leader seeks or exercises government power based on direct, unmediated, uninstitutionalized support from large numbers of mostly unorganized followers". This is a definition of the term that is popular among scholars of non-Western societies. By focusing on leadership, this concept of populism does not allow for the existence of populist parties or populist social movements; under this definition, for instance, the US People's Party which first invented the term populism could not be considered populist. Mudde suggested that although the idea of a leader having direct access to "the people" was a common element among populists, it is best regarded as a feature which facilitates rather than defines populism.
In popular discourse, populism is sometimes used in a negative sense in reference to politics which involves promoting extremely simple solutions to complex problems in a highly emotional manner. Mudde suggested that this definition "seems to have instinctive value" but was difficult to employ empirically because almost all political groups engage in sloganeering and because it can be difficult to differentiate an argument made emotionally from one made rationally. Mudde thought that this phenomenon was better termed demagogy rather than populism. Another use of the term in popular discourse is to describe opportunistic policies designed to quickly please voters rather than deciding a more rational course of action. Examples of this would include a governing political party lowering taxes before an election or promising to provide things to the electorate which the state cannot afford to pay for. Mudde suggested that this phenomenon is better described as opportunism rather than populism.
Demand-side factors
One area of debate in explaining populism is whether its main cause is based in the needs of citizens (demand-side explanations) or in the failures of governments (supply-side explanations). In focusing on the changing grievances or demands of citizens, demand-side explanations can be seen as bottom-up explanations, while supply-side explanations, in focusing on political actors and institutions, can be seen as top-down explanations. Various demand-side factors have been claimed to make it more likely that individuals will support populist ideas. Economists and political economists often emphasize the importance of economic concerns while political scientists and sociologists often emphasize sociocultural concerns in their analysis of demand-side factors.
Economic grievance
The economic grievance thesis argues that economic factors, such as deindustrialisation, economic liberalisation, and deregulation, are causing the formation of a 'left-behind' precariat with low job security, high inequality, and wage stagnation, who then support populism. Some theories only focus on the effect of economic crises, or inequality.
The evidence of increasing economic disparity and volatility of family incomes is clear, particularly in the United States, as shown by the work of Thomas Piketty and others. Commentators such as Martin Wolf emphasize the importance of economics. They warn that such trends increase resentment and make people susceptible to populist rhetoric. Evidence for this is mixed. At the macro level, political scientists report that xenophobia, anti-immigrant feeling, and resentment towards out-groups tend to be higher during difficult economic times. Economic crises have been associated with gains by right-wing political parties. However, there is little evidence at the micro- or individual level to link individual economic grievances and populist support.
Modernisation
The modernisation losers theory argues that certain aspects of transition to modernity have caused demand for populism. Some arguments rely on the belief that anomie has followed industrialisation and resulted in "dissolution, fragmentation and differentiation", weakening the traditional ties of civil society, and increasing individualization. Populism offers a broad identity which gives sovereignty to the previously marginalized masses as "the people". However, empirical studies suggest that supporters of radical right-wing populism occur across the social spectrum, and are not more likely to appear in groups defined as "modernisation losers".
Cultural backlash
Other theories argue that grievances have a primarily sociocultural rather than an economic basis. For example, the cultural backlash thesis argues that right-wing populism is reaction to the rise of postmaterialism in many developed countries, including the spread of feminism, multiculturalism, and environmentalism. According to this view, the spread of ideas and values through a society challenges accepted norms until society reaches a 'tipping point', which causes a reaction, in this case support for right-wing populism. Some theories limit this argument to being a reaction to just the increase of ethnic diversity from immigration. Such theories are particularly popular with sociologists and with political scientists studying industrial world and American politics.
The empiric studies testing this theory have produced highly contradicting results.
At the micro- or individual level, there are strong connections between individual positions on sociocultural issues (such as immigration policy and "racial animus") and right-wing populist voting. However, at the macro level, studies have not shown clear relationships between measures of populist sentiment in countries and actual right-wing party support.
However, there is strong evidence from political scientists and political psychologists documenting the influence of group-based identity threats on voters. Those who identify as part of a group and perceive it as being under threat are likely to support political actors who promise to protect the status and identity of their group. While such research often focuses on white identity, results apply broadly to other social groups that perceive themselves to be under threat.
Recent democratization
The length of time since a country has been democratized has also been linked to its potential for populist success. This is claimed to be because younger democracies have less established political parties and weaker liberal democratic norms. For example, populist success in Eastern Europe has been linked to the legacy of communism. However, this explanation suffers from the lack of success of populism in most post-communist countries.
Supply-side factors
Supply-side explanations focus on political actors and institutions and the ways in which governments may fail to respond to the changing conditions that affect citizens. Economic, social, and other structural trends are seen as being modified by institutions as they determine political outcomes. In this view, citizens turn to populism when governments do not respond effectively to the challenges they and their citizens face. Research supports the idea that populism is more likely to thrive when mainstream parties on the center-left and center-right do not address important contemporary issues and do not offer clear alternatives to voters. Coalitions that blur distinctions on positions are also likely to increase populism.
In Political Order in Changing Societies (1968), Samuel P. Huntington argues that rapid change (social or economic) in a society will increase the demands of its citizens. Unless political institutions are responsive and effective, they are unlikely to respond to and satisfy such demands. If political systems are weak or have become unresponsive over time, then dissatisfaction, political disorder and even violence become more likely. Political institutions that do not respond to social and economic changes are likely to fail. Responsive political systems can adapt to more severe challenges than unresponsive ones. Huntington's ideas grew out of work on Third World countries, but are also applicable to advanced industrial countries.
In a supply-side view of American politics, populism can be seen as a symptom of institutional decay. It can be suggested that political factors such as gerrymandering, the Electoral College, special-interest lobbying and dark money, are distorting political and economic debate, and decreasing the ability of the government to respond to the concerns of large numbers of citizens. This in turn generates dissatisfaction, which may increase the likelihood that citizens will support populism. Scholars studying the European Union have suggested that European integration may have had the undesired effect of decreasing the system's responsiveness to voters, as law and policy-making increasingly became the responsibility of the European Union. This too may have increased support for populism. Institutions such as the European Central Bank may also distance decision-making from electoral power. It has been argued that political parties themselves have become disconnected from society, and unable to respond to citizen's concerns.
Voluntarism
Another underlying debate in discussions of populism is the comparison of structural and voluntarist approaches. Voluntarist or agency-based explanations focus on the behaviors of politicians and parties, including populists themselves.
An important area of research is the examination of how parties develop, and how responses to new parties shape them. Successful politicians and parties shape the formation of agendas, identifying and increasing the salience of issues which they believe will benefit them.
Established parties may adopt various strategies when a new party appears: dismissive, adversarial, or accommodative.
A dismissive strategy such as ignoring a party and its issue(s) can only be effective if the issue involved is unimportant or short-lived. Otherwise, dismissing an issue leaves ownership of the issue with the new party and allows them to attract any voters who see the issue as important.
In an adversarial response, a mainstream party directly engages over an issue, emphasizing their opposition to the new party's position. This increases the issue's visibility, makes it a focus of ongoing political debate, and can reinforce the new party's ownership of it. An adversarial response can be to the benefit of a mainstream party if most voters (or at least the mainstream party's voters) disagree with the new party's position and are unlikely to ally with it as a result.
Finally, an accommodative strategy is to move the mainstream party closer to the position advocated by the new party, in hopes of retaining voters who care about the issue. This works best if adopted early, before a new party is heavily identified with an issue. If an issue is important, long-lived and of strong interest to its supporters, a mainstream party can benefit from quickly shifting its position to one closer to the new party.
Similarly, a populist party with neo-fascist or antidemocratic roots may be able to increase its support by moderating its views to a milder form of its original position (e.g. from neofascist to xenophobic.) Right-wing populists are more effective in mobilizing voters around issues when mainstream parties ignore the issue or offer alternatives that are not aligned with voter opinions. They are also more likely to benefit from emphasizing social and cultural issues such as immigration and race, appealing to voters who are positioned economically towards the left-wing but hold socially conservative views.
Mobilisation
There are three forms of political mobilisation which populists have adopted: that of the populist leader, the populist political party, and the populist social movement. The reasons why voters are attracted to populists differ, but common catalysts for the rise of populists include dramatic economic decline or a systematic corruption scandal that damages established political parties. For instance, the Great Recession of 2007 and its impact on the economies of southern Europe was a catalyst for the rise of Syriza in Greece and Podemos in Spain, while the Mani pulite corruption scandal of the early 1990s played a significant part in the rise of the Italian populist Silvio Berlusconi. Another catalyst for the growth of populism is a widespread perception among voters that the political system is unresponsive to them. This can arise when elected governments introduce policies that are unpopular with their voters but which are implemented because they are considered to be "responsible" or imposed by supranational organisations; in Latin America, for example, many countries passed unpopular economic reforms under pressure from the International Monetary Fund and World Bank while in Europe, many countries in the European Union were pushed to implement unpopular economic austerity measures by the union's authorities. Decentralisation of political power is a very useful tool for populists to use to their benefit, this is because it allows them to speak more directly to the people which they seek to gain the attention and votes of.
Leaders
Populism is often associated with charismatic and dominant leaders, and the populist leader is, according to Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser, "the quintessential form of populist mobilization". These individuals campaign and attract support on the basis of their own personal appeal. Their supporters then develop a perceived personal connection with the leader. For these leaders, populist rhetoric allows them to claim that they have a direct relationship with "the people", and in many cases they claim to be a personification of "the people" themselves, presenting themselves as the vox populi or "voice of the people". Chavez for instance stated: "I demand absolute loyalty to me. I am not an individual, I am the people." Populist leaders can also present themselves as the saviour of the people because of their perceived unique talents and vision, and in doing so can claim to be making personal sacrifices for the good of the people. Because loyalty to the populist leader is thus seen as representing loyalty to the people, those who oppose the leader can be branded "enemies of the people".
The overwhelming majority of populist leaders have been men, although there have been various females occupying this role. Most of these female populist leaders gained positions of seniority through their connections to previously dominant men; Eva Perón was the wife of Juan Perón, Marine Le Pen the daughter of Jean-Marie Le Pen, Keiko Fujimori the daughter of Alberto Fujimori, and Yingluck Shinawatra the sister of Thaksin Shinawatra.
Rhetorical styles
Canovan noted that populists often used "colourful and undiplomatic language" to distinguish themselves from the governing elite. In Africa, several populist leaders have distinguished themselves by speaking in indigenous languages rather than either French or English. Populist leaders often present themselves as people of action rather than people of words, talking of the need for "bold action" and "common sense solutions" to issues which they call "crises". Male populist leaders often express themselves using simple and sometimes vulgar language in an attempt to present themselves as "the common man" or "one of the boys" to add to their populist appeal.
An example of this is Umberto Bossi, the leader of the right-wing populist Italian Lega Nord, who at rallies would state "the League has a hard-on" while putting his middle-finger up as a sign of disrespect to the government in Rome. Another recurring feature of male populist leaders is the emphasis that they place on their own virility. An example of this is the Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi, who bragged about his bunga bunga sex parties and his ability to seduce young women. Among female populist leaders, it is more common for them to emphasise their role as a wife and mother. The US right-wing populist Sarah Palin for instance referred to herself as a "hockey mom" and a "mama grizzly", while Australian right-wing populist Pauline Hanson stated that "I care so passionately about this country, it's like I'm its mother. Australia is my home and the Australian people are my children."
Populist leaders typically portray themselves as outsiders who are separate from the "elite". Female populist leaders sometimes reference their gender as setting them apart from the dominant "old boys' club", while in Latin America a number of populists, such as Evo Morales and Alberto Fujimori, emphasised their non-white ethnic background to set them apart from the white-dominated elite. Other populists have used clothing to set them apart. In South Africa, the populist Julius Malema and members of his Economic Freedom Fighters attended parliament dressed as miners and workers to distinguish themselves from the other politicians wearing suits. In instances where wealthy business figures promote populist sentiments, such as Ross Perot, Thaksin Shinawatra, or Berlusconi, it can be difficult to present themselves as being outside the elite, however this is achieved by portraying themselves as being apart from the political, if not the economic elite, and portraying themselves as reluctant politicians.
Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser noted that "in reality, most populist leaders are very much part of the national elite", typically being highly educated, upper-middle class, middle-aged males from the majority ethnicity.
Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser suggested that "true outsiders" to the political system are rare, although cited instances like Venezuela's Chávez and Peru's Fujimori. More common is that they are "insider-outsiders", strongly connected to the inner circles of government but not having ever been part of it. The Dutch right-wing populist Geert Wilders had for example been a prominent back-bench MP for many years before launching his populist Party for Freedom, while in South Africa, Malema had been leader of the governing African National Congress (ANC) youth league until he was expelled, at which he launched his own populist movement. Only a few populist leaders are "insiders", individuals who have held leading roles in government prior to portraying themselves as populists. One example is Thaksin Shinawatra, who was twice deputy prime minister of Thailand before launching his own populist political party; another is Rafael Correa, who served as the Ecuadorean finance minister before launching a left-wing populist challenge.
Populist leaders are sometimes also characterised as strongmen or—in Latin American countries—as caudillos. In a number of cases, such as Argentina's Perón or Venezuela's Chávez, these leaders have military backgrounds which contribute to their strongman image.
Other populist leaders have also evoked the strongman image without having a military background; these include Italy's Berlusconi, Slovakia's Mečiar, and Thailand's Thaksin Shinawatra.
Populism and strongmen are not intrinsically connected, however; as stressed by Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser, "only a minority of strongmen are populists and only a minority of populists is a strongman". Rather than being populists, many strongmen—such as Spain's Francisco Franco—were elitists who led authoritarian administrations.
In most cases, these populist leaders built a political organisation around themselves, typically a political party, although in many instances these remain dominated by the leader. These individuals often give a populist movement its political identity, as is seen with movements like Fortuynism in the Netherlands, Peronism in Argentina, Berlusconism in Italy and Chavismo in Venezuela. Populist mobilisation is not however always linked to a charismatic leadership. Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser suggested that populist personalist leadership was more common in countries with a presidential system rather than a parliamentary one because these allow for the election of a single individual to the role of head of government without the need for an accompanying party. Examples where a populist leader has been elected to the presidency without an accompanying political party have included Peron in Argentina, Fujimori in Peru, and Correa in Ecuador.
Media
A subset of populism which deals with the use of media by politicians is called "media populism".
Populist leaders often use the media in order to mobilize their support. In Latin America, there is a long tradition of using mass media as a way for charismatic leaders to directly communicate with the poorly educated masses, first by radio and then by television. The former Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez had a weekly show called Aló Presidente, which according to historian Enrique Krauze gave some Venezuelans "at least the appearance of contact with power, through his verbal and visual presence, which may be welcomed by people who have spent most of their lives being ignored."
The media has also been argued to have helped populists in countries of other regions by giving exposure to the most controversial politicians for commercial reasons. Donald Trump was claimed to have received $5 billion worth of free coverage during his 2016 campaign. Tabloids are often stereotyped as presenting a platform for populist politics due to their tendency toward melodrama, infotainment, and conflict, and thus provide support for populist parties. Examples of this have been the support given by Kronen Zeitung to the Austrian Freedom Party and the Berlusconi-owned presses' support for Italy's National Alliance in the mid-1990s. Based on his analysis of Dutch and British media, Tjitske Akkerman however argued that tabloids were no more prone to populism than the quality press.
