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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret%20de%20Clare
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Margaret de Clare
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Margaret de Clare, Countess of Gloucester, Countess of Cornwall (12 October 1293 – 9 April 1342) was an English noblewoman, heiress, and the second-eldest of the three daughters of Gilbert de Clare, 6th Earl of Hertford and his wife Joan of Acre, making her a granddaughter of King Edward I of England. Her two husbands were Piers Gaveston and Hugh de Audley, 1st Earl of Gloucester.
Marriage to Piers Gaveston
She was married to Piers Gaveston, the favourite of her uncle Edward II on 1 November 1307. At the time of her marriage, she was 14 years of age. According to the Vita Edwardi Secundi, this marriage was arranged by the King "to strengthen Piers and surround him with friends". Piers Gaveston celebrated the marriage with a lavish tournament at Wallingford Castle. The marriage of such a high-born heiress to a foreigner did not please the English nobility and engendered a great deal of unpopularity. Their daughter, Joan Gaveston, was born on 12 January 1312 in York. It is alleged that they had another child named Amy Gaveston born around 1310, but there is little evidence outside of hearsay to validate this claim. There are also claims that Amy was born to a mistress of Piers Gaveston. However, the evidence is circumstantial and the official records only list Joan Gaveston as born to Piers Gaveston and Margaret de Clare.
King Edward arranged a lavish celebration after the birth of this little girl, complete with minstrels. However, Piers Gaveston was executed only six months later, leaving Margaret a widow with a small child. Her dower rights as Countess of Cornwall were disputed, and so King Edward instead assigned her Oakham Castle and other lands. She joined the royal household, and accompanied the King in his journey from London to York in 1316.
Inheritance and second marriage
Following the death of their brother, Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Hertford, at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, Margaret and her sisters, Elizabeth and Eleanor de Clare received a share of the inheritance. Margaret was now one of the co-heiresses to the vast Gloucester estate, and King Edward arranged a second marriage for her to another favourite, Hugh de Audley, 1st Earl of Gloucester. She was High Sheriff of Rutland from 1313 to 1319. On 28 April 1317, Margaret de Clare wed Hugh de Audley, 1st Earl of Gloucester at Windsor Castle. They had one daughter: Margaret de Audley, born between January 1318 and November 1320.
Despenser War
Hugh and Margaret were among the victims of their brother-in-law, Hugh the younger Despenser. In his rashness and greed for the Clare lands, he robbed Margaret of much of her rightful inheritance. In 1321, Hugh de Audley joined the other Marcher Barons in looting, burning, and causing general devastation to Despenser's lands which subsequently became the Despenser War. Hugh was captured at the Battle of Boroughbridge in 1322, and was saved from a hanging thanks to the pleas of his wife. He was imprisoned, and two months later Margaret was sent to Sempringham Priory in Lincolnshire. She remained there until 1326, when Hugh escaped prison and she was released from Sempringham.
Countess of Gloucester
Hugh and Margaret were reunited sometime in 1326. In summer 1336, their only daughter, Margaret Audley, was abducted by Ralph Stafford, 1st Earl of Stafford. Her parents filed a complaint, but King Edward III of England supported Stafford. He appeased Hugh and Margaret by creating Hugh Earl of Gloucester. Margaret was henceforth styled Countess of Gloucester.
Death
Margaret died on 9 April 1342, and her sister Lady Elizabeth de Clare paid for prayers to be said for her soul at Tonbridge Priory in Kent, England, where she was buried.
Ancestry
References
Sources
Calendar Rolls
Fine Rolls
Patent Rolls
1293 births
1342 deaths
Daughters of British earls
Cornwall
13th-century English people
13th-century English women
14th-century English people
14th-century English women
High Sheriffs of Rutland
Margaret
Burials at Tonbridge Priory, Kent
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric%20primitive
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Geometric primitive
|
In vector computer graphics, CAD systems, and geographic information systems, geometric primitive (or prim) is the simplest (i.e. 'atomic' or irreducible) geometric shape that the system can handle (draw, store). Sometimes the subroutines that draw the corresponding objects are called "geometric primitives" as well. The most "primitive" primitives are point and straight line segment, which were all that early vector graphics systems had.
In constructive solid geometry, primitives are simple geometric shapes such as a cube, cylinder, sphere, cone, pyramid, torus.
Modern 2D computer graphics systems may operate with primitives which are lines (segments of straight lines, circles and more complicated curves), as well as shapes (boxes, arbitrary polygons, circles).
A common set of two-dimensional primitives includes lines, points, and polygons, although some people prefer to consider triangles primitives, because every polygon can be constructed from triangles. All other graphic elements are built up from these primitives. In three dimensions, triangles or polygons positioned in three-dimensional space can be used as primitives to model more complex 3D forms. In some cases, curves (such as Bézier curves, circles, etc.) may be considered primitives; in other cases, curves are complex forms created from many straight, primitive shapes.
Common primitives
The set of geometric primitives is based on the dimension of the region being represented:
Point (0-dimensional), a single location with no height, width, or depth.
Line or curve (1-dimensional), having length but no width, although a linear feature may curve through a higher-dimensional space.
Planar surface or curved surface (2-dimensional), having length and width.
Volumetric region or solid (3-dimensional), having length, width, and depth.
In GIS, the terrain surface is often spoken of colloquially as "2 1/2 dimensional," because only the upper surface needs to be represented. Thus, elevation can be conceptualized as a scalar field property or function of two-dimensional space, affording it a number of data modeling efficiencies over true 3-dimensional objects.
A shape of any of these dimensions greater than zero consists of an infinite number of distinct points. Because digital systems are finite, only a sample set of the points in a shape can be stored. Thus, vector data structures typically represent geometric primitives using a strategic sample, organized in structures that facilitate the software interpolating the remainder of the shape at the time of analysis or display, using the algorithms of Computational geometry.
A Point is a single coordinate in a Cartesian coordinate system. Some data models allow for Multipoint features consisting of several disconnected points.
A Polygonal chain or Polyline is an ordered list of points (termed vertices in this context). The software is expected to interpolate the intervening shape of the line between adjacent points in the list as a parametric curve, most commonly a straight line, but other types of curves are frequently available, including circular arcs, cubic splines, and Bézier curves. Some of these curves require additional points to be defined that are not on the line itself, but are used for parametric control.
A Polygon is a polyline that closes at its endpoints, representing the boundary of a two-dimensional region. The software is expected to use this boundary to partition 2-dimensional space into an interior and exterior. Some data models allow for a single feature to consist of multiple polylines, which could collectively connect to form a single closed boundary, could represent a set of disjoint regions (e.g., the state of Hawaii), or could represent a region with holes (e.g., a lake with an island).
A Parametric shape is a standardized two-dimensional or three-dimensional shape defined by a minimal set of parameters, such as an ellipse defined by two points at its foci, or three points at its center, vertex, and co-vertex.
A Polyhedron or Polygon mesh is a set of polygon faces in three-dimensional space that are connected at their edges to completely enclose a volumetric region. In some applications, closure may not be required or may be implied, such as modeling terrain. The software is expected to use this surface to partition 3-dimensional space into an interior and exterior. A triangle mesh is a subtype of polyhedron in which all faces must be triangles, the only polygon that will always be planar, including the Triangulated irregular network (TIN) commonly used in GIS.
A parametric mesh represents a three-dimensional surface by a connected set of parametric functions, similar to a spline or Bézier curve in two dimensions. The most common structure is the Non-uniform rational B-spline (NURBS), supported by most CAD and animation software.
Application in GIS
A wide variety of vector data structures and formats have been developed during the history of Geographic information systems, but they share a fundamental basis of storing a core set of geometric primitives to represent the location and extent of geographic phenomena. Locations of points are almost always measured within a standard Earth-based coordinate system, whether the spherical Geographic coordinate system (latitude/longitude), or a planar coordinate system, such as the Universal Transverse Mercator. They also share the need to store a set of attributes of each geographic feature alongside its shape; traditionally, this has been accomplished using the data models, data formats, and even software of relational databases.
Early vector formats, such as POLYVRT, the ARC/INFO Coverage, and the Esri shapefile support a basic set of geometric primitives: points, polylines, and polygons, only in two dimensional space and the latter two with only straight line interpolation. TIN data structures for representing terrain surfaces as triangle meshes were also added. Since the mid 1990s, new formats have been developed that extend the range of available primitives, generally standardized by the Open Geospatial Consortium's Simple Features specification. Common geometric primitive extensions include: three-dimensional coordinates for points, lines, and polygons; a fourth "dimension" to represent a measured attribute or time; curved segments in lines and polygons; text annotation as a form of geometry; and polygon meshes for three-dimensional objects.
Frequently, a representation of the shape of a real-world phenomenon may have a different (usually lower) dimension than the phenomenon being represented. For example, a city (a two-dimensional region) may be represented as a point, or a road (a three-dimensional volume of material) may be represented as a line. This dimensional generalization correlates with tendencies in spatial cognition. For example, asking the distance between two cities presumes a conceptual model of the cities as points, while giving directions involving travel "up," "down," or "along" a road imply a one-dimensional conceptual model. This is frequently done for purposes of data efficiency, visual simplicity, or cognitive efficiency, and is acceptable if the distinction between the representation and the represented is understood, but can cause confusion if information users assume that the digital shape is a perfect representation of reality (i.e., believing that roads really are lines).
In 3D modelling
In CAD software or 3D modelling, the interface may present the user with the ability to create primitives which may be further modified by edits. For example, in the practice of box modelling the user will start with a cuboid, then use extrusion and other operations to create the model. In this use the primitive is just a convenient starting point, rather than the fundamental unit of modelling.
A 3D package may also include a list of extended primitives which are more complex shapes that come with the package. For example, a teapot is listed as a primitive in 3D Studio Max.
In graphics hardware
Various graphics accelerators exist with hardware acceleration for rendering specific primitives such as lines or triangles, frequently with texture mapping and shaders. Modern 3D accelerators typically accept sequences of triangles as triangle strips.
See also
2D geometric model
Sculpted prim
References
External links
Peachpit.com Info On 3D Primitives
Computer graphics
Geometric algorithms
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212101
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse%20sky%20radiation
|
Diffuse sky radiation
|
Diffuse sky radiation is solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface after having been scattered from the direct solar beam by molecules or particulates in the atmosphere. Also called sky radiation, the determinative process for changing the colors of the sky. Approximately 23% of direct incident radiation of total sunlight is removed from the direct solar beam by scattering into the atmosphere; of this amount (of incident radiation) about two-thirds ultimately reaches the earth as photon diffused skylight radiation.
The dominant radiative scattering processes in the atmosphere are Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering; they are elastic, meaning that a photon of light can be deviated from its path without being absorbed and without changing wavelength.
Under an overcast sky, there is no direct sunlight, and all light results from diffused skylight radiation.
Proceeding from analyses of the aftermath of the eruption of the Philippines volcano Mount Pinatubo (in June 1991) and other studies: Diffused skylight, owing to its intrinsic structure and behavior, can illuminate under-canopy leaves, permitting more efficient total whole-plant photosynthesis than would otherwise be the case; this in stark contrast to the effect of totally clear skies with direct sunlight that casts shadows onto understory leaves and thereby limits plant photosynthesis to the top canopy layer, (see below).
Color
Earth's atmosphere scatters short-wavelength light more efficiently than that of longer wavelengths. Because its wavelengths are shorter, blue light is more strongly scattered than the longer-wavelength lights, red or green. Hence, the result that when looking at the sky away from the direct incident sunlight, the human eye perceives the sky to be blue. The color perceived is similar to that presented by a monochromatic blue (at wavelength ) mixed with white light, that is, an unsaturated blue light. The explanation of blue color by Rayleigh in 1871 is a famous example of applying dimensional analysis to solving problems in physics; (see top figure).
Scattering and absorption are major causes of the attenuation of sunlight radiation by the atmosphere. Scattering varies as a function of the ratio of particle diameters (of particulates in the atmosphere) to the wavelength of the incident radiation. When this ratio is less than about one-tenth, Rayleigh scattering occurs. (In this case, the scattering coefficient varies inversely with the fourth power of the wavelength. At larger ratios scattering varies in a more complex fashion, as described for spherical particles by the Mie theory.) The laws of geometric optics begin to apply at higher ratios.
Daily at any global venue experiencing sunrise or sunset, most of the solar beam of visible sunlight arrives nearly tangentially to Earth's surface. Here, the path of sunlight through the atmosphere is elongated such that much of the blue or green light is scattered away from the line of perceivable visible light. This phenomenon leaves the Sun's rays, and the clouds they illuminate, abundantly orange-to-red in colors, which one sees when looking at a sunset or sunrise.
For the example of the Sun at zenith, in broad daylight, the sky is blue due to Rayleigh scattering, which also involves the diatomic gases and . Near sunset and especially during twilight, absorption by ozone () significantly contributes to maintaining blue color in the evening sky.
Under an overcast sky
There is essentially no direct sunlight under an overcast sky, so all light is then diffuse sky radiation. The flux of light is not very wavelength-dependent because the cloud droplets are larger than the light's wavelength and scatter all colors approximately equally. The light passes through the translucent clouds in a manner similar to frosted glass. The intensity ranges (roughly) from of direct sunlight for relatively thin clouds down to of direct sunlight under the extreme of thickest storm clouds.
As a part of total radiation
One of the equations for total solar radiation is:
where Hb is the beam radiation irradiance, Rb is the tilt factor for beam radiation, Hd is the diffuse radiation irradiance, Rd is the tilt factor for diffuse radiation and Rr is the tilt factor for reflected radiation.
Rb is given by:
where δ is the solar declination, Φ is the latitude, β is an angle from the horizontal and h is the solar hour angle.
Rd is given by:
and Rr by:
where ρ is the reflectivity of the surface.
Agriculture and the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo
The eruption of the Philippines volcano - Mount Pinatubo in June 1991 ejected roughly of magma and "17,000,000 metric tons"(17 teragrams) of sulfur dioxide SO2 into the air, introducing ten times as much total SO2 as the 1991 Kuwaiti fires, mostly during the explosive Plinian/Ultra-Plinian event of June 15, 1991, creating a global stratospheric SO2 haze layer which persisted for years. This resulted in the global average temperature dropping by about . Since volcanic ash falls out of the atmosphere rapidly, the negative agricultural effects of the eruption were largely immediate and localized to a relatively small area in close proximity to the eruption, caused by the resulting thick ash cover. Globally however, despite a several-month 5% drop in overall solar irradiation, and a reduction in direct sunlight by 30%, there was no negative impact on global agriculture. Surprisingly, a 3-4 year increase in global Agricultural productivity and forestry growth was observed, excepting boreal forest regions. The means of discovery was that initially, a mysterious drop in the rate at which carbon dioxide (CO2) was filling the atmosphere was observed, which is charted in what is known as the "Keeling Curve". This led numerous scientists to assume that the reduction was due to the lowering of Earth's temperature, and with that, a slowdown in plant and soil respiration, indicating a deleterious impact on global agriculture from the volcanic haze layer. However upon investigation, the reduction in the rate at which carbon dioxide filled the atmosphere did not match up with the hypothesis that plant respiration rates had declined. Instead the advantageous anomaly was relatively firmly linked to an unprecedented increase in the growth/net primary production, of global plant life, resulting in the increase of the carbon sink effect of global photosynthesis. The mechanism by which the increase in plant growth was possible, was that the 30% reduction of direct sunlight can also be expressed as an increase or "enhancement" in the amount of diffuse sunlight.
The diffused skylight effect
This diffused skylight, owing to its intrinsic nature, can illuminate under-canopy leaves permitting more efficient total whole-plant photosynthesis than would otherwise be the case, and also increasing evaporative cooling from vegetated surfaces. In stark contrast, for totally clear skies and the direct sunlight that results from it, shadows are cast onto understorey leaves, limiting plant photosynthesis to the top canopy layer. This increase in global agriculture from the volcanic haze layer also naturally results as a product of other aerosols that are not emitted by volcanoes, such as man-made "moderately thick smoke loading" pollution, as the same mechanism, the "aerosol direct radiative effect" is behind both.
See also
Atmospheric diffraction
Aerial perspective
Cyanometer
Daylight
Nighttime airglow
Rayleigh scattering
Rayleigh sky model
Sunshine duration
Tyndall effect
References
Further reading
External links
Dr. C. V. Raman lecture: Why is the sky blue?
Why is the sky blue?
Blue Sky and Rayleigh Scattering
Atmospheric Optics (.pdf), Dr. Craig Bohren
Sun
Light
Visibility
Atmospheric optical phenomena
|
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212103
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My%20Night%20with%20Reg
|
My Night with Reg
|
My Night with Reg is a play by British playwright Kevin Elyot which was produced in 1994 by the Royal Court Theatre, London, directed by Roger Michell. The production later transferred to the West End.
Entirely set among London's gay community in the mid-1980s against the background of the mounting AIDS crisis, My Night with Reg follows the ups and downs of a circle of gay friends over a period of several years. One of the group, the Reg mentioned in the title, is not a character in the play but the whole plot revolves around his apparent promiscuity and the chain reaction of deception and betrayal set off by it.
Plot summary
All three scenes are set in the sitting room of Guy's London apartment: during Guy's flatwarming party (Scene 1); after Reg's funeral, some years later (Scene 2); and after Guy's funeral (Scene 3).
The group, most of them in their thirties, meet at irregular intervals, often at Guy's place. Guy himself is a lonely man. Ever since their university days, he has had a crush on John, but he has never dared to tell him about it. Rather, he lives a solitary life, which he only spices up with phone sex and an occasional visit to a gay pub – that is where he meets 18-year-old Eric, who then helps him decorate his new flat. On holiday on the island of Lanzarote, he meets a gay man who eventually forces himself on Guy and has unprotected sex with him. At his flatwarming party, he has just come back from his holiday and is still quite shocked about what happened. It is hard for him not to start crying when, as a present, John gives him a cookery book specialising in dishes for one.
The most popular of the gay circle is Reg, who is conspicuously absent from the party. Reg has had a long-term relationship with Daniel, but Daniel himself suspects Reg of occasionally being unfaithful to him. In fact Reg seems to be sleeping with every man he can get hold of (as it seems, even with the vicar). In the course of the play, John, Benny and even his seemingly faithful companion Bernie have secret sex with Reg. They all confide in Guy. It hurts Guy most to hear that John – whom he himself fancies – is having an affair with Reg, thus betraying their mutual friend Daniel. After his fling with Reg, Benny panics because he thinks he might have contracted HIV, but he does not confess it to his partner, Bernie.
When Reg is dying from AIDS, he is looked after by his partner, Daniel. The next one to die is Guy, the only one who has not had sex with Reg and who seems to have been infected with HIV when he was raped during his holiday in Lanzarote. Guy bequeaths his new flat to the love of his life, John who does not need it at all because he comes from a rich background. It is John who, somewhere in the flat, finds all kinds of memorabilia dating back to their student days.
The play serves as a "tip of the hat" to iconic musician Sir Elton John, with the names of all the characters being part of Eltoniana: Reg (Elton's birth name); Daniel, Benny, Guy (all from Elton John hit songs), John (the singer's appropriated surname, his homage to Long John Baldry), and Bernie (the Christian name of Elton's longtime lyricist, Bernie Taupin). Eric may be a reference to Eric Clapton, with whom John toured in 1992. Daniel gives Guy a recipe book by a Gertrude Pinner, a reference to the town in which Elton John grew up.
Awards and nominations
Awards
1994 Evening Standard Award for Best Comedy
1994 Writers' Guild Award for Best Fringe Play
1995 Olivier Award for Best Comedy
2015 Olivier Award for Best Revival
References
Further reading
External links
Comedy plays
LGBT-related plays
Plays by Kevin Elyot
Off-Broadway plays
Laurence Olivier Award-winning plays
West End plays
|
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] |
212114
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TSO
|
TSO
|
TSO may refer to:
Science and technology
Technical Standard Order, a minimum performance standard issued by the FAA for certain items used on civil aircraft
Transmission system operator, an entity involved in electric power transmission or transmission of natural gas
Trichuris suis, a species of whipworm, a parasite of pigs
Computing
TCP segmentation offloading, a technique for increasing outbound throughput of high-bandwidth network connections
Time Sharing Option, an interactive command line interpreter for IBM mainframe operating systems OS/360, SVS, MVS, OS/390 and z/OS
Total store order, in microprocessor memory ordering
Music
Taipei Symphony Orchestra
Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra
Tehran Symphony Orchestra
The Summer Obsession
Tokyo Symphony Orchestra
Toledo Symphony Orchestra
Toronto Symphony Orchestra
Trans-Siberian Orchestra
Tucson Symphony Orchestra
Transportation
Transaero Airlines (ICAO airline designator code), a former Russian airline
Tresco Heliport (IATA airport code), a former heliport in the Scilly islands
Tourist Standard Open, a type of British Railways loco-hauled coach
Trailer Standard Open, a type of British Railways coach
Marcos TSO, a sports car manufactured by Marcos Engineering Ltd
Transportation security officer, a federal employee of the Transportation Security Administration, a division of the U. S. Department of Homeland Security
Other uses
Threefold social order, a sociological theory involving the relationship of economy, polity and culture
The Sims Online, a massively multiplayer game
The Stationery Office, a British publisher
Total shares outstanding, the stock held by investors, including restricted shares, as well as those held by the public; see shares outstanding
See also
Tso (disambiguation)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enumeration
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Enumeration
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An enumeration is a complete, ordered listing of all the items in a collection. The term is commonly used in mathematics and computer science to refer to a listing of all of the elements of a set. The precise requirements for an enumeration (for example, whether the set must be finite, or whether the list is allowed to contain repetitions) depend on the discipline of study and the context of a given problem.
Some sets can be enumerated by means of a natural ordering (such as 1, 2, 3, 4, ... for the set of positive integers), but in other cases it may be necessary to impose a (perhaps arbitrary) ordering. In some contexts, such as enumerative combinatorics, the term enumeration is used more in the sense of counting – with emphasis on determination of the number of elements that a set contains, rather than the production of an explicit listing of those elements.
Combinatorics
In combinatorics, enumeration means counting, i.e., determining the exact number of elements of finite sets, usually grouped into infinite families, such as the family of sets each consisting of all permutations of some finite set. There are flourishing subareas in many branches of mathematics concerned with enumerating in this sense objects of special kinds. For instance, in partition enumeration and graph enumeration the objective is to count partitions or graphs that meet certain conditions.
Set theory
In set theory, the notion of enumeration has a broader sense, and does not require the set being enumerated to be finite.
Listing
When an enumeration is used in an ordered list context, we impose some sort of ordering structure requirement on the index set. While we can make the requirements on the ordering quite lax in order to allow for great generality, the most natural and common prerequisite is that the index set be well-ordered. According to this characterization, an ordered enumeration is defined to be a surjection (an onto relationship) with a well-ordered domain. This definition is natural in the sense that a given well-ordering on the index set provides a unique way to list the next element given a partial enumeration.
Countable vs. uncountable
The most common use of enumeration in set theory occurs in the context where infinite sets are separated into those that are countable and those that are not. In this case, an enumeration is merely an enumeration with domain ω, the ordinal of the natural numbers. This definition can also be stated as follows:
As a surjective mapping from (the natural numbers) to S (i.e., every element of S is the image of at least one natural number). This definition is especially suitable to questions of computability and elementary set theory.
We may also define it differently when working with finite sets. In this case an enumeration may be defined as follows:
As a bijective mapping from S to an initial segment of the natural numbers. This definition is especially suitable to combinatorial questions and finite sets; then the initial segment is {1,2,...,n} for some n which is the cardinality of S.
In the first definition it varies whether the mapping is also required to be injective (i.e., every element of S is the image of exactly one natural number), and/or allowed to be partial (i.e., the mapping is defined only for some natural numbers). In some applications (especially those concerned with computability of the set S), these differences are of little importance, because one is concerned only with the mere existence of some enumeration, and an enumeration according to a liberal definition will generally imply that enumerations satisfying stricter requirements also exist.
Enumeration of finite sets obviously requires that either non-injectivity or partiality is accepted, and in contexts where finite sets may appear one or both of these are inevitably present.
Examples
The natural numbers are enumerable by the function f(x) = x. In this case is simply the identity function.
, the set of integers is enumerable by
is a bijection since every natural number corresponds to exactly one integer. The following table gives the first few values of this enumeration:
All (non empty) finite sets are enumerable. Let S be a finite set with n > 0 elements and let K = {1,2,...,n}. Select any element s in S and assign f(n) = s. Now set S' = S − {s} (where − denotes set difference). Select any element s' ∈ S' and assign f(n − 1) = s' . Continue this process until all elements of the set have been assigned a natural number. Then is an enumeration of S.
The real numbers have no countable enumeration as proved by Cantor's diagonal argument and Cantor's first uncountability proof.
Properties
There exists an enumeration for a set (in this sense) if and only if the set is countable.
If a set is enumerable it will have an uncountable infinity of different enumerations, except in the degenerate cases of the empty set or (depending on the precise definition) sets with one element. However, if one requires enumerations to be injective and allows only a limited form of partiality such that if f(n) is defined then f(m) must be defined for all m < n, then a finite set of N elements has exactly N! enumerations.
An enumeration e of a set S with domain induces a well-order ≤ on that set defined by s ≤ t if and only if . Although the order may have little to do with the underlying set, it is useful when some order of the set is necessary.
Ordinals
In set theory, there is a more general notion of an enumeration than the characterization requiring the domain of the listing function to be an initial segment of the Natural numbers where the domain of the enumerating function can assume any ordinal. Under this definition, an enumeration of a set S is any surjection from an ordinal α onto S. The more restrictive version of enumeration mentioned before is the special case where α is a finite ordinal or the first limit ordinal ω. This more generalized version extends the aforementioned definition to encompass transfinite listings.
Under this definition, the first uncountable ordinal can be enumerated by the identity function on so that these two notions do not coincide. More generally, it is a theorem of ZF that any well-ordered set can be enumerated under this characterization so that it coincides up to relabeling with the generalized listing enumeration. If one also assumes the Axiom of Choice, then all sets can be enumerated so that it coincides up to relabeling with the most general form of enumerations.
Since set theorists work with infinite sets of arbitrarily large cardinalities, the default definition among this group of mathematicians of an enumeration of a set tends to be any arbitrary α-sequence exactly listing all of its elements. Indeed, in Jech's book, which is a common reference for set theorists, an enumeration is defined to be exactly this. Therefore, in order to avoid ambiguity, one may use the term finitely enumerable or denumerable to denote one of the corresponding types of distinguished countable enumerations.
Comparison of cardinalities
Formally, the most inclusive definition of an enumeration of a set S is any surjection from an arbitrary index set I onto S. In this broad context, every set S can be trivially enumerated by the identity function from S onto itself. If one does not assume the axiom of choice or one of its variants, S need not have any well-ordering. Even if one does assume the axiom of choice, S need not have any natural well-ordering.
This general definition therefore lends itself to a counting notion where we are interested in "how many" rather than "in what order." In practice, this broad meaning of enumeration is often used to compare the relative sizes or cardinalities of different sets. If one works in Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory without the axiom of choice, one may want to impose the additional restriction that an enumeration must also be injective (without repetition) since in this theory, the existence of a surjection from I onto S need not imply the existence of an injection from S into I.
Computability and complexity theory
In computability theory one often considers countable enumerations with the added requirement that the mapping from (set of all natural numbers) to the enumerated set must be computable. The set being enumerated is then called recursively enumerable (or computably enumerable in more contemporary language), referring to the use of recursion theory in formalizations of what it means for the map to be computable.
In this sense, a subset of the natural numbers is computably enumerable if it is the range of a computable function. In this context, enumerable may be used to mean computably enumerable. However, these definitions characterize distinct classes since there are uncountably many subsets of the natural numbers that can be enumerated by an arbitrary function with domain ω and only countably many computable functions. A specific example of a set with an enumeration but not a computable enumeration is the complement of the halting set.
Furthermore, this characterization illustrates a place where the ordering of the listing is important. There exists a computable enumeration of the halting set, but not one that lists the elements in an increasing ordering. If there were one, then the halting set would be decidable, which is provably false. In general, being recursively enumerable is a weaker condition than being a decidable set.
The notion of enumeration has also been studied from the point of view of computational complexity theory for various tasks in the context of enumeration algorithms.
See also
Ordinal number
Enumerative definition
Sequence
References
External links
Enumerative combinatorics
Mathematical logic
Ordering
|
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] |
212117
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic%20enumeration
|
Algebraic enumeration
|
Algebraic enumeration is a subfield of enumeration that deals with finding exact formulas for the number of combinatorial objects of a given type, rather than estimating this number asymptotically. Methods of finding these formulas include generating functions and the solution of recurrence relations.
References
Enumerative combinatorics
|
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] |
212119
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skylight%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Skylight (disambiguation)
|
Skylight is a means of daylighting.
Skylight may also refer to:
Skylight (play), by David Hare
Skylight of a lava tube, a hole in the ceiling of the tube
Skylight, Arkansas
Skylight, Kentucky
Skylight, a short film by David Clayton Rogers
Skylight Pictures, a film company
Skylight Music Theatre, a light opera and musical theatre company in Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Skylight 1A, a photographic filter factor that absorbs ultraviolet radiation
Lenovo Skylight, a cancelled project for a small portable computer with mobile telephone
Mount Skylight, in the Adirondack Mountains of New York
Skylight (band), a South African pop rock band
Skylight (novel), a 2011 novel by José Saramago
Skylight (Art Lande, Dave Samuels and Paul McCandless album), 1981
Skylight (Pinegrove album), 2018
See also
Diffuse sky radiation
Light pollution
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bechtel
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Bechtel
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Bechtel Corporation () is an American engineering, procurement, construction, and project management company founded in San Francisco, California, and headquartered in Reston, Virginia. It is the largest construction company in the United States.
History
Founding and early years
Bechtel's business activities began in 1898, when cattle farmer Warren A. Bechtel moved from Peabody, Kansas, to the Oklahoma Territory to construct railroads with his team of mules. Bechtel moved his family frequently between construction sites around the western United States for the next several years, eventually moving to Oakland, California, in 1904, where he worked as the superintendent on the Western Pacific Railroad. In 1906, W. A. Bechtel won his first subcontract to build part of the Oroville-to-Oakland section of the Western Pacific Railroad. That year he bought a steam shovel, becoming a pioneer of the new technology. He painted "W.A. Bechtel Co." on the side of the steam shovel, effectively establishing Bechtel as a company, although it was not yet incorporated. Bechtel completed work on a series of railroad contracts during the early 1900s, culminating in an extension of the Northwestern Pacific Railroad finished in 1914.
Starting with the construction of Klamath River Highway in California in 1919, Bechtel ventured into jobs other than building railroads. The company built roads, bridges, and highways throughout the western United States. The company worked on its first hydroelectric projects in the 1920s for Pacific Gas and Electric Company in California.
In 1925, Warren, his sons Warren Jr, Stephen, Kenneth (Ken), and his brother Arthur (Art) joined him to incorporate as W.A. Bechtel Company, which by this time was the leading construction company in the western United States. In 1929, Warren's son, Stephen, urged his father to embark on the company's first pipeline project. Bechtel began working with California Standard Oil Company to build pipelines and refineries.
In January 1931, Bechtel joined other contractors in the west to form Six Companies, Inc., a consortium created to bid for a contract from the U.S. government to construct Hoover Dam. Six Companies won the bid in March and construction began in the summer of 1931.
WWII, overseas expansion and the nuclear age
Warren Bechtel died unexpectedly in 1933 while in Moscow on business. He was succeeded by his son, Stephen Bechtel Sr., who became both the head of Bechtel and chief executive of the Hoover Dam project. Under his leadership, the Hoover Dam was finished in 1935. The project was the largest of its kind in U.S. history at the time and Bechtel's first megaproject.
During World War II, the United States Maritime Commission invited the company to bid for a contract to build half of their order of 60 cargo ships. The company had no prior experience in shipbuilding, but bid for the entire 60 ships. Between 1941 and 1945, Bechtel's wartime shipyards, including Marinship and Calship, built 560 vessels. Bechtel also worked on a pipeline from the Yukon to Alaska called Canol for the United States Department of War during this period.
Under Stephen Bechtel Sr., the company diversified its projects and expanded its work into other countries. The company also focused on turnkey projects, a concept Stephen Bechtel Sr. pioneered, in which Bechtel handled a project from planning and design through construction.
Bechtel's first job outside the U.S. was building the Mene Grande pipeline in Venezuela in 1940. In 1947, Bechtel began construction on what was then the world's longest oil pipeline, the Trans-Arabian Pipeline, which began in Saudi Arabia, ran across Jordan and Syria, and ended in Lebanon. The company continued to expand globally throughout the 1940s, particularly in the Middle East.
In 1949, Bechtel began working with nuclear power after being contracted to build the Experimental Breeder Reactor I in Idaho. The company later built the United States' first privately financed commercial nuclear power plant, the Dresden Generating Station, for Commonwealth Edison in Illinois in 1957.
Other major projects in the 1950s included the Trans Mountain Pipeline in 1952, an oil pipeline in Canada, and a preliminary study for the English Channel in 1959. Bechtel also began engineering work on the Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) system in 1959.
Megaprojects era
Stephen D. Bechtel Jr. took over for his father as president of the company as Stephen Bechtel Sr. retired in 1960. During the 1960s and 1970s, Bechtel was involved in constructing 40 percent of the nuclear plants in the United States. In 1968, the company completed the largest nuclear plant in the U.S. at the time, the San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station, in California.
In 1972, Bechtel was involved in approximately 20 percent of all of the United States' new power-generating capacity. By the end of the decade, the company had moved from nuclear power construction toward nuclear cleanup projects, including Three Mile Island in 1979.
Bechtel completed work on other megaprojects during the 1970s, including major airports in Saudi Arabia and the metro rail in Washington, D.C. In 1976, the company began work on the industrial city of Jubail in Saudi Arabia. The company's multiple construction contracts helped to transform the area from a small village to a city with a population of over a quarter of a million people.
In the 1980s, Bechtel handled the project management of the 1984 Los Angeles Summer Olympics. The company also built the Ankara-Gerede Motorway in Turkey as part of the network of roadways linking Europe and Asia in 1986.
In 1987, Bechtel was awarded a contract for project management services of an undersea tunnel linking the UK and France called the Channel Tunnel or "Chunnel." The tunnel was completed in 1994.
Increased business and visibility
The recession of the 1980s turned the company's focus toward new areas of growth including environmental cleanup and alternative energy projects. In 1989 Riley P. Bechtel was named president of the company.
In 1991, Bechtel, in a joint venture with Parsons Brinckerhoff, broke ground on Boston's Central Artery/Tunnel Project or "Big Dig," a project the company had been in charge of since 1986. The Big Dig was, at the time, the largest and most complex urban transportation project ever undertaken in the US. The 20-year project was critiqued for rising costs and increasing scope of work, as the Big Dig became more complex than was originally estimated. Criticism of the project increased in 2005 when a leak sprang in one of the new tunnels. In the summer of 2006, a faulty tunnel ceiling panel collapsed, killing a motorist. Litigation ensued, and in January 2008, Bechtel settled with federal and state officials for $352 million with other contractors involved paying smaller amounts.
As a result of the Gulf war, Bechtel accepted the task of extinguishing oil well fires in Kuwait in 1991. This fire-suppression project was part of the effort to rebuild the infrastructure of Kuwait.
In 1994, Bechtel began work on the US$20 billion Hong Kong Airport Core Programme, which was the largest civil engineering project at the time and included a new airport and nine other infrastructure projects. Bechtel's other major projects during the 1990s included the Athens Metro system, the Atlantic LNG in Trinidad, the Croatian Motorway, the Jubilee Line Extension for the London Underground, Quezon Power Plant in the Philippines, and a semiconductor plant in China. Bechtel also managed design and construction of facilities for Olympic games: the 1992 Barcelona Summer Olympics, and the Winter Games in Nagano, Japan in 1998. In the early 2000s, the company provided planning and management services for the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City. In 2001, Bechtel was part of a consortium to project manage the US$4.3 billion construction of the CSPC Nanhai Petrochemicals Complex in China.
Several projects in the 2000s attracted controversy. In 2000, after a protest against water prices being raised by a utility partially owned by Bechtel in Bolivia, the company pulled out of the country and later filed suit against Bolivia for $25 million in losses. The claim was settled in 2006 for $0.30.
In 2001, Bechtel began work on the Hanford Tank Waste Treatment and Immobilization Plant at the Hanford site in Washington state. The project is a highly complex plant for the treatment of radioactive liquid waste that has employed new technologies and construction techniques that are the first of their kind. As of 2013, it is considered the most complex project in the US. Management of the project has been the subject of controversy including the Department of Energy's Inspector General reports and Government Accountability Office studies regarding rising costs, nuclear safety and quality, and whistleblower allegations. For example, in 2013 the DOE Inspector General concluded that "Bechtel determined that there was a systemic problem and a breakdown in controls over the review of design changes", but that the company had taken steps to correct the problems.
In 2003, Bechtel won a $680 million contract to begin rebuilding infrastructure in Iraq for U.S. Agency for International Development. The contract led to the company being accused of both non-competitive bidding and war profiteering. Bechtel won a competitively-bid second contract in January 2004, and completed 97 of 99 task orders of the contract, returning the two remaining projects due to the escalating security concerns in the country.
Following Hurricane Katrina in 2005, Bechtel was one of four companies hired by FEMA to build temporary housing. Bechtel delivered over 35,000 trailers in under a year for displaced residents in Mississippi, though the company was criticized by officials and in the media for the cost and quality of work.
In 2007, Bechtel began work on the Romanian A3 motorway (Autostrada Transilvania) and Albanian motorways. Bechtel and the Romanian National Roads Authority jointly agreed on a settlement to end the contract for works on the Autostrada Transilvania in 2013. The Albanian Motorway was opened to traffic in 2010 on schedule.
Other major projects at the end of the 2000s included the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in Washington state, Jamnagar Refinery expansion in India, Equatorial GuineaLNG, and Oak Creek Power Plant in Wisconsin.
Locations and operational activities
Bechtel's major operational locations are in Brisbane, Calgary, Dubai, Houston, London, New Delhi, Reston, Virginia, San Francisco, Santiago, Shanghai, Nairobi, Taipei, and Washington, D.C.
The company is headquartered in Reston, which also houses the company's global operational headquarters, as well as the headquarters of the Nuclear, Security & Environmental global business unit and the Americas offices of the Infrastructure global business unit. The company's Oil, Gas & Chemicals unit is based in the Houston office. The Washington office is home to the government affairs team, and maintains a Political Action Committee.
Outside of North America, the Infrastructure unit's headquarters is located at the company's London office. The Mining & Metals unit is based out of Santiago, Chile, and Brisbane. In 2013, the company established its global center of engineering excellence in Dubai focusing on rail and marine projects. It established innovation centers in Houston and London in 2015 and Santiago in 2018 to test new technology.
Bechtel works on global megaprojects through its four business units. The company frequently manages work from design through construction phases. Its corporate values include safety, quality, and ethics.
Bechtel was the presenting sponsor of "Dream Big: Engineering Our World," a 42-minute IMAX documentary produced by MacGillivray Freeman Films in partnership with American Society of Civil Engineers. The documentary seeks to inspire young people to pursue engineering careers.
Bechtel opened its welding and applied technology center in 2017 in the Houston Energy Corridor to train welding and construction workers. The center also provides virtual training and augmented reality to train workers.
Infrastructure
The Infrastructure unit handles transportation, power, and hydroelectric facilities. Transportation projects include highways, bridges, rail, and aviation facilities. Bechtel has built more than of roadway, 390 power plants, 50 hydroelectric plants, as well as 20 towns and cities globally. It has worked on 300 subway and rail projects, 80 port and harbor projects, and 96 major airport projects.
Bechtel's Infrastructure unit is leading a consortium in the engineering, procurement and construction of lines One and Two of the Riyadh, Saudi Arabia metro, which began construction in April 2014. In July 2014, Bechtel was selected to build a new 37-mile motorway linking Kosovo's capital, Pristina, to Macedonia.
Bechtel is also participating in the building of London's Crossrail, a $24 billion project that will connect commuter towns east and west of London and is intended to serve an estimated 200 million people a year upon completion. As of June 2015, the project is 65% complete.
In 2016, Bechtel began construction on the first phase of the Edmonton Valley Line Light Rail Transit project in Alberta, Canada, the first public–private partnership (P3) business group. The company is also involved in several ongoing projects as of 2016, including building national infrastructure in Gabon and supporting the continuous development of Jubail industrial city in Saudi Arabia. Bechtel has worked at Jubail for more than 40 years, and was granted a five-year extension on both projects June 2016.
In February 2017, Bechtel was chosen to support setting up and operating Saudi Arabia's National Project Management Office. In May 2017, Bechtel was appointed the delivery management partner for the tunnels and stations excavation package of Stage 2 of the Sydney Metro project. Considered Australia's largest public infrastructure project, the work includes new twin rail tunnels under Sydney Harbour. Bechtel won the contract in August 2017 to design and build a 473-kilometer highway with 19 interchanges linking Nairobi, Kenya's capital, to Mombasa, Kenya's main port. The first section is targeted to open in October 2019 and the entire length of the highway is scheduled to be complete in 2024.
In 2018, Bechtel's work on Panda Power Funds' Hummel Station Power Plant in Pennsylvania was completed. Bechtel is also working on a project for Advanced Power, the Cricket Valley Energy Center in New York. Bechtel is also building the Keeyask Generating Station, a hydroelectric power plant for Manitoba Hydro in Manitoba, Canada. The Infrastructure unit had also worked on projects for Google Fiber in several markets in the Southeastern U.S.
Among completed projects, Bechtel finished a four-lane motorway in Kosovo a year ahead of schedule in November 2013. The unit completed the Catalina Solar photovoltaic generating facility and the construction of the California Valley Solar Ranch in 2013. Bechtel also completed the Hanna Region Transmission Development, a power transmission project in Canada, which included 1,200 new transmission towers and of transmission lines in 2013. Bechtel completed Phase I of an extension of the Dulles Corridor Metrorail in Northern Virginia and completed the Hamad International Airport in Doha, Qatar, in 2014. Bechtel also completed the world's largest solar thermal project, the Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System in California, which began producing power in February 2014.
In 2015, Bechtel began work as project manager of the Toronto-York Spadina subway extension for the Toronto Transit Commission. The project was completed in 2017. Bechtel completed construction of the Stonewall Energy Facility in May 2017. The 778 megawatt natural gas-fired power plant supplies electricity to 778,000 homes in northern Virginia and the Washington, D.C., metro area. Bechtel's work on the Carroll County Energy Facility in Ohio for Advanced Power was also completed in 2017. In 2018, the unit completed a new air passenger terminal in Muscat, Oman.
Mining & Metals
The Mining & Metals (M&M) unit works on projects related to the mining and production of materials such as aluminum, coal, copper, iron ore, alumina and other metals and minerals. The unit operates on six continents and has completed hundreds of major mining projects as well as more than 1,000 mining studies. It has also finished 42 major copper projects, 30 aluminum smelters, 15 major coal projects, and eight alumina refinery projects.
In 2013, the unit completed construction of Saudi Arabia's first aluminum smelter in Ras Al-Khair, the Daunia coal mine in Queensland, Australia, and the expansion of the Kooragang Coal Terminal in Port Waratah in Australia, increasing capacity to 145 million tonnes per annum (Mtpa).
In 2014, M&M completed the Caval Ridge coal mine in Queensland, and began operations at Escondida's OLAP copper cathode project, which consisted of a new dynamic leaching pad and a mineral handling system.
In 2015, the unit completed the Las Bambas copper concentrator in Peru for MMG, the Kitimat aluminum smelter in Canada for Rio Tinto Group., and the Escondida Organic Growth Project 1 (OGP1), the largest single-line copper concentrator ever built. M&M also completed a third berth for the BHP Billiton Mitsubishi Alliance (BMA) at Hay Point Coal Terminal in Queensland, Australia, which increased export capacity from the existing 44 Mtpa to 55 Mtpa.
Bechtel began building the Al Taweelah alumina refinery (formerly Shaheen) in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates for Emirates Global Aluminium (EGA) in 2015.
In April 2016, Aluminium Bahrain (Alba) announced that Bechtel had been appointed engineering, procurement, and construction management (EPCM) contractor for the company's Line 6 Expansion Project. The initiative will make Alba the world's largest single-site aluminum smelter upon completion, boosting production to 1.5 Mtpa. That same month, Rio Tinto announced that Kitimat had reached full production levels of 420,000 tonnes per annum, while Las Bambas achieved commercial production in July 2016. As of 2016, Bechtel is advancing the Amrun bauxite initiative for Rio Tinto in Australia, which announced project approval in November 2015.
Bechtel completed the engineering, procurement, and construction of a water system and desalination plant for the Escondida copper mine in Chile in 2018. The Bechtel-Techint joint venture team built a dual 112-mile-long pipeline to carry desalinated water from the Pacific Coast across the Atacama Desert to the Escondida copper mine approximately 10,000 feet above sea level in the Andes.
Energy
The Energy unit designs and builds liquefied natural gas (LNG), oil, pipeline, petrochemicals, natural gas, and water treatment facilities. Since the company's founding, it has built approximately of pipeline systems, more than 50 major oil and gas field developments, and completed over 380 major chemical and petrochemical projects. The unit also constructs and tests tanks for LNG storage. Bechtel has built a third of the world's LNG liquefaction capacity.
Between 2011 and 2016, the unit built three LNG plants on Curtis Island in Queensland, Australia. It completed the first of six trains in December 2014. The complex was named a 2016 Global Best Project by Engineering News-Record in the category of "Power/Industrial" and a Construction Project of the Year by S&P Global Platts. The unit also built the Wheatstone project, a two-train LNG plant that is one of Australia's largest energy resource efforts. Following completion of Train 1 in late 2017, Train 2 of the facility moved into production mid-2018.
Bechtel has built five LNG production trains for Cheniere Energy Partners LP as the Sabine Pass liquefaction project in Cameron Parish, Louisiana. The initial cargo from the first completed train was delivered in 2016. In November, 2018, the unit has completed the first of three LNG trains on the Corpus Christi Liquefaction project in Texas. The Corpus Christi, project includes three LNG trains, three LNG storage tanks, and two berths. In 2016, Bechtel completed roof raises on two tanks at a liquefaction plant in Corpus Christi, Texas, for Cheniere.
In May 2013, the unit was awarded a contract for the front-end engineering design of the Pacific NorthWest LNG in Vancouver, BC. In March 2014, the unit was awarded a contract to construct facilities in Georgia for the Shah Deniz II gas field in Azerbaijan. In August 2015, Bechtel was contracted by Delfin LNG, to provide front-end engineering and design for a planned floating LNG vessel at Port Delfin off the coastline of Louisiana, which would be the first in the U.S. Also in 2015, the unit was awarded a contract to manage the engineering, procurement, and construction of 12 new natural-gas pipelines in Thailand.
The company was part of a consortium selected by PTT GC America in 2015 to provide front-end engineering and design for a new petrochemical complex in Belmont County, Ohio. It is also the lead contractor for a Shell petrochemical plant in Beaver County, Pennsylvania.
Bechtel's technology was licensed for facility upgrades at the Rijeka Refinery in Croatia in February 2014. In 2016, the unit was contracted by the Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation to design an upgrade to the coker unit at the Assiut refinery in Egypt using its ThruPlus technology. Also in 2016, it was awarded a contract to upgrade a refinery in Beaumont, Texas, for ExxonMobil, using ExxonMobil's proprietary SCANfining technology.
In late 2017, the unit was selected to design and build Tellurian's Driftwood LNG project, a proposed liquefied gas facility in Louisiana. In January 2018, the unit was awarded a front-end engineering design contract for Abu Dhabi National Oil Company's planned offshore ultra-sour gas mega project located in the north western area of Abu Dhabi.
In June 2019, Kallanish Energy reported that Bechtel had been hired by Thailand's PTT Global Chemical America and South Korea-based partner Daelim to build a $6 billion ethane cracker on the Ohio River in Belmont County, Ohio.
Nuclear, Security & Environmental
The Nuclear, Security & Environmental unit handles the company's government work and commercial nuclear businesses. The unit supports U.S. and international governmental organizations including the U.S. Departments of Defense and Energy. Since the 1950s, Bechtel has designed, serviced, or delivered 80 percent of all nuclear plants in the U.S.
As of 2019, Bechtel leads or is a member of a consortium that manage a national laboratory and a number of national security-related facilities in the U.S., including: the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and the combined operations of the Y-12 National Security Complex and the Pantex Plant.
Bechtel has been contracted to manage the United States Navy's nuclear propulsion research facilities since 2011. In June 2013 the unit completed design and construction on a U.S. Missile Defense Agency project at Fort Greely, Alaska, which included three missile fields and forty silos. In 2014 the U.K. Ministry of Defence selected Bechtel to support the Royal Navy and Air Force on procurement and managed support services. Additionally, in 2016, Bechtel began providing testing and operations for the Arnold Engineering Development Complex at the Arnold Air Force Base in Tennessee.
Other government work includes the construction of the facilities to treat the liquid radioactive waste stored underground at the Department of Energy's Hanford nuclear waste site in Washington. Bechtel and AECOM agreed in 2016 to pay $125 million to settle claims by the U.S. Department of Justice that the companies used subpar work while building a nuclear waste treatment facility at the Hanford Nuclear Reservation in Washington state, in addition to allegedly using public funds for lobbying. The companies did not admit wrongdoing; they said they settled to avoid long, costly litigation. In late 2017, Bechtel completed the assembly of two nuclear waste melters, each at 300 tons. The melters are the largest of their kind ever built in the United States.
The unit also manages U.S. Department of Defense contracts to dismantle and dispose of stored chemical weapons, including decades-old mustard and nerve gas from World War II. By 2019, the Pueblo Chemical Agent-Destruction Pilot Plant in Colorado had destroyed nearly 100,000 munitions. Bechtel completed the construction of the Blue Grass Chemical Agent-Destruction Pilot Plant in 2015. Since May 2012, Bechtel has been part of a consortium completing the Chernobyl New Safe Confinement, a structure that will safely confine the damaged Chernobyl Nuclear Reactor Number 4. Bechtel continues to oversee the operation. In November 2016, the team slid a massive containment arch to cover the damaged nuclear reactor and contain radioactive material.
In 2016, Bechtel completed work on Tennessee Valley Authority's Watts Bar 2 nuclear reactor. In May 2016, a joint venture including Bechtel won a contract to conduct front-end engineering and design for the eventual construction of Wylfa Newydd, a nuclear power station in Wales for Horizon Nuclear Power.
In August 2017, Bechtel took over as the lead contractor to complete construction at Georgia Power's Plant Vogtle. Bechtel was awarded the contract and took over day-to-day construction of Plant Vogtle's Units 3 and 4 after Westinghouse Electric, the designer and principal contractor for the two new reactors, filed for bankruptcy.
As of 2018, Bechtel is building the Uranium Processing Facility at the Y-12 National Security Complex in Tennessee. The $6.5 billion project is part of the National Nuclear Security Administration program to replace aging, Cold War-era facilities that service, refresh, and replace the uranium stages of nuclear warheads.
Management
Brendan Bechtel is Chairman and CEO and is the fifth generation of the Bechtel family to lead the company. Jack Futcher is president and chief operating officer. Catherine Hunt Ryan is chief financial officer.
Several high-ranking Bechtel executives at times held important positions in the United States government. Notably, Reagan's cabinet had two former Bechtel executives: Caspar Weinberger and George Shultz, serving as Secretary of Defense and Secretary of State respectively.
Financials and rankings
In 2017, Bechtel ranked eighth on Forbes' list of America's Largest Private Companies by revenue, and 7th on Fortune's list of the 25 Most Important Private Companies. The company has been named the top U.S. Contractor by revenue by Engineering News-Record for 20 years in a row and ranked 12th on the publication's Top 250 International Contractors list by revenue for 2018.
Major projects
References
Further reading
Denton, Sally. "The Profiteers: Bechtel and the Men Who Built the World", Simon & Schuster, 2016.
McCartney, Laton. Friends in High Places, Ballantine Books, 1988.
Mead, Robert Douglas. Journeys Down the Line: Building the Trans-Alaska Pipeline, Doubleday, 1978.
External links
Bechtel company website
Construction and civil engineering companies of the United States
Energy engineering and contractor companies
Nuclear technology companies of the United States
American companies established in 1898
Construction and civil engineering companies established in 1898
1898 establishments in California
No-bid contracts
Privately held companies based in Virginia
Companies based in Reston, Virginia
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212121
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate%20Pierson
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Kate Pierson
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Catherine Elizabeth Pierson (born April 27, 1948) is an American singer, lyricist, and one of the singers and founding members of the B-52's. She plays guitar, bass and various keyboard instruments. In the B-52s, she has performed alongside Cindy Wilson, Fred Schneider, Ricky Wilson, and Keith Strickland. In the early years, as well as being a vocalist, Pierson was the main keyboard player and performed on a keyboard bass during live shows and on many of the band's recordings, taking on a role usually filled by a bass guitar player, which differentiated the band from their contemporaries. This, along with Pierson's distinctive wide-ranging singing voice, remains a trademark of the B-52s’ unique sound. Pierson has also collaborated with many other artists including The Ramones, Iggy Pop and R.E.M. Pierson possesses a soprano vocal range.
In February 2015, Pierson released her first solo album, Guitars and Microphones, featuring material co-written by Sia Furler. She later released the non-album single "Better Not Sting the Bee", and on April 15, 2016, she released a cover of "Venus" as a single.
Early life and education
Pierson was born in Weehawken, New Jersey, and raised in Rutherford.
Pierson briefly attended Wheaton College in Wheaton, Illinois before transferring to Boston University, where she earned a journalism degree. She then traveled around England for a time before returning to the U.S. and moving to Athens, Georgia, where she lived on a farm and earned a living as a paste-up artist in the type shop of the local newspaper.
Music career
Pierson met up with the other members of what would become the B-52s while living in Athens, Georgia. The band formed in October 1976 and played a few parties before heading to New York to play some shows. Eventually, Pierson and the other band members began commuting between Athens and New York, playing gigs.
Personal life
From 1981 to 1996, Pierson was in a relationship with artist Tim Rollins.
She is the owner of Kate's Lazy Desert in Landers, California, Kate's Lazy Cabin in Woodstock, New York, and Kate's Lazy Meadow in Mount Tremper, New York, a rustic modern lodge in New York's Catskill Mountains. She operates the businesses with her wife Monica Coleman, whom she married on August 3, 2015.
In a 2015 interview, Pierson stated that she identifies as bisexual.
Collaborations
The Ramones, in the early 1980s on the song "Chop Suey", with Cindy Wilson and Debbie Harry; the title is available as a bonus track on the Ramones' re-release CD Pleasant Dreams.
Pierson, Wilson and Strickland were part of the group Melon, and recorded two songs ("I Will Call You" and "Honeydew") for a Japanese TV show titled Snakeman Show. The soundtrack LP (in 1980) and CD (in 1988) were only released in Japan.
Fred Schneider, on his Fred Schneider & the Shake Society solo album from 1984, on songs "Monster", "Summer in Hell", "I'm Gonna Haunt You" and "Boonga (The New Jersey Caveman)".
Iggy Pop, on the 1990 Top-30 song "Candy".
R.E.M., on the songs "Shiny Happy People", "Near Wild Heaven", "Radio Song", and "Me in Honey" from the 1991 album Out of Time, and "Fretless" from the 1991 soundtrack Until the End of the World.
Matthew Sweet, on the 1989 album Earth.
With Cindy Wilson on their cover of the McFadden & Whitehead's song "Ain't No Stoppin' Us Now", recorded for the soundtrack The Associate in 1996.
The soundtrack for The Rugrats Movie, released in 1998 contains the track "The World Is Something New To Me" and features Pierson, Schneider and Wilson along with other artists.
"We Are Family", a single released to raise money for the victims of the September 11 attacks, features Pierson and Schneider in the chorus and on the DVD documentation.
Pierson sang with Jay Ungar and Molly Mason on their 2003 album Relax Your Mind, on the track "Bad Attitude".
Junior Senior, on the song "Take My Time" from the 2005 album Hey Hey My My Yo Yo (with Cindy Wilson).
Peter Jöback, duet on the song "Sing" from the 2009 album East Side Stories.
David Byrne and Fatboy Slim, on the song "The Whole Man" from the 2010 album Here Lies Love.
She was also a member of the Japanese group NiNa with Yuki Isoya and co-wrote and performed a complete album, with the hit singles "Happy Tomorrow" and "Aurora Tour". The album and singles were only released in Japan. Two songs were used as the ending theme song to the anime Arc the Lad.
She appeared in Blondie's music video for "Mother".
The soundtrack album Phineas and Ferb: Rockin' and Rollin''' released in September 2013 features Pierson singing: "Let's Spend Half A Day". The album is only available as a download.
One song on Downes Braide Association's 2017 album Skyscraper Souls.
Albums
2015: Guitars and MicrophonesFilm and television
The Rugrats Movie (1998, voice only)
The Flintstones (1994, as "The BC-52's")
A Matter of Degrees (1990)
Athens, GA: Inside/Out (1987)
One Trick Pony (1980)
Pierson portrayed a club owner in the Flight of the Conchords episode "What Goes on Tour".
The Adventures of Pete and Pete (1993, "What We Did on Our Summer Vacation")
Pierson is credited alongside Fred Schneider in the Nickelodeon cartoon Rocko's Modern Life for the theme song vocals.
Pierson, with the B-52's, appeared in an episode of the CBS soap opera Guiding Light in 1982.
Pierson, with the B-52's, performed a parody of the song "Love Shack" titled "Glove Slap" in an episode of The Simpsons (1999, "E-I-E-I-(Annoyed Grunt)").
Phineas and Ferb'' (2012): performed the song "Spend Half a Day" in the episode "Perry the Actorpus".
References
External links
1948 births
Living people
People from Rutherford, New Jersey
People from Weehawken, New Jersey
20th-century American singers
21st-century American singers
Songwriters from New Jersey
American organists
American rock keyboardists
American women guitarists
American sopranos
American women rock singers
American new wave musicians
Women new wave singers
Bisexual women
Bisexual musicians
LGBT people from New Jersey
LGBT singers from the United States
Singers from New Jersey
The B-52's members
Guitarists from New Jersey
Women organists
20th-century American women singers
20th-century American guitarists
21st-century American women singers
21st-century organists
21st-century American keyboardists
20th-century American women guitarists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Pharcyde
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The Pharcyde
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The Pharcyde is an American alternative hip hop group, formed in 1989, from South Central Los Angeles. The original four members of the group are Imani (Emandu Wilcox), Slimkid3 (Trevant Hardson), Bootie Brown (Romye Robinson), and Fatlip (Derrick Stewart). DJ Mark Luv was the group's first disc jockey (DJ), followed by producer J-Swift and then J Dilla. The group is perhaps best known for the hit singles "Drop", "Passin' Me By" and "Runnin", as well as their first album, Bizarre Ride II the Pharcyde (1992). The group continues to tour and record, both collaboratively and in solo projects—the most recent being Hardson's collaborative EP with DJ Nu-Mark (of Jurassic 5) released in 2014 on Delicious Vinyl.
History
Early years
Pharcyde group members Slimkid3, Bootie Brown, and Imani met as dancers in the late 1980s and dancing was their main ambition as late as 1990. Around this time, Imani and Slimkid3 were in a group called "As Is" and later a group called the "Play Brothers", while Bootie Brown was a backup dancer for Fatlip (Fatlip being the last member to join the group). Bootie Brown recalls that their earlier dancing careers influenced their rapping – "sometimes the way I rap is almost like the way I used to dance". The group met Reggie Andrews, a local high-school music teacher who worked with the Dazz Band and Rick James, and who was a major musical influence on their debut album. The group also met producer J-Swift around this time, as he was Reggie Andrews's "star pupil" according to the book Check the Technique. Before group settled on the name "The Pharcyde", they were almost called "The Rappers" and "True Jiggaboo", the second of which served as inspiration for their interlude "Jiggaboo Time".
Bizarre Ride II the Pharcyde
The Pharcyde recorded their first demo in 1991, which contained the songs "Passin' Me By", "Ya Mama", and "Officer", and hired a manager, Paul Stewart, who had worked for Cypress Hill, De La Soul, and House of Pain. Mike Ross of Delicious Vinyl heard the demo and the group was signed to the label in the summer of 1991 – they were first featured on Brand New Heavies's album Heavy Rhyme Experience, Vol. 1, on the song "Soul Flower", released by Delicious Vinyl in 1992.
The group, along with producer J-Swift, recorded their first album Bizarre Ride II the Pharcyde, which was released in September 1992. The album was certified Gold by the RIAA in 1996. The album was highly acclaimed, and became one of the most praised and influential alternative hip hop albums of the 1990s.
Their second single "Passin' Me By" became a minor Billboard hit, peaking at No. 52 on the Hot 100. The song was later featured in the hit movie Big Daddy and was also a crossover modern rock hit. The song is now usually considered a golden-era staple and is the group's most well known song. The album featured a couple of guest MCs, including Bucwheed (known then as Buckwheat, formerly of the alternative hip-hop group The Wascals) on the tracks "On The DL" and "I'm That Type of Nigga".
About the group's sense of humor, Imani was quoted in a 1993 interview saying "We find humor in things other people don’t. Everyday situations. People might look at things around here and say, like, ‘Damn!’ We say, ‘Hah, hah, hah.’ We just chill out."
Problems between the group and producer J-Swift began during the recording of the debut, with infighting and "personality conflicts".web|last=Ryon|first=Sean|title=DX News Bits: J-Swift, Celph Titled|url=http://www.hiphopdx.com
After the Bizarre Ride album was released, the group began touring with A Tribe Called Quest and De La Soul, culminating with an appearance at the Lollapalooza show in 1994.
In 1994, Pharcyde appeared on the Red Hot Organization's compilation album, Stolen Moments: Red Hot + Cool. The album, meant to raise awareness and funds in support of the AIDS epidemic in relation to the African American community, was heralded as "Album of the Year" by Time Magazine.
Before the success of Bizarre Ride, the group moved to Inglewood, CA, where they shared a home dubbed the Pharcyde Manor. Lew of DIRT magazine reports of the Manor, "...you can tell their laid-back style meeting rapid-fire rhyme delivery is a product of the virtual telepathic rapport that only comes from eating, sleeping and breathing under the same roof."
Labcabincalifornia
In 1995, The Pharcyde released their second album, Labcabincalifornia. The album received mixed reviews upon release, maybe due to a different musical direction from the light-hearted playfulness of their debut. The album included another big crossover hit, "Runnin", peaking at No. 35 on the Billboard Hot 100. This single was later featured in the movie 8 Mile, as well as the More Music from 8 Mile soundtrack. Labcabincalifornia featured production from producers Jay Dee (who handled the majority of the production). Member Slimkid3 has stated that the group met Jay Dee by way of Q-Tip of A Tribe Called Quest, who handed them the tape that contained some of the production that would end up on the LP. This album generated lower sales, not reaching gold status. A music video for the song "Drop" was directed by Spike Jonze.
Problems grew between Fatlip and the other MCs after this album, resulting in his leaving the group. In the documentary Cydeways: The Best of the Pharcyde, while the group is performing in shows they still offer their support to Fatlip, telling the crowd that if they support Fatlip on his solo career then they support The Pharcyde and vice versa.
1997–2000
The group was largely missing from the hip hop scene between 1997 and 1999. The three remaining members returned in 2000 with an EP titled Chapter One: Testing the Waters.
The group released a full studio album later in 2000 titled Plain Rap. The album had a lukewarm reception both critically and commercially.
Soon after the release, member Slimkid3, now going by his birth name of Tre Hardson, left the group to pursue a solo career. In 2002, he released his first solo album titled Liberation.
2001–2004: Humboldt Beginnings
With only two members remaining, Bootie Brown and Imani continued with the group name and released Humboldt Beginnings in 2004. The album received even less attention critically and commercially than their last effort. This album introduced Schmooche Cat and Spaceboy Boogie X as new members and Spaceboy Boogie X as producer to the group.
The album was released on the group's own independent record label, Chapter One Entertainment.
Touring
Though Humboldt Beginnings is to date the last Pharcyde album, its members have since been keeping busy with various contributions and projects. A compilation of The Pharcyde was released in 2005, titled Sold My Soul: The Remix & Rarity Collection, featuring a number of remixes and rare songs. Former member Fatlip released his solo debut in 2005, titled The Loneliest Punk, and Tre Hardson's second full-length solo album SLIMKID3's Cafe was released on April 4, 2006.
In late 2007, Tre toured with L.A. Latin-funk-hip hop band Ozomatli on their Winter Tour throughout the United States.
The Pharcyde and Souls of Mischief collaborated to form a group called "Almyghty Myghty Pythons" and released a collaboration album entitled Almyghty Myghty Pythons. Production from the group died down, but it was said by Imani in an interview that it was to be an ongoing project.
Fatlip and Tre Hardson reunited to perform on 'The Over 30, Dirty Old Men Tour'. Fatlip and Tre Hardson were featured on the song "All I Want for Christmas (Is Somebody Else)" featuring St. Imey (formerly of The Wascals) and produced by J-Swift on Delicious Vinyl records.
In 2005, Bootie Brown made a guest appearance on Gorillaz' single "Dirty Harry", from the album Demon Days. The verse was a narrative of a soldier on the frontlines in Iraq. He often filled in for rapper Mos Def on the Gorillaz' song "Stylo" on the group's Escape to Plastic Beach World Tour and at the Glastonbury Festival in 2010.
On April 22, 2008 it was announced that The Pharcyde would be reuniting for the annual Rock the Bells Festival Series. The first performance was Saturday, July 19 in Chicago.
Remixes of The Pharcyde's "Runnin and "Passin' Me By" appear on Delicious Vinyl's 2008 release, Rmxxology.
The Pharcyde toured Australia in February 2009 as part of the Good Vibrations Festival, which was headlined by Fatboy Slim, and played in Sydney, Melbourne, Gold Coast and Perth. They also headlined at the All Points West Festival in Liberty State Park, NJ on July 31, 2009.
The Pharcyde also reunited at Rhymesayers Entertainment's soundset, Memorial Day Weekend, 2009, and were the co-headliners of the festival, which was also headlined by Atmosphere and featured many other underground artists.
Uncle Imani went on FIVE10 Radio to talk about the story behind the growth and demise of The Pharcyde.
The downfall of The Pharcyde was named the 26th (out of 30) worst fall-offs in hip hop history by Complex magazine in December 2012.
2012 saw the twentieth anniversary of The Pharcyde's debut Bizarre Ride II The Pharcyde, and to mark the event Fatlip and SlimKid3 teamed up with the album's producers, J-Sw!ft and L.A. Jay, as well as record label Delicious Vinyl, to play the album in its entirety at a tribute show at The Roxy Theatre in Los Angeles. The performance was intended to be a one-off, but due to an overwhelming success and reception, the group began touring the show 'Bizarre Ride Live', and, along with MC K-Natural, working on original music under the moniker The Bizarre Ride. In December of that year, The Pharcyde released the Amerigo Gazaway-produced "Still Got Love (Bizarre Tribe Megamix)" garnering significant praise. 2015 marked the twentieth anniversary of Labcabincalifornia, resulting in a similar tour through Europe and Japan. The group continued touring Europe through 2017.
Current
In 2020, it was rumored that all 4 members would reunite on wax after a 25 year hiatus. Speculation that the reunion would appear on Fatlip’s next project gained traction fast. The whisperings were confirmed when the official Pharcyde Instagram page posted a story claiming a Pharcyde reunion was in the works. With Fatlip working on his project “Sccit & Siavash The Grouch Present... Torpor”, his album is the most likely destination for the reunion to take place. Although a reunion on wax has been cemented, an entire album has yet to be confirmed.
Discography
Albums
Bizarre Ride II the Pharcyde
Released: November 24, 1992
Certification: Gold
Billboard 200 chart position: No. 75
R&B/Hip-Hop chart position: No. 23
UK Albums Chart: No. 58
Singles: "Ya Mama"/"I'm That Type of Nigga"/"Soul Flower (Remix)", "Passin' Me By", "Otha Fish", "4 Better or 4 Worse"/"Pack the Pipe"/"Return of the B-Boy"
Labcabincalifornia
Released: November 14, 1995
Certification: N/A
Billboard 200 chart position: No. 37
R&B/Hip-Hop chart position: No. 17
UK Albums Chart: No. 46
Singles: "Runnin", "Drop", "She Said"/"Somethin' That Means Somethin'"
Plain Rap
Released: November 7, 2000
Certification: N/A
Billboard 200 chart position: No. 157
R&B/Hip-Hop chart position: No. 67
Singles: "Trust"
Humboldt Beginnings
Released: July 13, 2004
Certification: N/A
Billboard 200 chart position: –
R&B/Hip-Hop chart position: –
Singles: "Knew U"/"The Uh-Huh"
Compilations
Cydeways: The Best of the Pharcyde
Released: January 16, 2001
Label: Rhino
Instrumentals
Released: September 13, 2005
Label: Delicious Vinyl
Sold My Soul: The Remix & Rarity Collection
Released: November 8, 2005
Label: Funky Chemist
EPs
Chapter One: Testing the Waters
Released: March 14, 2000
Label: Chapter One
Singles
Music videos
Further reading
Coleman, Brian (2007). Check the Technique: Liner Notes for Hip-Hop Junkies. Random House, .
Edwards, Paul (2009). How to Rap: The Art & Science of the Hip-Hop MC. Chicago Review Press, .
Notes
References
External links
The Pharcyde
Hip hop groups from California
Delicious Vinyl artists
Musical groups from Los Angeles
African-American musical groups
Musical quartets
Alternative hip hop groups
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mie%20scattering
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Mie scattering
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The Mie solution to Maxwell's equations (also known as the Lorenz–Mie solution, the Lorenz–Mie–Debye solution or Mie scattering) describes the scattering of an electromagnetic plane wave by a homogeneous sphere. The solution takes the form of an infinite series of spherical multipole partial waves. It is named after Gustav Mie.
The term Mie solution is also used for solutions of Maxwell's equations for scattering by stratified spheres or by infinite cylinders, or other geometries where one can write separate equations for the radial and angular dependence of solutions. The term Mie theory is sometimes used for this collection of solutions and methods; it does not refer to an independent physical theory or law. More broadly, the "Mie scattering" formulas are most useful in situations where the size of the scattering particles is comparable to the wavelength of the light, rather than much smaller or much larger.
Mie scattering (sometimes referred to as a non-molecular scattering or aerosol particle scattering) takes place in the lower of the atmosphere, where many essentially spherical particles with diameters approximately equal to the wavelength of the incident ray may be present. Mie scattering theory has no upper size limitation, and converges to the limit of geometric optics for large particles.
Introduction
A modern formulation of the Mie solution to the scattering problem on a sphere can be found in many books, e.g., J. A. Stratton's Electromagnetic Theory. In this formulation, the incident plane wave, as well as the scattering field, is expanded into radiating spherical vector spherical harmonics. The internal field is expanded into regular vector spherical harmonics. By enforcing the boundary condition on the spherical surface, the expansion coefficients of the scattered field can be computed.
For particles much larger or much smaller than the wavelength of the scattered light there are simple and accurate approximations that suffice to describe the behavior of the system. But for objects whose size is within a few orders of magnitude of the wavelength, e.g., water droplets in the atmosphere, latex particles in paint, droplets in emulsions, including milk, and biological cells and cellular components, a more detailed approach is necessary.
The Mie solution is named after its developer, German physicist Gustav Mie. Danish physicist Ludvig Lorenz and others independently developed the theory of electromagnetic plane wave scattering by a dielectric sphere.
The formalism allows the calculation of the electric and magnetic fields inside and outside a spherical object and is generally used to calculate either how much light is scattered (the total optical cross section), or where it goes (the form factor). The notable features of these results are the Mie resonances, sizes that scatter particularly strongly or weakly. This is in contrast to Rayleigh scattering for small particles and Rayleigh–Gans–Debye scattering (after Lord Rayleigh, Richard Gans and Peter Debye) for large particles. The existence of resonances and other features of Mie scattering makes it a particularly useful formalism when using scattered light to measure particle size.
Approximations
Rayleigh approximation (scattering)
Rayleigh scattering describes the elastic scattering of light by spheres that are much smaller than the wavelength of light. The intensity I of the scattered radiation is given by
where I0 is the light intensity before the interaction with the particle, R is the distance between the particle and the observer, θ is the scattering angle, λ is the wavelength of light under consideration, n is the refractive index of the particle, and d is the diameter of the particle.
It can be seen from the above equation that Rayleigh scattering is strongly dependent upon the size of the particle and the wavelengths. The intensity of the Rayleigh scattered radiation increases rapidly as the ratio of particle size to wavelength increases. Furthermore, the intensity of Rayleigh scattered radiation is identical in the forward and reverse directions.