In the 21st century, populists have increasingly used social media to bypass the mainstream media and directly approach their target audiences. In earlier periods, before radio, thought "mass media" newspapers tended to operate more like social media than modern newspapers, publishing local gossip and with little fact-checking; the expansion of newspapers to rural areas of the United States in the early tweenith century increased support for populist partied and positions. It has been claimed that while traditional media, acting as so-called ‘gatekeepers’, filter the messages that they broadcast through journalistic norms, social media permits a ‘direct linkage’ from political actors to potential audiences. It has been claimed that the use of Twitter helped Donald Trump win the US presidency, while the same has been claimed regarding the use of YouTube by the Jair Bolsonaro presidential campaign.
Presidential systems
Populist leaders have been claimed to be more successful in presidential systems. This is because such systems give advantage to charismatic populist leaders, especially when institutionalized parties are weak. This is especially the case in two-round systems, because outsiders who might not win most votes in the first round of voting might be able to so when faced against a mainstream candidate in the second round. This has been claimed to be evident in the 1990 Peruvian general election won by Alberto Fujimori, who lost on the first round. Furthermore, Juan José Linz has argued that the direct relationship between the president and the electorate fosters a populist perception of the president as representing the whole people and their opponents as resisting the popular will.
Political parties
Another form of mobilisation is through populist political parties.
Populists are not generally opposed to political representation, but merely want their own representatives, those of "the people", in power. In various cases, non-populist political parties have transitioned into populist ones; the elitist Socialist Unity Party of Germany, a Marxist–Leninist group which governed East Germany, later transitioned after German re-unification into a populist party, The Left. In other instances, such as the Austrian FPÖ and Swiss SVP, a non-populist party can have a populist faction which later takes control of the whole party.
In some examples where a political party has been dominated by a single charismatic leader, the latter's death has served to unite and strengthen the party, as with Argentina's Justicialist Party after Juan Perón's death in 1974, or the United Socialist Party of Venezuela after Chávez's death in 2013. In other cases, a populist party has seen one strong centralising leader replace another, as when Marine Le Pen replaced her father Jean-Marie as the leader of the National Front in 2011, or when Heinz-Christian Strache took over from Haider as chair of the Freedom Party of Austria in 2005.
Many populist parties achieve an electoral breakthrough but then fail to gain electoral persistence, with their success fading away at subsequent elections. In various cases, they are able to secure regional strongholds of support but with little support elsewhere in the country; the Alliance for the Future of Austria (BZÖ) for instance gained national representation in the Austrian parliament solely because of its strong support in Carinthia. Similarly, the Belgian Vlaams Belang party has its stronghold in Antwerp, while the Swiss People's Party has its stronghold in Zurich.
Social movements
An additional form is that of the populist social movement. Populist social movements are comparatively rare, as most social movements focus on a more restricted social identity or issue rather than identifying with "the people" more broadly. However, after the Great Recession of 2007 a number of populist social movements emerged, expressing public frustrations with national and international economic systems. These included the Occupy movement, which originated in the US and used the slogan "We are the 99%", and the Spanish Indignados movement, which employed the motto: "real democracy now – we are not goods in the hands of politicians and bankers".
Few populist social movements survive for more than a few years, with most examples, like the Occupy movement, petering out after their initial growth. In some cases, the social movement fades away as a strong leader emerges from within it and moves into electoral politics. An example of this can be seen with the India Against Corruption social movement, from which emerged Arvind Kejriwal, who founded the Aam Aadmi Party ("Common Man Party"). Another is the Spanish Indignados movement which appeared in 2011 before spawning the Podemos party led by Pablo Iglesias Turrión. These populist social movements can exert a broader societal impact which results in populist politicians emerging to prominence; the Tea Party and Occupy movements that appeared in the US during the late 2000s and early 2010s have been seen as an influence on the rise of Donald Trump and Bernie Sanders as prominent figures in the mid-2010s.
Some populist leaders have sought to broaden their support by creating supporter groups within the country. Chavez, for instance, ordered the formation of Bolivarian Circles, Communal Councils, Urban Land Committees, and Technical Water Roundtables across Venezuela. These could improve political participation among poorer sectors of Venezuelan society, although also served as networks through which the state transferred resources to those neighbourhoods which produced high rates of support for Chavez government.
Other themes
Democracy
Populism is a flexible term as it can be seen to exist in both democracies as well as authoritarian regimes. There have been intense debates about the relationship between populism and democracy. Some regard populism as being an intrinsic danger to democracy; others regard it as the only "true" form of democracy. Populists often present themselves as "true democrats". It could be argued that populism is democratic as it allows voters to remove governments they don’t approve via the ballot box because voting is an essential value for a state to be considered a democracy. Albertazzi and McDonnell stated that populism and democracy were "inextricably linked", the political scientist Manuel Anselmi described populism as being "deeply connected with democracy", and March suggested that populism represented a "critique of democracy, not an alternative to it". Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser write that "In a world that is dominated by democracy and liberalism, populism has essentially become an illiberal democratic response to undemocratic liberalism." Adamidis argues that the effect of populism on democracy can be measured by reference to its impact on the democratic legal systems and, in particular, to the changes it effects on their rule of recognition.
Populism can serve as a democratic corrective by contributing to the mobilisation of social groups who feel excluded from political decision making. It can also raise awareness among the socio-political elites of popular concerns in society, even if it makes the former uncomfortable. When some populists have taken power—most notably, Chávez in Venezuela—they have enhanced the use of direct democracy through the regular application of referendums. For this reason, some democratic politicians have argued that they need to become more populist: René Cuperus of the Dutch Labour Party for instance called for social democracy to become "more 'populist' in a leftist way" in order to engage with voters who felt left behind by cultural and technological change.
Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser argued that "populism is essentially democratic, but at odds with democracy," since populism is based on putting into effect "the will of the people". It is therefore majoritarian in nature, and opposed to the safeguarding of minority rights, which is a defining feature of liberal democracy. Populism also undermines the tenets of liberal democracy by rejecting notions of pluralism and the idea that anything, including constitutional limits, should constrain the "general will" of "the people". In this, populist governance can lead to what the liberal philosopher John Stuart Mill described as the "tyranny of the majority".
Populists tend to view democratic institutions as alienating, and in practice, populists operating in liberal democracies have often criticised the independent institutions designed to protect the fundamental rights of minorities, particularly the judiciary and the media. Berlusconi for instance criticised the Italian judiciary for defending the rights of communists. In countries like Hungary, Ecuador, and Venezuela, populist governments have curtailed the independent media. Minorities have often suffered as a result; in Europe in particular, ethnic minorities have had their rights undermined by populism, while in Latin America it is political opposition groups who have been undermined by populist governments. In several instances—such as Orban in Hungary—the populist leader has set the country on a path of de-democratisation by changing the constitution to centralise increasing levels of power in the head of government. A December 2018 study of 46 populist leaders argued that populists, regardless of their position on the political spectrum, were more likely to damage democratic institutions, erode checks and balances on the executive branch, cause democratic backsliding and attack individual rights than non-populists.
Even when not elected into office, populist parties can have an impact in shaping the national political agenda; in Western Europe, parties like the French National Front and Danish People's Party did not generally get more than 10 or 20% of the national vote, but mainstream parties shifted their own policies to meet the populist challenge.
Mainstream responses
Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser suggested that to deflate the appeal of populism, those government figures found guilty of corruption need to be seen to face adequate punishment. They also argued that stronger rule of law and the elimination of systemic corruption were also important facets in preventing populist growth. They believed that mainstream politicians wishing to reduce the populist challenge should be more open about the restrictions of their power, noting that those who backed populist movements were often frustrated with the dishonesty of established politicians who "claim full agency when things go well and almost full lack of agency when things go wrong". They also suggested that the appeal of populism could be reduced by wider civic education in the values of liberal democracy and the relevance of pluralism. What Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser believed was ineffective was a full-frontal attack on the populists which presented "them" as "evil" or "foolish", for this strategy plays into the binary division that populists themselves employ. In their view, "the best way to deal with populism is to engage—as difficult as it is—in an open dialogue with populist actors and supporters" in order to "better understand the claims and grievances of the populist elites and masses and to develop liberal democratic responses to them".
Mainstream politicians have sometimes sought to co-operate or build alliances with populists. In the United States, for example, various Republican Party figures aligned themselves with the Tea Party movement, while in countries such as Finland and Austria populist parties have taken part in governing coalitions. In other instances, mainstream politicians have adopted elements of a populist political style while competing against populist opponents. Various mainstream centrist figures, such as Hillary Clinton and Tony Blair, have argued that governments needed to restrict migration to hinder the appeal of right-wing populists utilising anti-immigrant sentiment in elections.
A more common approach has been for mainstream parties to openly attack the populists and construct a cordon sanitaire to prevent them from gaining political office Once populists are in political office in liberal democracies, the judiciary can play a key role in blocking some of their more illiberal policies, as has been the case in Slovakia and Poland. The mainstream media can play an important role in blocking populist growth; in a country like Germany, the mainstream media is for instant resolutely anti-populist, opposing populist groups whether left or right.
Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser noted that there was an "odd love-hate relationship between populist media and politicians, sharing a discourse but not a struggle". In certain countries, certain mainstream media outlets have supported populist groups; in Austria, the Kronen Zeitung played a prominent role in endorsing Haider, in the United Kingdom the Daily Express supported the UK Independence Party, while in the United States, Fox News gave much positive coverage and encouragement to the Tea Party movement. In some cases, when the populists have taken power, their political rivals have sought to violently overthrow them; this was seen in the 2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt, when mainstream groups worked with sectors of the military to unseat Hugo Chávez's government.
Authoritarianism
Scholars have argued that populist elements have sometimes appeared in authoritarian movements. The scholar Luke March argued that the populist Narodnik movement of late 19th-century Russia influenced the radical rejection on the constitutional limits of the state found in Marxism–Leninism. Although the Marxist–Leninist movement often used populist rhetoric—in the 1960s, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union called itself the "party of the Soviet people"—in practice its emphasis on an elite vanguard is anti-populist in basis.
The historian Roger Eatwell noted that although fascism and populism "differ notably ideologically", fascist politicians have "borrowed aspects of populist discourse and style". Some fascists have for instance used the terms "people" and "nation" synonymously. However, fascism generally distinguishes itself from populism by not recognising the democratic rights of the people or believing that they are capable of governing, instead maintaining that a vanguard should take charge. According to Eatwell, "major ideological differences [...] lie at the core" of fascism and populism, the former being anti-democratic and latter being rooted in democracy, "albeit not liberal democracy". The historian Peter Fritzsche nevertheless argued that populist movements active in Weimar Germany helped to facilitate the environment in which the fascist Nazi Party could rise to power. Fritzsche also noted that the Nazis utilised, "at least rhetorically", the "populist ideal of the people's community.
At the turn of the 21st century, the pink tide spreading over Latin America was "prone to populism and authoritarianism". Chavez's Venezuela and Correa's Ecuador have both been characterised as having moved toward authoritarianism. Steven Levitsky and James Loxton, as well as Raúl Madrid, stated that Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez and his regional allies used populism to achieve their dominance and later established authoritarian regimes when they were empowered. Such actions, Weyland argues, proves that "Populism, understood as a strategy for winning and exerting state power, inherently stands in tension with democracy and the value that it places upon pluralism, open debate, and fair competition".
History
Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser argue that populism is a modern phenomenon. However, attempts have been made to identify manifestations of populism in the democracy of classical Athens. Eatwell noted that although the actual term populism parallels that of the Populares who were active in the Roman Republic, these and other pre-modern groups "did not develop a truly populist ideology." The origins of populism are often traced to the late nineteenth century, when movements calling themselves populist arose in both the United States and the Russian Empire. Populism has often been linked to the spread of democracy, both as an idea and as a framework for governance.
Conversely, the historian Barry S. Strauss argued that populism could also be seen in the ancient world, citing the examples of the fifth-century B.C. Athens and Populares, a political faction active in the Roman Republic from the second century BCE. The historian Rachel Foxley argued that the Levellers of 17th-century England could also be labelled "populists", meaning that they believed "equal natural rights [...] must shape political life" while the historian Peter Blickle linked populism to the Protestant Reformation.
Europe
19th and 20th centuries
In the Russian Empire during the late 19th century, the narodnichestvo movement emerged, championing the cause of the empire's peasantry against the governing elites. The movement was unable to secure its objectives; however, it inspired other agrarian movements across eastern Europe in the early 20th century. Although the Russian movement was primarily a movement of the middle class and intellectuals "going to the people", in some respects their agrarian populism was similar to that of the US People's Party, with both presenting small farmers (the peasantry in Europe) as the foundation of society and main source of societal morality. According to Eatwell, the narodniks "are often seen as the first populist movement".
In German-speaking Europe, the völkisch movement has often been characterised as populist, with its exultation of the German people and its anti-elitist attacks on capitalism and Jews. In France, the Boulangist movement also utilised populist rhetoric and themes. In the early 20th century, adherents of both Marxism and fascism flirted with populism, but both movements remained ultimately elitist, emphasising the idea of a small elite who should guide and govern society. Among Marxists, the emphasis on class struggle and the idea that the working classes are affected by false consciousness are also antithetical to populist ideas.
In the years following the Second World War, populism was largely absent from Europe, in part due to the domination of elitist Marxism–Leninism in Eastern Europe and a desire to emphasise moderation among many West European political parties. However, over the coming decades, a number of right-wing populist parties emerged throughout the continent. These were largely isolated and mostly reflected a conservative agricultural backlash against the centralisation and politicisation of the agricultural sector then occurring. These included Guglielmo Giannini's Common Man's Front in 1940s Italy, Pierre Poujade's Union for the Defense of Tradesmen and Artisans in late 1950s France, Hendrik Koekoek's Farmers' Party of the 1960s Netherlands, and Mogens Glistrup's Progress Party of 1970s Denmark. Between the late 1960s and the early 1980s there also came a concerted populist critique of society from Europe's New Left, including from the new social movements and from the early Green parties. However it was only in the late 1990s, according to Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser, that populism became "a relevant political force in Europe", one which could have a significant impact on mainstream politics.
Following the fall of the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc of the early 1990s, there was a rise in populism across much of Central and Eastern Europe. In the first multiparty elections in many of these countries, various parties portrayed themselves as representatives of "the people" against the "elite", representing the old governing Marxist–Leninist parties. The Czech Civic Forum party for instance campaigned on the slogan "Parties are for party members, Civic Forum is for everybody". Many populists in this region claimed that a "real" revolution had not occurred during the transition from Marxist–Leninist to liberal democratic governance in the early 1990s and that it was they who were campaigning for such a change. The collapse of Marxism–Leninism as a central force in socialist politics also led to a broader growth of left-wing populism across Europe, reflected in groups like the Dutch Socialist Party, Scottish Socialist Party, and German's The Left party. Since the late 1980s, populist experiences emerged in Spain around the figures of José María Ruiz Mateos, Jesús Gil and Mario Conde, businessmen who entered politics chiefly to defend their personal economic interests, but by the turn of the millennium their proposals had proved to meet a limited support at the ballots at the national level.
21st century
At the turn of the 21st century, populist rhetoric and movements became increasingly apparent in Western Europe. Populist rhetoric was often used by opposition parties. For example, in the 2001 electoral campaign, the Conservative Party leader William Hague accused Tony Blair's governing Labour Party government of representing "the condescending liberal elite". Hague repeatedly referring to it as "metropolitan", implying that it was out of touch with "the people", who in Conservative discourse are represented by "Middle England". Blair's government also employed populist rhetoric; in outlining legislation to curtail fox hunting on animal welfare grounds, it presented itself as championing the desires of the majority against the upper-classes who engaged in the sport. Blair's rhetoric has been characterised as the adoption of a populist style rather than the expression of an underlying populist ideology.
By the 21st century, European populism was again associated largely with the political right. The term came to be used in reference both to radical right groups like Jörg Haider's FPÖ in Austria and Jean-Marie Le Pen's FN in France, as well as to non-radical right-wing groups like Silvio Berlusconi's Forza Italia or Pim Fortuyn's LPF in the Netherlands. The populist radical right combined populism with authoritarianism and nativism. Conversely, the Great Recession also resulted in the emergence of left-wing populist groups in parts of Europe, most notably the Syriza party which gained political office in Greece and the Podemos party in Spain, displaying similarities with the US-based Occupy movement. Like Europe's right-wing populists, these groups also expressed Eurosceptic sentiment towards the European Union, albeit largely from a socialist and anti-austerity perspective rather than the nationalist perspective adopted by their right-wing counterparts. Populists have entered government in many countries across Europe, both in coalitions with other parties as well by themselves, Austria and Poland are examples of these respectively.
The UK Labour Party under the leadership of Jeremy Corbyn has been called populist, with the slogan "for the many not the few" having been used. Corbyn was suspended from Labour following findings on unlawful action from a Equality and Human Rights Commission report. Corbyn's suspension was controversial, and many local Labour Parties passed motions opposing the decision.
The United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP) had been characterised as a right-wing populist party. After the 2016 UK referendum on membership of the European Union, in which British citizens voted to leave, some have claimed the "Brexit" as a victory for populism, encouraging a flurry of calls for referendums among other EU countries by populist political parties.
North America
In North America, populism has often been characterised by regional mobilisation and loose organisation. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, populist sentiments became widespread, particularly in the western provinces of Canada, and in the southwest and Great Plains regions of the United States. In this instance, populism was combined with agrarianism and often known as "prairie populism". For these groups, "the people" were yeomen—small, independent farmers —while the "elite" were the bankers and politicians of the northeast. In some cases, populist activists called for alliances with labor (the first national platform of the National People's Party in 1892 calling for protecting the rights of "urban workmen". In the state of Georgia in the early 1890s, Thomas E. Watson (later the Populist candidate for Vice-President) led a major effort to unite white and African-American farmers.
The People's Party of the late 19th century United States is considered to be "one of the defining populist movements"; its members were often referred to as the Populists at the time. Its radical platform included calling for the nationalisation of railways, the banning of strikebreakers, and the introduction of referendums. The party gained representation in several state legislatures during the 1890s, but was not powerful enough to mount a successful presidential challenge. In the 1896 presidential election, the People's Party supported the Democratic Party candidate William Jennings Bryan; after his defeat, the People's Party's support declined. Other early populist political parties in the United States included the Greenback Party, the Progressive Party of 1912 led by Theodore Roosevelt, the Progressive Party of 1924 led by Robert M. La Follette, Sr., and the Share Our Wealth movement of Huey P Long in 1933–1935. In Canada, populist groups adhering to a social credit ideology had various successes at local and regional elections from the 1930s to the 1960s, although the main Social Credit Party of Canada never became a dominant national force.
By the mid-20th century, US populism had moved from a largely progressive to a largely reactionary stance, being closely intertwined with the anti-communist politics of the period. In this period, the historian Richard Hofstadter and sociologist Daniel Bell compared the anti-elitism of the 1890s Populists with that of Joseph McCarthy. Although not all academics accepted the comparison between the left-wing, anti-big business Populists and the right-wing, anti-communist McCarthyites, the term "populist" nonetheless came to be applied to both left-wing and right-wing groups that blamed elites for the problems facing the country. Some mainstream politicians in the Republican Party recognised the utility of such a tactic and adopted it; Republican President Richard Nixon for instance popularised the term "silent majority" when appealing to voters. Right-wing populist rhetoric was also at the base of two of the most successful third-party presidential campaigns in the late 20th century, that of George C. Wallace in 1968 and Ross Perot in 1992. These politicians presented a consistent message that a "liberal elite" was threatening "our way of life" and using the welfare state to placate the poor and thus maintain their own power.
Former Oklahoma Senator Fred R. Harris, first elected in 1964, ran unsuccessfully for the US presidency in 1972 and 1976. Harris' New Populism embraced egalitarian themes.
In the first decade of the 21st century, two populist movements appeared in the US, both in response to the Great Recession: the Occupy movement and the Tea Party movement. The populist approach of the Occupy movement was broader, with its "people" being what it called "the 99%", while the "elite" it challenged was presented as both the economic and political elites. The Tea Party's populism was Producerism, while "the elite" it presented was more party partisan than that of Occupy, being defined largely—although not exclusively—as the Democratic administration of President Barack Obama.
The 2016 presidential election saw a wave of populist sentiment in the campaigns of Bernie Sanders and Donald Trump, with both candidates running on anti-establishment platforms in the Democratic and Republican parties, respectively. Both campaigns criticised free trade deals such as the North American Free Trade Agreement and the Trans-Pacific Partnership. Other studies have noted an emergence of populist rhetoric and a decline in the value of prior experience in U.S. intra-party contests such as congressional primaries.
Latin America
Populism has been dominant in Latin American politics since the 1930s and 1940s, being far more prevalent there than in Europe. Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser noted that the region has the world's "most enduring and prevalent populist tradition". They suggested that this was the case because it was a region with a long tradition of democratic governance and free elections, but with high rates of socio-economic inequality, generating widespread resentments that politicians can articulate through populism. March instead thought that it was the important role of "catch-all parties and prominent personalities" in Latin American politics which had made populism more common.
The first wave of Latin American populism began at the start of the Great Depression in 1929 and last until the end of the 1960s. In various countries, politicians took power while emphasising "the people": these included Getúlio Vargas in Brazil, Juan Perón in Argentina, and José María Velasco Ibarra in Ecuador. These relied on the Americanismo ideology, presenting a common identity across Latin America and denouncing any interference from imperialist powers. The second wave took place in the early 1990s; de la Torre called it "neoliberal populism". In the late 1980s, many Latin American states were experiencing economic crisis and several populist figures were elected by blaming the elites for this situation. Examples include Carlos Menem in Argentina, Fernando Collor de Mello in Brazil, and Alberto Fujimori in Peru. Once in power, these individuals pursued neoliberal economic strategies recommended by the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Unlike the first wave, the second did not include an emphasis on Americanismo or anti-imperialism.
The third wave began in the final years of the 1990s and continued into the 21st century. It overlapped in part with the pink tide of left-wing resurgence in Latin America. Like the first wave, the third made heavy use of Americanismo and anti-imperialism, although this time these themes presented alongside an explicitly socialist programme that opposed the free market. Prominent examples included Hugo Chávez in Venezuela, Evo Morales in Bolivia, Rafael Correa in Ecuador, and Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua. These socialist populist governments have presented themselves as giving sovereignty "back to the people", in particular through the formation of constituent assemblies that would draw up new constitutions, which could then be ratified via referendums. In this way they claimed to be correcting the problems of social and economic injustice that liberal democracy had failed to deal with, replacing it with superior forms of democracy.
Oceania
During the 1990s, there was a growth in populism in both Australia and New Zealand.
In New Zealand, Robert Muldoon, the 31st Prime Minister of New Zealand from 1975 to 1984, had been cited as a populist. Populism has become a pervasive trend in New Zealand politics since the introduction of the mixed-member proportional voting system in 1996. The New Zealand Labour Party's populist appeals in its 1999 election campaign and advertising helped to propel the party to victory in that election. New Zealand First has presented a more lasting populist platform; long-time party leader Winston Peters has been characterised by some as a populist who uses anti-establishment rhetoric, though in a uniquely New Zealand style.
Sub-Saharan Africa
In much of Africa, populism has been a rare phenomenon. The political scientist Danielle Resnick argued that populism first became apparent in Africa during the 1980s, when a series of coups brought military leaders to power in various countries. In Ghana, for example, Jerry Rawlings took control, professing that he would involve "the people" in "the decision-making process", something he claimed had previously been denied to them. A similar process took place in neighbouring Burkina Faso under the military leader Thomas Sankara, who professed to "take power out of the hands of our national
bourgeoisie and their imperialist allies and put it in the hands of the people". Such military leaders claimed to represent "the voice of the people", utilised an anti-establishment discourse, and established participatory organisations through which to maintain links with the broader population.
In the 21st century, with the establishment of multi-party democratic systems in much of Sub-Saharan Africa, new populist politicians have appeared. These have included Kenya's Raila Odinga, Senegal's Abdoulaye Wade, South Africa's Julius Malema, and Zambia's Michael Sata. These populists have arisen in democratic rather than authoritarian states, and have arisen amid dissatisfaction with democratisation, socio-economic grievances, and frustration at the inability of opposition groups to oust incumbent parties.
Asia and the Arab world
In North Africa, populism was associated with the approaches of several political leaders active in the 20th century, most notably Egypt's Gamal Abdel Nasser and Libya's Muammar Gaddafi. However, populist approaches only became more popular in the Middle East during the early 21st century, by which point it became integral to much of the region's politics. Here, it became an increasingly common element of mainstream politics in established representative democracies, associated with longstanding leaders like Israel's Benjamin Netanyahu. Although the Arab Spring was not a populist movement itself, populist rhetoric was present among protesters.
In southeast Asia, populist politicians emerged in the wake of the 1997 Asian financial crisis. In the region, various populist governments took power but were removed soon after: these include the administrations of Joseph Estrada in the Philippines, Roh Moo-hyun in South Korea, Chen Shui-bian in Taiwan, and Thaksin Shinawatra in Thailand.
In India, the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) which rose to increasing power in the early 21st century adopted a right-wing populist position. Unlike many other successful populist groups, the BJP was not wholly reliant on the personality of its leader, but survived as a powerful electoral vehicle under several leaders.
Late 20th- and early 21st-century growth
Sheri Berman reviews various explanations of populism including "demand- and supply-side explanations of populism, economic grievance–based and sociocultural grievance–based explanations of populism, and structure- and agency-based explanations of populism". There is now a wide-ranging and interdisciplinary literature in this area.
In the early 1990s, there was an increasing awareness of populism in established liberal democracies, sometimes referred to as the "New Populism". The UK's referendum on European Union membership and the election of Donald Trump, both in 2016, generated a substantial rise in interest in the concept from both academics and the public. By 2016, "populism" was regularly used by political commentators.
A 2017 review of votes for populistic parties in all developed countries discovered them spiking in 2015 and reaching highest levels since WWII.
Mudde argued that by the early 1990s, populism had become a regular feature in Western democracies. He attributed this to changing perceptions of government that had spread in this period, which in turn he traced to the changing role of the media to focus increasingly on sensationalism and scandals. Since the late 1960s, the emergence of television had allowed for the increasing proliferation of the Western media, with media outlets becoming increasingly independent of political parties. As private media companies have had to compete against each other, they have placed an increasing focus on scandals and other sensationalist elements of politics, in doing so promoting anti-governmental sentiments among their readership and cultivating an environment prime for populists. At the same time, politicians increasingly faced television interviews, exposing their flaws. News media had also taken to interviewing fewer accredited experts, and instead favouring interviewing individuals found on the street as to their views about current events. At the same time, mass media was giving less attention to the "high culture" of elites and more to other sectors of society, as reflected in reality television shows such as Big Brother.
Mudde argued that another reason for the growth of Western populism in this period was the improved education of the populace; since the 1960s, citizens have expected more from their politicians and felt increasingly competent to judge their actions. This in turn has led to an increasingly sceptical attitude toward mainstream politicians and governing groups. In Mudde's words, "More and more citizens think they have a good understanding of what politicians do, and think they can do it better."
Another factor is that in the post-Cold War period, liberal democracies no longer had the one-party states of the Eastern Bloc against which to favourably compare themselves; citizens were therefore increasingly able to compare the realities of the liberal democratic system with theoretical models of democracy, and find the former wanting. There is also the impact of globalisation, which is seen as having seriously limited the powers of national elites. Such factors undermine citizens' belief in the competency of governing elite, opening up space for charismatic leadership to become increasingly popular; although charismatic leadership is not the same as populist leadership, populists have been the main winners of this shift towards charismatic leadership.
Peter Wilkins has argued that "The end of history and the post-Cold War extension and deepening of capitalism are central to understanding the rise of contemporary populist movements."
Pippa Norris and Ronald Inglehart connect economic and sociocultural theories of the causes of support for the growing populist movements in Western societies. The first theory they examine is the economic insecurity perspective which focuses on the consequences created by a transforming contemporary workforce and society in post-industrial economies. Norris suggests that events such as globalisation, China's membership of the World Trade Organisation and cheaper imports have left the unsecured members of society (low-waged unskilled workers, single parents, the long term unemployed and the poorer white populations) seeking populist leaders such as Donald Trump and Nigel Farage. The other theory is the cultural backlash thesis, in which Norris and Inglehart suggest that the rise of populism is a reaction from previously dominant sectors of the population, the white, uneducated, elderly men of today, who feel threatened and marginalised by the progressive values of modern society. These groups in particular have a growing resentment towards their traditional values being scolded as politically incorrect and are much more likely to become supportive of anti-establishment, xenophobic political parties.
Norris and Inglehart have analyzed data from the World Values Survey. On this basis, they argue that while the proximate cause of right-wing populist voting may be identified in sociocultural grievances, such grievances are increasingly being driven by economic insecurity and the erosion of traditional values.
See also
Allegory of the cave
Anti-elitism
Argumentum ad populum
Black populism
Class warfare
Communitarianism
List of populists
Ochlocracy (mob rule)
Paternalism
Penal populism
Politainment
Poporanism
Populism in Latin America
Third party (politics)
Tyranny of the majority
References
Notes
Bibliography
Adamidis, Vasileios (2021), Democracy, Populism, and the rule of law: A reconsideration of their interconnectedness Politics SAGE.
Adamidis, Vasileios (2021), Populism and the rule of recognition: challenging the foundations of democratic legal systems. Populism 4(1): 1-24.
Adamidis, Vasileios (2019), Manifestations of populism in late 5th century Athens. In: D.A. FRENKEL and N. VARGA, eds., New studies in law and history. Athens: Athens Institute for Education and Research, pp. 11–28. ISBN 9789605982386
.
1
Further reading
Abromeit, John et al., eds. Transformations of Populism in Europe and the Americas: History and Recent Tendencies (Bloomsbury, 2015). xxxii, 354 pp.
Adamidis, Vasileios (2021), Populism and the rule of recognition: challenging the foundations of democratic legal systems. Populism 4(1): 1-24.
Adamidis, Vasileios (2021), Populist Rhetorical Strategies in the Courts of classical Athens. Athens Journal of History 7(1): 21-40.