The Rayleigh scattering model breaks down when the particle size becomes larger than around 10% of the wavelength of the incident radiation. In the case of particles with dimensions greater than this, Mie's scattering model can be used to find the intensity of the scattered radiation. The intensity of Mie scattered radiation is given by the summation of an infinite series of terms rather than by a simple mathematical expression. It can be shown, however, that scattering in this range of particle sizes differs from Rayleigh scattering in several respects: it is roughly independent of wavelength and it is larger in the forward direction than in the reverse direction. The greater the particle size, the more of the light is scattered in the forward direction.
The blue colour of the sky results from Rayleigh scattering, as the size of the gas particles in the atmosphere is much smaller than the wavelength of visible light. Rayleigh scattering is much greater for blue light than for other colours due to its shorter wavelength. As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, its blue component is Rayleigh scattered strongly by atmospheric gases but the longer wavelength (e.g. red/yellow) components are not. The sunlight arriving directly from the Sun therefore appears to be slightly yellow, while the light scattered through rest of the sky appears blue. During sunrises and sunsets, the effect of Rayleigh scattering on the spectrum of the transmitted light is much greater due to the greater distance the light rays have to travel through the high-density air near the Earth's surface.
In contrast, the water droplets that make up clouds are of a comparable size to the wavelengths in visible light, and the scattering is described by Mie's model rather than that of Rayleigh. Here, all wavelengths of visible light are scattered approximately identically, and the clouds therefore appear to be white or grey.
Rayleigh–Gans approximation
The Rayleigh–Gans approximation is an approximate solution to light scattering when the relative refractive index of the particle is close to that of the environment, and its size is much smaller in comparison to the wavelength of light divided by |n − 1|, where n is the refractive index:
where is the wavevector of the light (), and refers to the linear dimension of the particle. The former condition is often referred as the "optically soft" and the approximation holds for particles of arbitrary shape.
Anomalous diffraction approximation of van de Hulst
The anomalous diffraction approximation is valid for large (compared to wavelength) and optically soft spheres; soft in the context of optics implies that the refractive index of the particle (m) differs only slightly from the refractive index of the environment, and the particle subjects the wave to only a small phase shift. The extinction efficiency in this approximation is given by
where Q is the efficiency factor of scattering, which is defined as the ratio of the scattering cross-section and geometrical cross-section πa2.
The term p = 4πa(n − 1)/λ has as its physical meaning the phase delay of the wave passing through the centre of the sphere, where a is the sphere radius, n is the ratio of refractive indices inside and outside of the sphere, and λ the wavelength of the light.
This set of equations was first described by van de Hulst in (1957).
Mathematics
The scattering by a spherical nanoparticle is solved exactly regardless of the particle size. We consider scattering by a plane wave propagating along the z-axis polarized along the x-axis. Dielectric and magnetic permeabilities of a particle are and , and and for the environment.
In order to solve the scattering problem, we write first the solutions of the vector Helmholtz equation in spherical coordinates, since the fields inside and outside the particles must satisfy it. Helmholtz equation:
In addition to the Helmholtz equation, the fields must satisfy the conditions and , .
Vector spherical harmonics possess all the necessary properties, introduced as follows:
— magnetic harmonics (TE),
— electric harmonics (TM),
where
and — Associated Legendre polynomials, and — any of the spherical Bessel functions.
Next, we expand the incident plane wave in vector spherical harmonics:
Here the superscript means that in the radial part of the functions are spherical Bessel functions of the first kind.
The expansion coefficients are obtained by taking integrals of the form
In this case, all coefficients at are zero, since the integral over the angle in the numerator is zero.
Then the following conditions are imposed:
1) Interface conditions on the boundary between the sphere and the environment (which allow us to relate the expansion coefficients of the incident, internal, and scattered fields)
2) The condition that the solution is bounded at the origin (therefore, in the radial part of the generating functions , spherical Bessel functions of the first kind are selected for the internal field),
3) For a scattered field, the asymptotics at infinity corresponds to a diverging spherical wave (in connection with this, for the scattered field in the radial part of the generating functions spherical Hankel functions of the first kind are chosen).
Scattered fields are written in terms of a vector harmonic expansion as
Here the superscript means that in the radial part of the functions are spherical Hankel functions of the first kind (those of the second kind would have ), and ,
Internal fields:
is the wave vector outside the particle is the wave vector in the medium from the particle material, and are the refractive indices of the medium and the particle.
After applying the interface conditions, we obtain expressions for the coefficients:
where
with being the radius of the sphere.
and represent the spherical functions of Bessel and Hankel of the first kind, respectively.
Scattering and extinction cross-sections
Values commonly calculated using Mie theory include efficiency coefficients for extinction , scattering , and absorption .
These efficiency coefficients are ratios of the cross section of the respective process, , to the particle protected area, , where a is the particle radius.
According to the definition of extinction,
and .
The scattering and extinction coefficients can be represented as the infinite series:
Application to subwavelength particles
If the size of the particle is equal to several wavelengths in the material, then the scattered fields have some features.
Further, we will talk about the form of the electric field since the magnetic field is obtained from it by taking the rotor.
All Mie coefficients depend on the frequency and have maximums when the denominator is close to zero (exact equality to zero is achieved for complex frequencies). In this case, it is possible, that the contribution of one specific harmonic dominates in scattering. Then at large distances from the particle, the radiation pattern of the scattered field will be similar to the corresponding radiation pattern of the angular part of vector spherical harmonics. The harmonics correspond to electric dipoles (if the contribution of this harmonic dominates in the expansion of the electric field, then the field is similar to the electric dipole field), correspond to the electric field of the magnetic dipole, and - electric and magnetic quadrupoles, and - octupoles, and so on. The maxima of the scattering coefficients (as well as the change of their phase to ) are called multipole resonances.
The dependence of the scattering cross-section on the wavelength and the contribution of specific resonances strongly depends on the particle material. For example, for a gold particle with a radius of 100 nm, the contribution of the electric dipole to scattering predominates in the optical range, while for a silicon particle there are pronounced magnetic dipole and quadrupole resonances. For metal particles, the peak visible in the scattering cross-section is also called localized plasmon resonance.
In the limit of small particles or long wavelengths, the electric dipole contribution dominates in the scattering cross-section.
Other directions of the incident plane wave
In case of x-polarized plane wave, incident along the z-axis, decompositions of all fields contained only harmonics with m=1,
but for an arbitrary incident wave this is not the case.
For a rotated plane wave, the expansion coefficients can be obtained, for example, using the fact that during rotation, vector spherical harmonics are transformed through each other by Wigner D-matrixes.
In this case, the scattered field will be decomposed by all possible harmonics:
Then the scattering cross section will be expressed in terms of the coefficients as follows:
Kerker effect
The Kerker effect is a phenomenon in scattering directionality, which occurs when different multipole responses are presented and not negligible.
In 1983, in the work of Kerker, Wang and Giles the direction of scattering by particles with was investigated. In particular, it was shown that for hypothetical particles with backward scattering is completely suppressed. This can be seen as an extension to a spherical surface of Giles' and Wild's results for reflection at a planar surface with equal refractive indices where reflection and transmission is constant and independent of angle of incidence.
In addition, scattering cross sections in the forward and backward directions are simply expressed in terms of Mie coefficients:
For certain combinations of coefficients, the expressions above can be minimized.
So, for example, when terms with can be neglected (dipole approximation), , corresponds to the minimum in backscattering (magnetic and electric dipoles are equal in magnitude and are in phase, this is also called 'first Kerker' or 'zero-backward intensity condition'). And corresponds to minimum in forward scattering, this is also called ‘second Kerker condition’ (or ‘near-zero forward intensity condition’). From the optical theorem, it is shown that for a passive particle is not possible. For the exact solution of the problem, it is necessary to take into account the contributions of all multipoles. The sum of the electric and magnetic dipoles forms Huygens source
For dielectric particles, maximum forward scattering is observed at wavelengths longer than the wavelength of magnetic dipole resonance, and maximum backward scattering at shorter ones.
.
Later, other varieties of the effect were found. For example, the transverse Kerker effect, with nearly complete simultaneous
suppression of both forward and backward scattered fields (side-scattering patterns), optomechanical Kerker effect, in acoustic scattering, and also found in plants.
There is also a short with an explanation of the effect.
Dyadic Green's function of a sphere
Green's function is a solution to the following equation:
where — identity matrix for , and for . Since all fields are vectorial, the Green function is a 3 by 3 matrix and is called a dyadic. If polarization is induced in the system, when the fields are written as
In the same way as the fields, the Green's function can be decomposed into vector spherical harmonics.
Dyadic Green's function of a free space а:
In the presence of a sphere, the Green's function is also decomposed into vector spherical harmonics. Its appearance depends on the environment in which the points and are located.
When both points are outside the sphere ():
where the coefficients are :
When both points are inside the sphere () :
Coefficients:
Source is inside the sphere and observation point is outside () :
coefficients:
Source is outside the sphere and observation point is inside () :
coefficients:
Computational codes
Mie solutions are implemented in a number of programs written in different computer languages such as Fortran, MATLAB, and Mathematica. These solutions solve for an infinite series, and provide as output the calculation of the scattering phase function, extinction, scattering, and absorption efficiencies, and other parameters such as asymmetry parameters or radiation torque. Current usage of the term "Mie solution" indicates a series approximation to a solution of Maxwell's equations. There are several known objects that allow such a solution: spheres, concentric spheres, infinite cylinders, clusters of spheres and clusters of cylinders. There are also known series solutions for scattering by ellipsoidal particles. A list of codes implementing these specialized solutions is provided in the following:
Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres – solutions for a single sphere, coated spheres, multilayer sphere, and cluster of spheres;
Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders – solutions for a single cylinder, multilayer cylinders, and cluster of cylinders.
A generalization that allows a treatment of more generally shaped particles is the T-matrix method, which also relies on a series approximation to solutions of Maxwell's equations.
See also external links for other codes and calculators.
Applications
Mie theory is very important in meteorological optics, where diameter-to-wavelength ratios of the order of unity and larger are characteristic for many problems regarding haze and cloud scattering. A further application is in the characterization of particles by optical scattering measurements. The Mie solution is also important for understanding the appearance of common materials like milk, biological tissue and latex paint.
Atmospheric science
Mie scattering occurs when the diameters of atmospheric particulates are similar to or larger than the wavelengths of the scattered light. Dust, pollen, smoke and microscopic water droplets that form clouds are common causes of Mie scattering. Mie scattering occurs mostly in the lower portions of the atmosphere, where larger particles are more abundant, and dominates in cloudy conditions.
Cancer detection and screening
Mie theory has been used to determine whether scattered light from tissue corresponds to healthy or cancerous cell nuclei using angle-resolved low-coherence interferometry.
Clinical laboratory analysis
Mie theory is a central principle in the application of nephelometric based assays, widely used in medicine to measure various plasma proteins. A wide array of plasma proteins can be detected and quantified by nephelometry.
Magnetic particles
A number of unusual electromagnetic scattering effects occur for magnetic spheres. When the relative permittivity equals the permeability, the back-scatter gain is zero. Also, the scattered radiation is polarized in the same sense as the incident radiation. In the small-particle (or long-wavelength) limit, conditions can occur for zero forward scatter, for complete polarization of scattered radiation in other directions, and for asymmetry of forward scatter to backscatter. The special case in the small-particle limit provides interesting special instances of complete polarization and forward-scatter-to-backscatter asymmetry.
Metamaterial
Mie theory has been used to design metamaterials. They usually consist of three-dimensional composites of metal or non-metallic inclusions periodically or randomly embedded in a low-permittivity matrix. In such a scheme, the negative constitutive parameters are designed to appear around the Mie resonances of the inclusions: the negative effective permittivity is designed around the resonance of the Mie electric dipole scattering coefficient, whereas negative effective permeability is designed around the resonance of the Mie magnetic dipole scattering coefficient, and doubly negative material (DNG) is designed around the overlap of resonances of Mie electric and magnetic dipole scattering coefficients. The particle usually have the following combinations:
one set of magnetodielectric particles with values of relative permittivity and permeability much greater than one and close to each other;
two different dielectric particles with equal permittivity but different size;
two different dielectric particles with equal size but different permittivity.
In theory, the particles analyzed by Mie theory are commonly spherical but, in practice, particles are usually fabricated as cubes or cylinders for ease of fabrication. To meet the criteria of homogenization, which may be stated in the form that the lattice constant is much smaller than the operating wavelength, the relative permittivity of the dielectric particles should be much greater than 1, e.g. to achieve negative effective permittivity (permeability).
Particle sizing
Mie theory is often applied in laser diffraction analysis to inspect the particle sizing effect. While early computers in the 1970s were only able to compute diffraction data with the more simple Fraunhofer approximation, Mie is widely used since the 1990s and officially recommended for particles below 50 micrometers in guideline ISO 13320:2009.
Mie theory has been used in the detection of oil concentration in polluted water.
Mie scattering is the primary method of sizing single sonoluminescing bubbles of air in water and is valid for cavities in materials, as well as particles in materials, as long as the surrounding material is essentially non-absorbing.
Parasitology
It has also been used to study the structure of Plasmodium falciparum, a particularly pathogenic form of malaria.
Extensions
In 1986, P. A. Bobbert and J. Vlieger extended the Mie model to calculate scattering by a sphere in a homogeneous medium placed on flat surface. Like Mie model, the extended model can be applied to spheres with a radius close to the wavelength of the incident light. There is a C++ code implementing Bobbert–Vlieger (BV) model.
Recent developments are related to scattering by ellipsoid.
The contemporary studies go to well known research of Rayleigh.
See also
Computational electromagnetics
Light scattering by particles
List of atmospheric radiative transfer codes
Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres
Optical properties of water and ice
References
Further reading
External links
SCATTERLIB and scattport.org are collections of light scattering codes with implementations of Mie solutions in FORTRAN, C++, IDL, Pascal, Mathematica and Mathcad
JMIE (2D C++ code to calculate the analytical fields around an infinite cylinder, developed by Jeffrey M. McMahon)
ScatLab. Mie scattering software for Windows.
STRATIFY MatLab code of scattering from multilayered spheres in cases where the source is a point dipole and a plane wave. Description in arXiv:2006.06512
Scattnlay, an open-source C++ Mie solution package with Python and JavaScript wrappers. Provides far-field and near-field simulation results for multilayered spheres.
Online Mie scattering calculator provides simulation of scattering properties (including multipole decomposition) and near-field maps for bulk, core-shell, and multilayer spheres. Material parameters include all nk-data files from refractiveindex.info website. The source code is part of Scattnlay project.
Online Mie solution calculator is available, with documentation in German and English.
Online Mie scattering calculator produces beautiful graphs over a range of parameters.
phpMie Online Mie scattering calculator written on PHP.
Mie resonance mediated light diffusion and random lasing.
Mie solution for spherical particles.
PyMieScatt, a Mie solution package written in Python.
pyMieForAll, an open-source C++ Mie solution package with Python wrapper.
Radio frequency propagation
Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)
Visibility
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Roots
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The Roots
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The Roots are an American hip hop band formed in 1987 by Tariq "Black Thought" Trotter and Ahmir "Questlove" Thompson in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. The Roots serve as the house band on NBC's The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, having served in the same role on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon from 2009 to 2014.
The Roots are known for a jazzy and eclectic approach to hip-hop featuring live musical instruments and the group's work has consistently been met with critical acclaim. ThoughtCo ranked the band #7 on its list of the 25 Best Hip-Hop Groups of All-Time, calling them "Hip-hop's first legitimate band."
In addition to the band's music, several members of the Roots are involved in side projects, including record production, acting, and regularly serving as guests on other musicians’ albums and live shows.
Band history
1987–1993: Early years
The Roots originated in Philadelphia with Ahmir "Questlove" Thompson and Tariq "Black Thought" Trotter while they were both attending the Philadelphia High School for the Creative and Performing Arts. They would busk out on the street corners with Questlove playing bucket drums and Black Thought rapping over his rhythms. Their first organized gig was a talent show in 1989 at the school where they used the name Radio Activity, which began a series of name changes that progressed through Black to the Future and then The Square Roots. Another MC, Malik B., and a permanent bass player, Leonard "Hub" Hubbard, were added to the band before the release of their first album. In 1992, they dropped the "Square" from "Square Roots" because a local folk group had claim to the name.
Unable to break through in their native Philadelphia, the band briefly moved to London, where they would release their 1993 debut, Organix. The album was released and sold independently. In the span of a year, the band developed a cult following in Europe, boosted by touring. The Roots would receive offers from music labels, and the band eventually signed with DGC/Geffen.
1994–1997: Do You Want More?!!!??! and Illadelph Halflife
The Roots' first album for DGC, Do You Want More?!!!??!, was released in the United States the year following the signing. During the recording process, beatboxer Rahzel and keyboardist Scott Storch joined the band. The addition of the two members provided additional depth to the band's sound, and energized the Roots' Philadelphia jam sessions, which the band would later sample for songs on Do You Want More?!!!??!. The album's opening track features Black Thought introducing the band's sound as "organic hip hop jazz," and indeed; the album is characterized by a combination of contemporary East Coast hip hop and jazz influences, with a heavy reliance on Storch's Fender Rhodes and the occasional saxophone of guest musician Steve Coleman. The album spawned three singles with accompanying videos: "Proceed," "Distortion to Static," and "Silent Treatment." The album was a moderate hit among alternative music fans, boosted by the group's appearance at Lollapalooza. In 1995, the band performed at the Montreux Jazz Festival. In the years since its release, Do You Want More?!!!??! has come to be considered to be a classic jazz rap album.
The 1996 release Illadelph Halflife was the group's third album and their first to break the Top 40 on the Billboard 200 chart, spurred in part by MTV's airplay of the video for "What They Do" (a parody of rap video clichés) and "Clones," which was their first single to reach the top five on the rap charts. The band added "What They Do" was also the group's first single to hit the Top 40 of Billboard's charts, reaching a peak of No. 34. Scott Storch left the band and was replaced by a new keyboardist, Kamal Gray. The band's sound would take a darker turn during this period, heavily influenced by the Wu-Tang Clan and the RZA's grimy and haunting production style, replete with samples from old jazz and classical music. The album is also notable for its many guests and collaborators, including Common, D'Angelo, Q-Tip, and others. These collaborations would provide the foundation for the creation of the Soulquarians and permanently forged the Roots' association with the neo-soul subgenre.
1998–2000: Breakthrough with Things Fall Apart
The group released Things Fall Apart in 1999 (named after Things Fall Apart, a novel by Chinua Achebe, which in turn was named after a line from "The Second Coming" by W.B. Yeats). This was their breakthrough album, peaking at No. 4 on the Billboard 200 charts and earning a gold record, signifying U.S. sales of at least 500,000 units. The album was eventually certified platinum in April 2013. Mos Def contributed to the track entitled "Double Trouble." The track "Act Two" features African-Belgian band Zap Mama and Common. The track "You Got Me," a duet with R&B singer Erykah Badu and Eve and Jill Scott intended by Black Thought for the "unconscious" population, peaked at No. 39 on the Billboard Hot 100 charts. At the 42nd Grammy Awards "You Got Me" won the award for Best Rap Performance By a Duo or Group and the album was nominated for Best Rap Album.
Steve Huey of the website allmusic.com perceived "a strong affinity for the neo-soul movement" in the album. First-time cameos on Things Fall Apart for Philadelphia natives Beanie Sigel and Eve helped to earn them major record deals later (with Roc-A-Fella and Ruff Ryders, respectively). After this album, Dice Raw left the collective to record his solo debut album Reclaiming the Dead. In the summer, the band performed at the Woodstock '99 concert in New York state.
2001–2005: Phrenology and The Tipping Point
Several members, including longtime member Malik B., left the group. In December 2001, the Roots backed Jay-Z for his MTV Unplugged concert. With heightened popularity came mounting pressure. The Roots released Phrenology (named after the pseudoscience of the same name) in 2002. Despite not charting as high as Things Fall Apart, reaching a peak of No. 28 on the charts, Phrenology was commercially successful, being certified gold, and earning a Grammy nomination for Best Rap Album. At the time, however, there came rumors that the Roots were losing interest in their signing with MCA. During this time, the band backed Jay-Z for his 2003 farewell concert in Madison Square Garden and appeared in the accompanying Fade to Black concert film.
After Phrenology, Ben Kenney and Scratch both left the group; Kenney joined the rock band Incubus. This culminated with the release of 2004's The Tipping Point, the byproduct of several jam sessions. The album earned two more Grammy nominations: one for Best Urban/Alternative Performance for the track "Star/Pointro" and another for Best Rap Performance By A Duo Or Group for the track "Don't Say Nuthin'." The Tipping Point peaked at No. 4 on the Billboard album chart. In 2005, Home Grown! The Beginner's Guide to Understanding the Roots, Volumes 1 & 2, a two-disc compilation album, was released. The Roots were among several performers on the 2006 film Dave Chappelle's Block Party, whose event took place on September 18, 2004, and was released on film two years later.
2006–2008: Game Theory and Rising Down
Game Theory was released August 29, 2006, on Def Jam Recordings. Questlove describes the album as being very dark and reflective of the political state in America. The first single from the album, "Don't Feel Right," appeared on the internet in May 2006, and is available for free download on several websites. The album's first video, titled "The Don't Feel Right Trilogy," premiered on August 21, 2006, and features three songs, "In the Music," "Here I Come," and "Don't Feel Right." It earned an 83 on Metacritic and 2 Grammy Nominations. The late J Dilla is honoured on different occasions throughout the album. Track 1 is credited to be "Supervised by J Dilla." Track 13 "Can't Stop This" is devoted to his persona, the first part being an edited version of a track ("Time: The Donut of the Heart") of his Donuts album, released three days before his death. This version comprises vocals by Black Thought. Secondly, a string of kindred artists reminisce about J Dilla in the form of answering machine messages.
The Roots' eighth studio album, Rising Down, was released on April 29, 2008, the 16-year anniversary of the 1992 Los Angeles riots. In the weeks before the album's release, the original first single "Birthday Girl," a radio-friendly collaboration with Fall Out Boy's Patrick Stump was removed from the album reportedly because it didn't fit in with the album's tone. It remained as a digital download available from iTunes as a bonus track, as well as on international releases. Picking up where Game Theory left off, the album maintains a dark and political tone, with Black Thought and several guests venting about the ills of society today. The album's guests include Chrisette Michele, Common, Mos Def, Saigon, Styles P, Talib Kweli, and Wale; it also features Philadelphia artists Dice Raw, DJ Jazzy Jeff, Peedi Crakk, Greg Porn, and Truck North, as well as former member Malik B. Rising Down features the Roots incorporating a more electronic and synth-heavy feel into their sound. Rising Down was released to critical acclaim, garnering an overall score of 80 on Metacritic. The album's first single was "Rising Up" featuring Chrisette Michele and Wale.
2009–2010: How I Got Over and Wake Up!
How I Got Over reflects the relief the band felt at the end of the Bush administration and the beginning of the Obama presidency. Guests include Blu, Phonte, and Patty Crash. A cover of Cody Chesnutt's song "Serve This Royalty" was expected to be covered on the album, similar to the group's reworking of his single for The Seed 2.0 on Phrenology. Rather than relying on samples, the album was recorded live, with covers (including Celestial Blues, featuring the song's original artist, Andy Bey) being reinterpreted by the band. The album was released on June 22, 2010.
On June 24, 2009, the Roots debuted the first single and title track from the album live on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon. The song features longtime Roots collaborator Dice Raw. The Roots collaborated with R&B singer John Legend on the album Wake Up!. The album was released on September 21, 2010, and was publicized two days later with a live concert at Terminal 5 in New York City with John Legend and Jennifer Hudson that was streamed on YouTube. On October 30, 2010, the Roots and John Legend played live at the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear in Washington, D.C.
2011–2014: Undun, ...And Then You Shoot Your Cousin, and side projects
The Roots released their 13th album Undun via Def Jam Records on December 6, 2011. The first single "Make My" leaked on October 17, 2011. Undun tells the story of their semifictional character, Redford Stephens, who struggles unsuccessfully to avoid a life of crime and fast money. The album's name is inspired by The Guess Who's song "undun," and the character was named after the Sufjan Stevens song "Redford." The album features artists including Aaron Livingston, Big K.R.I.T., Phonte, Dice Raw, Greg Porn, Truck North, Bilal, and Sufjan Stevens. The Roots also collaborated with R&B singer Betty Wright on the 2011 album Betty Wright: The Movie, credited to Betty Wright and the Roots. The album, co-produced by Wright and Questlove, was nominated for a 2012 Grammy in the "Best Traditional R&B Performance."
The Roots and Elvis Costello released Wise Up Ghost on September 17, 2013, via Blue Note Records. On July 22, 2013, they released a music video for the first single, "Walk Us Uptown." The Roots released ...And Then You Shoot Your Cousin on May 19, 2014. The first single, "When the People Cheer," was released on April 7, 2014. Black Thought described the album as a satirical look at violence in hip-hop and American society overall.
2015–present: End Game
In an interview with Fuse TV, Questlove said he also had ". . . two or three secret, major musical projects that I'm working on that I can't really talk about." In September 2016 The Roots backed up Usher at a Global Citizen benefit concert in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, launching speculation of a major collaboration between the two acts. In October 2016, the group announced their 17th studio album, End Game. Black Thought in June 2017 further revealed that producers 9th Wonder and Salaam Remi will contribute to the album, and in March 2019, Questlove revealed there will be an unreleased J Dilla beat on it as well.
The Roots was among hundreds of artists whose material was destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire. Responding to an earlier Times report, Questlove confirmed that the masters for Do You Want More?!!!??! and Illadelph Halflife were among those lost in the fire.
Members
The Roots' original lineup included Tariq "Black Thought" Trotter (MC) and Ahmir "Questlove" Thompson (drums), classmates at the Philadelphia High School for the Creative and Performing Arts. As they began to play at school and on local streets, they added bassist Josh "The Rubberband" Abrams, who went on to form the jazz group The Josh Abrams Quartet. They later added another MC, Malik Abdul Basit-Smart ("Malik B.") and Leonard Nelson "Hub" Hubbard (bass), and Scott Storch (keyboards). Kenyatta "Kid Crumbs" Warren (MC) was in the band for Organix, the Roots' first album release. Another MC, Dice Raw, joined the band in cameo appearances on later albums. The band filled Storch's position with Kamal Gray (keyboards), who continues in that capacity. Kamal Gray did not play with the Roots on Late Night With Jimmy Fallon between April or May and early September 2012. His absence was not publicly explained, however on the September 17, 2012 (NBC's 'Late Night' 700th) episode, Gray returned to the group.
Beatboxer Rahzel was a band member from 1995 to 1999. Alongside Rahzel was turntablist/vocalist Scratch, who also DJ'd in live concerts. However Scratch left abruptly in 2003.
Malik B. left the group in 1999 due to personal reasons but continued to record, making occasional cameos on some albums. Guitarist Ben Kenney had a brief stint with the group and contributed to the Phrenology album, but left to join Incubus as bassist. Percussionist Frank Knuckles joined the lineup in 2002 and guitarist Kirk "Captain Kirk" Douglas replaced Kenney. Vocalist Martin Luther toured with the Roots in 2003 and 2004 and contributed to the Tipping Point album. The group announced in August 2007 that its longtime bassist Leonard Hubbard was leaving. Owen Biddle was the band's bassist in 2007–2011.
The band announced on August 25, 2011, that Owen Biddle left the band, replaced by Mark Kelley. On The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, James Poyser plays additional keyboards.
Because most of the band members hail from Philadelphia and its surrounding area, they showed their support for the Philadelphia Phillies during the 2009 World Series against the New York Yankees, displaying Phillies memorabilia when performing on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon. On the episode which aired the day after the Yankees clinched the title, Questlove stated "No comment!" on the show's intro (when he usually states the episode number), and had a Yankees logo purposely displayed upside-down on his drumset. In 2010, the group showed support for the Philadelphia Flyers during their run to the 2010 Stanley Cup Finals by having the team logo on their drumset, and again in 2014 when the Flyers faced the New York Rangers in the first round of the playoffs on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon.
In April 2017, Frank Knuckles left the Roots due to family issues, and has not appeared on The Tonight Show since then. Later in August 2017, Knuckles sued Questlove, Black Thought, and the band manager Shawn Gee over unpaid royalties.
In June 2017, Questlove announced in an interview that producer and performer Stro Elliot is an official member of the Roots.
On July 29, 2020, founding member Malik B. died at the age of 47.
Band lineup
Current members
Black Thought – rap and singing vocals (1987–present)
Questlove – drums, backing rap vocals, beatboxing (1987–present)
Kamal Gray – keyboards, backing rap vocals (1994–present)
Captain Kirk Douglas – guitars, singing vocals (2003–present)
Tuba Gooding, Jr. (Damon Bryson) – sousaphone, tuba (2007–present)
James Poyser – keyboards (2009–present)
Ray Angry – keyboards (2010–present)
Mark Kelley – bass, synthesizer bass, moog (2011–present)
Ian Hendrickson-Smith – flutes, saxophones (2015–present)
Dave Guy – trumpet (2015–present)
Stro Elliot – beatbox, percussion, sampling, tambourine, Ableton, HandSonic, SPD-SX, finger drumming, keyboards (2017–present)
Jeremy Ellis – beatbox, sampling, Maschine, Arcade machine sampler, midi fighter, finger drumming (2014–present)
Former members
Malik B. – rap vocals (1987–1999; died 2020)
Josh 'Rubberband' Abrams – bass (1992–1994)
Kenyatta 'Kid Crumbs' Warren – rap vocals (1993)
Scott Storch – keyboards (1993–1995)
Nikki Yeoh – keyboards (1994)
Hub – bass (1994–2007; died 2021)
Rahzel – beatboxing (1995–2001)
Dice Raw – rap vocals (1995–2001) (frequent collaborator with the band)
Scratch – beatboxing (1998–2003)
Ben Kenney – guitars, bass (2000–2003)
F. Knuckles – percussion (2001–2017)
Martin Luther – guitars, vocals (2003–2004)
Owen Biddle – bass (2007–2011)
Timeline
Touring and other work
The band tours extensively, and their live sets are frequently hailed as the best in the genre. The Black Eyed Peas opened for The Roots in a performance at Rochester Institute of Technology in May of 2001. In 2006, the band played a concert in NYC's Radio City Music Hall with Common, Nas, Talib Kweli, and Big Daddy Kane. Also in 2006, they backed Jay-Z for his Reasonable Doubt Concert, a celebration of the 10-year anniversary of the release of his first album.
In 1994, the Roots appeared on the Red Hot Organization's compilation album, Stolen Moments: Red Hot + Cool. The album, meant to raise awareness and funds in support of the AIDS epidemic in relation to the African American community, was heralded as "Album of the Year" by Time magazine. They have been highly involved in many other Red Hot Organization productions, including the 1998 album Red Hot + Rhapsody and the 2001 album Red Hot + Indigo, a tribute to Duke Ellington.
The Roots have been featured in four movies: Dave Chappelle's Block Party, both performing album songs and playing as a backing band for other artists; Spike Lee's Bamboozled; Marc Levin's Brooklyn Babylon, in which Black Thought plays the protagonist, Solomon, and former band member Rahzel narrates; and Chasing Liberty, starring Mandy Moore. Black Thought and Questlove were both featured in the movie Brown Sugar. Black Thought made an appearance in the film Love Rome as Tariq Trotter, and Questlove currently appears in the recent documentary movie about TBC Brass Band called From the Mouthpiece on Back, which lists the Roots as one of the executive producers of the movie.
The Roots were featured on the album True Love by Toots and the Maytals, which won the Grammy Award in 2004 for Best Reggae Album, and showcased many notable musicians including Willie Nelson, Eric Clapton, Jeff Beck, Trey Anastasio, Gwen Stefani / No Doubt, Ben Harper, Bonnie Raitt, Manu Chao, Ryan Adams, Keith Richards, Toots Hibbert, Paul Douglas, Jackie Jackson, Ken Boothe, and The Skatalites.
The band guest-performed with the Dave Matthews Band during their 2007 summer tour. Members of the Roots played in various forms as well as a whole band on DMB's back to back concerts at Alpine Valley Music Theatre in East Troy, Wisconsin. In 2007, the band performed at an NAACP tribute to Bono, covering U2's "Sunday Bloody Sunday" and "Pride (In the Name of Love)." Black Thought mixed in lines from the band's own "False Media."
The group hosts a highly anticipated jam session every year the night before the Grammys. The Roots jam session, produced by Okayplayer, Goodtime Girl Entertainment, and Keldof, has been attended by celebrities ranging from Jay-Z, Beyoncé, and Tom Cruise to Don Cheadle, Jeremy Piven, and Prince, with impromptu performances from Snoop Dogg and Corrine Bailey Rae to Queen Latifah, Matisyahu, Fall Out Boy, and Dave Chappelle.
Billed as "The Roots," Questlove, Douglas, and Biddle made an appearance on The Colbert Report on April 15, 2008, when Stephen Colbert spent a week in Philadelphia prior to the 2008 Pennsylvania Democratic primary. During the appearance, they performed the intro song to the show, and closed the episode with a rendition of the "Star Spangled Banner."
The Roots are featured on the Men in Black Original Soundtrack (1997) with the song "The Notic" with neo-soul singer D'Angelo. The song "Here I Come" was featured in the films Superbad, Hancock, and Step Up 3D. "Here I Come" is also featured in many video games including Project Gotham Racing 4. The song "The Seed 2.0" featuring Cody ChesnuTT was featured in the movies Collateral and I Think I Love My Wife, as well as the Without a Trace episode "Candy." The song "Don't Say Nuthin" was featured in the first-season episode, "Busey and the Beach," of HBO's Entourage. The song "Guns Are Drawn," featuring Aaron Livingston, was featured in a season six episode of CBS' Cold Case. The band also collaborated with musician BT on the song "Tao of the Machine," which was featured in the film Blade II along with the Japanese bonus disc for the album Emotional Technology.
They performed on the popular kids' show Yo Gabba Gabba!, performing "Lovely, Love My Family" in 2008. They also did a secret jam session at the Oulipo Ballroom in Kentucky in 2009. In 2012, they played during the NHL Winter Classic at Citizen's Bank Park in Philadelphia and at Austin City Limits Music Festival (ACL) in Austin, Texas. In 2013, they performed at the Gathering of the Vibes Music Festival at Seaside Park in Bridgeport, Connecticut.
The Roots host the Roots Picnic, an annual all-day music festival in Philadelphia, every June. In 2017, they headlined the 2017 NBA All Star game pregame introductions and performed a musical show with various guests titled "The Evolution of Greatness."
Late Night and The Tonight Show
In March 2009, the Roots became the official house band on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon, with "Here I Come" as the show's theme. When Jimmy Fallon became the host of The Tonight Show in February 2014, the Roots became the house band for that show.
The Roots are featured heavily throughout the show, providing the bumper music in and out of commercials, as well as the opening song "Here I Come" and playing the show off the air. Fallon frequently interacts with the band during the course of the show, and they occasionally provide snippets of music for some monologue running jokes such as Funkin' GoNuts. They also provide music and drum rolls for the games with show guests, along with theme songs for the games and segments like Darts of Insanity, Wheel of Carpet Samples, and Christmas Sweaters.
On November 22, 2011, US Congresswoman and presidential candidate Michele Bachmann was a guest on Late Night. For her entrance, the Roots controversially played a snippet from Fishbone's 1985 song, "Lying Ass Bitch" resulting in apologies from Fallon, Questlove for The Roots, and NBC. The incident nearly resulted in the Roots being dismissed from the show, but the timing of the Thanksgiving holiday and a national security gaffe by Bachmann shortly after helped defuse the situation in the media. As a result of the incident, NBC approves all walk on songs prior to the filming of each show.
Sketches
One of the first sketches involving the Roots was "Freestyling with the Roots." Fallon finds an audience member and gets them to talk about themselves and a topic. The information is relayed to Trotter along with a genre of music, and they then compose a song on the spot. In the early days of the show in 2009, there was apprehension about their overall fit with the show, but after the first appearance of this sketch and its successful reception, ". . . They knew they were there for life."
Thank You Notes, a segment every Friday, involves keyboardist James Poyser prominently. The segment starts with "Can I get some thank you writing music, James?" with Poyser playing and typically acting upset. Fallon then tries to engage with him to get him to smile before continuing the segment.
Slow Jam the News features Fallon and Trotter, often with a celebrity guest, rhyming over a "slow-jam" played by the Roots. The lyrics are often political or current events related, with guests usually appearing to talk about an issue pertinent to them. Brian Williams is a frequent popular guest "vocalist," talking about the news as if he were still behind his anchor desk. Some of the notable guest slow-jammers include former President Barack Obama and former Governor Mitt Romney. Like the majority of the show, the segments are uploaded to YouTube after airing on NBC and often go viral; President Obama's clip has received over 8 million views and the Mitt Romney clip received 2.7 million views in less than a week.
The Roots have contributed to additional online successes with the Classroom Instruments sketch. Fallon and a musical guest from the show will record an arrangement of a song with the Roots providing accompaniment on instruments that would be found in an elementary school music class. Examples of these instruments are wood blocks, pixiphones, kazoos, tambourines, melodica, shakers, and recorders. They have performed "Call Me Maybe" with Carly Rae Jepsen, "Blurred Lines" with Robin Thicke, "All I Want for Christmas" with Mariah Carey, "Hello" with Adele, the Sesame Street theme song with several members of the cast, and "Enter Sandman" with Metallica.
The Roots also provide the backing tracks for Fallon's and Justin Timberlake's episodic "History of Rap." As of March 2014, the incredibly popular History of Rap saga consists of 5 parts and 101 individual songs, all performed with a comedic approach. The fifth installment was performed during the inaugural week of Fallon's Tonight Show.
Philanthropy
The founding members of The Roots attended a creative arts school in South Philadelphia called CAPA, and through a donation helped set up the CAPA Foundation, where they now sit on the board. The Roots partnership with the CAPA Foundation also includes opportunities for students to perform on national stages, learn through internships the business side of show business and a master class series.
After watching the 2010 documentary Waiting for Superman, Questlove was inspired to raise money for Harlem Village Academies, a group of charter schools.
Awards and nominations
Grammy Awards
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|2000
|"You Got Me" (with Erykah Badu)
|Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group
|
|-
|Things Fall Apart
|rowspan="2"|Best Rap Album
|
|-
|align=center|2004
|Phrenology
|
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|2005
|"Star"
|Best Urban/Alternative Performance
|
|-
|"Don't Say Nuthin'"
|rowspan="2"|Best Rap Performance By a Duo/Group
|
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|2007
|"Don't Feel Right" (featuring Maimouna Youssef)
|
|-
|Game Theory
|Best Rap Album
|
|-
| rowspan="5" style="text-align:center;"|2011
|"Hang On in There" (with John Legend)
|Best Traditional R&B Vocal Performance
|
|-
|Wake Up! (with John Legend)
|Best R&B Album
|
|-
|"Shine" (with John Legend)
|Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals
|
|-
|"Wake Up Everybody" (with John Legend, Melanie Fiona & Common)
|Best Rap/Sung Collaboration
|
|-
|How I Got Over
|Best Rap Album
|
|-
|align=center|2012
|"Surrender" (with Betty Wright)
| Best Traditional R&B Performance
|
|-
|align=center|2013
|Undun
|Best Rap Album
|
|-
MTV Video Music Awards
|-
|2003
|The Seed 2.0
|MTV2 Award
|
|-
mtvU Woodie Awards
|-
|rowspan="2"|2004
|rowspan="2"|The Roots
|Road Woodie
|
|-
|Welcome Back Woodie
|
|-
BET Awards
|-
|2005
|The Roots
|Best Group
|
|-
|2009
|The Roots
|Best Group
|
|-
NAACP Image Awards
|-
|2005
|The Roots
|Outstanding Duo or Group
|
|-
|2007
|The Roots
|Outstanding Duo or Group
|
|-
|rowspan="2"|2011
|rowspan="2"|Wake Up!
|Outstanding Collaboration
|
|-
|Outstanding Album
|
|-
First Hip-Hop group to perform at Lincoln Center, January 2002
Named one of the "Twenty Greatest Live Acts in the World" by Rolling Stone, 2003
"Heroes Award" from the Philadelphia chapter of the Recording Academy, 2004 (Recipient)
Discography
Organix (1993)
Do You Want More?!!!??! (1995)
Illadelph Halflife (1996)
Things Fall Apart (1999)
Phrenology (2002)
The Tipping Point (2004)
Game Theory (2006)
Rising Down (2008)
How I Got Over (2010)
Undun (2011)
...And Then You Shoot Your Cousin (2014)
A distinctive feature of the Roots albums is the way tracks are numbered. With the exception of their collaboration albums, the Roots have used continuous track numbering beginning with their first studio album Organix through all following albums:
1–17: Organix
18–33: Do You Want More?!!!??!
34–53: Illadelph Halflife
54–71: Things Fall Apart
72–76: The Legendary
77–86: The Roots Come Alive
87–102: Phrenology
103–113: The Tipping Point
114–127: Game Theory
128–143: Rising Down
143–156: How I Got Over
157–170: Undun
171–181: ...And Then You Shoot Your Cousin
Questlove references this numbering system in his book Mo' Meta Blues: The World According to Questlove (specifically to the release of Illadelph Halflife), and explains it was "...our way of saying that it was a continuation of the work we had started on Organix and Do You Want More?!!!??!."
Similarly, the Roots' 2005 compilation albums, Home Grown! The Beginners Guide to Understanding The Roots, Vol. 1 and Vol. 2, feature a continuous track numbering beginning at negative 29 and counting up to zero. The implication is that this "Beginners Guide" would introduce new fans to the Roots and lead them to consuming the Roots' discography beginning at Organix.
−29 thru −14: Home Grown! The Beginners Guide to Understanding The Roots, Vol. 1
−13 thru 0: Home Grown! The Beginners Guide to Understanding The Roots, Vol. 2
References
External links
The Roots' official website
[ The Roots] at Allmusic
TheRootsArchive.com
Retrospective of The Roots at DefJam
The Roots's Philadelphia at MapQuest
Alternative hip hop groups
American funk musical groups
Def Jam Recordings artists
DGC Records artists
Geffen Records artists
Grammy Award winners for rap music
Hip hop groups from Philadelphia
Late Night with Jimmy Fallon
MCA Records artists
Musical groups established in 1987
Musical groups from Philadelphia
The Tonight Show Band members
Radio and television house bands
|
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] |
212127
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh%20law
|
Rayleigh law
|
The Rayleigh law describes the behavior of ferromagnetic materials at low fields.
Ferromagnetic materials consist of magnetic domains. When a small external field is applied, domains parallel to the external field start to grow. In this region, domain walls are moving. They are hindered by material defects. Lord Rayleigh investigated this first and quantified the magnetization as a linear and quadratic term in the field:
Here is the initial susceptibility, describing the reversible part of magnetisation reversal. The Rayleigh constant describes the irreversible Barkhausen jumps.
The Rayleigh law was derived theoretically by Louis Néel.,
The same law describes polarization and direct and converse piezoelectric response of some ferroelectric and ferroelectric-ferroelastic materials. The common feature for ferromagnetic, ferroelectric and ferroelastic materials (i.e., ferroic materials) are domains whose boundaries (domain walls) can be moved by magnetic, electric or mechanical fields.
References
Magnetism
|
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] |
212128
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digable%20Planets
|
Digable Planets
|
Digable Planets () is an American hip hop trio formed in 1987. The trio is composed of rappers Ishmael "Butterfly" Butler, Mariana "Ladybug Mecca" Vieira, and Craig "Doodlebug" Irving. The group is notable for their contributions to the subgenres of jazz rap and alternative hip hop.
History
Origins
Butler and Irving met in Philadelphia in the late 1980s. Originally from Seattle, Butler was interning at Sleeping Bag Records in New York and would visit his grandmother in Philadelphia, where he met local native Irving, who was rapping with a group called the Dread Poets Society. Irving had in turn met Vieira, who was originally from Silver Spring, Maryland, while attending Howard University in Washington, DC.
The initial demos recorded under the name Digable Planets featured only Butler, but after a brief stint with two other members, Butler began collaborating with Irving and Vieira in 1989.
1992–1993: Reachin' (A New Refutation of Time and Space)
The group signed to Pendulum Records in 1992 and all three band members moved to Brooklyn, New York. Their debut album Reachin' (A New Refutation of Time and Space) was released in 1993 and certified gold by the RIAA. The album's lead single, "Rebirth of Slick (Cool Like Dat)" became a crossover hit, peaking at #15 on Billboard magazine's singles chart, earning gold certification by the RIAA, and winning Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group at the Grammy Awards. The track peaked at #67 in the UK Singles Chart in February 1995.
1994–1995 Blowout Comb and breakup
The group's second album Blowout Comb was released in 1994. The album was noted by critics as a stark departure from the previous album, being darker, less hook-oriented and more overtly political in its references to Black Panther and Communist imagery. Writing for Spin in December 1994, Craig Marks declared it "... a beguiling, demanding, damn near revolutionary follow-up." Blowout Comb features guest appearances from artists Jeru the Damaja, Sulaiman and Guru of Gang Starr.
In the same year the group appeared on the Red Hot Organization's compilation album, Stolen Moments: Red Hot + Cool. The album, meant to raise awareness and funds in support of the AIDS epidemic in relation to the African American community, was heralded as "Album of the Year" by Time magazine. The band subsequently disbanded in early 1995 citing "creative differences".
2005–present: Reunions and live album
In February 2005 the trio reunited and embarked on a reunion tour, which was followed by the release of a compilation album titled Beyond the Spectrum: The Creamy Spy Chronicles on October 15, 2005. The album combined previously released material with remixes and B-sides. From 2009 to 2011, Butler and Irving toured across the U.S., Canada, and Europe with a live band, the Cosmic Funk Orchestra.
The group performed at Numbers, in Houston, Texas, on May 15, 2010, alongside the hip hop duo Camp Lo. During an interview with the Houston Chronicle near the time of this show, Doodlebug stated that a new single would be released, called "Fresh Out", and that a new album was planned for digital release in summer of 2010. The group also performed alongside hip-hop group The Pharcyde at the North by Northeast music festival in Toronto, Ontario on June 19, 2011.
A reunion show scheduled for December 2012 in Seattle, Washington was cancelled days before the performance. When asked in a subsequent interview about the group's status, Butler stated "I think it's the end." Despite Butler's previous statement, it was announced in October 2015 that the trio would again reunite for a concert at Seattle's Neptune Theatre on December 30 alongside Shabazz Palaces. Digable Planets held a reunion tour during spring and summer 2016. Following up with the live album Digable Planets Live in late June 2017.
Solo work and collaborations
Butler released Bright Black under the moniker Cherrywine in 2003 before going on to collaborate with multi-instrumentalist Tendai "Baba" Maraire as the group Shabazz Palaces, which has released five albums. Butler has also been employed by Sub Pop's A&R division and is helping the label build its repertoire of artists that are "imaginative" and "daring". Butler and Maraire later collaborated with Hussein Kalonji as Chimurenga Renaissance to release riZe vadZimu riZe in March 2014 on Brick Lane Records.
Irving, also known as Cee Knowledge, released two albums under the name Cee Knowledge & The Cosmic Funk Orchestra. Vieira, also known as Lady Mecca, released Trip The Light Fantastic in 2005. She has continued to collaborate regularly with other musicians, notably on Legacy/Sony's Billie Holiday Remixed and Reimagined album, Del tha Funkee Homosapien's Eleventh Hour, and with hip-hop supergroup eMC. Vieira joined hip hop group Dino 5 as the voice of Tracy Triceratops. Vieira later joined Brazilian hip hop fusion group BROOKZILL! with fellow Dino 5 member Prince Paul.
Discography
Studio albums
Compilation albums
Beyond the Spectrum: The Creamy Spy Chronicles (2005)
Live albums
Digable Planets Live (2017)
Singles
Notes
References
African-American musical groups
Blue Note Records artists
Five percenters
Grammy Award winners for rap music
Hip hop groups from New York City
Musical groups disestablished in 1995
Musical groups from Brooklyn
Musical groups reestablished in 2005
Musical groups disestablished in 2011
Musical groups reestablished in 2015
American musical trios
Alternative hip hop groups
1987 establishments in New York (state)
East Coast hip hop groups
Musical groups established in 1987
EMI Group artists
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%20Ain
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Al Ain
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Al Ain (, , ) is a city in the Eastern Region of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, on the United Arab Emirates' border with Oman, adjacent to the town of Al-Buraimi. It is the largest inland city in the Emirates, the fourth-largest city (after Dubai, Abu Dhabi, and Sharjah), and the second-largest in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. The freeways connecting Al-Ain, Abu Dhabi, and Dubai form a geographic triangle in the country, each city being roughly from the other two.
Al-Ain is known as the "Garden City" () of Abu Dhabi, the UAE or the Gulf, due to its greenery, particularly with regard to the city's oases, parks, tree-lined avenues and decorative roundabouts, with there being strict height controls on new buildings, to no more than seven floors, and according to one author, an oasis around Al-Ain and Al-Hasa in Saudi Arabia are the most important in the Arabian Peninsula. That said, the region of Al-Ain and Al-Buraimi, altogether Tawam or Al-Buraimi Oasis, is of cultural and historical importance. For example, the area witnessed events relevant to the history of Islam during the Rashidun, Umayyad and Abbasid eras, similar to Dibba and Ras Al-Khaimah. It was where Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, the founder of the United Arab Emirates, spent much of his life, at least since 1927, before becoming the Ruler of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi in 1966. Though it is often held that he was born in Abu Dhabi, some hold the view that he was born in Al-Ain. Al-Ain may also be the site of the oldest mosque in the country, in the premises of the Sheikh Khalifa Mosque.
Climate and geography
Al Ain is located approximately east of the capital Abu Dhabi, and about south of Dubai. The eastern region covers an area of approximately . Oman lies to the east, Dubai and Sharjah to the north, Abu Dhabi to the west and the Empty Quarter desert and Saudi Arabia to the south. The topography of Al-Ain is unique and varies as one travels to the east. The ecologically important Jebel Hafeet ("Mount Hafeet"), an outlier of the main Hajar range, is considered one of the monuments of Al-Ain, lying just to the south of the city. Rising to in elevation, Jabal Hafeet is one of the highest mountains in the country, and has a number of ridges which stretch to the inner part of the city, two of which are Jabal An-Naqfah (which touches Al-Ain Oasis), and the Western ridge. Sand dunes of varying texture that are tinged red with iron oxide lie to the north and east of Al-Ain.
The city has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh), featuring long, extremely hot summers and warm winters. In Al-Ain, the mean annual rainfall is and the average relative humidity is 60% (United Arab Emirates University, 1993). Low humidity in Al-Ain, particularly during the summers, makes it a popular destination for many people at that time of year. Boer (1997) classified the UAE climate as hyper-arid and divided it into four climatic regions: the coastal zone along the Persian Gulf, the mountain areas northeast of UAE, the gravel plains around Al Ain, and the central and southern sand desert. More rainfall and lower temperatures occur in the northeast than in the southern and western regions. The monthly average rainfall around Al-Ain was from the period 1970 to 1992.
To the south of the city, near Oman, there is the man-made Lake Zakher, which resulted from the release of waste water from desalination plants. Also in this region, to the east of Jebel Hafeet, lies the area of Mezyad, which has a border crossing with Oman, and is where the historic Mezyad Fort is located.
Demographics
With a population of 766,936 (as of 2017), it has the highest proportion of Emirati nationals (30.8%) in the country, though the majority of its residents are expatriates, particularly from the Indian subcontinent. Many people are from Bangladesh and Pakistan, and a few Afghans which is in total 23,000 Afghan approximately in whole U.A.E and majority are from province of Khost.
Economy
Al Ain is an important services centre for a wide area extending into Oman. There are three major shopping centres, Al Ain Mall, Al Jimi Mall and Al Bawadi Mall (opened in 2009 in Al Khrair area) as well as traditional souqs for fruit and vegetables and livestock. One such souq exists for camels near an IKEA store and Bawadi Mall on Zayed Bin Sultan Street, the road which leads to Mezyad. Industry is growing, but is still on a small scale, and includes the Coca-Cola bottling plant and the Al Ain Portland Cement Works. The water in Al-Ain is of good quality. Service industries such as car sales, mechanics and other artisans are located in the area known as Sanaiya and Pattan Market. Social and governmental infrastructure include the Higher Colleges of Technology, well-equipped medical facilities including the teaching hospital at Tawam, Al Ain International Airport, and military training areas. Al Ain also has world's largest dates processing and marketing company, Al Foah Company LLC. The place is also famous for Al Ain Dairy Farm located just outside Al Ain.
History and prehistory
Part of the historically important Western Hajar region, the area of Al-Ain or Tawam has been inhabited for nearly 8,000 years, with archaeological sites showing human settlement at places like Al-Rumailah, Hili and Jabel Ḥafeet. These early cultures built "beehive" tombs for their dead and engaged in hunting and gathering in the area. The oases provided water for early farms until the modern age. In the 1950s, Sheikh Zayed discovered the tombs, and brought this to the attention of a Danish team, leading to an excavation at the tombs in 1959. In 1971, Al Ain Museum was built to house items from this area. In the 2000s, the Abu Dhabi Authority for Culture & Heritage lobbied for its recognition as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO, and in 2011, Al-Ain became the first World Heritage Site in the UAE to be recognized by UNESCO.
Bronze Age burial sites often re-used materials from earlier burials. For instance, the Wadi Suq communal tomb at Qattara Oasis is thought to have been constructed from stones recovered from previous Umm Al Nar burials.
Finds at Qattara include Wadi Suq era chlorite jugs and bowls and late Bronze Age short swords and daggers. Artefacts recovered also include carnelian jewellery, often associated by UAE historians with trading links to the Indus Valley. A find of particular interest from Qattara is a Bronze Age pendant discovered in the 1970s depicting a double-bodied or entwined pair of horned animals. Made from electrum, an alloy of silver and gold, the motif is found repeated in a number of Bronze Age sites in the UAE. Iron Age finds in and around Al Ain include aflāj (underground water channels) in Bidaa bint Saud, Al-Ain and Al-Buraimi which have been placed several centuries prior to the qanats of the Achaemenid Empire, which had previously been credited with the innovation.
Al Ain was originally within the area of influence of the Dhawahir, a Bedouin tribe who settled Dhahirah before Buraimi. A later wave of settlers, the Na'im, have long had an uneasy relationship with the Dhawahir and the two tribes were frequently in dispute. Numbering 4,500, the Dhawahir consists of three subsections: the Daramikah, who populated Hili, Mutared and Qattara; the Jawabir in Al Ain and the Bani Saad who lived in Jimi. Staying in the villages for the summer date season, in winter the community would move throughout the Trucial States.
The area of Tawam had come under the rule of the Wajihid Dynasty in the 9th century CE.
A number of interests jostled for influence over the tribes of Buraimi, including the Sultan of Muscat, the Wahhabis (who had made a number of incursions) and the Sheikhs of the Trucial States, particularly the Bani Yas of Abu Dhabi, who acquired large tracts of land, principally from the Dhawahir. This suzerainty over Al Ain was cemented by Sheikh Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan, known as 'Zayed the Great', a strong and charismatic leader who took the Dhawahir's main settlement 'Ain Dhawahir (the original name of Al Ain) when the tribe rebelled against him in 1877. He built a fort, one of a number of fortifications established by the various interests vying for control over the oasis, to underline his dominion over the oasis and established a wali, appointing a member of the Dhawahir as his headman.
Wilfred Thesiger visited Al-Ain in the late 1940s, during his travels across the Empty Quarter. He met Sheikh Zayed and stayed with him at Al-Muwaiji Fort. An ongoing dispute between Saudi Arabia, Abu Dhabi and Oman led to the Buraimi Dispute, a series of incidents which saw a Saudi armed force enter the oasis. Forces from the Trucial Oman Scouts, as well as the army of Muscat-Oman, arrived to recapture the oasis. With British intervention, the Saudi forces surrendered, leaving the oasis back in the hands of Abu Dhabi and Oman.
In 1971, Queen Elizabeth II visited the Hilton Hotel in the area, during her tour of the Persian Gulf. Following independence in 1971, Al Ain experienced rapid growth and investment as part of the emirate of Abu Dhabi, quickly becoming larger and more successful than Oman's Al-Buraimi. In 1972, Oman and Abu Dhabi agreed on the final borders to divide Buraimi and Al Ain. Until Sheikh Zayed's death in 2004, Al Ain's municipal code forbade construction of buildings over four stories, with the exceptions of the Hilton, Danat Al Ain Resort, and Rotana hotels. Until 2006, Buraimi and Al Ain shared an open border. This border was closed in November 2006, and passport controls were imposed.
Oases and Aflaj
The city's oases are known for their underground irrigation system (falaj or qanāt) that brings water from boreholes to water farms and palm trees. Falaj irrigation is an ancient system dating back thousands of years, and is used widely in Oman, the UAE, China, Iran and other countries. There are seven oases here. The largest is Al Ain Oasis, near Old Sarooj, and the smallest is Al-Jahili Oasis. The rest are Al Qattara, Al-Muʿtaredh, Al-Jimi, Al-Muwaiji, and Hili.
Examples of aflaj include Falaj Hazza, which is named after Sheikh Zayed's elder brother, Hazza bin Sultan Al Nahyan, and has a district named after it.
Infrastructure
The city is known for its combination of modern and pre-modern buildings. The latter offer an insight into the city's and country's cultural heritage. The city used to have roundabouts in every intersection but recently it has been replaced by traffic signals.
Education
Al-Ain is home to the main federal university in the UAE, the United Arab Emirates University, and to two campuses of the Higher Colleges of Technology – Al Ain Men's College and Al Ain Women's College. Al-Ain is also the home of Horizon International flight academy, Etihad Airways's cadet pilot training centre. Private higher education institutions include the Al Ain University and Abu Dhabi University (Al-Ain campus). Al-Ain also houses the eastern zone headquarters of the Abu Dhabi Department of Education and Knowledge, Abu Dhabi's education authority.
Many of Al-Ain's private schools, catering mainly to the expatriate population, are located in the Al-Manaseer area. They include Al-Ain International school (British curriculum, private school, part of the Aldar group), Al Ain English Speaking School, Al Dhafra Private School, Manor Hall School, Al-Sanawbar School, Liwa International School, Al-Madar International School, Global English School, Emirates Private School, a branch of the International School of Choueifat, and an Institute of Applied Technology campus. Other private schools include the CBSE affiliated school Indian School, Al-Ain, Our Own English High School, Al Adhwa Private School, Brighton College Al Ain and Al Ain Juniors School. A new British International School, Belvedere International School is located in the Al Hili district.
Al-Khwarizmi International College has started a Campus at Al-Ain and is offering BBA programme and various other licensed, accredited and approved courses.
Health
The first hospital in Al-Ain was Kanad Hospital (formerly known as Oasis Hospital), established in 1960 at the invitation of Sheikh Zayed. Kanad Hospital serves all nationalities, and provides training for medical students from UAE University. Ground has been broken for a new hospital to be completed in 2011. The hospital is part of True Sojourners.
Al-Ain is the home of Tawam Hospital, a training and research hospital linked with the UAE University. It was officially inaugurated on 17 December 1979. In March 2006, Johns Hopkins Hospital (Johns Hopkins Medicine International) (JHMI) took over the management of Tawam hospital.
Al Ain Hospital (abbr: AAH, also known as Al-Jimi Hospital) is the general hospital delivering health services to all Al-Ain patients regardless of their nationality. It is centrally located in the Al-Jimi district and is linked with the UAE University. Al-Ain Hospital still occupies old 1970s buildings, but a new building is planned. AAH currently has about 450 beds and provides services in all medical disciplines. In September 2007, the Medical University of Vienna International (MUVI) took over the management of AAH.
Places of worship
Formerly, the city's largest mosque was that of Shaikha Salamah. In 2021, Sheikh Khalifa Bin Zayed Al Nahyan Mosque replaced it as the largest mosque in the city, and it is one of the biggest in the country.
Transportation
Al-Ain is connected via the Dubai–Al-Ain Road to Al Faqa' and Dubai in the north, which also connects to Al Madam in the Emirate of Sharjah via Al-Shwaib. It is also connected to Abu Dhabi in the west, Al-Qu'a in the southeast, and Mezyad in the southwest. Bus and taxi services are available between these areas. The southern border area of Mezyad lies on the road to Dhank, Ibri and Nizwa in Oman. The city's airport (Al Ain International Airport) has scheduled passenger flights to Egypt, Pakistan and India.
Tourism and recreation
Al-Ain is developing as a tourist destination. The dry desert air makes it a welcome retreat from the coastal humidity of the larger cities. Many Emirati nationals in Abu Dhabi have holiday houses in the city making it a popular weekend destination for families from the capital city. Its attractions include the Al Ain National Museum, the Al Ain Palace Museum, several restored forts and the Hili Archaeological Park site, dating back to the Bronze Age. Jebel Hafeet dominates the surrounding area. It is popular to visit to the mineral springs at Green Mubazzarah at the base of the mountain, and to drive to the mountaintop at sunset. Other attractions include Al Ain Zoo, an amusement park named "Hili Fun City", many well-maintained parks popular with families in the summer evenings, and a heritage village. Opened in 2012, Wadi Adventure is located near Jebel Hafeet and provides a range of water-based activities including surfing, kayaking and rafting. On top of Jabel Hafeet is the Mercure Hotel. Mount Hafeet and the nearby 'beehive' tombs are part of what is known as "Jebel Hafeet Desert Park" or "Mezyad Desert Park", which is meant to preserve the nature and geology of the area, besides attracting tourists.
Al-Ain has five major malls – Al Ain Mall in the town centre, Al-Jimi Mall in Al-Jimi District, Bawadi Mall in Al-Khrair District, Remal Mall located in the Sanaiya district, and Hili Mall located in the Hili District. Most commercial activity is centred in and around town centre. Another popular pastime for Emiratis and expatriates alike is spending time in coffee shops and shisha cafes. There are many café's in Al-Ain, ranging in size and quality. The city also has an International standard go-kart circuit. Al-Ain Raceway was selected to host the 2007 Rotax Max World Karting Finals, an event which saw 220 drivers from over 55 different countries compete for the Karting world title. Al-Ain Raceway opened to the general public in May 2008 and proves a popular activity for local Emiratis and tourists alike. It was announced in late 2010 that the 2011 Rotax Max World Karting Finals will be held at Al-Ain Raceway, this will bring nearly 1000 tourists to the small garden city. Like the rest of the UAE, Al-Ain has strict laws governing the consumption and distribution of alcohol. Five facilities in the city currently serve alcohol, Four of which are hotels. Al-Ain Rotana, Hilton, Mercure Grand Jebel Hafeet and Danat Al-Ain Resort, hotels all have pubs, bars, or night clubs. In addition to the hotels, the Al Ain Equestrian, Shooting & Golf Club in Al-Maqam also serves alcohol. Currently, there are only four locations that sell alcohol for private use – Spinneys near Al-Jimi District, an outlet to the left of the Hilton hotel (next to the hotel's staff quarters), High Spirits Bottle Shop behind Lulu Hypermarket Sana‘iya and the North Africa Market in Sanaiya. The city has two English-language radio stations – 100.1 Star FM, which plays English-speaking hits alternating with Arabic-speaking hits, and 105.2 Abu Dhabi Classic FM, which plays classical music.
Sport, culture, and arts
Al-Ain is a cultural retreat for residents of the cities of Dubai and Abu Dhabi. It is home to a major festival of classical music, and is the home of Al Ain Club, which is one of the most successful football clubs in the UAE and Asia. It has many titles and championships to its name. Al-Ain Club contains also eight other games which are: handball, volleyball, basketball, swimming, Table Tennis, Athletics, Jiu jitsu, and Taekwondo.
Hili Fun City hosts two ice hockey teams, the Al Ain Vipers and Ghantoot. Each team has adult and youth teams starting from age 4. The Al-Ain Vipers Men's Team won the Emirates Hockey League in the 2009–10 season.
The Palm Resort to the west of the town hosts a popular rugby club with adult and youth teams, and the Al-Ain International Soccer Club which has three youth teams, including one for 7-9-year-old's. There is a water sports centre called "Wadi Adventure", with a wave pool and surf instructors. Additionally, the park has facilities for kayaking and rafting on an artificial river.
Gallery
See also
Eastern Arabia
Archaeological Sites of Bat, Al-Khutm and Al-Ayn in Oman
Madinat Zayed, administrative centre of the Western Region
Mubazzara Dam
Swaihan
List of tourist attractions in the United Arab Emirates
Wadi
References
External links
Al Ain City Municipality
Al Ain Wildlife Park and Resort
Al Ain Wildlife Park and Resort. Preserving desert wildlife & habitats
Al Ain Wildlife Park and Resort. Expansion project
Al Ain: Oasis in the Desert (Photographic essay from Al Ain Women's College)
Al Ain University of Science and Technology
Oman–United Arab Emirates border crossings
Persian Gulf
Populated places in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi
World Heritage Sites in the United Arab Emirates
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20McDowell
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John McDowell
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John Henry McDowell (born 7 March 1942) is a South African philosopher, formerly a Fellow of University College, Oxford and now University Professor at the University of Pittsburgh. Although he has written on metaphysics, epistemology, ancient philosophy, and meta-ethics, McDowell's most influential work has been in the philosophy of mind and philosophy of language. McDowell was one of three recipients of the 2010 Andrew W. Mellon Foundation's Distinguished Achievement Award, and is a Fellow of both the American Academy of Arts & Sciences and the British Academy.
McDowell has, throughout his career, understood philosophy to be "therapeutic" and thereby to "leave everything as it is" (Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations), which he understands to be a form of philosophical quietism (although he does not consider himself to be a "quietist"). The philosophical quietist believes that philosophy cannot make any explanatory comment about how, for example, thought and talk relate to the world but can, by offering re-descriptions of philosophically problematic cases, return the confused philosopher to a state of intellectual quietude. However, in defending this quietistic perspective McDowell has engaged with the work of leading contemporaries in such a way as to therapeutically dissolve what he takes to be philosophical error, while developing original and distinctive theses about language, mind and value. In each case, he has tried to resist the influence of what he regards as a misguided, reductive form of philosophical naturalism that dominates the work of his contemporaries, particularly in North America.
Life and career
McDowell was born in Boksburg, South Africa and completed a B.A. at the University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. In 1963, he moved to New College, Oxford as a Rhodes scholar, where he earned another B.A. in 1965 and an M.A. in 1969. He taught at University College, Oxford from 1966 until 1986, when he joined the faculty at the University of Pittsburgh, where he is now a University Professor. He has also been a visiting professor at many universities, including Harvard University, University of Michigan, and University of California, Los Angeles.
McDowell was elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 1983 and a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1992. In 2010 he received the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation Distinguished Achievement Award in the Humanities.
McDowell delivered the John Locke Lectures in Philosophy at Oxford University in 1991 (these became his book Mind and World.) He has also given the Woodbridge Lectures at Columbia University in 1997 and the Howison Lectures in Philosophy at the University of California at Berkeley in 2006.
He received an honorary degree from the University of Chicago in 2008.
Philosophical work
Early work
McDowell's earliest published work was in ancient philosophy, most notably including a translation of and commentary on Plato's Theaetetus. In the 1970s he was active in the Davidsonian project of providing a semantic theory for natural language, co-editing (with Gareth Evans) a volume of essays entitled Truth and Meaning. McDowell edited and published Evans's influential posthumous book The Varieties of Reference (1982).
In his early work, McDowell was very much involved both with the development of the Davidsonian semantic programme and with the internecine dispute between those who take the core of a theory that can play the role of a theory of meaning to involve the grasp of truth conditions, and those, such as Michael Dummett, who argued that linguistic understanding must, at its core, involve the grasp of assertion conditions. If, Dummett argued, the core of a theory that is going to do duty for a theory of a meaning is supposed to represent a speaker's understanding, then that understanding must be something of which a speaker can manifest a grasp. McDowell argued, against this Dummettian view and its development by such contemporaries as Crispin Wright, both that this claim did not, as Dummett supposed, represent a Wittgensteinian requirement on a theory of meaning and that it rested on a suspect asymmetry between the evidence for the expressions of mind in the speech of others and the thoughts so expressed. This particular argument reflects McDowell's wider commitment to the idea that, when we understand others, we do so from "inside" our own practices: Wright and Dummett are treated as pushing the claims of explanation too far and as continuing Willard Van Orman Quine's project of understanding linguistic behaviour from an "external" perspective.
In these early exchanges and in the parallel debate over the proper understanding of Wittgenstein's remarks on rule-following, some of McDowell's characteristic intellectual stances were formed: to borrow a Wittgensteinian expression, the defence of a realism without empiricism, an emphasis on the human limits of our aspiration to objectivity, the idea that meaning and mind can be directly manifested in the action, particularly linguistic action, of other people, and a distinctive disjunctive theory of perceptual experience.
The latter is an account of perceptual experience, developed at the service of McDowell's realism, in which it is denied that the argument from illusion supports an indirect or representative theory of perception as that argument presupposes that there is a "highest common factor" shared by veridical and illusory (or, more accurately, delusive) experiences. (There is clearly a distinction between perceiving and acquiring a belief: one can see an "apparently bent" stick in the water but not believe that it is bent as one knows that one's experience is illusory. In illusions, you need not believe that things are as the illusory experiences represent them as being; in delusions, a person believes what their experience represents to them. So the argument from illusion is better described as an argument from delusion if it is to make its central point.)
In the classic argument from illusion (delusion) you are asked to compare a case where you succeed in perceiving, say, a cat on a mat, to the case where a trick of light deceives you and form the belief that the cat is on the mat, when it is not. The proponent of the argument then says that the two states of mind in these contrasting cases share something important in common, and to characterise this we need to introduce an idea like that of "sense data." Acquaintance with such data is the "highest common factor" across the two cases. That seems to force us into a concession that our knowledge of the external world is indirect and mediated via such sense data. McDowell strongly resists this argument: he does not deny that there is something psychologically in common between the subject who really sees the cat and the one that fails to do so. But that psychological commonality has no bearing on the status of the judger's state of mind from the point of view of assessing whether she is in a position to acquire knowledge. In favourable conditions, experience can be such as to make manifest the presence of objects to observers – that is perceptual knowledge. When we succeed in knowing something by perceiving it, experience does not fall short of the fact known. But this just shows that a successful and a failed perceptual thought have nothing interesting in common from the point of view of appraising them as knowledge.
In this claim that a veridical perception and a non-veridical perception share no highest common factor, a theme is visible which runs throughout McDowell's work, namely, a commitment to seeing thoughts as essentially individuable only in their social and physical environment, so called externalism about the mental. McDowell defends, in addition to a general externalism about the mental, a specific thesis about the understanding of demonstrative expressions as involving so-called "singular" or "Russellian" thoughts about particular objects that reflects the influence on his views of Gareth Evans. According to this view, if the putative object picked out by the demonstrative does not exist, then such an object dependent thought cannot exist – it is, in the most literal sense, not available to be thought.
Value theory
In parallel with the development of this work on mind and language, McDowell also made significant contributions to moral philosophy, specifically meta-ethical debates over the nature of moral reasons and moral objectivity. McDowell developed the view that has come to be known as secondary property realism, or sensibility or moral sense theory. The theory proceeds via the device of an ideally virtuous agent: such an agent has two connected capacities. She has the right concepts and the correct grasp of concepts to think about situations in which she finds herself by coming to moral beliefs. Secondly, for such a person such moral beliefs are automatically over-riding over other reasons she may have and in a particular way: they "silence" other reasons, as McDowell puts it. He believes that this is the best way to capture the traditional idea that moral reasons are specially authoritative.
McDowell rejects the Humean theory that every intentional action is the result of a combination of a belief and a desire, with the belief passively supplying a representation and the desire supplying the motivation. McDowell, following Thomas Nagel, holds that the virtuous agent's perception of the circumstances (i.e. her belief) justifies both the action and the desire. In order to understand the desire, we must understand the circumstances that the agent experienced and that compelled her to act. So, while the Humean thesis may be true about explanation, it is not true about the structure of justification— it should be replaced by Nagel's motivated desire theory
Implicit in this account is a theory of the metaphysical status of values: moral agents form beliefs about the moral facts, which can be straightforwardly true or false. However, the facts themselves, like facts about colour experience, combine anthropocentricity with realism. Values are not there in the world for any observer, for example, one without our human interest in morality. However, in that sense, colours are not in the world either, but one cannot deny that colours are both present in our experience and needed for good explanations in our common sense understanding of the world. The test for the reality of a property is whether it is used in judgements for which there are developed standards of rational argument and whether they are needed to explain aspects of our experience that are otherwise inexplicable. McDowell thinks that moral properties pass both of these tests. There are established standards of rational argument and moral properties fall into the general class of those properties that are both anthropocentric but real.
The connection between McDowell's general metaphysics and this particular claim about moral properties is that all claims about objectivity are to be made from the internal perspective of our actual practices, the part of his view that he takes from the later Wittgenstein. There is no standpoint from outside our best theories of thought and language from which we can classify secondary properties as "second grade" or "less real" than the properties described, for example, by a mature science such as physics. Characterising the place of values in our worldview is not, in McDowell's view, to downgrade them as less real than talk of quarks or the Higgs boson.