Albertazzi, Daniele and Duncan McDonnell. 2008. Twenty-First Century Populism: The Spectre of Western European Democracy Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Barabanov O., Efremenko D., Kagarlitsky B., Koltashov V., Telin K. Global ‘Rightist Revolt’: Trumpism and Its Foundations . / Valday Discussion Club Report. – Moscow, September 2017.
Berlet, Chip. 2005. "When Alienation Turns Right: Populist Conspiracism, the Apocalyptic Style, and Neofascist Movements". In Lauren Langman & Devorah Kalekin Fishman, (eds.), Trauma, Promise, and the Millennium: The Evolution of Alienation. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield.
Boggs, Carl. 1986. Social Movements and Political Power: Emerging Forms of Radicalism in the West. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Boyte, Harry C. 2004. Everyday Politics: Reconnecting Citizens and Public Life. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Brass, Tom. 2000. Peasants, Populism and Postmodernism: The Return of the Agrarian Myth. London: Frank Cass Publishers.
Caiani, Manuela. "Populism/Populist Movements". in The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements (2013).
Coles, Rom. 2006. "Of Tensions and Tricksters: Grassroots Democracy Between Theory and Practice", Perspectives on Politics Vol. 4:3 (Fall), pp. 547–61
Denning, Michael. 1997. The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century. London: Verso.
Emibayer, Mustafa and Ann Mishe. 1998. "What is Agency?", American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 103:4, pp. 962–1023
Foster, John Bellamy. "This Is Not Populism " (June 2017), Monthly Review
Goodwyn, Lawrence, 1976, Democratic Promise: The Populist Moment in America. New York: Oxford University Press
Grieder, William. 1993. Who Will Tell the People: The Betrayal of American Democracy. Simon & Schuster.
Hedges, Chris. 2010. Death of the Liberal Class. New York: Nation Books.
Hogg, Michael A., "Radical Change: Uncertainty in the world threatens our sense of self. To cope, people embrace populism", Scientific American, vol. 321, no. 3 (September 2019), pp. 85–87.
Kazin, Michael. "Trump and American Populism". Foreign Affairs (Nov/Dec 2016), 95#6 pp. 17–24.
Khoros, Vladimir. 1984. Populism: Its Past, Present and Future. Moscow: Progress Publishers.
Kling, Joseph M. and Prudence S. Posner. 1990. Dilemmas of Activism. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Kuzminski, Adrian. 2008. Fixing the System: A History of Populism, Ancient & Modern" Continuum Books
Laclau, Ernesto. 1977. Politics and Ideology in Marxist Theory: Capitalism, Fascism, Populism. London: NLB/Atlantic Highlands Humanities Press.
Laclau, Ernesto. 2005. On Populist Reason . London: Verso
McCoy, Alfred W (2 April 2017). The Bloodstained Rise of Global Populism: A Political Movement’s Violent Pursuit of “Enemies” , TomDispatch
Miscoiu, Sergiu, Craciun, Oana, Colopelnic, Nicoleta. 2008. Radicalism, Populism, Interventionism. Three Approaches Based on Discourse Theory. Cluj-Napoca: Efes
Mișcoiu, Sergiu. Au pouvoir par le Peuple! Le populisme saisi par la théorie du discours. L'Harmattan. 2012
Moffitt, Benjamin. The Global Rise of Populism: Performance, Political Style, and Representation (2016) Looks at 28 leaders from around the world to examine populism as a global phenomenon, a performed political style, and an approach to politics making ready use of new media.
Morelock, Jeremiah ed. Critical Theory and Authoritarian Populism . 2018. London: University of Westminster Press.
Müller, Jan-Werner. What is Populism? (August 2016), Univ. of Pennsylvania Press. Also by Müller on populism: Capitalism in One Family (December 2016), London Review of Books, Vol. 38, No. 23, pp. 10–14
Peters, B. Guy and Jon Pierre. 2020. "A typology of populism: understanding the different forms of populism and their implications." Democratization.
Rupert, Mark. 1997. "Globalization and the Reconstruction of Common Sense in the US". In Innovation and Transformation in International Studies, S. Gill and J. Mittelman, eds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Europe
Anselmi, Manuel, 2017. Populism. An Introduction, London: Routledge.
Betz, Hans-Georg. 1994. Radical Right-wing Populism in Western Europe, New York: St. Martins Press.
Fritzsche, Peter. 1990. Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany. New York: Oxford University Press.
De Blasio, Emiliana, Hibberd, Matthew and Sorice, Michele. 2011. Popular politics, populism and the leaders. Access without participation? The cases of Italy and UK. Roma: CMCS-LUISS University.
Fritzsche, Peter. 1998. Germans into Nazis. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Hartleb, Florian 2011: After their establishment: Right-wing Populist Parties in Europe, Centre for European Studies/Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, Brüssel, (download: )
Wodak, Ruth, Majid KhosraviNik, and Brigitte Mral. "Right-wing populism in Europe". Politics and discourse (2013). online
Kriesi, H. (2014), The Populist Challenge, in West European Politics, vol. 37, n. 2, pp. 361–378.
Latin America
Conniff, Michael L. "A historiography of populism and neopopulism in Latin America" History Compass (2020) e12621 A historiography of populism and neopopulism in Latin America
Conniff, Michael L., ed. Populism in Latin America (1999) essays by experts
Demmers, Jolle, et al eds. Miraculous Metamorphoses: The Neoliberalization of Latin American Populism (2001)
Knight, Alan. "Populism and neo-populism in Latin America, especially Mexico." Journal of Latin American Studies 30.2 (1998): 223-248.
Leaman, David. "Review: Changing Faces of Populism in Latin America: Masks, Makeovers, and Enduring Features" Latin American Research Review 39#3 (2004), pp. 312–326 online
United States
Abromeit, John. "Frankfurt School Critical Theory and the Persistence of Authoritarian Populism in the United States" In Morelock, Jeremiah Ed. Critical Theory and Authoritarian Populism. 2018. London: University of Westminster Press.
Agarwal, Sheetal D., et al. "Grassroots organizing in the digital age: considering values and technology in Tea Party and Occupy Wall Street". Information, Communication & Society (2014) 17#3 pp. 326–41.
Evans, Sara M. and Harry C. Boyte. 1986. Free Spaces: The Sources of Democratic Change in America. New York: Harper & Row.
Goodwyn, Lawrence. 1976. Democratic Promise: The Populist Moment in America. New York and London: Oxford University Press.; abridged as The Populist Moment: A Short History of the Agrarian Revolt in America. (Oxford University Press, 1978)
Hahn, Steven. 1983. Roots of Southern Populism: Yeoman Farmers and the Transformation of the Georgia Upcountry, 1850–1890. New York and London: Oxford University Press,
Hofstadter, Richard. 1955. The Age of Reform: from Bryan to F.D.R. New York: Knopf.
Hofstadter, Richard. 1965. The Paranoid Style in American Politics, and Other Essays. New York: Knopf.
Jeffrey, Julie Roy. 1975. "Women in the Southern Farmers Alliance: A Reconsideration of the Role and Status of Women in the Late 19th Century South". Feminist Studies 3.
Judis, John B. 2016. The Populist Explosion: How the Great Recession Transformed American and European Politics. New York: Columbia Global Reports.
Kazin, Michael. 1995. The Populist Persuasion: An American History. New York: Basic Books.
; 200+ articles in 901 pp
Maier, Chris. "The Farmers' Fight for Representation: Third-Party Politics in South Dakota, 1889–1918". Great Plains Quarterly (2014) 34#2 pp. 143–62.
Marable, Manning. 1986. "Black History and the Vision of Democracy", in Harry Boyte and Frank Riessman, Eds., The New Populism: The Politics of Empowerment. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Palmer, Bruce. 1980. Man Over Money: The Southern Populist Critique of American Capitalism. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Rasmussen, Scott, and Doug Schoen. (2010) Mad as hell: How the Tea Party movement is fundamentally remaking our two-party system (HarperCollins, 2010)
Stock, Catherine McNicol. 1996. Rural Radicals: Righteous Rage in the American Grain. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
Comparative politics
Political theories
Political ideologies
Political terminology
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioisotope%20thermoelectric%20generator
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Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
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A radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG, RITEG) is a type of nuclear battery that uses an array of thermocouples to convert the heat released by the decay of a suitable radioactive material into electricity by the Seebeck effect. This type of generator has no moving parts.
RTGs have been used as power sources in satellites, space probes, and uncrewed remote facilities such as a series of lighthouses built by the Soviet Union inside the Arctic Circle. RTGs are usually the most desirable power source for unmaintained situations that need a few hundred watts (or less) of power for durations too long for fuel cells, batteries, or generators to provide economically, and in places where solar cells are not practical. Safe use of RTGs requires containment of the radioisotopes long after the productive life of the unit. The expense of RTGs tends to limit their use to niche applications in rare or special situations.
History
The RTG was invented in 1954 by Mound Laboratories scientists Ken Jordan and John Birden. They were inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2013. Jordan and Birden worked on an Army Signal Corps contract (R-65-8- 998 11-SC-03-91) beginning on 1 January 1957, to conduct research on radioactive materials and thermocouples suitable for the direct conversion of heat to electrical energy using polonium-210 as the heat source. RTGs were developed in the US during the late 1950s by Mound Laboratories in Miamisburg, Ohio, under contract with the United States Atomic Energy Commission. The project was led by Dr. Bertram C. Blanke.
The first RTG launched into space by the United States was SNAP 3B in 1961 powered by 96 grams of plutonium-238 metal, aboard the Navy Transit 4A spacecraft. One of the first terrestrial uses of RTGs was in 1966 by the US Navy at uninhabited Fairway Rock in Alaska. RTGs were used at that site until 1995.
A common RTG application is spacecraft power supply. Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power (SNAP) units were used for probes that traveled far from the Sun rendering solar panels impractical. As such, they were used with Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Galileo, Ulysses, Cassini, New Horizons, and the Mars Science Laboratory. RTGs were used to power the two Viking landers and for the scientific experiments left on the Moon by the crews of Apollo 12 through 17 (SNAP 27s). Because the Apollo 13 Moon landing was aborted, its RTG rests in the South Pacific Ocean, in the vicinity of the Tonga Trench. RTGs were also used for the Nimbus, Transit and LES satellites. By comparison, only a few space vehicles have been launched using full-fledged nuclear reactors: the Soviet RORSAT series and the American SNAP-10A.
In addition to spacecraft, the Soviet Union built 1007 RTGs to power uncrewed lighthouses and navigation beacons on the Soviet arctic coast by the late 1980s. Many different types of RTGs were built in the Soviet Union for a wide variety of purposes. The lighthouses were not maintained for many years after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Some of the RTG units disappeared during this time—either by looting or by the natural forces of ice/storm/sea. In 1996, a project was begun by Russian and international supporters to decommission the RTGs in the lighthouses, and by 2021, all RTGs are now removed.
As of 1992, the United States Air Force also used RTGs to power remotely-located Arctic equipment, and the US government has used hundreds of such units to power remote stations globally. Sensing stations for Top-ROCC and SEEK IGLOO radar systems, predominantly located in Alaska, use RTGs. The units use strontium-90, and a larger number of such units have been deployed both on the ground and on the ocean floor than have been used on spacecraft, with public regulatory documents suggesting that the US had deployed at least 100–150 during the 1970s and 1980s.
In the past, small "plutonium cells" (very small 238Pu-powered RTGs) were used in implanted heart pacemakers to ensure a very long "battery life". , about ninety were still in use. By the end of 2007, the number was reported to be down to just nine. The Mound Laboratory Cardiac Pacemaker program began on 1 June 1966, in conjunction with NUMEC. When it was recognized that the heat source would not remain intact during cremation, the program was cancelled in 1972 because there was no way to completely ensure that the units would not be cremated with their users' bodies.
Design
The design of an RTG is simple by the standards of nuclear technology: the main component is a sturdy container of a radioactive material (the fuel). Thermocouples are placed in the walls of the container, with the outer end of each thermocouple connected to a heat sink. Radioactive decay of the fuel produces heat. It is the temperature difference between the fuel and the heat sink that allows the thermocouples to generate electricity.
A thermocouple is a thermoelectric device that can convert thermal energy directly into electrical energy using the Seebeck effect. It is made of two kinds of metal (or semiconductors) that can both conduct electricity. If they are connected to each other in a closed loop and the two junctions are at different temperatures, an electric current will flow in the loop. Typically a large number of thermocouples are connected in series to generate a higher voltage.
Fuels
Criteria for selection of isotopes
The radioactive material used in RTGs must have several characteristics:
Its half-life must be long enough so that it will release energy at a relatively constant rate for a reasonable amount of time. The amount of energy released per time (power) of a given quantity is inversely proportional to half-life. An isotope with twice the half-life and the same energy per decay will release power at half the rate per mole. Typical half-lives for radioisotopes used in RTGs are therefore several decades, although isotopes with shorter half-lives could be used for specialized applications.
For spaceflight use, the fuel must produce a large amount of power per mass and volume (density). Density and weight are not as important for terrestrial use, unless there are size restrictions. The decay energy can be calculated if the energy of radioactive radiation or the mass loss before and after radioactive decay is known. Energy release per decay is proportional to power production per mole. Alpha decays in general release about ten times as much energy as the beta decay of strontium-90 or caesium-137.
Radiation must be of a type easily absorbed and transformed into thermal radiation, preferably alpha radiation. Beta radiation can emit considerable gamma/X-ray radiation through bremsstrahlung secondary radiation production and therefore requires heavy shielding. Isotopes must not produce significant amounts of gamma, neutron radiation or penetrating radiation in general through other decay modes or decay chain products.
The first two criteria limit the number of possible fuels to fewer than thirty atomic isotopes within the entire table of nuclides.
Plutonium-238, curium-244 and strontium-90 are the most often cited candidate isotopes, but other isotopes such as polonium-210, promethium-147, caesium-137, cerium-144, ruthenium-106, cobalt-60, curium-242, americium-241 and thulium isotopes have also been studied.
The table below does not necessarily give power densities for the pure material but for a chemically inert form. For Actinides this is of little concern as their oxides are usually inert enough (and can be transformed into ceramics further increasing their stability), but for alkali metals and alkaline earth metals like Caesium or Strontium respectively, relatively complex (and heavy) chemical compounds have to be used. For example, Strontium is commonly used as Strontium titanate in RTGs which increases molar mass by about a factor of 2. Furthermore, depending on the source, isotopic purity may not be obtainable. Plutonium extracted from spent nuclear fuel has a low share of Pu-238, so Plutonium-238 for use in RTGs is usually purpose made by neutron irradiation of neptunium-237, further raising costs. Caesium in fission products is almost equal parts Cs-135 and Cs-137 plus significant amounts of stable Cs-133 and - in "young" spent fuel - short lived Cs-134. If isotope separation, a costly and time consuming process, is to be avoided, this has to be factored in, too. While historically RTGs have been rather small, there is in theory nothing preventing RTGs from reaching into the Megawattthermal range of power. However, for such applications Actinides are less suitable than lighter radioisotopes as the critical mass is orders of magnitude below the mass needed to produce such amounts of power. As Sr-90, Cs-137 and other lighter radionuclides cannot maintain a nuclear chain reaction under any circumstances, RTGs of arbitrary size and power could be assembled from them if enough material can be produced. In general, however, potential applications for such large-scale RTGs are more the domain of small modular reactors, microreactors or non-nuclear power sources.