Later work: Mind and World (1994)
McDowell's later work reflects the influence of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, P. F. Strawson, Robert Brandom, Rorty and Sellars; both Mind and World and the Woodbridge lectures focus on a broadly Kantian understanding of intentionality, of the mind's capacity to represent. Influenced by Sellars's famous diagnosis of the "myth of the given" in traditional empiricism, McDowell's goal in Mind and World is to explain how we are passive in our perceptual experience of the world, but active in conceptualizing it. In his account, he tries to avoid any connection with idealism, and develops an account of what Kant called the "spontaneity" of our judgement in perceptual experience.
Mind and World rejects a reductively naturalistic account: what McDowell calls "bald naturalism." He contrasts this with his own "naturalistic" perspective in which the distinctive capacities of mind are a cultural achievement of our "second nature", an idea that he adapts from Gadamer. The book concludes with a critique of Quine's narrow conception of empirical experience and also a critique of Donald Davidson's views on belief as inherently veridical, in which Davidson plays the role of the pure coherentist.
In his later work, McDowell denies that there is any philosophical use for the idea of nonconceptual content— the idea that our experience contains representations that are not conceptually structured. Starting with a careful reading of Sellars' "myth of the given", he argues that we need to separate the use of concepts in experience from a causal account of the pre-conditions of experience. He argues that the idea of "nonconceptual content" is philosophically unacceptable because it straddles the boundary between these two. This denial of nonconceptual content has provoked considerable discussion because other philosophers have claimed that scientific accounts of our mental lives (particularly in the cognitive sciences) need this idea.
While Mind and World represents an important contemporary development of a Kantian approach to philosophy of mind and metaphysics, one or two of the uncharitable interpretations of Kant's work in that book receive important revisions in McDowell's later Woodbridge Lectures, published in the Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 95, 1998, pp. 431–491. Those lectures are explicitly about Wilfrid Sellars, and assess whether or not Sellars lived up to his own critical principles in developing his interpretation of Kant (McDowell claims not). McDowell has, since the publication of Mind and World, largely continued to re-iterate his distinctive positions that go against the grain of much contemporary work on language, mind and value, particularly in North America where the influence of Wittgenstein has significantly waned.
Influences
McDowell's work has been heavily influenced by, among others, GWF Hegel, Aristotle, Ludwig Wittgenstein, P. F. Strawson, David Wiggins, and, especially in the case of his later work, Wilfrid Sellars. Many of the central themes in McDowell's work have also been pursued in similar ways by his Pittsburgh colleague Robert Brandom (though McDowell has stated strong disagreement with some of Brandom's readings and appropriations of his work). Both have been influenced by Richard Rorty, in particular Rorty's Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979). In the preface to Mind and World (pp. ix–x) McDowell states that "it will be obvious that Rorty's work is [...] central for the way I define my stance here." McDowell's own work has been criticized for its "sometimes cryptic prose."
Publications
Books
Plato, Theaetetus, translated with notes (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1973)
(Editor) Gareth Evans, The Varieties of Reference (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1982)
Mind and World (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994)
Mind, Value, and Reality (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998)
Meaning, Knowledge, and Reality (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1998)
Having the World in View: Essays on Kant, Hegel, and Sellars (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2009)
The Engaged Intellect: Philosophical Essays (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2009)
Selected articles
(with Gareth Evans) "Introduction", in Gareth Evans and John McDowell, eds., Truth and Meaning (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1976), pp. vii–xxiii; translated into Spanish: "Introducción a Verdad y Significado", Cuadernos de Crítica 37 (1984)
"Truth Conditions, Bivalence, and Verificationism", ibid, pp. 42–66
"On the Sense and Reference of a Proper Name", Mind lxxxvi (1977), 159–85; reprinted in Mark Platts, ed., Reference Truth and Reality (Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1980), pp. 141–66, and in A. W. Moore, ed., Meaning and Reference (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1993), pp. 111–36; translated into Spanish: "Sobre el Sentido y la Referencia de un Nombre Propio", Cuadernos de Crítica 20 (1983)
"On 'The Reality of the Past'", in Christopher Hookway and Philip Pettit, eds., Action and Interpretation (CUP, Cambridge,1978), pp. 127–44
"Are Moral Requirements Hypothetical Imperatives?", Aristotelian Society Supplementary Volume lii (1978), 13–29
"Physicalism and Primitive Denotation", Erkenntnis xiii (1978), 131–52; reprinted in Platts, ed., op. cit., pp. 111–30
"Virtue and Reason", The Monist lxii (1979), 331–50; reprinted in Stanley G. Clarke and Evan Simpson, eds., Anti-Theory in Ethics and Moral Conservatism (SUNY Press, Albany, 1989), pp. 87–109
"Quotation and Saying That", in Platts, ed., op. cit., pp. 206–37
"Meaning, Communication, and Knowledge", in Zak van Straaten, ed., Philosophical Subjects: Essays on the Work of P. F. Strawson (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1980), pp. 117–39
"The Role of Eudaimonia in Aristotle's Ethics", Proceedings of the African Classical Associations xv (1980), 1–14; reprinted in Amélie Oksenberg Rorty, ed., Essays on Aristotle's Ethics (University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles, London, 1980), pp. 359–76
"Anti-Realism and the Epistemology of Understanding", in Herman Parret and Jacques Bouveresse, eds., Meaning and Understanding (De Gruyter, Berlin and New York, 1981), pp. 225–48
"Non-Cognitivism and Rule-Following", in Steven Holtzman and Christopher Leich, eds., Wittgenstein: To Follow A Rule (Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1981), pp. 141–62
"Falsehood and Not-Being in Plato's Sophist", in Malcolm Schofield and Martha Craven Nussbaum, eds., Language and Logos: Studies in Ancient Greek Philosophy presented to G. E. L. Owen (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1982), pp. 115–34
"Truth-Value Gaps", in Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Science VI (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1982), pp. 299–313
"Criteria, Defeasibility, and Knowledge", Proceedings of the British Academy lxviii (1982), 455–79; reprinted in part in Jonathan Dancy, ed., Perceptual Knowledge (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1988)
"Aesthetic Value, Objectivity, and the Fabric of the World", in Eva Schaper, ed., Pleasure, Preference and Value (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1983), pp. 1–16
"Wittgenstein on Following a Rule", Synthese 58 (1984), 325–363; reprinted in Moore, ed., Meaning and Reference, pp. 257–93
"De Re Senses", Philosophical Quarterly xxxiv (1984), 283–94; also in Crispin Wright, ed., Frege: Tradition and Influence (Blackwell, Oxford, 1984), pp. 98–l09
"Values and Secondary Qualities", in Ted Honderich, ed., Morality and Objectivity (Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1985), pp. 110–29
"In Defence of Modesty", in Barry Taylor, ed., Michael Dummett: Contributions to Philosophy (Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht, 1987), pp. 59–80
Projection and Truth in Ethics (1987 Lindley Lecture), published by the University of Kansas
"One Strand in the Private Language Argument", Grazer Philosophische Studien 33/34 (1989), 285–303
"Mathematical Platonism and Dummettian Anti-Realism", Dialectica 43 (1989), 173–92
"Peacocke and Evans on Demonstrative Content", Mind xcix (1990), 311–22
"Intentionality De Re", in Ernest LePore and Robert van Gulick, eds. John Searle and His Critics (Blackwell, Oxford, 1991), pp. 215–25
"Intentionality and Interiority in Wittgenstein", in Klaus Puhl, ed., Meaning Scepticism (De Gruyter, Berlin and New York, 1991), pp. 148–69
"Putnam on Mind and Meaning", Philosophical Topics xx (1992), 35–48
"Meaning and Intentionality in Wittgenstein's Later Philosophy", in Peter A. French, Theodore E. Uehling, Jr., and Howard K. Wettstein, eds., Midwest Studies in Philosophy Volume XVII: The Wittgenstein Legacy (University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, 1992), pp. 40–52
"Knowledge by Hearsay", in B. K. Matilal and A. Chakrabarti, eds, Knowing from Words (Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1993; Synthese Library vol. 230), pp. 195–224
"The Content of Perceptual Experience", Philosophical Quarterly xliv (1994), 190–205
"Might there be External Reasons", in J. E. J. Altham and Ross Harrison, eds., World, Mind, and Ethics: Essays on the Ethical Philosophy of Bernard Williams (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995), pp. 68–85
"Eudaimonism and Realism in Aristotle's Ethics", in Robert Heinaman, ed., Aristotle and Moral Realism (University College London Press, London, 1995), pp. 201–18
"Knowledge and the Internal", Philosophy and Phenomenological Research lv (1995), 877–93
"Deliberation and Moral Development in Aristotle", in Stephen Engstrom and Jennifer Whiting, eds., Aristotle, Kant and the Stoics (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996), pp. 19–35
"Two Sorts of Naturalism", in Rosalind Hursthouse, Gavin Lawrence, and Warren Quinn, eds., Virtues and Reasons: Philippa Foot and Moral Theory (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1996), pp. 149–79; translated into German ("Zwei Arten von Naturalismus"), Deutsche Zeitschrift für Philosophie v (1997), 687–710
"Another Plea for Modesty", in Richard Heck, Jnr., ed., Language, Thought, and Logic: Essays in Honour of Michael Dummett (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1997), pp. 105–29
"Reductionism and the First Person", in Jonathan Dancy, ed., Reading Parfit (Blackwell, Oxford, 1997), pp. 230–50
"Some Issues in Aristotle's Moral Psychology", in Stephen Everson, ed., Companions to Ancient Thought: 4: Ethics (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998), pp. 107–28
"Referring to Oneself", in Lewis E. Hahn, ed., The Philosophy of P. F. Strawson (Open Court, Chicago and Lasalle, 1998), pp. 129–45
"The Constitutive Ideal of Rationality: Davidson and Sellars", Crítica xxx (1998), 29–48
"Having the World in View: Sellars, Kant, and Intentionality" (The Woodbridge Lectures, 1997), The Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 95 (1998), 431–91
"Sellars's Transcendental Empiricism", in Julian Nida-Rümelin, ed., Rationality, Realism, Revision (Proceedings of the 3rd international congress of the Society for Analytical Philosophy), Walter de Gruyter, Berlin and New York, 1999, pp. 42–51.
"Scheme-Content Dualism and Empiricism", in Lewis E. Hahn, ed., The Philosophy of Donald Davidson (Open Court, Chicago and Lasalle, 1999), pp. 87–104
"Towards Rehabilitating Objectivity", in Robert B. Brandom, ed., Rorty and His Critics (Blackwell, Malden, Mass. and Oxford, 2000), pp. 109–23
"Experiencing the World" and "Responses", in Marcus Willaschek, ed., John McDowell: Reason and Nature: Lecture and Colloquium in Münster 1999 (LIT Verlag, Münster, 2000), pp. 3–17, 93–117
"Moderne Auffassungen von Wissenschaft und die Philosophie des Geistes", in Johannes Fried und Johannes Süßmann, ed., Revolutionen des Wissens: Von der Steinzeit bis zur Moderne (Munich: C. H. Beck, 2001), 116–35. (Previously published in Philosophische Rundschau.)
"Gadamer and Davidson on Understanding and Relativism", in Jeff Malpas, Ulrich Arnswald, and Jens Kertscher, eds., Gadamer's Century: Essays in Honor of Hans-Georg Gadamer (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2002), 173–94.
"How not to read Philosophical Investigations: Brandom's Wittgenstein", in R. Haller and K. Puhl, eds., Wittgenstein and the Future of Philosophy: A Reassessment after 50 Years (Vienna: Holder, Pichler, Tempsky, 2002), pp. 245–56.
"Knowledge and the Internal Revisited", Philosophy and Phenomenological Research lxiv (2002), 97–105.
Wert und Wirklichkeit: Aufsätze zur Moralphilosophie (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 2002). (Translation by Joachim Schulte, with an Introduction by Axel Honneth and Martin Seel, of seven of the papers in my Mind, Value, and Reality.)
"Hyperbatologikos empeirismos", Defkalion 21/1, June 2003, 65–90. (Translation into Greek of "Transcendental Empiricism", paper delivered at the Pitt/Athens symposium in Rethymnon, Crete, in 2000.)
"Subjective, intersubjective, objective", Philosophy and Phenomenological Research lxvii (2003), 675–81. (Contribution to a symposium on a book by Donald Davidson.)
Mente y Mundo (Spanish translation by Miguel Ángel Quintana-Paz of Mind and World), Salamanca: Ediciones Sígueme, 2003.
"L'idealismo di Hegel come radicalizazzione di Kant", in Luigi Ruggiu and Italo Testa, eds., Hegel Contemporaneo: la ricezione americana di Hegel a confronto con la traduzione europea (Milan: Guerini, 2003). (Previously in Iride for December 2001.)
"Naturalism in the philosophy of mind", in Mario de Caro and David Macarthur, eds., Naturalism in Question (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2004), 91–105. (Previously published in German translation as "Moderne Auffassungen von Wissenschaft und die Philosophie des Geistes", see above.)
"Reality and colours: comment on Stroud", Philosophy and Phenomenological Research lxviii (2004), 395–400. (Contribution to a symposium on a book by Barry Stroud.)
"The apperceptive I and the empirical self: towards a heterodox reading of 'Lordship and Bondage' in Hegel's Phenomenology", Bulletin of the Hegel Society of Great Britain 47/48, 2003, 1–16.
"Hegel and the Myth of the Given", in Wolfgang Welsch und Klaus Vieweg, Herausg., Das Interesse des Denkens: Hegel aus heutiger Sicht (München: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 2003), pp. 75–88.
References
Further reading
Sandra M. Dingli, On Thinking and the World: John McDowell's Mind and World, Ashgate, 2005
Richard Gaskin, Experience and the World's Own Language: A Critique of John McDowell's Empiricism, Oxford University Press, 2006 (See review essay by Jason Bridges at http://ndpr.nd.edu/review.cfm?id=8743)
Robert Maximilian de Gaynesford, John McDowell, Blackwell / Polity Press, 2004
Anne Le Goff & Christophe Al-Saleh (ed.) Autour de l'esprit et le monde de John McDowell, Paris, Vrin, 2013
Jakob Lingaard (ed.) John McDowell: Experience, Norm and Nature, Blackwell, 2008
Cynthia MacDonald & Graham MacDonald (eds.), McDowell and His Critics, Blackwell, 2006
Chauncey Maher, The Pittsburgh School of Philosophy: Sellars, McDowell, Brandom, Routledge, 2012
Joseph K. Schear (ed.) Mind, Reason, and Being-in-the-World: The McDowell-Dreyfus Debate, Routledge, 2013
Nicholas Smith (ed.), Reading McDowell: On Mind and World, Routledge, 2002
Tim Thornton, John McDowell, Acumen Publishing, 2004
Charles Macmillan Urban, Content and Concept: An Examination of Transcendental Empiricism, Semantic Scholar, 2013
Marcus Willaschek (ed.), John McDowell: Reason and Nature, Munster: Lit Verlag, 1999
External links
John McDowell – Philosophy – University of Pittsburgh
Summary of Mind and World ch 1
1942 births
20th-century South African philosophers
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Alumni of the University of London
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biz%20Markie
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Biz Markie
|
Marcel Theo Hall (April 8, 1964 – July 16, 2021), known professionally as Biz Markie, was an American rapper, DJ, record producer, and actor. Markie was best known for his 1989 single "Just a Friend", which became a top 40 hit in several countries. In 2008, "Just a Friend" made No. 100 on VH1's list of the 100 greatest hip hop songs of all time. Markie was sometimes referred to as the "Clown Prince of Hip Hop".
Early life
Markie was born in Manhattan in the neighborhood of Harlem, New York City on April 8, 1964. He was raised on Long Island in the hamlet of Brentwood and the village of Patchogue, where he spent his teenage years and where, on September 25, 2021, the intersection of South Street and West Avenue, across the street from his then-home, was dedicated as Biz Markie Way. He graduated from Longwood High School in Middle Island in 1982. Markie began his career in New York City nightclubs and later gained regional recognition by performing at colleges in Washington, D.C., Maryland, Virginia, and Pennsylvania.
Regarding the origin of his stage name, the rapper said:
Biz comes from the first hip-hop tape I heard. It was '77, '78, from the L Brothers. Grand Wizard Theodore was the DJ, and the rappers was Kevvy Kev, Master Rob and Busy Bee Starski. I loved Busy Bee. Busy Bee just stuck with me. My name used to be Bizzy B Markie, and after a while I put the Biz with the Markie. My nickname in my neighborhood was Markie.
Career
1980s
Biz Markie was interviewed in the 1986 cult documentary Big Fun in the Big Town. Markie released his debut album Goin' Off in 1988, which attracted a fair amount of attention, largely due to the lead single, "Make the Music with Your Mouth, Biz". The album also featured the underground hit singles "Nobody Beats The Biz", "Vapors", and "Pickin' Boogers". Biz also appeared briefly in the music video for Rob Base's single It Takes Two.
On October 10, 1989, Markie's second studio album, The Biz Never Sleeps was released on Cold Chillin'/Warner Bros. Records, produced by Markie, his cousin Cool V and Paul C. The single "Just a Friend", in which he alternates between rap and singing, became Markie's most successful single, reaching No. 9 on the Billboard charts. The song interpolates the 1968 song "You Got What I Need" by singer-songwriter Freddie Scott, whose basic chord and melody provided the base for the song's chorus. "Just a Friend" was ranked 81st on VH1's 100 Greatest One-Hit Wonders in 2000, and later as number 100 on VH1's 100 Greatest Songs of Hip Hop in 2008. The music video, directed by Lionel C. Martin, chronicles the rapper's woman problems.
1990s
Markie's third studio album I Need a Haircut was released on August 27, 1991, on Cold Chillin'/Warner Bros. Records; it was produced by Markie and his cousin Cool V. Sales of the album were already low when Markie was served a lawsuit by Gilbert O'Sullivan, who claimed that the album's "Alone Again" featured an unauthorized sample from his hit "Alone Again (Naturally)". O'Sullivan's claim was upheld in a landmark ruling, Grand Upright Music, Ltd. v. Warner Bros. Records Inc. that altered the landscape of hip-hop, finding that all samples must be cleared with the original artist before being used. In accordance with the ruling, Warner Bros., the parent company of Cold Chillin', had to pull I Need a Haircut from circulation, and all companies had to clear samples with the samples' creators before releasing the records. This development reflected the increasing popularity of hip-hop and the financial stakes over which releases were set. Markie responded in 1993 with the mischievously titled All Samples Cleared!, but his career had been hurt by the publicity emanating from the lawsuit, and the record suffered accordingly.
For the remainder of the decade, Markie occasionally made television appearances, including guest appearances on In Living Color; as contestant Damian "Foosball" Franklin in the recurring game show sketch "The Dirty Dozens"; as Marlon Cain in "Ed Bacon: Guidance Counselor"; in a 1996 freestyle rap commercial on MTV2; and in the 1993 superhero film Meteor Man. He also made numerous guest appearances with the Beastie Boys on Check Your Head (1992), Ill Communication (1994), Hello Nasty (1998), and their anthology The Sounds of Science (1999). He also rapped on the song "Schizo Jam" on Don Byron's 1998 release, Nu Blaxploitation (Blue Note/Capitol) and worked with Canibus on the first track on the Office Space soundtrack (1999). He also rapped on the track "So Fresh" alongside Slick Rick on Will Smith's 1999 album Willennium.
In 1996, Markie appeared on the Red Hot Organization's compilation CD, America Is Dying Slowly, alongside Wu-Tang Clan, Coolio, and Fat Joe, among others. The CD was meant to raise awareness of the AIDS epidemic among African-American men. In 1997, a sample of a Markie recording appeared in the Rolling Stones' song "Anybody Seen My Baby?" from their album Bridges to Babylon. Markie also teamed up with Frankie Cutlass on his third single and music video titled "The Cypher Part 3" with some of Marley Marl's Juice Crew veterans. He also appeared of Fünf Sterne Delxue Will Smith, Meer Gayne? from the album Sillium.
In 1999, Markie appeared on Len's song "Beautiful Day" on their album You Can't Stop the Bum Rush, as well as on Alliance Ethnik's album Fat Comeback.
2000s
In 2002, Markie appeared in Men in Black II, with Will Smith and Tommy Lee Jones, playing an alien parody of himself, whose native language sounded exactly like beatboxing. He also provided rap vocals and sang the hook for the remixed version of Mario's single "Just a Friend 2002", which sampled his own song from 13 years before. Between 2002 and 2003, he appeared in episode 5 of the TV series Fastlane playing himself as a nightclub DJ. In 2003, he appeared in the international television series Kung Faux performing a series of voice-over characters featured in a variety of episodes. In 2005, Markie detoured from his recording duties to appear on the first season of the television show Celebrity Fit Club, which challenged celebrities to lose weight by a combination of diet and exercise. Markie lost more weight than anybody else in the competition. That year, he was also in an episode of The Andy Milonakis Show. In 2006, his song "Pickin' Boogers" appeared on the soundtrack of the Volition video game Saints Row. Markie was a cast member on Nick Cannon's Wild 'n Out, seasons 1 and 3. Markie also performed a beatboxing segment, "Biz's Beat of the Day", on the Nick Jr. show Yo Gabba Gabba!
Markie began opening in 2008 for Chris Rock on the comedian's "No Apologies" tour. Markie's act included spinning records ranging from old school hip hop to Lynyrd Skynyrd and then performing "Just a Friend". In December 2009, Biz Markie appeared in a RadioShack commercial, repeating the line: "Oh Snap! Guess what I saw!" from his song "Just a Friend". That same year saw his debut with Andy Milonakis in television commercials for the commercial Internet service Tune Up.
2010s
In 2010, Markie appeared on VH1's 100 Greatest Artists of All Time, providing commentary throughout the series. Markie himself was not included on the list. On November 9, 2010, he appeared on the Aquabats! new EP, Radio Down! on the title track. On November 11, 2010, Markie sat in with the Roots on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon, and performed "Just a Friend" with actor Jeff Goldblum.
In 2013, Markie toured with the Yo Gabba Gabba! live show. That year, his song, "Just a Friend" was featured in Saints Row IV, which included the Pop station, 107.7 The Mix FM. He appeared on the CN show Mad, as the Hip Hop Hobbit. He voiced Rudd Rhymez's DJ Tiny Timmy Scratch It in the Randy Cunningham: 9th Grade Ninja episode "Hip Hopocalypse Now".
Markie guest starred in the SpongeBob SquarePants episode "Kenny the Cat" in the episode's title role. His voice acting work also includes the voice of Snorlock the Beatboxing Slug in an episode of Adventure Time.
In 2014, Markie appeared in the Syfy network film Sharknado 2: The Second One. That same year, he threw a ceremonial first pitch for an Oakland Athletics baseball game. In 2016, his song, "Just a Friend" was featured in the Netflix Series Love as an ending theme for episode 4. He also made an appearance in the song "The Noisy Eater" off the album Wildflower by the Avalanches. Also in 2016, he appeared on the Fox TV series Empire as himself, where he performed "Just a Friend".
Markie was the DJ on the VH1 game show Hip Hop Squares between 2017 and 2019, a spin-off of the popular game show Hollywood Squares. He also rapped alongside singer Ke$ha on the Flaming Lips song "2012 (You Must Be Upgraded)". He made an appearance in the season 3 finale of the ABC series Black-ish in 2017. He performed a personal version of the song "Just a Friend", in which he added the names of the characters.
2020s
In 2020, Markie started hosting a radio show on SiriusXM on LL Cool J's Rock the Bells Radio (channel 43) every weekday from 1:00 to 4:00 EST.
Illness and death
In April 2020, Markie was hospitalized due to severe complications from Type 2 diabetes. In December 2020, it was reported that Markie was staying in a rehabilitation facility as a result of a stroke he had suffered after going into a diabetic coma.
On July 1, 2021, rumors of his death circulated on Twitter. His representative told Rolling Stone, "The news of Biz Markie's death is not true, Biz is still under medical care, surrounded by professionals who are working hard to provide the best healthcare possible." Markie died at a Baltimore hospital fifteen days later on July 16 at age 57.
Discography
Studio albums
Compilation albums
EPs
Singles
References
External links
In-depth Biz Markie interview
VH-1 biography
1964 births
2021 deaths
21st-century American male musicians
21st-century American rappers
African-American male rappers
American hip hop record producers
American hip hop singers
Cold Chillin' Records artists
Deaths from diabetes
East Coast hip hop musicians
Participants in American reality television series
People from Egg Harbor Township, New Jersey
People from Howard County, Maryland
Rappers from New York (state)
Record producers from New York (state)
The Flip Squad members
Tommy Boy Records artists
21st-century African-American musicians
20th-century African-American people
Juice Crew members
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power%20station
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Power station
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A power station, also referred to as a power plant and sometimes generating station or generating plant, is an industrial facility for the generation of electric power. Power stations are generally connected to an electrical grid.
Many power stations contain one or more generators, a rotating machine that converts mechanical power into three-phase electric power. The relative motion between a magnetic field and a conductor creates an electric current.
The energy source harnessed to turn the generator varies widely. Most power stations in the world burn fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas to generate electricity. Clean energy sources include nuclear power, and an increasing use of renewables such as solar, wind, wave, geothermal, and hydroelectric.
History
In early 1871 Belgian inventor Zénobe Gramme invented a generator powerful enough to produce power on a commercial scale for industry.
In 1878, a hydroelectric power station was designed and built by William, Lord Armstrong at Cragside, England. It used water from lakes on his estate to power Siemens dynamos. The electricity supplied power to lights, heating, produced hot water, ran an elevator as well as labor-saving devices and farm buildings.
In January 1882 the world's first coal-fired public power station, the Edison Electric Light Station, was built in London, a project of Thomas Edison organized by Edward Johnson. A Babcock & Wilcox boiler powered a steam engine that drove a generator. This supplied electricity to premises in the area that could be reached through the culverts of the viaduct without digging up the road, which was the monopoly of the gas companies. The customers included the City Temple and the Old Bailey. Another important customer was the Telegraph Office of the General Post Office, but this could not be reached through the culverts. Johnson arranged for the supply cable to be run overhead, via Holborn Tavern and Newgate.
In September 1882 in New York, the Pearl Street Station was established by Edison to provide electric lighting in the lower Manhattan Island area. The station ran until destroyed by fire in 1890. The station used reciprocating steam engines to turn direct-current generators. Because of the DC distribution, the service area was small, limited by voltage drop in the feeders. In 1886 George Westinghouse began building an alternating current system that used a transformer to step up voltage for long-distance transmission and then stepped it back down for indoor lighting, a more efficient and less expensive system which is similar to modern systems. The war of the currents eventually resolved in favor of AC distribution and utilization, although some DC systems persisted to the end of the 20th century. DC systems with a service radius of a mile (kilometer) or so were necessarily smaller, less efficient of fuel consumption, and more labor-intensive to operate than much larger central AC generating stations.
AC systems used a wide range of frequencies depending on the type of load; lighting load using higher frequencies, and traction systems and heavy motor load systems preferring lower frequencies. The economics of central station generation improved greatly when unified light and power systems, operating at a common frequency, were developed. The same generating plant that fed large industrial loads during the day, could feed commuter railway systems during rush hour and then serve lighting load in the evening, thus improving the system load factor and reducing the cost of electrical energy overall. Many exceptions existed, generating stations were dedicated to power or light by the choice of frequency, and rotating frequency changers and rotating converters were particularly common to feed electric railway systems from the general lighting and power network.
Throughout the first few decades of the 20th century central stations became larger, using higher steam pressures to provide greater efficiency, and relying on interconnections of multiple generating stations to improve reliability and cost. High-voltage AC transmission allowed hydroelectric power to be conveniently moved from distant waterfalls to city markets. The advent of the steam turbine in central station service, around 1906, allowed great expansion of generating capacity. Generators were no longer limited by the power transmission of belts or the relatively slow speed of reciprocating engines, and could grow to enormous sizes. For example, Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti planned what would have reciprocating steam engine ever built for a proposed new central station, but scrapped the plans when turbines became available in the necessary size. Building power systems out of central stations required combinations of engineering skill and financial acumen in equal measure. Pioneers of central station generation include George Westinghouse and Samuel Insull in the United States, Ferranti and Charles Hesterman Merz in UK, and many others.
Thermal power stations
In thermal power stations, mechanical power is produced by a heat engine that transforms thermal energy, often from combustion of a fuel, into rotational energy. Most thermal power stations produce steam, so they are sometimes called steam power stations. Not all thermal energy can be transformed into mechanical power, according to the second law of thermodynamics; therefore, there is always heat lost to the environment. If this loss is employed as useful heat, for industrial processes or district heating, the power plant is referred to as a cogeneration power plant or CHP (combined heat-and-power) plant. In countries where district heating is common, there are dedicated heat plants called heat-only boiler stations. An important class of power stations in the Middle East uses by-product heat for the desalination of water.
The efficiency of a thermal power cycle is limited by the maximum working fluid temperature produced. The efficiency is not directly a function of the fuel used. For the same steam conditions, coal-, nuclear- and gas power plants all have the same theoretical efficiency. Overall, if a system is on constantly (base load) it will be more efficient than one that is used intermittently (peak load). Steam turbines generally operate at higher efficiency when operated at full capacity.
Besides use of reject heat for process or district heating, one way to improve overall efficiency of a power plant is to combine two different thermodynamic cycles in a combined cycle plant. Most commonly, exhaust gases from a gas turbine are used to generate steam for a boiler and a steam turbine. The combination of a "top" cycle and a "bottom" cycle produces higher overall efficiency than either cycle can attain alone.
In 2018, Inter RAO UES and State Grid planned to build an 8-GW thermal power plant, which's the largest coal-fired power plant construction project in Russia.
Classification
By heat source
Fossil-fuel power stations may also use a steam turbine generator or in the case of natural gas-fired power plants may use a combustion turbine. A coal-fired power station produces heat by burning coal in a steam boiler. The steam drives a steam turbine and generator that then produces electricity. The waste products of combustion include ash, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and carbon dioxide. Some of the gases can be removed from the waste stream to reduce pollution.
Nuclear power plants use the heat generated in a nuclear reactor's core (by the fission process) to create steam which then operates a steam turbine and generator. About 20 percent of electric generation in the USA is produced by nuclear power plants.
Geothermal power plants use steam extracted from hot underground rocks. These rocks are heated by the decay of radioactive material in the Earth's crust.
Biomass-fuelled power plants may be fuelled by waste from sugar cane, municipal solid waste, landfill methane, or other forms of biomass.
In integrated steel mills, blast furnace exhaust gas is a low-cost, although low-energy-density, fuel.
Waste heat from industrial processes is occasionally concentrated enough to use for power generation, usually in a steam boiler and turbine.
Solar thermal electric plants use sunlight to boil water and produce steam which turns the generator.
By prime mover
Steam turbine plants use the dynamic pressure generated by expanding steam to turn the blades of a turbine. Almost all large non-hydro plants use this system. About 90 percent of all electric power produced in the world is through use of steam turbines.
Gas turbine plants use the dynamic pressure from flowing gases (air and combustion products) to directly operate the turbine. Natural-gas fuelled (and oil fueled) combustion turbine plants can start rapidly and so are used to supply "peak" energy during periods of high demand, though at higher cost than base-loaded plants. These may be comparatively small units, and sometimes completely unmanned, being remotely operated. This type was pioneered by the UK, Princetown being the world's first, commissioned in 1959.
Combined cycle plants have both a gas turbine fired by natural gas, and a steam boiler and steam turbine which use the hot exhaust gas from the gas turbine to produce electricity. This greatly increases the overall efficiency of the plant, and many new baseload power plants are combined cycle plants fired by natural gas.
Internal combustion reciprocating engines are used to provide power for isolated communities and are frequently used for small cogeneration plants. Hospitals, office buildings, industrial plants, and other critical facilities also use them to provide backup power in case of a power outage. These are usually fuelled by diesel oil, heavy oil, natural gas, and landfill gas.
Microturbines, Stirling engine and internal combustion reciprocating engines are low-cost solutions for using opportunity fuels, such as landfill gas, digester gas from water treatment plants and waste gas from oil production.
By duty
Power plants that can be dispatched (scheduled) to provide energy to a system include:
Base load power plants run nearly continually to provide that component of system load that doesn't vary during a day or week. Baseload plants can be highly optimized for low fuel cost, but may not start or stop quickly during changes in system load. Examples of base-load plants would include large modern coal-fired and nuclear generating stations, or hydro plants with a predictable supply of water.
Peaking power plants meet the daily peak load, which may only be for one or two hours each day. While their incremental operating cost is always higher than base load plants, they are required to ensure security of the system during load peaks. Peaking plants include simple cycle gas turbines and reciprocating internal combustion engines, which can be started up rapidly when system peaks are predicted. Hydroelectric plants may also be designed for peaking use.
Load following power plants can economically follow the variations in the daily and weekly load, at lower cost than peaking plants and with more flexibility than baseload plants.
Non-dispatchable plants include such sources as wind and solar energy; while their long-term contribution to system energy supply is predictable, on a short-term (daily or hourly) base their energy must be used as available since generation cannot be deferred. Contractual arrangements ("take or pay") with independent power producers or system interconnections to other networks may be effectively non-dispatchable.
Cooling towers
All thermal power plants produce waste heat energy as a byproduct of the useful electrical energy produced. The amount of waste heat energy equals or exceeds the amount of energy converted into useful electricity. Gas-fired power plants can achieve as much as 65 percent conversion efficiency, while coal and oil plants achieve around 30 to 49 percent. The waste heat produces a temperature rise in the atmosphere, which is small compared to that produced by greenhouse-gas emissions from the same power plant. Natural draft wet cooling towers at many nuclear power plants and large fossil fuel-fired power plants use large hyperboloid chimney-like structures (as seen in the image at the right) that release the waste heat to the ambient atmosphere by the evaporation of water.
However, the mechanical induced-draft or forced-draft wet cooling towers in many large thermal power plants, nuclear power plants, fossil-fired power plants, petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants, geothermal, biomass and waste-to-energy plants use fans to provide air movement upward through down coming water, and are not hyperboloid chimney-like structures. The induced or forced-draft cooling towers are typically rectangular, box-like structures filled with a material that enhances the mixing of the upflowing air and the down flowing water.
In areas with restricted water use, a dry cooling tower or directly air-cooled radiators may be necessary, since the cost or environmental consequences of obtaining make-up water for evaporative cooling would be prohibitive. These coolers have lower efficiency and higher energy consumption to drive fans, compared to a typical wet, evaporative cooling tower.
Air cooled condenser (ACC)
Power plants can use an air-cooled condenser, traditionally in areas with a limited or expensive water supply. Air cooled condensers serve the same purpose as a cooling tower (heat dissipation) without using water. They consume additional auxiliary power so may have a higher carbon footprint compared to a traditional cooling tower.
Once-through cooling systems
Electric companies often prefer to use cooling water from the ocean or a lake, river, or cooling pond instead of a cooling tower. This single pass or once-through cooling system can save the cost of a cooling tower and may have lower energy costs for pumping cooling water through the plant's heat exchangers. However, the waste heat can cause thermal pollution as the water is discharged. Power plants using natural bodies of water for cooling are designed with mechanisms such as fish screens, to limit intake of organisms into the cooling machinery. These screens are only partially effective and as a result billions of fish and other aquatic organisms are killed by power plants each year. For example, the cooling system at the Indian Point Energy Center in New York kills over a billion fish eggs and larvae annually. Power Plant consultants in India
A further environmental impact is that aquatic organisms which adapt to the warmer discharge water may be injured if the plant shuts down in cold weather.
Water consumption by power stations is a developing issue.
In recent years, recycled wastewater, or grey water, has been used in cooling towers. The Calpine Riverside and the Calpine Fox power stations in Wisconsin as well as the Calpine Mankato power station in Minnesota are among these facilities.
Power from renewable energy
Power stations can generate electrical energy from renewable energy sources.
Hydroelectric power station
In a hydroelectric power station water flows through turbines using hydropower to generate hydroelectricity. Power is captured from the gravitational force of water falling through penstocks to water turbines connected to generators. The amount of power available is a combination of height and flow. A wide range of Dams may be built to raise the water level, and create a lake for storing water.
Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt-hours of production in 2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use.
Solar
Solar energy can be turned into electricity either directly in solar cells, or in a concentrating solar power plant by focusing the light to run a heat engine.
A solar photovoltaic power plant converts sunlight into direct current electricity using the photoelectric effect. Inverters change the direct current into alternating current for connection to the electrical grid. This type of plant does not use rotating machines for energy conversion.
Solar thermal power plants use either parabolic troughs or heliostats to direct sunlight onto a pipe containing a heat transfer fluid, such as oil. The heated oil is then used to boil water into steam, which turns a turbine that drives an electrical generator. The central tower type of solar thermal power plant uses hundreds or thousands of mirrors, depending on size, to direct sunlight onto a receiver on top of a tower. The heat is used to produce steam to turn turbines that drive electrical generators.
Wind
Wind turbines can be used to generate electricity in areas with strong, steady winds, sometimes offshore. Many different designs have been used in the past, but almost all modern turbines being produced today use a three-bladed, upwind design. Grid-connected wind turbines now being built are much larger than the units installed during the 1970s. They thus produce power more cheaply and reliably than earlier models. With larger turbines (on the order of one megawatt), the blades move more slowly than older, smaller, units, which makes them less visually distracting and safer for birds.
Marine
Marine energy or marine power (also sometimes referred to as ocean energy or ocean power) refers to the energy carried by ocean waves, tides, salinity, and ocean temperature differences. The movement of water in the world's oceans creates a vast store of kinetic energy, or energy in motion. This energy can be harnessed to generate electricity to power homes, transport and industries.
The term marine energy encompasses both wave power — power from surface waves, and tidal power — obtained from the kinetic energy of large bodies of moving water. Offshore wind power is not a form of marine energy, as wind power is derived from the wind, even if the wind turbines are placed over water.
The oceans have a tremendous amount of energy and are close to many if not most concentrated populations. Ocean energy has the potential of providing a substantial amount of new renewable energy around the world.
Osmosis
Salinity gradient energy is called pressure-retarded osmosis. In this method, seawater is pumped into a pressure chamber that is at a pressure lower than the difference between the pressures of saline water and fresh water. Freshwater is also pumped into the pressure chamber through a membrane, which increases both the volume and pressure of the chamber. As the pressure differences are compensated, a turbine is spun creating energy. This method is being specifically studied by the Norwegian utility Statkraft, which has calculated that up to 25 TWh/yr would be available from this process in Norway. Statkraft has built the world's first prototype osmotic power plant on the Oslo fjord which was opened on 24 November 2009. In January 2014 however Statkraft announced not to continue this pilot.
Biomass
Biomass energy can be produced from combustion of waste green material to heat water into steam and drive a steam turbine. Bioenergy can also be processed through a range of temperatures and pressures in gasification, pyrolysis or torrefaction reactions. Depending on the desired end product, these reactions create more energy-dense products (syngas, wood pellets, biocoal) that can then be fed into an accompanying engine to produce electricity at a much lower emission rate when compared with open burning.
Storage power stations
It is possible to store energy and produce electrical power at a later time as in pumped-storage hydroelectricity, thermal energy storage, flywheel energy storage, battery storage power station and so on.
Pumped storage
The world's largest form of storage for excess electricity, pumped-storage is a reversible hydroelectric plant. They are a net consumer of energy but provide storage for any source of electricity, effectively smoothing peaks and troughs in electricity supply and demand. Pumped storage plants typically use "spare" electricity during off peak periods to pump water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir. Because the pumping takes place "off peak", electricity is less valuable than at peak times. This less valuable "spare" electricity comes from uncontrolled wind power and base load power plants such as coal, nuclear and geothermal, which still produce power at night even though demand is very low. During daytime peak demand, when electricity prices are high, the storage is used for peaking power, where water in the upper reservoir is allowed to flow back to a lower reservoir through a turbine and generator. Unlike coal power stations, which can take more than 12 hours to start up from cold, a hydroelectric generator can be brought into service in a few minutes, ideal to meet a peak load demand. Two substantial pumped storage schemes are in South Africa, Palmiet Pumped Storage Scheme and another in the Drakensberg, Ingula Pumped Storage Scheme.
Typical power output
The power generated by a power station is measured in multiples of the watt, typically megawatts (106 watts) or gigawatts (109 watts). Power stations vary greatly in capacity depending on the type of power plant and on historical, geographical and economic factors. The following examples offer a sense of the scale.
Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in China. As of 2022, the Roscoe Wind Farm is the largest onshore wind farm in the world, producing 8000 MW of power, followed by the Zhang Jiakou (3000 MW). As of January 2022, the Hornsea Wind Farm in United Kingdom is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 1218 MW, followed by Walney Wind Farm in United Kingdom at 1026 MW.
, the largest photovoltaic (PV) power plants in the world are led by Bhadla Solar Park in India, rated at 2245 MW.
Solar thermal power stations in the U.S. have the following output:
Ivanpah Solar Power Facility is the largest of the country with an output of 392 MW
Large coal-fired, nuclear, and hydroelectric power stations can generate hundreds of megawatts to multiple gigawatts. Some examples:
The Koeberg Nuclear Power Station in South Africa has a rated capacity of 1860 megawatts.
The coal-fired Ratcliffe-on-Soar Power Station in the UK has a rated capacity of 2 gigawatts.
The Aswan Dam hydro-electric plant in Egypt has a capacity of 2.1 gigawatts.
The Three Gorges Dam hydro-electric plant in China has a capacity of 22.5 gigawatts.
Gas turbine power plants can generate tens to hundreds of megawatts. Some examples:
The Indian Queens simple-cycle, or open cycle gas turbine (OCGT), peaking power station in Cornwall UK, with a single gas turbine is rated 140 megawatts.
The Medway Power Station, a combined-cycle gas turbine (CCGT) power station in Kent, UK with two gas turbines and one steam turbine, is rated 700 megawatts.
The rated capacity of a power station is nearly the maximum electrical power that the power station can produce.
Some power plants are run at almost exactly their rated capacity all the time, as a non-load-following base load power plant, except at times of scheduled or unscheduled maintenance.
However, many power plants usually produce much less power than their rated capacity.
In some cases a power plant produces much less power than its rated capacity because it uses an intermittent energy source.
Operators try to pull maximum available power from such power plants, because their marginal cost is practically zero, but the available power varies widely—in particular, it may be zero during heavy storms at night.
In some cases operators deliberately produce less power for economic reasons.
The cost of fuel to run a load following power plant may be relatively high, and the cost of fuel to run a peaking power plant is even higher—they have relatively high marginal costs.
Operators keep power plants turned off ("operational reserve") or running at minimum fuel consumption ("spinning reserve") most of the time.
Operators feed more fuel into load following power plants only when the demand rises above what lower-cost plants (i.e., intermittent and base load plants) can produce, and then feed more fuel into peaking power plants only when the demand rises faster than the load following power plants can follow.
Output metering
Not all of the generated power of a plant is necessarily delivered into a distribution system. Power plants typically also use some of the power themselves, in which case the generation output is classified into gross generation, and net generation.
Gross generation or gross electric output is the total amount of electricity generated by a power plant over a specific period of time. It is measured at the generating terminal and is measured in kilowatt-hours (kW·h), megawatt-hours (MW·h), gigawatt-hours (GW·h) or for the largest power plants terawatt-hours (TW·h). It includes the electricity used in the plant auxiliaries and in the transformers.
Gross generation = net generation + usage within the plant (also known as in-house loads)
Net generation is the amount of electricity generated by a power plant that is transmitted and distributed for consumer use. Net generation is less than the total gross power generation as some power produced is consumed within the plant itself to power auxiliary equipment such as pumps, motors and pollution control devices. Thus
Net generation = gross generation − usage within the plant ( in-house loads)
Operations
Operating staff at a power station have several duties. Operators are responsible for the safety of the work crews that frequently do repairs on the mechanical and electrical equipment. They maintain the equipment with periodic inspections and log temperatures, pressures and other important information at regular intervals. Operators are responsible for starting and stopping the generators depending on need. They are able to synchronize and adjust the voltage output of the added generation with the running electrical system, without upsetting the system. They must know the electrical and mechanical systems to troubleshoot problems in the facility and add to the reliability of the facility. Operators must be able to respond to an emergency and know the procedures in place to deal with it.
See also
Cogeneration
Cooling tower
Cost of electricity by source
District heating
Electricity generation
Environmental impact of electricity generation
Flue-gas stack
Fossil-fuel power station
Geothermal electricity
Gravitation water vortex power plant
Grid-tied electrical system mini-power plants
List of largest power stations in the world
List of power stations
List of thermal power station failures
Nuclear power plant
Plant efficiency
Unit commitment problem
Virtual power plant
References
External links
Identification System for Power Stations (KKS)
Power station diagram
Largest Power Plants in the World
Database of carbon emissions of power plants worldwide (Carbon Monitoring For Action: CARMA)
Net vs Gross Output Measurement ‘’Archived from the original (pdf) on 21 October 2012Measuring power generation Archived from the original (pdf) on 2 October 2012''
Chemical process engineering
Infrastructure
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212144
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris%20%28rapper%29
|
Paris (rapper)
|
Oscar Jackson Jr. (born October 29, 1967), better known by his stage name Paris, is an American rapper from San Francisco, California, known for his highly charged political and socially conscious lyrics. Influenced by the Black Panthers, he was once a member of the Nation of Islam.
Biography
1990s
Paris became known in the US in 1990 with the hit single "The Devil Made Me Do It" and album of the same name, after earning a bachelor's degree in economics from UC Davis. Originally released on Tommy Boy Records, his first video was banned by MTV.
When his second album, Sleeping with the Enemy, was ready for release in 1992, Paris was dropped from now-defunct Tommy Boy Records (since rechristened Tommy Boy Entertainment in 2002) and distributor Warner Bros. Records, owned by Time Warner, when the parent company discovered its incendiary content, which included fantasy revenge killings of then-President Bush and racist police officers. Also problematic was the album's insert, which featured the artist waiting behind a tree, holding a TEC-9, as the president was waving to the crowd. Paris eventually released the LP himself on his newly formed Scarface Records. Also in 1992, Paris contributed to industrial music band Consolidated's 1992 album Play More Music with the track "Guerrillas in the Mist."
Paris signed a major artist and distribution deal with Priority Records for himself and Scarface Records in 1993 and released his third LP, Guerrilla Funk, and several then up-and-coming groups, most notably The Conscious Daughters. Paris and Priority formally severed their business relationship due to creative differences in 1995, and in 1997, Paris signed a one-off deal with now-defunct Whirling Records (distributed by Rykodisc) for the release of his fourth LP, Unleashed, which was released in small numbers with little promotion. The album contained some very explicitly violent and racially charged verses, and while less overtly political as earlier efforts, the lyrics explicitly describe racial violence when confronted with the same. Also released in Europe with a different track list, the album featuring songs from 1994, 1996 and 1998, some of which were more in the style of his earlier releases. Becoming increasingly dissatisfied with the music industry, Paris retired from recording and worked as a stockbroker, cementing his personal wealth allowing him to independently finance the next stage of his musical endeavors.
2000s
In 2003, Paris returned with the album, Sonic Jihad. The album continued his tradition of controversial cover art, evoking images of the September 11 attacks, it depicts a plane flying toward the White House. Its content is equally radical and covers many topics, including the war on terror, the war in Iraq, police brutality, black-on-black violence, conditions in inner-city communities, the Illuminati, and state-sponsored terrorism. Other politically minded hip hop artists were featured on the album, including Kam, dead prez, and Public Enemy. Sonic Jihad was the catalyst for the creation of Paris' new label and web site, Guerrilla Funk Recordings, a home for projects and material of such notable acts as dead prez and Public Enemy.
Paris' anti-war anthem "What Would You Do?" (from Sonic Jihad) accuses "the Bush Administration [of playing] a key role in orchestrating the terror attacks of September 11", saying, "Ain't no terror threat, unless approval rating's slumpin'. So I'ma say it for the record we the ones that planned it, ain't no other country took a part or had they hand in it". The song is featured on the 2004 compilation album Peace Not War, Vol. 2. On the 2003 Anybody Killa album Hatchet Warrior, Paris appeared with Monoxide on a track entitled "Ghetto Neighbor."
In 2005, Paris completed a project with Public Enemy, Rebirth of a Nation, the title both a reference to the 1915 film The Birth of a Nation, controversial for its glorification of the Ku Klux Klan and its racist portrayal of African Americans, and PE's 1988 album It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back. Although Chuck D was the primary vocal performer, Paris penned and produced the bulk of the album, which also featured N.W.A's MC Ren, Immortal Technique, Kam, dead prez, and The Conscious Daughters.
In 2006, Paris also released Paris presents Hard Truth Soldiers, Vol. 1, the first in a Paris-produced compilation series that touched on subjects ranging from war and police brutality to black-on-black crime and domestic violence. It showcased contributions from Public Enemy, the Coup, dead prez, Paris, T-K.A.S.H., Kam, The Conscious Daughters, Mystic, MC Ren, Sun Rise Above, and the Stop the Violence Movement (Mobb Deep, Tray Deee, Soopafly, KRS-One, Defari, Daz, J-Ro, RBX, Bad Azz, WC, Dilated Peoples, Mac Minister, The Alchemist, Mack 10, Evidence, Defari, Everlast, and B-Real), among others.
In addition, Paris introduced the world to former Coup-member T-K.A.S.H. later that year, releasing his debut offering, Turf War Syndrome, and handling production duties as well.
In 2007, Paris released the follow-up companion piece to Rebirth of a Nation, the Public Enemy collaboration Remix of a Nation, and began laying the framework for the film division of Guerrilla Funk Recordings.
Paris inked a distribution deal with Fontana/Universal for Guerrilla Funk (with movies through Vivendi) in late 2007, and released his next album, Acid Reflex, featuring Chuck D and George Clinton, in 2008.
In 2009, Paris released Paris Presents: Hard Truth Soldiers, Vol. 2, the sophomore project from T-K.A.S.H., Brains All Over The Streets, and the latest offering from The Conscious Daughters, The Nutcracker Suite.
Paris not only writes and produces songs, but also publishes information about ways to improve inner-city communities. Numerous articles can be found on various subjects in the Thought Box section of Guerrilla Funk's website.
2010s
In 2010, Paris was featured in the musical documentary, Sounds Like a Revolution, and in 2011 was featured on the Insane Clown Posse's Featuring Freshness LP. He performed at that year's Gathering of the Juggalos, and later at the Amsterdam Hiphopfestival in Amsterdam.
Paris' production and original material has been featured in various Hollywood offerings, including Morgan Freeman's HBO documentary Prom Night in Mississippi in 2009, End of Watch, starring Jake Gyllenhaal and Michael Peña in 2012, and 2014's Kill the Messenger, starring Jeremy Renner.
In November 2014, he released a video single, "Night of the Long Knives," which called for an increased unity in the black and brown communities and the adoption of the eye-for-an-eye philosophy toward racist police aggression and brutality in the wake of the tragedy in Ferguson, Missouri and other high-profile shooting deaths.
In August 2015, Paris released his second video single, "Buck, Buck, Pass," a commentary on gun violence, its often ignored racial implications and its after effects.
His album Pistol Politics was released on September 11, 2015. It was named one of the Best Hip-Hop albums of 2015 by SPIN magazine and received an "A-" rating by VICE.
Paris' third single and video, "Hard Truth Soldier (Redux)" was released in November 2015.
Paris became an official contributor to Vice Media in June 2016, beginning his ongoing relationship with that outlet to provide political and entertainment insights on current events from an urban perspective.
In March 2016, EA Sports released UFC2, the second installment of its popular UFC mixed martial arts fighting video game franchise, featuring music produced by Paris.
On September 5, 2016, Paris performed at Hiero Day in Oakland, California - hip-hop collective Hieroglyphics' annual block party celebrating Bay Area indie music, food and culture. In October 2016, Guerrilla Funk released videos for "Lethal Warning Shot" and "Power," the 4th and 5th singles from Paris' acclaimed Pistol Politics release.
Paris rounded out 2016 with contributions to Level 33 Entertainment's mystery/suspense thriller, Blood in the Water.
2018 found Paris' productions included in several movie and television offerings, including Get Shorty on the Epix network, Champaign ILL on YouTube Premium, and Netflix's Flint Town and Hip Hop Evolution, the latter of which featured an in-depth interview by Paris.
In 2019, Paris' music has been featured in USA network's The Purge, HBO's The Deuce, CBS' The Unicorn, multiple episodes of CBS Sports Network's The Jim Rome Show and Between Two Ferns: The Movie on Netflix, starring Zach Galifianakis, Matthew McConaughey, Keanu Reeves and Will Ferrell.
Netflix's All Day and a Night started off 2020 with featured music by Paris, starring Ashton Sanders, Jeffrey Wright, Isaiah John and Regina Taylor, among others.
In August of that year, "Baby Man Hands" was released - a scathing indictment of Donald Trump's presidency and the first single and video from Paris' album, Safe Space Invader.
On September 11, Safe Space Invader's second single and video, "Nobody Move" was released, a stylistic homage to Black Panther Party artist Emory Douglas that calls out police brutality, gentrification and more. Safe Space Invader was released on September 25, 2020. On October 23, 2020, Safe Space Invader's third single and video, "Turned the Key," was released, addressing the hard topics of gentrification, income inequality & housing affordability. Its fourth single and video, "Walk Like a Panther," was released on December 2 of that same year.
In 2021, Paris' music was featured in FX network's Hip Hop Uncovered, Netflix's Notorious B.I.G. biopic, Biggie: I've Got a Story to Tell, NBC's Young Rock, and in Blindspotting on the STARZ network.
Discography
Studio albums
The Devil Made Me Do It (1990)
Sleeping with the Enemy (1992)
Guerrilla Funk (1994)
Unleashed (1998)
Sonic Jihad (2003)
Hard Truth Soldiers Vol.1 (2006)
Acid Reflex (2008)
Hard Truth Soldiers Vol.2 (2009)
Pistol Politics (2015)
Safe Space Invader (2020)
Collaboration albums
Rebirth of a Nation with Public Enemy (2006)
Videos/singles
1990: "Break the Grip of Shame"
1990: "The Devil Made Me Do It"
1992: "The Days of Old"
1992: "Assata's Song"
1994: "Guerrilla Funk"
1994: "One Time fo' Ya Mind"
1994: "Outta My Life"
2008: "Don't Stop the Movement"
2014: "Night of the Long Knives"
2015: "Buck, Buck, Pass"
2015: "Hard Truth Soldier (Redux)"
2016: "Lethal Warning Shot"
2016: "Power"
2020: "Baby Man Hands"
2020: "Nobody Move"
2020: "Turned the Key"
2020: "Walk Like a Panther"
Singles chart positions
References
External links
1967 births
Living people
21st-century American rappers
21st-century American male musicians
African-American agnostics
African-American male rappers
American former Muslims
American hip hop record producers
Former Nation of Islam members
G-funk artists
Hardcore hip hop artists
Political music artists
Priority Records artists
Rappers from the San Francisco Bay Area
Tommy Boy Records artists
University of California, Davis alumni
West Coast hip hop musicians
21st-century African-American musicians
20th-century African-American people
|
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] |
212146
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twinkling
|
Twinkling
|
Twinkling, also called scintillation, is a generic term for variations in apparent brightness, colour, or position of a distant luminous object viewed through a medium. If the object lies outside the Earth's atmosphere, as in the case of stars and planets, the phenomenon is termed astronomical scintillation; for objects within the atmosphere, the phenomenon is termed terrestrial scintillation. As one of the three principal factors governing astronomical seeing (the others being light pollution and cloud cover), atmospheric scintillation is defined as variations in illuminance only.
In simple terms, twinkling of stars is caused by the passing of light through different layers of a turbulent atmosphere. Most scintillation effects are caused by anomalous atmospheric refraction caused by small-scale fluctuations in air density usually related to temperature gradients. Scintillation effects are always much more pronounced near the horizon than near the zenith (directly overhead), since light rays near the horizon must penetrate a denser layer of and have longer paths through the atmosphere before reaching the observer. Atmospheric twinkling is measured quantitatively using a scintillometer. The effects of twinkling are reduced by using a larger receiver aperture; this effect is known as aperture averaging.
While light from stars and other astronomical objects is likely to twinkle, twinkling usually does not cause images of planets to flicker appreciably.
Stars twinkle because they are so far from Earth that they appear as point sources of light easily disturbed by Earth's atmospheric turbulence, which acts like lenses and prisms diverting the light's path. Large astronomical objects closer to Earth, like the Moon and other planets, encompass many points in space and can be resolved as objects with observable diameters. With multiple observed points of light traversing the atmosphere, their light's deviations average out and the viewer perceives less variation in light coming from them.
See also
Interplanetary scintillation
Observational astronomy
Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star
References
Observational astronomy
Atmospheric optical phenomena
Articles containing video clips
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scintillation%20counter
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Scintillation counter
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A scintillation counter is an instrument for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation by using the excitation effect of incident radiation on a scintillating material, and detecting the resultant light pulses.
It consists of a scintillator which generates photons in response to incident radiation, a sensitive photodetector (usually a photomultiplier tube (PMT), a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera, or a photodiode), which converts the light to an electrical signal and electronics to process this signal.
Scintillation counters are widely used in radiation protection, assay of radioactive materials and physics research because they can be made inexpensively yet with good quantum efficiency, and can measure both the intensity and the energy of incident radiation.
History
The modern electronic scintillation counter was invented in 1944 by Sir Samuel Curran whilst he was working on the Manhattan Project at the University of California at Berkeley. There was a requirement to measure the radiation from small quantities of uranium and his innovation was to use one of the newly-available highly sensitive photomultiplier tubes made by the Radio Corporation of America to accurately count the flashes of light from a scintillator subjected to radiation.
This built upon the work of earlier researchers such as Antoine Henri Becquerel, who discovered radioactivity whilst working on the phosphorescence of uranium salts in 1896. Previously scintillation events had to be laboriously detected by eye using a spinthariscope which was a simple microscope to observe light flashes in the scintillator.
Operation
When an ionizing particle passes into the scintillator material, atoms are excited along a track. For charged particles the track is the path of the particle itself. For gamma rays (uncharged), their energy is converted to an energetic electron via either the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering or pair production.
The chemistry of atomic de-excitation in the scintillator produces a multitude of low-energy photons, typically near the blue end of the visible spectrum. The quantity is proportional to the energy deposited by the ionizing particle. These can be directed to the photocathode of a photomultiplier tube which emits at most one electron for each arriving photon due to the photoelectric effect. This group of primary electrons is electrostatically accelerated and focused by an electrical potential so that they strike the first dynode of the tube. The impact of a single electron on the dynode releases a number of secondary electrons which are in turn accelerated to strike the second dynode. Each subsequent dynode impact releases further electrons, and so there is a current amplifying effect at each dynode stage. Each stage is at a higher potential than the previous to provide the accelerating field.
The resultant output signal at the anode is a measurable pulse for each group of photons from an original ionizing event in the scintillator that arrived at the photocathode and carries information about the energy of the original incident radiation. When it is fed to a charge amplifier which integrates the energy information, an output pulse is obtained which is proportional to the energy of the particle exciting the scintillator.
The number of such pulses per unit time also gives information about the intensity of the radiation. In some applications individual pulses are not counted, but rather only the average current at the anode is used as a measure of radiation intensity.
The scintillator must be shielded from all ambient light so that external photons do not swamp the ionization events caused by incident radiation. To achieve this a thin opaque foil, such as aluminized mylar, is often used, though it must have a low enough mass to minimize undue attenuation of the incident radiation being measured.
The article on the photomultiplier tube carries a detailed description of the tube's operation.
Detection materials
The scintillator consists of a transparent crystal, usually a phosphor, plastic (usually containing anthracene) or organic liquid (see liquid scintillation counting) that fluoresces when struck by ionizing radiation.
Cesium iodide (CsI) in crystalline form is used as the scintillator for the detection of protons and alpha particles. Sodium iodide (NaI) containing a small amount of thallium is used as a scintillator for the detection of gamma waves and zinc sulfide (ZnS) is widely used as a detector of alpha particles. Zinc sulfide is the material Rutherford used to perform his scattering experiment. Lithium iodide (LiI) is used in neutron detectors.
Detector efficiencies
Gamma
The quantum efficiency of a gamma-ray detector (per unit volume) depends upon the density of electrons in the detector, and certain scintillating materials, such as sodium iodide and bismuth germanate, achieve high electron densities as a result of the high atomic numbers of some of the elements of which they are composed. However, detectors based on semiconductors, notably hyperpure germanium, have better intrinsic energy resolution than scintillators, and are preferred where feasible for gamma-ray spectrometry.
Neutron
In the case of neutron detectors, high efficiency is gained through the use of scintillating materials rich in hydrogen that scatter neutrons efficiently. Liquid scintillation counters are an efficient and practical means of quantifying beta radiation.
Applications
Scintillation counters are used to measure radiation in a variety of applications including hand held radiation survey meters, personnel and environmental monitoring for radioactive contamination, medical imaging, radiometric assay, nuclear security and nuclear plant safety.
Several products have been introduced in the market utilising scintillation counters for detection of potentially dangerous gamma-emitting materials during transport. These include scintillation counters designed for freight terminals, border security, ports, weigh bridge applications, scrap metal yards and contamination monitoring of nuclear waste. There are variants of scintillation counters mounted on pick-up trucks and helicopters for rapid response in case of a security situation due to dirty bombs or radioactive waste. Hand-held units are also commonly used.
Selection guidance for handheld use
In the United Kingdom, the Health and Safety Executive, or HSE, has issued a user guidance note on selecting the correct radiation measurement instrument for the application concerned. This covers all radiation instrument technologies, and is a useful comparative guide to the use of scintillation detectors.
Radiation protection
Alpha and beta contamination
Radioactive contamination monitors, for area or personal surveys require a large detection area to ensure efficient and rapid coverage of monitored surfaces. For this a thin scintillator with a large area window and an integrated photomultiplier tube is ideally suited. They find wide application in the field of radioactive contamination monitoring of personnel and the environment. Detectors are designed to have one or two scintillation materials, depending on the application. "Single phosphor" detectors are used for either alpha or beta, and "Dual phosphor" detectors are used to detect both.
A scintillator such as zinc sulphide is used for alpha particle detection, whilst plastic scintillators are used for beta detection. The resultant scintillation energies can be discriminated so that alpha and beta counts can be measured separately with the same detector, This technique is used in both hand-held and fixed monitoring equipment, and such instruments are relatively inexpensive compared with the gas proportional detector.
Gamma
Scintillation materials are used for ambient gamma dose measurement, though a different construction is used to detect contamination, as no thin window is required.
As a spectrometer
Scintillators often convert a single photon of high energy radiation into high number of lower-energy photons, where the number of photons per megaelectronvolt of input energy is fairly constant. By measuring the intensity of the flash (the number of the photons produced by the x-ray or gamma photon) it is therefore possible to discern the original photon's energy.
The spectrometer consists of a suitable scintillator crystal, a photomultiplier tube, and a circuit for measuring the height of the pulses produced by the photomultiplier. The pulses are counted and sorted by their height, producing a x-y plot of scintillator flash brightness vs number of the flashes, which approximates the energy spectrum of the incident radiation, with some additional artifacts. A monochromatic gamma radiation produces a photopeak at its energy. The detector also shows response at the lower energies, caused by Compton scattering, two smaller escape peaks at energies 0.511 and 1.022 MeV below the photopeak for the creation of electron-positron pairs when one or both annihilation photons escape, and a backscatter peak. Higher energies can be measured when two or more photons strike the detector almost simultaneously (pile-up, within the time resolution of the data acquisition chain), appearing as sum peaks with energies up to the value of two or more photopeaks added
See also
Gamma spectroscopy
Geiger counter
Liquid scintillation counting
Lucas cell
Pandemonium effect
Photon counting
Scintigraphy
Total absorption spectroscopy
References
Particle detectors
Spectrometers
Ionising radiation detectors
Radiation protection
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] |
212150
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%20Sharing%20Option
|
Time Sharing Option
|
Time Sharing Option (TSO) is an interactive time-sharing environment for IBM mainframe operating systems, including OS/360 MVT, OS/VS2 (SVS), MVS, OS/390, and z/OS.
Use
In computing, time-sharing is a design technique that allows many people to use a computer system concurrently and independently—without interfering with each other. Each TSO user is isolated; it appears to each one that they are the only user of the system.
TSO is most commonly used by mainframe system administrators and programmers. It provides:
A text editor
Batch job support, including completion notification
Debuggers for some programming languages used on System/360 and later IBM mainframes
Support for other vendors' end-user applications, for example for querying IMS and DB2 databases
TSO interacts with users in either a line-by-line mode or in a full screen, menu-driven mode. In the line-by-line mode, the user enters commands by typing them in at the keyboard; in turn, the system interprets the commands, and then displays responses on the terminal screen. But most mainframe interaction is actually via ISPF, which allows for customized menu-driven interaction. This combination is called TSO/ISPF. TSO can also provide a Unix-style environment on OS/390 and z/OS via the UNIX System Services command shell, with or without ISPF.
TSO commands can be embedded in REXX execs or CLISTs, which can run interactively or in batch.
TSO eliminated the need to punch cards on a keypunch machine, and send card decks to the computer room to be read by a card reading machine.
History
When it was originally introduced in 1971, IBM considered time-sharing an "optional feature", as compared to standard batch processing, and hence offered TSO as an option for OS/360 MVT. With the introduction of MVS in 1974, IBM made it a standard component of their top-end mainframe operating system. TSO/E ("Time Sharing Option/Extensions") is a set of extensions to the original TSO. TSO/E is a base element of z/OS. Before z/OS, TSO Extensions (TSO/E) was an element of OS/390 and was a licensed program for the MVS and MVS/ESA System Products. Since all z/OS installations usually have both TSO and TSO/E functions installed, it is normal to refer to both TSO and TSO/E as "TSO".
When first released, TSO module names always had the "prefix" IKJ, plus the second and third letters of the associated pre-TSO functional group (IEA = original functional group of "supervisor", hence a TSO module name of IKJEAxxx, IEB = original functional group of "dataset utilities", hence a TSO module name of IKJEBxxx, etc.).
Batch use
It is common to run TSO in batch (as opposed to interactively): all the usual TSO line-mode interactive commands can be also executed via Job Control Language (JCL) by running any of the programs IKJEFT01, IKJEFT1A, and IKJEFT1B and supplying the line commands in a file pointed to by the SYSTSIN DD. The primary difference between the three programs is their handling of return codes from the executed commands.
Batch execution of TSO is one way to allow an IBM mainframe application to access DB2 resources.
See also
History of IBM mainframe operating systems
Michigan Terminal System
MUSIC/SP
ORVYL and WYLBUR
References
Further reading
External links
Several TSO manuals from the early 1970s, available from the BitSavers.org archive
IBM mainframe operating systems
Time-sharing operating systems
|
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] |
212151
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20birds%20of%20Australia%2C%20New%20Zealand%20and%20Antarctica
|
List of birds of Australia, New Zealand and Antarctica
|
This list is based on the Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds list, May 2002 update, with the doubtfuls omitted. It includes the birds of Australia, New Zealand, Antarctica, and the surrounding ocean and subantarctic islands.
Australian call-ups are based on the List of Australian birds.
New Zealand call-ups are based on the List of New Zealand birds.