238Pu
Plutonium-238 has a half-life of 87.7 years, reasonable power density of 0.57 watts per gram,
and exceptionally low gamma and neutron radiation levels. 238Pu has the lowest shielding requirements. Only three candidate isotopes meet the last criterion (not all are listed above) and need less than 25 mm of lead shielding to block the radiation. 238Pu (the best of these three) needs less than 2.5 mm, and in many cases, no shielding is needed in a 238Pu RTG, as the casing itself is adequate.
238Pu has become the most widely used fuel for RTGs, in the form of plutonium(IV) oxide (PuO2).
However, plutonium(IV) oxide containing a natural abundance of oxygen emits neutrons at the rate of ~2.3x103 n/sec/g of plutonium-238. This emission rate is relatively high compared to the neutron emission rate of plutonium-238 metal. The metal containing no light element impurities emits ~2.8x103 n/sec/g of plutonium-238. These neutrons are produced by the spontaneous fission of plutonium-238.
The difference in the emission rates of the metal and the oxide is due mainly to the alpha, neutron reaction with the oxygen-18 and oxygen-17 present in the oxide. The normal amount of oxygen-18 present in the natural form is 0.204% while that of oxygen-17 is 0.037%. The reduction of the oxygen-17 and oxygen-18 present in plutonium dioxide will result in a much lower neutron emission rate for the oxide; this can be accomplished by a gas phase 16O2 exchange method. Regular production batches of 238PuO2 particles precipitated as a hydroxide were used to show that large production batches could be effectively 16O2-exchanged on a routine basis. High-fired 238PuO2 microspheres were successfully 16O2-exchanged showing that an exchange will take place regardless of the previous heat treatment history of the 238PuO2.
This lowering of the neutron emission rate of PuO2 containing normal oxygen by a factor of five was discovered during the cardiac pacemaker research at Mound Laboratory in 1966, due in part to the Mound Laboratory's experience with production of stable isotopes beginning in 1960. For production of the large heat sources the shielding required would have been prohibitive without this process.
Unlike the other three isotopes discussed in this section, 238Pu must be specifically synthesized and is not abundant as a nuclear waste product. At present only Russia has maintained high-volume production, while in the US, no more than were produced in total between 2013 and 2018. The US agencies involved desire to begin the production of the material at a rate of per year. If this plan is funded, the goal would be to set up automation and scale-up processes in order to produce an average of per year by 2025.
90Sr
Strontium-90 has been used by the Soviet Union in terrestrial RTGs. 90Sr decays by β emission, with minor γ emission. While its half life of 28.8 years is much shorter than that of 238Pu, it also has a lower decay energy with a power density of 0.46 watts per gram. Because the energy output is lower it reaches lower temperatures than 238Pu, which results in lower RTG efficiency. 90Sr is a high yield waste product of nuclear fission and is available in large quantities at a low price.
As is a very reactive alkaline earth metal and a so called "bone seeker" that accumulates in bone-tissue due to its chemical similarity to calcium (once in the bones it can significantly damage the bone marrow, a rapidly dividing tissue), it is usually not employed in pure form in RTGs. The most common form is the pervoskite Strontium titanate (SrTiO3) which is chemically nigh-inert and has a high melting point. While its Mohs hardness of 5.5 has made it ill-suited as a diamond simulant, it is of sufficient hardness to withstand some forms of accidental release from its shielding without too fine dispersal of dust. The downside to using SrTiO3 instead of the native metal is that its production requires energy. It also reduces power density, as the TiO3 part of the material does not produce any decay heat. Starting from the oxide or the native metal, one pathway to obtaining SrTiO3 is to let it transform to Strontium hydroxide in aqueous solution, which absorbs carbon dioxide from air to become less soluble strontium carbonate. Reaction of strontium carbonate with titanium dioxide at high temperature produces the desired strontium titanate plus carbon dioxide. If desired, the strontium titanate product can then be formed into a ceramic-like aggregate via sintering.
210Po
Some prototype RTGs, first built in 1958 by the US Atomic Energy Commission, have used polonium-210. This isotope provides phenomenal power density (pure 210Po emits 140 W/g) because of its high decay rate, but has limited use because of its very short half-life of 138 days. A half-gram sample of 210Po reaches temperatures of over . As Po-210 is a pure alpha-emitter and does not emit significant gamma or X-ray radiation, the shielding requirements are also low as for Pu-238. While the short half-life also reduces the time during which accidental release to the environment is a concern, Polonium-210 is extremely radiotoxic if ingested and can cause significant harm even in chemically inert forms, which pass through the digestive tract as a "foreign object".
241Am
Americium-241 is a potential candidate isotope with a longer half-life than 238Pu: 241Am has a half-life of 432 years and could hypothetically power a device for centuries. However, the power density of 241Am is only 1/4 that of 238Pu, and 241Am produces more penetrating radiation through decay chain products than 238Pu and needs more shielding. Its shielding requirements in a RTG are the third lowest: only 238Pu and 210Po require less. With a current global shortage of 238Pu, 241Am is being studied as RTG fuel by ESA and in 2019, UK's National Nuclear Laboratory announced the generation of usable electricity. An advantage over 238Pu is that it is produced as nuclear waste and is nearly isotopically pure. Prototype designs of 241Am RTGs expect 2-2.2 We/kg for 5–50 We RTGs design, putting 241Am RTGs at parity with 238Pu RTGs within that power range. Americium-241 is currently used in small quantities in household smoke detectors and thus its handling and properties are precedented. However, it decays to Neptunium-237 the most chemically mobile among the Actinides.
250Cm
Curium-250 is the smallest transuranic isotope that primarily decays by spontaneous fission, a process that releases many times more energy than alpha decay. Compared to Plutonium-238, Curium-250 provides about a quarter of the power density, but 100 times the half-life (~87 vs ~9000). As it is a neutron emitter (weaker than Californium-252 but not entirely negligible) some applications require a further shielding against neutron radiation. As lead, which is an excellent shielding material against gamma rays and beta ray induced Bremsstrahlung is not a good neutron shield (instead reflecting most of them), a different shielding material would have to be added in applications where neutrons are a concern.
Life span
Most RTGs use 238Pu, which decays with a half-life of 87.7 years. RTGs using this material will therefore diminish in power output by a factor of 1 – (1/2)1/87.7, which is 0.787%, per year.
One example is the MHW-RTG used by the Voyager probes. In the year 2000, 23 years after production, the radioactive material inside the RTG had decreased in power by 16.6%, i.e. providing 83.4% of its initial output; starting with a capacity of 470 W, after this length of time it would have a capacity of only 392 W. A related loss of power in the Voyager RTGs is the degrading properties of the bi-metallic thermocouples used to convert thermal energy into electrical energy; the RTGs were working at about 67% of their total original capacity instead of the expected 83.4%. By the beginning of 2001, the power generated by the Voyager RTGs had dropped to 315 W for Voyager 1 and to 319 W for Voyager 2.
Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator
NASA has developed a multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator (MMRTG) in which the thermocouples would be made of skutterudite, a cobalt arsenide (CoAs3), which can function with a smaller temperature difference than the current tellurium-based designs. This would mean that an otherwise similar RTG would generate 25% more power at the beginning of a mission and at least 50% more after seventeen years. NASA hopes to use the design on the next New Frontiers mission.
Safety
Theft
Radioactive materials contained in RTGs are dangerous and can even be used for malicious purposes. They are barely useful for a genuine nuclear weapon, but still can serve in a "dirty bomb". The Soviet Union constructed many uncrewed lighthouses and navigation beacons powered by RTGs using strontium-90 (90Sr). They are very reliable and provide a steady source of power. Most have no protection, not even fences or warning signs, and the locations of some of these facilities are no longer known due to poor record keeping. In one instance, the radioactive compartments were opened by a thief. In another case, three woodsmen in Tsalendzhikha Region, Georgia found two ceramic RTG orphan sources that had been stripped of their shielding; two of them were later hospitalized with severe radiation burns after carrying the sources on their backs. The units were eventually recovered and isolated. There are approximately 1,000 such RTGs in Russia, all of which have long since exceeded their designed operational lives of ten years. Most of these RTGs likely no longer function, and may need to be dismantled. Some of their metal casings have been stripped by metal hunters, despite the risk of radioactive contamination. Transforming the radioactive material into an inert form reduces the danger of theft by people unaware of the radiation hazard (such as happened in the Goiana accident in an abandoned Cs-137 source where the Caesium was present in easily water-soluble Caesium chloride form). However, a sufficiently chemically skilled malicious actor could extract a volatile species from inert material and/or achieve a similar effect of dispersion by physically grinding the inert matrix into a fine dust.
Radioactive contamination
RTGs pose a risk of radioactive contamination: if the container holding the fuel leaks, the radioactive material may contaminate the environment.
For spacecraft, the main concern is that if an accident were to occur during launch or a subsequent passage of a spacecraft close to Earth, harmful material could be released into the atmosphere; therefore their use in spacecraft and elsewhere has attracted controversy.
However, this event is not considered likely with current RTG cask designs. For instance, the environmental impact study for the Cassini–Huygens probe launched in 1997 estimated the probability of contamination accidents at various stages in the mission. The probability of an accident occurring which caused radioactive release from one or more of its three RTGs (or from its 129 radioisotope heater units) during the first 3.5 minutes following launch was estimated at 1 in 1,400; the chances of a release later in the ascent into orbit were 1 in 476; after that the likelihood of an accidental release fell off sharply to less than 1 in a million. If an accident which had the potential to cause contamination occurred during the launch phases (such as the spacecraft failing to reach orbit), the probability of contamination actually being caused by the RTGs was estimated at 1 in 10. The launch was successful and Cassini–Huygens reached Saturn.
To minimize the risk of the radioactive material being released, the fuel is stored in individual modular units with their own heat shielding. They are surrounded by a layer of iridium metal and encased in high-strength graphite blocks. These two materials are corrosion- and heat-resistant. Surrounding the graphite blocks is an aeroshell, designed to protect the entire assembly against the heat of reentering the Earth's atmosphere. The plutonium fuel is also stored in a ceramic form that is heat-resistant, minimising the risk of vaporization and aerosolization. The ceramic is also highly insoluble.
The plutonium-238 used in these RTGs has a half-life of 87.74 years, in contrast to the 24,110 year half-life of plutonium-239 used in nuclear weapons and reactors. A consequence of the shorter half-life is that plutonium-238 is about 275 times more radioactive than plutonium-239 (i.e. /g compared to /g). For instance, 3.6 kg of plutonium-238 undergoes the same number of radioactive decays per second as 1 tonne of plutonium-239. Since the morbidity of the two isotopes in terms of absorbed radioactivity is almost exactly the same, plutonium-238 is around 275 times more toxic by weight than plutonium-239.
The alpha radiation emitted by either isotope will not penetrate the skin, but it can irradiate internal organs if plutonium is inhaled or ingested. Particularly at risk is the skeleton, the surface of which is likely to absorb the isotope, and the liver, where the isotope will collect and become concentrated.
Accidents
There have been several known accidents involving RTG-powered spacecraft:
The first one was a launch failure on 21 April 1964 in which the U.S. Transit-5BN-3 navigation satellite failed to achieve orbit and burned up on re-entry north of Madagascar. The plutonium metal fuel in its SNAP-9a RTG was ejected into the atmosphere over the Southern Hemisphere where it burned up, and traces of plutonium-238 were detected in the area a few months later. This incident resulted in the NASA Safety Committee requiring intact reentry in future RTG launches, which in turn impacted the design of RTGs in the pipeline.
The second was the Nimbus B-1 weather satellite whose launch vehicle was deliberately destroyed shortly after launch on 21 May 1968 because of erratic trajectory. Launched from the Vandenberg Air Force Base, its SNAP-19 RTG containing relatively inert plutonium dioxide was recovered intact from the seabed in the Santa Barbara Channel five months later and no environmental contamination was detected.
In 1969 the launch of the first Lunokhod lunar rover mission failed, spreading polonium 210 over a large area of Russia.
The failure of the Apollo 13 mission in April 1970 meant that the Lunar Module reentered the atmosphere carrying an RTG and burned up over Fiji. It carried a SNAP-27 RTG containing of plutonium dioxide in a graphite cask on the lander leg which survived reentry into the Earth's atmosphere intact, as it was designed to do, the trajectory being arranged so that it would plunge into 6–9 kilometers of water in the Tonga trench in the Pacific Ocean. The absence of plutonium-238 contamination in atmospheric and seawater sampling confirmed the assumption that the cask is intact on the seabed. The cask is expected to contain the fuel for at least 10 half-lives (i.e. 870 years). The US Department of Energy has conducted seawater tests and determined that the graphite casing, which was designed to withstand reentry, is stable and no release of plutonium should occur. Subsequent investigations have found no increase in the natural background radiation in the area. The Apollo 13 accident represents an extreme scenario because of the high re-entry velocities of the craft returning from cis-lunar space (the region between Earth's atmosphere and the Moon). This accident has served to validate the design of later-generation RTGs as highly safe.
Mars 96 was launched by Russia in 1996, but failed to leave Earth orbit, and re-entered the atmosphere a few hours later. The two RTGs onboard carried in total 200 g of plutonium and are assumed to have survived reentry as they were designed to do. They are thought to now lie somewhere in a northeast–southwest running oval 320 km long by 80 km wide which is centred 32 km east of Iquique, Chile.
One RTG, the SNAP-19C, was lost near the top of Nanda Devi mountain in India in 1965 when it was stored in a rock formation near the top of the mountain in the face of a snowstorm before it could be installed to power a CIA remote automated station collecting telemetry from the Chinese rocket testing facility. The seven capsules were carried down the mountain onto a glacier by an avalanche and never recovered. It is most likely that they melted through the glacier and were pulverized, whereupon the 238plutonium zirconium alloy fuel oxidized soil particles that are moving in a plume under the glacier.
Many Beta-M RTGs produced by the Soviet Union to power lighthouses and beacons have become orphaned sources of radiation. Several of these units have been illegally dismantled for scrap metal (resulting in the complete exposure of the Sr-90 source), fallen into the ocean, or have defective shielding due to poor design or physical damage. The US Department of Defense cooperative threat reduction program has expressed concern that material from the Beta-M RTGs can be used by terrorists to construct a dirty bomb. However, the Strontium titanate perovskite used is resistant to all likely forms of environmental degradation and cannot melt or dissolve in water. Bioaccumulation is unlikely as SrTiO3 passes through the digestive tract of humans or other animals unchanged, but the animal or human who ingested it would still receive a significant radiation dose to the sensitive intestinal lining during passage. Mechanical degradation of "pebbles" or larger objects into fine dust is more likely and could disperse the material over a wider area, however this would also reduce the risk of any single exposure event resulting in a high dose.
Comparison with fission reactors
RTGs and fission reactors use very different nuclear reactions.
Nuclear power reactors (including the miniaturized ones used in space) perform controlled nuclear fission in a chain reaction. The rate of the reaction can be controlled with neutron absorbing control rods, so power can be varied with demand or shut off (almost) entirely for maintenance. However, care is needed to avoid uncontrolled operation at dangerously high power levels, or even explosion or nuclear meltdown.
Chain reactions do not occur in RTGs. Heat is produced through spontaneous radioactive decay at a non-adjustable and steadily decreasing rate that depends only on the amount of fuel isotope and its half-life. In an RTG, heat generation cannot be varied with demand or shut off when not needed and it is not possible to save more energy for later by reducing the power consumption. Therefore, auxiliary power supplies (such as rechargeable batteries) may be needed to meet peak demand, and adequate cooling must be provided at all times including the pre-launch and early flight phases of a space mission. While spectacular failures like a nuclear meltdown or explosion are impossible with an RTG, still there is a risk of radioactive contamination if the rocket explodes, or the device reenters the atmosphere and disintegrates.
Subcritical multiplicator RTG
Due to the shortage of plutonium-238, a new kind of RTG assisted by subcritical reactions has been proposed. In this kind of RTG, the alpha decay from the radioisotope is also used in alpha-neutron reactions with a suitable element such as beryllium. This way a long-lived neutron source is produced. Because the system is working with a criticality close to but less than 1, i.e. Keff < 1, a subcritical multiplication is achieved which increases the neutron background and produces energy from fission reactions. Although the number of fissions produced in the RTG is very small (making their gamma radiation negligible), because each fission reaction releases over 30 times more energy than each alpha decay (200 MeV compared to 6 MeV), up to a 10% energy gain is attainable, which translates into a reduction of the 238Pu needed per mission. The idea was proposed to NASA in 2012 for the yearly NASA NSPIRE competition, which translated to Idaho National Laboratory at the Center for Space Nuclear Research (CSNR) in 2013 for studies of feasibility. However the essentials are unmodified.
RTG for interstellar probes
RTG have been proposed for use on realistic interstellar precursor missions and interstellar probes. An example of this is the Innovative Interstellar Explorer (2003–current) proposal from NASA.
An RTG using 241Am was proposed for this type of mission in 2002. This could support mission extensions up to 1000 years on the interstellar probe, because the power output would decline more slowly over the long term than plutonium. Other isotopes for RTG were also examined in the study, looking at traits such as watt/gram, half-life, and decay products. An interstellar probe proposal from 1999 suggested using three advanced radioisotope power sources (ARPS).
The RTG electricity can be used for powering scientific instruments and communication to Earth on the probes. One mission proposed using the electricity to power ion engines, calling this method radioisotope electric propulsion (REP).
Electrostatic-boosted radioisotope heat sources
A power enhancement for radioisotope heat sources based on a self-induced electrostatic field has been proposed. According to the authors, enhancements of up to 10% could be attainable using beta sources.
Models
A typical RTG is powered by radioactive decay and features electricity from thermoelectric conversion, but for the sake of knowledge, some systems with some variations on that concept are included here.
Nuclear power systems in space
Known spacecraft/nuclear power systems and their fate. Systems face a variety of fates, for example, Apollo's SNAP-27 were left on the Moon. Some other spacecraft also have small radioisotope heaters, for example each of the Mars Exploration Rovers have a 1 watt radioisotope heater. Spacecraft use different amounts of material, for example MSL Curiosity has 4.8 kg of plutonium-238 dioxide, while the Cassini spacecraft had 32.7 kg.
** not really an RTG, the BES-5 Buk (БЭС-5) reactor was a fast breeder reactor which used thermocouples based on semiconductors to convert heat directly into electricity
*** not really an RTG, the SNAP-10A used enriched uranium fuel, zirconium hydride as a moderator, liquid sodium potassium alloy coolant, and was activated or deactivated with beryllium reflectors Reactor heat fed a thermoelectric conversion system for electrical production.
**** not really an RTG, the ASRG uses a Stirling power device that runs on radioisotope (see Stirling radioisotope generator)
Terrestrial
See also
References
Notes
Safety discussion of the RTGs used on the Cassini-Huygens mission.
Nuclear Power in Space (PDF)
Detailed report on Cassini RTG (PDF)
Detailed lecture on RTG fuels (PDF)
Detailed chart of all radioisotopes
Stirling Thermoelectic Generator
Toxicity profile for plutonium, Agency for Toxic substances and Disease Registry, U.S. Public Health Service, December 1990
Environmental Impact of Cassini-Huygens Mission.
Expanding Frontiers with Radioisotope Power Systems (PDF)
External links
NASA Radioisotope Power Systems website – RTG page
NASA JPL briefing, Expanding Frontiers with Radioisotope Power Systems – gives RTG information and a link to a longer presentation
SpaceViews: The Cassini RTG Debate
Stirling Radioisotope Generator
DOE contributions – good links
Idaho National Laboratory – Producer of RTGs
Idaho National Laboratory MMRTG page with photo-based "virtual tour"
Nuclear power in space
Nuclear technology
Electrical generators
Battery (electricity)
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] |
211488
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RTG
|
RTG
|
RTG may refer to:
RTG (trainset) (Rame à Turbine à Gaz), a French gas turbine trainset
RTG Turboliner, US import of the French trainset
Radeon Technologies Group, a division of AMD
Radio Télévision Guinéenne, Guinea
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
Regular tree grammar, a formal grammar
Renal threshold of glucose, level at which glucose is excreted in urine
Retargetable graphics, AmigaOS API
Royal Thai Government
Rubber tyred gantry crane
Frans Sales Lega Airport IATA code
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W.%20C.%20Fields
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W. C. Fields
|
William Claude Dukenfield (January 29, 1880 – December 25, 1946), better known as W. C. Fields, was an American comedian, actor, juggler, and writer. Fields's comic persona was a misanthropic and hard-drinking egotist who remained a sympathetic character despite his supposed contempt for children and dogs.
Overview
Fields's career in show business began in vaudeville, where he attained international success as a silent juggler. He began to incorporate comedy into his act and was a featured comedian in the Ziegfeld Follies for several years. He became a star in the Broadway musical comedy Poppy (1923), in which he played a colorful small-time con man. His subsequent stage and film roles were often similar scoundrels or henpecked everyman characters.
Among his trademarks were his raspy drawl and grandiloquent vocabulary. His film and radio persona was generally identified with Fields himself. It was maintained by the publicity departments at Fields's studios (Paramount and Universal) and was further established by Robert Lewis Taylor's biography, W. C. Fields, His Follies and Fortunes (1949). Beginning in 1973, with the publication of Fields's letters, photos, and personal notes in grandson Ronald Fields's book W. C. Fields by Himself, it was shown that Fields was first married (and subsequently estranged from his wife), financially supported their son and loved his grandchildren.
Early years
Fields was born William Claude Dukenfield in Darby, Pennsylvania, the oldest child of a working-class family. His father, James Lydon Dukenfield (1841–1913), was from an English family that emigrated from Sheffield, Yorkshire, England, in 1854. James Dukenfield served in Company M of the 72nd Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment in the American Civil War and was wounded in 1863. Fields's mother, Kate Spangler Felton (1854–1925), was a Protestant of British ancestry. The 1876 Philadelphia City Directory lists James Dukenfield as a clerk. After marrying, he worked as an independent produce merchant and a part-time hotel-keeper.
Claude Dukenfield (as he was known) had a volatile relationship with his short-tempered father. He ran away from home repeatedly, beginning at the age of nine, often to stay with his grandmother or an uncle. His education was sporadic, and did not progress beyond grade school. At age twelve, he worked with his father selling produce from a wagon, until the two had a fight that resulted in Fields running away once again. In 1893, he worked briefly at the Strawbridge and Clothier department store, and in an oyster house.
Fields later embellished stories of his childhood, depicting himself as a runaway who lived by his wits on the streets of Philadelphia from an early age, but his home life is believed to have been reasonably happy. He had already discovered in himself a facility for juggling, and a performance he witnessed at a local theater inspired him to dedicate substantial time to perfecting his juggling. At age 17, he was living with his family and performing a juggling act at church and theater shows.
In 1904 Fields's father visited him for two months in England while he was performing there in music halls. Fields enabled his father to retire, purchased him a summer home, and encouraged his parents and siblings to learn to read and write, so they could communicate with him by letter.
Entry into vaudeville
Inspired by the success of the "Original Tramp Juggler", James Edward Harrigan, Fields adopted a similar costume of scruffy beard and shabby tuxedo and entered vaudeville as a genteel "tramp juggler" in 1898, using the name W. C. Fields. His family supported his ambitions for the stage and saw him off on the train for his first stage tour. To conceal a stutter, Fields did not speak onstage. In 1900, seeking to distinguish himself from the many "tramp" acts in vaudeville, he changed his costume and makeup, and began touring as "The Eccentric Juggler". He manipulated cigar boxes, hats, and other objects in his act, parts of which are reproduced in some of his films, notably in the 1934 comedy The Old Fashioned Way.
By the early 1900s, while touring, he was regularly called the world's greatest juggler. He became a headliner in North America and Europe, and toured Australia and South Africa in 1903. When Fields played for English-speaking audiences, he found he could get more laughs by adding muttered patter and sarcastic asides to his routines. According to W. Buchanan-Taylor, a performer who saw Fields's performance in an English music hall, Fields would "reprimand a particular ball which had not come to his hand accurately", and "mutter weird and unintelligible expletives to his cigar when it missed his mouth".
Broadway
In 1905 Fields made his Broadway debut in a musical comedy, The Ham Tree. His role in the show required him to deliver lines of dialogue, which he had never before done onstage. He later said, "I wanted to become a real comedian, and there I was, ticketed and pigeonholed as merely a comedy juggler." In 1913 he performed on a bill with Sarah Bernhardt (who regarded Fields as "an artiste [who] could not fail to please the best class of audience") first at the New York Palace, and then in England in a royal performance for George V and Queen Mary. He continued touring in vaudeville until 1915.
Beginning in 1915, he appeared on Broadway in Florenz Ziegfeld's Ziegfeld Follies revue, delighting audiences with a wild billiards skit, complete with bizarrely shaped cues and a custom-built table used for a number of hilarious gags and surprising trick shots. His pool game is reproduced, in part, in some of his films, notably in Six of a Kind in 1934. The act was a success, and Fields starred in the Follies from 1916 to 1922, not as a juggler but as a comedian in ensemble sketches. In addition to many editions of the Follies, Fields starred in the 1923 Broadway musical comedy Poppy, wherein he perfected his persona as a colorful small-time con man. In 1928, he appeared in The Earl Carroll Vanities.
His stage costume from 1915 onward featured a top hat, cut-away coat and collar, and a cane. The costume had a remarkable similarity to that of the comic strip character Ally Sloper, who may have been the inspiration for Fields's costume, according to Roger Sabin. The Sloper character may in turn have been inspired by Dickens's Mr Micawber, whom Fields later played on film.
Films
Silent era and first talkies
In 1915, Fields starred in two short comedies, Pool Sharks and His Lordship's Dilemma, filmed at the French Gaumont Company's American studio in Flushing, New York. His stage commitments prevented him from doing more movie work until 1924, when he played a supporting role in Janice Meredith, a Revolutionary War romance starring Marion Davies. He reprised his Poppy role in a silent-film adaptation, retitled Sally of the Sawdust (1925) and directed by D. W. Griffith for Paramount Pictures. On the basis of his work in that film and Griffith's subsequent production That Royle Girl, Paramount offered Fields a contract to star in his own series of feature-length comedies. His next starring role was in It's the Old Army Game (1926), which featured his friend Louise Brooks, later a screen legend for her role in G. W. Pabst's Pandora's Box (1929) in Germany. Fields's 1926 film, which included a silent version of the porch sequence that would later be expanded in the sound film It's a Gift (1934), had only middling success at the box office. The following three films Fields made at Astoria, however, namelySo's Your Old Man (1926, remade as You're Telling Me! in 1934), The Potters (1927), and Running Wild (1927) were successes on an increasing scale and gained Fields a growing following as a silent comedian. Running Wild was the most successful of these, with a final cost of $179,000 and bringing in domestic rentals of $328,000 and another $92,000 from overseas. Rivalry between Paramount studio executives B. P. Schulberg on the West Coast and William Le Baron on the East Coast led to the closure of the New York studio and the centralization of Paramount production in Hollywood. Running Wild was the last silent film Paramount made at Astoria. When the filming completed on April 28, the remaining handful of personnel left on the lot were let go with two weeks' severance pay and the studio went idle. Fields went immediately to Hollywood, where Schulberg teamed him with Chester Conklin for two features and loaned him and Conklin out for an Al Christie-produced remake of Tillie's Punctured Romance for Paramount release. All of these were commercial failures and are now lost.
Fields wore a scruffy clip-on mustache in all of his silent films. According to the film historian William K. Everson, he perversely insisted on wearing the conspicuously fake-looking mustache because he knew it was disliked by audiences. Fields wore it in his first sound film, The Golf Specialist (1930)—a two-reeler that faithfully reproduces a sketch he had introduced in 1918 in the Follies—but gave up wearing a mustache after his first sound feature film, Her Majesty, Love (1931), his only Warner Bros. production and the only time he wore a more realistic mustache for a role.
At Paramount
In the sound era, Fields appeared in thirteen feature films for Paramount Pictures, beginning with Million Dollar Legs in 1932. In that year he also was featured in a sequence in the anthology film If I Had a Million. In 1932 and 1933, Fields made four short subjects for comedy pioneer Mack Sennett, distributed through Paramount Pictures. These shorts, adapted with few alterations from Fields's stage routines and written entirely by himself, were described by Simon Louvish as "the 'essence' of Fields". The first of them, The Dentist, is unusual in that Fields portrays an entirely unsympathetic character: he cheats at golf, assaults his caddy, and treats his patients with unbridled callousness. William K. Everson says that the cruelty of this comedy made it "hardly less funny", but that "Fields must have known that The Dentist presented a serious flaw for a comedy image that was intended to endure", and showed a somewhat warmer persona in his subsequent Sennett shorts. Nevertheless, the popular success of his next release, International House in 1933, established him as a major star. A shaky outtake from the production, allegedly the only film record of that year's Long Beach earthquake, was later revealed to have been faked as a publicity stunt for the movie.
Fields's 1934 classic It's a Gift includes another one of his earlier stage sketches, one in which he endeavors to escape his nagging family by sleeping on the back porch, where he is bedeviled by noisy neighbors and salesmen. That film, like You're Telling Me! and Man on the Flying Trapeze, ended happily with a windfall profit that restored his standing in his screen families. With those screen successes, Fields in 1935 was able to achieve a career ambition by playing the character Mr. Micawber in MGM's David Copperfield.
The strain of all this activity exacted a terrible physical toll on Fields's health. He fell ill with influenza and back trouble requiring round-the-clock nursing in late June 1935, and then was emotionally shattered by the sudden deaths of two of his closest friends, Will Rogers on August 15 and Sam Hardy on October 16. The combination of these events provoked a complete breakdown for Fields which laid him up for nine months. He was gingerly approached the next year to re-create his signature stage role in Poppy for Paramount Pictures; he accepted, but was very weak throughout the production and a double was often used in long shots. After filming was complete, his precarious health relapsed when he learned another close friend and screen partner, Tammany Young, had died in his sleep on April 26 at age 49. Losing three friends in less than a year sent Fields into a deep depression, plus he stopped eating, his back pain flared up, and his chronic lung congestion trouble returned with a vengeance, eventually turning into pneumonia. He would be in hospitals and sanitariums for various treatments until the summer of 1937.