Struthioniiformes
Casuariidae
Emu, Dromaius novaehollandiae - Aus
Southern cassowary, Casuarius casuarius - Aus
Apterygidae
Brown kiwi, Apteryx australis - NZ
Little spotted kiwi, Apteryx owenii - NZ
Great spotted kiwi, Apteryx haastii - NZ
Podicipediformes
Podicipedidae
Australasian grebe, Tachybaptus novaehollandiae - Aus, NZ
Hoary-headed grebe, Poliocephalus poliocephalus - Aus, NZ
New Zealand dabchick, Poliocephalus rufopectus - NZ
Great crested grebe, Podiceps cristatus - Aus, NZ
Sphenisciformes
Spheniscidae
King penguin, Aptenodytes patagonicus - Aus, NZ
Emperor penguin, Aptenodytes forsteri - Aus, NZ
Gentoo penguin, Pygoscelis papua - Aus, NZ
Adelie penguin, Pygoscelis adeliae - Aus, NZ
Chinstrap penguin, Pygoscelis antarctica - Aus, NZ
Southern rockhopper penguin, Eudyptes chrysocome - Aus, NZ
Northern rockhopper penguin, Eudyptes moseleyi - NZ
Fiordland penguin, Eudyptes pachyrhynchus - Aus, NZ
Snares penguin, Eudyptes robustus - Aus, NZ
Erect-crested penguin, Eudyptes sclateri - Aus, NZ
Macaroni penguin, Eudyptes chrysolophus - Aus, NZ
Yellow-eyed penguin, Megadyptes antipodes - NZ
Little penguin, Eudyptula minor - Aus, NZ
Magellanic penguin, Spheniscus magellanicus - Aus, NZ
Procellariiformes
Diomedeidae
Wandering albatross, Diomedea exulans - NZ
Royal albatross, Diomedea epomophora - NZ
Black-footed albatross, Phoebastria nigripes - NZ
Black-browed albatross, Thalassarche melanophris - Aus, NZ
Shy albatross, Thalassarche cauta - NZ
Salvin's albatross, Thalassarche salvini - Aus, NZ
Grey-headed albatross, Thalassarche chrysostoma - Aus, NZ
Indian yellow-nosed albatross, Thalassarche carteri - Aus, NZ
Buller's albatross, Thalassarche bulleri - NZ
Sooty albatross, Phoebetria fusca - NZ
Light-mantled sooty albatross, Phoebetria palpebrata - NZ
Procellariidae
Southern giant petrel, Macronectes giganteus - NZ
Northern giant petrel, Macronectes halli - NZ
Southern fulmar, Fulmarus glacialoides - Aus, NZ
Antarctic petrel, Thalassoica antarctica - NZ
Cape petrel, Daption capense - Aus, NZ
Snow petrel, Pagodroma nivea - NZ
Kerguelen petrel, Lugensa brevirostris - Aus, NZ
Tahiti petrel, Pseudobulweria rostrata - Aus, NZ
Great-winged petrel, Pterodroma macroptera - NZ
White-headed petrel, Pterodroma lessonii - NZ
Providence petrel, Pterodroma solandri - Aus,
Magenta petrel, Pterodroma magentae
Kermadec petrel, Pterodroma neglecta - Aus, NZ
Herald petrel, Pterodroma arminjoniana - Aus
Phoenix petrel, Pterodroma alba - NZ
Soft-plumaged petrel, Pterodroma mollis - Aus, NZ
Mottled petrel, Pterodroma inexpectata - Aus, NZ
Juan Fernandez petrel, Pterodroma externa - Aus, NZ
White-necked petrel, Pterodroma cervicalis - Aus, NZ
Barau's petrel, Pterodroma baraui - Aus
Black-winged petrel, Pterodroma nigripennis - Aus, NZ
Chatham petrel, Pterodroma axillaris - NZ
Cook's petrel, Pterodroma cookii - NZ
Stejneger's petrel, Pterodroma longirostris - NZ
Pycroft's petrel, Pterodroma pycrofti - NZ
Gould's petrel, Pterodroma leucoptera - Aus, NZ
Blue petrel, Halobaena caerulea - Aus, NZ
Broad-billed prion, Pachyptila vittata - Aus, NZ
Salvin's prion, Pachyptila salvini - Aus, NZ
Antarctic prion, Pachyptila desolata - Aus, NZ
Slender-billed prion, Pachyptila belcheri - Aus, NZ
Fairy prion, Pachyptila turtur - Aus, NZ
Fulmar prion, Pachyptila crassirostris - Aus, NZ
Bulwer's petrel, Bulweria bulwerii -
White-chinned petrel, Procellaria aequinoctialis - Aus, NZ
Westland petrel, Procellaria westlandica - NZ
Black petrel, Procellaria parkinsoni - NZ
Grey petrel, Procellaria cinerea - Aus, NZ
Cory's shearwater, Calonectris borealis - NZ
Streaked shearwater, Calonectris leucomelas - Aus, NZ
Wedge-tailed shearwater, Ardenna pacificus - Aus, NZ
Buller's shearwater, Ardenna bulleri - NZ
Flesh-footed shearwater, Ardenna carneipes - Aus, NZ
Pink-footed shearwater, Ardenna creatopus - Aus, NZ
Great shearwater, Ardenna gravis - Aus, NZ
Sooty shearwater, Ardenna griseus - Aus, NZ
Short-tailed shearwater, Ardenna tenuirostris - Aus, NZ
Christmas shearwater, Puffinus nativitatis - NZ
Manx shearwater, Puffinus puffinus - Aus, NZ
Fluttering shearwater, Puffinus gavia - NZ
Hutton's shearwater, Puffinus huttoni - NZ
Little shearwater, Puffinus assimilis - Aus, NZ
Procellariidae
South Georgian diving petrel, Pelecanoides georgicus - Aus, NZ
Common diving petrel, Pelecanoides urinatrix - Aus, NZ
Hydrobatidae
Wilson's storm petrel, Oceanites oceanicus - Aus, NZ
Grey-backed storm petrel, Garrodia nereis - Aus, NZ
White-faced storm petrel, Pelagodroma marina - Aus, NZ
Kermadec storm petrel, Pelagodroma marina - NZ
New Zealand storm petrel, Fregetta maoriana - NZ
Black-bellied storm petrel, Fregetta tropica - Aus, NZ
White-bellied storm petrel, Fregetta grallaria - Aus, NZ
Leach's storm petrel, Oceanodroma leucorhoa - Aus, NZ
Matsudaira's storm petrel, Oceanodroma matsudairae - Aus
Suliformes
Sulidae
Cape gannet, Morus capensis - Aus, NZ
Australasian gannet, Morus serrator - Aus, NZ
Masked booby, Sula dactylatra - Aus, NZ
Red-footed booby, Sula sula - Aus, NZ
Brown booby, Sula leucogaster - Aus, NZ
Abbott's booby, Papasula abbotti - Aus, NZ
Anhingidae
Australasian darter, Anhinga novaehollandiae - Aus, NZ
Phalacrocoracidae
Little pied cormorant, Microcarbo melanoleucos - Aus, NZ
Great cormorant, Phalacrocorax carbo - Aus, NZ
Pied cormorant, Phalacrocorax varius - Aus, NZ
Little black cormorant, Phalacrocorax sulcirostris - Aus, NZ
Black-faced cormorant, Phalacrocorax fuscescens - Aus
Spotted shag, Phalacrocorax punctatus - NZ
Pitt shag, Phalacrocorax featherstoni - NZ
King shag, Phalacrocorax carunculatus - NZ
Otago shag, Phalacrocorax chalconotus - NZ
Foveaux shag, Phalacrocorax stewarti - NZ
Chatham shag, Phalacrocorax onslowi - NZ
Auckland shag, Phalacrocorax colensoi - NZ
Campbell shag, Phalacrocorax campbelli - NZ
Bounty shag, Phalacrocorax ranfurlyi - NZ
Macquarie shag, Phalacrocorax purpurascens - Aus
Heard Island shag, Phalacrocorax nivalis - Aus
Kerguelen shag, Leucocarbo verrucosus - NZ
Fregatidae
Great frigatebird, Fregata minor - Aus, NZ
Lesser frigatebird, Fregata ariel - Aus, NZ
Christmas frigatebird, Fregata andrewsi - Aus, NZ
Phaethontiformes
Phaethontidae
Red-tailed tropicbird, Phaethon rubricauda - Aus, NZ
White-tailed tropicbird, Phaethon lepturus - Aus, NZ
Pelecaniformes
Pelecanidae
Australian pelican, Pelecanus conspicillatus - Aus, NZ
Ardeidae
White-necked heron, Ardea pacifica - Aus, NZ
Great-billed heron, Ardea sumatrana - Aus, NZ
Eastern great egret, Ardea modesta - Aus, NZ
Pied heron, Ardea picata - Aus
Intermediate egret, Ardea intermedia - Aus, NZ
Swinhoe's egret, Egretta eulophotes
Cattle egret, Ardea ibis - Aus, NZ
White-faced heron, Egretta novaehollandiae - Aus, NZ
Little egret, Egretta garzetta - Aus, NZ
Eastern reef egret, Egretta sacra - Aus, NZ
Striated heron, Butorides striatus - Aus
Black-crowned night heron, Nycticorax nycticorax - Aus
Nankeen night heron, Nycticorax caledonicus - Aus, NZ
Malayan night heron, Gorsachius melanolophus - Aus
Australian little bittern, Ixobrychus dubius - Aus, NZ
New Zealand little bittern, Ixobrychus novaezelandiae - NZ, extinct
Yellow bittern, Ixobrychus sinensis - Aus
Black bittern, Ixobrychus flavicollis - Aus
Australasian bittern, Botaurus poiciloptilus - Aus, NZ
Threskiornithidae
Glossy ibis, Plegadis falcinellus - Aus, NZ
Australian white ibis, Threskiornis moluccus - Aus, NZ
Straw-necked ibis, Threskiornis spinicollis - Aus, NZ
Royal spoonbill, Platalea regia - Aus, NZ
Yellow-billed spoonbill, Platalea flavipes - Aus, NZ
Ciconiiformes
Ciconiidae
White stork, Ciconia ciconia - NZ
Black-necked stork, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus - Aus
Phoenicopteriformes
Phoenicopteridae
Greater flamingo, Phoenicopterus ruber - Aus, rare vagrant
Anseriformes
Anseranatidae
Magpie goose, Anseranas semipalmata - Aus
Anatidae
Plumed whistling duck, Dendrocygna eytoni - Aus, NZ
Wandering whistling duck, Dendrocygna arcuata - Aus
Argentine ruddy duck, Oxyura vittata
Blue-billed duck, Oxyura australis - Aus, NZ
Musk duck, Biziura lobata - Aus
Freckled duck, Stictonetta naevosa - Aus
Mute swan, Cygnus olor - Aus, NZ
Black swan, Cygnus atratus - Aus, NZ
Canada goose, Branta canadensis - Aus, NZ
Cape Barren goose, Cereopsis novaehollandiae - Aus, NZ
Paradise shelduck, Tadorna variegata - NZ
Australian shelduck, Tadorna tadornoides - Aus, NZ
Radjah shelduck, Tadorna radjah - Aus
Green pygmy goose, Nettapus pulchellus - Aus
Cotton pygmy goose, Nettapus coromandelianus - Aus
Australian wood duck, Chenonetta jubata - Aus
Pink-eared duck, Malacorhynchus membranaceus - Aus, NZ
Blue duck, Hymenolaimus malacorhynchus - NZ
Chiloe widgeon, Anas sibilatrix - NZ
Chilean teal, Anas flavirostris
Grey teal, Anas gibberifrons - Aus, NZ
Chestnut teal, Anas castanea - Aus
Brown teal, Anas chlorotis - NZ
Auckland teal, Anas aucklandica - NZ
Campbell teal, Anas nesiotis - NZ
Northern pintail, Anas acuta - Aus, NZ
Brown pintail, Anas georgica
Eaton's pintail, Anas eatoni
Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos - Aus
Pacific black duck, Anas superciliosa - Aus, NZ
Garganey, Anas querquedula - Aus
Blue-winged teal, Anas discors
Australasian shoveller, Anas rhynchotis - Aus
Northern shoveller, Anas clypeata - Aus
Hardhead, Aythya australis - Aus, NZ
New Zealand scaup, Aythya novaeseelandiae - NZ
New Zealand merganser, Mergus australis - NZ
Accipitriformes
Accipitridae
Pacific baza, Aviceda subcristata - Aus, NZ
Black-shouldered kite, Elanus axillaris - Aus
Letter-winged kite, Elanus scriptus - Aus
Black kite, Milvus migrans - Aus, NZ
Brahminy kite, Haliastur indus - Aus
Whistling kite, Haliastur sphenurus - Aus
White-bellied sea eagle, Haliaeetus leucogaster - Aus, NZ
Spotted harrier, Circus assimilis - Aus, NZ
Swamp harrier, Circus approximans - Aus, NZ
Grey goshawk, Accipiter novaehollandiae - Aus
Brown goshawk, Accipiter fasciatus - Aus
Collared sparrowhawk, Accipiter cirrocephalus - Aus, NZ
Gurney's eagle, Aquila gurneyi - Aus
Wedge-tailed eagle, Aquila audax - Aus, NZ
Little eagle, Hieraaetus morphnoides - Aus
Black-breasted buzzard, Hamirostra melanosternon - Aus, NZ
Square-tailed kite, Lophoictinia isura - Aus
Red goshawk, Erythrotriorchis radiatus - Aus
Pandionidae
Osprey, Pandion haliaetus - Aus, NZ
Falconiformes
Falconidae
Brown falcon, Falco berigora - Aus, NZ
Nankeen kestrel, Falco cenchroides - Aus, NZ
Australian hobby, Falco longipennis - Aus, NZ
New Zealand falcon, Falco novaeseelandiae - NZ
Grey falcon, Falco hypoleucos - Aus
Black falcon, Falco subniger - Aus, NZ
Peregrine falcon, Falco peregrinus - Aus, NZ
Galliformes
Megapodiidae
Orange-footed scrubfowl, Megapodius reinwardt - Aus
Malleefowl, Leipoa ocellata - Aus
Australian brush-turkey, Alectura lathami - Aus
Phasianidae
Wild turkey, Meleagris gallopavo - Aus, NZ, introduced
Odontophoridae
California quail, Callipepla californica - Aus, introduced
Phasianidae
Red junglefowl, Gallus gallus - Aus, introduced
Indian peafowl, Pavo cristatus - Aus, NZ, introduced
Common pheasant, Phasianus colchicus - Aus, NZ, introduced
Chukar, Alectoris chukar - NZ, introduced
Stubble quail, Coturnix pectoralis - Aus
New Zealand quail, Coturnix novaezelandiae - NZ, extinct
Brown quail, Coturnix ypsilophora - Aus, NZ
King quail, Coturnix chinensis - Aus
Gruiformes
Gruidae
Sarus crane, Grus antigone - Aus
Brolga, Grus rubicunda - Aus
Rallidae
Red-necked crake, Rallina tricolor - Aus
Red-legged crake, Rallina fasciata - Aus
Buff-banded rail, Gallirallus philippensis - Aus
Weka, Gallirallus australis - NZ
Lord Howe woodhen, Gallirallus sylvestris - Aus
Chatham Island rail, Gallirallus modestus - NZ, extinct
Lewin's rail, Rallus pectoralis - Aus
Plain bush-hen, Amaurornis olivaceus - Aus
Baillon's crake, Porzana pusilla - Aus
Australian spotted crake, Porzana fluminea - Aus
Ruddy-breasted crake, Porzana fusca - Aus
Spotless crake, Porzana tabuensis - Aus
White-browed crake, Porzana cinerea - Aus
Chestnut rail, Eulabeornis castaneoventris - Aus
Watercock, Gallicrex cinerea - Aus
Purple gallinule, Porphyrio martinicus
Australasian swamphen, Porphyrio melanotus - Aus, NZ
Takahe, Porphyrio mantelli - NZ
Dusky moorhen, Gallinula tenebrosa - Aus
Black-tailed nativehen, Tribonyx ventralis - Aus
Tasmanian nativehen, Tribonyx mortierii - Aus
Eurasian coot, Fulica atra - Aus
Otidiformes
Otididae
Australian bustard, Ardeotis australis - Aus
Charadriiformes
Turnicidae
Red-backed buttonquail, Turnix maculosa - Aus
Painted buttonquail, Turnix varius - Aus
Chestnut-backed buttonquail, Turnix castanota - Aus
Buff-breasted buttonquail, Turnix olivii - Aus
Black-breasted buttonquail, Turnix melanogaster - Aus
Little buttonquail, Turnix velox - Aus
Red-chested buttonquail, Turnix pyrrhothorax - Aus
Pedionomidae
Plains-wanderer, Pedionomus torquatus - Aus
Rostratulidae
Australian painted-snipe, Rostratula australis - Aus
Jacanidae
Comb-crested jacana, Irediparra gallinacea - Aus
Pheasant-tailed jacana, Hydrophasianus chirurgus - Aus
Chionididae
Pale-faced sheathbill, Chionis alba
Black-faced sheathbill, Chionis minor - Aus
Burhinidae
Bush stone-curlew, Burhinus grallarius - Aus
Beach stone-curlew, Esacus magnirostris - Aus
Haematopodidae
Pied oystercatcher, Haematopus longirostris - Aus
South Island pied oystercatcher, Haematopus finschi - Aus, NZ
Chatham Island oystercatcher, Haematopus chathamensis - NZ
Sooty oystercatcher, Haematopus fuliginosus - Aus
Variable oystercatcher, Haematopus unicolor - NZ
Recurvirostridae
Black-winged stilt, Himantopus himantopus - Aus
Black stilt, Himantopus novaezelandiae - NZ
Banded stilt, Cladorhynchus leucocephalus - Aus
Red-necked avocet, Recurvirostra novaehollandiae - Aus
Charadriidae
Pacific golden plover, Pluvialis fulva - Aus
American golden plover, Pluvialis dominica
Grey plover, Pluvialis squatarola - Aus
New Zealand dotterel, Charadrius obscurus - NZ
Ringed plover, Charadrius hiaticula - Aus
Little ringed plover, Charadrius dubius - Aus
Kentish plover, Charadrius alexandrinus - Aus
Red-capped plover, Charadrius ruficapillus - Aus
Double-banded plover, Charadrius bicinctus - Aus
Lesser sand plover, Charadrius mongolus - Aus
Greater sand plover, Charadrius leschenaultii - Aus
Caspian plover, Charadrius asiaticus - Aus
Oriental plover, Charadrius veredus - Aus
Inland dotterel, Charadrius australis - Aus
Three-banded plover, Charadrius tricollaris
Black-fronted dotterel, Elseyornis melanops - Aus
Hooded plover, Thinornis cucullatus - Aus
Shore plover, Thinornis novaeseelandiae - NZ
Wrybill, Anarhynchus frontalis - NZ
Red-kneed dotterel, Erythrogonys cinctus - Aus
Banded lapwing, Vanellus tricolor - Aus
Masked lapwing, Vanellus miles - Aus
Northern lapwing, Vanellus vanellus
Blacksmith lapwing, Vanellus armatus
Scolopacidae
Latham's snipe, Gallinago hardwickii - Aus
Pin-tailed snipe, Gallinago stenura - Aus
Swinhoe's snipe, Gallinago megala - Aus
Chatham Island snipe, Coenocorypha pusilla - NZ
Subantarctic snipe, Coenocorypha aucklandica - NZ
Snares snipe, Coenocorypha huegeli - NZ
Black-tailed godwit, Limosa limosa - Aus
Hudsonian godwit, Limosa haemastica - Aus
Bar-tailed godwit, Limosa lapponica - Aus
Little curlew, Numenius minutus - Aus
Whimbrel, Numenius phaeopus - Aus
Bristle-thighed curlew, Numenius tahitiensis
Eastern curlew, Numenius madagascariensis - Aus
Upland sandpiper, Bartramia longicauda - Aus
Spotted redshank, Tringa erythropus - Aus
Common redshank, Tringa totanus - Aus
Marsh sandpiper, Tringa stagnatilis - Aus
Common greenshank, Tringa nebularia - Aus
Lesser yellowlegs, Tringa flavipes - Aus
Solitary sandpiper, Tringa solitaria
Green sandpiper, Tringa ochropus - Aus
Wood sandpiper, Tringa glareola - Aus
Terek sandpiper, Xenus cinereus - Aus
Common sandpiper, Actitis hypoleucos - Aus
Grey-tailed tattler, Tringa brevipes - Aus
Wandering tattler, Tringa incana - Aus
Ruddy turnstone, Arenaria interpres - Aus
Asian dowitcher, Limnodromus semipalmatus - Aus
Great knot, Calidris tenuirostris - Aus
Red knot, Calidris canutus - Aus, NZ
Sanderling, Calidris alba - Aus
Western sandpiper, Calidris mauri
Little stint, Calidris minuta - Aus
Red-necked stint, Calidris ruficollis - Aus
Long-toed stint, Calidris subminuta - Aus
Least sandpiper, Calidris minutilla
White-rumped sandpiper, Calidris fuscicollis - Aus
Baird's sandpiper, Calidris bairdii - Aus
Pectoral sandpiper, Calidris melanotos - Aus
Sharp-tailed sandpiper, Calidris acuminata - Aus
Dunlin, Calidris alpina - Aus
Curlew sandpiper, Calidris ferruginea - Aus
Stilt sandpiper, Micropalama himantopus - Aus
Buff-breasted sandpiper, Tryngites subruficollis - Aus
Broad-billed sandpiper, Limicola falcinellus - Aus
Ruff, Philomachus pugnax - Aus
Wilson's phalarope, Phalaropus tricolor - Aus
Red-necked phalarope, Phalaropus lobatus - Aus
Grey phalarope, Phalaropus fulicarius - Aus
Glareolidae
Oriental pratincole, Glareola maldivarum - Aus
Australian pratincole, Stiltia isabella - Aus
Laridae
Great skua, Catharacta skua
South polar skua, Catharacta maccormicki - Aus
Pomarine jaeger, Stercorarius pomarinus - Aus
Arctic jaeger, Stercorarius parasiticus - Aus, NZ
Long-tailed jaeger, Stercorarius longicauda - Aus
Pacific gull, Larus pacificus - Aus
Black-tailed gull, Larus crassirostris - Aus
Kelp gull, Larus dominicanus - Aus, NZ
Silver gull, Chroicocephalus novaehollandiae - Aus, NZ
Black-billed gull, Chroicocephalus bulleri - NZ
Black-headed gull, Chroicocephalus ridibundus - Aus
Laughing gull, Leucophaeus atricilla - Aus
Franklin's gull, Leucophaeus pipixcan - Aus
Sabine's gull, Xema sabini - Aus
Gull-billed tern, Gelochelidon nilotica - Aus
Australian tern, Gelochelidon macrotarsa - Aus
Caspian tern, Hydroprogne caspia - Aus, NZ
Lesser crested tern, Thalasseus bengalensis - Aus
Greater crested tern, Thalasseus bergii - Aus
Roseate tern, Sterna dougallii - Aus
White-fronted tern, Sterna striata - Aus
Black-naped tern, Sterna sumatrana - Aus
Common tern, Sterna hirundo - Aus
Arctic tern, Sterna paradisaea - Aus
Antarctic tern, Sterna vittata - Aus
Kerguelen tern, Sterna virgata
Little tern, Sternula albifrons - Aus
Fairy tern, Sternula nereis - Aus
Bridled tern, Onychoprion anaethetus - Aus
Sooty tern, Onychoprion fuscatus - Aus
Black-fronted tern, Chlidonias albostriatus - NZ
Whiskered tern, Chlidonias hybrida - Aus
White-winged tern, Chlidonias leucopterus - Aus
Black tern, Chlidonias niger - Aus
Common noddy, Anous stolidus - Aus
Black noddy, Anous minutus - Aus
Lesser noddy, Anous tenuirostris - Aus
Grey ternlet, Procelsterna cerulea - Aus
White tern, Gygis alba - Aus
Columbiformes
Columbidae
Rock dove, Columba livia - Aus, NZ, introduced
White-throated pigeon, Columba vitiensis - Aus
White-headed pigeon, Columba leucomela - Aus
Laughing dove, Spilopelia senegalensis - Aus, introduced
Spotted dove, Spilopelia chinensis - Aus, NZ, introduced
Barbary dove, Streptopelia risoria - Aus, NZ, introduced
Brown cuckoo-dove, Macropygia phasianella - Aus
Pacific emerald dove, Chalcophaps longirostris - Aus
Common bronzewing, Phaps chalcoptera - Aus
Brush bronzewing, Phaps elegans - Aus
Flock bronzewing, Phaps histrionica - Aus
Crested pigeon, Ocyphaps lophotes - Aus
Spinifex pigeon, Geophaps plumifera - Aus
Partridge pigeon, Geophaps smithii - Aus
Squatter pigeon, Geophaps scripta - Aus
White-quilled rock pigeon, Petrophassa albipennis - Aus
Chestnut-quilled rock pigeon, Petrophassa rufipennis - Aus
Diamond dove, Geopelia cuneata - Aus
Peaceful dove, Geopelia striata - Aus
Bar-shouldered dove, Geopelia humeralis - Aus
Wonga pigeon, Leucosarcia melanoleuca - Aus
Norfolk ground dove, Gallicolumba norfolciensis - Aus, extinct
Black-banded fruit dove, Ptilinopus alligator - Aus
Wompoo fruit dove, Ptilinopus magnificus - Aus
Superb fruit dove, Ptilinopus superbus - Aus
Rose-crowned fruit dove, Ptilinopus regina - Aus
Elegant imperial pigeon, Ducula concinna - Aus
Christmas imperial pigeon, Ducula whartoni - Aus
Collared imperial pigeon, Ducula mullerii - Aus
Torresian imperial pigeon, Ducula spilorrhoa - Aus
Topknot pigeon, Lopholaimus antarcticus - Aus
New Zealand pigeon, Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae - Aus, NZ
Psittaciformes
Strigopidae
Kea, Nestor notabilis - NZ
New Zealand kaka, Nestor meridionalis - NZ
Norfolk kaka, Nestor productus - Aus
Kakapo, Strigops habroptilus - NZ
Cacatuidae
Palm cockatoo, Probosciger aterrimus - Aus
Red-tailed black cockatoo, Calyptorhynchus banksii - Aus
Glossy black cockatoo, Calyptorhynchus lathami - Aus
Yellow-tailed black cockatoo, Calyptorhynchus funereus - Aus
Short-billed black cockatoo, Calyptorhynchus latirostris - Aus
Long-billed black cockatoo, Calyptorhynchus baudinii - Aus
Gang-gang cockatoo, Callocephalon fimbriatum - Aus
Galah, Eolophus roseicapilla - Aus
Major Mitchell's cockatoo, Lophochroa leadbeateri - Aus
Long-billed corella, Cacatua tenuirostris - Aus
Western corella, Cacatua pastinator - Aus
Little corella, Cacatua sanguinea - Aus
Sulphur-crested cockatoo, Cacatua galerita - Aus, NZ
Cockatiel, Nymphicus hollandicus - Aus
Psittacidae
Rainbow lorikeet, Trichoglossus haematodus - Aus
Scaly-breasted lorikeet, Trichoglossus chlorolepidotus - Aus
Varied lorikeet, Psitteuteles versicolor - Aus
Musk lorikeet, Glossopsitta concinna - Aus
Little lorikeet, Glossopsitta pusilla - Aus
Purple-crowned lorikeet, Glossopsitta porphyrocephala - Aus
Eclectus parrot, Eclectus roratus - Aus
Red-cheeked parrot, Geoffroyus geoffroyi - Aus
Double-eyed fig parrot, Cyclopsitta diophthalma - Aus
Australian king parrot, Alisterus scapularis - Aus
Red-winged parrot, Aprosmictus erythropterus - Aus
Superb parrot, Polytelis swainsonii - Aus
Regent parrot, Polytelis anthopeplus - Aus
Princess parrot, Polytelis alexandrae - Aus
Green rosella, Platycercus caledonicus - Aus
Crimson rosella, Platycercus elegans - Aus
Eastern rosella, Platycercus eximius - Aus
Pale-headed rosella, Platycercus adscitus - Aus
Northern rosella, Platycercus venustus - Aus
Western rosella, Platycercus icterotis - Aus
Australian ringneck, Barnardius zonarius - Aus
Red-capped parrot, Purpureicephalus spurius - Aus
Blue bonnet, Northiella haematogaster - Aus
Swift parrot, Lathamus discolor - Aus
Red-rumped parrot, Psephotus haematonotus - Aus
Mulga parrot, Psephotus varius - Aus
Golden-shouldered parrot, Psephotus chrysopterygius - Aus
Hooded parrot, Psephotus dissimilis - Aus
Paradise parrot, Psephotus pulcherrimus - Aus
Antipodes parakeet, Cyanoramphus unicolor - NZ
Red-fronted parakeet, Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae - Aus, NZ
Yellow-crowned parakeet, Cyanoramphus auriceps - NZ
Budgerigar, Melopsittacus undulatus - Aus
Bourke's parrot, Neophema bourkii - Aus
Blue-winged parrot, Neophema chrysostoma - Aus
Elegant parrot, Neophema elegans - Aus
Rock parrot, Neophema petrophila - Aus
Orange-bellied parrot, Neophema chrysogaster - Aus
Turquoise parrot, Neophema pulchella - Aus
Scarlet-chested parrot, Neophema splendida - Aus
Eastern ground parrot, Pezoporus wallicus - Aus
Western ground parrot, Pezoporus flaviventris - Aus
Night parrot, Pezoporus occidentalis - Aus
Cuculiformes
Cuculidae
Common cuckoo, Cuculus canorus
African cuckoo, Cuculus gularis
Oriental cuckoo, Cuculus optatus - Aus
Pallid cuckoo, Cuculus pallidus - Aus
Brush cuckoo, Cuculus variolosus - Aus
Chestnut-breasted cuckoo, Cacomantis castaneiventris - Aus
Fan-tailed cuckoo, Cacomantis flabelliformis - Aus
Black-eared cuckoo, Chrysococcyx osculans - Aus
Horsfield's bronze cuckoo, Chrysococcyx basalis - Aus
Shining bronze cuckoo, Chrysococcyx lucidus - Aus, NZ
Little bronze cuckoo, Chrysococcyx minutillus - Aus
Gould's bronze cuckoo, Chrysococcyx russatus - Aus
Pacific koel, Eudynamys orientalis - Aus
Long-tailed cuckoo, Eudynamys taitensis - Aus, NZ
Channel-billed cuckoo, Scythrops novaehollandiae - Aus
Centropodidae
Pheasant coucal, Centropus phasianinus - Aus
Strigiformes
Strigidae
Buffy fish owl, Ketupa ketupu
Little owl, Athene noctua
Powerful owl, Ninox strenua - Aus
Rufous owl, Ninox rufa - Aus
Barking owl, Ninox connivens - Aus
Australian boobook, Ninox boobook - Aus
Morepork, Ninox novaeseelandiae - Aus, NZ
Brown hawk-owl, Ninox scutulata - Aus
Christmas Island hawk-owl, Ninox natalis - Aus
Laughing owl, Sceloglaux albifacies
Tytonidae
Greater sooty owl, Tyto tenebricosa - Aus
Lesser sooty owl, Tyto multipunctata - Aus
Masked owl, Tyto novaehollandiae - Aus
Barn owl, Tyto alba - Aus
Grass owl, Tyto longimembris - Aus
Caprimulgiformes
Podargidae
Tawny frogmouth, Podargus strigoides - Aus
Papuan frogmouth, Podargus papuensis - Aus
Marbled frogmouth, Podargus ocellatus - Aus
Caprimulgidae
White-throated nightjar, Eurostopodus mystacalis - Aus
Spotted nightjar, Eurostopodus argus - Aus
Large-tailed nightjar, Caprimulgus macrurus - Aus
Savanna nightjar, Caprimulgus affinis - Aus
Aegothelidae
Australian owlet-nightjar, Aegotheles cristatus - Aus
Apodiformes
Apodidae
Glossy swiftlet, Collocalia esculenta - Aus
White-rumped swiftlet, Collocalia spodiopygius - Aus
Uniform swiftlet, Collocalia vanikorensis - Aus
White-throated needletail, Hirundapus caudacutus - Aus
Common swift, Apus apus - NZ
Pacific swift, Apus pacificus - Aus
House swift, Apus affinis - Aus
Coraciiformes
Alcedinidae
Azure kingfisher, Ceyx azureus - Aus
Little kingfisher, Ceyx pusillus - Aus
Buff-breasted paradise kingfisher, Tanysiptera sylvia - Aus
Laughing kookaburra, Dacelo novaeguineae - Aus
Blue-winged kookaburra, Dacelo leachii - Aus
Yellow-billed kingfisher, Syma torotoro - Aus
Forest kingfisher, Todiramphus macleayii - Aus
Red-backed kingfisher, Todiramphus pyrrhopygia - Aus
Sacred kingfisher, Todiramphus sanctus - Aus
Torresian kingfisher, Todiramphus sordidus - Aus
Meropidae
Rainbow bee-eater, Merops ornatus - Aus
Coraciidae
Broad-billed roller, Eurystomus glaucurus
Dollarbird, Eurystomus orientalis - Aus
Passeriformes
Tyrannidae
Eastern kingbird, Tyrannus tyrannus
Dark-faced ground tyrant, Muscisaxicola macloviana
Acanthisittidae
Rifleman, Acanthisitta chloris - NZ
Bush wren, Xenicus longipes - NZ
Rock wren, Xenicus gilviventris - NZ
Lyall's wren, Traversia lyalli - NZ
Pittidae
Papuan pitta, Erythropitta macklotii - Aus
Blue-winged pitta, Pitta moluccensis - Aus
Noisy pitta, Pitta versicolor - Aus
Rainbow pitta, Pitta iris - Aus
Menuridae
Albert's lyrebird, Menura alberti - Aus
Superb lyrebird, Menura novaehollandiae - Aus
Atrichornithidae
Rufous scrubbird, Atrichornis rufescens - Aus
Noisy scrubbird, Atrichornis clamosus - Aus
Climacteridae
White-throated treecreeper, Cormobates leucophaeus - Aus
White-browed treecreeper, Climacteris affinis - Aus
Red-browed treecreeper, Climacteris erythrops - Aus
Brown treecreeper, Climacteris picumnus - Aus
Black-tailed treecreeper, Climacteris melanura - Aus
Rufous treecreeper, Climacteris rufa - Aus
Maluridae
Purple-crowned fairywren, Malurus coronatus - Aus
Superb fairywren, Malurus cyaneus - Aus
Splendid fairywren, Malurus splendens - Aus
Variegated fairywren, Malurus lamberti - Aus
Lovely fairywren, Malurus amabilis - Aus
Blue-breasted fairywren, Malurus pulcherrimus - Aus
Red-winged fairywren, Malurus elegans - Aus
White-winged fairywren, Malurus leucopterus - Aus
Red-backed fairywren, Malurus melanocephalus - Aus
Southern emu-wren, Stipiturus malachurus - Aus
Mallee emu-wren, Stipiturus mallee - Aus
Rufous-crowned emu-wren, Stipiturus ruficeps - Aus
Grey grasswren, Amytornis barbatus - Aus
Black grasswren, Amytornis housei - Aus
White-throated grasswren, Amytornis woodwardi - Aus
Carpentarian grasswren, Amytornis dorotheae - Aus
Striated grasswren, Amytornis striatus - Aus
Short-tailed grasswren, Amytornis merrotsyi - Aus
Eyrean grasswren, Amytornis goyderi - Aus
Thick-billed grasswren, Amytornis textilis - Aus
Dusky grasswren, Amytornis purnelli - Aus
Kalkadoon grasswren, Amytornis ballarae - Aus
Meliphagidae
Red wattlebird, Anthochaera carunculata - Aus, NZ
Yellow wattlebird, Anthochaera paradoxa - Aus
Little wattlebird, Anthochaera chrysoptera - Aus
Western wattlebird, Anthochaera lunulata - Aus
Spiny-cheeked honeyeater, Acanthagenys rufogularis - Aus
Striped honeyeater, Plectorhyncha lanceolata - Aus
Helmeted friarbird, Philemon buceroides - Aus
Silver-crowned friarbird, Philemon argenticeps - Aus
Noisy friarbird, Philemon corniculatus - Aus
Little friarbird, Philemon citreogularis - Aus
Regent honeyeater, Anthochaera phrygia - Aus
Blue-faced honeyeater, Entomyzon cyanotis - Aus
Bell miner, Manorina melanophrys - Aus
Noisy miner, Manorina melanocephala - Aus
Yellow-throated miner, Manorina flavigula - Aus
Black-eared miner, Manorina melanotis - Aus
Macleay's honeyeater, Xanthotis macleayana - Aus
Tawny-breasted honeyeater, Xanthotis flaviventer - Aus
Lewin's honeyeater, Meliphaga lewinii - Aus
Yellow-spotted honeyeater, Meliphaga notata - Aus
Graceful honeyeater, Meliphaga gracilis - Aus
White-lined honeyeater, Meliphaga albilineata - Aus
Bridled honeyeater, Bolemoreus frenatus - Aus
Eungella honeyeater, Bolemoreus hindwoodi - Aus
Yellow-faced honeyeater, Caligavis chrysops - Aus
Singing honeyeater, Gavicalis virescens - Aus
Varied honeyeater, Gavicalis versicolor - Aus
Mangrove honeyeater, Gavicalis fasciogularis - Aus
White-gaped honeyeater, Stomiopera unicolor - Aus
Yellow honeyeater, Stomiopera flava - Aus
White-eared honeyeater, Nesoptilotis leucotis - Aus
Yellow-throated honeyeater, Nesoptilotis flavicollis - Aus
Yellow-tufted honeyeater, Lichenostomus melanops - Aus
Purple-gaped honeyeater, Lichenostomus cratitius - Aus
Grey-headed honeyeater, Ptilotula keartlandi - Aus
Yellow-plumed honeyeater, Ptilotula ornata - Aus
Grey-fronted honeyeater, Ptilotula plumula - Aus
Fuscous honeyeater, Ptilotula fusca - Aus
Yellow-tinted honeyeater, Ptilotula flavescens - Aus
White-plumed honeyeater, Ptilotula penicillata - Aus
Black-chinned honeyeater, Melithreptus gularis - Aus
Strong-billed honeyeater, Melithreptus validirostris - Aus
Brown-headed honeyeater, Melithreptus brevirostris - Aus
White-throated honeyeater, Melithreptus albogularis - Aus
White-naped honeyeater, Melithreptus lunatus - Aus
Black-headed honeyeater, Melithreptus affinis - Aus
Stitchbird, Notiomystis cincta - NZ
Green-backed honeyeater, Glycichaera fallax - Aus
Brown honeyeater, Lichmera indistincta - Aus
White-streaked honeyeater, Trichodere cockerelli - Aus
Painted honeyeater, Grantiella picta - Aus
Crescent honeyeater, Phylidonyris pyrrhoptera - Aus
New Holland honeyeater, Phylidonyris novaehollandiae - Aus
White-cheeked honeyeater, Phylidonyris nigra - Aus
Tawny-crowned honeyeater, Gliciphila melanops - Aus
White-fronted honeyeater, Purnella albifrons - Aus
Brown-backed honeyeater, Ramsayornis modestus - Aus
Bar-breasted honeyeater, Ramsayornis fasciatus - Aus
Rufous-banded honeyeater, Conopophila albogularis - Aus
Rufous-throated honeyeater, Conopophila rufogularis - Aus
Grey honeyeater, Conopophila whitei - Aus
Eastern spinebill, Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris - Aus
Western spinebill, Acanthorhynchus superciliosus - Aus
Banded honeyeater, Cissomela pectoralis - Aus
Black honeyeater, Sugomel niger - Aus
Pied honeyeater, Certhionyx variegatus - Aus
Dusky honeyeater, Myzomela obscura - Aus
Red-headed honeyeater, Myzomela erythrocephala - Aus
Scarlet honeyeater, Myzomela sanguinolenta - Aus
Bellbird, Anthornis melanura - NZ
Tui, Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae - NZ
Crimson chat, Epthianura tricolor - Aus
Orange chat, Epthianura aurifrons - Aus
Yellow chat, Epthianura crocea - Aus
White-fronted chat, Epthianura albifrons - Aus
Gibberbird, Ashbyia lovensis - Aus
Pardalotidae
Spotted pardalote, Pardalotus punctatus - Aus
Forty-spotted pardalote, Pardalotus quadragintus - Aus
Red-browed pardalote, Pardalotus rubricatus - Aus
Striated pardalote, Pardalotus striatus - Aus
Dasyornithidae
Eastern bristlebird, Dasyornis brachypterus - Aus
Rufous bristlebird, Dasyornis broadbenti - Aus
Western bristlebird, Dasyornis longirostris - Aus
Acanthizidae
Pilotbird, Pycnoptilus floccosus - Aus
Rockwarbler, Origma solitaria - Aus
Fernwren, Oreoscopus gutturalis - Aus
Yellow-throated scrubwren, Sericornis citreogularis - Aus
White-browed scrubwren, Sericornis frontalis - Aus
Tasmanian scrubwren, Sericornis humilis - Aus
Atherton scrubwren, Sericornis keri - Aus
Large-billed scrubwren, Sericornis magnirostris - Aus
Tropical scrubwren, Sericornis beccarii - Aus
Scrubtit, Acanthornis magnus - Aus
Chestnut-rumped heathwren, Hylacola pyrrhopygia - Aus
Shy heathwren, Hylacola cauta - Aus
Striated fieldwren, Calamanthus fuliginosus - Aus
Rufous fieldwren, Calamanthus campestris - Aus
Redthroat, Pyrrholaemus brunneus - Aus
Speckled warbler, Chthonicola sagittatus - Aus
Weebill, Smicrornis brevirostris - Aus
Brown gerygone, Gerygone mouki - Aus
Grey warbler, Gerygone igata - NZ
Chatham Island warbler, Gerygone albofrontata - NZ
Norfolk Island gerygone, Gerygone modesta - Aus
Dusky gerygone, Gerygone tenebrosa - Aus
Mangrove gerygone, Gerygone levigaster - Aus
Western gerygone, Gerygone fusca - Aus
Lord Howe gerygone, Gerygone insularis - Aus
Large-billed gerygone, Gerygone magnirostris - Aus
Green-backed gerygone, Gerygone chloronotus - Aus
Fairy gerygone, Gerygone palpebrosa - Aus
White-throated gerygone, Gerygone olivacea - Aus
Mountain thornbill, Acanthiza katherina - Aus
Brown thornbill, Acanthiza pusilla - Aus
Inland thornbill, Acanthiza apicalis - Aus
Tasmanian thornbill, Acanthiza ewingii - Aus
Chestnut-rumped thornbill, Acanthiza uropygialis - Aus
Slaty-backed thornbill, Acanthiza robustirostris - Aus
Western thornbill, Acanthiza inornata - Aus
Buff-rumped thornbill, Acanthiza reguloides - Aus
Slender-billed thornbill, Acanthiza iredalei - Aus
Yellow-rumped thornbill, Acanthiza chrysorrhoa - Aus
Yellow thornbill, Acanthiza nana - Aus
Striated thornbill, Acanthiza lineata - Aus
Southern whiteface, Aphelocephala leucopsis - Aus
Chestnut-breasted whiteface, Aphelocephala pectoralis - Aus
Banded whiteface, Aphelocephala nigricincta - Aus
Petroicidae
Jacky winter, Microeca fascinans - Aus
Lemon-bellied flycatcher, Microeca flavigaster - Aus
Yellow-legged flycatcher, Microeca griseoceps - Aus
Scarlet robin, Petroica multicolor - Aus
New Zealand tomtit, Petroica macrocephala - NZ
Red-capped robin, Petroica goodenovii - Aus
Flame robin, Petroica phoenicea - Aus
Rose robin, Petroica rosea - Aus
Pink robin, Petroica rodinogaster - Aus
South Island robin, Petroica australis - NZ
North Island robin, Petroica longipes - NZ
Black robin, Petroica traversi - NZ
Hooded robin, Melanodryas cucullata - Aus
Dusky robin, Melanodryas vittata - Aus
Pale-yellow robin, Tregellasia capito - Aus
White-faced robin, Tregellasia leucops - Aus
Eastern yellow robin, Eopsaltria australis - Aus
Western yellow robin, Eopsaltria griseogularis - Aus
White-breasted robin, Eopsaltria georgiana - Aus
Mangrove robin, Eopsaltria pulverulenta - Aus
White-browed robin, Poecilodryas superciliosa - Aus
Grey-headed robin, Heteromyias cinereifrons - Aus
Northern scrub robin, Drymodes superciliaris - Aus
Southern scrub robin, Drymodes brunneopygia - Aus
Orthonychidae
Logrunner, Orthonyx temminckii - Aus
Chowchilla, Orthonyx spaldingii - Aus
Pomatostomidae
Grey-crowned babbler, Pomatostomus temporalis - Aus
White-browed babbler, Pomatostomus superciliosus - Aus
Hall's babbler, Pomatostomus halli - Aus
Chestnut-crowned babbler, Pomatostomus ruficeps - Aus
Cinclosomatidae
Eastern whipbird, Psophodes olivaceus - Aus
Western whipbird, Psophodes nigrogularis - Aus
Chirruping wedgebill, Psophodes cristatus - Aus
Chiming wedgebill, Psophodes occidentalis - Aus
Spotted quail-thrush, Cinclosoma punctatum - Aus
Chestnut quail-thrush, Cinclosoma castanotus - Aus
Cinnamon quail-thrush, Cinclosoma cinnamomeum - Aus
Nullarbor quail-thrush, Cinclosoma alisteri - Aus
Chestnut-breasted quail-thrush, Cinclosoma castaneothorax - Aus
Western quail-thrush, Cinclosoma marginatum - Aus
Neosittidae
Varied sittella, Daphoenositta chrysoptera - Aus
Mohouidae
Whitehead, Mohoua albicilla - NZ
Yellowhead, Mohoua ochrocephala - NZ
Brown creeper, Mohoua novaeseelandiae - NZ
Pachycephalidae
Crested shrike-tit, Falcunculus frontatus - Aus
Olive whistler, Pachycephala olivacea - Aus
Red-lored whistler, Pachycephala rufogularis - Aus
Gilbert's whistler, Pachycephala inornata - Aus
Australian golden whistler, Pachycephala pectoralis - Aus
Mangrove golden whistler, Pachycephala melanura - Aus
Western whistler, Pachycephala occidentalis - Aus
Grey whistler, Pachycephala simplex - Aus
Rufous whistler, Pachycephala rufiventris - Aus
White-breasted whistler, Pachycephala lanioides - Aus
Little shrike-thrush, Colluricincla megarhyncha - Aus
Bower's shrike-thrush, Colluricincla boweri - Aus
Sandstone shrike-thrush, Colluricincla woodwardi - Aus
Grey shrike-thrush, Colluricincla harmonica - Aus
Oreoicidae
Crested bellbird, Oreoica gutturalis - Aus
Monarchidae
Yellow-breasted boatbill, Machaerirhynchus flaviventer - Aus
Black-faced monarch, Monarcha melanopsis - Aus
Black-winged monarch, Monarcha frater - Aus
Spectacled monarch, Symposiachrus trivirgatus - Aus
White-eared monarch, Carterornis leucotis - Aus
Frilled monarch, Arses telescophthalmus - Aus
Pied monarch, Arses kaupi - Aus
Broad-billed flycatcher, Myiagra ruficollis - Aus
Leaden flycatcher, Myiagra rubecula - Aus
Satin flycatcher, Myiagra cyanoleuca - Aus
Shining flycatcher, Myiagra alecto - Aus
Restless flycatcher, Myiagra inquieta - Aus
Magpie-lark, Grallina cyanoleuca - Aus
Rhipiduridae
Rufous fantail, Rhipidura rufifrons - Aus
New Zealand fantail, Rhipidura fuliginosa - NZ
Grey fantail, Rhipidura albiscapa - Aus
Mangrove grey fantail, Rhipidura phasiana - Aus
Northern fantail, Rhipidura rufiventris - Aus
Willie wagtail, Rhipidura leucophrys - Aus
Dicruridae
Spangled drongo, Dicrurus bracteatus - Aus
Campephagidae
Black-faced cuckooshrike, Coracina novaehollandiae - Aus
Barred cuckooshrike, Coracina lineata - Aus
White-bellied cuckooshrike, Coracina papuensis - Aus
Cicadabird, Coracina tenuirostris - Aus
Ground cuckooshrike, Coracina maxima - Aus
White-winged triller, Lalage sueurii - Aus
Varied triller, Lalage leucomela - Aus
Long-tailed triller, Lalage leucopyga
Oriolidae
Yellow oriole, Oriolus flavocinctus - Aus
Olive-backed oriole, Oriolus sagittatus - Aus
Australasian figbird, Sphecotheres vieilloti - Aus
Piopio, Turnagra capensis - NZ
Artamidae
White-breasted woodswallow, Artamus leucorynchus - Aus
Masked woodswallow, Artamus personatus - Aus, NZ
White-browed woodswallow, Artamus superciliosus - Aus, NZ
Black-faced woodswallow, Artamus cinereus - Aus
Dusky woodswallow, Artamus cyanopterus - Aus
Little woodswallow, Artamus minor - Aus
Black butcherbird, Cracticus quoyi - Aus
Grey butcherbird, Cracticus torquatus - Aus
Silver-backed butcherbird, Cracticus argenteus - Aus
Black-backed butcherbird, Cracticus mentalis - Aus
Pied butcherbird, Cracticus nigrogularis - Aus
Pied currawong, Strepera graculina - Aus
Black currawong, Strepera fuliginosa - Aus
Grey currawong, Strepera versicolor - Aus
Australian magpie, Gymnorhina tibicen - Aus, NZ
Paradisaeidae
Paradise riflebird, Ptiloris paradiseus - Aus
Victoria's riflebird, Ptiloris victoriae - Aus
Magnificent riflebird, Ptiloris magnificus - Aus
Trumpet manucode, Manucodia keraudrenii - Aus
Corvidae
Rook, Corvus frugilegus - NZ, introduced
Australian raven, Corvus coronoides - Aus
Forest raven, Corvus tasmanicus - Aus
Little raven, Corvus mellori - Aus
Little crow, Corvus bennetti - Aus
Torresian crow, Corvus orru - Aus
Corcoracidae
White-winged chough, Corcorax melanorhamphos - Aus
Apostlebird, Struthidea cinerea - Aus
Callaeidae
South Island kōkako, Callaeas cinereus - NZ
North Island kōkako, Callaeas wilsoni - NZ
South Island saddleback, Philesturnus carunculatus - NZ
North Island saddleback, Philesturnus rufusater - NZ
Huia, Heteralocha acutirostris - NZ
Laniidae
Brown shrike, Lanius cristatus - Aus
Red-backed shrike, Lanius collurio
Ptilonorhynchidae
Spotted catbird, Ailuroedus melanotis - Aus
Green catbird, Ailuroedus crassirostris - Aus
Tooth-billed bowerbird, Scenopoeetes dentirostris - Aus
Golden bowerbird, Prionodura newtoniana - Aus
Regent bowerbird, Sericulus chrysocephalus - Aus
Satin bowerbird, Ptilonorhynchus violaceus - Aus
Spotted bowerbird, Chlamydera maculata - Aus
Western bowerbird, Chlamydera guttata - Aus
Great bowerbird, Chlamydera nuchalis - Aus
Fawn-breasted bowerbird, Chlamydera cerviniventris - Aus
Alaudidae
Singing bushlark, Mirafra javanica - Aus
Skylark, Alauda arvensis - Aus
Motacillidae
Richard's pipit, Anthus novaeseelandiae - Aus, NZ
Correndera pipit, Anthus correndera
Red-throated pipit, Anthus cervinus - Aus
Yellow wagtail, Motacilla flava - Aus
Citrine wagtail, Motacilla citreola - Aus
Grey wagtail, Motacilla cinerea - Aus
White wagtail, Motacilla alba - Aus
Black-backed wagtail, Motacilla lugens - Aus
Prunellidae
Dunnock, Prunella modularis - NZ
Passeridae
House sparrow, Passer domesticus - Aus, NZ, introduced
Eurasian tree sparrow, Passer montanus - Aus, introduced
Estrildidae
Zebra finch, Taeniopygia guttata - Aus
Double-barred finch, Taeniopygia bichenovii - Aus
Long-tailed finch, Poephila acuticauda - Aus
Black-throated finch, Poephila cincta - Aus
Masked finch, Poephila personata - Aus
Crimson finch, Neochmia phaeton - Aus
Star finch, Neochmia ruficauda - Aus
Plum-headed finch, Neochmia modesta - Aus
Red-browed finch, Neochmia temporalis - Aus
Diamond firetail, Stagonopleura guttata - Aus
Beautiful firetail, Stagonopleura bella - Aus
Red-eared firetail, Stagonopleura oculata - Aus
Painted finch, Emblema pictum - Aus
Nutmeg mannikin, Lonchura punctulata - Aus
Yellow-rumped mannikin, Lonchura flaviprymna - Aus
Chestnut-breasted mannikin, Lonchura castaneothorax - Aus
Java sparrow, Lonchura oryzivora - Aus
Pale-headed munia, Lonchura pallida - Aus
Pictorella mannikin, Heteromunia pectoralis - Aus
Blue-faced parrotfinch, Erythrura trichroa - Aus
Gouldian finch, Erythrura gouldiae - Aus
Fringillidae
Common chaffinch, Fringilla coelebs - Aus, NZ, introduced
European greenfinch, Chloris chloris - Aus, NZ, introduced
European goldfinch, Carduelis carduelis - Aus, NZ, introduced
Common redpoll, Acanthis flammea - Aus, NZ, introduced
Long-tailed meadowlark, Sturnella loyca - introduced
Emberizidae
Yellowhammer, Emberiza citrinella - Aus, NZ, introduced
Cirl bunting, Emberiza cirlus - NZ, introduced
Nectariniidae
Yellow-bellied sunbird, Nectarinia jugularis - Aus
Dicaeidae
Mistletoebird, Dicaeum hirundinaceum - Aus
Red-capped flowerpecker, Dicaeum geelvinkianum - Aus
Hirundinidae
White-rumped swallow, Tachycineta leucorrhoa
White-backed swallow, Cheramoeca leucosternus - Aus
Sand martin, Riparia riparia
Barn swallow, Hirundo rustica - Aus
Welcome swallow, Hirundo neoxena - Aus
Red-rumped swallow, Hirundo daurica - Aus
Tree martin, Hirundo nigricans - Aus
Fairy martin, Hirundo ariel - Aus
Asian house martin, Hirundo dasypus - Aus
Pycnonotidae
Red-whiskered bulbul, Pycnonotus jocosus - Aus
Acrocephalidae
Clamorous reed warbler, Acrocephalus stentoreus - Aus
Oriental reed warbler, Acrocephalus orientalis - Aus
Phylloscopidae
Willow warbler, Phylloscopus trochilus
Arctic warbler, Phylloscopus borealis - Aus
Locustellidae
Tawny grassbird, Megalurus timoriensis - Aus
Little grassbird, Megalurus gramineus - Aus
Fernbird, Megalurus punctatus - NZ
Chatham fernbird, Megalurus rufescens - NZ
Spinifexbird, Megalurus carteri - Aus
Rufous songlark, Megalurus mathewsi - Aus
Brown songlark, Megalurus cruralis - Aus
Cisticolidae
Zitting cisticola, Cisticola juncidis - Aus
Golden-headed cisticola, Cisticola exilis - Aus
Zosteropidae
Christmas white-eye, Zosterops natalis - Aus
Pale white-eye, Zosterops citrinellus - Aus
Yellow white-eye, Zosterops luteus - Aus
Silvereye, Zosterops lateralis - Aus, NZ
Robust white-eye, Zosterops strenuus - Aus
Slender-billed white-eye, Zosterops tenuirostris - Aus
White-chested white-eye, Zosterops albogularis - Aus
Turdidae
Bassian thrush, Zoothera lunulata - Aus
Russet-tailed thrush, Zoothera heinei - Aus
Blackbird, Turdus merula - Aus
Island thrush, Turdus poliocephalus - Aus
Song thrush, Turdus philomelos - Aus
Muscicapidae
Blue rock thrush, Monticola solitarius - Aus
Narcissus flycatcher, Ficedula narcissina - Aus
Blue-and-white flycatcher, Cyanoptila cyanomelana - Aus
Mountain wheatear, Oenanthe monticola
Sturnidae
Tasman starling, Aplonis fusca - Aus
Metallic starling, Aplonis metallica - Aus
Singing starling, Aplonis cantoroides - Aus
Common starling, Sturnus vulgaris - Aus, NZ, introduced
Daurian starling, Agropsar sturninus
Common myna, Acridotheres tristis - Aus, NZ, introduced
See also
List of Australian birds
List of New Zealand birds
List of birds of Antarctica
Birds of Australia
References
Australia, New Zealand and Antarctica
'
Australia, New Zealand and Antarctica
ja:オーストラリアの野鳥一覧
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalism%20%28literature%29
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Naturalism (literature)
|
Naturalism is a literary movement beginning in the late nineteenth century, similar to literary realism in its rejection of Romanticism, but distinct in its embrace of determinism, detachment, scientific objectivism, and social commentary. The movement largely traces to the theories of French author Émile Zola.
Background
Literary Naturalism traces back most directly to Émile Zola's "The Experimental Novel" (1880), which details Zola's concept of a naturalistic novel, which traces philosophically to Auguste Comte's positivism, but also to physiologist Claude Bernard and historian Hippolyte Taine. Comte had proposed a scientific method that “went beyond empiricism, beyond the passive and detached observation of phenomena”. The application of this method “called for a scientist to conduct controlled experiments that would either prove or disprove hypotheses regarding those phenomena”. Zola took this scientific method and argued that naturalism in literature should be like controlled experiments in which the characters function as the phenomena. Naturalism began as a branch of literary realism, and realism had favored fact, logic, and impersonality over the imaginative, symbolic, and supernatural. Frank Norris, an American journalist and novelist, whose work was predominantly in the naturalist genre, “placed realism, romanticism, and naturalism in a dialectic, in which realism and romanticism were opposing forces”, and naturalism was a mixture of the two. Norris's idea of naturalism differs from Zola's in that “it does not mention materialistic determinism or any other philosophic idea”.
Apart from Zola and Norris, there are various literary critics who have their own separate views on the matter. As said by Paul Civello, these critics can be grouped into four broad, and often overlapping, groups: early theorists, history-of-idea critics, European influence critics, and recent theorists. The early theorists saw naturalism thematically and in terms of literary technique. The history-of-idea critics understood it as an expression of the central ideas to an era. The European influence critics viewed it in much the same way as Zola. For example, according to theorist Kornelije Kvas, naturalism presents "forms of human experience not spoken of before – the physiological aspect of human behavior, sexuality, poverty – as literary topics worthy of being dealt with." And recent theorists have either re-conceptualized naturalism as a narrative form, or denied its existence entirely.
Some say that naturalism is dead, or that it “may have never lived at all: even in the works of Émile Zola”, its founder. “In 1900 an obituary entitled “The Passing of Naturalism” in The Outlook officially declared the literary movement deceased”, and that Zola's attempt to create a scientific literature was a failure. This certainly wasn't the first time Zola's novel had been criticized however. After his novel Thérèse Raquin (1867) had been sharply criticized for both contents and language, in a foreword for its second edition (1868), in a mixture of pride and defiance, he wrote: "Le groupe d'écrivains naturalistes auquel j'ai l'honneur d'appartenir a assez de courage et d'activité pour produire des oeuvres fortes, portant en elles leur défense", which translates as: "The group of naturalist writers I have the honor to belong to have enough courage and activity to produce strong works, carrying within them their defense."
Naturalism was very popular in its time and was known in different literary traditions in Western Europe. In the Netherlands, there was Cooplandt, Couperus, Frederik van Eeden and Marcellus Emants. In Germany, the most important naturalistic writer was Theodor Fontane, who influenced Thomas Mann. In Belgium, the most important writers were Cyriel Buysse and Stijn Streuvels. In Spain, the most remarkable figure was Vicente Blasco Ibánez.
American Naturalism
Naturalism in American literature traces to Frank Norris, whose theories were markedly different from Zola's, particularly to the status of naturalism within the loci of realism and Romanticism; Norris thought of naturalism as being Romantic, and thought Zola as being "a realist of realists". To Link, while American naturalism had trends, its definition had no unified critical consensus. Link's examples include Stephen Crane, Jack London, Theodore Dreiser, and Frank Norris, with William Dean Howells and Henry James being clear markers on the other side of the naturalist/realist divide.
The center of Crane's naturalism is recognized as The Open Boat, which portrayed a naturalistic view of man with his depiction of a group of survivors adrift in a boat. The humans with their creation confronted the sea and the world of nature. In the experiences of these men, Crane articulated the illusion of gods and the realization of the universe's indifference.
William Faulkner's A Rose for Emily, a story about a woman who killed her lover, is considered an example of a narrative within the naturalism category. This story, which also used Gothic elements, presented a tale that highlighted the extraordinary and excessive features in human nature and the social environment that influences them. The protagonist, Miss Emily, was forced to lead an isolated life, and that - combined with her mental illness - made insanity her inevitable fate. The environment in the forms of a class structure based on slavery and social change, together with heredity, represented the forces beyond her control.
See also
Naturalism (visual art)
Naturalism (theatre)
Philosophical naturalism
Sociological naturalism
Naturalism in 19th-century French literature
Realism in the visual arts
Notes and references
Literary movements
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC%20One
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BBC One
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BBC One is a British free-to-air television network owned and operated by the BBC, which operates a public television service. It is the corporation's flagship network, and is known for broadcasting mainstream programming, including BBC News television bulletins, primetime drama and entertainment, and some sports events.
It was launched on 2 November 1936, as the BBC Television Service, and was the world's first regular television service with a high level of image resolution. It was renamed BBC TV in 1960, and used this name until the launch of the second BBC channel, BBC2, in 1964. The main channel then became known as BBC1. The current spelling of BBC One was adopted in 1997.
The channel's annual budget for 2012–2013 was £1.14 billion. It is funded by the television licence fee together with the BBC's other domestic television stations, and shows uninterrupted programming without commercial advertising. The television channel was noted to have the highest reach share of any broadcaster in the United Kingdom as at 2019, ahead of its traditional rival for ratings leadership, ITV. In 2013, a major global study for the BBC by the Populus polling organisation found BBC One to be rated the highest quality TV channel in the world, with BBC Two coming in third place.
History
Early years and launching
The BBC began its own regular television programming from the basement of Broadcasting House, London, on 22 August 1932. The BBC Television Service officially began regular broadcasts on 2 November 1936 from a converted wing of the Alexandra Palace in London.
On 1 September 1939, two days before Britain declared war on Germany, the station was taken off air with little warning, with the last programme to be shown being a Mickey Mouse cartoon (the 1933 short Mickey's Gala Premier); the government was concerned that the VHF transmissions would act as a beacon to enemy aircraft that could bomb London.
BBC Television returned on 7 June 1946 at 15:00. Jasmine Bligh, one of the original announcers, made the first announcement, saying, "Good afternoon everybody. How are you? Do you remember me, Jasmine Bligh?" The same Mickey Mouse cartoon that was shown in 1939 was repeated twenty minutes later.
Creation of BBC1
The BBC held a statutory monopoly on television broadcasting in the United Kingdom until the first Independent Television station began to broadcast on 22 September 1955, when ITV started broadcasting. The competition quickly forced the channel to change its identity and priorities following a large reduction in its audience.
The 1962 Pilkington Report on the future of broadcasting noticed this, and that ITV lacked any serious programming. It therefore decided that Britain's third television station should be awarded to the BBC.
The station, renamed BBC TV in 1960, became BBC1 when BBC2 was launched on 20 April 1964 transmitting an incompatible 625-line image on UHF. The only way to receive all channels was to use a complex "dual-standard" 405- and 625-line, VHF and UHF, receiver, with both a VHF and a UHF aerial. Old 405-line-only sets became obsolete in 1985, when transmission in the standard ended, although standards converters have become available for enthusiasts who collect and restore such TVs.
BBC1 was based at the purpose-built BBC Television Centre at White City, London between 1960 and 2013. Television News continued to use Alexandra Palace as its base—by early 1968 it had even converted one of its studios to colour—before moving to new purpose-built facilities at Television Centre on 20 September 1969.
In the weeks leading up to 15 November 1969, BBC1 unofficially transmitted the occasional programme in its new colour system, to test it. At midnight on 15 November, simultaneously with ITV and two years after BBC2, BBC1 officially began 625-line PAL colour programming on UHF with a broadcast of a concert by Petula Clark. Colour transmissions could be received (in monochrome) on monochrome 625-line sets until the end of analogue broadcasting (and indeed can still be received if such a set is connected to a digital television adapter tuned to the SDTV version of the channel.)
In terms of audience share, the most successful period for BBC1 was under Bryan Cowgill between 1973 and 1977, when the channel achieved an average audience share of 45%. This period is still regarded by many as a golden age of the BBC's output, with the BBC achieving a very high standard across its entire range of series, serials, plays, light entertainment and documentaries.
On 30 December 1980, the BBC announced their intention to introduce a new breakfast television service to compete with TV-am. The BBC stated it would start broadcasting before TV-am, but made it clear their hands were tied until November 1981 when the new licence fee income became available, to help finance extending broadcast hours, with the hope of starting in 1982. On 17 January 1983, the first edition of Breakfast Time was shown on BBC1, becoming the first UK wide breakfast television service and continued to lead in the ratings until 1984.
Michael Grade era (1984–1987)
In 1984, Bill Cotton become managing director of Television at the BBC, and set about overhauling BBC1, which had been slated with poor home grown shows, its heavy reliance on US imports, with Dallas and The Thorn Birds being BBC1's highest rated programmes and ratings being over 20% behind ITV. Cotton recruited Michael Grade to become Controller of BBC1 from 1 September 1984 the first time the corporation had recruited someone outside of the BBC, replacing Alan Hart, who had been criticised for his lack of knowledge in general entertainment, as he was head of BBC Sport prior to 1981.
The first major overhaul was to axe the unpopular Sixty Minutes current affairs programme: this was a replacement for the news and magazine show Nationwide. Its replacement was the BBC Six O'Clock News, a straight news programme in a bid to shore up its failing early evening slot. It was believed the BBC were planning to cut short the evening news and move more light entertainment programming in from the 18:20 slot, but this was dismissed. The Miss Great Britain contest was dropped, being described as verging on the too offensive after the January 1985 contest, with World's Strongest Man and International Superstar also being cancelled.
BBC1 was relaunched on 18 February 1985 with a new look, new programming including Wogan, EastEnders and a revised schedule to help streamline and maintain viewers throughout the course of the evening. Grade started to gear most programmes to either on the hour or half past the hour, while Panorama and Omnibus were both moved after the Nine O'Clock News. Grade was also determined to end the dated and inept BBC1 scheduling which was hampering the network and holding back good programmes. Grade stated "When I took over BBC1, I discovered there were wonderful things, it was just a case of where to put them." Wogan had been scheduled for a 10 pm slot, but Grade moved it to a 7 pm slot as he believed the show had potential.
From February to August 1985, a high number of American mini-series were broadcast while filming took place of a number of new home grown programmes, including 'Allo 'Allo!, In Sickness and in Health, and Open All Hours. Further improvement came about when the corporation strengthened its drama output costing £30 million, with eight new series, including Howards' Way, All Creatures Great and Small, Hold the Back Page, and Bluebill, along with the return of Bergerac and Big Deal. The increase in the drama department was achieved by switching the money away from the administrative service over a three-year period, after BBC1 was criticised for failing in matching ITV's output in drama. EastEnders was moved to a 19:30 slot, where it managed to soar to 20 million, helping the BBC1 audience share increase to nearly 50% for the first time since 1982.
On 27 February 1985, Doctor Who was placed on an 18-month hiatus. The BBC originally planned to axe the series as they wished to spend its budgets on new programming for the channel, but was forced to back down from public pressure and Doctor Who returned in September 1986. At the time Michael Grade and Jonathan Powell were blamed for the decision (Grade was the target of death threats) but it was later revealed that the decision was taken due to the series running out of creative inspiration, making it impossible to find anyone (at the time) who knew what to do with the series.
On 9 September 1985, the long-standing children's programming block was overhauled and rebranded as Children's BBC, which gave it dedicated idents for the first time and had a live in-vision presenter, similar to rival ITV's Children's ITV block which had been running since January 1983. Previously the BBC had broadcast children's programming using BBC1's team of regular duty announcers. The launch presenter for this block, and thus the first Children's BBC presenter of the current format, was Phillip Schofield.
On 23 May 1986, long-running lunchtime magazine show Pebble Mill at One was broadcast for the last time after being on air for 14 years. On 27 October 1986, BBC1 launched its daytime television schedules. In a statement, BBC Daytime head Roger Laughton said:
1990s
Stereo audio transmissions, using the NICAM digital stereo sound format began on BBC1 in late 1987, to coincide with the sale of the first consumer NICAM-enabled equipment, a year after BBC2, and were gradually phased in across BBC TV output, although it took until 31 August 1991 for the service to begin officially on both channels. During this time, both commercial analogue broadcasters, ITV and Channel 4 had officially begun stereo transmissions using the BBC-developed NICAM system. Widescreen programming was introduced on digital platforms in 1998.
For the first 50 years of its existence, with the exception of films and purchased programmes from the United States and elsewhere, almost all the channel's output were produced by the BBC's in-house production departments. This changed following the passing of the Broadcasting Act 1990, which required that 25% of the BBC's television output be out-sourced to independent production companies. By 2004, many popular BBC One shows were made for the channel by independents, but the in-house production departments continued to contribute heavily to the schedule.
In March 1991, as part of the £63 million programme package for spring and summer line up on BBC1, it was announced an extra £20 million was to be spent on rejuvenating the channels drama and comedy output during peak times, which meant the channel would be in a healthy state once the new Channel 3 licences were awarded.
In December 1991 Wogan was to be cancelled, due to falling ratings against a number of ITV shows, in which Wogan only managed six million viewers compared to double that for This Is Your Life, The Krypton Factor and The $64,000 Question. Additionally an extra £40 million a year was spent on narrowing the gap on ITV's ratings lead, since a few months prior to this the channel had been criticised for its Autumn schedule, having tired formats, uninspiring scheduling of new programmes and poor scripts. Wogan was replaced with Eldorado, in early July 1992, but this was itself cancelled a year later.
Alan Yentob launched the 1993 Autumn schedule calling it "My first try with a lot of help from my friends", with the channel still under criticism, following the start of new programming Alan introduced a year earlier and the number of summer repeats. £175 million was spent on 80 hours of original drama produced, enchantment to the arts with an extended 26-week run for Omnibus, and documentaries with The Downing Street Years, new wildlife series and an eight-month look at Sheffield's Children's hospital, while Goodnight Sweetheart, Grace & Favour and The Danny Baker Show were new comedy series. Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman was brought in to give the Saturday night line up a bit of variety.
Following the public disapproval of filling its schedule with 25% of repeats during the summer months in 1993, BBC1 agreed to broadcast an extra 110 hours worth of original programming over the same period during the summer in 1994, which included giving EastEnders an additional episode per week. Efficiency savings of £25 million were found which were redeployed on the new productions. The savings were seen as a vindication so for the producer choice, the controversial market-oriented drive introduced in April 1993.
By March 1999, the channel admitted defeat in its ratings war with ITV, with its Spring line up with a stronger emphasis on serious factual and educational programmes, and drama. This change in strategy came about after continuing complaints that the channel was appealing to the lowest common denominator to win viewers, which has left it chastened by the hoax guests on The Vanessa Show, over reliance on docusoaps and the dropping of the vilified Noel's House Party. Alan Yentob said "The spring package is to remind people of what the BBC is here for, Range and ambition you won't find anywhere else at peak time". The changes helped the channel distinguish itself from (as one BBC executive said) "its down-market rival and would not compete for viewers on ITV's terms."
2000s
Lorraine Heggessey became Controller of BBC One, a post she took up on 1 November 2000. She had previously been sounded out about the job in 1997 after Michael Jackson's departure, but had turned down the opportunity as she felt she was then not yet experienced enough.
During Heggessey's five years in charge, BBC One's audience share fell by 19.9%, to 23%, although this was in the context of declining audience figures across all British television channels due to increased competition from multichannel digital television. However, in 2001 BBC One overtook its main rival ITV in terms of annual audience share for the first time since the rival channel had launched in 1955, although much of this was down to the success of the channel's daytime television line-up, which had its own Controller: Jane Lush.
When Heggessey arrived at the channel in November 2000, she inherited two controversial schedule changes which had been implemented the previous month, at the behest of Director-General of the BBC Greg Dyke; the Nine O'Clock News had been moved to the later time of 22:00 and Panorama moved from Monday night prime time slot to a later slot on Sunday nights. The moving of Panorama attracted criticism that BBC One was sidelining serious programming in favour of more populist output. Heggessey publicly defended the decision, despite it not being hers, claiming that Panoramas ratings would have "dwindled" in its previous slot.
Heggessey and the BBC's Controller of Drama Commissioning, Jane Tranter, took advantage of the weekday 21:00 slot opening up by moving the news to commission new popular drama output, such as the successful Waking the Dead (2000–2011) and Spooks (2002–2011). Celebrity dancing show Strictly Come Dancing (2004–present) was also a popular success on Saturday nights, although another Saturday night entertainment series, Fame Academy, faced accusations of being too derivative of the output of commercial rivals, and during Heggessey's era the channel frequently came under attack for being too populist and not providing enough serious programming.
Immediately after her arrival, Heggessey ordered a review of the "Balloon" idents the channel had been using for its between-programme idents since 1997. In her opinion, the balloon was "slow and distant" and so, on 29 March 2002, after much speculation, she took the decision to abandon the "Balloon" idents (and the traditional "Globe" idents the channel had used in a variety of forms since 1963). They were replaced by a new style of on-air identity for the channel, the "Rhythm & Movement" idents. The new idents attracted criticism for going against the traditions of the channel and pandering to "political correctness", as they featured activities performed by people of various ethnicities. The abandonment of a station clock, and perceived lack of a 'serious ident', also put the BBC in an embarrassing situation just one day into the new look with the death of the Queen Mother.
One of Heggessey's most notable decisions and last major success at the channel was the recommissioning of the science-fiction drama series Doctor Who, which had been a popular hit in previous decades but ceased production in 1989. Heggessey and Jane Tranter recommissioned the series in September 2003, after Heggessey had spent two years persuading the BBC's commercial arm, BBC Worldwide, to abandon their attempts to make a feature film version of the programme and allow it to instead return it to BBC One. The new version of Doctor Who (2005–present) debuted on 26 March 2005 and became a critical and popular hit, with Paul Hoggart of The Times newspaper describing the series as "a joyful, exuberant reinvention and a fine legacy from Ms Heggessey."
Heggessey did later concede in a 2005 interview with The Independent newspaper that arts programming had suffered a cutback under her control of BBC One. However, she did respond to this omission following criticism from the Board of Governors of the BBC by commissioning programmes such as the arts documentary series Imagine... (2003–present) and A Picture of Britain (2005).
On 14 February 2005 it was announced that Lorraine Heggessey was to leave the BBC to take up the post of Chief Executive at production company Talkback Thames. She left on 15 April. Five months after her departure, BBC One was named "Channel of the Year" at the Edinburgh Television Festival, primarily on the strength of Heggessey's commissions such as Strictly Come Dancing and Doctor Who.
Joining the channel as Controller in 2005, Peter Fincham oversaw the commissioning of several successful BBC One programmes including Robin Hood (2006–2009), Jane Eyre (2006) and How Do You Solve a Problem Like Maria?, which was followed by similar shows Any Dream Will Do and I'd Do Anything because of its success. His first full year in charge of the channel saw a year-on-year growth in the audience share, with a rise from 22.2% in August 2005 to 23.6% in August 2006.
Fincham also directly initiated the creation of both The One Show (2006–present), an early evening, current-affairs and lifestyle magazine programme, which now runs all but two weeks of the year, and Davina (2006), a prime time chat show, the latter hosted by Davina McCall, who presented Big Brother. However, Davina was a critical and ratings disaster, which Fincham subsequently admitted was personally his fault, although he defended the strategy of experimenting with the BBC One schedule. This he continued in January 2007, when he moved the current affairs series Panorama from its Sunday night slot back to the prime time Monday evening slot from which it had been removed in 2000, most likely in response to a demand from the Board of Governors of the BBC for the channel to show more current affairs programming in prime time.
Fincham's judgement was again called into question, this time by The Telegraph, for his decision to spend £1.2 million replacing the channel's 'Rhythm and Movement' idents, which had been introduced by his predecessor Lorraine Heggessey several years earlier, with the 'Circle' idents, a set of eight ten-second films, some of which were shot abroad in locations such as Mexico and Croatia. Fincham later found himself having to publicly defend the £18 million salary that the BBC paid Jonathan Ross in 2006, although Ross's BBC One work—primarily consisting of Friday Night with Jonathan Ross—formed only part of his overall BBC commitment.
The channel was named Channel of the Year at the 2007 Broadcast Awards.
The One to Watch campaign
Following its rebrand in March 2002, BBC One launched The One to Watch campaign, during which animated blocks created the word "The" and moved into the BBC logo.
Each new campaign incorporating the theme retained the same animated sequence.
In May 2007, Fincham took the decision to drop Neighbours, an Australian soap opera, from BBC One after 21 years on the channel, when its producers, Freemantle Media significantly raised the price they wanted the BBC to pay for it in a bidding war. Fincham commented that it was 'a big loss', but that BBC One would not pay 'the best part of £300 million'. Neighbours left the channel after the BBC's contract to show the programme ended on 8 February 2008, and moved to Channel 5 on 11 February 2008. The Weakest Link was moved from BBC Two to fill the gap, with the afternoon CBBC slot moving 20 minutes earlier.
There was further controversy in July 2007 when Fincham was accused of misleading BBC One viewers. The incident involved a clip from forthcoming documentary A Year with the Queen which was shown to journalists during a press conference. It apparently showed the Queen storming out of a session with American photographer Annie Leibovitz over a disagreement about what she should wear, but the BBC subsequently admitted that the scenes used in the trailer had been edited out of their correct order, meaning that a false impression was given. Fincham admitted the error, but rejected calls that he should resign from his position as a result. His future was deemed uncertain following critical comments from Sir Michael Lyons, Chairman of the BBC Trust and he resigned on 5 October 2007.