In September 1937 Fields returned to Hollywood to "star" in Paramount's complicated musical variety anthology The Big Broadcast of 1938 while starring with Martha Raye, Dorothy Lamour and Bob Hope. In an unusual twist, Fields plays the roles of two nearly identical brothers (T. Frothingill Bellows and S. B. Bellow) and collaborated with several noted international musicians of the time including: Kirsten Flagstad (Norwegian opera soprano), Wilfred Pelletier (Canadian conductor of New York's Metropolitan Opera Orchestra), Tito Guizar (Mexican vocalist), Shep Fields (conducting his Rippling Rhythm Jazz Orchestra) and John Serry Sr. (Italian-American orchestral accordionist) The film received critical acclaim and earned an Oscar in 1939 for best music in an original song – Thanks for the Memory Fields, however, loathed working on the film and particularly detested the director, Mitchell Leisen, who felt the same way about Fields and thought him unfunny and difficult. ("He was the most obstinate, ornery son of a bitch I ever tried to work with," was Leisen's opinion.) The arguments between Fields and Leisen were so constant and intense during the five-month shoot that when the production concluded on November 15, 1937, Leisen went home and had a heart attack.
Fields versus "Nibblers"
Fields in the early years of his film career became highly protective of his intellectual properties that formed his acts and defined his on-screen persona. In burlesque, vaudeville, and in the rapidly expanding motion picture industry, many of his fellow performers and comedy writers often copied or "borrowed" sketches or portions of routines developed and presented by others. Not surprisingly, as Fields's popularity with audiences continued to rise after 1915, following his initial work in films, other entertainers started to adopt and integrate parts of his successful acts into their own performances. Fields in 1918 began to combat the thievery by registering his sketches and other comedy material with the Copyright Office of the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. Nevertheless, the pilfering continued and became so frequent by 1919 that he felt "compelled" to place a prominent warning that year in the June 13 issue of Variety, the most widely read trade paper at the time. Addressed to "Nibblers", more specifically to "indiscreet burlesque and picture players", Fields's notice occupies nearly half a page in Variety. In it, he cautions fellow performers that all of his "acts (and businesses therein) are protected by United States and International copyright", and stresses that he and his attorneys in New York and Chicago will "vigorously prosecute all offenders in the future". The concluding "W. C. Fields" was printed in such large letters that it dominated the two-page spread in the paper.
Fields continued personally and with legal counsel to protect his comedy material during the final decades of his career, especially with regard to that material's reuse in his films. For example, he copyrighted his original stage sketch "An Episode at the Dentist's" three times: in January 1919 and twice again in 1928, in July and August. Later, 13 years after its first copyright registration, that same sketch continued to serve Fields as a framework for developing his already noted short The Dentist. He also copyrighted his 1928 sketch "Stolen Bonds", which in 1933 was translated into scenes for his two-reel "black comedy" The Fatal Glass of Beer. Other examples of Fields's stage-to-film use of his copyrighted material is the previously discussed 1918 Follies sketch "An Episode on the Links" and its recycling in both his 1930 short The Golf Specialist and in his feature You're Telling Me! in 1934. "The Sleeping Porch" sketch that reappears as an extended segment in It's a Gift was copyrighted as well by Fields in 1928. A few more of his copyrighted creations include "An Episode of Lawn Tennis" (1918), "The Mountain Sweep Steaks" (1919), "The Pullman Sleeper" (1921), "Ten Thousand People Killed" (1925), and "The Midget Car" (1930). The total number of sketches created by Fields over the years, both copyrighted and uncopyrighted, remains undetermined. The number, however, may exceed 100. Of that body of work, Fields between 1918 and 1930 applied for and received 20 copyrights covering 16 of his most important sketches, the ones that Fields biographer Simon Louvish has described as the "bedrock" upon which the legendary comedian built his stage career and then prolonged that success through his films.
Personal life
Fields married a fellow vaudevillian, chorus girl Harriet "Hattie" Hughes (1879–1963), on April 8, 1900. She became part of Fields's stage act, appearing as his assistant, whom he would blame entertainingly when he missed a trick. Hattie was educated and tutored Fields in reading and writing during their travels. Under her influence, he became an enthusiastic reader and traveled with a trunk of books including grammar texts, translations of Homer and Ovid, and works by authors ranging from Shakespeare to Dickens to Twain and P. G. Wodehouse.
The couple had a son, William Claude Fields, Jr. (1904–1971) and although Fields was an atheist—who, according to James Curtis, "regarded all religions with the suspicion of a seasoned con man"—he yielded to Hattie's wish to have their son baptized.
By 1907, he and Hattie had separated; she had been pressing him to stop touring and settle into a respectable trade, but he was unwilling to give up show business. They never divorced. Until his death, Fields continued to correspond with Hattie (mostly through letters) and voluntarily sent her a weekly stipend. Their correspondence would at times be tense. Fields accused Hattie of turning their son against him and of demanding more money from him than he could afford.
While performing in New York City at the New Amsterdam Theater in 1916, Fields met Bessie Poole, an established Ziegfeld Follies performer whose beauty and quick wit attracted him, and they began a relationship. With her he had another son, named William Rexford Fields Morris (1917–2014). Neither Fields nor Poole wanted to abandon touring to raise the child, who was placed in foster care with a childless couple of Bessie's acquaintance. Fields's relationship with Poole lasted until 1926. In 1927, he made a negotiated payment to her of $20,000 upon her signing an affidavit declaring that "W. C. Fields is NOT the father of my child". Poole died of complications of alcoholism in October 1928, and Fields contributed to their son's support until he was 19 years of age.
Fields met Carlotta Monti (1907–1993) in 1933, and the two began a sporadic relationship that lasted until his death in 1946. Monti had small roles in two of Fields's films, and in 1971 wrote a memoir, W. C. Fields and Me, which was made into a motion picture at Universal Studios in 1976. Fields was listed in the 1940 census as single and living at 2015 DeMille Drive. (Cecil B. DeMille lived at 2000, the only other address on the street.)
Alcohol, dogs, and children
Fields's screen character often expressed a fondness for alcohol, a prominent component of the Fields legend. Fields never drank in his early career as a juggler because he wanted to be sober while performing. Eventually, the loneliness of constant travel prompted him to keep liquor in his dressing room as an inducement for fellow performers to socialize with him on the road. Only after he became a Follies star and abandoned juggling did Fields begin drinking regularly. His role in Paramount Pictures' International House (1933), as an aviator with an unquenchable taste for beer, did much to establish Fields's popular reputation as a prodigious drinker. Studio publicists promoted this image, as did Fields himself in press interviews.
Fields expressed his fondness for alcohol to Gloria Jean (playing his niece) in Never Give a Sucker an Even Break: "I was in love with a beautiful blonde once, dear. She drove me to drink. That's the one thing I am indebted to her for." Equally memorable was a line in the 1940 film My Little Chickadee: "Once, on a trek through Afghanistan, we lost our corkscrew ... and were compelled to live on food and water for several days." The oft-repeated anecdote that Fields refused to drink water "because fish fuck in it" is unsubstantiated.
On movie sets, Fields shot most of his scenes in varying states of inebriation. During the filming of Tales of Manhattan (1942), he kept a vacuum flask with him at all times and frequently availed himself of its contents. Phil Silvers, who had a minor supporting role in the scene featuring Fields, described in his memoir what happened next:
In a testimonial dinner for Fields in 1939, the humorist Leo Rosten remarked of the comedian that "any man who hates dogs and babies can't be all bad". The line—which Bartlett's Familiar Quotations later erroneously attributed to Fields himself—was widely quoted, and reinforced the popular perception that Fields hated children and dogs. In reality, Fields was somewhat indifferent to dogs, but occasionally owned one. He was fond of entertaining the children of friends who visited him, and doted on his first grandchild, Bill Fields III, born in 1943. He sent encouraging replies to all of the letters he received from boys who, inspired by his performance in The Old Fashioned Way, expressed an interest in juggling.
Illness and career sideline
In 1936, Fields's heavy drinking precipitated a significant decline in his health. By the following year he recovered sufficiently to make one last film for Paramount, The Big Broadcast of 1938, but his troublesome behavior discouraged other producers from hiring him. By 1938 he was chronically ill and suffering from delirium tremens.
Physically unable to work in films, Fields was off the screen for more than a year. During his absence, he recorded a brief speech for a radio broadcast. His familiar snide drawl registered so well with listeners that he quickly became a popular guest on network radio shows. Although his radio work was not as demanding as motion-picture production, Fields insisted on his established movie star salary of $5,000 per week. He joined ventriloquist Edgar Bergen and Bergen's dummy Charlie McCarthy on The Chase and Sanborn Hour for weekly insult-comedy routines.
Fields would twit Charlie about his being made of wood:
When Fields would refer to McCarthy as a "woodpecker's pin-up boy" or a "termite's flophouse", Charlie would fire back at Fields about his drinking:
Another exchange:
During his recovery from illness, Fields reconciled with his estranged wife and established a close relationship with his son after Claude's marriage in 1938.
Return to films
Fields's renewed popularity from his radio broadcasts with Bergen and McCarthy earned him a contract with Universal Pictures in 1939. His first feature for Universal, You Can't Cheat an Honest Man, carried on the Fields–McCarthy rivalry. In 1940 he made My Little Chickadee, co-starring with Mae West, and then The Bank Dick in which he has the following exchange with Shemp Howard, who plays a bartender:
Fields fought with studio producers, directors, and writers over the content of his films. He was determined to make a movie his way, with his own script and staging, and his choice of supporting players. Universal finally gave him the chance, and the resulting film, Never Give a Sucker an Even Break (1941), was a work of absurd humor in which Fields appeared as "The Great Man". Universal's then-popular singing star Gloria Jean played opposite Fields, and his cronies Leon Errol and Franklin Pangborn as his comic foils. Typically, the finished film was sufficiently surreal that Universal recut and reshot parts of it and ultimately released both the film and Fields. Sucker was Fields's last starring film.
Final years
Fields fraternized at his home with actors, directors and writers who shared his fondness for good company and good liquor. John Barrymore, Gene Fowler, and Gregory La Cava were among his close friends. On March 15, 1941, while Fields was out of town, Christopher Quinn, the two-year-old son of his neighbors, actor Anthony Quinn and his wife Katherine DeMille, drowned in a lily pond on Fields's property. Grief-stricken over the tragedy, he had the pond filled in.
Fields had a substantial library in his home. Although a staunch atheist—or perhaps because of it—he studied theology and collected books on the subject. According to a popular story (possibly apocryphal, according to biographer James Curtis), Fields told someone who caught him reading a Bible that he was "looking for loopholes".
In a 1994 episode of the Biography television series, Fields's 1941 co-star Gloria Jean recalled her conversations with Fields at his home. She described him as kind and gentle in personal interactions, and believed he yearned for the family environment he never experienced as a child.
During the 1940 presidential campaign, Fields authored a book, Fields for President, with humorous essays in the form of a campaign speech. Dodd, Mead and Company published it in 1940, with illustrations by Otto Soglow. In 1971, when Fields was seen as an anti-establishment figure, Dodd, Mead issued a reprint, illustrated with photographs of the author.
Fields's film career slowed considerably in the 1940s. His illnesses confined him to brief guest film appearances. An extended sequence in 20th Century Fox's Tales of Manhattan (1942) was cut from the original release of the film and later reinstated for some home video releases. The scene featured a temperance meeting with society people at the home of a wealthy society matron Margaret Dumont, in which Fields discovers that the punch has been spiked, resulting in drunken guests and a very happy Fields.
He enacted his billiard table routine for the final time for Follow the Boys, an all-star entertainment revue for the Armed Forces. (Despite the charitable nature of the movie, Fields was paid $15,000 for this appearance; he was never able to perform in person for the armed services.) In Song of the Open Road (1944), Fields juggled for a few moments and then remarked, "This used to be my racket." His last film, the musical revue Sensations of 1945, was released in late 1944. By then his vision and memory had deteriorated so much that he had to read his lines from large-print blackboards.
In 1944, Fields continued to make radio guest appearances, where script memorizations were unnecessary. A notable guest slot was with Frank Sinatra on Sinatra's CBS radio program on February 9, 1944.
Fields's last radio appearance was on March 24, 1946, on the Edgar Bergen and Charlie McCarthy Show on NBC. Just before his death that year, Fields recorded a spoken-word album, including his "Temperance Lecture" and "The Day I Drank a Glass of Water", at Les Paul's studio, where Paul had installed a new multi-track recorder. The session was arranged by one of his radio writers, Bill Morrow, and was Fields's last performance.
Listening to one of Paul's experimental multi-track recordings, Fields remarked, "The music you're making sounds like an octopus. Like a guy with a million hands. I've never heard anything like it." Paul was amused, and named his new machine OCT, short for octopus.
Death
Fields spent the last 22 months of his life at the Las Encinas Sanatorium in Pasadena, California. In 1946, on Christmas Day—the holiday he said he despised—he had a massive gastric hemorrhage and died, aged 66. Carlotta Monti wrote that in his final moments, she used a garden hose to spray water onto the roof over his bedroom to simulate his favorite sound, falling rain. According to a 2004 documentary, he winked and smiled at a nurse, put a finger to his lips, and died. This poignant depiction is uncorroborated and "unlikely", according to biographer James Curtis. Fields's funeral took place on January 2, 1947, in Glendale, California.
His cremation, as directed in his will, was delayed pending resolution of an objection filed by Hattie and Claude Fields on religious grounds. They also contested a clause leaving a portion of his estate to establish a "W. C. Fields College for Orphan White Boys and Girls, where no religion of any sort is to be preached". After a lengthy period of litigation, his remains were cremated on June 2, 1949, and his ashes interred at the Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale.
Gravestone
A popular bit of Fields folklore maintains that his grave marker is inscribed, "I'd rather be in Philadelphia"—or a close variant thereof. The legend originated from a mock epitaph written by Fields for a 1925 Vanity Fair article: "Here Lies / W. C. Fields / I Would Rather Be Living in Philadelphia". In reality, his interment marker bears only his stage name and the years of his birth and death.
Comic persona and style
He often played a "bumbling hero". In 1937, in an article in Motion Picture magazine, Fields analyzed the characters he played:
You've heard the old legend that it's the little put-upon guy who gets the laughs, but I'm the most belligerent guy on the screen. I'm going to kill everybody. But, at the same time, I'm afraid of everybody—just a great big frightened bully . ... I was the first comic in world history, so they told me, to pick fights with children. I booted Baby LeRoy ... then, in another picture, I kicked a little dog . ... But I got sympathy both times. People didn't know what the unmanageable baby might do to get even, and they thought the dog might bite me.
In features such as It's a Gift and Man on the Flying Trapeze, he is reported to have written or improvised more or less all of his own dialogue and material, leaving story structure to other writers. He frequently incorporated his stage sketches into his films—e.g., the "Back Porch" scene he wrote for the Follies of 1925 was filmed in It's the Old Army Game (1926) and It's a Gift (1934); the golf sketch he performed in the lost film His Lordship's Dilemma (1915) was re-used in the Follies of 1918, and in the films So's Your Old Man (1926), The Golf Specialist (1930), The Dentist (1932), and You're Telling Me (1934).
Fields's most familiar characteristics included a distinctive drawl, which was not his normal speaking voice. His manner of muttering deprecatory asides was copied from his mother, who in Fields's childhood often mumbled sly comments about neighbors who passed by. He delighted in provoking the censors with double entendres and the near-profanities "Godfrey Daniels" and "mother of pearl". A favorite bit of "business", repeated in many of his films, involved his hat going astray—either caught on the end of his cane, or simply facing the wrong way—as he attempts to put it onto his head.