In 2009, a report published by the BBC Trust found scheduling changes had led to a decrease in viewers. This was especially noticeable for Blue Peter and Newsround, two of CBBC's flagship programmes; Blue Peter which recorded its lowest viewing numbers since it started in 1958, and Newsround with fewer than 100,000 viewers compared to 225,000 in 2007.
2010s
As part of the Delivering Quality First proposals submitted by the BBC in October 2011 and approved by the BBC Trust in May 2012, all children's programming on BBC One and Two would be moved permanently to the CBBC and CBeebies channels following the digital switchover. It was found that the majority of child viewers watched the programmes on these channels already and that only 7% of these children watched CBBC programmes on BBC One and Two only, it was made clear "Children's programmes are absolutely fundamental to the BBC and that is why we have protected investment in them in the light of cuts elsewhere." Children's programming on BBC One ended on 21 December 2012. The move was criticised by Teletubbies co-creator Anne Wood, who described the changes as "ghettoising children's programmes" and believe it was merely a cost-cutting measure. Wood said "On the one hand it is inevitable. But it is dismissive of children. There is a certain amount of overlooking of the fact that children's programmes do get a wider audience than people are aware of ... I have frequently had letters from older people who have enjoyed my programmes as much as children do. A lot of the reason older people like to watch children's programming is because it is life-enhancing." Head of BBC Children's, Joe Godwin said: "Our young viewers are our priority and the vast majority of children in the UK already tune in to CBeebies and CBBC to find their favourite BBC children's programmes. Far from being a 'cynical' move, we're just following where our audience has already gone."
As part of the review in 2012 other changes were brought in, including:
BBC One is reducing the minimum hours of arts and music from 45 to 40, achieved through cutting episodes of shows, in particular Film 2013.
BBC One and Two will "largely be protected from making significant cuts".
Repeats on BBC One will increase, but remain under 10% of all output (the current rate is 8.4%).
Expenditure on sports rights will be cut by 15%. This had largely been achieved already by sharing rights to Formula 1 coverage from 2012 (it was later dropped entirely from 2016).
In 2012, the BBC out-bid ITV for the rights to air a British version of Dutch TV talent show The Voice. The BBC paid £22 million for the rights to broadcast the show in the UK for two years. The Voice UK achieved good ratings for the BBC but ratings dropped towards the end of the first series and the second series. In 2013, The Voice UK was rescheduled to avoid a clash, and as a result, ratings have improved. In November 2015, it was announced that The Voice UK would be moving to ITV from 2017, especially because of the ITV plc ownership of franchise owner, Talpa Media.
Sister channels
BBC One +1
On 8 October 2013, the BBC announced plans to launch a one-hour time shift of the channel, named BBC One +1. The channel would have replaced BBC Three in 2016. However, on 30 June 2015, the BBC Trust rejected the plans for a BBC One +1 channel as they stated that it would be at the expense of commercial rivals.
BBC One HDBBC One HD''', a simulcast of BBC One in 1080i high-definition (HD), launched on 3 November 2010 at 19:00 with The One Show. The channel simulcasts a network version of BBC One in High Definition, with HD versions of programmes including Doctor Who, Holby City, The One Show, Strictly Come Dancing and The Apprentice. EastEnders was also made available in HD from Christmas Day 2010. All programmes still made in standard-definition were upscaled on the channel, with the intention that by 2012 the vast majority of the channel's output would be in high-definition. On 30 May 2012, the satellite and terrestrial resolution was increased to full HD.
BBC One HD at launch did not offer regional variations, and therefore the channel could not broadcast during regional programming slots, most noticeably the local news programmes. The BBC Trust admitted that this was due to technical and financial constraints, but the BBC announced on 6 June 2011 that the national variations of BBC One Northern Ireland, BBC One Scotland and BBC One Wales, would become available from 2012. On 24 October 2012, Northern Ireland received the first variation. A Scottish variation launched on 14 January 2013, followed by a Welsh variation on 29 January 2013. Unlike BBC One HD, which is capable of broadcasting audio content in full 5.1 DTS, BBC One Wales HD and BBC One Northern Ireland HD are both currently only broadcasting audio in PCM stereo, even when programming is otherwise identical to that of BBC One HD. On 16 July 2013, the BBC indicated that it also wants to launch regional variants of BBC One HD across England, however this would require the approval of the BBC Trust, with a proposal due to be presented within six months. On 18 November 2013, the Northern Irish regional variant of BBC One HD was swapped with the SD channel on Sky's EPG for HD subscribers. This was followed by the Welsh and Scottish variants on 10 December. On 24 March 2014, BBC One Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland HD launched on Freesat, Sky and Virgin Media outside the regions they were originally seen in.
On 31 March 2016, BBC One HD in England moved from channel 141 on the Sky electronic programme guide to channel 115, a position vacated by BBC Three, which had been switched to internet-only six weeks earlier. Changes in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland were also scheduled but delayed for 'technical reasons'.
Contemporary programming
Excluding sporting events and news coverage, the top five most watched programmes at their peak viewing points (according to BARB) were:
With a mission to provide programmes for all licence-fee payers, it has sport, news, current affairs, and documentaries. It has historically broadcast children's programmes (now taken from CBBC and CBeebies). The channel remains one of the principal television channels in the United Kingdom and provides 2,508 annual hours of news and weather, 1,880 hours of factual and learning, 1,036 hours of drama, 672 hours of children's, 670 hours of sport, 654 hours of film, 433 hours of entertainment, 159 hours of current affairs, 92 hours of religion and 82 hours of music and arts.
Since 1990, the BBC has had to commission output from other domestic suppliers. Although the statutory target remains 25% for independent production companies to contribute programming for BBC One, 33% of output was made by them in 2010–11. The quota of original programming in peak times is set at 90%, however 100% of peak programming was original in 2010–11. Over the whole day, the total for the same year was 89%, against a quota of 70%.
2,508 annual hours of news and weather (293 in peak, 1,049 of BBC News simulcasts) are provided by regular news programmes The Briefing, BBC Breakfast, the BBC News at Nine, BBC News at One, BBC News at Six and the BBC News at Ten each including BBC regional news programmes. All three main news bulletins have a lead over their rival programmes on ITV and other terrestrial or cable channels. During the weekend period, three separate bulletins around these three time periods are broadcast and vary in length from 10 to 25 minutes. BBC One has broadcast overnight simulcasts from the BBC News Channel (which itself is simulcasting with BBC World News) since 1997; the latter in turn simulcasts the majority of all regular BBC One bulletins. When BBC One is broadcasting a BBC News special, it hands some of its daytime programming to BBC Two.
Each year 159 hours of current affairs programmes are broadcast on BBC One, including Panorama and Watchdog. Politics is also covered, with programmes including Question Time and This Week shown. Crimewatch, a programme appealing for help in unsolved crimes, is broadcast monthly.
BBC One shows 1,880 hours of factual and learning programming annually. This includes a wide range of shows such as nature documentaries such as Planet Earth as well as lifestyle-format daytime programmes and a number of reality television formats and the One Life strand.
BBC One broadcasts 1,036 hours of drama each year, more than any other BBC channel. There are four half-hour episodes of EastEnders each week (not shown on Wednesdays), with an omnibus episode at the weekend, plus hospital dramas Casualty and Holby City. Other popular dramas on BBC One include crime dramas such as New Tricks, a programme of which even episode repeats have beaten ITV ratings on numerous occasions.
BBC One has traditionally been the home of children's television: Blue Peter had been broadcast on the channel prior to the Children's BBC strand, and sections such as the pre-school Watch with Mother being transmitted on the channel for several decades. This became more pronounced with the launch of Children's BBC, later renamed "CBBC". This new strand was broadcast primarily on BBC One in the late afternoons, as well as Saturday and Sunday mornings also such as Going Live! and Live & Kicking, each lasting two to three hours. The launch in 2002 of dedicated digital channels for this content —the CBBC and CBeebies channels —did not affect this provision. Combined with BBC Two, the channel broadcast 2,195 hours of children's programmes in 2010, mostly in the late afternoons on weekdays. Saturday morning children's programming moved to BBC Two in 2006 following a three-month trial.
Sports coverage on BBC One includes Premier League football highlights on Match of the Day, The Championships, Wimbledon, the London Marathon, and other international athletics and swimming events, the Olympic Games, Rugby league, Rugby Union, Snooker tournaments, the American Super Bowl, and more.
The BBC showed the 2010 FIFA World Cup, splitting the group stage matches with ITV. The 8 BBC had first pick of matches from the second round. Repeats made up 8.4% of peak programming in 2010–11, up from 8.0% for 2008–09. Programming on this channel costs an average of £162,900 per hour.
British and international films are broadcast for 654 hours each year on BBC One. This is mainly late-night fillers with some box office hits at Christmas and holiday periods.
Sometimes on a Saturday afternoon there is a film on to fill the gap between entertainment shows but very rarely has there been one in that slot.
Entertainment programming on BBC One includes game shows such as the National Lottery, Total Wipeout, Strictly Come Dancing and chat shows such as The Graham Norton Show.
The annual 92 hours of religious programming comprise weekly editions of live Songs of Praise, Christian services and other shows from independent production companies. Mentorn Oxford produces Heart and Soul, described as "a new multi-faith programme featuring a panel and a studio audience", followed by Life from the Loft which is made by the Leeds-based company True North. In 2005 BBC One was criticised for reducing the amount of religious programming, previously 101 hours per year.
BBC One broadcasts many comedy programmes, often on Friday nights. These have included the stand-up comedy show Live at the Apollo, sitcom Outnumbered, and satirical quiz show Have I Got News for You. Saturday evening is also a popular slot for a comedy show such as Michael McIntyre's Big Show and The Armstrong and Miller Show.
Since BBC Three became an online-only service in 2016, BBC One broadcast some BBC Three programming, particularly such as People Just Do Nothing, Cuckoo, RuPaul's Drag Race UK and This Country. Since March 2019, after the News at Ten, BBC One has had a dedicated timeslot for BBC Three, as a programming block.
As the weekly popular music chart programme Top of the Pops was dropped in 2006 (except for the Christmas Day edition), BBC One broadcast 49 hours of music and arts programming in 2010. The majority of this was Imagine, presented by Alan Yentob, and classical music concerts, in particular some of the BBC Proms.
BBC One's daytime line-up was a major factor in it overtaking ITV as the most popular channel in 2000, a position it has retained, even though ITV achieves a higher audience share during the daytime. The morning daytime line-up consists of lifestyle shows, such as Homes Under the Hammer and Bargain Hunt, the afternoons contain drama with daily soap Doctors and classic US drama, such as Diagnosis: Murder. Sometimes a drama such as Land Girls is shown in the afternoons.
Between 15:05 and 17:05 was the CBeebies/CBBC broadcasting strand, with its own visual identity. Historically, BBC One's most popular daytime programme was Neighbours, with audience figures approaching five million. On 11 February 2008, BBC One dropped Neighbours and the programme has since been broadcast on Channel 5. In its place the quiz show The Weakest Link, moved from BBC Two, later replaced in 2011 by Pointless.
On 16 May 2012, the BBC announced the children's block of shows would be moved permanently to CBBC and CBeebies upon the completion of the Digital switchover. In its place appear the game show Perfection, plus Escape to the Country and Put Your Money Where Your Mouth Is.
In February 2022, the BBC confirmed that EastEnders will get a Monday to Thursday slot at 7.30pm with the programme due to form part of a BBC soap hour which will include a repeat of daytime soap Doctors on BBC Two at 7pm. Due to this decision, the BBC One regional slot will be pushed back half an hour to 8pm on Wednesdays, where it will feature programmes such as documentary series We Are England.
Presentation
BBC One's identity has been symbolised by a globe shown on its idents for much of its existence. The first BBC ident was shown on 2 December 1953, known as the Bat's Wings. In 1962 this was replaced by a map of the UK shown between programmes, and in 1963 the globe appeared, changing in style and appearance over the next 39 years.
Most notably, on 18 February 1985, the "Computer Originated World" was introduced. This was a computer-animated globe with the land coloured gold and the sea a transparent blue, giving the impression of a glass globe. This was replaced by the "Virtual Globe" on 16 February 1991. On 4 October 1997, the globe became a red, orange and yellow hot-air balloon, coloured to resemble a globe. It was filmed flying around various places in the UK.
On 29 March 2002, the globe was replaced by a series of visual identities, "idents", consisting of people dancing in various styles. These were replaced on 7 October 2006 by the 'circle' idents. According to the BBC, the circle symbol both represents togetherness (unity) and acts as a link to the classic globe icon used for 39 years. They ran until 4 December 2016, when that year's Christmas idents launched. On 1 January 2017, a new ident set launched, based on the theme of "oneness". Following complaints from viewers on social media that the 2017 set of BBC One idents were not good examples of social distancing amid the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK, BBC One temporarily suspended the 2017 idents on 1 May 2020 in favour of a special set of idents that adhere towards the social distancing guidelines.
Regional variations
BBC One has individual continuity and opt-outs for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Each variant maintains the BBC One logo with the addition of the constituent country name beneath it.
In England, each region has an individual regional news and current affairs programme opt-out as well as a limited amount of continuity. During these opt-outs, the region name is displayed as with the national variations, beneath the main channel logo. UK Today, a news programme, was shown nationally to digital viewers in place of regional programmes when they were unavailable to broadcast on analogue television. The programme was discontinued in 2002 and replaced by a transmission of BBC London News until all BBC regions were made available digitally.
BBC One Scotland has the greatest level of variation from the generic network, owing to BBC Scotland scheduling Scottish programming on the main BBC Scotland channel, rather than on BBC Two.
BBC One Scotland variations include the soap opera River City and the football programme Sportscene'', the inclusion of which causes network programming to be displaced or replaced.
BBC One Wales was considered a separate channel by the BBC as early as its launch in the mid-1960s, appearing as BBC Wales.
Availability outside the UK
BBC One (Northern Ireland) is widely available in the Republic of Ireland on cable and satellite television. BBC One (especially the London feed) is also available on cable and IPTV in the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, Monaco and Liechtenstein. The channel is registered to broadcast within the European Union/EEA through the Luxembourgish Broadcasting Regulator – ALIA.
On 27 March 2013 it was offered by British Forces Broadcasting Service (BFBS) to members of HM Forces and their families around the world, replacing the BFBS1 TV channel, which already carried a selection of BBC One programmes.
All feeds of BBC One in both SD and HD are broadcast unencrypted on the Astra 2E and 2G satellites, allowing viewing across Belgium, the Netherlands, the Republic of Ireland and parts of France, Germany and Spain.
Accessibility
The BBC announced in May 2008 that it had achieved its aim for all programming to have subtitles for viewers with hearing difficulties. The BBC also offers audio description on some popular BBC One programmes for visually impaired-viewers. The percentage of the BBC's total television output with audio description available is 10%, having been increased from 8% in 2008.
Controllers of BBC One
1963–1965: Donald Baverstock
1965–1967: Michael Peacock
1967–1973: Paul Fox
1973–1977: Bryan Cowgill
1977–1981: Bill Cotton
1981–1984: Alan Hart
1984–1987: Michael Grade
1987–1993: Jonathan Powell
1993–1996: Alan Yentob
1996–1997: Michael Jackson
1997–2000: Peter Salmon
2000–2005: Lorraine Heggessey
2005–2007: Peter Fincham
2007–2008: Roly Keating (acting)
2008–2010: Jay Hunt
2010–2013: Danny Cohen
2013–2016: Charlotte Moore
In 2016, the controller of BBC One would be promoted to oversee all BBC channels, with the channel controller roles being entirely scrapped in 2020, in favour of a focus on digital streaming.
See also
History of BBC television idents
Prewar television stations
List of television programmes broadcast by the BBC
List of television stations in the United Kingdom
Notes
References
External links
BBC One Service Licence BBC Trust, July 2009
BBC One Service Licence BBC Trust, July 2009
BBC One TV listings
1936 establishments in the United Kingdom
BBC television channels in the United Kingdom
English-language television stations in the United Kingdom
Television channels and stations established in 1936
Television channels in the United Kingdom
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212165
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray%20Stevens
|
Ray Stevens
|
Harold Ray Ragsdale (born January 24, 1939), known professionally as Ray Stevens, is an American country and pop singer-songwriter and comedian, known for his Grammy-winning recordings "Everything Is Beautiful" and "Misty", as well as comedic hits such as "Gitarzan" and "The Streak". He has received gold albums for his music sales. He has worked as a producer, music arranger, and television host. He is an inductee of the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame, the Georgia Music Hall of Fame, and the Christian Music Hall of Fame, and the Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum.
Early life
Harold Ray Ragsdale was born on January 24, 1939, in Clarkdale, Georgia. He is the elder of two sons born to Willis Harold Ragsdale (1915–2001) and Frances Stephens Ragsdale (1916–1997). He has a younger brother, John, who was an actor and writer. His brother died in 2020 at the age of 75. While attending high school, Stevens formed his first band, a rhythm and blues group named The Barons. Following his graduation, Stevens enrolled in Georgia State University as a music major.
Career
Early career
At 18, Stevens signed to Capitol Records' Prep Records division in 1957, and produced the single "Silver Bracelet", with a cover of "Rang Tang Ding Dong" as the B-side. The single was met with a positive review from Billboard. The B-side was originally recorded by doo-wop group The Cellos in 1956.
Stevens signed with Mercury Records in 1961.
1970s
In the 1970s, Stevens became a producer and studio musician in Nashville. He recorded songs for Barnaby Records and Warner Brothers during 1970–79. Stevens' biggest hit in the U.S. was his gospel-inflected single "Everything Is Beautiful" (1970). The single won a Grammy Award, was the theme song for his summer 1970 TV show, hit number one on both the pop and Adult-Contemporary charts, and marked his first time in the Top 40 on the country charts, peaking at number 39. It sold over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc.
1980s
Stevens then joined MCA in 1984 as a "country comedy" act and thereafter released only novelty song albums. In 1985 he performed at the Lanierland Music Park in Georgia with Pinkard & Bowden.
2010–2014
In April 2010, Stevens released We the People, a CD/DVD of political songs. This album reached Top-5 on the Billboard Comedy Album chart.
RAY-ality TV ended its digital TV run in January 2014. In March 2014, a webisode series, also titled Rayality TV was launched. In 2014, Stevens co-starred in the movie Campin' Buddies.
Stevens published his autobiographical memoir Ray Stevens' Nashville in 2014.
Since 2015
Stevens released the album Here We Go Again on March 24, 2015, which includes the Taylor Swift spoof single "Taylor Swift is Stalking Me" and "Come to the USA".
Personal life
Stevens was married to Penny Jackson Ragsdale for over 60 years, until her death on December 31, 2021, from a lengthy battle with cancer. Two days prior, he canceled his New Year's Eve concert at CabaRay, due to her rapidly declining health. They have two children.
Discography
Accolades
Grammy awards
References
External links
Tom Redmond – Working with Chet Atkins: An Interview with Ray Stevens
Ray Stevens – MyBestYears.COM INTERVIEW SPOTLIGHT
Ray Stevens Interview NAMM Oral History Library (2014)
1939 births
20th-century American comedians
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century American pianists
21st-century American male musicians
21st-century American pianists
American comedy musicians
American country keyboardists
American country pianists
American country singer-songwriters
American male pianists
American male singer-songwriters
American novelty song performers
CBS Records artists
Country Music Hall of Fame inductees
country musicians from Georgia (U.S. state)
Curb Records artists
Georgia State University alumni
Grammy Award winners
living people
MCA Records artists
Mercury Records artists
Monument Records artists
National Recording Corporation artists
people from Cobb County, Georgia
RCA Records artists
singer-songwriters from Georgia (U.S. state)
Warner Records artists
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%20Last%20the%201948%20Show
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At Last the 1948 Show
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At Last the 1948 Show is a satirical television show made by David Frost's company, Paradine Productions (although it was not credited on the programmes), in association with Rediffusion London. Transmitted on Britain's ITV network in 1967, it brought Cambridge Footlights humour to a broader audience.
The show starred Tim Brooke-Taylor, Graham Chapman, John Cleese, Marty Feldman and Aimi MacDonald. Cleese and Brooke-Taylor were also the programme editors. The director was Ian Fordyce. Chapman and Cleese would later be among the founders of the Monty Python comedy troupe, and several of the sketches first performed in At Last the 1948 Show would later be performed by Monty Python in various formats.
While only two episodes of the show had been thought to survive, efforts to locate missing episodes have been fruitful, with seven episodes being accounted for by 2013. On 23 October 2014, two episodes were recovered by the British Film Institute from the David Frost collection, and a further two episodes were recovered the following year, making the number of complete episodes eleven out of thirteen.
History
Frost approached Cleese, Chapman and Brooke-Taylor to star in a sketch series. They suggested Marty Feldman, until then a comedy writer. The series bridged the radio series I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again and television's Monty Python's Flying Circus and The Goodies. It also led to Feldman's television series Marty (which also featured Tim Brooke-Taylor). The convention of comedy scenes interspersed by songs was abandoned. It still used punchlines, which would often be dispensed with in Monty Python's Flying Circus.
Several sketches came from the 1963 Cambridge Footlights Revue entitled Cambridge Circus (the revue was previously entitled A Clump of Plinths), including Graham Chapman's solo routine "One-Man Wrestling". Certain sketches from the show would later be reused in the one-off John Cleese special How to Irritate People ("Freedom of Speech"), as well as the second episode of Monty Python's Fliegender Zirkus ("One-Man Wrestling" again – now with play-by-play commentary added by Cleese – and "Hearing Aid Shop"). Further sketches were reprised in the Python stage shows, including the "Four Yorkshiremen" sketch (as featured on Live at Drury Lane, Live at City Center, Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl, and Monty Python Live (Mostly)), "One-Man Wrestling" once again (Drury Lane, City Center, and Hollywood Bowl), "Secret Service" (Drury Lane only), and a few that have never received official release: "Beekeeper," the aforementioned "Hearing Aid Shop," and "Minister Falling to Pieces." The "Beekeeper" sketch was also performed in the Secret Policeman's Ball stage shows, as were "Top of the Form" and "Take Your Clothes Off!". Another, the "Bookshop" sketch, was recorded in modified form for Monty Python's Contractual Obligation Album. New versions of "Door to Door Undertaker" and "Memory Training Course" were also recorded during that album's sessions, but not included on the final version (they would, however, end up appearing on the widely bootlegged Hastily Cobbled Together for a Fast Buck album). "Psychiatrist", "Tea Boy on a Mission", and "Grublian Holidays" were also performed again by The Two Ronnies.
Monty Python's catchphrase, "And now for something completely different," parodying a phrase often used on Blue Peter, originated in At Last the 1948 Show, and was originally spoken by Aimi MacDonald.
The shows had no relationship to the year 1948; according to Cleese, the title referred to television executives' tendency to dither extensively over commissioning decisions. Feldman claimed in eyE Marty, his posthumously published autobiography, that he came up with the title, which "meant nothing." The series was video-taped at what was later Fountain Studios, Wembley Park, Wembley.
A total of thirteen 25-minute episodes were made within a year, six in the first series and seven in the second.
Survival of episodes
Thames Television discarded the material once they had acquired the Rediffusion London archive, and all but two episodes were destroyed. John Cleese became aware of tapes from two surviving episodes after Feldman's wife left them to him in her will. Five compilation episodes for Swedish television also survived. Much missing material has been recovered in video, and surviving video has been restored by the British Film Institute.
The majority of a previously missing episode (season 2, episode 6 tx 31.10.67) was recovered from a private collector in May 2010. On 23 October 2014, the BFI announced film copies of two previously missing episodes – the first and final episodes of the series (broadcast 15 February 1967 and 7 November 1967) – had been recovered from the private collection of the show's executive producer David Frost. A year later, the BFI announced the recovery of another two episodes from a fan's collection, with one of the new recoveries - the third episode of the first series (tx 1 March 1967) – to be screened at the Radio Times Festival at Hampton Court on 25 September 2015.
Out of an original total of 13 episodes, eleven now exist in complete or near-complete form, while two remain incomplete. While most surviving episodes are from original tapes or telerecordings, two of the complete episodes have been reconstructed from footage recovered from five compilation tapes returned from Sweden. The two incomplete episodes' surviving footage also comes from these compilations. The complete audio of all 13 episodes exist, recorded off air by several fans.
A 1967 LP release featured sketches taken from the soundtrack of the show's first series, accompanied by a 7" single featuring newly recorded versions of "The Ferret Song" and "The Rhubarb Tart Song". These have since been reissued on CD.
Home media
The five Swedish compilation episodes were released on DVD in July 2005 by Tango Entertainment in the US (Region 1) and in January 2007 by Pinnacle Vision in the UK (Region 2). This includes the Four Yorkshiremen sketch, written and performed by Cleese, Chapman, Brooke-Taylor and Marty Feldman. The DVD incorrectly states these as "recently recovered episodes", presents them as episode numbers 1 through 5, in the wrong compilation-series order (the correct order is DVD ep# 4, 3, 1, 5, 2), with no mention on the DVD that the content is in fact a compilation. The episodes on all DVD releases are soft, grainy, and generally low picture quality, even considering the material's age. Eric Idle appears in three of the episodes (2, 4, and 5), but never speaks except for a brief line in the teaser of episode 4.
The DVD was re-released in May 2012 by One Media iP, a digital-only (streaming media format) label (no physical DVD) based in the UK, available for free on their OMP YouTube channel. This release has the compilation episodes in the same (mis-)order, and includes the 2 bonus interview tracks from the original DVD as well. They describe the episodes as compilations, but their description of what original episodes they are taken from is wrong (one episode claims the excerpts are all from series 1 when in fact they are all from series 2).
In October 2015, One Media iP acquired the rights to three original full episodes that had recently been discovered, and released them on their YouTube channel as well. They are the two episodes discovered in David Frost's archives, ep. #1.1 and #2.7, and the episode discovered in a fan collection and screened in 2015, ep. #1.3. The three episodes are unfortunately presented in the wrong aspect ratio: the picture is squeezed horizontally to a ratio of 1:1 square.
In recent years, some of the other surviving, original full episodes have been uploaded on YouTube and other video-sharing websites. All of these have since been removed, and new uploads continue to be removed, due to claimed copyright restrictions and new YouTube rules, as well as internet policing by One Media iP. The five compilation episodes (in the same mis-order) plus the three original full episodes released by One Media iP are still available for free on YouTube, on the free streaming service Tubi, and on Amazon Prime, the subscription streaming provider. On Tubi and Amazon Prime, the three original episodes are numbered 6 through 8 in order of broadcast: ep. #1.1, 1.3, and 2.7 respectively. On these latter two providers, the squeezed 1:1 aspect ratio of episode #7 (1.3) is corrected.
The British Film Institute released a comprehensive three-DVD set of the surviving material on 16 September 2019, including audio-only portions for all missing segments.
In July 2020, the BritBox streaming service has the thirteen episodes available for viewing.
Guest stars
Barry Cryer – as director in Chartered Accountants and Gorilla / first person to sit in Thief in Library / Nigerian guide & Eskimo guide in Studio Tour / Feldman in Scottish Opera / deerstalker hat detective in Detective Sketch / Wine waiter in Four Yorkshiremen / miscellaneous voice-over announcements
Bill Oddie – as depressed patient/Kowalski in Detective Sketch
Christine Rodgers – as Mrs. Lotterby / waving co-host / Susan / opera-host / introduces self in "I'm The Loveliest" show intro
Eric Idle – Librarian in Thief in Library / Beethoven patient / waiter / elevator operator in Detective Sketch / end of row opera patron in Scottish Opera
Jo Kendall – as Mary in John and Mary in Malaya / Sara Mellish in Studio Tour
Mary Maude – as Lady in bath / introduces self in "I'm The Loveliest" show intro
Dick Vosburgh – as director in Studio Tour / bearded front row patron in Scottish Opera
Antony Jay – stage manager in Studio Tour
Frank Muir – Saudi entourage in Studio Tour
Denis Norden – Saudi entourage in Studio Tour
Ronnie Corbett – wrestling stage hand in Studio Tour
Frances Dean – accented opera-host / introduces self in "I'm The Loveliest" show intro
Karin Feddersen – Long haired brunette patron in Scottish Opera
Jacqueline Rochelle – as magic amulet opera-host
Penny Brahms – introduces self in "I'm The Loveliest" show intro
Joan Crane – as receptionist in Spiv Doctor / introduces self in "I'm The Loveliest" show intro
Vicki Murden
Anne Lewington
Natalie Shaw
Jenny Walton
Patricia Franklin
Dick Holmes
List of episodes
Not all ITV regions screened the series, and those that did so on different transmission dates and times, with the series beginning and ending at different times of the year. Unless stated otherwise, the dates below reflect the transmission dates of the series in the London ITV region - Rediffusion's ITV franchise.
Audio recordings exist for all 13 episodes, with only a very few missing segments. These have been used to reconstruct the order of sketches in complete episodes.
Series 1
Series 1 was not shown in the Granada region.
Series 2
In the Granada region, each episode was shown three days after the dates specified below at 10.30 in the evening.
References
External links
Comedy Guide - At Last the 1948 Show at bbc.co.uk (Internet Archive copy)
British Film Institute Screen Online
1960s British television sketch shows
1967 British television series debuts
1967 British television series endings
Black-and-white British television shows
ITV sketch shows
English-language television shows
ITV comedy
Monty Python
British satirical television series
Television shows produced by Associated-Rediffusion
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] |
212174
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiant
|
Radiant
|
Radiant may refer to:
Computers, software, and video games
Radiant (software), a content management system
GtkRadiant, a level editor created by id Software for their games
Radiant AI, a technology developed by Bethesda Softworks for The Elder Scrolls games
Radiant, the team that opposes Dire on Dota 2
Music
Radiant (Atlantic Starr album), 1981
Radiant (Iris album), 2014
Ships
HMS Radiant (1916), a destroyer of the British Royal Navy launched in 1916 and sold in 1920
USS Radiant, the name of more than one United States Navy ship
Radiant (yacht), a 2009 Lürssen built yacht
Others
Radiant heat, or thermal radiation, electromagnetic radiation emitted from the surface of an object which is due to the object's temperature
Radiant heating, a technology for heating indoor and outdoor areas
Radiant (Kitchen manufacturer), an Australian manufacturer of products for kitchens and laundries
Radiant (Magic: The Gathering), an archangel in the Magic: The Gathering trading card game
Radiant (meteor shower), the apparent origin point of meteors in a meteor shower
Radiant (novel), a 2004 science fiction novel by James Alan Gardner
Radiant (manfra), a French manfra series by Tony Valente
Radiant (typeface), a sans-serif typeface
Radiant, a diamond cut
Radiant, a line of feminine hygiene products by Procter & Gamble
Radiant Towers, a private housing estate in Tseung Kwan O, Hong Kong
See also
Radiance (disambiguation)
Radian (disambiguation)
Ray (optics)
Radio, the combining form of radiant
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITV%20%28TV%20channel%29
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ITV (TV channel)
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ITV (previously branded ITV1 from 2001 to 2013) is a British free-to-air television channel owned and operated by the British media company ITV plc. It provides the Channel 3 service across the country except in the central and northern areas of Scotland where STV provides the service.
ITV as a consistent national channel (with, importantly, dedicated slots for regional news and other regional programmes) evolved out of the old ITV network - a federation of separately owned regional companies which had significantly different local schedules and branding.
Arguably the single biggest move in the creation of the ITV channel in its present form came in 2004 when Granada Television acquired Carlton Communications to form ITV plc. The two companies had gradually acquired all the other regional Channel 3 companies in England and Wales. ITV plc later acquired Channel Television in the Channel Islands and UTV in Northern Ireland.
Around the same time as this, the differences between the schedules in each region gradually reduced - partly through the consolidation of ownership and partly through the standardisation in the volume and scheduling of regional programmes.
Branding was also standardised. From 2002, the names of regional stations in England were only mentioned before regional programmes. Effectively this left ITV1 in England looking like a national channel with slots for regional programmes - like BBC One - rather than a group of independent regional broadcasters sharing programmes.
ITV today is the biggest and most popular commercial television channel in the United Kingdom. ITV, and its predecessor regional channels, have contended with BBC One for the status of the UK's most watched television channel since the 1950s. However, in line with other terrestrial channels, ITV's audience share has fallen as a result of availability of multi-channel television in the UK.
History
Following the creation of the Television Act 1954, the establishment of a commercial television service in the UK began.
The Independent Television service, abbreviated ITV, was made up of distinct regions, with each region run by different franchisee companies. The three largest regions, London, the Midlands, and the North of England, were sub-divided into weekday and weekend services, with a different company running each.
The service was very heavily regulated until the early 1990s. The regulator, the ITA (later the IBA) operated the transmitters, awarded franchises and had a great influence over schedules, content and technical standards. Legally the regulator was the broadcaster - the companies were contracted to provide an "independent television service" to compete with the BBC.
The ITV network existed in a region-heavy form from its inception through to the 2000s, although the switch to a single unified service was gradual.
ITV1 became the generic on-screen brand name used by the twelve franchises of the ITV network in the United Kingdom. The ITV1 brand was introduced in 2001 by Carlton- and Granada-owned franchises, initially used alongside the local regional name, such as "ITV1 Anglia" and "ITV1 Meridian". However, it became the sole on-air identity in 2002 when the two companies decided to create a single unified playout of the channel, with regional references only used prior to regional programming, such as local news and weather. Carlton and Granada went on to merge in 2004, creating ITV plc, which now owns thirteen of the fifteen regional ITV licences.
The ITV1 name was only used in England, Wales, Southern Scotland, and Isle of Man, until Channel Television adopted the name in January 2006, bringing it to the Channel Islands. As national continuity is often used on Channel Television, ITV1 national branding had been seen on the station for several years previously.
The licensees that use the ITV brand are: Anglia Television, Border Television, Carlton Television, Central Independent Television, Channel Television, Granada Television, HTV, London Weekend Television, Meridian Broadcasting, Tyne Tees Television, Westcountry Television, Yorkshire Television and (as of 2020) UTV (Ulster Television).
ITV Wales & West was the only exception, using the name ITV1 Wales at all times for the Welsh part of its broadcast area, as it has a higher regional commitment. Latterly, the ITV1 Wales name was only used on break-bumpers and regionally advertised programmes until 2013. Non ITV plc-owned licensees on the ITV network generally did not refer to the ITV name.
The network production arms of the ITV-plc owned licensees have been gradually combined since 1993, to eventually form ITV Studios.
Corporate unification
The ITV channel was formed by the unification of eleven of the ITV licences. The United Kingdom Broadcasting Act 1990 changed many of the rules regulating the ITV network, which most notably relaxed separate franchise ownership, and hours of production. However, as far back as 1974, Yorkshire Television and its North East neighbour, Tyne Tees Television, formally created Trident Television, a merged entity of the two companies. By 1981, due to regulation, the company was forced to de-merge; however, they resumed their alliance in 1993 as Yorkshire-Tyne Tees Television, which therefore owned the two franchises, and integrated the two companies' assets more than its predecessor.
The intense race to own a larger share of the ITV network began in 1994, when Carlton Communications, the owner of London weekday broadcaster Carlton Television, took control of Central Independent Television in the Midlands. Days afterwards, Granada plc, owner of Granada Television of the North West, purchased London Weekend Television (LWT). Meridian's owner, Mills and Allen International, then went on to purchase Anglia Television in the same year, before merging to become United News and Media (UNM) in 1995. UNM then went on to purchase Wales and West broadcaster, HTV in 1996, while Carlton purchased Westcountry Television later that year. Granada then agreed a deal to take over Yorkshire-Tyne Tees Television in 1997, giving the broadcaster access to both Yorkshire and North East franchises.
There was no further movement in the take-over of franchises until 2000, when Border Television and all of its radio assets were sold to Capital Radio Group, who consequently sold the television broadcasting arm to Granada Media Group. Granada then went on to purchase all of UNM's television interests (including its ITV franchises), which brought Meridian, Anglia, and HTV into its power, but due to regulation, Granada was forced to sell HTV to Carlton. By this time, all of the franchises in England and Wales were owned by either Carlton or Granada.
In 2004, Granada plc officially merged with Carlton Communications, creating ITV plc, although it was in effect, a takeover by Granada. In 2011, ITV plc acquired Channel Television from its private owners Yattendon Group plc. On 19 October 2015, ITV announced they were to buy UTV for £100 million subject to regulatory approval. The deal also included UTV Ireland, UTV's Irish channel. Initially, the UTV name was retained, but on 2 April 2020 the station began using ITV's national continuity-at first as an emergency measure due to the COVID-19 pandemic, then announced as a permanent transition on 26 November 2020.
Regional variations
The ITV network consists of thirteen franchises in England, Wales and Northern Ireland which broadcast regional news and other local programming to its area. Many franchise areas in England previously had sub-regions providing separate regional news bulletins. For example, the Anglia region was divided into West and East. This arrangement came to an end in February 2009, when ITV implemented plans to save the company £40m a year on the amount it spent making local news.
Since 27 October 2002, on all ITV plc-owned franchises, regional programming has been preceded or plugged by an oral regional announcement, in the format ITV1 regional brand; e.g. ITV1 Granada. In English regions, up until 13 November 2006, regional names were also superimposed (post-production) on these idents below the ITV1 logo, but this practice has since ceased. ITV Wales remains unaffected, and still continues to use dual-branding across all of its on-screen presentation. Despite the lack of regional names on screen, the regional name is usually spoken by the continuity announcer prior to local programmes. After ITV's unification in 2002, the two London franchises, Carlton Television and London Weekend Television were merged into a single entity, ITV London, while the Wales and West franchise lost its official identity, and instead was substituted with ITV Wales and ITV West on-air, with no reference linking the two together (the licence was formally split in two by Ofcom from 1 January 2014, when the West region merged with the Westcountry region to form the West Country franchise).
Channel Television adopted the ITV1 brand on-air prior to the 2011 ITV plc takeover of the channel. UTV was purchased by ITV plc in 2016, but did not adopt national continuity until April 2020 (see above).
Areas with full ITV channel branding and continuity:
* ITV +1 is not available in the main channels (e.g. channel 203 on Sky, channel 34 on Freeview, channel 112 on Freesat), and may be in the regional variation channels instead (e.g. channel 973 on Sky).
In the English regions, the channel has been known from 2006 until 2013 as ITV1, and since 14 January 2013 as ITV at all times. Regional references no longer appear before any programming at all in these areas.
The ITV Cymru Wales name is name check only by local ITV promos and ITV announcers;
The STV branding is used throughout the day from 9:25 am to 6 am daily;
The UTV branding is only used for local programming.
ITV network areas without full ITV channel branding and continuity:
Proposed regional changes
In June 2007, ITV plc executive chairman Michael Grade hinted at a possible re-structure of the ITV regional layout, stating the existence of smaller regional services "no longer makes sense" relative to the regional audience they serve. The plan was confirmed in September 2007, reducing the number of regional news programmes from 17 to just 9, saving around £35 to £40 million each year, and affecting every ITV plc regional company with the exception of ITV London, ITV Wales, and ITV Granada. These changes were implemented in early 2009. All sub-regional news programmes ceased; ITV Border's Lookaround programme was merged with ITV Tyne Tees' North East Tonight programme, ITV Westcountry's Westcountry Live merged with ITV West's The West Tonight programme, and ITV Meridian's Meridian Tonight south and south east editions merged with ITV Thames Valley's Thames Valley Tonight.
On 16 September 2013, ITV reverted to a more localised system, as was the case prior to a shake-up in 2009, with 14 news regions (rather than eight). This meant people in the Borders, for example, saw a return to a Border-only news service, with all stories covered solely on Southern Scotland and Cumbria, similar to the pre-Tyne Tees merger in February 2009. Meanwhile, in the Westcountry, viewers in Devon and Cornwall also saw a return to a more localised service.
Notable programming
Daytime programming
Good Morning Britain
Lorraine
This Morning
Loose Women
ITV Lunchtime News
Dickinson's Real Deal
Judge Rinder
Tenable
Supermarket Sweep
Winning Combination
Lingo
Bling
Tipping Point
The Chase
Primetime programming
Emmerdale
Coronation Street
Tonight
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?
Big Star's Little Star
Exposure
Gino's Italian Escape
Doc Martin
Midsomer Murders
I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!
ITV Evening News
ITV News at Ten
The Martin Lewis Money Show
Love Your Garden
On Assignment
Paul O'Grady: For the Love of Dogs
Kate Garraway's Life Stories
ITV Sport
Peston
Weekend programming
Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway
Britain's Got Talent
Catchphrase
The Chase: Celebrity Special
CITV Weekend Breakfast
Dancing on Ice
Family Fortunes
ITV Weekend News
ITV Racing
John and Lisa's Weekend Kitchen
The Jonathan Ross Show
Martin & Roman's Sunday Best!
The Masked Singer
The Void
Ninja Warrior UK
Rolling In It
Saturday Morning with James Martin
Tipping Point: Lucky Stars
The Voice UK
The Voice Kids
You've Been Framed!
Night-time programming
AEW Dynamite
AEW Rampage
Ideal World
Motorsport
Unwind with ITV
Subsidiary channels
ITV HD
A high-definition simulcast of ITV, ITV HD, debuted on 7 June 2008, with the technical launch of the Freeview HD service. The channel has its roots in ITV HD, which began as a trial service in 2006 on a low-power digital terrestrial (DVB-T) channel from London's Crystal Palace transmitting station, and on Telewest TV Drive cable service. The channel was revived on 7 June 2008, in time for the UEFA Euro 2008 football tournament, this time exclusively available on the Freesat digital satellite service. With its debut on Freeview HD, the channel was re-branded as ITV1 HD in December 2009.
ITV +1
On 1 September 2009, it was announced that ITV would get a one-hour timeshift channel on digital satellite and Virgin Media, on 1 October 2009, subject to the Competition Commission's ruling on the contract rights renewal system. However, on 18 September 2009, it was announced that ITV1 +1 had been postponed until further notice. Prior to this announcement, electronic programme guide (EPG) data for the service had appeared on satellite.
The Competition Commission delayed the final decision in its review of ITV's Contract Rights Renewal undertakings to the end of February 2010, because it had to consider the "significant" submissions it has received.
On 19 January 2010, the Competition Commission delivered its provisional findings, ruling that audiences for both ITV1 +1 and ITV1 HD will be accredited to ITV1's commercial impacts. The Competition Commission recognised that the broadcaster had been deterred from launching new ways of delivering ITV1, because of the way media buying is currently conducted under the established contracts rights renewal (CRR) mechanism. However, the regulator rejected ITV's proposed removal of large elements of the "outdated" CRR Undertakings while maintaining an obligation on ITV to offer ITV1 airtime on "fair and reasonable" terms. The Competition Commission announced that such a change would leave the process too open to interpretation, and that they were "not likely to be either practicable or effective in addressing the adverse effects of the merger".
On 12 May 2010, the Competition Commission stood by its provisional decision to retain the contracts rights renewal system, but it added that the mechanism should be dropped at some point, and that the entire UK TV ad sales market needs a review. "ITV1 remains a 'must have' for certain advertisers and certain types of campaign", said the chairman of the CRR review group at the Competition Commission, Diana Guy. "Despite all the changes in this market, no other channel or medium can come close to matching the size of audience that ITV regularly provides. So the essential reason for the CRR undertakings remains: to protect advertisers and other commercial broadcasters". The ITV chief executive, Adam Crozier, said that the ruling was "out of touch and damaging for the interests of creative Britain". He added that it was "unlikely" that ITV would look to seek a judicial review, but that ITV would redouble its lobbying campaign for a liberalisation of regulation and "urgent modernisation" of competition law. But the commission said there was "virtual unanimity" among advertisers, media agencies, commercial broadcasters, and trade bodies, that CRR should be kept "in some form". The commission confirmed that the CRR remedy should be broadened to include ITV+1 and ITV's high definition channels.
On 27 July 2010, the House of Lords confirmed plans to launch an inquiry into the television advertising market, which "paid particular attention" to the CRR mechanism. The Lords committee investigated the declining revenues that commercial broadcasters gain from the sale of advertising across their networks. The members also considered possible changes to current ad market regulation, including the CRR system, product placement rules, and the scheduling and sale of advertising. The committee wanted to hear evidence on the current levels of regulation, and what impact a relaxation of the rules could have had on the commercial broadcasting sector. Interested parties submitted written evidence to the inquiry on 24 September 2010, with oral evidence been heard in October. A written report was expected to follow in late 2010 or early 2011.
On 3 August 2010, ITV plc announced the launch of ITV1 +1 would take place in Q1 2011, with Broadcasters' Audience Research Board (BARB)] later reporting that the channel would be launched on 11 January 2011. In December 2010, full testing of all six regions began on satellite.
ITV1 +1 was launched on 11 January 2011 on Freesat channel 112, Freeview channel 33, Sky channel 203, and Virgin Media channel 114. ITV1 broadcasts 22 different editions of digital satellite, but the timeshift service originally only transmitted six macro regional variants:
London
South East Macro (encompassing Meridian Broadcasting and Anglia Television)
West Macro (encompassing Wales & West and Westcountry Television)
Central
Yorkshire/Tyne Tees Macro (encompassing Yorkshire Television and Tyne Tees Television)
Granada/Border Macro (encompassing Granada Television and Border Television)
On 1 March 2012, four additional variations were launched for the Anglia Television, Tyne Tees Television, West and Westcountry Television regions, with the South East Macro becoming Meridian Broadcasting, West Macro becoming Wales, and Yorkshire/Tyne Tees Macro becoming Yorkshire Television.
The channel was rebranded as ITV +1 on 14 January 2013, as part of the rebranding of ITV's television channels and ITV's online services.
Availability outside the UK
ITV channels are available on cable and IPTV in Switzerland and Liechtenstein. In the Republic of Ireland, ITV (as UTV) was widely available, however, UTV Ireland was launched in 2015 and replaced UTV in the Republic of Ireland. UTV Ireland has since ceased broadcasting in Ireland. ITV is registered to broadcast within the European Union/EEA through ALIA in Luxembourg.
Since 27 March 2013, ITV London has been offered by British Forces Broadcasting Service (BFBS) to members of HM Forces and their families around the world, replacing the BFBS3 TV channel, which already carried a selection of ITV programmes.
Branding
Independent Television (1955–1989)
ITV was not a brand name as such until 1989 although the name was in common public use. Independent Television, shortened to ITV, was the collective and generic name for the companies which held commercial television franchises.
The name referred to the initial regulator the Independent Television Authority. It was keen to use this name for its franchisees to highlight the fact they were also public services and not simply commercial broadcasters.
The companies were principally identified on air using by their own names though some did make reference to ITV too. There were also specific uses of the ITV name - for instance from the 80s, ITV Sport and Children's ITV were used for programming strands.
ITV (1989 onwards)
In 1989, the first real efforts were made to turn ITV into a brand.
The ITV Association commissioned a generic presentation package for each of the individual companies. It included both a national logo and regional versions which included an element based on each company's own symbol.
Some regions made full use of the package - effectively leading to dual branding. However around half the regions made little or no use of it while some others later reverted to using their own local identities alone.
However the generic national logo was often seen within programmes.
The last region to drop the 1989 ident was Grampian Television which used it right up until the national logo was changed in 1998. All other regions had dropped their local versions by 1993.
"TV from the Heart" (1999–2001)
The second attempt at consistent network branding cane in 1999, using the new national logo introduced a year earlier.
A series of idents were created under the theme, "TV from the Heart". Like the 1989 attempt, a version was created for every franchise holder and it effectively led to dual branding.
This look was only taken by nine of the fifteen ITV broadcasters, two of which later resorted to other designs which still kept the dual branding.
The Carlton-owned regions had their own dual branded idents while the two Scottish regions and UTV made no use of ITV branding.
ITV1 (2001–2013)
By 2001, all eleven franchises of England and Wales were owned by either Granada plc or Carlton Communications, and a new common name, ITV1, was launched on 11 August 2001. This was to help show that the main channel was by then part of a suite of channels including ITV2. The existing "Hearts" idents were simply re-edited.
The biggest single change to on-screen presentation came on 28 October 2002. Regional continuity and idents were dropped in the English regions while the service in Wales was rebranded ITV1 Wales.
At this time all English regional continuity announcers were replaced with a single team of national continuity announcers - initially there were six but the number was later reduced to just four.
In January 2006, the channel adopted a new on-air look, designed mainly to improve cross-channel promotion across ITV's multichannel presence.
The new logo brought ITV1, ITV2 and ITV3 in line with ITV4's, and had been observed on various billboard ads in the UK when the new identity was first used on-screen on 16 January 2006. The overhaul also put an end to the former ITV Day brand, which was axed in favour of a full-time ITV1 identity.
On 13 November 2006, a new set of idents replaced the previous set which debuted in January, the theme being "alive with colour". The initial set consisted of "Beach", "Bike", "Lake", and "Market"; "Basketball" and "Pavement Art" were added later in the year. They were created by Blink Productions for ITV, unlike the old idents which were masterminded by Red Bee Media. The logo remained the same in essence; only the "itv" lettering was inverted from its previous white state to black, to allow it to stand out against the yellow more.
On 3 September 2007, four more idents were added to the set, featuring "Bubbles", "Fountains", "Garden", and "Buildings", and as of 19 September 2009, all now have "the brighter side" on their breakbumpers. On 9 April 2010, four more idents where added to the set, "Lanterns", "Sunflowers", "Snakes and Ladders", and "Dodgems", featuring an updated ITV1 logo as seen on ITV1 HD.
In September 2009, ITV plc announced that ITV1 +1, a one-hour time-shift version of ITV1, would launch in October 2009 from 10:25am to 7am daily. The hours covered by GMTV from 7am to 10:25am will not originally have been included in the relay. The channel launched on 11 January 2011.
On 9 April 2010, the ITV1 logo was redesigned appearing to look 3D with a gloss effect. The logo launched with four new idents following the launch of ITV1 HD.
ITV Day
In 2005, ITV plc introduced a new channel branding called ITV Day, used to identify ITV1 between 9:25am and 6pm. ITV Day was treated as a separate entity to ITV1, and featured its own presentation set focusing using the colours of red, orange, and yellow, and featured scenes of typical "daytime" activities. Promotions were used in a similar format to ITV1, and all daytime programmes advertised within ITV1 hours were branded with the ITV Day logo. A similar "UTV Day" branding was adopted in Northern Ireland. The branding was scrapped in January 2006 when the ITV corporate rebrand took place.
2013 rebranding
On 14 January 2013, ITV unveiled a huge rebranding, including a new corporate logo inspired by handwriting, and the renaming of the flagship channel back from ITV1 to just ITV. Its colour schemes vary on-air to complement its surroundings; a practice referred to internally as "colour picking". Following the buyout in 2016, UTV also rebranded to these idents, using a tweaked version with the new UTV logo.
2019 rebranding
On 1 January 2019, ITV refreshed its on-air presentation.
The logo and trailers were modified but the main change was to the idents. In a project known as ITV Creates, a new set of idents were used weekly. They were built around interpretations of the ITV logo commissioned from British visual artists. The first artist featured was Ravi Deepres.
Since 2020 this has continued but with a mixture of new commissions and previous ones.
UTV continued with its 2013-era idents until it adopted ITV continuity and trails in 2020. However it used the new on-air presentation on trails with a tweaked version to accommodate the UTV logo.
Logos
Notes
References
External links
ITV television channels
Television channels in the United Kingdom
Television channels and stations established in 2002
2002 establishments in the United Kingdom
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney%20Sussex%20College%2C%20Cambridge
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Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
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Sidney Sussex College (referred to informally as "Sidney") is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in England. The college was founded in 1596 under the terms of the will of Frances Sidney, Countess of Sussex (1531–1589), wife of Thomas Radclyffe, 3rd Earl of Sussex, and named after its founder. It was from its inception an avowedly Protestant foundation; "some good and godlie moniment for the mainteynance of good learninge". In her will, Lady Sussex left the sum of £5,000 together with some plate to found a new college at Cambridge University "to be called the Lady Frances Sidney Sussex College". Her executors Sir John Harington and Henry Grey, 6th Earl of Kent, supervised by Archbishop John Whitgift, founded the college seven years after her death.
History
While the college's geographic size has changed little since 1596, an additional range was added to the original E-shaped buildings in the early 17th century and the appearance of the whole college was changed significantly in the 1820s and 1830s, under the leadership of the Master at the time, William Chafy. By the early 19th century, the buildings' original red brick was unfashionable and the hall range was suffering serious structural problems. The opening up of coal mines on estates left to the College in the 18th century provided extra funds which were to be devoted to providing a new mathematical library and accommodation for Mathematical Exhibitioners. As a result, the exterior brick was covered with a layer of cement, the existing buildings were heightened slightly, and the architectural effect was also heightened, under the supervision of Sir Jeffry Wyatville.
In the late nineteenth century, the college's finances received a further boost from the development of the resort of Cleethorpes on College land on the Lincolnshire coast that was purchased in 1616, following a bequest for the benefit of scholars and fellows by Peter Blundell, a merchant from Tiverton, Devon. A new wing (Cloister Court) added in 1891, to the designs of John Loughborough Pearson, is stylistically richer than the original buildings and has stone staircases whereas the stairs in the older buildings are made of timber.
In the early twentieth century, a High Church group among the Fellows were instrumental in the rebuilding and enlargement of the chapel, which was provided with a richly carved interior in late seventeenth-century style, designed by T. H. Lyon, and somewhat at odds with the college's original Puritan ethos.
Academic profile
Sidney Sussex is recognised as one of the smaller, more classical Cambridge colleges. Its current student body consists of roughly 350 undergraduate students and 190 graduates.
Academically, Sidney Sussex has tended towards a mid-table position in the unofficial Tompkins Table (placing 13th out of 29 in 2019). However, the college has traditionally excelled in certain subjects, notably Mathematics, History, Engineering and Law. It is also known for the high standard of pastoral support from the Tutorial team, and a sense of mutual support from students doing the same subject.
The college ranks fourth highest amongst Cambridge colleges in Nobel Prizes won by alumni.
Student life
The Choir of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge was nominated for a 2013 Gramophone Award in recognition of their disc of the music of Thomas Weelkes. The choir also tours regularly, most recently to the United States, in July 2018.
In the television show University Challenge, Sidney Sussex had a winning team in both 1971 and 1978–79. The 1978 team, comprising John Gilmore, John Adams, David Lidington, and Nick Graham, went on to win the "Champion of Champions" University Challenge reunion competition in 2002. The college last appeared on the television show in 2018.
It is known for producing a well-regarded May Ball for a smaller college. Notably, students created an artificial lake and canal in 2010, when the ball had a Venetian theme, to enable punting at the landlocked college. Recent themes have included 'Light' (2014) and 'Beyond' (2016).
As with many of the smaller colleges, Sidney Sussex does not run a May Ball every year, instead running a biennial May Ball, on even numbered years. On odd numbered years, the college previously hosted an Arts Festival, which welcomed anyone in Cambridge, town or gown, to attend. Notable guest speakers at the Sidney Arts Festival include Stephen Fry, in 2015. However, for 2017 it was decided instead to hold a June Event. June Events are similar to a May Ball, but are smaller, usually with a lower ticket price, and shorter running time.
Confraternitas Historica
The Confraternitas Historica, or Confraternitas Historica Dominae Franciscae Comitis Sussexiae, is the history society of Sidney Sussex College and is reputed to be the longest-running student history society in Europe, having existed since 1910. In fact, no meetings were held from 1914 to 1919 but since, during the First World War, "the University itself almost ceased to function ... the hiatus of 1914-19 is not counted as a break in the continuity of the society". The Latin name of the society reflects the tastes of Jack Reynolds, the High Church Fellow who presided over its creation, who also "endowed the Society with an elaborate Latin initiation ceremony". Similarly, rather than being led by a President, the student in charge of the society is instead 'Princeps'. Other society roles include the 'Magister,' 'Tribune,' 'Pontifex Maximus,' and 'Comes'. Furthermore, during society meetings all attendees are referred to in an egalitarian, though still Latinate, manner. Regardless of academic standing or title, all attendees are given the title of 'soror' (sister) or 'frater' (brother).
In The Michaelmas Term of 2018, the Confrat developed a new website and reintroduced a variant of the old Latin initiation ceremony referred to as the "Mass Baptism." The first Mass Baptism was held on 30 October 2018, and conducted by the incumbent Pontifex Maximus.
Boat Club
Founded in 1837, the club has spent most of its time in the 2nd division of the Lent and May Bumps, with brief times spent in the 1st division. Being a small college, the club has never had the consistency to rise to take a headship of either event, and has been as high as 6th in the Lent Bumps in 1913, and 11th in the May Bumps in 1923.
A women's crew first appeared in 1978 and has spent most of its time in the lower half of the 1st division in both the Lent and May Bumps, but recently has fallen to the middle of the 2nd division of both the Lent and May Bumps.
In Lent Bumps 2020, Sidney Sussex were the winners of the Marconi Cup, making them the highest performing of any boat club overall. The Women's second boat were winners of blades, bumping a total of 5 times. The Womens and Mens first assisted heavily in this win.
A Song of Sidney Sussex
At the beginning of the twentieth century, E.H. Griffiths wrote a ten verse song dedicated to Sidney Sussex. Each verse systematically identifies, then dismisses other Cambridge colleges for their faults, before settling on Sidney as the best college of all. The chorus exhorts the audience:
'Go travel round the town, my friend, whichever way you please,
From Downing up to Trinity, from Peterhouse to Caius:
Then seek a little College just beside a busy street,
Its name is Sidney Sussex, and you'll find it Bad to Beat.'
People associated with the college
Former members of the college include the political and military leader Oliver Cromwell, who was among the first students, although he never graduated, dropping out after his father became ill. Oliver Cromwell's head was interred in 1960 in a secret location near the antechapel.
Other former college members include early historian Thomas Fuller; historical writer Thomas Rymer; the 17th-century poet and dramatist Thomas May; and Dean of Sidney Sussex College and later Bishop Robert Machray.
Another famous alumnus was the theologian and moral philosopher William Wollaston who wrote The Religion of Nature Delineated (1724). Notable legal alumni include Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade (judge on the International Court of Justice 2009 -).
Politicians
Notable politicians to have attended the college include the civil servant Sir Basil Engholm; and the former Foreign Secretary and leader of the Social Democratic Party Lord Owen. Former students also include current MPs, Secretary of State for Transport Chris Grayling; Leader of the House of Commons David Lidington; Rebecca Evans, Minister for Social Care and Public Health in the Welsh Government; and the late Brian Lenihan, former Minister of Finance in the Republic of Ireland.
Scientists
The college's strong tradition in the sciences is seen by the association of the Nobel Prize–winning physicists Cecil Frank Powell and C. T. R. Wilson, 1997 Nobel Prize in Chemistry recipient John E. Walker and the 2002 Nobel prize in Chemistry recipient Alan MacDiarmid. Sir Benjamin Lockspeiser, the first president of CERN was also an undergraduate at the college, along with psychiatrist W. Ross Ashby. Robert McCance Professor of Experimental Medicine, played a leading part in wartime rationing and 1940s government nutrition efforts. Professor Dame Ann Dowling has been a Fellow since 1977 and is the President of the Royal Academy of Engineering. The inaugural recipient of the Rosalind Franklin award Professor Sue Gibson was an undergraduate at the college. The "father of radio astronomy in Australia" Joe Pawsey obtained his PhD at Sidney Sussex in 1935.
Bletchley Park codebreakers
Eleven members of the college worked at Bletchley Park during World War Two. They were Gordon Welchman, a Sidney Research Fellow in Mathematics who recruited many of them, John Herivel, Asa Briggs, Paul Coales, Malcolm Chamberlain, Edward Dudley Smith, John Manisty, Jim Passant, David Rees, Howard Smith (later head of MI5) and Leslie Yoxall (famous for his work in Hut 8 on breaking the German naval officers' code).
Artists and popular figures
More recently alumni include best-selling author, broadcaster and Associate Editor of The Observer newspaper Andrew Rawnsley; former technical director of the Mercedes-Benz Formula One team Paddy Lowe; television host known primarily for her role on the game show Countdown Carol Vorderman and the comedian Alex Horne. Also, the Hollywood director John Madden known for the Academy Award-winning Shakespeare in Love, and professor and writer John Fraser.
Musical alumni include Al Doyle (1998) and Felix Martin (1999) of the electronic band Hot Chip. In 2010, American composer Eric Whitacre was named Visiting Fellow and Composer-in-Residence.
Sherlock Holmes
Author Dorothy L. Sayers suggested that, given details in two of the stories, the fictional character Sherlock Holmes must have been at Cambridge rather than Oxford and that "of all the Cambridge colleges, Sidney Sussex (College) perhaps offered the greatest number of advantages to a man in Holmes's position and, in default of more exact information, we may tentatively place him there".
List of alumni
See also
List of non-ecclesiastical works by J. L. Pearson
References
External links
Sidney Sussex College official website
Confraternitas Historica
1596 establishments in England
Colleges of the University of Cambridge
Educational institutions established in the 1590s
Grade I listed buildings in Cambridge
Grade I listed educational buildings
J. L. Pearson buildings
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order%20of%20the%20British%20Empire
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Order of the British Empire
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The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is a British order of chivalry, rewarding contributions to the arts and sciences, work with charitable and welfare organisations, and public service outside the civil service. It was established on 4 June 1917 by King George V and comprises five classes across both civil and military divisions, with the most senior two classes making the recipient either a knight if male or dame if female. There is also the related British Empire Medal, whose recipients are affiliated with, but not members of the order.
Recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire were originally made on the nomination of the United Kingdom, the self-governing Dominions of the Empire (later Commonwealth) and the viceroy of India. Nominations continued into the 21st century by the former Commonwealth countries that participated in recommending British (Imperial) honours. Most Commonwealth countries ceased recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire when they created their own honours.
History
King George V founded the Order to fill gaps in the British honours system:
The orders of the Garter, the Thistle, and St Patrick honoured royals, peers, statesmen, and eminent military commanders;
The Order of the Bath honoured senior military officers and civil servants;
The Order of St Michael and St George honoured diplomats and colonial officials;
The Order of the Star of India and the Order of the Indian Empire honoured Indian rulers and British and Indian officials of the British Indian Empire; and
The Royal Victorian Order, in the personal gift of the monarch, honoured those who had personally served the royal family.
In particular, King George V wished to create an Order to honour many thousands of those who had served in a variety of non-combatant roles during the First World War. When first established, the Order had only one division. However, in December 1918 it was formally divided into Military and Civil Divisions, with the military division open to commissioned and Warrant Officers of the Armed Forces and nursing services. The Order's motto is For God and the Empire.
At the foundation of the Order, the Medal of the Order of the British Empire was instituted, to serve as a lower award granting recipients affiliation but not membership. In 1922, this was renamed the British Empire Medal (BEM). It ceased being awarded by the United Kingdom as part of the 1993 reforms of the honours system, but was again awarded from 2012, starting with 293 BEMs awarded for Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee. In addition, the BEM is awarded by the Cook Islands and by some other Commonwealth nations.
In 2004, a report titled "A Matter of Honour: Reforming Our Honours System" by a Commons committee recommended phasing out the Order of the British Empire, as its title was "now considered to be unacceptable, being thought to embody values that are no longer shared by many of the country's population". In 2012, the committee however decided not to recommend any changes ahead of the Order's centenary in 2017, to "recognise the Order's proud history and the service of its members", although "the title may need to change in the future".
Composition
The Order consists of 5 classes. The two most senior entitle their members to the use of Sir for men and Dame for women before their forename. All classes entitle their members to post-nominal letters accordingly. Most members are citizens of the United Kingdom or the Commonwealth realms that use the Imperial system of honours and awards.
The Order is limited to 300 knights and dames grand cross, 845 knights and dames commander, and 8,960 commanders. There are no limits applied to the total number of members of the fourth and fifth classes, but no more than 858 Officers and 1,464 Members may be appointed per year. Foreign appointees, as honorary members, do not contribute to the numbers restricted to the Order as do full members. Although the Order of the British Empire has by far the highest number of members of the British Orders of Chivalry, with over 100,000 living members worldwide, there are fewer appointments to knighthoods than in other orders. Lord mayors of London are traditionally created knights grand cross in the Civil Division of the Order.
Although men can be knighted separately from an order of chivalry (knight bachelor), women cannot, so the rank of knight/dame commander of the order is the lowest rank of damehood, and second-lowest of knighthood (above knights bachelor). Because of this, an appointment as dame commander is made in circumstances in which a man would be created a knight bachelor. For example, by convention, female judges of the High Court of Justice are created dames commander after appointment, while male judges become knights bachelor.
From time to time, individuals are promoted to a higher grade within the Order, thereby ceasing usage of the junior post-nominal letters.
Honorary knighthoods
When the recipient is not a citizen of a country where Queen Elizabeth II is head of state, they receive an honorary knighthood. They may permit use of post-nominal letters but not the title of Sir or Dame. Occasionally, honorary appointees are incorrectly referred to as Sir or Dame. Honorary appointees who later become a citizen of a Commonwealth realm can convert their appointment from honorary to substantive to enjoy all privileges of membership of the order, including use of the title of Sir and Dame for the senior two ranks of the Order. An example is Irish broadcaster Terry Wogan, who was appointed an honorary knight commander of the Order in 2005, and upon successful application for British citizenship, held alongside his Irish citizenship, he was made a substantive member and subsequently styled as Sir Terry Wogan.
Office bearers
The British monarch is Sovereign of the Order and appoints all other members of the Order (by convention, on the advice of the governments of the United Kingdom and some Commonwealth realms). The next most senior member is the Grand Master, of whom there have been three: Edward, Prince of Wales (later King Edward VIII) (1917–1936); Queen Mary (1936–1953); and the Duke of Edinburgh (1953–2021). The Sovereign and the Grand Master are the only members of the Order who have their heraldic banners on display in the Chapel of the Order in St Paul's Cathedral, London.
The Order has six officials: The King of Arms is not a member of the College of Arms, as are many other heraldic officers. Lady Usher of the Purple Rod does not—unlike the Order of the Garter equivalent, the Lady Usher of the Black Rod—perform any duties related to the House of Lords.
Prelate: Dame Sarah Mullally , as Bishop of London
Prelate Emeritus: The Lord Chartres , formerly Bishop of London
Dean: David Ison, as Dean of St Paul's
Secretary: Simon Case , as Cabinet Secretary and Head of the Home Civil Service
Registrar: Lieutenant Colonel Stephen Segrave, as The Secretary of the Central Chancery
King of Arms: Lieutenant General Sir Robert Fulton
Lady Usher of the Purple Rod: Dame Amelia Fawcett
Gallantry
Although initially intended to recognise meritorious service, the Order began to be also awarded for gallantry. There were an increased number of cases in the Second World War for service personnel and civilians, including the merchant navy, police, emergency services and civil defence, mostly MBEs but with a small number of OBEs and CBEs. Such awards were for gallantry that did not reach the standard of the George Medal, but, as an Order, were listed before it on the Order of Wear. Awards for meritorious service usually appear without a citation but there were often citations for gallantry awards, some detailed and graphic. From 14 January 1958, these awards were designated Commander, Officer or Member of the Order of the British Empire for Gallantry.
Any individual made a member of the Order for gallantry after 14 January 1958 wears an emblem of two crossed silver oak leaves on the same ribbon as the badge, with a miniature version on the ribbon bar when worn alone. It could not be awarded posthumously, and was replaced in 1974 with the Queen's Gallantry Medal (QGM). If recipients of the Order of the British Empire for Gallantry received promotion within the Order, whether for gallantry or otherwise, they continued to also wear the insignia of the lower grade with the oak leaves. However, they only used the post-nominal letters of the higher grade.
Vestments and accoutrements
Members of the Order wear elaborate vestments on important occasions (such as quadrennial services and coronations), which vary by rank (the designs underwent major changes in 1937):
The mantle, worn by only Knights and Dames Grand Cross, was originally made of yellow satin lined with blue silk, but is now made of rose pink satin lined with pearl-grey silk. On the left side is a representation of the star (see below).
The collar, also worn by only Knights and Dames Grand Cross, is made of gold. It consists of six medallions depicting the Royal Arms, alternating with six medallions depicting the Royal and Imperial Cypher of George V (GRI, which stands for ""). The medallions are linked with gold cables depicting lions and crowns.
On certain "collar days" designated by the Sovereign, members attending formal events may wear the Order's collar over their military uniform, formal day dress, or evening wear. When collars are worn (either on collar days or on formal occasions such as coronations), the badge is suspended from the collar. Collars are returned upon the death of their owners, but other insignia may be retained.
At less important occasions, simpler insignia are used:
The star is an eight-pointed silver star used by only Knights and Dames Grand Cross and Knights and Dames Commander. It is worn pinned to the left breast. Varying in size depending on class, it bears a crimson ring with the motto of the Order inscribed. Within the ring, a figure of Britannia was originally shown. Since 1937, however, the effigies of George V and Mary of Teck have been shown instead.
The badge is the only insignia used by all members of the Order. Until 1937, it was suspended on a purple ribbon, with a red central stripe for the military division; since then, the ribbon has been rose-pink with pearl-grey edges, with the addition of a pearl-grey central stripe for the military division. Knights and Dames Grand Cross wear it on a riband or sash, passing from the right shoulder to the left hip. Knights Commander and male Commanders wear the badge from a ribbon around the neck; male Officers and Members wear the badge from a ribbon on the left chest; all females other than Dames Grand Cross wear it from a bow on the left shoulder. The badge is in the form of a cross patonce (having the arms growing broader and floriated toward the end), the obverse of which bears the same field as the star (that is, either Britannia or George V and Queen Mary); the reverse bears George V's Royal and Imperial Cypher. Both are within a ring bearing the motto of the Order. The size of the badges varies according to rank: the higher classes have slightly larger badges. The badges of Knights and Dames Grand Cross, Knights and Dames Commander and Commanders are enamelled with pale blue crosses and crimson rings; those of Officers are silver gilt; those of Members are plain silver.
The British Empire Medal is made of silver. On the obverse is an image of Britannia surrounded by the motto, with the words "For Meritorious Service" at the bottom; on the reverse is George V's Imperial and Royal Cypher, with the words "Instituted by King George V" at the bottom. The name of the recipient is engraved on the rim. This medal comes in both a full-sized and miniature versions – the latter for formal white-tie and informal black-tie occasions.
A lapel pin for everyday wear was first announced at the end of December 2006, in response to a recommendation in Sir Hayden Phillips's 2004 review of the honours system. It is available to recipients of all levels of the Order, as well as to holders of the British Empire Medal. The pin design is not unique to any level and features the badge of the Order, enclosed in a circle of ribbon of its colours of pink and grey. Lapel pins must be purchased separately by a member of the Order.
Chapel
The chapel of the Order is in the far eastern end of the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral, but it holds its great services upstairs in the main body of the cathedral. (The cathedral also serves as the home of the chapel of The Most Distinguished Order of St Michael and St George.) Religious services for the whole Order are held every four years; new Knights and Dames Grand Cross are installed at these services. The chapel was dedicated in 1960. The only heraldic banners on display in the chapel are those of the Sovereign of the Order of the British Empire and of the Grand Master of the Order of the British Empire.
Precedence and privileges
Knights Grand Cross and Knights Commander prefix Sir, and Dames Grand Cross and Dames Commander prefix Dame, to their forenames. Wives of Knights may prefix Lady to their surnames, but no equivalent privilege exists for husbands of Knights or spouses of Dames. Such forms are not used by peers and princes, except when the names of the former are written out in their fullest forms. Male clergy of the Church of England or the Church of Scotland do not use the title Sir as they do not receive the accolade (they are not dubbed "knight" with a sword), although they do append the post-nominal letters: dames do not receive the accolade, and therefore female clergy are free to use the title Dame.
Knights and Dames Grand Cross use the post-nominal, GBE; Knights Commander, KBE; Dames Commander, DBE; Commanders, CBE; Officers, OBE; and Members, MBE. The post-nominal for the British Empire Medal is BEM.
Members of all classes of the Order are assigned positions in the order of precedence. Wives of male members of all classes also feature on the order of precedence, as do sons, daughters and daughters-in-law of Knights Grand Cross and Knights Commander; relatives of Ladies of the Order, however, are not assigned any special precedence. As a general rule, individuals can derive precedence from their fathers or husbands, but not from their mothers or wives.
Knights and Dames Grand Cross are also entitled to be granted heraldic supporters. They may, furthermore, encircle their arms with a depiction of the circlet (a circle bearing the motto) and the collar; the former is shown either outside or on top of the latter. Knights and Dames Commander and Commanders may display the circlet, but not the collar, surrounding their arms. The badge is depicted suspended from the collar or circlet.
Current Knights and Dames Grand Cross
Sovereign: Queen Elizabeth II
Grand Master: vacant
Knights and Dames Grand Cross
Military ranks listed denotes the awarded being in the military division.
Honorary
Recommendations by Commonwealth countries
Recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire continue to be made by most smaller Commonwealth realms. In 2019, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Grenada, Papua New Guinea, Saint Christopher and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, the Solomon Islands, and Tuvalu, as well as the New Zealand associated state of the Cook Islands all included Order of the British Empire awards in their New Year's or Queen's Birthday honours lists.
However, since the Second World War, most Commonwealth realms have established their own national system of honours and awards and have created their own unique orders, decorations and medals.
Canada seldom made recommendations for appointments to the Order of the British Empire except for the Second World War and the Korean War but continued to recommend gallantry awards for both military and civilians until the creation of the Order of Canada in 1967.
Although the Order of Australia was created in 1975, the last Commonwealth of Australia recommendations were for New Year Honours 1983 and the last Australian state recommendations were for the 1989 Queen's Birthday Honours, On 5 October 1992, the then Australian Prime Minister announced that Australia would no longer recommend British awards and from that date British awards would be treated as foreign awards.
The New Zealand Government ceased to recommend the Order after the establishment of the New Zealand Order of Merit in 1996, but the Government of the Cook Islands continues to do so.
Honours declined or returned
In 2003, the Sunday Times published a list of the people who had rejected the Order of the British Empire, including David Bowie, John Cleese, Nigella Lawson, Elgar Howarth, L. S. Lowry, George Melly and J. G. Ballard. In addition, Ballard voiced his opposition to the honours system, calling it "a preposterous charade". The Order has attracted some criticism for its naming having connection with the idea of the now-extinct British Empire.
Benjamin Zephaniah, a British Jamaican poet, publicly rejected appointment as an Officer in 2003 because, he asserted, it reminded him of "thousands of years of brutality": "It reminds me of how my foremothers were raped and my forefathers brutalised."
In 2004, a House of Commons Select Committee recommended changing the name of the award to the Order of British Excellence, and changing the rank of Commander to Companion; as the former was said to have a "militaristic ring".
A notable person to decline the offer of membership was the author C. S. Lewis (1898–1963), who had been named on the last list of honours by George VI in December 1951. Despite being a monarchist, he declined so as to avoid association with any political issues.
The Beatles were appointed Members in 1965: John Lennon justified the comparative merits of his investiture by comparing military membership in the Order: "Lots of people who complained about us receiving the MBE [status] received theirs for heroism in the war—for killing people ... We received ours for entertaining other people. I'd say we deserve ours more."
Lennon later returned his MBE insignia, on 25 November 1969, as part of his ongoing peace protests. Other criticism centres on the claim that many recipients of the Order are being rewarded with honours for simply doing their jobs; critics claim that the Civil Service and Judiciary receive far more orders and honours than leaders of other professions.
In 1995, Scottish communist activist and actor Alex Clark rejected an OBE. Actor Michael Sheen, who received the OBE in 2009 for services to drama, handed back his OBE in 2017 so he could air his views about the monarchy without being a "hypocrite". He did not publicly announce his decision until 2020, fearing some people would find it insulting.
Rescinded OBEs
Chin Peng, a veteran guerrilla fighter of the Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army, was appointed as an Officer for his role in fighting against the Japanese occupation of Malaya during World War II, in close co-operation with the British commando Force 136. Several years after World War II his OBE membership was withdrawn by the British government and became undesirable to Chin Peng as well, when the Communist leader headed his party's guerrilla insurgency against the British during the Malayan Emergency.
See also
Honours Committee
List of Dames Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire
List of honorary British knights and dames
List of Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire
United Kingdom order of precedence
Notes
References
Further reading
Hood, Frederic (1967). The Chapel of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire, with a foreword by Prince Philip.
"Knighthood and Chivalry" (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed., London: Cambridge University Press.
External links
Order of the British Empire – official website of the British Monarchy
The Honours system – UK Government
Queen's Birthday and New Year honours – The London Gazette, lists recipients of honours
"The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire" (2002) – Cambridge University Heraldic and Genealogical Society
"Order of Precedence in England and Wales", Velde, F. R. (2003) – Heraldica.org
Search recommendations for the Order of the British Empire on the UK National Archives' website for military honours and awards 1935-1990
British Empire, Order of the
1917 establishments in the United Kingdom
Awards established in 1917
British honours system
British Empire, Order of the
Orders, decorations, and medals of the British Empire
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] |
212183
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DBE
|
DBE
|
DBE may refer to:
Science and technology
dBe, decibels electrical, a unit of measure which measures the ratio of gain or attenuation of an electrical circuit
Double bond equivalent, a term used in chemistry
DBE (drug), also known as estrobin, a synthetic estrogen
Dibromoethane
Dibasic ester, an organic chemical compound
Double-balloon enteroscopy, an endoscopic technique for visualization of the small bowel
Design-basis event, the event which a nuclear facility is built to withstand
DBE, database engineer, a new title for a Database administrator (DBA)
.dbe, a file format extension used by the HP WindowsCE ActiveSync backup software
Double Buffer Extension, an X Window System extension
Other uses
Dame Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire, a grade within the British order of chivalry
D-Block Europe, a British hip-hop collective
Department of Basic Education, in the South African Government
Deutsche Biographische Enzyklopädie, a German encyclopedia
Disadvantaged business enterprise, a term used in the United States to describe companies that are so certified by state governments
Dominet Bank Ekstraliga, a Polish basketball league
Dragonball Evolution, a 2009 film loosely based on the Dragon Ball manga
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patricia%20Reilly%20Giff
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Patricia Reilly Giff
|
Patricia Reilly Giff (April 26, 1935 – June 22, 2021) was an American author and teacher born in Brooklyn, New York, United States. She was educated at Marymount Manhattan College, where she was awarded a B.A. degree, and St. John's University, where she earned an M.A. and Hofstra University, where she was awarded a Professional Diploma in Reading and a Doctorate of Humane Letters. After spending some twenty years as a full-time teacher, she began writing, specializing in children's literature. Giff resided in Trumbull, Connecticut, along with her husband Jim and their three children. Giff's writing workshops have influenced other children's authors such as Tony Abbott and Elise Broach. She was a Newbery Honor, ALA Best Book For Young Adults, and Christopher Award laureate.
She died on June 22, 2021.
Writing
Polk Street School series
Giff's series of children's books about the kids from Polk Street School has proven popular and won critical acclaim. The stories revolve around second-grade teacher Ms. Rooney and the students in her class, in particular perpetual troublemaker Richard Best (nicknamed "Beast"), who is good at art but terrible at reading and Emily Arrow, who is good at math but also terrible at reading. Some novels in the series also feature Emily's younger sister Stacy as the central character.
Books in the series include:
The Beast in Ms. Rooney's Room (1984) – Richard "Beast" Best must repeat his second-grade year, and between the teasing from his former classmates and having to take classes with "babies," his new school year is off to a miserable start.
Fish Face (1984) – Emily is excited to make friends with Dawna, the new girl from Florida, until a good-luck charm of Emily's is stolen and Emily discovers that Dawn is the thief. Made into a musical by ArtsPower.
The Valentine Star (1985) – Emily reports her classmate Sherri for misbehaving in class, and Sherri vows revenge.
Lazy Lions, Lucky Lambs (1985) – Richard has trouble with a writing assignment, since writing is his worst subject.
Snaggle Doodles (1985) – Ms. Rooney assigns her students to groups to come up with inventions, and Emily clashes with Linda, the bossy leader of her group.
Purple Climbing Days (1985) – Richard struggles with rope-climbing in physical education class.
Say "Cheese" (1985) – Summer vacation is about to begin, but Emily is lonely and depressed because she doesn't have a best friend.
Sunny Side Up (1986) – Beast and his friends Emily and Matthew attend summer school.
Pickle Puss (1986) – Emily and her friend/rival Dawn compete in a book-reading contest to determine who will get to keep Pickle Puss, the stray cat they found.
The Candy Corn Contest (1987) – Mrs. Rooney offers a jar of candy corn as a prize for whoever correctly guesses the number of candies in the jar.
In the Dinosaur's Paw (1987) – Richard is convinced that the ruler he found in his desk has magical powers, and is mortified when it disappears
December Secrets (1987) – Emily is assigned the irritating class "crybaby," Jiliannel Simon, as a "secret pal" for the month of December.
Watch Out! Man-Eating Snake! (1988) – On the first day of school, Stacy tries to make friends with her classmate Jiwon, with disastrous results.
All About Stacy (1988) – Stacy tries to think of something special to go in her "About Me Box" project.
Fancy Feet (1988) – When Jiwon's pair of gold shoes disappears, the whole class accuses Stacy of stealing the shoes.
B-E-S-T Friends (1988) – Annie, the "weird" new girl in class, constantly irritates Stacy, but then Stacy is assigned to be her class partner.
Spectacular Stone Soup (1988) – Stacy begins a campaign to be more helpful, beginning with her class's Stone Soup project.
Garbage Juice for Breakfast (1989) – Dawn participates in a treasure hunt at summer camp.
The Case of the Cool Itch Kid (1989) – When some of Dawn's prized possessions turn up missing at summer camp, she suspects the students from a rival school of being thieves.
The Beast and the Halloween Horror (1990) – Beast finds himself in trouble after he fudges a letter-writing assignment.
Emily Arrow Promises to Do Better This Year (1990) – Emily makes a New Year's resolution she finds difficult to keep.
Monster Rabbit Runs Amuck! (1991) – Beast and his friend Matthew accidentally ruin a prop for the school spring assembly.
Look Out, Washington D.C.! (1995) – Ms. Rooney takes her class on a trip to the United States' capital city.
Next Stop, New York City! (1997) – Ms. Rooney takes her class on a trip to New York City.
Wild Girl
Lidie leaves Brazil and she dreams of going to Queens, New York. But she discovers that a new world is a big challenge.
Lily's Crossing
Awards: Newbery Honor Book 1998
Nory Ryan's Song
Awards: ALA Best Book For Young Adults Book 2003
Pictures of Hollis Woods
Awards: Newbery Honor Book 2003.
Hollis is an abandoned orphan who is searching for a home.
Eleven
Sam is almost 11 when he discovers a locked box in the attic above his grandfather Mack's room, and a piece of paper that says he was kidnapped. There are many other words, but Sam has always had trouble reading. He's desperate to find out who he is, and if his beloved Mack is really his grandfather.
Genevieve's War
Awards: Christopher Award 2018.
References
External links
Giff at publisher Random House, with autobiographical greeting
Water Street at Wikiquote
1935 births
2021 deaths
Writers from Brooklyn
American children's writers
Newbery Honor winners
Hofstra University alumni
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American women writers
American women children's writers
American women novelists
People from Trumbull, Connecticut
Novelists from New York (state)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin%20Patriarchate%20of%20Constantinople
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Latin Patriarchate of Constantinople
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The Latin Patriarchate of Constantinople was an office established as a result of the Fourth Crusade and its conquest of Constantinople in 1204. It was a Roman Catholic replacement for the Eastern Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, and remained in the city until the reconquest of Constantinople by the Byzantines in 1261, whereupon it became a titular see. The office was abolished in 1964.
History
Before the East–West Schism in 1054, the Christian Church within the borders of the ancient Roman Empire was effectively ruled by five patriarchs (the "Pentarchy"): In descending order of precedence: Rome by the Bishop of Rome (who rarely used the title "Patriarch") and those of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem.
In the West the Bishop of Rome was recognized as having superiority over the other Patriarchs, while in the East, the Patriarch of Constantinople gradually came to occupy a leading position. The sees of Rome and Constantinople were often at odds with one another, just as the Greek and Latin Churches as a whole were often at odds both politically and in things ecclesiastical. There were complex cultural currents underlying these difficulties. The tensions led in 1054 to a serious rupture between the Greek East and Latin West called the East–West Schism, which while not in many places absolute, still dominates the ecclesiastical landscape.
In 1204, the Fourth Crusade invaded, seized and sacked Constantinople, and established the Latin Empire. The Pope, who was not involved, initially spoke out against the Crusade, writing in a letter to his legate, "How, indeed, is the Greek church to be brought back into ecclesiastical union and to a devotion for the Apostolic See when she has been beset with so many afflictions and persecutions that she sees in the Latins only an example of perdition and the works of darkness, so that she now, and with reason, detests the Latins more than dogs?" However the popes accepted the Latin patriarchate established by accompanying Catholic clergy, similar to Latin patriarchates in the Crusader states of the Holy Land. The pope recognised these "Latin" sees at the Fourth Council of the Lateran. Furthermore, those Orthodox bishops left in their place were made to swear an oath of allegiance to the pope.
When the last Latin emperor Baldwin II fled from Constantinople he was well received in Rome by Pope Urban IV who promised him support to regain the throne. This threat of continued support prompted the new Greek emperor to seek out a reunion. Understanding the situation of 1204 helps with the context of the reunion council.
By establishing communion with the Latin Patriarchs the Papacy in effect made official their position within the Roman Catholic Church. This act was part of a more general picture in which the Crusaders on the one hand established Latin Kingdoms officially acknowledged by the Roman Catholic Church, in the Middle East and in Greece and the Greek Islands, and also in parts of the Balkans. Included were a similar array of Latin episcopal sees.
However, the Latin Empire in Constantinople was eventually defeated and dispossessed by a resurgent Byzantium in 1261, and since that time Latin Patriarch Pantaleonе Giustinian (d. 1286) resided in the West, though continuing to oversee the remaining Latin Catholic dioceses in various parts of Latin Greece. After the Union of Lyon (1274), John Bekkos was installed as a Greek Catholic Patriarch of Constantinople in 1275, but that did not affect the position of Pantaleonе Giustinian. His Greek Catholic counterpart was deposed in 1282 by Eastern Orthodox hierarchy, thus ending a short lived union. in 1286, Latin Patriarch Pantaleonе Giustinian was succeeded by Pietro Correr who was the first holder of that office in a new form of a titular see.
On 8 February 1314, Pope Clement V united the Patriarchate with the episcopal see of Negroponte (Chalcis), hitherto a suffragan of the Latin Archbishopric of Athens, so that the patriarchs could once more have a territorial diocese on Greek soil and exercise a direct role as the head of the Latin clergy in what remained of Latin Greece.
For a time, like many ecclesiastical offices in the West, it had rival contenders who were supporters or protégés of the rival popes. As to the title Latin Patriarch of Constantinople, this was the case at least from 1378 to 1423. Thereafter the office continued as an honorific title, during the later centuries attributed to a leading clergyman in Rome, until it ceased to be assigned after 1948 and was suppressed in January 1964, along with the titles of Latin Patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch.
A Vicariate Apostolic of Istanbul (until 1990, Constantinople) has existed from 1742 into the present day.
List of Latin Patriarchs of Constantinople
Tommaso Morosini (1204–1211)
Vacant (1211–1215)
Gervasio (1215–1219)
Vacant (1219–1221)
Matteo (1221–1226)
Jean Halgrin (1226), declined office
Simon of Maugastel (1227–1233)
Vacant (1233–1234)
Niccolò Visconti da Castro Arquato (1234–1251)
Vacant (1251–1253)
Pantaleonе Giustinian (1253–1286); After 1261, resided in the West
Pietro Correr (1286–1302)
Leonardo Faliero (1302–c. 1305)
Nicholas of Thebes (c. 1308–c. 1335), later cardinal (1332–1335)
(1335–1339)
Rolando d'Asti (1339) (died immediately)
Enrico d'Asti (1339–1345), bishop of Negroponte
Stephen of Pinu (1346)
William (1346–1364)
Pierre Thomas (1364–1366)
Paul (1366–1370)
Ugolino Malabranca de Orvieto (1371–c. 1375), bishop of Rimini
(1376–1378), archbishop of Otranto
Paul Palaiologos Tagaris (1379/80–1384)
Vacant (1384–1390)
Angelo Correr (1390–1405), later Pope Gregory XII
Louis of Mytilene (Ludovico? Luiz?) (1406–1408)
Antonio Correr (1408)
Alfonso of Seville (1408)
Francesco Lando (1409), patriarch of Grado
Giovanni Contarini (1409–c. 1412)
Jean de la Rochetaillée (1412–1423)
Giovanni Contarini (1424–1430?), restored
François de Conzié (1430–1432)
Vacant (1432–1438)
Francesco Condulmer (1438–1453)
Gregory Mammas (1453–1458), formerly Orthodox Patriarch of Constantinople as Gregory III
Isidore of Kiev (1458–1462)
Bessarion (1463–1472)
Pietro Riario (1472–1474)
Girolamo Lando (1474–c. 1496), Archbishop of Crete
Giovanni Michiel (1497–1503) Bishop of Verona, later Cardinal
Juan de Borja Lanzol de Romaní, el mayor (1503)
Francisco Galcerán de Lloris y de Borja (1503–1506)
Marco Cornaro (1506–1507)
Tamás Bakócz (1507–1521)
Marco Cornaro (1521–1524), restored
Giles of Viterbo (1524–1530), Cardinal bishop of Viterbo
Francesco Pesaro (1530–1545) Archbishop of Zadar
Marino Grimani (1545–1546)
Ranuccio Farnese (1546–1550)
Fabio Colonna (1550–1554), bishop of Aversa
Ranuccio Farnese (1554–1565) restored
Scipione Rebiba (1565–1573) Cardinal bishop of Albano
Prospero Rebiba (1573–1593) Bishop of Troia
Silvio Savelli (cardinal) (1594–1596)
Ercole Tassoni (1596–1597)
Bonifazio Bevilacqua Aldobrandini (1598–1627?)
Bonaventura Secusio (1599–1618)
Ascanio Gesualdo (1618–1638)
Francesco Maria Macchiavelli (1640–1641)
Giovanni Giacomo Panciroli (1641–1643)
Giovanni Battista Spada (1643–1675?)
Volumnio Bandinelli (1658–1660), later Cardinal
Stefano Ugolini (1667–1681)
Odoardo Cibo (Cybo) (1689–1706?), titular archbishop of Seleucia in Isauria
Luigi Pico della Mirandola (1706–1712)
Andrea Riggio (1716–1717)
Camillo Cibo (Cybo) (1718–1729)
Mondillo Orsini (1729–1751)
Ferdinando Maria de Rossi (1751–1759)
Filippo Caucci (1760–1771)
Juan Portugal de la Puebla (1771–1781), later cardinal
Francesco Antonio Marcucci (1781–1798)
Benedetto Fenaja (1805–1823)
Giuseppe della Porta Rodiani (1823–1835)
Cardinal Giovanni Soglia Ceroni (1835–1839)
Antonio Maria Traversi (1839–1842)
Giovanni Giacomo Sinibaldi (1843)
Cardinal Fabio Maria Asquini (1844–1845)
Giovanni Giuseppe Canali (1845–1851)
Domenico Lucciardi (1851–1860)
Giuseppe Melchiade Ferlisi (1860–1865)
Ruggero Luigi Emidio Antici Mattei (1866–1878)
Giacomo Gallo (1878–1881)
Vacant (1881–1887)
Giulio Lenti (1887–1895)
Cardinal Giovanni Battista Casali del Drago (1895–1899)
Cardinal Alessandro Sanminiatelli Zabarella (1899–1901)
Cardinal Carlo Nocella (1901–1903), died 1908, former Latin Patriarch of Antioch
Giuseppe Ceppetelli (1903–1917)
Vacant (1917–1923)
Michele Zezza di Zapponeta (1923–1927)
Antonio Anastasio Rossi (1927–1948)
Vacancy from 1948 until the Latin titular patriarchate was abolished in 1964.
See also
List of Popes
Latin Patriarch of Alexandria
Latin Patriarch of Antioch
Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem
Latin Archbishop of Athens
Latin Archbishop of Corinth
Latin Archbishop of Crete
Latin Archbishop of Neopatras
Latin Archbishop of Patras
Latin Archbishop of Thebes
References
Sources and external links
Giorgio Fedalto, La Chiesa latina in Oriente, Mazziana, Verona, 2nd ed. 1981, e vol.
List of Latin Patriarchs of Constantinople by GCatholic.org
Catholic Hierarchy
Frankokratia
Former Roman Catholic dioceses in Asia
Former Roman Catholic dioceses in Europe
Latin Empire
East–West Schism
Lists of Roman Catholics
Turkey religion-related lists
1204 establishments in Europe
1964 disestablishments in Italy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Mayer
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John Mayer
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John Clayton Mayer ( ; born October 16, 1977) is an American singer, songwriter, and guitarist. Born and raised in Fairfield County, Connecticut, Mayer attended Berklee College of Music in Boston, but left and moved to Atlanta in 1997 with Clay Cook. Together, they formed a short-lived two-man band called Lo-Fi Masters. After their split, Mayer continued to play local clubs, refining his skills and gaining a following. After his appearance at the 2001 South by Southwest Festival, he was signed to Aware Records, and eventually to Columbia Records, which released his first extended play Inside Wants Out. His following two studio albums—Room for Squares (2001) and Heavier Things (2003)—performed well commercially, achieving multi-platinum status. In 2003, he won the Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance for his single "Your Body Is a Wonderland".
By 2005, Mayer had moved away from the acoustic music that characterized his early records, and begun performing the blues and rock music that had originally influenced him as a musician. He collaborated with blues artists such as B. B. King, Buddy Guy, and Eric Clapton. Forming the John Mayer Trio, he released a live album, Try!, in 2005 and his third studio album Continuum in 2006. Both albums received positive reviews, and Continuum earned Mayer a 2007 Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album. He also won Best Male Pop Vocal Performance for "Waiting on the World to Change". That album was followed by Battle Studies in 2009, a return to pop, with a Battle Studies World Tour.
After having several controversial incidents with the media, Mayer withdrew from public life in 2010 and began work on his fifth studio album, Born and Raised, which drew inspiration from the 1970s pop music of Laurel Canyon. However, the discovery of a granuloma on his vocal cords delayed the release of the album until May 2012, and forced him to cancel the planned tour. The album received a generally favorable reception, though was less commercially successful than his previous work. Mayer began performing as a singer again in January 2013, and that year released his sixth studio album, Paradise Valley, which incorporates country music influences. By 2014, he had sold a total of over 20 million albums worldwide. His seventh album, The Search for Everything, a loose concept album based around the theme of a romantic break-up, was released in 2017. Mayer released his latest album Sob Rock, inspired by 1980s soft rock music, in July 2021.
In 2015, three former members of the Grateful Dead joined with Mayer and two other musicians to form the band Dead & Company. It is the latest of several reunions of the band's surviving members since Jerry Garcia's death in 1995. The band remains active and its tours have been well received.
Mayer's secondary career pursuits extend to television hosting, comedy, and writing; he has authored columns for magazines such as Esquire. He supports various causes and has performed at charity benefits. He is a watch aficionado (with a collection he values in the "tens of millions" of dollars), contributing to the watch site Hodinkee, and has been on the jury at the Grand Prix d'Horlogerie de Genève.
Early life
Mayer was born on October 16, 1977 in Bridgeport, Connecticut. His father, Richard Mayer (b. 1927), was a high-school principal, and his mother, Margaret (née Hoffman; b. 1947), was a middle-school English teacher. He grew up in nearby Fairfield, the middle child between older brother Carl and younger brother Ben. His father is Jewish, and Mayer has said that he relates to Judaism. As an elementary school student, Mayer became close friends with future tennis star James Blake, and they played Nintendo together weekday afternoons after school for three years. He attended the Center for Global Studies at Brien McMahon High School in Norwalk for his junior year (then known as the Center for Japanese Studies Abroad, a magnet program for learning Japanese).
After watching Michael J. Fox's guitar performance as Marty McFly in Back to the Future, Mayer became fascinated with the instrument. When he turned 13 years old, his father rented one for him. A neighbor gave Mayer a Stevie Ray Vaughan cassette, which cultivated Mayer's love of blues music. According to Mayer, his fascination with Vaughan started a "genealogical hunt" that led him to other blues guitarists, including Buddy Guy, B.B. King, Freddie King, Albert King, Otis Rush, and Lightnin' Hopkins. Mayer started taking lessons from a local guitar shop owner, Al Ferrante, and soon became consumed. His singular focus concerned his parents, and they twice took him to see a psychiatrist, who determined him to be healthy. Mayer says that his parents' contentious marriage led him to "disappear and create my own world I could believe in". After two years of practice, he started playing at bars and other venues, while still in high school. In addition to performing solo, he was a member of a band called Villanova Junction (named for a Jimi Hendrix song) with Tim Procaccini, Joe Beleznay, and Rich Wolf.
When Mayer was 17, he was stricken with cardiac dysrhythmia and was hospitalized for a weekend. Reflecting on the incident, Mayer said, "That was the moment the songwriter in me was born", and he penned his first lyrics the night he left the hospital. Shortly thereafter, he began suffering from panic attacks, and says he feared having to enter a mental institution. He continues to manage such episodes with anti-anxiety medication.
Career
Early career (1996–1999)
Mayer considered skipping college to pursue music, but his parents dissuaded him. He enrolled at the Berklee College of Music in 1997 at age 19. At the urging of his college friend Clay Cook, they left Berklee after two semesters and moved to Atlanta; there, they formed a two-man band called LoFi Masters, and began performing in local coffee houses and club venues such as Eddie's Attic. According to Cook, they experienced musical differences due to Mayer's desire to move more towards pop music. The two parted ways and Mayer embarked on a solo career.
With the help of local producer and engineer Glenn Matullo, Mayer recorded the independent EP Inside Wants Out. The EP includes eight songs with Mayer on lead vocals and guitars. For the opening track, "Back To You", a full band was enlisted, including the EP's co-producer David "DeLa" LaBruyere on bass guitars. Cook had co-written many of the album's songs, including its first commercial single release, "No Such Thing"; however, his only performance contribution was backing vocals on the song "Comfortable".
Major label and commercial success (2000–2004)
Mayer and LaBruyere performed throughout Georgia and nearby states. Also, as his career coincided with the then-nascent internet music market, Mayer benefited from an online following. Mayer came to the attention of Gregg Latterman at Aware Records through an acquaintance of Mayer's, a lawyer, who sent Aware his EP. In early 2001, after including him in Aware Festival concerts and his songs on Aware compilations, Aware released Mayer's internet-only album, Room for Squares. During this time, Aware concluded a deal with Columbia Records that gave Columbia first pick in signing Aware artists. In September, Columbia remixed and re-released Room for Squares. As part of the major label "debut", the album's artwork was updated, and the track "3x5" was added. The re-release included reworked studio versions of the first four songs from Inside Wants Out.
By the end of 2002, Room for Squares had spawned several radio hits, including "No Such Thing", "Your Body Is a Wonderland", and "Why Georgia". It also received general praise critically, and Mayer drew comparisons to Dave Matthews. In 2003, Mayer won a Grammy for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance for "Your Body Is a Wonderland". In his acceptance speech he remarked, "This is very, very fast, and I promise to catch up." He also figuratively referred to himself as being 16, a remark that many mistook to mean that he was 16 years old at the time.
In February 2003, Mayer released a live CD and DVD of a concert in Birmingham, Alabama titled Any Given Thursday, which included songs previously not recorded, such as "Man on the Side", "Something's Missing", and "Covered in Rain". Commercially, the album peaked at number 17 on the Billboard 200 chart. Its accompanying DVD release received conservative—although consistent—praise, with critics torn between his pop-idol image, and (at the time) emerging guitar prowess. Erik Crawford of AllMusic asked, "Is [Mayer] the consummate guitar hero exemplified when he plays a cover of Stevie Ray Vaughan's 'Lenny', or is he the teen idol that the pubescent girls shriek for after he plays 'Your Body Is a Wonderland'?" That summer, Mayer went on the road with Counting Crows in a tour that spanned 42 dates between July 7 and September 2.
Heavier Things, Mayer's second album, was released in 2003 to generally favorable reviews. Rolling Stone, Allmusic, and Blender all gave positive, although reserved, feedback. The album was commercially successful, and while it did not sell as well as Room for Squares, it peaked at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart. The song "Daughters" won the 2005 Grammy for Song of the Year, and reached #1 on the Billboard Adult Pop Songs chart and #19 on the Billboard Hot 100. He dedicated the award to his grandmother, Annie Hoffman, who had died in May 2004. He also won Best Male Pop Vocal Performance. On February 9, 2009, Mayer told Ellen DeGeneres that he thought he should not have won the Grammy for Song of the year because he thought that Alicia Keys' "If I Ain't Got You" was the better song. Because of this, he removed the top half of the Grammy and gave it to Keys, and kept the bottom part for himself. At the 37th Annual Songwriters Hall of Fame Induction Ceremony in 2006, Mayer received the Hal David Starlight Award.
Mayer again recorded live concerts across seven nights of his U.S. tour in 2004. These recordings were released to the iTunes Store under the title As/Is, indicating that the errors were included along with the good moments. A few months later, a "best of" CD was compiled from the As/Is nights. The album included a previously unreleased cover of Marvin Gaye's song "Inner City Blues (Make Me Wanna Holler)", featuring a solo from Mayer's supporting act—jazz and blues turntablist DJ Logic. The album covers of the As/Is releases feature drawings of anthropomorphic bunnies.
Change in musical direction (2005–2008)
As early as 2002, Chris Willman with Entertainment Weekly said that Mayer was "more historically savvy, and more ambitious than you'd guess from the unforced earnestness of [Room for] Squares. However, Mayer was largely associated with the Adult Contemporary and singer-songwriter genres. Fame allowed him access to his early influences, and he began collaborating with blues and jazz artists. He accompanied Buddy Guy in a concert at the Irving Plaza in December 2003. He toured with jazz pianist Herbie Hancock, including a show at the Bonnaroo Music Festival. He also performed on commercial releases, namely, with Eric Clapton (Back Home, Crossroads Guitar Festival), Buddy Guy (Bring 'Em In), John Scofield (That's What I Say), and B.B. King (80). Although Mayer maintained his reputation as a singer-songwriter, he gained distinction as a guitarist.
Following the conclusion of his Heavier Things tour, Mayer began working with artists, including those from other genres of music. His voice was sampled on the song "Go" by rapper Common, and he appeared on a hidden track called "Bittersweet Poetry" from the Kanye West album Graduation. The collaborations drew praise from rap heavyweights Jay-Z and Nelly. When asked about his presence in the hip hop community, Mayer said, "It's not music out there right now. That's why, to me, hip-hop is where rock used to be."
Around this time Mayer announced that he was "closing up shop on acoustic sensitivity". In the spring of 2005, Mayer formed the John Mayer Trio with bassist Pino Palladino and drummer Steve Jordan, both of whom he had met through studio sessions. The trio combined blues and rock music. In October 2005, they opened for the Rolling Stones and that November released a live album called Try! The band took a break in mid-2006.
Mayer's third studio album, titled Continuum, was released on September 12, 2006, produced by Mayer and Steve Jordan. Mayer suggested the album was intended to combine blues and pop. In that vein, two of the tracks from his Trio release Try!—"Vultures" and "Gravity"—were included on Continuum. Despite his excitement, in a Rolling Stone interview, Mayer recalled that after former Columbia Records head Don Ienner panned Continuum he briefly considered quitting music and studying design full-time.
The first single from Continuum was "Waiting on the World to Change", which debuted on The Ron and Fez Show. The song was the third-most downloaded song of the week on the iTunes Store following its release on July 11, 2006, and debuted at number 25 on the Billboard Hot 100 Chart. On August 23, 2006, Mayer debuted the entire album on the Los Angeles radio station Star 98.7, offering commentary on each track. A subsequent version was released the next day on the Clear Channel Music website as a streaming sneak preview. On September 21, 2006, Mayer appeared on CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, playing "Waiting on the World to Change" and "Slow Dancing in a Burning Room". The song "Gravity" was featured on the television series House, in the episode "Cane & Able" and Numb3rs. He recorded a session for the British program Live from Abbey Road at Abbey Road Studios on October 22, 2006.
On December 7, 2006, Mayer was nominated for five Grammy Awards, including Album of the Year. The Trio received a nomination for Try!. He won two: Best Pop Song with Vocal for "Waiting on the World to Change" and Best Pop Album for Continuum. Mayer remixed an acoustic version of his single "Waiting on the World to Change" with vocal additions from fellow musician Ben Harper. In preparation for Continuum, Mayer had booked the Village Recorder in Los Angeles to record five acoustic versions of his songs with veteran musician Robbie McIntosh. These recordings became The Village Sessions, an EP released on December 12, 2006. As usual, Mayer oversaw the artwork. The initial North American Continuum tour ended on February 28, 2007, with a show at Madison Square Garden that the New York Post described as "career-defining".
On November 20, 2007, the re-issue of Continuum became available online and in stores. The release contained a bonus disc of six live songs from his 2007 tour: five from Continuum and a cover of the Ray Charles song "I Don't Need No Doctor". His single "Say", from the film The Bucket List, became available through iTunes. On December 6, 2007, "Belief" was nominated for Best Male Pop Vocal for the 50th Annual Grammy Awards. He accompanied Alicia Keys on guitar on her song "No One" at the ceremony. Additionally, he was selected by the editors of Time magazine as one of the 100 Most Influential People of 2007, listed among artists and entertainers.
In February 2008, Mayer hosted a three-day Caribbean cruise event that included performances with various musicians including David Ryan Harris, Brett Dennen, Colbie Caillat, and Dave Barnes, among others. The event was called "The Mayercraft Carrier" and was held aboard the cruise ship known as the Carnival Victory. A follow-up cruise titled "Mayercraft Carrier 2" sailed from Los Angeles March 27–31, 2009, on the Carnival Splendor.
On July 1, 2008, Mayer released Where the Light Is, a live concert film of Mayer's performance at the Nokia Theatre L.A. Live on December 8, 2007. The film was directed by Danny Clinch. It features Mayer opening with an acoustic set, followed by a blues set with the Trio and concluded by a full set with the band from the Continuum album.
Battle Studies (2009)
Australian artist Guy Sebastian invited Mayer to collaborate on three songs from his 2009 album Like It Like That. Mayer also played guitar on the title track of Crosby Loggins' debut LP, Time to Move.
On July 7, 2009, Mayer performed an instrumental guitar version of Michael Jackson's "Human Nature" at Jackson's televised memorial service. He co-wrote "World of Chances" with Demi Lovato for Lovato's second album Here We Go Again, released later that month.
After the overwhelming success of Continuum, Mayer confessed to be intimidated with beginning on a follow-up. However, he stated, "I think it got a lot easier when I realized that no matter what I do, it's not going to be Continuum, good or bad." On November 17, 2009, Mayer's fourth studio album, Battle Studies, debuted at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 album chart. The first single, "Who Says", was released on September 24, 2009, in advance of the album, followed on October 19 by "Heartbreak Warfare" and "Half of My Heart" on June 21, 2010. The accompanying arena tour grossed 45 million. Despite the album's commercial success, critics reactions were mixed. Some reviews glowed, calling it his "most adventurous", others called the album "safe" and noted that "Mayer the singer-songwriter and Mayer the man about town sometimes seem disconnected, like they don't even belong in the same body". Mayer admitted to Rolling Stone that he thought Battle Studies was not his best album.
Personal troubles and hiatus (2010–2013)
Following two revealing and highly controversial magazine interviews in February 2010 with Rolling Stone and Playboy magazines, Mayer withdrew from public life and ceased giving interviews. While still on tour for Battle Studies, he began work in earnest on his fifth studio album—which drew on the popular music of Laurel Canyon in the early 1970s. Around this time, he began to experience vocal problems, and sought medical assistance. On September 16, 2011, he posted on his blog that his next record, Born and Raised, would be delayed due to treatment he was receiving for a granuloma discovered on his vocal cords. Mayer described the event as a "temporary setback" and added that the album was entirely finished except for a few vocal tracks. A month later, on October 20, 2011, Mayer posted, "I had surgery this afternoon to remove it and am now on complete vocal rest for a month or more," during which he planned to "travel the country, look, and listen". However, the surgery did not work as expected, and he had to undergo another one that August. During his travels, he visited and fell in love with Bozeman, Montana, where he bought a house and re-settled in the spring of 2012.
With his treatments complete, Mayer finished the vocals on Born and Raised, and the album's first single, "Shadow Days", was released on February 27, 2012. The following day, he released the track listing for the album, announcing that it would be released on May 22 of that year. He described it as his "most honest" album, and begin booking dates at more "intimate" venues than for Battle Studies. He also accepted an invitation to appear at the South by Southwest festival. However, the granuloma returned, and on March 9, 2012, Mayer announced that he had been forced to cancel his tour and refrain from all singing indefinitely. Even so, Born and Raised was released as scheduled, and entered the Billboard 200 chart at number one, selling 219,000 copies in its first week. It also received generally positive critical feedback; Rolling Stone rated it number 17 on its list of the 50 Best Albums of 2012, and People magazine called it "a shimmering album". Meanwhile, Mayer brought a new focus to his guitar playing and, fearing that his vocal cords had been permanently damaged, tried to come to terms with a possible future as a session musician. Determined to be cured, he sought help from the UCLA Voice Center. That September, otolaryngologist Dr. Gerald Berke paralyzed Mayer's vocal cords with a series of high-dose Botox injections, hoping that they would allow the granuloma to heal. Mayer's vocal rest extended to several months and, unable to even talk, his performances were limited to accompanying other artists on guitar. He appeared in September 2012 on Saturday Night Live, where he joined musical guest Frank Ocean. He played with the Rolling Stones in New Jersey in December 2012.
By January 2013, Mayer had recovered sufficiently enough to perform at a benefit concert in Bozeman, after almost two years without singing publicly. In April 2013, he made an appearance at the Crossroads Guitar Festival, and at the 28th Annual Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Induction Ceremony, where he inducted the late Albert King. A show at the Tuscaloosa Amphitheater in Alabama on April 25, 2013, followed by a set at the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival the next day, marked his first full-length concerts since his health troubles.
Paradise Valley, Dead & Company, The Search for Everything (2013–2018)
In June 2013, Mayer announced that he was finishing work on his sixth album, Paradise Valley. Produced by Don Was, the album features "low-key folk-rock tunes". He collaborated with Frank Ocean on the song "Wildfire Pt. 2", and with Katy Perry on "Who You Love". The latter song would go on to become the album's third single, and an accompanying music video was released on December 17. On June 18, 2013, he released a lyric video for the album's first single, "Paper Doll", on his official YouTube page. The album was released August 20, 2013, and—meeting with positive reviews—debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 chart, with first-week sales of 145,560 copies in the United States. Mayer embarked on a tour, his first in three years, in support of Born and Raised and Paradise Valley. The American leg of the tour ran from July to December 2013 with Interscope recording artist Phillip Phillips serving as the supporting act. The tour visited Australia in April 2014.
During a concert in Adelaide, Mayer covered the Beyoncé song "XO" . One month later, on May 22, he released a studio version of the song on his SoundCloud account. It was made available for digital download by Columbia Records on May 27, 2014, through the iTunes Store. For the week ending June 1, 2014, Mayer's version debuted at number 90 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and number 13 on the US Hot Rock Songs chart. On the Canadian Hot 100, "XO" peaked at a position of 76. The single also peaked at number 81 on the Australian Singles Chart (its debut week), and at number 95 on the Dutch Singles Chart. In the UK, it peaked at 115 on the UK Singles Chart. Mayer recorded the song "Come Rain or Come Shine" as a duet with Barbra Streisand for her album Partners, released in September 2014.
In February 2015, Mayer performed alongside Ed Sheeran at the Grammy Awards. As of March, Mayer said he was taking break from working on a "deeply personal new album". Also, Mayer recounted that in 2011 he happened upon a song by the Grateful Dead while listening to Pandora, and that soon the band's music was all he would listen to. In February 2015, while guest hosting The Late Late Show, Mayer invited Grateful Dead guitar player Bob Weir to join him in a studio performance. While Weir, Phil Lesh, Mickey Hart and Bill Kreutzmann (surviving members of the Grateful Dead) were preparing for their Fare Thee Well: Celebrating 50 Years of the Grateful Dead tour with Trey Anastasio, Mayer began practicing the band's catalog of songs. That August, Mayer, Weir, Kreutzmann, and Hart formed the group Dead & Company, along with Jeff Chimenti and Oteil Burbridge, and began a fall tour in the United States. The tour was well received (Billboard called it "magical"), and they continued to tour the US into 2016. Although Lesh has declined to join Dead & Company, Mayer also performed with Phil Lesh and Friends at Terrapin Crossroads in 2015.
As a result of his touring with Dead & Company, Mayer postponed working on his next studio album until January 2016, with plans to finish it by the end of the year. On November 17, 2016, Mayer released "Love on the Weekend" as the lead single from his EP The Search for Everything: Wave One, which was then released on January 20, 2017. A second EP, The Search for Everything: Wave Two, was released on February 24, 2017, along with the single "Still Feel Like Your Man". The album The Search for Everything was released on April 14, 2017 and was promoted by a third single titled "In the Blood", released on May 1, 2017, and by The Search for Everything World Tour from March to October of the same year.
Mayer also continued touring with Dead & Company during the summer and fall of 2017. On December 5, during the Fall Tour, his appendix burst, resulting in an emergency appendectomy and the postponement of the remaining tour dates to February 2018. In January 2018, Dead & Company announced their Dead & Company Summer Tour 2018.
Sob Rock (2018–present)
On May 10, 2018, Mayer released the single "New Light", co-produced by No I.D. and Mayer himself. In an interview with Zane Lowe for Apple Music on the release day, he announced "more new music" for 2018. During his performance at the iHeartRadio Theater on October 24, 2018, he premiered a song titled "I Guess I Just Feel Like". On December 12, 2018, he announced a world tour for 2019. Mayer released two singles in 2019; the previously played "I Guess I Just Feel Like" on February 22, and "Carry Me Away" on September 6.
During an episode of John Mayer's show "Current Mood" on March 15, 2020, he revealed that he was in the process of writing and recording songs for a new album. In early 2021, he stated that the album was completely finished as he begun posting snippets of new songs on TikTok ahead of release. In an interview with Kerwin Frost, Mayer hinted at an April release for the album. Later, the date was pushed back. On June 1, 2021, Mayer officially announced his eighth album Sob Rock and on June 4, released the lead single, "Last Train Home" along with an accompanying music video. The album was released on July 16, 2021 as well as a music video for the song, "Shot In The Dark". The track list included previously released singles "New Light", "I Guess I Just Feel Like" and "Carry Me Away". "Carry Me Away" was slightly reworked production-wise to fit the album’s 1980s aesthetic.
Touring
Mayer began touring as a solo artist in 2001. While his early records were largely acoustic, early reviewers noted his unexpected electric "guitar heroics" during live performances.
Mayer has toured North America, Europe and Australia with many musical groups, including Maroon 5,Counting Crows, Ben Folds, the Wallflowers, Sheryl Crow, Colbie Caillat and Train. In 2010, Mayer and Keith Urban performed at a CMT Crossroads concert a medley of their songs and a rendition of George Michael's single "Faith". This performance led to Urban and Mayer teaming up again for future performances, including at the 2010 CMT Music Awards.
Mayer allows audio taping and non-commercial trading of those recordings at most of his live performances. Mayer often shows up at small venues unannounced (or with little advance notice) for surprise concerts—occasionally for free or without accepting the performance fee. He has made appearances throughout the Los Angeles, Atlanta, and New York areas, including shows at the Laugh Factory, Eddie's Attic, and the Village Underground. After a public campaign by their senior class president, Mayer performed a surprise three-song set at the 2004 Pennsbury High School senior prom. In June 2015, Mayer appeared as a guest for two nights with Phil Lesh and Friends at Terrapin Crossroads, recreating the Grateful Dead's notable May 8 and June 9, 1977 concerts.
Headlining
Room for Squares Tour (2002)
Heavier Things Tour (2003–2004)
Continuum Tour (2006–2007)
John Mayer 2008 Summer Tour (2008)
Battle Studies World Tour (2009–2010)
Born and Raised World Tour (2013–2014)
The Search for Everything World Tour (2017)
John Mayer 2019 World Tour (2019)
Sob Rock Tour (2022)
Co-headlining
John Mayer/Guster Summer Tour (2002)
John Mayer/Counting Crows Summer Tour (2003)
John Mayer/Sheryl Crow Tour (2006)
Opening act
Sting European Tour (2004)
Touring with Dead & Company
Mayer joined each annual Tour in the years 2015 to the present.
Other ventures
Dead & Company
Since 2015, Mayer has been touring with Bob Weir, Bill Kreutzmann and Mickey Hart of the Grateful Dead. Founding bassist Phil Lesh has notably declined to participate in the project, although he has performed with Mayer on a few occasions since Dead & Company began. The role of bassist in Dead & Company has instead been played by Oteil Burbridge of the Allman Brothers Band. Jeff Chimenti, who has toured with the various spin-offs of the Dead since the 1990s, is the group's keyboardist.
Although Mayer had been familiar with the music of the Grateful Dead since at least high school, he began to develop a strong interest in their music in 2011 after hearing their song Althea by chance on Pandora radio. In 2015, while the Dead's Fare Thee Well shows with Trey Anastasio were also being planned, Mayer performed "Althea" with Weir on The Late Late Show, along with "Truckin'." Weir was impressed with Mayer's take on the material and began planning to work with him after the Fare Thee Well shows, despite them being billed as something of finale for the band and its legacy. Weir discussed the genesis of the band and his thoughts about working with Mayer in an interview with Rolling Stone in 2016:
The thought of pop singer Mayer stepping in for Jerry Garcia was met with some initial skepticism by both fans and music critics, but the shows have since been well received. The band continues to tour in 2018, 2019 and into 2020 and has considered recording a studio album consisting of songs from the Grateful Dead catalog and potentially some originals. In a 2017 interview with Rolling Stone, Lesh praised the band's performances and explained his decision not to take part:
Author
With the June 2004 issue of Esquire, Mayer began a column called "Music Lessons with John Mayer". Each article featured a lesson and his views on various topics, both of personal and popular interest. In the August 2005 issue, he invited readers to create music for orphaned lyrics he had written. The winner was Tim Fagan of Los Angeles as announced in the following January's issue.
As social media gained momentum in the 2000s, Mayer became increasingly active online, and maintained four blogs: a Myspace page, a blog at his official site, another at Honeyee.com, one at tumblr, and a photoblog at StunningNikon.com. He was particularly prolific on Twitter, where he was noted for authoring his own posts, and he amassed 3.7 million followers. Although his posts often dealt with career-related matters, they also included jokes, videos, photos, and eventually what he called the "maintenance of vapor"—or misguided, personal responses to the media. On January 23, 2008, he posted the quote "There is danger in theoretical speculation of battle, in prejudice, in false reasoning, in pride, in braggadocio. There is one safe resource, the return to nature."; all the previous blog entries were deleted. On September 14, 2010, he deleted his personal Twitter account.
In the mid-2000s, he did comedy sporadically, making random appearances at the famed Comedy Cellar in New York and at other venues. He stated that it helped him write better, but that increased media attention made him too careful in his technique. He has since said he has no plans to return to it.
Watch collector
Mayer is an avid collector of watches, a pastime that he says keeps him "sane". His collection—which he values in the "tens of millions" of dollars—includes a Patek Philippe with a Sky Moon Tourbillion, a Rolex GMT Master 116710 BLNR, and an IWC Big Pilot Ref 5002, his signature watch. He has also served as a juror at the Grand Prix d'Horlogerie de Genève, a competition rewarding timepieces that champion the values of Swiss-made watches and writes a column for the horology website Hodinkee. In his column for January 16, 2015, he wrote an open letter to the watch brand IWC, encouraging it to "embrace [its] heritage, scale the product line down in terms of model variants, and simplify the design language". IWC replied, defending the changes they've made over the years, saying, "We have a wonderful past, it is true—but in admiring what we achieved thus far, we hope you will feel encouraged to look forward to what we achieve in the future".
Current Mood
During an appearance on the Jimmy Kimmel Live! show in September 2018, Mayer showed a trailer for his new Instagram Live show. The show, entitled Current Mood, debuted on his IGTV account on Sunday evening on September 30, 2018. Episodes have continued to air on that schedule on a weekly basis. Guests have included Charlie Puth, Cazzie David, and musician Thundercat. Mayer's latest season of Current Mood began on Sunday November 18, 2019 with guest Shawn Mendes and surprise feature with Camila Cabello on his first episode. For Current Mood Mayer coined notable jingles including "Camila Camendes," "CVS Bag," and "Drone Shot of My Yacht."
Appearances in the media
In 2004, Mayer hosted a one-shot, half-hour comedy special on VH1 titled John Mayer Has a TV Show, with antics including wearing a bear suit while anonymously teasing concertgoers in the parking lot outside one of his concerts.
Steve Jobs invited Mayer to perform during Apple's annual keynote address at the Macworld Conference & Expo in January 2004 as Jobs introduced the music production software GarageBand. Mayer became a fixture of the event, including at the 2007 iPhone announcement. Volkswagen concluded a deal with instrument manufacturer First Act to include a GarageMaster electric guitar that was playable through the stereo system of six of their 2007 models; Mayer (along with Slash and Christopher Guest) were selected to endorse the campaign and were featured playing the guitar in ads. Mayer used and endorsed the BlackBerry Curve.
Mayer made many appearances on talk shows and other television programs, most notably on a Chappelle's Show comedy skit, the Late Show with David Letterman and on the final episode of Late Night with Conan O'Brien. Mayer appeared with Rob Dyrdek in the MTV show Rob Dyrdek's Fantasy Factory. Mayer wrote the theme song to the OWN network show Rollin' with Zach, which features Zach Anner. CBS invited him to guest host The Late Late Show in early 2015 on three dates, February 4–6, after the retirement of Craig Ferguson.
Mayer makes a cameo as a truck driver in the 2014 comedy horror film Zombeavers. In the 2015 film Get Hard, he played a version of himself who is disgusted with the "monetization of the creative process".
Instruments and equipment
John Mayer is a guitar collector and has collaborated with elite guitar companies to design his own instruments. He owns over 200 guitars.
In 2003, Martin Guitars gave Mayer his own signature model acoustic guitar called the OM-28 John Mayer. The guitar was limited to a run of only 404, an Atlanta area code. This model was followed by the release of two Fender signature Stratocaster electric guitars, beginning in 2005. A third Stratocaster, finished in charcoal frost metallic paint with a racing stripe, was also a limited-release, with only 100 guitars made. In January 2006, Martin Guitars released the Martin OMJM John Mayer acoustic guitar. The guitar was intended to have many of the attributes of the Martin OM-28 John Mayer but with a more affordable price tag. In August 2006, Fender started manufacturing SERIES II John Mayer Stratocasters.
In January 2007, Two Rock collaborated with Mayer on custom-designed amps. Only 25 (all signed by Mayer himself) were made available to the public, along with a 500-run John Mayer signature Fender Stratocaster in Cypress-Mica. Included in the limited Cypress-Mica model was the INCSvsJM gig bag, on which Mayer collaborated on the in-case designs. In 2006, Mayer was estimated to have more than 200 guitars in his personal collection.
John Mayer's most iconic guitar is the "Black1". Conceived after the Heavier Things tour, Mayer went to Fender Custom Shop with the desire to build a guitar. He was inspired by guitars of famous players the likes of Rory Gallagher and Stevie Ray Vaughan. He sought out masterbuilder John Cruz to help devise the design. In essence, Mayer wanted an all-black version of Stevie Ray Vaughan's "First Wife" Stratocaster. The guitar is heavily "relic'd" to specs very similar to the guitar used by Stevie Ray Vaughan. The Black1 includes a mint pickguard, custom wound pickups, gold hardware, and gold tuners from the SRV Tribute Stratocaster. It was the principal guitar on the Continuum album. It was notably used on tracks such as "I Don't Trust Myself With Loving You", and "Bold as Love". The Black1 has become a trademark to Mayer's music.
The Fender Custom Shop made a limited run of 83 replica Black1 Stratocasters, all of which were sold within 24 hours. Each one was carefully relic'd by John Cruz. In 2010, Fender announced a production model of Mayer's Black1 guitar. Un-relic'd production versions of the guitar were produced for a limited run of 500 worldwide. In addition, full production signature Stratocasters were produced in three-tone sunburst and Olympic White finishes.
In 2014, John Mayer announced that he was no longer a Fender Artist. As a result, his signature line of guitars was pulled from production. In 2015, Mayer announced that he was collaborating with PRS Guitars. In March 2016, Mayer and PRS revealed their collaborative project, the Super Eagle. This was a limited release from PRS's Private Stock line of instruments and each guitar features ultra-grade woods, abalone inlay, JCF Audio preamps, and a hand-signed sticker by glass-artist David Smith. Only 100 were produced, each retailing for over $10,000. In January 2017 at NAMM, PRS and Mayer announced the J-MOD 100 signature amp. In June 2017, the Super Eagle II was revealed, limited to 120 instruments.
In January 2018, Martin Guitar announced the limited-release (45 instruments) John Mayer Signature D-45, with list price $14,999. In March 2018, Mayer's signature Silver Sky model was released by PRS, available in four colors. While Music Trade called the Silver Sky "derivative", it said that all the elements were "designed from the ground up" and built with "attention to detail". While acknowledging its similarity to a Stratocaster, Matt Blackett of Guitar Player magazine ultimately said, "The Silver Sky absolutely delivers on the promise of being a damn-near-perfect version of this type of guitar." The magazine named its "Editor's Pick".
Reception
Mayer has stood out as among his peers as a guitarist. He was featured on the cover of Rolling Stone (#1020) in February 2007, along with John Frusciante and Derek Trucks in an issue lauding the "New Guitar Gods", and the cover nicknamed him Slowhand Jr., a reference to Eric Clapton. Critics, however, point to how safe his music is. Chris Richards, in review of a 2017 concert, declared "John Mayer is an amazing guitar player", though he says he did so "through clenched teeth," adding that the fact should not absolve the guitarist of "his pillow-soft songcraft, the dull sentimentality of his lyrics, or that cuckoo-racist interview he gave to Playboy back in 2010". Music writer Steve Baltin commented on this dichotomy, saying that Mayer is "one of the sharpest and savviest musical minds you will ever encounter", and added, "While many have found reasons to dislike Mayer since the beginning of his career, he is a consummate musician's musician, an artist who has been embraced by Eric Clapton, Stevie Wonder and Buddy Guy among others."
Mayer's inclusion in the Grateful Dead was not without its critics. Chris Robinson of the Chris Robinson Brotherhood said that "everything that Jerry Garcia ever talked about or stood for, John Mayer is the antithesis", and that while "Jerry was one of the most unique musicians in the world [...] here's John Mayer playing everyone else's licks". The comment itself drew controversy, and Mayer, for his part, said, "I care about this band too much to give that life", and that "I realized not long ago that I'm done debating my own merits."
Personal life
On his third episode of Current Mood, Mayer revealed he had been sober since 2016. He stopped drinking after having what he says was a six-day hangover after Drake's 30th birthday party.
Relationships
Mayer has been romantically involved with Jennifer Love Hewitt, Jessica Simpson, Minka Kelly, Jennifer Aniston, Taylor Swift, and Katy Perry.
Philanthropy
In 2002, Mayer created the "Back to You" Fund, a nonprofit organization that focuses on fundraising in the areas of health care, education, the arts and talent development. The foundation auctions exclusive John Mayer items, such as guitar picks, T-shirts and signed CDs. The auctions have been successful, with some tickets selling for more than 17 times their face value.
Mayer participated at the East Rutherford, New Jersey, location of the Live Earth project, a musical rally to support awareness for climate change held July 7, 2007.
Mayer performed at a number of benefits and telethons for charity throughout his career. He has participated in benefits for the Elton John AIDS Foundation. In response to the Virginia Tech shooting, Mayer (along with Dave Matthews Band, Phil Vassar, and Nas) performed a free concert at Virginia Tech's Lane Stadium on September 6, 2007. followed by an appearance with Rob Thomas at the Annual Holiday Concert at Blythedale Children's Hospital in Valhalla that winter. On December 8, 2007, Mayer hosted the first annual Charity Revue, a tradition he has continued each year. Charities who have benefited from the concerts include Toys for Tots, Inner City Arts and the Los Angeles Mission. CDs and DVDs of the first concert were released as Where the Light Is in July 2008. Mayer appeared on Songs for Tibet: The Art of Peace, a celebrity initiative to support Tibet and the 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso. Mayer (along with Keith Urban) headlined Tiger Jam 2011 in Las Vegas to help raise around $750,000 for the Tiger Woods Foundation. In January 2013, Mayer participated with Zac Brown in a benefit concert in Bozeman, Montana where they raised more than $100,000 for firefighters who battled a wildfire in the summer of 2012 in Paradise Valley that destroyed 12,000 acres.
On March 1, 2019, John Mayer established the Heart and Armor Foundation in support of veterans of war. John has been actively involved in initiatives to help returning veterans for about 12 years.
Controversies
Mayer's relationship with Jessica Simpson coincided with behavior changes that significantly increased his tabloid exposure. Early in his career, he had expressed his resolve to completely avoid drugs, alcohol, clubbing, "red-carpet" events, dating celebrities, and anything that he felt would detract the focus from his music. In interviews, however, Mayer alluded to experiencing an extreme "anxiety bender" episode in his twenties that motivated him to be less reclusive. In 2006, he first mentioned that he had begun using marijuana. He began making appearances at clubs in Los Angeles and New York City, and Simpson became the first in a string of famous girlfriends, including Jennifer Aniston and Minka Kelly. By 2007, his personal life had become regular fodder for the gossip media and, as a result, Mayer made efforts to control his public image. His online presence increased, he began to stage pranks for the paparazzi, and he hosted a segment for the gossip show TMZ.
In early 2010, Mayer gave a controversial interview to Playboy magazine in which he revealed sexually explicit details about his former girlfriends Jessica Simpson and Jennifer Aniston—calling his relationship with the former "sexual napalm." In response to a question about whether black women were interested in him, he said, "My dick is sort of like a white supremacist. I've got a Benetton heart and a fuckin' David Duke cock. I'm going to start dating separately from my dick." He also used the word "nigger" in the interview. This set off accusations in the media of him being a misogynist, kiss-and-tell ex-boyfriend, and racist. He apologized via Twitter for his use of the word "nigger", saying, "It was arrogant of me to think I could intellectualize...a word that is so emotionally charged". He also tearfully apologized to his band and fans at his concert in Nashville later that night. In the following two years, he left New York and retreated from the media. Reflecting on that time in a May 2012 episode of The Ellen DeGeneres Show, he said, "I lost my head for a little while and I did a couple of dumb interviews and it kind of woke me up...It was a violent crash into being an adult. For a couple of years, it was just figuring it all out, and I'm glad I actually stayed out of the spotlight."
Singer-songwriter Taylor Swift performed vocals for the song "Half of My Heart" on Mayer's November 2009 album Battle Studies. Rumors began to circulate in the media that the two were a couple, an assertion that neither addressed. However, Swift released a song called "Dear John" in 2010, which was widely believed to be about her relationship with him. In June 2012, Mayer criticized the song, saying she never contacted him and that "it's abusing your talent to rub your hands together and go, 'Wait till he gets a load of this!'" The song "Paper Doll" was reported to be a response. In the March 21, 2019 episode of Current Mood, however, Mayer said, "When 'Paper Doll' came out, 100% of the people believed it was about somebody...But the song was not about that person and I could never tell anybody, 'That's not true,' because then I would be breaking my rule that songwriters don't say who the songs are about or not about."
In March 2014, Mayer sued watch dealer Robert Maron for $656,000 when he discovered that seven of the $5 million in watches he purchased from the dealer contained counterfeit parts. He dropped the action in May 2015, releasing a statement that asserted that research restored his "belief that Bob Maron is an expert on Rolex watches and confirmed that Bob Maron never sold him a counterfeit watch".
In 2020, Perez Hilton stated in his memoir TMI: My Life in Scandal that in 2007 at a club in Chelsea, Manhattan, Mayer came up to Hilton and said, 'I like to watch gay porn, you know,' adding, 'My favorite porn star is Brent Corrigan. He really turns me on', and then french-kissed Hilton.
Discography
Room for Squares (2001)
Heavier Things (2003)
Continuum (2006)
Battle Studies (2009)
Born and Raised (2012)
Paradise Valley (2013)
The Search for Everything (2017)
Sob Rock (2021)
Awards
Grammy Awards
Mayer has won seven awards from nineteen nominations.
Others awards and nominations
See also
Annual John Mayer Holiday Charity Revue
Notes
References
Works cited
Edwards, G. (2006). Is Tiny Dancer Really Elton's Little John? New York: Crown Publishing Group. .
External links
1977 births
Living people
21st-century American composers
21st-century American male musicians
21st-century American singers
American bloggers
American blues singers
American male bloggers
American male guitarists
American male pop singers
American male singer-songwriters
American philanthropists
American pop rock singers
American rock guitarists
American rock singers
American rock songwriters
Blues rock musicians
Columbia Records artists
Dead & Company members
Grammy Award winners
Guitarists from Connecticut
John Mayer Trio members
Musicians from Bridgeport, Connecticut
People from Fairfield, Connecticut
People from Hidden Hills, California
Record producers from Connecticut
Singer-songwriters from Connecticut
Singer-songwriters from California
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisbon%20Cathedral
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Lisbon Cathedral
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The Cathedral of Saint Mary Major ( or Metropolitan Cathedral of St. Mary Major), often called Lisbon Cathedral or simply the Sé (), is a Roman Catholic cathedral located in Lisbon, Portugal. The oldest church in the city, it is the seat of the Patriarchate of Lisbon. Built in 1147, the cathedral has survived many earthquakes and has been modified, renovated and restored several times. It is nowadays a mix of different architectural styles. It has been classified as a National Monument since 1910.
History
Lisbon has been the seat of a bishopric since the 4th century (see Patriarch of Lisbon). After the period of Visigothic domination the city was conquered by the Moors and stayed under Arab control from the 8th to the 12th century, although Christians were allowed to live in Lisbon and its surroundings. In the year 1147, the city was reconquered by an army composed of Portuguese soldiers led by King Afonso Henriques and North European crusaders taking part on the Second Crusade (see Siege of Lisbon). An English crusader named Gilbert of Hastings was placed as bishop, and a new cathedral was built on the site of the main mosque of Lisbon.
This first building was completed between 1147 and the first decades of the 13th century in Late Romanesque style. At that time the relics of St Vincent of Saragossa, patron saint of Lisbon, were brought to the cathedral from Southern Portugal. In the end of the 13th century King Dinis of Portugal built a Gothic cloister, and his successor Afonso IV of Portugal had the main chapel converted into a royal pantheon in Gothic style for him and his family. In 1498, Queen Eleanor of Viseu founded the (Brotherhood of Invocation to Our Lady of Mercy of Lisbon ) in one of the chapels of the cloister of the cathedral. This brotherhood evolved into the Santa Casa da Misericórdia de Lisboa, a Catholic charitable institution that later spread to other cities and had a very important role in Portugal and its colonies.
During the Portuguese interregnum of 1383–85, the populace suspected that Bishop Dom Martinho Annes was plotting with the Castilians and an angry crowd threw him out of the window of the northern tower
Earthquakes have always been a problem for Lisbon and its cathedral. During the 14th and 16th centuries there were several of them, but the worst of all was the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, which destroyed the Gothic main chapel along with the royal pantheon. The cloisters and many chapels were also ruined by the quake and the fire that followed. The cathedral was partially rebuilt and, in the beginning of the 20th century, was given the appearance that it has today after a profound renovation.
In recent years the central courtyard of the cloister has been excavated and shows signs of the Roman, Arab and mediaeval periods. Excavations started in Cathedral Cloister in 1990. They have revealed a Roman road with shops on either site. A part of a Roman kitchen and a "cloaca" (sewage system). and traces of later Visigoth buildings. A very visible part of a Moorish building with red walls related to the former mosque that once stood on this site was also excavated.
In 2020, remains of an Almoravid complex, which researchers suggest is a mosque, were uncovered. Graça Fonseca, the Portuguese Minister of Culture, determined that the Muslim remains should be kept in place.
Art and architecture
The cathedral is a Latin cross building with three aisles, a transept and a main chapel surrounded by an ambulatory. The church is connected with a cloister on the Eastern side. The main façade of the cathedral looks like a fortress, with two towers flanking the entrance and crenellations over the walls. This menacing appearance, also seen in other Portuguese cathedrals of the time, is a relic from the Reconquista period, when the cathedral could be used as a base to attack the enemy during a siege.
Romanesque
From its first building period (1147 until the first decades of the 13th century), Lisbon cathedral has preserved the West façade with a rose window (rebuilt from fragments in the 20th century), the main portal, the North lateral portal and the nave of the cathedral. The portals have interesting sculptured capitals with Romanesque motifs. The nave is covered by barrel vaulting and has an upper, arched gallery (triforium). Light gets in through the rose windows of the West façade and transept, the narrow windows of the lateral aisles of the nave as well as the windows of the lantern tower of the transept. The general plan of the cathedral is very similar to that of the Old Cathedral of Coimbra, which dates from the same period. One of the chapels of the ambulatory has an interesting Romanesque iron gate.
Gothic
At the end of the 13th century King Dinis of Portugal ordered the construction of a cloister in Gothic style, which became severely damaged by the 1755 earthquake. Near the entrance of the cathedral, a rich merchant, Bartolomeu Joanes, built a funerary chapel for himself in the beginning of the 14th century. His tomb with his laying figure is still inside. Somewhat later, King Afonso IV of Portugal had the Romanesque apse replaced by a Gothic main chapel surrounded by an ambulatory with radiating chapels. The king and his family were buried in the main chapel, but their tombs and the chapel itself were destroyed in the 1755 earthquake. The ambulatory has survived and is an important work in the history of Portuguese Gothic. It consists of a circular aisle – not connected to the main chapel – with a series of radiating chapels. The second storey of the ambulatory is covered by ribbed vaulting and has a series of windows (clerestory) that bathe the interior with abundant light.
The ambulatory contains three outstanding Gothic tombs from the mid-14th century. One tomb belongs to Lopo Fernandes Pacheco, 7th Lord of Ferreira de Aves, a nobleman at the service of King Afonso IV. His laying figure appears holding his sword and is guarded by a dog. His wife, Maria de Vilalobos, appears over her tomb reading a Book of Hours. The third tomb belongs to an unidentified royal princess. All tombs are decorated with coats-of-arms.
In the last quarter of the 15th century it is believed that the famous Saint Vincent Panels, painted by Nuno Gonçalves, were placed in the St Vincent chapel of the ambulatory. They remained there at least until 1690 and were set aside in the Cathedral until 1742. They were then transferred to the palace of Mitra. The panels are now in the Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga (National Museum of Ancient Art) in Lisbon.
Modern times
During the 17th century a fine sacristy was built in Baroque architectural style and, after 1755, the main chapel was rebuilt in neoclassical and Rococo styles (including the tombs of King Afonso IV and his family). Machado de Castro, Portugal's foremost sculptor in the late 18th century, is the author of a magnificent crib in the Gothic chapel of Bartomoleu Joanes. In the beginning of the 20th century, much of the neoclassical decoration from outside and inside of the cathedral was removed to give the cathedral a more "mediaeval" appearance.
Notes
References
Portugal/1 – Europa Romanica, Gerhard N Graf, Ediciones Encuentro, Madrid, 1987
Roman Catholic cathedrals in Portugal
Roman Catholic churches in Lisbon
Romanesque architecture in Portugal
Gothic architecture in Portugal
National monuments in Lisbon District
Former mosques in Portugal
13th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Portugal
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cephalonia
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Cephalonia
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Kefalonia or Cephalonia (), formerly also known as Kefallinia or Kephallenia (), is the largest of the Ionian Islands in western Greece and the 6th largest island in Greece after Crete, Euboea, Lesbos, Rhodes and Chios. It is also a separate regional unit of the Ionian Islands region. It was a former Latin Catholic diocese Kefalonia–Zakynthos (Cefalonia–Zante) and short-lived titular see as just Kefalonia. The capital city of Cephalonia is Argostoli.
History
Antiquity
Legend
An aition explaining the name of Cephallenia and reinforcing its cultural connections with Athens associates the island with the mythological figure of Cephalus, who helped Amphitryon of Mycenae in a war against the Taphians and Teleboans. He was rewarded with the island of Same, which thereafter came to be known as Cephallenia.
Kefalonia has also been suggested as the Homeric Ithaca, the home of Odysseus, rather than the smaller island bearing this name today.
Robert Bittlestone, in his book Odysseus Unbound, has suggested that Paliki, now a peninsula of Cephalonia, was a separate island during the late Bronze Age, and it may be this which Homer was referring to when he described Ithaca. A project which started in the summer of 2007 and lasted three years has examined this possibility.
Kefalonia is also referenced in relation to the goddess Britomartis, as the location where she is said to have 'received divine honours from the inhabitants under the name of Laphria'.
Middle Ages
In the late Roman Empire, Cephalonia was part of the Roman province of Achaea. Ecclesiastically it was a suffragan of the Metropolis of Nicopolis (the eparchy of Epirus I). The four ancient cities of the island survived into late antiquity, with Samos probably as the island's capital.
Following the loss of the bulk of Italy, and the expansion of the Muslims into the Western Mediterranean, the island became a strategically important base of operations for the Byzantine Empire in the area, blocking Muslim raids into the Adriatic and serving as a bridge for expeditions in Italy. Already from the 8th century, it was the centre of the namesake theme of Cephallenia. At the same time, the capital was moved to the Castle of Saint George, a more well-protected site in the island's interior. Mardaites were resettled in Cephalonia to serve as marines, and political prisoners were sometimes exiled there.
The loss of Byzantine Italy in 1071 diminished Cephalonia's importance, and its administration passed from a military strategos to a civilian judge (krites). Its main city was besieged by the Italo-Normans in 1085, and the Venetians plundered the island in 1126. Cephalonia was captured during the Third Norman invasion of the Balkans in 1185, and it became part of the County palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos under the Kingdom of Sicily and Venetian suzerainty, until its last Count Leonardo III Tocco was defeated and the island conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1479.
Venetian rule
Turkish rule lasted only until 1500, when Cephalonia was captured by a Spanish-Venetian army, a rare Venetian success in the Second Ottoman–Venetian War. From then on Cephalonia and Ithaca remained part of the Stato da Mar of the Venetian Republic until its very end, following the fate of the Ionian islands, completed by the capture of Lefkas from the Turks in 1684. The Treaty of Campoformio dismantling the Venetian Republic awarded the Ionian Islands to France, a French expeditionary force with boats captured in Venice taking control of the islands in June 1797.
Because of the liberal situation on the island, the Venetian governor Marc'Antonio Giustiniani (1516–1571) printed Hebrew books and exported them to the whole eastern Mediterranean. In 1596 the Venetians built the Assos Castle, one of Cephalonia's main tourist attractions today. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, the island was one of the largest exporters of currants in the world with Zakynthos, and owned a large shipping fleet, even commissioning ships from the Danzig shipyard. Its towns and villages were mostly built high on hilltops, to prevent attacks from raiding parties of pirates that sailed the Ionian Sea during the 1820s.
French, Ionian state period and British rule
Venice was conquered by France in 1797 and Cephalonia, along with the other Ionian Islands, became part of the French département of Ithaque.
In the following year, 1798, the French were forced to yield the Ionian Islands to a combined Russian and Turkish fleet. From 1799 to 1807, Cephalonia was part of the Septinsular Republic, nominally under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire, but protected by Russia.
By the Tilsit Treaty in 1807, the Ionian Islands were ceded back to France, which remained in control until 1809.
In 1809 Great Britain mounted a blockade on the Ionian Islands as part of the war against Napoleon, and in September of that year they hoisted the British flag above the castle of Zakynthos. Cephalonia and Ithaca soon surrendered, and the British installed provisional governments. The treaty of Paris in 1815 recognised the United States of the Ionian Islands and decreed that it become a British protectorate. Colonel Charles Philippe de Bosset became provisional governor between 1810 and 1814. During this period he was credited with achieving many public works, including the Drapano Bridge.
A few years later Greek nationalist groups started to form. Although their energy in the early years was directed to supporting the Greeks in the revolution against the Turks, it soon started to turn towards the British. By 1848, calls for enosis with Greece were gaining strength and there were skirmishes with the British Army in Argostoli and Lixouri, which led to some relaxation in the laws and to freedom of the press. Union with Greece was now a declared aim, and by 1849, a growing restlessness resulted in even more skirmishes with the British, which were suppressed by the island's governor, Sir Henry George Ward.
Cephalonia, along with the other islands, were transferred to Greece in 1864 as a gesture of goodwill when the British-supported Prince William of Denmark became King George the First of the Hellenes.
Union with Greece
In 1864, Cephalonia, together with all the other Ionian Islands, became a full member of the Greek state.
World War II
In World War II, the island was occupied by Axis powers. Until late 1943, the occupying force was predominantly Italian, the 33rd Infantry Division Acqui plus Navy personnel totalled 12,000 men, but about 2,000 troops from Germany were also present. The island was largely spared the fighting, until the armistice with Italy concluded by the Allies in September 1943. Confusion followed on the island, as the Italians were hoping to return home, but German forces did not want the Italians' munitions to be used eventually against them; Italian forces were hesitant to turn over weapons for the same reason. As German reinforcements headed to the island the Italians dug in and, eventually, after a referendum among the soldiers as to surrender or battle, they fought against the new German invasion. The fighting came to a head at the siege of Argostoli, where the Italians held out. Ultimately the Germans prevailed, taking full control of the island.