In several of his films, he played hustlers, carnival barkers, and card sharps, spinning yarns and distracting his marks. In others, he cast himself as a victim: a bumbling everyman husband and father whose family does not appreciate him.
Fields often reproduced elements of his own family life in his films. By the time he entered motion pictures, his relationship with his estranged wife had become acrimonious, and he believed she had turned their son Claude—whom he seldom saw—against him. James Curtis says of Man on the Flying Trapeze that the "disapproving mother-in-law, Mrs. Neselrode, was clearly patterned after his wife, Hattie, and the unemployable mama's boy played by [Grady] Sutton was deliberately named Claude. Fields hadn't laid eyes on his family in nearly twenty years, and yet the painful memories lingered."
Unusual names
Although lacking formal education, Fields was well read and a lifelong admirer of author Charles Dickens, whose characters' unusual names inspired Fields to collect odd names he encountered in his travels, to be used for his characters. Some examples are:
"The Great McGonigle" (The Old-Fashioned Way);
"Ambrose Wolfinger" [pointing toward "Wolf-whistling"] (Man on the Flying Trapeze);
"Larson E. [read "Larceny"] Whipsnade", the surname taken from a dog track Fields had seen outside London (You Can't Cheat an Honest Man),
"Egbert Sousé" [pronounced 'soo-ZAY', but pointing toward "souse", a synonym for a drunk] (The Bank Dick, 1940).
Fields often contributed to the scripts of his films under unusual pseudonyms. They include the seemingly prosaic "Charles Bogle", credited in four of his films in the 1930s; "Otis Criblecoblis", which contains an embedded homophone for "scribble"; and "Mahatma Kane Jeeves", a play on Mahatma and a phrase an aristocrat might use when about to leave the house: "My hat, my cane, Jeeves".
Supporting players
Fields had a small cadre of supporting players that he employed in several films:
Elise Cavanna, whose onscreen interplay with Fields was compared (by William K. Everson) to that between Groucho Marx and Margaret Dumont
Jan Duggan, an old-maid character (actually about Fields's age). It was of her character that Fields said in The Old Fashioned Way, "She's all dressed up like a well-kept grave."
Kathleen Howard, as a nagging wife or antagonist
Baby LeRoy, as a preschool child fond of playing pranks on Fields's characters
Franklin Pangborn, a fussy, ubiquitous character actor who played in several Fields films, most memorably as J. Pinkerton Snoopington in The Bank Dick
Alison Skipworth, as his wife (although 16 years his senior), usually in a supportive role rather than the stereotypical nag
Grady Sutton, typically a country bumpkin type, as a foil or an antagonist to Fields's character
Bill Wolfe, as a gaunt-looking character, usually a Fields foil
Tammany Young, as a dim-witted, unintentionally harmful assistant, who appeared in seven Fields films until his sudden death from heart failure in 1936
Unrealized film projects
W. C. Fields was (with Ed Wynn) one of the two original choices for the title role in the 1939 version of The Wizard of Oz. Fields was enthusiastic about the role, but ultimately withdrew his name from consideration so he could devote his time to writing You Can't Cheat an Honest Man.
Fields figured in an Orson Welles project. Welles's bosses at RKO Radio Pictures, after losing money on Citizen Kane, urged Welles to choose as his next film a subject with more commercial appeal. Welles considered an adaptation of Charles Dickens' The Pickwick Papers which would have starred Fields, but the project was shelved, partly because of contract difficulties, and Welles went on to adapt The Magnificent Ambersons.
During the early planning for his film It's a Wonderful Life, director Frank Capra considered Fields for the role of Uncle Billy, which eventually went to Thomas Mitchell.
Influence and legacy
A best-selling biography of Fields published three years after his death, W. C. Fields, His Follies and Fortunes by Robert Lewis Taylor, was instrumental in popularizing the idea that Fields's real-life character matched his screen persona. In 1973, the comedian's grandson, Ronald J. Fields, published the first book to challenge this idea significantly, W. C. Fields by Himself, His Intended Autobiography, a compilation of material from private scrapbooks and letters found in the home of Hattie Fields after her death in 1963.
According to Woody Allen (in a New York Times interview from January 30, 2000), Fields is one of six "genuine comic geniuses" he recognized as such in movie history, along with Charlie Chaplin, Buster Keaton, Groucho and Harpo Marx, and Peter Sellers.
The Surrealists loved Fields's absurdism and anarchistic pranks. Max Ernst painted a Project for a Monument to W. C. Fields (1957), and René Magritte made a Homage to Mack Sennett (1934).
Fields is one of the figures that appears in the crowd scene on the cover of The Beatles' 1967 album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. The Firesign Theatre titled the second track of their 1968 album Waiting for the Electrician or Someone Like Him "W. C. Fields Forever", as a pun referring to the Beatles song "Strawberry Fields Forever".
The United States Postal Service issued a commemorative stamp on the comedian's 100th birthday, in January 1980.
There is a poster of Fields on the wall of Sam's bedroom on the TV show Freaks and Geeks.
Caricatures and imitations
The character Horatio K. Boomer in the Fibber McGee and Molly radio show had a persona and delivery very much like the characters portrayed by Fields.
A caricature of Fields appears in the Lucky Luke comic book album Western Circus and again in the animated feature Lucky Luke: The Ballad of the Daltons.
Cartoonist Al Hirschfeld portrayed Fields in caricature many times, including the book cover illustrations for Drat!, A Flask of Fields, and Godfrey Daniels! – all edited by Richard J. Anobile.
The TV show Gigglesnort Hotel featured a puppet character named "W. C. Cornfield" who resembled Fields in appearance and voice.
Impressionist Rich Little often imitated Fields on his TV series The Kopycats, and he used a Fields characterization for the Ebenezer Scrooge character in his HBO special Rich Little's Christmas Carol (1978), a one-man presentation of A Christmas Carol.
A 1960s Canadian cartoon series for kids Tales of the Wizard of Oz featured a Wizard with a voice imitation of Fields, a nod to the real-life choice of Fields to play the Wizard in the 1939 film classic opposite Judy Garland.
Fields is among the many celebrities caricatured in the 1936 Merrie Melodies short The Coo-Coo Nut Grove.
Fields is seen sitting on the spectators' bench in the Disney cartoon Mickey's Polo Team (1936).
He appears as W. C. Fieldmouse in the Merrie Melodies short The Woods Are Full of Cuckoos (1937).
In the 1938 Silly Symphonies cartoon Mother Goose Goes Hollywood Fields is caricatured as Humpty Dumpty, in reference to his role in the live-action film Alice in Wonderland (1933).
One episode of The Flintstones featured a tramp who gets old clothes belonging to Fred from his wife Wilma, then when Fred attempts to take back a coat, is trounced with the tramp's cane. The tramp has Fields's voice and persona.
The Firesign Theatre used Philip Proctor's voice impersonation of Fields for two characters on their albums Waiting for the Electrician or Someone Like Him and How Can You Be in Two Places at Once When You're Not Anywhere at All.
The Wizard of Id comic strip contains a shady lawyer character, a Fields caricature named "Larsen E. Pettifogger".
In the second series of the TV drama Gangsters a character named the White Devil is introduced, who styles himself W.D. Fields, affecting the vocal mannerisms and appearance of Fields to confuse and confound his enemies. Played by series writer Philip Martin, he himself is credited in the final episode as "Larson E. Whipsnade" after Fields's character in You Can't Cheat an Honest Man.
Paul Frees adapted a Fields comic routine for the animated TV special The Mad, Mad, Mad Comedians in 1970.
Actor Bob Leeman portrayed Fields in the 1991 movie The Rocketeer.
In 1971 Frito-Lay replaced the Frito Bandito TV ad campaign with one featuring W. C. Fritos, a round, top-hat wearing character modeled on the movie persona of Fields. Also, circa 1970 Sunkist Growers produced a series of animated TV ads featuring the "Sunkist Monster", whose voice was an impression of Fields performed by Paul Frees.
Canadian actor Andrew Chapman played Fields in a vaudeville-themed episode of "Murdoch Mysteries" in season 8, titled "The Keystone Constables".
Comedian Mark Proksch impersonates Fields in a number of On Cinema episodes, beginning with the series' Second Annual Oscar Special and continuing through a majority of the seasons.
Filmography
Information for this filmography is derived from the book, W. C. Fields: A Life on Film, by Ronald J. Fields. All films are feature length except where noted.
References
Further reading
Articles
"The Man Who Juggles", The New York Star (December 19, 1908)
"At the Ziegfeld Follies: Various Entertainers in the Big Show, as Seen by the THEATRE MAGAZINE'S Artist", Theatre Magazine (October 1921)
"Funnyman W. C. Fields Has His Own Way of Keeping Himself Fit", Life (May 12, 1941), pp. 104–106, 109
"W. C. Fields: The red-nosed, raspy-voiced funnyman, who never gave a sucker an even break, dies on Christmas Day", Life (January 6, 1947), pp. 63–64, 66
Jan Kindler, "Elysian Fields", Playboy (March 1969)
Books
W. C. Fields, Fields for President (1940, 1971) Dodd, Mead . (Humorous essays about Fields's stance on marriage, politics, finance, etc.)
Robert Lewis Taylor, W. C. Fields: His Follies and Fortunes (1949) Doubleday & Co., (1967) New American Library . (First book biography, with many firsthand quotes from friends and colleagues)
Gene Fowler, Minutes of the Last Meeting (1954) Viking Press
Eddie Cantor, As I Remember Them (1963) Duell, Sloan & Pearce
Donald Deschner (ed.), The Films of W. C. Fields (1966, 2000) Citadel Press
Corey Ford, "The One and Only W. C. Fields" from The Time of Laughter (1967) Little, Brown
William K. Everson, The Art of W. C. Fields (1967) Random House . (First book-length examination of the Fields films)
Richard J. Anobile (ed.), Drat!: Being the Encapsulated View of Life by W. C. Fields in His Own Words (1968) World Publishing
David Robinson, The Great Funnies: A History of Film Comedy (1969) E.P. Dutton
Bosley Crowther, "W. C. Fields Comedy Festival" from New York Times Film Reviews, 1959–1968 (1970) Arno Press
Andre Sennwald, capsule reviews from New York Times Film Reviews, 1932–1938 (1970) Arno Press
Raymond Durgnat, "Suckers and Soaks" from The Crazy Mirror: Hollywood Comedy and the American Image (1970) Dell Publishing
Andrew Bergman, "Some Anarcho-Nihilist Laff Riots" from We're in the Money: Depression America and Its Films (1971) New York University Press
Otis Ferguson, "The Great McGonigle" from The Film Criticism of Otis Ferguson (1971) Temple University Press
Carlotta Monti (with Cy Rice), W. C. Fields and Me (1971) Prentice-Hall, . (basis of the 1976 film starring Rod Steiger)
Richard J, Anobile (ed.), A Flask of Fields: Verbal and Visual Gems from the Films of W. C. Fields (1972) W.W. Norton
Leonard Maltin, Selected Short Subjects (first published as The Great Movie Shorts, 1972) Crown Publishers, (revised 1983) Da Capo Press
Ronald J. Fields (ed.), W. C. Fields by Himself: His Intended Autobiography with Hitherto Unpublished Letters, Notes, Scripts and Articles (1973) Prentice-Hall .
W. C. Fields (with Charles Grayson), The Bank Dick (1973) Simon & Schuster (the August 22, 1940 screenplay)
W. C. Fields (with John T. Neville, et al.), Never Give a Sucker an Even Break (Rupert Hughes, et al.) Tillie and Gus (1973) Simon & Schuster (Continuity scripts derived from these films)
Penelope Gilliatt, "To W. C. Fields, Dyspeptic Mumbler, Who Invented His Own Way Out" from Unholy Fools: Wits, Comics, Disturbers of the Peace (1973) Viking Press
Gerald Mast, The Comic Mind: Comedy and the Movies (1973, 2nd ed. 1979) University of Chicago Press
Donald W. McCaffrey, "The Latter-Day Falstaff" from The Golden Age of Sound Comedy (1973) A.S. Barnes
Nicholas Yanni, W. C. Fields (1974) Pyramid Library
Richard J. Anobile (ed.), Godfrey Daniels!: Verbal and Visual Gems from the Short Films of W. C. Fields (1975) Crown
Walter Kerr, The Silent Clowns (1975) Alfred A. Knopf, (1990) Da Capo Press
Stuart Byron and Elizabeth Weis (eds.), The National Society of Film Critics on Movie Comedy (1977) Grossman/Viking
Leonard Maltin, The Great Movie Comedians (1978) Crown
Will Fowler, The Second Handshake (1980) Lyle Stuart
Louise Brooks, "The Other Face of W. C. Fields" from Lulu in Hollywood (1982) Alfred A. Knopf
Ronald J. Fields, W. C. Fields: A Life on Film (1984) St. Martin's Press
Wes D. Gehring, W. C. Fields: A Bio-Bibliography (1984) Greenwood Press
Gerald Weales, Canned Goods as Caviar: American Film Comedy of the 1930s (1985) University of Chicago Press
David T. Rocks, W. C. Fields: An Annotated Guide (1993) McFarland & Co.
Wes D. Gehring, Groucho and W. C. Fields: Huckster Comedians (1994) University Press of Mississippi
Simon Louvish, It's a Gift (1994) British Film Institute
Simon Louvish, Man on the Flying Trapeze: The Life and Times of W. C. Fields (1999) Faber & Faber . (New biography with new research)
Ronald J. Fields with Shaun O'L. Higgins, Never Give a Sucker an Even Break: W. C. Fields on Business (2000) Prentice-Hall
James Curtis, W. C. Fields: A Biography (2003) Alfred A. Knopf . (The definitive, comprehensive biography, with many "apocryphal" stories from previous bios corrected)
Scott MacGillivray and Jan MacGillivray, Gloria Jean: A Little Bit of Heaven (2005) iUniverse . (Authorized biography with recollections of Fields at work)
Wes D. Gehring, Film Clowns of the Depression (2007) McFarland & Co.
Gregory William Mank (et al.), Hollywood's Hellfire Club (2007) Feral House
Arthur Frank Wertheim. W. C. Fields from Burlesque and Vaudeville to Broadway: Becoming a Comedian (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014). xxvi, 264 pp.
James L. Neibaur, The W. C. Fields Films (2017) McFarland and Co.
External links
Official fan club
Criterion Collection essay by Dennis Perrin on W. C. Fields: Six Short Films
Bibliography
W. C. Fields's first show for the Chase And Sanborn Hour 1937-05-09 (01) Guest – Ann Harding
1880 births
1946 deaths
20th-century American male actors
20th-century atheists
People from Darby, Pennsylvania
Male actors from New Rochelle, New York
Male actors from Philadelphia
Alcohol-related deaths in California
American male comedians
American male comedy actors
20th-century American comedians
American male radio actors
American male film actors
American male silent film actors
American people of English descent
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)
Jugglers
Trick shot artists
Vaudeville performers
Paramount Pictures contract players
Ziegfeld Follies
Silent film comedians
Pseudonymous writers
Universal Pictures contract players
Members of The Lambs Club
|
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