Approximately five thousand of the nine thousand surviving Italian soldiers were executed in reprisal by the German forces. The book Captain Corelli's Mandolin by Louis de Bernières, which was later made into a film, is based on this event. While the war ended in central Europe in 1945, Cephalonia remained in a state of conflict due to the Greek Civil War. Peace returned to Greece and the island in 1949.
Earthquake of 1953
Cephalonia lies just to the southeast of a major active fault zone, where the Eurasian Plate meets the Aegean Plate at a transform boundary. The island itself is affected by a series of active thrust faults, which are responsible for the continuing uplift.
A series of four earthquakes hit the island in August 1953, and caused major destruction, with virtually every house on the island destroyed. The third and most destructive of the quakes took place on 12 August 1953 at 09:24 UTC (11:24 local time), with a magnitude of 6.8 on the Moment magnitude scale. Its epicentre was directly south of the southern tip of Cephalonia, and caused the entire island to be raised higher, where it remains, with evidence in water marks on rocks around the coastline.
The 1953 Ionian earthquake disaster caused huge destruction, with only regions in the north escaping the heaviest tremors and houses there remaining intact. Damage was estimated to run into tens of millions of dollars, equivalent to billions of drachmas, but the real damage to the economy occurred when residents left the island. The majority of the population left the island soon after, seeking a new life elsewhere.
Recent history
The forest fire of the 1990s caused damage to the island's forests and bushes, especially a small scar north of Troianata, and a large area of damage extending from Kateleios north to west of Tzanata, ruining about of forest and bushes and resulting in the loss of some properties. The forest fire scar was visible for some years.
In mid-November 2003, an earthquake measuring 5.3 on the Richter magnitude scale caused minor damage to business, residential property, and other buildings in and near Argostoli. Damages were around €1,000,000.
On the morning of 20 September 2005, an early-morning earthquake shook the south-western part of the island, especially near Lixouri and nearby villages. The earthquake measured 4.9 on the Richter magnitude scale, and its epicentre was located off the island at sea. Service vehicles took care of the area, and no damage was reported. From 24–26 January 2006, a major snowstorm blanketed the entire island, causing extensive blackouts. The island was recently struck yet again by another forest fire in the south of the island, beginning of 18 July 2007 during an unusual heatwave, and spreading slowly. Firefighters along with helicopters and planes battled the blaze for some days and the spectacle frightened residents on that area of the island.
In 2011 the eight former municipalities of the island lost their independence to form one united municipality. After losing its role as the capital of the island in the 19th century, Lixouri lost also its role as a seat of a municipality after 500 years. The Technological Educational Institute of the Ionian Islands closed one faculty in Lixouri and one in Argostoli.
In January 2014, an earthquake measuring 5.9 on the Richter magnitude scale left at least seven injured. There are reports of minor injuries and some damage to property," said the Foreign Office, on its website. "The airport remains operational but there may be some disruption to port services."
Archaeology
In the southwestern portion of the island, in the area of Leivatho, an ongoing archaeological field survey by the Irish Institute at Athens has discovered dozens of sites with dates ranging from the Palaeolithic to the Venetian period.
Cephalonia is extremely interesting archaeologically; finds go back to 40,000 BP. Without doubt, the most important era for the island is the Mycenaean era, from approximately 1500BC to 1100 BC. The archaeological museum in Cephalonia's capital, although small, is of great importance due to its exhibits from this era.
The most important archaeological discovery in Cephalonia (and indeed in Greece) of recent decades is that, in 1991, of the Mycenaean Tholos tomb at the outskirts of Tzanata, near Poros in southeastern Cephalonia (former Municipality of Elios-Pronni) in a setting of olive trees, cypresses and oaks. The tomb was erected around 1300 BC; kings and highly ranked officials were buried in such tombs during the Mycenaean period. It is the largest tholos tomb yet found in northwestern Greece, and was excavated by archaeologist Lazaros Kolonas. The size of the tomb, the nature of the burial offerings found there, and its well-chosen position point to the existence of an important Mycenaean town in the vicinity.
In late 2006, a Roman grave complex was uncovered as the foundation of a new hotel was being excavated in Fiskardo. The remains date to the period between the 2nd century BC and the 4th century AD. Archaeologists described it as the most important find of its kind in the Ionian Islands. Inside the complex, five burial sites were found, including a large vaulted tomb and a stone coffin, along with gold earrings and rings, gold leaves that may have been attached to ceremonial clothing, glass and ceramic pots, bronze artefacts decorated with masks, a bronze lock and bronze coins. The tomb had escaped the attention of grave robbers and remained undisturbed for thousands of years. When the tomb was opened the stone door easily swung on its stone hinges. A Roman theatre was discovered very near the tomb, so well preserved that the metal joints between the seats were still intact.
A dissertation published in 1987 claims that Saint Paul, on his way from Palestine to Rome in AD 59, was shipwrecked and confined for three months not on Malta but on Cephalonia.
According to Clement of Alexandria, the island had the largest community of Carpocratians, an early Gnostic Christian sect, because Carpocrates lived on the island.
Population: historical evolution
In the ancient period, the people lived in four cities on the island. Krani, Sami, Pale and Pronni formed a federation called "tetrapolis".
In more recent times the population reached 70,000, in 1896, but declined gradually in the 20th century. The great 1953 Ionian earthquake forced many people to leave the island.<ref name="cambridge">[http://assets.cambridge.org/052185/3575/excerpt/0521853575_excerpt.pdf Odysseus Unbound: The Search for Homer's Ithaca – excerpt]. Robert Bittlestone, Cambridge University Press, 2005. Page relating the account of a local to the 1953 great earthquake.</ref> Many of those who left moved to Patras or Athens, or emigrated to America and Australia, following relatives who had left the island decades before. In the same period people from poorer areas of Greece such as Epirus and Thrace came to the island. The population has hovered between 35,000 and 42,000 since then; in the 2011 census, it was 35,801.
Most of the indigenous people of Cephalonia have surnames ending in "-atos", such as the Alexatos (Greek: Αλεξάτος) families, and almost every settlement on the island has a name ending in "-ata", such as Metaxata, Chavriata, Frangata, Lourdata, Favata, Delaportata and others.
Ecclesiastical history
In 1222 the Frankish Crusaders established the Diocese of Kefalonia–Zakynthos (Cefalonia–Zante in Curiate Italian), which survived their rule and even the Turks. In 1919, the residential see was suppressed but immediately transformed into a titular bishopric of Kefalonia (Cefalonia in Italian). The territory and title were merged into the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Corfu–Zakynthos–Kefalonia. In 1921, this was also suppressed, never having had an incumbent.
Geography
The main island of the regional unit is Cephalonia and has a size of 773 km2 (300 mi2), with a population density of 55 people per km2 (140/mi2). The town of Argostoli has one-third of the island's inhabitants. Lixouri is the second major settlement, and the two towns together account for almost two-thirds of the prefecture's population.
The other major islands are: Petalas Island and Asteris Island, but they are uninhabited.
Cephalonia lies in the heart of an earthquake zone, and dozens of minor, unrecorded tremors occur each year. In 1953, a massive earthquake destroyed almost all of the settlements on the island, leaving only Fiskardo in the north untouched.
Important natural features include Melissani Lake, the Drogarati caves, and the Koutavos Lagoon in Argostoli.
The island has a rich biodiversity, with a substantial number of endemic and rare species. Some areas have been declared a site in the European Union's Natura 2000 network.
Mountains
The island's highest mountain is Mount Ainos, with an elevation of 1628 meters; to the west-northwest are the Paliki mountains, where Lixouri is found, with other mountains including Geraneia (Gerania) and Agia Dynati. The top of Mount Ainos is covered with fir trees and is a natural park.
Forestry is rare on the island; however its timber output is one of the highest in the Ionian islands, although lower than that of Elia in the Peloponnese. Forest fires were common during the 1990s and the early 2000s, and still pose a major threat to the population.
Capes
Cape Agios Georgios: approximate coordinates
Cape Kounopetra
Cape Atheras: north-western corner of island
Flora
Most of the Ainos mountain range is designated as a National Park and is covered with the unique species of Greek fir (Abies Cephalonica) and black pine (Pinus nigra).
Fauna
Cephalonia is well known for its endangered loggerhead turtle population, also known as the Caretta caretta turtle, which nests on many of the beaches along the south coast of the island. The turtles can also be seen in the waters of Argostoli harbour, in Koutavos Lagoon, while walking on De Bosset Bridge. A small population of the endangered Mediterranean monk seal, Monachus monachus, also lives around the island's coast, especially on parts of the coast which are inaccessible to humans due to the terrain. Caves on these parts of the coast offer ideal locations for the seals to give birth to their pups and nurse them through the first months of their lives. The most famous breeding ground in Cephalonia is a cave on Foki beach, located on the north-east coast near Fiskardo.
The European pine marten also inhabits the island.
Over 200 species of birds have been spotted on the island.
Climate
Cephalonia has hot, sunny summers and mild rainy winters. During winter it can occasionally snow on the mountain peaks of the island's mountain ranges. The winter months can experience up to 156 mm of rainfall, resulting in high levels of humidity on the island. Winter temperature on Kefalonia average at 14-15 C the day and fall at night to an average of 8-9 C. During the summer months there is usually little to no rainfall. Rain in the summer can usually be seen, but the dry air prevents it from being felt as it is evaporated before it reaches the ground.
Economy
Wine and raisins are the oldest products exported, being important until the 20th century. Today fish farming and calcium carbonate are most important.
Agriculture
The primary agricultural occupations are animal breeding and olive growing, with the remainder largely composed of grain and vegetables. Most vegetable production takes place on the plains, which cover less than 15% of the island, most of which is rugged and mountainous, suitable only for goats. Less than a quarter of the island's land is arable.
Until the 1970s, most Cephalonians lived in rural areas, while today, two-thirds of the population lives in urban areas, with the other third in rural towns and villages close to farmland.
The island has a long winemaking tradition and is home to the dry, white lemony wines made from the Robola grape.
Olive oil production
Olive oil production is a major component of Cephalonia's economy. Until the 18th century, the quantity of olive oil produced on the island just covered the needs of the residents. However, the pressure of Venetian conquerors' for olive plantation, especially after the loss of Peloponnese and Crete, resulted in increasing the production to such a degree that the first exports to Venice began. Before the 1953 Ionian earthquake, there were 200 oil presses operating on the island; today, there are thirteen. There are over one million olive trees on Cephalonia, covering almost 55% of the island's area. Olive oil is very important to the island's local, agricultural economy. "Koroneiki" and "theiako" are the two main varieties cultivated on the island, followed by a smaller number of "ntopia" and "matolia". Kefalonian olive oil has a green tone, a rich, greasy touch, and low acidity.
Tourism
Tourism to Cephalonia started in the early 19th century. The royal family of Greece sent their children in the summer Lixouri, in the early 20th century, but the island was not discovered by most tourists until the 1980s. Cephalonia is a popular holiday destination for many Italians, due to its proximity to Italy.
Two cultural attractions, the fishing villages of Fiscardo and Assos, and other natural attractions, including Melissani underground lake, Drogarati cave and Myrtos beach, have helped popularize Cephalonia. The film Captain Corelli's Mandolin (film) (2001), filmed on the island, made Cephalonia more widely known.
Listed in The Daily Telegraph as one of the 20 Mediterranean islands you must visit in your lifetime.
Culture
Monasteries and churches
Across the broader island, two large monasteries are to be found: the first is that of Haghia Panagia in Markopoulo to the southeast, and the other lies on the road between Argostoli and Michata, on a small plain surrounded by mountains. This second has an avenue of about 200 trees aligned from NW to SE, with a circle in the middle, and is the monastery of Saint Gerasimus of Kefalonia, patron saint of the island, whose relics can be seen and venerated at the old church of the monastery. The monastery of "Sissia" was probably founded by Francis of Assisi, it was destroyed in 1953 but the ruins still exist. Although much of the island was destroyed by earthquakes, many notable churches all over the island have survived, some dating back to the renaissance. The ornaments of the churches are influenced by Venetian manierism.
Music
The Ionian Islands have a musical tradition called the Ionian School. Lixouri has the Philharmonic Orchestra (since 1836) and Argostoli the Rokos Vergottis Conservatory. Richard Strauss visited Lixouri some times where he had an affair with the pianist Dora Wihan (born Weiss).
The Ionian Islands also developed a distinctive culture primarily as they did not experience Ottoman occupation, instead having ties to Venice, and musically drew from Italian influences, and Western Harmonics. This evolved into a unique musical style among the Greeks, the Cantada (Serenade) very similar to the Latin/Spanish/Italian Cantar (to sing). The Cantadas are an example of the Ionian music. Cantadas are still very popular and can be heard even today.
Literature and film
The novelists Nikos Kavvadias (1910–1975) and the Swiss (1917–2010) spent parts of their life on the island. Andreas Laskaratos was a satirical poet and wrote about the society in the town of Lixouri. Lord Byron wrote parts of "Prelude" and "Don Juan" in Livatho.
Perhaps the best known appearance of Cephalonia in popular culture is in the novel Captain Corelli's Mandolin, by the English author Louis de Bernières. The book is believed to have been inspired by the village of Farsa, just outside Argostoli. The love story comprising the theme of the book is set before and after the Acqui Division massacre, during the Second World War. A film adaptation was released in 2001. During filming there was lively debate between the production team, local authorities as well as groups of citizens, as to the complex historical details of the island's antifascist resistance. As a result, political references were omitted from the film, and the romantic core of the book was preserved, without entering complex debates about the island's history. In 2005, Riccardo Milani made his TV film, Cefalonia, also about the massacre, with music by Ennio Morricone.
Museums
Korgialeneios Museum (under the Korgialeneios Library) in Argostoli
Kosmetatos Foundation in Argostoli
Archaeological Museum of Argostoli
Iakovatios-Library (and museum) in Lixouri
Museum in Fiskardo
Kefalonia Natural History Museum
Higher education
Ionian University, Argostoli Campus (Department of Food Science and Technology and Department of Department of Digital Media and Communication)
Ionian University, Lixouri Campus (Department of Ethnomusicology )
National Merchant Marine Academy, Argostoli
The Music School of Kefalonia – Rokos Vergotis Conservatory, Argostoli
Sport
Baseball
AINOS Kefalonia
Cycling
AINOS Kefalonia podilatikos omilos 26710-25029
Football (soccer)
Other sports
Nautical Racing Club of Kefalonia and Ithaca
Natura & Pet – Veterinary pharmacy
Transportation
Harbours and ports
There are five harbours and ports in the prefecture: four main harbours on the island, Sami, a major port with links to Patras and Ithaca; Poros, in the south, has ferry routes to Kyllini; Argostoli, in the west, is the largest port, for local boats and ferries to Zante and regularly to Lixouri; Fiscardo, in the north, has links to Lefkas and Ithaca. There is room for about 100 small boats in Argostoli, where the port stretches 1 kilometre around the bay, while Lixouri is situated across the bay from Argostoli, on the Lixouri peninsula. There is a road connection to the rest of the island, but driving from Lixouri to Argostoli involves a detour.
Roads
The first larger roads were built by the British in the 19th century. In the 20th century asphalted roads were built, and since 1995 almost all streets connecting villages and beaches are covered with asphalt. Since c. 2000 the Lixouri bypass was built and a four lane street south of Argostoli was constructed.
Some important roads include:
Greek National Road 50, commonly Argostoli-Sami Road
Argostoli-Poros Road
Argostoli-Fiskardo Road (with link to Lixouri).
Road linking Poros and Sami
Public transportation
The ferry between Argostoli and Lixouri goes every hour and every half-hour in the season. There are a few bus lines serving the more rural areas of Kefalonia, but often only two times a day. The KTEL bus cooperation offers services from Lixouri, Poros and Argostoli to the mainland.
Airport
Cephalonia has one airport, Kefalonia Island International Airport, named Anna Pollatou (IATA: EFL, ICAO: LGKF) with a runway around . in length, located about south of Argostoli. Almost every scheduled flight is an Olympic Air route, flying mainly to and from Athens, although there is an Ionian Island Hopper service three times a week calling at Cephalonia, Zante and Lefkas. In summer the airport handles a number of charter flights from all over Europe.
In December 2015 the privatisation of Kefalonia Airport and 13 other regional airports of Greece was finalised with the signing of the agreement between the Fraport AG/Copelouzos Group joint venture and the state privatisation fund. "We signed the deal today," the head of Greece's privatisation agency HRADF, Stergios Pitsiorlas, told Reuters. According to the agreement, the joint venture will operate the 14 airports (including Kefallinia International Airport) for 40 years as of autumn 2016.
Administration
Cephalonia is a distinct regional unit of the Ionian Islands region, and since 2019 it consists of three municipalities: Argostoli, Lixouri and Sami. Between the 2011 Kallikratis government reform and 2019, there was one single municipality on the island: Cephalonia, created out of the 8 former municipalities on the island. At the same reform, the regional unit Cephalonia was created out of part of the former Cephalonia Prefecture. The seat of administration is Argostoli, the island's main town.
The municipality of Argostoli consists of the following municipal units (former municipalities):
Argostoli
Eleios-Pronnoi
Leivatho
Omala
The municipality of Sami consists of the following municipal units:
Erisos
Pylaros
Sami
The municipality of Lixouri coincides with the former municipality Paliki.
The regional unit has an area of 786.575 km2. The Cephalonia regional unit also includes a number of uninhabited islands of the Echinades group. They are administered by the municipal unit of Pylaros. The most significant are as follows:
Notable people and residents
Antiquity
Cephalus, hero-figure in Greek mythology, Patriarch of all Kephalonians (Cephallenians)
Odysseus of Ithaca, king of the Cephalonians
Epiphanes was born on Cephalonia in the late 1st century or early 2nd century to Carpocrates (his father), and Alexandria of Kephallenia. He is the legendary author of On Righteousness, a notable Gnostic literary work that promotes communist principles.
Gaius Antonius Hybrida, the uncle of the famed triumvir Mark Antony and co-consul of Cicero, who was exiled to Cephalonia in 59 BC.
Middle Ages to 1800
Juan de Fuca (Ioannis Phokas) (1536–1602), captain and explorer
Constantine Phaulkon (1647–1688), adventurer, first counsellor to King Narai of Ayutthaya
Giacomo Pylarini (1659–1718), doctor who gave the first smallpox inoculation outside of Turkey and contributed to the later development of vaccination against smallpox, by Edward Jenner.
Ilias Miniatis (1669–1714), clergyman, writer and preacher. Born in Lixouri
Leichoudes brothers, founders of the Slavic Greek Latin Academy in Moscow
Andreas Metaxas (Greek: ) (1786 – September 19, 1860), prime minister of Greece born on the island of Cephalonia.
Spiridonos Louzis (Greek: ) (c. 1741–1815), Greek scholar, diplomat, politician and naturalized ambassador of Prussia.
Petros Melissinos Greek: )(c. 1726–1797) was a General of the Army of the Russian Empire and was widely considered the best Russian artilleryman of the 18th century.
1800 to recent past
Giovanni Carandino, also known as Ioannis Karandinos (Greek: Ιωάννης Καραντηνός) was a Greek mathematician and translator of the major French mathematical works in the early 19th century.
Panayis Athanase Vagliano, Greek: a.k.a. Panaghis Athanassiou Vallianos, (1814–1902) was a merchant and shipowner, acclaimed as the father of modern Greek shipping.
Georgios Bonanos, sculptor
Nikolaos Xydias Typaldos (1826–1909), painter
Photinos Panas, (January 30, 1832 – 1903) ophthalmologist, born on the Greek island of Cephalonia, Spartia. In 1860 he obtained his medical degree at Paris. He was the first professor of ophthalmology at the University of Paris, and in 1879 established the ophthalmology clinic at the Hôtel-Dieu de Paris.
Ioannis Metaxas (April 12, 1871 – January 29, 1941), General, appointed Prime Minister of Greece between April and August 1936, and dictator during the 4th of August Regime, from 1936 until his death in 1941.
Marinos Antypas (1872–1907), lawyer and journalist, one of the country's first socialists
Christian Zervos 1889–1970) art collector, writer and publisher
Mikelis Avlichos (1844–1917) Greek Anarchist
Recent past to present
Giorgos Kalafatis (1890–1964), founder of Panathinaikos A.O., his family descended from Dilinata of Cephalonia
Spyridon Marinatos (1901–1974), archaeologist
Antiochos Evangelatos (1903–1981), composer and conductor
Dimitrios Loukatos (1908–2003), folklorist-anthropologist and specialist in Greek folklore.
Nikolaos Platon (1909–1992), archaeologist
Nikos Kavadias (1910–1975), poet and author
Gerasimos D. Arsenis, (1931– ) politician, former minister of Finance, Defense and Education.
Antonis Tritsis (1937–1992), politician, mayor of Athens
Archie Karas (1950–), a Greek gambler known for turning a ten thousand dollar loan into million dollars before losing it all
Gerasimos D. Danilatos, physicist and inventor of environmental scanning electron microscope
Athanassios S. Fokas, Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, University of Cambridge
Richard Wright (1943–2008) from 1984 to 1994, keyboard player with Pink Floyd
Dionisios Vlachos (1964–present), chemical engineer, inventor and director
Anna Pollatou (1983–2014) a rhythmic gymnast; she won a bronze medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics.
Tasia Theoharatos Katapodis (1959 - current); First generation, Greek-American banker, who graduated from Vanderbilt University as the sixth woman in its 147 year history to be Student Government President / First woman named Regional President of a U.S. based bank (Truist Bank) in Atlanta, Georgia. Her parents were born in Komitata, Erisos, Kefalonia and immigrated to the U.S. after the 1953 Great Earthquake on the island.
Gallery
In popular culture
Cephalonia is the home of Kassandra and Alexios, main characters of the videogame Assassin's Creed Odyssey (2018).
The 1994 novel Captain Corelli's Mandolin by Louis de Bernières, and the 2001 film adaptation of the same name, are primarily set in Cephalonia.
See also
Sacred snakes of Cephalonia
References
Further reading
Acta Archaeologica'', volume 73/2 (December 2002) is a special issue dealing with the archaeology of Kephallenia.
External links
Kefalonia Useful Information (PDF)
Municipality of Elios-Pronni
GCatholic with incumbent bio links
International Airport of Kefalonia
About Kefalonia
Islands of Greece
Islands of the Ionian Islands (region)
Regional units of the Ionian Islands (region)
Septinsular Republic
Territories of the Republic of Venice
Populated places in Cephalonia
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online%20community
|
Online community
|
An online community, also called an internet community or web community, is a community whose members interact with each other primarily via the Internet. Members of the community usually share common interests. For many, online communities may feel like home, consisting of a "family of invisible friends". Additionally, these "friends" can be connected through gaming communities and gaming companies. Those who wish to be a part of an online community usually have to become a member via a specific site and thereby gain access to specific content or links.
An online community can act as an information system where members can post, comment on discussions, give advice or collaborate, and includes medical advice or specific health care research as well. Commonly, people communicate through social networking sites, chat rooms, forums, email lists, and discussion boards, and have advanced into daily social media platforms as well. This includes Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Discord (software), etc. People may also join online communities through video games, blogs, and virtual worlds, and could potentially meet new significant others in dating sites or dating virtual worlds.
The rise in popularity of Web 2.0 websites has allowed for easier real-time communication and connection to others and facilitated the introduction of new ways for information to be exchanged. Yet, these interactions may also lead to a downfall of social interactions or deposit more negative and derogatory forms of speaking to others, in connection, surfaced forms of racism, bullying, sexist comments, etc. may also be investigated and linked to online communities.
One scholarly definition of an online community is this: "a virtual community is defined as an aggregation of individuals or business partners who interact around a shared interest, where the interaction is at least partially supported or mediated by technology (or both), and guided by some protocols or norms".
Purpose
Digital communities (web communities but also communities that are formed over, e.g., Xbox and PlayStation) provide a platform for a range of services to users. It has been argued that they can fulfill Maslow's hierarchy of needs. They allow for social interaction across the world between people of different cultures who might not otherwise have met with offline meetings also becoming more common. Another key use of web communities is access to and the exchange of information. With communities for even very small niches it is possible to find people also interested in a topic and to seek and share information on a subject where there are not such people available in the immediate area offline. This has led to a range of popular sites based on areas such as health, employment, finances and education. Online communities can be vital for companies for marketing and outreach.
Unexpected and innovative uses of web communities have also emerged with social networks being used in conflicts to alert citizens of impending attacks, the UN sees the web and specifically social networks as an important tool in conflicts and emergencies.
Web communities have grown in popularity with 6 of the current top 20 websites by traffic being community based sites. The amount of traffic to such websites is expected to increase as by the end of 2015 it is estimated 42% of the worlds population will have internet access compared to 17.6% in 2006 according to the European Travel Commission with current chairman of Google Eric Schmidt stating his belief that by 2020 the entire world will have internet access.
Categorization
The idea of a community is not a new concept. On the telephone, in ham radio and in the online world, social interactions no longer have to be based on proximity; instead they can literally be with anyone anywhere. The study of communities has had to adapt along with the new technologies. Many researchers have used ethnography to attempt to understand what people do in online spaces, how they express themselves, what motivates them, how they govern themselves, what attracts them, and why some people prefer to observe rather than participate. Online communities can congregate around a shared interest and can be spread across multiple websites.
Some signs of community are:
Content: articles, information, and news about a topic of interest to a group of people.
Forums or newsgroups and email: so that community members can communicate in delayed fashion.
Chat and instant messaging: so that community members can communicate more immediately.
Development
There is a set of values known as netiquette (or Internet etiquette) to consider as an online community develops. Some of these values include: opportunity, education, culture, democracy, human services, equality within the economy, information, sustainability, and communication. An online community's purpose is to serve as a common ground for people who share the same interest(s).
Online communities may be used as calendars to keep up with events such as upcoming gatherings or sporting events. They also form around activities and hobbies. Many online communities relating to health care help inform, advise and support patients and their families. Students can take classes online and they may communicate with their professors and peers online. Businesses have also started using online communities to communicate with their customers about their products and services as well as to share information about the business. Other online communities allow a wide variety of professionals to come together to share thoughts, ideas and theories.
Fandom is an example of what online communities can evolve into. Online communities have grown in influence in "shaping the phenomena around which they organize" according to Nancy K. Baym's work. She says that: "More than any other commercial sector, the popular culture industry relies on online communities to publicize and provide testimonials for their products." The strength of the online community's power is displayed through the season 3 premiere of BBC's Sherlock. Online activity by fans seem to have had a noticeable influence on the plot and direction of the season opening episode. Mark Lawson of The Guardian recounts how fans have, to a degree, directed the outcome of the events of the episode. He says that "Sherlock has always been one of the most web-aware shows, among the first to find a satisfying way of representing electronic chatter on-screen." Fan communities in platforms like Twitter, Instagram, and Reddit around sports, actors, musicians have become powerful communities both culturally and politically
Discussions where members may post their feedback are essential in the development of an online community. Online communities may encourage individuals to come together to teach and learn from one another. They may encourage learners to discuss and learn about real-world problems/situations as well as focus on such things as teamwork, collaborative thinking and personal experiences.
Blogs
Blogging involves a website or webpage that is updated in a reverse chronological order on either a topic or a person's life. There are different types of blogs including Microblogging where the amount of information in a single element is smaller as on the popular social network site Twitter and Liveblogging when an ongoing event is blogged upon in real time, this has been used to live update important worldwide stories including a Twitter user inadvertently live blogging the raid which killed Osama bin Laden.
The ease and convenience of blogging has allowed for its growth with platforms such as Twitter and Tumblr combining social media and blogging alongside other solutions such as WordPress which allow content to be hosted on their own servers or for users to download and install the software on their own servers where user made modifications can be added. This has become so popular that as of October 2014 23.1% of the top 10 million websites are either hosted on or run WordPress.
Bulletin boards
Bulletin boards or Internet forums are websites which allow users to post topics also known as threads for discussion with other users able to reply creating a conversation. Forums follow a categorised structure with many popular forum software solutions categorising forums depending on their purpose with multiple forums that can potentially contain sub-forums that within contain threads. With time more advanced features have been added into forums with the ability to attach files, embed YouTube videos and private messaging now common place. Currently the largest forum Gaia Online contains over 2 billion posts.
Members are commonly assigned into user groups which control their access rights and permissions with two popular levels of staff access:
User: A standard account with the ability to create topics and reply
Moderator: Moderators are typically tasked with the daily administration tasks such as answering user queries, dealing with rule breaking posts and the moving, editing or deletion of topics or posts.
Administrator: Administrators deal with the forum strategy including the implementation of new features alongside more technical tasks such as server maintenance.
Social networks
Social networks are platforms allowing users to set up their own profile and build connections with like minded people who pursue similar interests through interaction. The first traceable example of such a site is SixDegrees.com set up in 1997 which included a friends list and the ability to send messages to members linked to friends and see other users associations. For over a decade the popularity of such networks has been growing with Friendster the first social network to gain mass media attention however by 2004 it had been overtaken in popularity by Myspace which was later overtaken by Facebook, by far the most popular social network currently attracting 1.23 billion monthly users in 2013, a rapid increase from 145 million in 2008. This does appear to show a birth and death cycle with new social networks rapidly growing and overtaking their predecessors and sending older networks into decline. Yet, it is noteworthy that the market leader Facebook was the first social network to surpass 1 billion registered accounts and currently sits at more than 2.7 billion active users. The company currently also owns four of the biggest platforms for online communities: Facebook (core platform), Instagram, WhatsApp, and Facebook Messenger. Most top-ranked social networks originate in the U.S. but European services like VK, Japanese platform LINE, or Chinese social networks WeChat, QQ or video-sharing app Douyin (internationally known as TikTok) have also garnered appeal in their respective regions.
Current trends focus around the increased use of mobile devices when using social networks, statistics from Statista show in 2013 97.9 million users accessed social networks from a mobile device in the US with this projected to increase to 160.5 million by 2017.
Classification
Online communities are dynamic by nature and there are researchers and organizations working to classify them. For example, it is important to know the security, access, and technology requirements of a given type of community as it may evolve from an open to a private and regulated forum. A number of authors have studied online communities to better understand how they are structured. It has been argued that the technical aspects of online communities, such as whether pages can be created and edited by many, as is the case with wikis including Wikipedia, or whether only certain users can post entries and edit them, as is the case with most blogs, can place online communities into stylistic categories. Another approach argues that "online community" is a metaphor and that contributors actively negotiate the meaning of the term, including values and social norms.
Some research has looked at the users of online communities. Amy Jo Kim has classified the rituals and stages of online community interaction and called it the 'Membership life cycle'. Clay Shirky talks about community of practice whose members collaborate and help each other in order to make something better or improve a certain skill. What makes these communities bond is "love" of something as demonstrated by members who go out of their way to help without any financial interest. Campbell et al. developed a character theory for analyzing online communities, based on tribal typologies. In the communities they investigated they identified three character types:
The Big Man (offer a form of order and stability to the community by absorbing many conflictual situations personally)
The Sorcerer (will not engage in reciprocity with others in the community)
The Trickster (generally a comical yet complex figure that is found in most of the world's culture)
A 2001 McKinsey & Company study showed that only 2% of transaction site customers returned after their first purchase, while 60% of new online communities users began using and visiting the sites regularly after their first experiences. Online communities have changed the game for retail firms, forcing them to change their business strategies. Companies have to network more, adjust computations, and alter their organizational structures. This leads to changes in a company's communications with their manufacturers including the information shared and made accessible for further productivity and profits. Because consumers and customers in all fields are becoming accustomed to more interaction and engagement online, adjustments must be considered made in order to keep audiences intrigued.
It may be beneficial to introduce a term described by Ray Oldenberg called a third place to help classify online communities. A "third place is a generic designation for a great variety of public places that host the regular, voluntary, informal, and happily anticipated gatherings of individuals beyond the realm of home and work" (Oldenburg, p. 16). An online community can take on the role of a third place. Third places have characteristics that many online communities exhibit, for example: they provide neutral ground for all parties; they are levelers, easily accessible and highly accommodating; conversation is the main activity; they allow people to keep a low profile, and a few others. While these may be characteristics to help classify online communities, they may not all apply to a specific online community nor does an online community need to embody each of these characteristics.
The four requirements of "virtual settlement" include: interactivity, a variety of communicators, a common public place where members can meet and interact, and sustained membership over time. Based on these considerations, it can be said that microblogs such as Twitter can be classified as online communities.
Building communities
According to Dorine C. Andrews, author of Audience-Specific Online Community Design there are three parts to building an online community: starting the online community, encouraging early online interaction, and moving to a self-sustaining interactive environment. When starting an online community, it may be effective to create webpages that appeal to specific interests. Online communities with clear topics and easy access tend to be most effective. In order to gain early interaction by members, privacy guarantees and content discussions are very important. Successful online communities tend to be able to function self-sufficiently.
Participation
There are two major types of participation in online communities: public participation and non-public participation, also called lurking. Lurkers are participants who join a virtual community but do not contribute. In contrast, public participants, or posters, are those who join virtual communities and openly express their beliefs and opinions. Both lurkers and posters frequently enter communities to find answers and to gather general information. For example, there are several online communities dedicated to technology. In these communities, posters are generally experts in the field who can offer technological insight and answer questions, while lurkers tend to be technological novices who use the communities to find answers and to learn.
In general, virtual community participation is influenced by how participants view themselves in society as well as norms, both of society and of the online community. Participants also join online communities for friendship and support. In a sense, virtual communities may fill social voids in participants' offline lives.
Sociologist Barry Wellman presents the idea of "globalization" – the Internet's ability to extend participants' social connections to people around the world while also aiding them in further engagement with their local communities.
Roles in an online community
Although online societies differ in content from real society, the roles people assume in their online communities are quite similar. Elliot Volkman points out several categories of people that play a role in the cycle of social networking, these include:
Community architect – Creates the online community, sets goals and decides the purpose of the site.
Community manager – Oversees the progress of the society. Enforces rules, encourages social norms, assists new members, and spreads awareness about the community.
Professional member – This is a member who is paid to contribute to the site. The purpose of this role is to keep the community active.
Free members – These members visit sites most often and represent the majority of the contributors. Their contributions are crucial to the sites' progress.
Passive lurker – These people do not contribute to the site but rather absorb the content, discussion, and advice.
Active lurker – Consumes the content and shares that content with personal networks and other communities.
Power users – These people push for new discussion, provide positive feedback to community managers, and sometimes even act as community managers themselves. They have a major influence on the site and make up only a small percentage of the users.
Aspects of successful online communities
An article entitled "The real value of on-line communities," written by A Armstrong and John Hagel of the Harvard Business Review, addresses a handful of elements that are key to the growth of an online community and its success in drawing in members. In this example, the article which was available on mendeley.com focuses specifically on online communities related to business, but its points can be transferred and can apply to any online community. The article addresses four main categories of business-based online communities, but states that a truly successful one will combine qualities of each of them: communities of transaction, communities of interest, communities of fantasy, and communities of relationship. Anubhav Choudhury, from incrediblogger.net, provides basic descriptions of each of these four types of online communities.
Communities of transaction emphasize the importance of buying and selling products in a social online manner where people must interact in order to complete the transaction.
Communities of interest involve the online interaction of people with specific knowledge on a certain topic.
Communities of fantasy encourage people to participate in online alternative forms of reality, such as games where they are represented by avatars.
Communities of relationship often reveal or at least partially protect someone's identity while allowing them to communicate with others, such as in online dating services.
Membership lifecycle
Amy Jo Kim's membership lifecycle states that members of online communities begin their life in a community as visitors, or lurkers. After breaking through a barrier, people become novices and participate in community life. After contributing for a sustained period of time they become regulars. If they break through another barrier they become leaders, and once they have contributed to the community for some time they become elders. This life cycle can be applied to many virtual communities, such as bulletin board systems, blogs, mailing lists, and wiki-based communities like Wikipedia.
A similar model can be found in the works of Lave and Wenger, who illustrate a cycle of how users become incorporated into virtual communities using the principles of legitimate peripheral participation. They suggest five types of trajectories amongst a learning community:
Peripheral (i.e. Lurker) – An outside, unstructured participation
Inbound (i.e. Novice) – Newcomer is invested in the community and heading towards full participation
Insider (i.e. Regular) – Full committed community participant
Boundary (i.e. Leader) – A leader, sustains membership participation and brokers interactions
Outbound (i.e. Elder) – Process of leaving the community due to new relationships, new positions, new outlooks
The following shows the correlation between the learning trajectories and Web 2.0 community participation by using the example of YouTube.
Peripheral (Lurker) – Observing the community and viewing content. Does not add to the community content or discussion. The user occasionally goes onto YouTube.com to check out a video that someone has directed them to.
Inbound (Novice) – Just beginning to engage the community. Starts to provide content. Tentatively interacts in a few discussions. The user comments on other user's videos. Potentially posts a video of his or her own.
Insider (Regular) – Consistently adds to the community discussion and content. Interacts with other users. Regularly posts videos. Either videos they have found or made themselves. Makes a concerted effort to comment and rate other users' videos.
Boundary (Leader) – Recognized as a veteran participant. Connects with regulars to make higher concepts ideas. Community grants their opinion greater consideration. The user has become recognized as a contributor to watch. Possibly their videos are podcasts commenting on the state of YouTube and its community. The user would not consider watching another user's videos without commenting on them. Will often correct a user in behavior the community considers inappropriate. Will reference other user's videos in their comments as a way to cross link content.
Outbound (Elders) – Leave the community. Their interests may have changed, the community may have moved in a direction that they don't agree with or they may no longer have time to maintain a constant presence in the community.
Newcomers (Inbound)
Newcomers are important for online communities. Online communities rely on volunteers' contribution, and most online communities face high turnover rate as one of their main challenges. For example, only a minority of Wikipedia users contribute regularly, and only a minority of those contributors participate in community discussions. In one study conducted by Carnegie Mellon University, they found that "more than two-thirds (68%) of newcomers to Usenet groups were never seen again after their first post". Above facts reflect a point that recruiting and remaining new members have become a very crucial problem for online communities: the communities will eventually wither away without replacing members who leave.
Newcomers are new members of the online communities and thus often face many barriers when contributing to a project, and those barriers they face might lead them to give up the project or even leave the community. By conducting a systematic literature review over 20 primary studies regarding to the barriers faced by newcomers when contributing to the open source software projects, Steinmacher et al. identified 15 different barriers and they classified those barriers into five categories as described below.
Social Interaction: this category describes the barriers when newcomers interact with existing members of the community. The three barriers that they found have main influence on newcomers are: "lack of social interaction with project members", "not receiving a timely response", and "receiving an improper response".
Newcomers' Previous Knowledge: this category describes the barriers which is regarding to the newcomers' previous experience related to this project. The three barriers they found classified into this part are: "lack of domain expertise", "lack of technical expertise", and "lack of knowledge of project practices".
Finding a Way to Start: this category describes the issues when newcomers try to start contributing. The two barriers they found are: "Difficulty to find an appropriate task to start with", and "Difficulty to find a mentor".
Documentation: documentation of the project also shown to be barriers for newcomers especially in the Open Source Software projects. The three barriers they found are: "Outdated documentation","Too much documentation", and "Unclear code comments".
Technical Hurdles: technical barriers are also one of the major issue when newcomers start contributing. This category includes barriers: "Issues setting up a local workspace", "Code complexity" and "Software architecture complexity".
Because of the barriers described above, it is very necessary that online communities engage newcomers and help them to adjust to the new environment. From online communities' side, newcomers can be both beneficial and harmful to online communities. On the one side, newcomers can bring online communities innovative ideas and resources. On the other side, their misbehavior caused by lack experiences can be also harmful to communities. Kraut et al. defined five basic issues faced by online communities when dealing with newcomers, and proposed several design claims for each problem in their book Building Successful Online Communities.
Recruitment. Online communities need to keep recruiting new members in the face of high turnover rate of their existing members. Three suggestions are made in the book:
Interpersonal recruitment: recruit new members by old members' personal relationship
Word of mouth recruitment: new members will join in the community because of the word-of-mouth influence from existing member
Impersonal advertisement: although the direct effect is weaker than previous two strategies, impersonal advertising can effectively increase number of people joining among potential members with little prior knowledge of the community.
Selection. Another challenge for online communities is to select the members who are a good fit. Unlike the offline organizations, the problem of selecting right candidates is more problematic for online communities since the anonymity of the users and the ease of creating new identities online. Two approaches are suggested in the book:
Self-selection: make sure that only good fit members will choose to join.
Screen: make sure that only good fit members will allow to join.
Keeping Newcomers Around. Before new members start feel the commitment and do major contribution, they must be around long enough in online communities to learn the norms and form the community attachment. However, majority of them tend to leave the communities at this period of time. At this period of time, new members are usually very sensitive to either positive or negative evidence they received from group, which may largely impact the users' decision on whether they quit or stay. Authors suggested two approaches:
Entry Barriers: Higher entry barriers will be more likely to drive away new members, but those members who survived from this severe initiation process should have stronger commitment than those members with lower entry barriers.
Interactions with existing members: communication with existing member and getting respond from them in friendly environment encourage the new members commitment. The existing members are encouraged to treat the newcomers gently. One research did by Halfaker et al. mentioned in the book suggested reverting new members' work in Wikipedia will likely to make them leave the communities. Thus, new members are more likely to stay and develop commitment if the interaction between existing member and new members are friendly and gentle. The book suggested different ways, including "introduction threads" in the communities, "assign the responsibilities of having friendly interactions with newcomers to designated older-timers", and "discouraging hostility towards newcomers who make mistakes".
Socialization. Different online communities have their own norms and regulations, and new members need to learn to participate in an appropriate way. Thus, socialization is a process through which new members acquire the behaviors and attitude essential to playing their roles in a group or organization. Previous research in organizational socialization demonstrated that newcomers' active information seeking and organizational socialization tactics are associated with better performance, higher job satisfaction, more committed to the organization, more likely to stay and thus lower turnover rate. However, this institutionalized socialization tactics are not popular used in online setting, and most online communities are still using the individualized socialization tactics where newcomers being socialized individually and in a more informal way in their training process. Thus, in order to keep new members, the design suggestions given by this book are: "using formal, sequential and collective socialization tactics" and "old-timers can provide formal mentorship to newcomers."
Protection. Newcomers are different from the existing members, and thus the influx of newcomers might change the environment or the culture developed by existing members. New members might also behave inappropriately and thus be potential harmful to online communities as a result of their lack of experience. Different communities might also have different level of damage tolerance, some might be more fragile to newcomers' inappropriate behavior (such as open source group collaboration software project) while others are not (such as some discussion forums). So the speed of integrating new members with existing communities really depends on community types and its goals, and groups need to have protection mechanisms that serve to multiple purposes.
Motivations and barriers to participation
Successful online communities motivate online participation. Methods of motivating participation in these communities have been investigated in several studies.
There are many persuasive factors that draw users into online communities. Peer-to-peer systems and social networking sites rely heavily on member contribution. Users' underlying motivations to involve themselves in these communities have been linked to some persuasion theories of sociology.
According to the reciprocation theory, a successful online community must provide its users with benefits that compensate for the costs of time, effort and materials members provide. People often join these communities expecting some sort of reward.
The consistency theory says that once people make a public commitment to a virtual society, they will often feel obligated to stay consistent with their commitment by continuing contributions.
The social validation theory explains how people are more likely to join and participate in an online community if it is socially acceptable and popular.
One of the greatest attractions towards online communities is the sense of connection users build among members. Participation and contribution are influenced when members of an online community are aware of their global audience.
The majority of people learn by example and often follow others, especially when it comes to participation. Individuals are reserved about contributing to an online community for many reasons including but not limited to a fear of criticism or inaccuracy. Users may withhold information that they don't believe is particularly interesting, relevant, or truthful. In order to challenge these contribution barriers, producers of these sites are responsible for developing knowledge-based and foundation-based trust among the community.
Users' perception of audience is another reason that makes users participate in online communities. Results showed that users usually underestimate their amount of audiences in online communities. Social media users guess that their audience is 27% of its real size. Regardless of this underestimation, it is shown that amount of audience affects users' self-presentation and also content production which means a higher level of participation.
There are two types of virtual online communities (VOC): dependent and self-sustained VOCs. The dependent VOCs are those who use the virtual community as extensions of themselves, they interact with people they know. Self-sustained VOCs are communities where relationships between participating members is formed and maintained through encounters in the online community. For all VOCs, there is the issue of creating identity and reputation in the community. People can create whatever identity they would like to through their interactions with other members. The username is what members identify each other by but it says very little about the person behind it. The main features in online communities that attract people are a shared communication environment, relationships formed and nurtured, a sense of belonging to a group, the internal structure of the group, common space shared by people with similar ideas and interests. The three most critical issues are belonging, identity, and interest. For an online community to flourish there needs to be consistent participation, interest, and motivation.
Research conducted by Helen Wang applied the Technology Acceptance Model to online community participation. Internet self-efficacy positively predicted perceived ease of use. Research found that participants' beliefs in their abilities to use the internet and web-based tools determined how much effort was expected. Community environment positively predicted perceived ease of use and usefulness. Intrinsic motivation positively predicted perceived ease of use, usefulness, and actual use. The technology acceptance model positively predicts how likely it is that an individual will participate in an online community.
Consumer-vendor interaction
Establishing a relationship between the consumer and a seller has become a new science with the emergence of online communities. It is a new market to be tapped by companies and to do so, requires an understanding of the relationships built on online communities. Online communities gather people around common interests and these common interests can include brands, products, and services. Companies not only have a chance to reach a new group of consumers in online communities, but to also tap into information about the consumers. Companies have a chance to learn about the consumers in an environment that they feel a certain amount of anonymity and are thus, more open to allowing a company to see what they really want or are looking for.
In order to establish a relationship with the consumer a company must seek a way to identify with how individuals interact with the community. This is done by understanding the relationships an individual has with an online community. There are six identifiable relationship statuses: considered status, committed status, inactive status, faded status, recognized status, and unrecognized status. Unrecognized status means the consumer is unaware of the online community or has not decided the community to be useful. The recognized status is where a person is aware of the community, but is not entirely involved. A considered status is when a person begins their involvement with the site. The usage at this stage is still very sporadic. The committed status is when a relationship between a person and an online community is established and the person gets fully involved with the community. The inactive status is when an online community has not relevance to a person. The faded status is when a person has begun to fade away from a site. It is important to be able to recognize which group or status the consumer holds, because it might help determine which approach to use.
Companies not only need to understand how a consumer functions within an online community, but also a company "should understand the communality of an online community" This means a company must understand the dynamic and structure of the online community to be able to establish a relationship with the consumer. Online communities have cultures of their own, and to be able to establish a commercial relationship or even engage at all, one must understand the community values and proprieties. It has even been proved beneficial to treat online commercial relationships more as friendships rather than business transactions.
Through online engagement, because of the smoke screen of anonymity, it allows a person to be able to socially interact with strangers in a much more personal way. This personal connection the consumer feels translates to how they want to establish relationships online. They separate what is commercial or spam and what is relational. Relational becomes what they associate with human interaction while commercial is what they associate with digital or non-human interaction. Thus the online community should not be viewed as "merely a sales channel". Instead it should be viewed as a network for establishing interpersonal communications with the consumer.
Growth cycle
Most online communities grow slowly at first, due in part to the fact that the strength of motivation for contributing is usually proportional to the size of the community. As the size of the potential audience increases, so does the attraction of writing and contributing. This, coupled with the fact that organizational culture does not change overnight, means creators can expect slow progress at first with a new virtual community. As more people begin to participate, however, the aforementioned motivations will increase, creating a virtuous cycle in which more participation begets more participation.
Community adoption can be forecast with the Bass diffusion model, originally conceived by Frank Bass to describe the process by which new products get adopted as an interaction between innovative early adopters and those who follow them.
Online learning community
Online learning is a form of online community. The sites are designed to educate. Colleges and universities may offer many of their classes online to their students; this allows each student to take the class at his or her own pace.
According to an article published in volume 21, issue 5 of the European Management Journal titled "Learning in Online Forums", researchers conducted a series of studies about online learning. They found that while good online learning is difficult to plan, it is quite conducive to educational learning. Online learning can bring together a diverse group of people, and although it is asynchronous learning, if the forum is set up using all the best tools and strategies, it can be very effective.
Another study was published in volume 55, issue 1 of Computers and Education and found results supporting the findings of the article mentioned above. The researchers found that motivation, enjoyment, and team contributions on learning outcomes enhanced students learning and that the students felt they learned well with it. A study published in the same journal looks at how social networking can foster individual well-being and develop skills which can improve the learning experience.
These articles look at a variety of different types of online learning. They suggest that online learning can be quite productive and educational if created and maintained properly.
One feature of online communities is that they are not constrained by time thereby giving members the ability to move through periods of high to low activity over a period of time. This dynamic nature maintains a freshness and variety that traditional methods of learning might not have been able to provide.
It appears that online communities such as Wikipedia have become a source of professional learning. They are an active learning environment in which learners converse and inquire.
In a study exclusive to teachers in online communities, results showed that membership in online communities provided teachers with a rich source of professional learning that satisfied each member of the community.
Saurabh Tyagi describes benefits of online community learning which include:
No physical boundaries: Online communities do not limit their membership nor exclude based on where one lives.
Supports in-class learning: Due to time constraints, discussion boards are more efficient for question & answer sessions than allowing time after lectures to ask questions.
Build a social and collaborative learning experience: People are best able to learn when they engage, communicate, and collaborate with each other. Online communities create an environment where users can collaborate through social interaction and shared experiences.
Self-governance: Anyone who can access the internet is self-empowered. The immediate access to information allows users to educate themselves.
These terms are taken from Edudemic, a site about teaching and learning. The article "How to Build Effective Online Learning Communities" provides background information about online communities as well as how to incorporate learning within an online community.
Video "Gaming" and Online Interactions
One of the greatest attractions towards online communities and the role assigned to an online community, is the sense of connection in which users are able to build among other members and associates. Thus, it is typical to reference online communities when regarding the 'gaming' universe. The online video game industry has embraced the concepts of cooperative and diverse gaming in order to provide players with a sense of community or togetherness. Video games have long been seen as a solo endeavor – as a way to escape reality and leave social interaction at the door. Yet, online community networks or talk pages have now allowed forms of connection with other users. These connections offer forms of aid in the games themselves, as well as an overall collaboration and interaction in the network space. For example, a study conducted by Pontus Strimling and Seth Frey found that players would generate their own models of fair "loot" distribution through community interaction if they felt that the model provided by the game itself was insufficient.
The popularity of competitive the online multiplayer games has now even promoted informal social interaction through the use of the recognized communities.
Problems With Online Gaming Communities
As with other online communities, problems do arise when approaching the usages of online communities in the gaming culture, as well as those who are utilizing the spaces for their own agendas. "Gaming Culture" offers individuals personal experiences, development of creativity, as well an assemblance of togetherness that potentially resembles formalized social communication techniques. On the other hand, these communities could also include toxicity, online disinhibition, and cyberbullying.
Toxicity: Toxicity in games usually takes the form of abusive or negative language or behavior.
Online Disinhibition: The utilization in gaming communities to say things that normally wouldn't have been said in an in-person scenario. Offers the individual the access to less restraint ion culturally appropriated interactions, and is typically through the form of aggressiveness. This action is also typically offered through the form of anonymity.
Dissociative Anonymity
Invisibility
Power of Status and Authority
Cyberbullying: Cyberbullying stems from various levels of degree, but inevitably is cast as abuse and harassment in nature.
Online health community
Online health communities is one example of online communities which is heavily used by internet users. A key benefit of online health communities is providing user access to other users with similar problems or experiences which has a significant impact on the lives of their members. Through people participation, online health communities will be able to offer patients opportunities for emotional support and also will provide them access to experience-based information about particular problem or possible treatment strategies. Even in some studies, it is shown that users find experienced-based information more relevant than information which was prescribed by professionals. Moreover, allowing patients to collaborate anonymously in some of online health communities suggests users a non-judgmental environment to share their problems, knowledge, and experiences. However, recent research has indicated that socioeconomic differences between patients may result in feelings of alienation or exclusion within these communities, even despite attempts to make the environments inclusive.
Problems
Online communities are relatively new and unexplored areas. They promote a whole new community that prior to the Internet was not available. Although they can promote a vast array of positive qualities, such as relationships without regard to race, religion, gender, or geography, they can also lead to multiple problems.
The theory of risk perception, an uncertainty in participating in an online community, is quite common, particularly when in the following online circumstances:
performances,
financial,
opportunity/time,
safety,
social,
psychological loss.
Clay Shirky explains one of these problems like two hoola-hoops. With the emersion of online communities there is a "real life" hoola-hoop and the other and "online life". These two hoops used to be completely separate but now they have swung together and overlap. The problem with this overlap is that there is no distinction anymore between face-to-face interactions and virtual ones; they are one and the same. Shirky illustrates this by explaining a meeting. A group of people will sit in a meeting but they will all be connected into a virtual world also, using online communities such as wiki.
A further problem is identity formation with the ambiguous real-virtual life mix. Identity formation in the real world consisted of "one body, one identity", but the online communities allow you to create "as many electronic personae" as you please. This can lead to identity deception. Claiming to be someone you're not can be problematic with other online community users and for yourself. Creating a false identity can cause confusion and ambivalence about which identity is true.
A lack of trust regarding personal or professional information is problematic with questions of identity or information reciprocity. Often, if information is given to another user of an online community, one expects equal information shared back. However, this may not be the case or the other user may use the information given in harmful ways. The construction of an individual's identity within an online community requires self-presentation. Self-presentation is the act of "writing the self into being", in which a person's identity is formed by what that person says, does, or shows. This also poses a potential problem as such self-representation is open for interpretation as well as misinterpretation. While an individual's online identity can be entirely constructed with a few of his/her own sentences, perceptions of this identity can be entirely misguided and incorrect.
Online communities present the problems of preoccupation, distraction, detachment, and desensitization to an individual, although online support groups exist now. Online communities do present potential risks, and users must remember to be careful and remember that just because an online community feels safe does not mean it necessarily is.
Trolling and harassment
Cyber bullying, the "use of long-term aggressive, intentional, repetitive acts by one or more individuals, using electronic means, against an almost powerless victim" which has increased in frequency alongside the continued growth of web communities with an Open University study finding 38% of young people had experienced or witnessed cyber bullying. It has received significant media attention due to high-profile incidents such as the death of Amanda Todd who before her death detailed her ordeal on YouTube.
A key feature of such bullying is that it allows victims to be harassed at all times, something not possible typically with physical bullying. This has forced Governments and other organisations to change their typical approach to bullying with the UK Department for Education now issuing advice to schools on how to deal with cyber bullying cases.
The most common problem with online communities tend to be online harassment, meaning threatening or offensive content aimed at known friends or strangers through ways of online technology. Where such posting is done "for the lulz" (that is, for the fun of it), then it is known as trolling. Sometimes trolling is done in order to harm others for the gratification of the person posting. The primary motivation for such posters, known in character theory as "snerts", is the sense of power and exposure it gives them.
Online harassment tends to affect adolescents the most due to their risk-taking behavior and decision-making processes. One notable example is that of Natasha MacBryde who was tormented by Sean Duffy, who was later prosecuted. In 2010, Alexis Pilkington, a 17-year-old New Yorker committed suicide. Trolls pounced on her tribute page posting insensitive and hurtful images of nooses and other suicidal symbolism. Four years prior to that an 18-year-old died in a car crash in California. Trolls took images of her disfigured body they found on the internet and used them to torture the girl's grieving parents.
Psychological research has shown that anonymity increases unethical behavior through what is called the online disinhibition effect. Many website and online communities have attempted to combat trolling. There has not been a single effective method to discourage anonymity, and arguments exist claiming that removing Internet users' anonymity is an intrusion of their privacy and violates their right to free speech. Julie Zhou, writing for the New York Times, comments that "There's no way to truly rid the Internet of anonymity. After all, names and email addresses can be faked. And in any case many commenters write things that are rude or inflammatory under their real names". Thus, some trolls don't even bother to hide their actions and take pride in their behavior. The rate of reported online harassment has been increasing as there has been a 50% increase in accounts of youth online harassment from the years 2000–2005.
Another form of harassment prevalent online is called flaming. According to a study conducted by Peter J. Moor, flaming is defined as displaying hostility by insulting, swearing or using otherwise offensive language. Flaming can be done in either a group style format (the comments section on YouTube) or in a one-on-one format (private messaging on Facebook). Several studies have shown that flaming is more apparent in computer mediated conversation than in face to face interaction. For example, a study conducted by Kiesler et al. found that people who met online judged each other more harshly than those who met face to face. The study goes on to say that the people who communicated by computer "felt and acted as though the setting was more impersonal, and their behavior was more uninhibited. These findings suggest that computer-mediated communication ... elicits asocial or unregulated behavior".
Unregulated communities are established when online users communicate on a site although there are no mutual terms of usage. There is no regulator. Online interest groups or anonymous blogs are examples of unregulated communities.
Cyberbullying is also prominent online. Cyberbullying is defined as willful and repeated harm inflicted towards another through information technology mediums. Cyberbullying victimization has ascended to the forefront of the public agenda after a number of news stories came out on the topic. For example, Rutgers freshman Tyler Clementi committed suicide in 2010 after his roommate secretly filmed him in an intimate encounter and then streamed the video over the Internet. Numerous states, such as New Jersey, have created and passed laws that do not allow any sort of harassment on, near, or off school grounds that disrupts or interferes with the operation of the school or the rights of other students. In general, sexual and gender-based harassment online has been deemed a significant problem.
Trolling and cyber bullying in online communities are very difficult to stop for several reasons:
Community members don't wish to violate libertarian ideologies that state everyone has the right to speak.
The distributed nature of online communities make it difficult for members to come to an agreement.
Deciding who should moderate and how create difficulty of community management.
An online community is a group of people with common interests who use the Internet (web sites, email, instant messaging, etc.) to communicate, work together and pursue their interests over time.
Hazing
A lesser known problem is hazing within online communities. Members of an elite online community use hazing to display their power, produce inequality, and instill loyalty into newcomers. While online hazing doesn't inflict physical duress, "the status values of domination and subordination are just as effectively transmitted". Elite members of the in-group may haze by employing derogatory terms to refer to newcomers, using deception or playing mind games, or participating in intimidation, among other activities.
"[T]hrough hazing, established members tell newcomers that they must be able to tolerate a certain level of aggressiveness, grossness, and obnoxiousness in order to fit in and be accepted by the BlueSky community".
Privacy
Online communities like social networking websites have a very unclear distinction between private and public information. For most social networks, users have to give personal information to add to their profiles. Usually, users can control what type of information other people in the online community can access based on the users familiarity with the people or the users level of comfort. These limitations are known as "privacy settings". Privacy settings bring up the question of how privacy settings and terms of service affect the expectation of privacy in social media. After all, the purpose of an online community is to share a common space with one another. Furthermore, it is hard to take legal action when a user feels that his or her privacy has been invaded because he or she technically knew what the online community entailed. Creator of the social networking site Facebook, Mark Zuckerberg, noticed a change in users' behavior from when he first initiated Facebook. It seemed that "society's willingness to share has created an environment where privacy concerns are less important to users of social networks today than they were when social networking began". However even though a user might keep his or her personal information private, his or her activity is open to the whole web to access. When a user posts information to a site or comments or responds to information posted by others, social networking sites create a tracking record of the user's activity. Platforms such as Google and Facebook collect massive amounts of this user data through their surveillance infrastructures.
Internet privacy relates to the transmission and storage of a persons data and their right to anonymity whilst online with the UN in 2013 adopting online privacy as a human right by a unanimous vote. Many websites allow users to sign up with a username which needn't be their actual name which allows a level of anonymity, in some cases such as the infamous imageboard 4chan users of the site do not need an account to engage with discussions. However, in these cases depending on the detail of information about a person posted it can still be possible to work out a users identity.
Even when a person takes measures to protect their anonymity and privacy revelations by Edward Snowden a former contractor at the Central Intelligence Agency about mass surveillance programs conducted by the US intelligence services involving the mass collection of data on both domestic and international users of popular websites including Facebook and YouTube as well as the collection of information straight from fiber cables without consent appear to show individuals privacy is not always respected. Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg publicly stated that the company had not been informed of any such programs and only handed over individual users data when required by law implying that if the allegations are true that the data harvested had been done so without the company's consent.
The growing popularity of social networks where a user using their real name is the norm also brings a new challenge with one survey of 2,303 managers finding 37% investigated candidates social media activity during the hiring process with a study showing 1 in 10 job application rejections for those aged 16 to 34 could be due to social media checks.
Reliability of information
Web communities can be an easy and useful tool to access information. However, the information contained as well as the users' credentials cannot always be trusted, with the internet giving a relatively anonymous medium for some to fraudulently claim anything from their qualifications or where they live to, in rare cases, pretending to be a specific person. Malicious fake accounts created with the aim of defrauding victims out of money has become more high-profile with four men sentenced to between 8 years and 46 weeks for defrauding 12 women out of £250,000 using fake accounts on a dating website. In relation to accuracy one survey based on Wikipedia that evaluated 50 articles found that 24% contained inaccuracies, while in most cases the consequence might just be the spread of misinformation in areas such as health the consequences can be far more damaging leading to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration providing help on evaluating health information on the web.
Imbalance
The 1% rule states that within an online community as a rule of thumb only 1% of users actively contribute to creating content. Other variations also exist such as the 1-9-90 rule when taking editing into account. This raises problems for online communities with most users only interested in the information such a community might contain rather than having an interest in actively contributing which can lead to staleness in information and community decline. This has led such communities which rely on user editing of content to promote users into becoming active contributors as well as retention of such existing members through projects such as the Wikimedia Account Creation Improvement Project.
Legal issues
In the US, two of the most important laws dealing with legal issues of online communities, especially social networking sites are Section 512c of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act and Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act.
Section 512c removes liability for copyright infringement from sites that let users post content, so long as there is a way by which the copyright owner can request the removal of infringing content. The website may not receive any financial benefit from the infringing activities.
Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act gives protection from any liability as a result from the publication provided by another party. Common issues include defamation, but many courts have expanded it to include other claims as well.
Online communities of various kinds (social networking sites, blogs, media sharing sites, etc.) are posing new challenges for all levels of law enforcement in combating many kinds of crimes including harassment, identity theft, copyright infringement, etc.
Copyright law is being challenged and debated with the shift in how individuals now disseminate their intellectual property. Individuals come together via online communities in collaborative efforts to create. Many describe current copyright law as being ill-equipped to manage the interests of individuals or groups involved in these collaborative efforts. Some say that these laws may even discourage this kind of production.
Laws governing online behavior pose another challenge to lawmakers in that they must work to enact laws that protect the public without infringing upon their rights to free speech. Perhaps the most talked about issue of this sort is that of cyberbullying. Some scholars call for collaborative efforts between parents, schools, lawmakers, and law enforcement to curtail cyberbullying.
Laws must continually adapt to the ever-changing landscape of social media in all its forms; some legal scholars contend that lawmakers need to take an interdisciplinary approach to creating effective policy whether it is regulatory, for public safety, or otherwise. Experts in the social sciences can shed light on new trends that emerge in the usage of social media by different segments of society (including youths). Armed with this data, lawmakers can write and pass legislation that protect and empower various online community members.
See also
Clan (computer gaming)
Commons-based peer production
Digital altruism
Immersion (virtual reality)
Internet activism
Internet influences on communities
Internet trolling
Learner generated context
Mass collaboration
Network of practice
Online community manager
Online deliberation
Online ethnography
Online research community
Professional network service
Social media
Social web
Support groups
Tribe (internet)
Video game culture
References
Shuie, Yih-Chearng. "Exploring and Mitigating Social Loafing in Online Communities". Computers and Behavior. v.26.4, July 2010. pp. 768–777
Matzat, Uwe. "Reducing Problems of Sociability in Online Communities: Integrating Online Communication with Offline Interaction". American Behavioral Scientist. 2010. pp. 1170–1193
Lwin, May O. "Stop Bugging Me: An Examination of Adolescents' Protection Behavior Against Online Harassment" Journal of Adolescence. 2011. pp. 1–11
Strutin, Ken. "Social Media and the Vanishing Points of Ethical and Constitutional Boundaries." Pace Law Review 31.1 (2011): 228–90. Wilson Web. Web. 20 October 2011
Lothian, A. "Archival anarchies: Online fandom, subcultural conservation, and the transformative work of digital ephemera", 541-556
Notes
Further reading
Barzilai, G. (2003). Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.
Dasgupta, S. (2010). Social Computing: Concepts, Methodologies, Tools, and Applications. IGI Global. ().
Ebner, W.; Leimeister, J. M.; Krcmar, H. (2009): Community Engineering for Innovations -The Ideas Competition as a method to nurture a Virtual Community for Innovations. In: R&D Management, 39 (4), pp. 342–356
Else, Liz & Turkle, Sherry. "Living online: I'll have to ask my friends", New Scientist, issue 2569, 20 September 2006. (interview)
Hafner, K. 2001. The WELL: A Story of Love, Death and Real Life in the Seminal Online Community Carroll & Graf Publishers ()
Gurak, Laura J. 1997. Persuasion and Privacy in Cyberspace: the Online Protests over Lotus Marketplace and the Clipper Chip. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Hagel, J. & Armstrong, A. (1997). Net Gain: Expanding Markets through Virtual Communities. Boston: Harvard Business School Press ()
IRMA. Virtual Communities: Concepts, Methodologies, Tools and Applications. IGI Global: New York, NY ()
Kim, A.J. (2000). Community Building on the Web: Secret Strategies for Successful Online Communities. London: Addison Wesley ()
Kim, A.J. (2004). "Emergent Purpose." Musings of a Social Architect. 24 January 2004. Retrieved 4 April 2006 .
Leimeister, J. M.; Sidiras, P.; Krcmar, H. (2006): Exploring Success Factors of Virtual Communities: The Perspectives of Members and Operators. In: Journal of Organizational Computing & Electronic Commerce (JoCEC), 16 (3&4), 277–298
Leimeister, J.M.; Krcmar, H. (2005): Evaluation of a Systematic Design for a Virtual Patient Community. In: Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 10 (4) .
Preece, J. (2000). Online Communities: Supporting Sociability, Designing Usability. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. ()
Davis Powell, Connie. "Iou Already Have Zero Privacy. Getoverit!"1WouldWarrenand Brandeis Argue for Privacy for Social Networking?" Pace Law Review 31.1 (2011): 146–81.
Salkin, Patricia E. "Social Networking and Land Use Planning and Regulation: Practical Benefits, Pitfalls, and Ethical Considerations." Pace Law Review 31.1 (2011): 54–94.
Romm-Livermore, C. & Setzekorn, K. (2008). Social Networking Communities and EDating Services: Concepts and Implications. IGI Global: New York. ()
External links
Virtual reality
Community building
Social information processing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coagulation
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Coagulation
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Coagulation, also known as clotting, is the process by which blood changes from a liquid to a gel, forming a blood clot. It potentially results in hemostasis, the cessation of blood loss from a damaged vessel, followed by repair. The mechanism of coagulation involves activation, adhesion and aggregation of platelets, as well as deposition and maturation of fibrin.
Coagulation begins almost instantly after an injury to the endothelium lining a blood vessel. Exposure of blood to the subendothelial space initiates two processes: changes in platelets, and the exposure of subendothelial tissue factor to plasma factor VII, which ultimately leads to cross-linked fibrin formation. Platelets immediately form a plug at the site of injury; this is called primary hemostasis. Secondary hemostasis occurs simultaneously: additional coagulation (clotting) factors beyond factor VII (listed below) respond in a cascade to form fibrin strands, which strengthen the platelet plug.
Disorders of coagulation are disease states which can result in problems with hemorrhage, bruising, or thrombosis.
Coagulation is highly conserved throughout biology. In all mammals, coagulation involves both cellular components (platelets) and proteinaceous components (here, coagulation factors). The pathway in humans has been the most extensively researched and is the best understood.
Physiology
Platelet activation
When the endothelium is damaged, the normally isolated underlying collagen is exposed to circulating platelets, which bind directly to collagen with collagen-specific glycoprotein Ia/IIa surface receptors. This adhesion is strengthened further by von Willebrand factor (vWF), which is released from the endothelium and from platelets; vWF forms additional links between the platelets' glycoprotein Ib/IX/V and A1 domain. This localization of platelets to the extracellular matrix promotes collagen interaction with platelet glycoprotein VI. Binding of collagen to glycoprotein VI triggers a signaling cascade that results in activation of platelet integrins. Activated integrins mediate tight binding of platelets to the extracellular matrix. This process adheres platelets to the site of injury.
Activated platelets release the contents of stored granules into the blood plasma. The granules include ADP, serotonin, platelet-activating factor (PAF), vWF, platelet factor 4, and thromboxane A2 (TXA2), which, in turn, activate additional platelets. The granules' contents activate a Gq-linked protein receptor cascade, resulting in increased calcium concentration in the platelets' cytosol. The calcium activates protein kinase C, which, in turn, activates phospholipase A2 (PLA2). PLA2 then modifies the integrin membrane glycoprotein IIb/IIIa, increasing its affinity to bind fibrinogen. The activated platelets change shape from spherical to stellate, and the fibrinogen cross-links with glycoprotein IIb/IIIa aid in aggregation of adjacent platelets (completing primary hemostasis).
Coagulation cascade
The coagulation cascade of secondary hemostasis has two initial pathways which lead to fibrin formation. These are the contact activation pathway (also known as the intrinsic pathway), and the tissue factor pathway (also known as the extrinsic pathway), which both lead to the same fundamental reactions that produce fibrin. It was previously thought that the two pathways of coagulation cascade were of equal importance, but it is now known that the primary pathway for the initiation of blood coagulation is the tissue factor (extrinsic) pathway. The pathways are a series of reactions, in which a zymogen (inactive enzyme precursor) of a serine protease and its glycoprotein co-factor are activated to become active components that then catalyze the next reaction in the cascade, ultimately resulting in cross-linked fibrin. Coagulation factors are generally indicated by Roman numerals, with a lowercase a appended to indicate an active form.
The coagulation factors are generally enzymes called serine proteases, which act by cleaving downstream proteins. The exceptions are tissue factor, FV, FVIII, FXIII. Tissue factor, FV and FVIII are glycoproteins, and Factor XIII is a transglutaminase. The coagulation factors circulate as inactive zymogens.
The coagulation cascade is therefore classically divided into three pathways. The tissue factor and contact activation pathways both activate the "final common pathway" of factor X, thrombin and fibrin.
Tissue factor pathway (extrinsic)
The main role of the tissue factor (TF) pathway is to generate a "thrombin burst", a process by which thrombin, the most important constituent of the coagulation cascade in terms of its feedback activation roles is released very rapidly. FVIIa circulates in a higher amount than any other activated coagulation factor. The process includes the following steps:
Following damage to the blood vessel, FVII leaves the circulation and comes into contact with tissue factor expressed on tissue-factor-bearing cells (stromal fibroblasts and leukocytes), forming an activated complex (TF-FVIIa).
TF-FVIIa activates FIX and FX.
FVII is itself activated by thrombin, FXIa, FXII, and FXa.
The activation of FX (to form FXa) by TF-FVIIa is almost immediately inhibited by tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI).
FXa and its co-factor FVa form the prothrombinase complex, which activates prothrombin to thrombin.
Thrombin then activates other components of the coagulation cascade, including FV and FVIII (which forms a complex with FIX), and activates and releases FVIII from being bound to vWF.
FVIIIa is the co-factor of FIXa, and together they form the "tenase" complex, which activates FX; and so the cycle continues. ("Tenase" is a contraction of "ten" and the suffix "-ase" used for enzymes.)
Contact activation pathway (intrinsic)
The contact activation pathway begins with formation of the primary complex on collagen by high-molecular-weight kininogen (HMWK), prekallikrein, and FXII (Hageman factor). Prekallikrein is converted to kallikrein and FXII becomes FXIIa. FXIIa converts FXI into FXIa. Factor XIa activates FIX, which with its co-factor FVIIIa form the tenase complex, which activates FX to FXa. The minor role that the contact activation pathway has in initiating clot formation can be illustrated by the fact that individuals with severe deficiencies of FXII, HMWK, and prekallikrein do not have a bleeding disorder. Instead, contact activation system seems to be more involved in inflammation, and innate immunity. Despite this, interference with the pathway may confer protection against thrombosis without a significant bleeding risk.
Final common pathway
The division of coagulation in two pathways is arbitrary, originating from laboratory tests in which clotting times were measured either after the clotting was initiated by glass, the intrinsic pathway; or clotting was initiated by thromboplastin (a mix of tissue factor and phospholipids), the extrinsic pathway.
Further, the final common pathway scheme implies that prothrombin is converted to thrombin only when acted upon by the intrinsic or extrinsic pathways, which is an oversimplification. In fact, thrombin is generated by activated platelets at the initiation of the platelet plug, which in turn promotes more platelet activation.
Thrombin functions not only to convert fibrinogen to fibrin, it also activates Factors VIII and V and their inhibitor protein C (in the presence of thrombomodulin); and it activates Factor XIII, which forms covalent bonds that crosslink the fibrin polymers that form from activated monomers.
The coagulation cascade is maintained in a prothrombotic state by the continued activation of FVIII and FIX to form the tenase complex until it is down-regulated by the anticoagulant pathways.
Cell-based scheme of coagulation
A newer model of coagulation mechanism explains the intricate combination of cellular and biochemical events that occur during the coagulation process in vivo. Along with the procoagulant and anticoagulant plasma proteins, normal physiologic coagulation requires the presence of two cell types for formation of coagulation complexes: cells that express tissue factor (usually extravascular) and platelets.
The coagulation process occurs in two phases. First is the initiation phase, which occurs in tissue-factor-expressing cells. This is followed by the propagation phase, which occurs on activated platelets. The initiation phase, mediated by the tissue factor exposure, proceeds via the classic extrinsic pathway and contributes to about 5% of thrombin production. The amplified production of thrombin occurs via the classic intrinsic pathway in the propagation phase; about 95% of thrombin generated will be during this second phase.
Cofactors
Various substances are required for the proper functioning of the coagulation cascade:
Calcium and phospholipids
Calcium and phospholipids (constituents of platelet membrane) are required for the tenase and prothrombinase complexes to function. Calcium mediates the binding of the complexes via the terminal gamma-carboxy residues on Factor Xa and Factor IXa to the phospholipid surfaces expressed by platelets, as well as procoagulant microparticles or microvesicles shed from them. Calcium is also required at other points in the coagulation cascade. Calcium ions play a major role in the regulation of coagulation cascade that is paramount in the maintenance of hemostasis. Other than platelet activation, calcium ions are responsible for complete activation of several coagulation factors, including coagulation Factor XIII.
Vitamin K
Vitamin K is an essential factor to a hepatic gamma-glutamyl carboxylase that adds a carboxyl group to glutamic acid residues on factors II, VII, IX and X, as well as Protein S, Protein C and Protein Z. In adding the gamma-carboxyl group to glutamate residues on the immature clotting factors, Vitamin K is itself oxidized. Another enzyme, Vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKORC), reduces vitamin K back to its active form. Vitamin K epoxide reductase is pharmacologically important as a target of anticoagulant drugs warfarin and related coumarins such as acenocoumarol, phenprocoumon, and dicumarol. These drugs create a deficiency of reduced vitamin K by blocking VKORC, thereby inhibiting maturation of clotting factors. Vitamin K deficiency from other causes (e.g., in malabsorption) or impaired vitamin K metabolism in disease (e.g., in liver failure) lead to the formation of PIVKAs (proteins formed in vitamin K absence), which are partially or totally non-gamma carboxylated, affecting the coagulation factors' ability to bind to phospholipid.
Regulators
Five mechanisms keep platelet activation and the coagulation cascade in check. Abnormalities can lead to an increased tendency toward thrombosis:
Protein C
Protein C is a major physiological anticoagulant. It is a vitamin K-dependent serine protease enzyme that is activated by thrombin into activated protein C (APC). Protein C is activated in a sequence that starts with Protein C and thrombin binding to a cell surface protein thrombomodulin. Thrombomodulin binds these proteins in such a way that it activates Protein C. The activated form, along with protein S and a phospholipid as cofactors, degrades FVa and FVIIIa. Quantitative or qualitative deficiency of either (protein C or protein S) may lead to thrombophilia (a tendency to develop thrombosis). Impaired action of Protein C (activated Protein C resistance), for example by having the "Leiden" variant of Factor V or high levels of FVIII, also may lead to a thrombotic tendency.
Antithrombin
Antithrombin is a serine protease inhibitor (serpin) that degrades the serine proteases: thrombin, FIXa, FXa, FXIa, and FXIIa. It is constantly active, but its adhesion to these factors is increased by the presence of heparan sulfate (a glycosaminoglycan) or the administration of heparins (different heparinoids increase affinity to FXa, thrombin, or both). Quantitative or qualitative deficiency of antithrombin (inborn or acquired, e.g., in proteinuria) leads to thrombophilia.
Tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI)
Tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI) limits the action of tissue factor (TF). It also inhibits excessive TF-mediated activation of FVII and FX.
Plasmin
Plasmin is generated by proteolytic cleavage of plasminogen, a plasma protein synthesized in the liver. This cleavage is catalyzed by tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA), which is synthesized and secreted by endothelium. Plasmin proteolytically cleaves fibrin into fibrin degradation products that inhibit excessive fibrin formation.
Prostacyclin
Prostacyclin (PGI2) is released by endothelium and activates platelet Gs protein-linked receptors. This, in turn, activates adenylyl cyclase, which synthesizes cAMP. cAMP inhibits platelet activation by decreasing cytosolic levels of calcium and, by doing so, inhibits the release of granules that would lead to activation of additional platelets and the coagulation cascade.
Fibrinolysis
Eventually, blood clots are reorganized and resorbed by a process termed fibrinolysis. The main enzyme responsible for this process (plasmin) is regulated by various activators and inhibitors.
Role in immune system
The coagulation system overlaps with the immune system. Coagulation can physically trap invading microbes in blood clots. Also, some products of the coagulation system can contribute to the innate immune system by their ability to increase vascular permeability and act as chemotactic agents for phagocytic cells. In addition, some of the products of the coagulation system are directly antimicrobial. For example, beta-lysine, an amino acid produced by platelets during coagulation, can cause lysis of many Gram-positive bacteria by acting as a cationic detergent. Many acute-phase proteins of inflammation are involved in the coagulation system. In addition, pathogenic bacteria may secrete agents that alter the coagulation system, e.g. coagulase and streptokinase.
Assessment
Numerous tests are used to assess the function of the coagulation system:
Common: aPTT, PT (also used to determine INR), fibrinogen testing (often by the Clauss method), platelet count, platelet function testing (often by PFA-100), thrombodynamics test.
Other: TCT, bleeding time, mixing test (whether an abnormality corrects if the patient's plasma is mixed with normal plasma), coagulation factor assays, antiphospholipid antibodies, D-dimer, genetic tests (e.g. factor V Leiden, prothrombin mutation G20210A), dilute Russell's viper venom time (dRVVT), miscellaneous platelet function tests, thromboelastography (TEG or Sonoclot), euglobulin lysis time (ELT).
The contact activation (intrinsic) pathway is initiated by activation of the "contact factors" of plasma, and can be measured by the activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) test.
The tissue factor (extrinsic) pathway is initiated by release of tissue factor (a specific cellular lipoprotein), and can be measured by the prothrombin time (PT) test. PT results are often reported as ratio (INR value) to monitor dosing of oral anticoagulants such as warfarin.
The quantitative and qualitative screening of fibrinogen is measured by the thrombin clotting time (TCT). Measurement of the exact amount of fibrinogen present in the blood is generally done using the Clauss method for fibrinogen testing. Many analysers are capable of measuring a "derived fibrinogen" level from the graph of the Prothrombin time clot.
If a coagulation factor is part of the contact activation or tissue factor pathway, a deficiency of that factor will affect only one of the tests: Thus hemophilia A, a deficiency of factor VIII, which is part of the contact activation pathway, results in an abnormally prolonged aPTT test but a normal PT test. The exceptions are prothrombin, fibrinogen, and some variants of FX that can be detected only by either aPTT or PT. If an abnormal PT or aPTT is present, additional testing will occur to determine which (if any) factor is present as aberrant concentrations.
Deficiencies of fibrinogen (quantitative or qualitative) will affect all screening tests.
Role in disease
Coagulation defects may cause hemorrhage or thrombosis, and occasionally both, depending on the nature of the defect.
Platelet disorders
Platelet disorders are either congenital or acquired. Examples of congenital platelet disorders are Glanzmann's thrombasthenia, Bernard–Soulier syndrome (abnormal glycoprotein Ib-IX-V complex), gray platelet syndrome (deficient alpha granules), and delta storage pool deficiency (deficient dense granules). Most are rare. They predispose to hemorrhage. Von Willebrand disease is due to deficiency or abnormal function of von Willebrand factor, and leads to a similar bleeding pattern; its milder forms are relatively common.
Decreased platelet numbers (thrombocytopenia) is due to insufficient production (e.g., myelodysplastic syndrome or other bone marrow disorders), destruction by the immune system (immune thrombocytopenic purpura/ITP), or consumption (e.g., thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura/TTP, hemolytic-uremic syndrome/HUS, paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria/PNH, disseminated intravascular coagulation/DIC, heparin-induced thrombocytopenia/HIT). Most consumptive conditions lead to platelet activation, and some are associated with thrombosis.
Coagulation factor disorders
The best-known coagulation factor disorders are the hemophilias. The three main forms are hemophilia A (factor VIII deficiency), hemophilia B (factor IX deficiency or "Christmas disease") and hemophilia C (factor XI deficiency, mild bleeding tendency).
Von Willebrand disease (which behaves more like a platelet disorder except in severe cases), is the most common hereditary bleeding disorder and is characterized as being inherited autosomal recessive or dominant. In this disease, there is a defect in von Willebrand factor (vWF), which mediates the binding of glycoprotein Ib (GPIb) to collagen. This binding helps mediate the activation of platelets and formation of primary hemostasis.
In acute or chronic liver failure, there is insufficient production of coagulation factors, possibly increasing risk of bleeding during surgery.
Thrombosis is the pathological development of blood clots. These clots may break free and become mobile, forming an embolus or grow to such a size that occludes the vessel in which it developed. An embolism is said to occur when the thrombus (blood clot) becomes a mobile embolus and migrates to another part of the body, interfering with blood circulation and hence impairing organ function downstream of the occlusion. This causes ischemia and often leads to ischemic necrosis of tissue. Most cases of venous thrombosis are due to acquired states (older age, surgery, cancer, immobility) or inherited thrombophilias (e.g., antiphospholipid syndrome, factor V Leiden, and various other genetic deficiencies or variants).
Pharmacology
Procoagulants
The use of adsorbent chemicals, such as zeolites, and other hemostatic agents are also used for sealing severe injuries quickly (such as in traumatic bleeding secondary to gunshot wounds). Thrombin and fibrin glue are used surgically to treat bleeding and to thrombose aneurysms. Hemostatic Powder Spray TC-325 is used to treated gastrointestinal bleeding.
Desmopressin is used to improve platelet function by activating arginine vasopressin receptor 1A.
Coagulation factor concentrates are used to treat hemophilia, to reverse the effects of anticoagulants, and to treat bleeding in people with impaired coagulation factor synthesis or increased consumption. Prothrombin complex concentrate, cryoprecipitate and fresh frozen plasma are commonly used coagulation factor products. Recombinant activated human factor VII is increasingly popular in the treatment of major bleeding.
Tranexamic acid and aminocaproic acid inhibit fibrinolysis and lead to a de facto reduced bleeding rate. Before its withdrawal, aprotinin was used in some forms of major surgery to decrease bleeding risk and the need for blood products.
Anticoagulants
Anticoagulants and anti-platelet agents are amongst the most commonly used medications. Anti-platelet agents include aspirin, dipyridamole, ticlopidine, clopidogrel, ticagrelor and prasugrel; the parenteral glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors are used during angioplasty. Of the anticoagulants, warfarin (and related coumarins) and heparin are the most commonly used. Warfarin affects the vitamin K-dependent clotting factors (II, VII, IX, X) and protein C and protein S, whereas heparin and related compounds increase the action of antithrombin on thrombin and factor Xa. A newer class of drugs, the direct thrombin inhibitors, is under development; some members are already in clinical use (such as lepirudin). Also in clinical use are other small molecular compounds that interfere directly with the enzymatic action of particular coagulation factors (the directly acting oral anticoagulants: dabigatran, rivaroxaban, apixaban, and edoxaban).
List of coagulation factors
History
Initial discoveries
Theories on the coagulation of blood have existed since antiquity. Physiologist Johannes Müller (1801–1858) described fibrin, the substance of a thrombus. Its soluble precursor, fibrinogen, was thus named by Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902), and isolated chemically by Prosper Sylvain Denis (1799–1863). Alexander Schmidt suggested that the conversion from fibrinogen to fibrin is the result of an enzymatic process, and labeled the hypothetical enzyme "thrombin" and its precursor "prothrombin". Arthus discovered in 1890 that calcium was essential in coagulation. Platelets were identified in 1865, and their function was elucidated by Giulio Bizzozero in 1882.
The theory that thrombin is generated by the presence of tissue factor was consolidated by Paul Morawitz in 1905. At this stage, it was known that thrombokinase/thromboplastin (factor III) is released by damaged tissues, reacting with prothrombin (II), which, together with calcium (IV), forms thrombin, which converts fibrinogen into fibrin (I).
Coagulation factors
The remainder of the biochemical factors in the process of coagulation were largely discovered in the 20th century.
A first clue as to the actual complexity of the system of coagulation was the discovery of proaccelerin (initially and later called Factor V) by (1905–1990) in 1947. He also postulated its function to be the generation of accelerin (Factor VI), which later turned out to be the activated form of V (or Va); hence, VI is not now in active use.
Factor VII (also known as serum prothrombin conversion accelerator or proconvertin, precipitated by barium sulfate) was discovered in a young female patient in 1949 and 1951 by different groups.
Factor VIII turned out to be deficient in the clinically recognized but etiologically elusive hemophilia A; it was identified in the 1950s and is alternatively called antihemophilic globulin due to its capability to correct hemophilia A.
Factor IX was discovered in 1952 in a young patient with hemophilia B named Stephen Christmas (1947–1993). His deficiency was described by Dr. Rosemary Biggs and Professor R.G. MacFarlane in Oxford, UK. The factor is, hence, called Christmas Factor. Christmas lived in Canada and campaigned for blood transfusion safety until succumbing to transfusion-related AIDS at age 46. An alternative name for the factor is plasma thromboplastin component, given by an independent group in California.
Hageman factor, now known as factor XII, was identified in 1955 in an asymptomatic patient with a prolonged bleeding time named of John Hageman. Factor X, or Stuart-Prower factor, followed, in 1956. This protein was identified in a Ms. Audrey Prower of London, who had a lifelong bleeding tendency. In 1957, an American group identified the same factor in a Mr. Rufus Stuart. Factors XI and XIII were identified in 1953 and 1961, respectively.
The view that the coagulation process is a "cascade" or "waterfall" was enunciated almost simultaneously by MacFarlane in the UK and by Davie and Ratnoff in the USA, respectively.
Nomenclature
The usage of Roman numerals rather than eponyms or systematic names was agreed upon during annual conferences (starting in 1955) of hemostasis experts. In 1962, consensus was achieved on the numbering of factors I–XII. This committee evolved into the present-day International Committee on Thrombosis and Hemostasis (ICTH). Assignment of numerals ceased in 1963 after the naming of Factor XIII. The names Fletcher Factor and Fitzgerald Factor were given to further coagulation-related proteins, namely prekallikrein and high-molecular-weight kininogen, respectively.
Factors III and VI are unassigned, as thromboplastin was never identified, and actually turned out to consist of ten further factors, and accelerin was found to be activated Factor V.
Other species
All mammals have an extremely closely related blood coagulation process, using a combined cellular and serine protease process. In fact, it is possible for any mammalian coagulation factor to "cleave" its equivalent target in any other mammal. The only non-mammalian animal known to use serine proteases for blood coagulation is the horseshoe crab.
See also
Agglutination (biology)
Post-vaccination embolic and thrombotic events
References
Further reading
External links
Coagulation system
Blood
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Duffy
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Stephen Duffy
|
Stephen Anthony James Duffy (born 30 May 1960 in Alum Rock, Birmingham, England) is an English musician, singer and songwriter. He was a founding member, vocalist, bassist and then drummer of Duran Duran. He went on to record as a solo performer under several different names, and is the singer and songwriter for The Lilac Time with his older brother Nick. He has also co-written with Robbie Williams and Steven Page.
Duran Duran and other early work
While attending the School of Foundation Studies & Experimental Workshop at Birmingham Polytechnic (now Birmingham City University) Duffy met John Taylor. Together they formed the group Duran Duran, along with Taylor's childhood friend, Nick Rhodes. While Taylor was the guitarist (later switching to bass) and Rhodes played the synthesizer, Duffy was the band's vocalist/lyricist and bassist. When bass player Simon Colley joined, Duffy moved to drums. He left both the school and the band in 1979, before Duran Duran signed with EMI in 1980.
He went on to form Obviously Five Believers, sometimes known as The Subterranean Hawks or The Hawks, and he made his first four-track recordings. The Hawks' only single, "Words of Hope", was released in 1981.
Tin Tin
In 1982, he created the band Tin Tin, with John Mulligan and Dik Davis (both then of Fashion), Andy "Stoker" Growcott (of Dexys Midnight Runners) and Bob Lamb (original producer of Birmingham band UB40). Originally called Holy Tin Tin before being shortened, the band was signed with WEA Records in the UK, and released the single "Kiss Me" in 1982 but was unsuccessful. By 1983, Tin Tin had signed with Sire Records in the US, and "Kiss Me" hit the dance charts there. Another single, "Hold It", was also released in 1983 which peaked at no.55 in the UK.
After a stint of working in the US, Duffy returned to England and signed a deal as a solo artist with Virgin 10. Now working under the name Stephen "Tin Tin" Duffy, he recorded a new version of "Kiss Me" which was released in 1984, this time only in the local West Midlands area, followed by a nationwide release of "She Makes Me Quiver" which peaked at no.88 in September 1984. At the end of 1984, Duffy recorded a third version of "Kiss Me", produced by J.J. Jeczalik and Nicholas Froome, which was released in February 1985. It debuted at no. 22 and peaked at no. 4 in the UK Singles Chart and stayed in the UK Top 10 for five weeks altogether. Duffy followed this with the single "Icing on the Cake", which peaked at no.14 in June 1985.
Duffy's first full album, The Ups and Downs (produced by Duffy, Froome, Jeczalik, Booker T. Jones, and Stephen Street), reached number 35 in the UK. Prior to the release of The Ups And Downs, Stephen Duffy and his brother Nick formed their own design office called "DUFFY and DUFFY". For the album's preview release, they had an exhibition of about 80 paintings, drawings, photographs, and video.
A new single, "Unkiss That Kiss", was released in September 1985 and peaked at no. 77 in the UK. For this single, Duffy had become known as Stephen A.J. Duffy after dropping the "Tin Tin" reference from his stage name. The single was the first to be taken from the album Because We Love You, released in early 1986, for which he was credited simply as Stephen Duffy. Additional singles from the album were "I Love You" (which peaked at no. 86) and "Something Special" which was a collaboration with Sandii (of Sandii & the Sunsetz), however this single (and the album itself) failed to chart.
Dr. Calculus
Duffy also recorded a non-stop forty-minute early chill-out / house album in 1986 called Designer Beatnik with Roger Freeman of Pigbag, released under the name Dr. Calculus mdma. The cover photo shows the "Spirit of Ecstasy" Rolls Royce car mascot and the album's two singles were "Programme 7" and "Perfume from Spain".
The Lilac Time
In 1986, Duffy began writing and recording music that would become The Lilac Time's first album, released on Swordfish Records. The album, entitled The Lilac Time, came out in November 1987, and was subsequently reissued in remixed form by Fontana on 8 February 1988.
The Lilac Time have gone through various line-up changes with the Duffy brothers as mainstays. The group originally consisted of Stephen Duffy, his elder brother Nick Duffy, and friend Michael Weston, who recorded the first album together; Michael Giri and Fraser Kent joined when the band was ready to go on tour. The Lilac Time put out the albums Paradise Circus in 1989 and & Love For All in 1990 for Fontana before being dropped.
The group were then briefly signed to Creation Records, and were subsequently managed by label head, Alan McGee. Their sole release on Creation was Astronauts in 1991.
In 1991, the band split up (temporarily, as it turned out) and Duffy subsequently pursued a solo career.
Solo
The 1993 Stephen Duffy album Music in Colors (Parlophone) was recorded with Nigel Kennedy, and featured the singles "Natalie" and "Holte End Hotel".
The next album was called simply Duffy, released in August 1995 on Indolent Records. "London Girls" and "Sugar High" went to the top 10 on the UK indie chart. ("Starfit" was also released as a single in the US.) The album was reissued on CD in 2000 by BMG Fun House.
He participated in a temporary supergroup called Me Me Me, consisting of Duffy, Alex James of Blur, Justin Welch of Elastica and Charlie Bloor. The one-off single, "Hanging Around", was released 5 August 1996, and reached Number 19 on the UK chart.
I Love My Friends was released in 1998 by Cooking Vinyl Records, who also released the singles "17" and "You Are".
Virgin released a compilation album entitled They Called Him Tin Tin in 1999.
The Devils
In 1999, Duffy found a tape recording of 1978–1979 Duran Duran music that was in storage. Shortly afterwards, he had a chance meeting with Nick Rhodes. Reminiscences led to a desire to collaborate, and they ended up re-recording the music on the tape. They did not change any of the lyrics, and used only late-70s-era instrumentation with modern recording techniques. The result was the album Dark Circles, released under the name The Devils.
Return to The Lilac Time
Duffy reformed The Lilac Time with brother Nick and Michael Giri, along with new members Claire Worrall and Melvin Duffy (no relation). They released Looking for a Day in the Night in 1999 on spinART Records, and lilac6 on Cooking Vinyl in 2001. Compendium – The Fontana Trinity, a collection of tracks from their singles and first three albums was also released in 2001.
The album Keep Going was released in 2003 on Folk Modern records under the name 'Stephen Duffy & The Lilac Time'.
In 2007, Duffy released a new album and limited edition (2000 copies) book called Runout Groove and held a few rare performances with the full Lilac Time ensemble, notably headlining the Green Man Festival.
Work with Robbie Williams and Steven Page
In 1987, Duffy was contacted by Steven Page, then of the band Scary Movie Breakfast, and was impressed by his writing and demo tape. Duffy and Page began co-writing songs. Their work together produced popular Barenaked Ladies songs like "Jane", "Alcohol" and "Call and Answer"; the final two included on the platinum-selling album Stunt, as well as material on Page's solo album The Vanity Project.
Duffy's songwriting ability earned him his first Number 1 in October 2004, as the co-writer of the Robbie Williams single "Radio", one of two new tracks recorded for Williams' Greatest Hits album.
In October 2005, Robbie Williams released Intensive Care, fully co-written and co-produced by Stephen Duffy. The album gained him a great deal of exposure, critical acclaim and went on to sell over eight million copies becoming Williams' best selling studio album around the world. Duffy then went on to work as the musical director for Williams' Close Encounters World Tour.
Film documentary
The Douglas Arrowsmith documentary Memory & Desire: 30 Years in the Wilderness with Stephen Duffy & the Lilac Time was filmed over six years and includes vintage footage of the band. The film was released at the London Raindance Film Festival in October 2009, accompanied by a Universal Records album of the same name, bringing together songs from Duffy's thirty years of music making.
Duffy agreed to a request to sit by sculptor Jon Edgar in London in 2008. The terracotta work was coincidentally documented during the filming of the Douglas Arrowsmith documentary Memory and Desire. An image appears on the CD cover for the Memory and Desire (2009) album.
Later work
In 2021, an album by The Hawks called Obviously 5 Believers arrived more than 40 years after their single "Words Of Hope", with the project overseen by Duffy, drummer Dave Twist and producer John Paterno. The album came about after Duffy got heckled by the band's guitarist Dave Kusworth (also formally of The Dogs D'Amour and Jacobites) at an event at Birmingham's Glee Club in 2019, with the album being released by Easy Action Records, almost a year after the death of Kusworth.
Discography
The Hawks
Albums
Obviously 5 Believers (2021), Seventeen Records/Easy Action
Singles
"Words of Hope"/"Sense of Ending" 7" (1981), Five Believers
Tin Tin
"Kiss Me (US Remix)" (October 1982), WEA
"Hold It" (July 1983), WEA - UK No. 55
Stephen "Tin Tin" Duffy
Albums
The Ups and Downs (1985), 10 Records - UK No. 35, CAN No. 83
Because We Love You (1986), 10 Records
They Called Him Tin Tin (1998), Virgin-VIP
Singles
"Kiss Me" (1982), WEA Records
"She Makes Me Quiver" (1984), 10 Records - UK No. 88
"Kiss Me" (1985), 10 Records - UK No. 4, AUS No. 16, CAN No. 89
"Icing on the Cake" (1985), 10 Records - UK No. 14, AUS No. 46
"Unkiss That Kiss" (1985), 10 Records - UK No. 77
"I Love You" (1986), 10 Records - UK No. 86
"Something Special" (1986), 10 Records (Stephen Duffy & Sandii)
"I Love You" / "Wednesday Jones" (1986), 10 Records (double-7")
"Kiss Me" (1989) (re-issue on Old Gold)
Dr. Calculus
Albums
Designer Beatnik (1986), 10 Records
Singles
"Programme" 7" (1985), 10
"Perfume from Spain" (1986), 10
The Lilac Time
Stephen Duffy
Albums
Music in Colors (1993), Parlophone
Singles
"Natalie" (1993), Parlophone
Duffy
Albums
Duffy (1995), Indolent - UK No. 121
I Love My Friends (1998), Cooking Vinyl - UK No. 155
Singles
"London Girls" (1995), Indolent - UK #180
"Sugar High" (1995), Indolent - UK #83
"Starfit" (1996), Summershine
"Needle Mythology" (1996), Indolent - UK #131
"17" (1997), Indolent
"17" (1998), Cooking Vinyl
"You Are" (1998), Cooking Vinyl
Me Me Me
"Hanging Around" (1996), Indolent - UK No. 19
The Devils
Dark Circles (2002), Tape Modern
References
Further reading
External links
Official Lilac Time/Stephen Duffy site
Duffypedia – official online archive at the Wayback Machine
Stephen Duffy's biography at Last.fm
Stephen Duffy at Discogs
Dr Calculus at Discogs
1960 births
English male singers
English new wave musicians
English pop singers
English songwriters
English rock guitarists
English pop guitarists
English male guitarists
Duran Duran members
Living people
Sire Records artists
Alumni of Birmingham City University
Musicians from Birmingham, West Midlands
Male new wave singers
Robbie Williams Band members
Me Me Me (band) members
Ministry of Sound artists
|
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212195
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meetup
|
Meetup
|
Meetup is a service used to organize online groups that host in-person and virtual events for people with similar interests. It was founded in 2002 by Chairman Scott Heiferman and four co-founders. The company was acquired by WeWork in 2017 and remains headquartered in New York City. WeWork sold it to AlleyCorp, an early stage NY-focused venture fund and incubator, in March 2020.
History
Meetup was founded in June 2002 by Scott Heiferman and five co-founders. The idea for Meetup came from Heiferman meeting his neighbors in New York City for the first time after the September 11 attacks on the Twin Towers. Heiferman was also influenced by the book Bowling Alone, which is about the deterioration of community in American culture. Some initial funding for the venture was raised from friends and family, which was followed by a funding round with angel investors.
The early version of Meetup generated revenues by charging a fee to venues in exchange for bringing Meetup users to their business. Once enough users added themselves to a group, Meetup would send the group members an email, asking them to vote on one of three sponsoring venues for the group to meet at. Within a few months of Meetup launching, 56,000 users had joined the site.
Meetup was originally intended to focus on hobbies and interests, but it was popularized by Presidential hopeful Howard Dean in 2004. Meetup developed paid services to help the Dean campaign to meet with Meetup users. Dean also publicized Meetup groups of supporters in his speeches and on his website. At the peak of Dean's campaign, 143,000 users had joined Meetup groups for Dean supporters. Afterwards, Meetup became a routine part of internet campaigning for American politicians.
Meetup started charging a fee to group organizers in early 2005. Initially, changes to the website had to be approved by two committees. In 2009, Meetup started running hackathons, where employees came up with new features that would be implemented if their coworkers supported it. The website was redesigned in 2013. Meetup had 8 million users in 2010, and 25.5 million users by 2013.
In 2013, Meetup acquired a struggling email collaboration company called Dispatch. In 2014, a hacker shut down Meetup with a DDoS attack, the hacker claimed to be funded by a competitor. In 2017, Meetup created 1,000 #resist Meetup groups in response to the Trump travel ban. This caused some Trump supporters to leave the site or call for a boycott. Meetup also partnered with a labor group to organize anti-Trump protests.
Meetup was acquired by WeWork in late 2017 for about $156 million. WeWork spaces are predominantly used during work hours, while Meetup events take place mostly on evenings and weekends. Some former employees said there was a 10% layoff after the acquisition. In 2018, Scott Heiferman stepped down as CEO and former Investopedia CEO David Siegel took his place. Heiferman became Chairman of the company. In October 2019, Meetup began to test a different pricing model in two US states, reducing the costs that must be paid by organizers of $23.99/month or $98.94/six months, but requiring users to pay a $2 fee in order to RSVP for events leaving several users angry. In March 2020, WeWork sold Meetup to AlleyCorp and other investors, reportedly at a substantial loss. The deal added AlleyCorp's Kevin P. Ryan onto Meetup's board.
Services
Meetup is an online service used to create groups that host local in-person and virtual events. As of 2017, there are about 35 million Meetup users. Each user can be a member of multiple groups or RSVP for any number of events. Users are usually using the website to find friends, share a hobby, or for professional networking. Meetup users do not have "followers" or other direct connections with each other like on other social media sites.
Meetup users self-organize into groups. As of 2017, there are about 225,000 Meetup groups in 180 countries. Each group has a different topic, size, and rules. Groups are associated with one of 30+ categories and any number of more than 18,000 tags that identify the group's theme. The most popular categories are "adventure and outdoor activities, career and business, and parents and family." Most events are on a structured schedule each week or month at a local venue, typically on evenings or weekends, though more and more events are being held virtually with a pivot to allowing online events as a reaction to the Covid-19 pandemic. Between March and October of 2020, Meetup had hosted more than one million online events.
Meetup groups are run by approximately 140,000 organizers. Any Meetup user can be an organizer. Organizers set up groups, organize events, and develop event content. They also pay a fee to run the group, under the expectation of sharing the cost with members that attend events. Meetup has policies against organizing meetups around a commercial interest that are not compatible with their usage policies, hate speech, or groups that do not meet in-person. Their policy regarding commercial activities has generated some confusion with some claiming that no commercial activities are allowed, even going so far as to claim that a free event that has a sponsor for food and drinks is against Meetup's policies. But purely commercial activities are clearly allowed in their policy, as long as they are, in essence, a Meetup style activity. That is, a winery could organize an wine tasting event through Meetup charging commercial rates, but not use Meetup to simply promote their wines or only sales portal.
References
External links
Official website
Event management companies of the United States
Social planning websites
Internet-based activism
Internet properties established in 2002
Companies based in New York City
2006 mergers and acquisitions
2017 mergers and acquisitions
WeWork
2020 mergers and acquisitions
|
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212202
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernd%20Behr
|
Bernd Behr
|
Bernd Behr (born 1976) is a Taiwanese artist based in London.
Biography
Born in Hamburg in 1976 and raised in Malaysia, Behr studied at San José State University, California and Goldsmiths, University of London, London.
Behr was shortlisted for the 2003 Beck's Futures prize at the Institute of Contemporary Arts, London. His work can be seen as a cultural archaeology of sites and events which share confluent histories of art, cinema and the built environment. He works across video, photography and sculpture to explore a dialogue between documentary and constructed approaches to his subjects and the associative, sometimes fictional, histories that emerge from them.
Behr currently teaches on the BA (Hons) Photography course at Camberwell College of Arts, University of the Arts London.
Selected exhibitions and screenings
References
External links
Website of Bernd Behr
Circa magazine
Curating Discourse
Frieze magazine
no.w.here
Time Out London
Vertigo magazine
1976 births
Living people
Alumni of Goldsmiths, University of London
San Jose State University alumni
Academics of the University of the Arts London
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20Way
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United Way
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United Way is an international network of over 1,800 local nonprofit fundraising affiliates. United Way was the largest non-profit organization in the United States by donations from the public, prior to 2016.
United Way organizations raise funds primarily via workplace campaigns, where employers solicit contributions that can be paid through automatic payroll deductions. After an administrative fee is deducted, money raised by local United Ways is distributed to local nonprofit agencies. Major recipients have included the American Cancer Society, Big Brothers/Big Sisters, Catholic Charities, Girl Scouts, Boy Scouts, and The Salvation Army.
United Way Worldwide
Membership to United Way and use of the United Way brand is overseen by the United Way Worldwide umbrella organization. United Way Worldwide is not a top-down organization that has ownership of local United Ways. Instead, each local United Way is run as independently and incorporated separately as a 501(c)(3) organization. Each affiliate is led by local staff and volunteers and have their own board of directors, independent of United Way Worldwide or a parent organization. Some United Way affiliates, like the Central Community Chest of Japan, choose not to use the United Way name and branding.
Local United Ways pay membership dues to United Way Worldwide for licensing rights to the United Way brand and must meet criteria to maintain their membership status (including independent review boards, audits, and restrictions on marketing tactics). The membership dues to United Way Worldwide are a portion of the total funds raised by each local United Way. U.S. affiliates pay a membership fee of 1% of their total funds raised to United Way Worldwide. The structure has been described as similar to a "global franchise operation" by Forbes.
Internally, United Ways are classified by how much funds they raise on a scale of 10 levels. Metro 1 is the highest-ranking which requires raising at least $9 million annually.
Functions
United Ways are federated fundraising bodies that mobilize a single fundraising campaign to raise money for a diverse range of nonprofits. United Ways raise funds and determine how to best distribute them.
Fundraising
United Ways raise funds primarily via company-sanctioned workplace campaigns, where the employer solicits contributions from their employees that can be paid through automatic payroll deductions (in the same way tax withholdings and insurance premiums are deducted from an employee's net pay). 57% of United Way's donations come through payroll deductions while an additional 20% from corporate donations.
United Way also administers many of the annual workplace campaigns for federal employees in the US called the Combined Federal Campaign.
Nonprofit agencies that partner with United Way usually agree not to fundraise while the United Way campaigns are underway.
Distributing funds
Money raised by local United Ways is distributed to local nonprofit agencies after an administrative cost is deducted. In 2002, the average administrative fee was 12.7%. Where United Way distributes the funds depends on if the donor-restricted their donation to a specific organization or cause.
Designated donations (donor-choice)
Almost all United Ways allow donors to specify (designate) which nonprofits should receive their funds. Some United Ways let donors choose which focus area or social problems (like helping kids or the elderly) they wish to support, which allocates their gift to a relevant subset of their charities in its network. Some United Ways allow donors to direct their gifts to any nonprofit (either inside or outside United Way's preferred charity list) while some only let donors give to any charity in their region or anywhere in the country.
About a quarter of United Way donations in the US are currently designated.
Undesignated donations
If the donor does not earmark a specific cause or organization for their donation, the money goes into a general fund and are allocated to areas of greatest need by the local United Way's volunteer committee.
Traditionally, United Ways would grant funds that can be used for any purpose by the recipient nonprofit. However, many United Ways have started giving funds to nonprofits only to be used for specific programs run by the nonprofit (e.g. a workforce training program at the local chapter of St Vincent de Paul). These funds are provided in the form of contracts in which the nonprofit must deliver programs and are subject to review and audit by the United Way's volunteer committee.
History
Origins in the Community Chest movement
The organization has roots in Denver, Colorado, where in 1887 Frances Wisebart Jacobs, along with the Rev. Myron W. Reed, Msgr. William J.O’Ryan, Dean H. Martyn Hart and Rabbi William S. Friedman, began the Charity Organization Society, which coordinated services between Jewish and Christian charities and fundraising for 22 agencies. Many Community Chest organizations, which were founded in the first half of the twentieth century to jointly collect and allocate money, joined the American Association for Community Organizations in 1918.
The first Community Chest was founded in 1913 in Cleveland, Ohio, after the example of the Jewish Federation in Cleveland—which served as an exemplary model for "federated giving".
The success of the Cleveland Community Chest led to a modest spread of the concept to other cities. World War I helped disseminate the concept of the Community Chest as the model for federating giving was used to support wartime fundraising efforts. Of the 300-400 War Chests that existed during the war, most converted over to becoming Community Chests after the war ended.
The number of Community Chest organizations quickly increased from 245 in 1925 to almost 800 by 1945. An observer on WWI's effects on the movement said, "there is no doubt that the federation movement gained a momentum in one year that would have required ten years of peacetime activity." Mirroring the changing terminology, the American Association for Community Organization changed its name to the Community Chests and Councils, Inc in 1927.
Further consolidation into United Funds
World War II also impacted the Community Chest movement. National health research charities, like the American Red Cross and the American Cancer Society, gained government support during the war. These health agencies used their centralized headquarters and nationwide fundraising reach to run separate and competing local fundraising campaigns alongside the Community Chests.
The completing appeals between the heath organizations and Community Chests resulted in exhausting and disorganized situations. Business leaders were concerned that the barrage of donation drives in the workplace would reduce productivity. The Ford Company issued a well-publicized press release stating that the automaker lost $40,000 in executive time and employee productivity with each plant solicitation. A committee at Ford led by Henry Ford II told charities to "federate or perish. We’ll contribute to charity once a year or not at all."
This outgrowth of objections from business and labor leaders led to the formation of the first United Fund in 1949 in Detroit, Michigan. Under the motto of "Give Once for All," the United Foundation hosted a single campaign that included Community Chests, local charities, and some of the national charities. This first campaign in Detroit was a success and had raised more in the single campaign than the disparate efforts has yielded the year prior. The single workplace campaign model quick spread elsewhere and, by 1953, there were over 1,200 United Funds.
These campaigns, which united Community Chests with other organizations, commonly used the "United" prefix in their names. In 1956, Community Chests and Councils, Inc. changed its name again to United Community Funds and Councils of America (UCFCA) to reflect the shifting naming used by its affiliates.The "big three" national health drives (the American Cancer Society, the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, and the American Red Cross) objected to handing over control of their fundraising efforts and refused to participate in a single workplace drive. The focus of local community fundraising also conflicted with the mission of the national health organizations. Many United Funds supported health causes locally, with funds going to charities in their local communities. By the late 1960s, the conflicts between United Funds and national health charities resolved itself with many of the charities folding into the United Fund or retreating from competing.
Formation of the United Way
After WWII, the United Fund took a similar role to the modern United Way. They focused almost exclusively on workplace fundraising (rather than the Community Chests' focus on door-to-door solicitations). The end of the excess profit taxes weakened the incentives for corporate gifts after World War II. Campaign leaders looked to employees in workplace (and not their bosses) as an opportunity to make up for the expected loss. In 1956, workplace giving from employees accounted for 39.6% of the revenue of United Funds and Community Chests. This was the first time that workplace giving exceeded corporate gifts (38%). With federal government's move to allow compulsory Social Security and income tax withholdings in 1942, the technology of payroll deductions became a vehicle to allow employees to give incremental gifts. The strong economy in post-war economic boom helped these campaigns to grow at a rate of 5-10% annually.
United Community Funds and Council of America, the national association of United Funds, expanded its role in the 1970s. Historically, it served a similar role as a trade association to the United Funds and lacked authority in shaping their affiliates. Its thousands of affiliates went by no fewer than 137 different names and pursued thousands of different charitable objectives.
To give the organization a national identity, the United Community Funds and Council of America adopted a new name and logo. The organization announced on July 13, 1970, that it would change its name from "United Funds and Council of America" to United Way of America. Bayard Ewing, the president of the fund said: "We wanted a simple name that would give people a clearer and more descriptive idea of what our organization is trying to do. I hope that the name will be adopted by all of our 2,260 fund‐raising units throughout the country." The new logo was designed by graphic designer Saul Bass in 1972. Aramony traveled to major cities to persuade the affiliates to adopt the logo and brand name.
It moved from New York City to Alexandria, Virginia in 1971.
In 1973, United Way of America formed a partnership with the National Football League.
By 1974, there were enough United Way organizations internationally to demand the kind of support provided by the national organization, United Way of America, and United Way International was born. Its staff spoke eight languages, with a Board of Directors from more than seven countries working with member organizations. Amundsen, Chief Administrative Officer, served as interim president during a yearlong search.
Competing with alternative funds
United Way faced competition from competing federations (called "alternative funds") that focused on a narrower set of issues that resonate strongly with donors, including championing controversial issues have excluded from United Way funding or that not appeal to United Way's predominantly male, white, corporate membership. These alternative funds challenged the central thesis of the United Way model - that one umbrella organization can serve both the donors' interests and community's needs. The competition for access to the workplace giving was called the "Charity War" among professional fundraisers at the time.
Some United Ways fought against the additions to alternative funds out of fear that nonprofits will suffer when faced with competition and that the multiple donation appeals would cause confusion. United Way of Los Angeles President Leo Cornelius said of alternative funds for a 1989 Los Angeles Times article, "There should be one campaign at the workplace, for the donor's sake. Otherwise, it's like watching four or five or 15 TV screens at one time." In one case, a delegation from the Bay Area United Way phoned the chairman of the Safeway supermarket chain to lobby against the addition alternative funds in their workplace campaigns in 1988. Apple Inc. was the first Fortune 500 company to allow a federation other than United Way into its workplace.
Private workplaces began to open access to non-United Way workplace campaigns in the mid-1990s, with the trend growing throughout the next decade. Four federations (America's Charities, Community Health Charities, EarthShare, and Global Impact) formed the Charities@Work coalition promoted expanding access to workplace campaigns. Due to the competitive philanthropic environment, United Ways has lost market share. In 1988, there were 450,000 nonprofits in US and United Way share's of US charitable contributions was 3.16%; by 1999, there were 715,000 nonprofits, and the United Way's share decreased to only 1.98% of donations. The trend of alternative funds continues to today with only 25 percent of the companies conducting a traditional United Way–only campaign (according to a 2009 survey by the Consulting Network).
The Aramony scandal and its aftermath
In January 1990, an anonymous tipster sent a note on United Way of America letterhead to several United Way directors, including the board chairman Edward A. Brennan, alleging that United Way of America CEO William Aramony had affairs with two sisters (one of which was a teenager) and he was using the charity's money to keep the women quiet. Aramony denied the allegations to Brennen. After UWA's board reviewed and concluded that the letter's allegations had no basis in March 1990, the matter was dropped.
It was later found that Aramony used the company's dollars to fund luxurious expenses, including flights on a Concorde and $90,000 for his limousine service. Aramony had spun off two for-profit enterprises using United Way of America funds, the Partnership Umbrella and Sales Service/America. The suspicious set up raised questions if the companies, which were designed to offer bulk discounts and other cost-savings to local United Ways, were actually being used for Aramony's personal enrichment. Partnership Umbrella had used United Way of America funds to purchase and decorate $1.2 million of real estate in Alexandria, Miami and New York, including a $459,000 condo in New York City for Aramony.
In December 1991, an outside firm was hired to conduct the investigation into the allegations. A lawyer concluded that there had been "sloppy record-keeping" and "inattention to detail" but avoided any specific admission of wrongdoing in the preliminary investigation.
Aramony, who was due to retire in July 1993, submitted his resignation on February 27, 1992, during a teleconference with local United Ways. Aramony said he was retiring "to put things back in proper focus ... because media attention is overshadowing the importance of the work of United Way and the countless accomplishments we have made together." In April 1995, Aramony was convicted on 23 counts of felony charges, including conspiracy, fraud and filing false tax returns. He was sentenced to seven years in prison and served 6 years. Two associates, Thomas J. Merlo and Stephen J. Paulachak, were also convicted and sentenced to prison.
In the aftermath of the William Aramony scandal, local United Ways boycotted United Way of America by refusing to make their dues payments to the umbrella organization. Representatives from 13 of the US's largest local United Ways told the interim President Kenneth Dam that they would like to see United Way of America half its current size. Of the 1,400 local United Ways, only 532 were paying some or all of their dues in 1992. To account for the lost revenue at United Way of America, employees were offered two months of added severance pay (in addition to the standard severance pay based on years of service) if they chose to resign, employees who stayed were offered up to four weeks off of furlough time, and all salary increases were halted.
IBM vice president Kenneth W. Dam was named interim CEO after Aramony's departure in 1992. Elaine Chao was selected as president after Dam and stayed on until 1996.
Beene's centralization efforts
Betty Stanley Beene took over in 1997. Beene advocated for a more-centralized system where United Way of America would take the lead on issues that affect all local United Ways and attempted to set national standards for all United Ways. This proposal would require that each local United Way undergo a thorough public self-examination of their effectiveness every few years.
United Way of America, under Beene leadership, paid Cap Gemini America $12 million to build charitable-pledge software for the United Way Information Network, a centralized national pledge processing center. The national center aimed to make donations more efficient and attractive companies with national footprints. However, these plans competed with the regional pledge processing centers operated by four large regional United Ways. The software was riddled with issues and was unable to process gifts in its first test run. A review of the software by Deloitte & Touche found 400 serious problems. United Way abandoned the project in 1999 and came to settlement with Cap Gemini in 2000.
Some local United Ways intensely rejected these plans, and withheld their dues to United Way of America as an act of protest. The United Way in Rochester went so far as to obtain the legal right to alternative names in the event the United Way broke up. These issues would, in part, lead to Beene's departure in 2001.
Brian Gallagher, former head of United Way in Columbus, Ohio, took over as president and CEO in 2002.
Allowing donor-choice
United Way officially embraced a policy of donor designation in 1982, allowing donors to select which nonprofit organizations would receive their gift. Aramony first introduced the donor choice concept to prevent large employers from allowing alternative funds to solicit alongside United Way. However, United Ways resisted donation designations and the roll out of the new policy was described as a "glacial pace" in a 2000 piece in Fortune. Despite the slow rollout of donor-choice policies, dollars going to designations continued to grow over time. In 1990, only 14% of gifts went to outside charities. In 1999, United Way of America estimated that nearly $1 out of every $5 when to outside charities.
Allowing donor-choice caused donations to United Ways' general funds to decline. "Sometimes I think we kid ourselves into thinking that by creating more choice we raise more money. That's just not proven out," Gallagher said of donor-choice, "I think we somewhat dilute our giving if we're dividing our giving among thousands of agencies." In one case, the growth of amount of donor-choice contributed to the near-bankruptcy of United Way of Santa Clara County as the organization continued allocated the same amount year after year as their general fund pool shunk.
Kevin Ronnie of the National Committee for Responsive Philanthropy said of United Way's predicament to allow designations, "If they want to be the workplace campaign [...] they have to offer choice because that's what people want. But, gosh darn it, if you offer choice, people will do it, and that comes at the expense of what the United Way also wants to be -- the community caretaker." Some United Way has focused efforts on marketing the benefits of their undesignated funds in to attempt to persuade donors away from donor designations.
To combat the image of the declining funds in United Ways' control, United Way counted designated funds as dollars raised by United Way, even though the money could not be allocated by United Way. The practice written about in Eleanor Brilliant 1990 book on United Way: "…whether or not the money passed through the United Way allocations process seemed to be less important than making the largest nationwide counting of monies raised in the campaign. Undoubtedly, initially corporations were not concerned about this reporting system (and) had been making every effort to keep up both the reality and the façade of increased philanthropic dollars." These accounting practices would gain attention in 2002.
Creation of 2-1-1
The United Way of Atlanta created the first 2-1-1 service in 1997. The Atlanta information and referral service was conceived to help navigate people to find the best programs for their need (e.g. homeless shelters, tax preparation, after-school programs, rent assistance, etc.). In 1998, United Way of America and the Alliance of Information and Referral Services petitioned the FCC to reserve the 211 three-digit dialing code for community information and referral services. In 2000, the FCC granted the petition and left it to the states to designate who should operate 211 services in their regions.
The program spread and in 2005 all or part of 32 states and Washington, D.C. had access to 211, reaching almost half the nation's population.
New community Impact model
In the year 2000, United Way of America announced a strategic shift in its focus away from simply being a fundraiser. United Way of America began promoting the Agenda for Community Impact model for local affiliates to adopt. Under the new model, United Ways would select local issues, focus fundraising efforts on those issues, and then make grants to nonprofits to carry out work addresses those issues. Instead of funding United Way's traditional base of nonprofit agencies, the focus shifted to funding high priority causes. For example: a United Way might focus on reducing infant mortality in the community and provide funds to the local branch of the YWCA to provide education to parents about Sudden Unexpected Infant Death (SUID).
As a nonprofit leader described it, "In the past if you got money [from United Way], unless you screwed up, you were pretty much assured that you were going to get that money." The Community Impact suggested that funds were no longer a guarantee and that grants were competitive and performance-based driven by a nonprofit's ability to achieve outcomes related to United Way goals.
Research by United Way of America showed that the approach was helping raise more funds. As a 2008 article in the Chronicle of Philanthropy stated, "In the five years since the organization announced it would focus on solving specific problems, the sums donated to 172 United Ways that adopted the so-called community-impact approach were 20 percent higher on average than giving to other United Ways. And among those using the community-impact approach, unrestricted donations are 26 percent higher than at other United Ways."
New reporting standards
In the wake of the Enron scandal, United Ways in 2002 faced questions on their accounting practices and discrepancies between different United Ways. In some cases, United Ways were double counting donations made across United Way territories which inflated their impact. These practices made their expense ratio seem lower by artificially inflating reported contributions.
After accounting issues came to light in the United Way in Washington, D.C. (and consequently exposed other problematic accounting practices within the United Way network), United Way of America adopted new accounting standards for its affiliates in 2003. United Way of America imposed new rules requiring all affiliates to adhere to a shared standard of reporting revenue and overhead costs, with the 150 largest affiliates required for the first time to submit financial information to outside accountants. Some United Ways weren't able to meet the new standards and the board disaffiliated these 61 United Ways.
Some experts believed that the subsequent decline in United Way's 2002-03 campaign were the results of these accounting changes. In one case, the new reporting standards, which ended the practice of counting the value of in-kind donations in campaign totals, caused the United Way of Volusia-Flagler Counties in Daytona Beach to eliminate around $400,000 from its campaign results.
Competing with online giving platforms
By the 2000s, United Way has faced competition for control of the workplace campaign from technology companies offering customized platforms for employee giving and volunteering. One of the most promising competitors, Charitableway, raised $43 million in 2000 and secured agreements with Hewlett-Packard and Morgan Stanley to run their campaigns.
After the failure of the United Way Information Network and out of fear that the new for-profit companies would court their corporate supporters, a group of United Ways developed the online United eWay system to bring the traditional pen-and-paper pledge cards online. The software prototype was developed by a consortium of 50 United Ways with technical assistance from Microsoft. The product was run as a United Way of America subsidiary until it was purchased by CreateHope Inc. in 2008 and spun off as a separate for-profit company TRUiST, Inc.
Charitableway folded with the bursting of the dot-com bubble. However, other competitors like Benevity would fare better. Benevity was founded in 2008 and has become the workplace campaign provider of Apple, Microsoft, PayPal, T-Mobile, TripAdvisor, Charles Schwab, and Nike. Benevity processed $649 million in donations in the 2018 fiscal year. A 2020 report from Realized Worth's RW Institute found that there were 51 employee-giving technology platforms.
To better compete with technology companies, Salesforce.org (the philanthropic arm of Salesforce) and United Way Worldwide launched Philanthropy Cloud, a workplace donation platform, in 2018.
Gallagher's resignation
Gallagher resigned from United Way Worldwide in March 2021 after the investigation into the firing of three female employees at United Way Worldwide who filed workplace sexual harassment complaints.
In November 2020, the HuffPost reported that three female employees at United Way Worldwide filed complaints between 2019 and 2020 with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. These complaints alleged sexual harassment and retaliation by UWW after they spoke up about the behavior.
In response to the allegations, United Way Worldwide commissioned Proskauer Rose to investigate the claims. The investigation found no "actionable harassment, discrimination, or retaliation" at the organization but the report also noted "the need to address the broader organizational and reputation issues." Lisa Bowman, who alleged then-CEO Brian Gallagher fired her as retaliation for reporting sexual harassment by another executive, called the inquiry "not a thorough, fair, or reliable investigation." United Way Worldwide's former vice president for labor engagement, Ana Avendaño, also filed a complaint with the EEOC alleging that United Way Worldwide retaliated by firing her after she uncovered sexual harassment of female United Way employees by AFL-CIO leaders. Avendaño said that while she was not contacted during the investigation she has "information that would’ve helped in the investigation." The third woman who filed an EEOC complaint (who did not want to be identified for fear of retaliation) said that she was not contacted either by the investigators and that she was "not at all surprised" about the report findings, "It’s what I expected."
Gallagher said when announcing his retirement, "there is no evidence of a toxic or hostile culture. Is there room for improvement? Absolutely, just like almost any other workplace."
On October 15, 2021, Angela F. Williams replaced Gallagher as United Way Worldwide CEO. She is the first female and African-American to hold his position in United Way Worldwide's history. Previous to this position, Williams was the CEO at Easter Seals.
Cross-United Way partnerships and common initiatives
While each local United Way has its own programs and initiatives, there are some national and international initiatives that are formed between United Ways or by the United Way Worldwide body.
NFL partnership: The ongoing partnership with the National Football League began in 1973 when the NFL and United Way of America came together to discuss the possibility of using the NFL's network contract airtime to promote United Way during game telecasts. NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle recognized the partnership as a viable means of communicating the good works of United Ways while putting faces on a league of players hidden by helmets.
Philanthropy Cloud: a workplace donation platform created in partnership with Salesforce. As of January 2020, over 200 companies, including 25 local United Ways, were using the service.
Since 1946, the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO) and United Way Worldwide have enjoyed a cooperative relationship
Tocqueville Society: many United Ways have Tocqueville Societies (named after Alexis De Tocqueville) for donors giving more than $10,000 each year.
Loaned Executive Program: In this program, participating companies "loan" skilled professionals on their payroll to volunteer for temporary fundraising assignments at local United Ways, while the employee's salary is paid by their employer. IBM, Texaco, Nestle, Honeywell, UPS, and NYNEX have participated in the program by volunteering their employees' time to United Way.
Controversies
In United Way's history, it has been the subject of several local and national controversies.
In 1986, The United Way of Cleveland, Ohio, held an event called Balloonfest '86, setting a world record by releasing 1.5 million balloons. The event had disastrous consequences, wreaking havoc at Burke Lakefront Airport and Lake Erie, causing injury to animals and contributing to two fishermen's deaths.
In 1992, William Aramony, CEO of the national organization for over 20 years, retired amid allegations of fraud and financial mismanagement, of which he was subsequently convicted. He was sentenced to 7 years in prison and fined $300,000.
In 2004, Oral Suer, the CEO of United Way of the National Capital Area in Washington, D.C., was convicted of misuse of donations. He pleaded guilty to theft of almost $500,000 and was sentenced to 27 months in prison. Norman O. Taylor, Suer's replacement, was never charged with misconduct but was forced to resign.
In 2006, Ralph Dickerson Jr., the former CEO of United Way of New York City, was found to have used $227,000 in United Way funds for personal expenses during 2002 and 2003. He later agreed to reimburse the organization.
After the 2012 Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, the United Way of Western Connecticut was criticized by some victims' family members for a lack of transparency in fundraising. According to those critical of the agency, the money was raised in a way that implied it would be used for the families, but then much of it re-purposed for broader community needs. As the organization focuses on community long term work, the United Way stated that majority was intended to go to non-exclusive, community support programs like counseling, after school or job-support programs; however, this angered those who felt the money should go directly to the families of those affected.
In 2021, United Way Worldwide CEO Brian Gallagher resigned over claims of mishandled complaints of sexual harassment and discrimination at the United Way Worldwide office. Three female employees had filed complaints with the EEOC alleging they experienced sexual harassment and that they were retaliated against by United Way Worldwide after speaking out about the harassment.
Criticisms
Donation coercion in the workplace
While United Way's workplace fundraising campaigns may help encourage higher donation levels among co-workers, it may also lead to employees feeling pressure to take part. Some employees may feel coerced to donate to United Way by their co-workers or management soliciting contributions in their workplace.
A reporter with the Atlanta Business Chronicle described it as this: "The problem with the United Way's methods is simple: When the CEO of a company gathers employees in a room and strongly encourages them to donate to the United Way, most of them are going to donate. And many will be doing so out of fear that there could be consequences if they don't."
United Way lists guidelines on its national website to prevent coercion, including having non-managers lead the solicitation and discouraging setting campaigns with 100 percent participation goals.
Role as an intermediary in the donation process
Some have labeled United Way as a "middle man" by raising funds and then passing them onto nonprofit agencies. In 2007, Brian Gallagher said that critics who still see United Way that way have not followed more recent developments of the organization: "Six years ago we were much more focused – or split – on fund-raising. [...] Instead of the model being ‘one campaign for all; give us the money and we’ll decide where it goes’, we moved to a model where we identified issues, strategies and products, and segmented our markets so we knew what women and young people, and corporations and foundations, cared about." Addressing the middle man label directly he said that "nobody wants anything or one in the middle of a transaction that doesn't add value. [...] Folks use the term middle man as a negative. It is not a negative if it adds value."
Monopolistic practices
United Way has been criticized for its dominance over workplace giving and for making exclusionary funding decisions. In 1978, the National Commission on Neighborhoods release a report prepared by the National Committee for Responsive Philanthropy which found that United Way used "both fair and foul" practices to "monopolize solicitation of employees at the workplace." The report claimed that United Way is "an exclusionary group, designed to keep out most neighborhood groups and smaller charities." The report called for a repeal of the organization's policies "which insist on a monopoly of workplace solicitation."
United Way of America senior vice president Robert Beggan responded to the allegations saying, "We neither control payroll deductions, nor do we exclude other organizations from seeking payroll deductions." Addressing the exclusionary allocations claim he said, "we allocate money [to member charities] on need not on emotion. [...] There's a finite amount of money available and an infinite amount of need, and we have to be careful." By the mid-1970s, just 13 nonprofits (including the YMCA, the Red Cross, the Boy Scouts and the Girl Scouts, and the Salvation Army) accounted for more than 57% of all United Way allocations.
To limit competing with fundraisers from disease-related nonprofit organizations, some United Ways have signed contractual agreements with nonprofits guaranteeing them with a level of funding if they incorporate their fundraising efforts under United Way's campaign.
By design, United Way aims to provide support for large, local human service organizations through a process of consensus decision making. The result inevitably favors funding of moderate and traditional agencies over civil rights and controversial causes. Planned Parenthood, The Boy Scouts of America, counseling services for gay youth, and, initially, programs for people with HIV/AIDS have been excluded to avoid turning off potential donors.
See also
United Way Worldwide
United Way of Canada
United Way of Metropolitan Chicago
United Way New Zealand
Central Community Chest of Japan
Fondo Unido I.A.P
Metro United Way
Further reading
Brilliant, Eleanor L. (1990). The United Way: dilemmas of organized charity. New York: Columbia University Press. . OCLC 21407280.
Barman, Emily (2006). Contesting communities: the transformation of workplace charity. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. . OCLC 123083846.
John R. Seeley (1957). Community Chest: a case study in philanthropy. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. . OCLC 572717221.
Aft, Richard N. (2004). Grassroots initiatives: Shape an international movement: United Ways since 1876. Mary Lu Aft. [United States]: Philanthropic Leadership. . OCLC 57613515.
References
External links
1887 establishments in the United States
America
Organizations established in 1887
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship%20money
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Ship money
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Ship money was a tax of medieval origin levied intermittently in the Kingdom of England until the middle of the 17th century. Assessed typically on the inhabitants of coastal areas of England, it was one of several taxes that English monarchs could levy by prerogative without the approval of Parliament. The attempt of King Charles I from 1634 onwards to levy ship money during peacetime and extend it to the inland counties of England without parliamentary approval provoked fierce resistance, and was one of the grievances of the English propertied class in the lead-up to the English Civil War.
Traditional practice
The Plantagenet kings of England had exercised the right of requiring the maritime towns and counties to furnish ships in time of war, and this duty was sometimes commuted for a money payment.
Although several statutes of Edward I and Edward III, notably their confirmations of Magna Carta, had made it illegal for the Crown to exact any taxes without the consent of Parliament, the prerogative of levying ship money in time of war had never fallen wholly into abeyance. In 1619 James I aroused no popular opposition by levying £40,000 of ship money on London and £8,550 on other seaport towns.
Opposition
In 1628, Charles I, having prorogued Parliament in early summer and after his assent to the Petition of Right, proceeded to levy ship money on every county in England without Parliament, issuing writs requiring £173,000 to be returned to the exchequer. This was the first occasion when the demand for ship-money aroused serious opposition, in view of the declaration in the petition that
[Y]our subjects have inherited this freedom, that they should not be compelled to contribute to any tax, tallage, aid, or other like charge not set by common consent, in parliament.
Charles' requests to sheriffs were rejected by the overburdened inland populations; Lord Northampton, Lord-Lieutenant of Warwickshire, and the Earl of Banbury in Berkshire, refused to assist in collecting the money; and Charles withdrew the writs.
In 1634, Charles made a secret treaty with Philip IV of Spain to assist him against the Dutch. To raise funds for this assistance William Noy, the Attorney-General, suggested that a further resort should be had to ship money. Noy set himself to investigate such ancient legal learning as was in existence in support of the demand, and unearthed old records of ship money in the Tower of London; some historians, such as Hallam, have seen Noy's investigations as evidence that before Charles' levying of ship money the tax had been disused and forgotten for centuries.
The King obtained an opinion in favour of the legality of the writ from Lord Keeper Coventry and the Earl of Manchester, whereupon the writ was issued in October 1634 and directed to the justices of London and other seaports, requiring them to provide a certain number of ships of war of a prescribed tonnage and equipment, or their equivalent in money, and empowering them to assess the inhabitants for payment of the tax according to their substance.
Three writs
The distinctive feature of the writ of 1634 was that it was issued, contrary to all precedent, in time of peace. Charles desired to conceal the true aim of his policy, which he knew would be detested by the country, and he accordingly alleged as a pretext for the impost the danger to commerce from pirates, and the general condition of unrest in Europe.
The citizens of London immediately claimed exemption under their charter, while other towns argued as to the amount of their assessment; but no resistance on constitutional grounds appears to have been offered to the validity of the writ, and a sum of £104,000 was collected.
On October 9, 1635, a second writ of ship tax was issued, directed on this occasion, as in the revoked writ of 1628, to the sheriffs and justices of inland as well as of maritime counties and towns, demanding the sum of £208,000 which was to be obtained by assessment on personal as well as real property, payment to be enforced by distraint.
This demand excited growing popular discontent, which now began to see in it a determination on the part of the king to dispense altogether with parliamentary government. Charles, therefore, obtained a written opinion, signed by ten out of twelve judges consulted, to the effect that in time of national danger, of which the Crown was the sole judge, ship money might legally be levied on all parts of the country by writ under the Great Seal.
The issue of a third writ of ship money on 9 October 1636 made it evident that the ancient restrictions that limited the levying of the tax to the maritime parts of the kingdom and to times of war (or imminent national danger) had been finally swept away, and that the king intended to convert it into a permanent and general form of taxation without parliamentary sanction. The judges again, at Charles's request, gave an opinion favourable to the prerogative, which was read by Lord Coventry in the Star Chamber and by the judges on assize.
Refusal, then repeal
Ship money was enough of a financial success to help Charles to meet peacetime government expenditures in the 1630s. Payment was, however, refused by John Hampden, a wealthy Buckinghamshire gentleman landowner. The case against the latter (R v Hampden) was finally heard before all 12 judges in the Court of Exchequer Chamber in 1637, after Denham had expressed his doubts to Davenport, who was wary of the four judge panel which would have sat in a less unusual case. Hampden was defended by Oliver St John and Robert Holborne. The Solicitor-General, Sir Edward Littleton, and the Attorney-General, Sir John Banks, prosecuted. Hampden's lawyers argued that the taxation was the king going around Parliament and attempting to squeeze money out people of England while defenders of the king suggested that these taxes were necessary for the defense and safety of England.Hampden lost the case, seven judges to five:
For the King:
Sir Richard Weston
Sir Francis Crawley
Sir Robert Berkley
Sir George Vernon
Sir Thomas Trevor
Sir William Jones
Sir John Finch
For Hampden:
Sir George Crooke
Sir Richard Hutton
Sir John Denham
Sir John Brampston
Sir Humphrey Davenport
Aftermath
Despite the trial case being won by Charles the opposition to ship money continued. In 1640 a group of citizens of London petitioned Charles directly and at the top of their grievances was against the tax:The petition starts off by attacking the tax: The pressing and unusual Impositions upon Merchandize, Importing and Exporting, and the urging and Levying of Ship-money, notwithstanding both which, Merchants Ships and Goods have been taken and destroyed both by Turkish and other Pirates.The narrowness of the case encouraged others to refuse the tax, and by 1639, less than 20% of the money demanded was raised. As matters deteriorated in England and Scotland starting with the Bishops' War, ship money would prove insufficient to finance the king's military needs. It would later be stopped by the Long Parliament when they voted the Ship Money Act 1640. Hampden went on to Parliamentary and Civil War leadership, only to die early on at the Battle of Chalgrove Field. Finally, half a century later, in the aftermath of the Glorious Revolution, the Bill of Rights 1689 prohibited all forms of extra-Parliamentary taxation.
References
Further reading
Gordon, M. D. "The Collection of Ship-money in the Reign of Charles I." Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 4 (1910): 141–162. online
Keir, D.L. "The Case of the Ship-Money". Law Quarterly Review 52, (1936) p. 546.
Langelüddecke, Henrik. "'I finde all men & my officers all soe unwilling' The Collection of Ship Money, 1635–1640." Journal of British Studies 46.3 (2007): 509–542. online
Mendle, Michael. "The Ship Money Case, The Case of Shipmony, and the Development of Henry Parker's Parliamentary Absolutism". The Historical Journal, Vol. 32, No. 3 (Sept. 1989), pp. 513–536.
Economy of Stuart England
English Civil War
History of taxation in the United Kingdom
Monarchy and money
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antony%20Price
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Antony Price
|
Antony Price is an English fashion designer best known for evening wear and suits, and for being as much an "image-maker" as a designer. He has collaborated with a number of high-profile musicians, including David Bowie, Robert Palmer, Iva Davies, Steve Strange, and Duran Duran, but especially Bryan Ferry and Roxy Music, whose look was defined by Price's designs. The manner in which Price dressed – or in many cases, undressed – the "Roxy girls" on the covers of their albums helped to define the band's pop retro-futurism.
More recently, Price has been noted for dressing celebrities such as Tara Palmer-Tomkinson, Patsy Kensit, Anjelica Huston, Jerry Hall, Camilla Parker Bowles. Diana Ross, Melanie Griffith, Yasmin Le Bon and burlesque performer Dita Von Teese.
Early life and education
Price was born in Keighley, Yorkshire, England in 1945, and grew up Selside in the Yorkshire Dales National Park, later moving to Oxenhope. He was educated at Eshton Hall School for Boys in Gargrave, Yorkshire. In 1961, At the age of 16, he gained entrance to the Bradford School of Art – now the Bradford School of Arts and Media Studies – completing a one-year General Art and Design course, followed by specialising for three years in Womenswear Fashion. In 1965 he entered the Royal College of Art's Fashion School in London where he completed a three-year course – two years in Womenswear Fashion, and the final year and degree show in Menswear Fashion. Price credits his time at the Bradford School as invaluable in preparing him for the Royal College, saying: "I arrived at the Royal College of Art with a total headstart and was able to whip my own show together."
Early career
Directly out of college, in 1968, Price began working for the new Stirling Cooper shop, designing men's trousers, coats and waistcoats which drew on sexual fetishism for their impact. Stirling Cooper was situated in London's Wigmore Street, and had a noted oriental interior designed by Price and Jane Whiteside. With Juliet Mann, Price also designed the next shop he designed for, from 1969–1974, Che Guevara on Kensington High Street. Prudence Glynn, fashion editor for The Times tipped him as a major new fashion talent in 'Trendsetters', giving him the main picture and writing that 'Anthony Price is a sensational cutter and he puts a lot of work and thought into the shaping of even the most casual clothes. His range of little bare tops in crepe and cotton, for example, are technical feats, for they all have bra sections cut into the pattern ... he is undoubtedly a trendsetter and in advance of his time ... his clothes have great wit and gaiety and he is certainly a name to be watched in the future'. He next designed for Plaza, and then, in 1979, started his own label, with shops in South Molton Street and on the King's Road. He also operated a shop called 'Ebony' in the 1980s.
Price's button trousers for Stirling Cooper were worn by Mick Jagger for The Rolling Stones' 1969 American Gimme Shelter Tour. In addition, his bridge-crutch trousers were feat of technical skill, inventing a new construction that highlighted the male crotch and buttocks. He was the stylist for Roxy Music's first eight albums, as well as for the back cover for Lou Reed's 1972 Transformer album. His self-declared trademark design is a spiral-zipped dress in ciré satin, first seen worn by Amanda Lear in Nova's cover story for its May 1970 issue, 'How To Undress for Your Husband' and later featured as one of 'Princess Zonda's archetypal outfits in the advertisements Price drew himself for Plaza in the late seventies. The Lear pictures appeared in Peter York's feature on Price in Harper's and Queen's April 1979 issue. Lear was also the Price-dressed covergirl for Roxy Music's 1973 album For Your Pleasure.
In 1982, Price collaborated with the British band Duran Duran, designing electric silk tonic suits for the "Rio" video.
In 1983, Price staged a 'Fashion Extravaganza' at the London's Camden Palace.
A year later, in 1984, Price staged another 'Fashion Extravaganza' at the London's Hippodrome, combining fashion and rock music. "I'm partly responsible for the marriage of rock and fashion," Price said in 1998, "When I started out, rock people thought fashion people were snobby and fashion people though the music industry grubby and dirty." Stylist David Thomas says about Price's influence:
He reinvented the suit so that it was no longer about going to the office. He made it rock'n'roll. He started at a time when British fashion didn't have sponsors. It was the era before the superstar designer. They all came after him. Yet he was a visionary. He created that military, dandy, sexy, eclectic men's look. He created rock'n'roll fashion.
Price has declared that 'I'm not a fashion designer ... I'm in the theatrical business,' and for Fashion Aid at Albert Hall in 1985 he conceived of a presentation of model, client and long-standing friend Jerry Hall emerging from a black velvet box. The outfit consisted of a bolero and dress with lampshade peplum in metallic and red French silk lace over lamé. Price has said of this outfit 'It wasn't the chicest or most subtle garment, but when Jerry moved under the lights she looked like a Siamese fighting fish in a vast blue tank.'
Price received the 'Evening Glamour Award' from the British Fashion Council in 1989, and the following year British Vogue published a profile on Price written by Sarah Mower. He described his approach to designing women's clothing in an interview in 1994:
My clothes are men's idea of what women should wear, and for that they'll pay good money. ... Men are looking for the sex robot from Lang's Metropolis with the perfect body offering endless fantasy sex. They're obsessed by the size of sexual protuberances – their own as well as women's – and I'm an illusionist. My job is to give them what they want.
Recent career
Price was widely considered to be a frontrunner in the search to replace Gianni Versace in 1998, after that designer's untimely death.
In 2000, Price opened his own showroom again in Chelsea, London under the financial backing and Directorship of Dean Aslett, who had previously worked with Price in the late 1980s at the Nick Rhodes-backed Antony Price Boutique in Brook Street, Mayfair. Price also created evening gowns constructed of carpet to feature in the advertising campaigns of British carpet manufacturer Brintons, a commission previously undertaken by Vivienne Westwood. In 2000 he created clothing for Glenalmond Tweed, along with 25 other British designers including Westwood, Alexander McQueen and Margaret Howell, and in 2003 he was among a number of British designers who created gowns for Pamela Anderson when she hosted the British Fashion Awards that year.
Price was nominated for the British Fashion Council's 'Red Carpet Designer Award' at the 2006 British Fashion Awards, and a small range of his clothes sell in London boutique 'A La Mode'. He was featured in the fashion magazines Pop and Butt in spring 2005. In December 2006, Price was photographed by David Bailey for British Vogue alongside Christopher Kane. Price has worked with Daphne Guinness in developing a range of key shirt and tailoring designs for her eponymous clothing line, which is currently sold in London's Dover Street Market. He also launched a line of menswear for Topman in November 2008.
Price continues to design clothing for the elite, including the Duchess of Cornwall. In May 2012, he dressed actress Tilda Swinton for his appearance in drag for the cover of Candy magazine, described as "the first fashion magazine completely dedicated to celebrating transvestism, transsexuality, crossdressing and androgyny in all their glory." In 2013, Price resumed his association with Steve Strange (whom previously he had designed outfits for during the Visage – The Anvil period in 1982) and designed an outfit for the relaunch of Steve Strange's Visage project, which he wore for the David Bowie V&A Exhibition Private View Gala Night.
See also
Glam rock
References
Notes
Bibliography
Bracewell, Michael. Re-make / Re-model: Art, Pop, Fashion and the Making of Roxy Music, 1953–1972. London, Faber & Faber, 2007.
External links
Official website
English fashion designers
1945 births
Living people
|
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212210
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole%20blood
|
Whole blood
|
Whole blood (WB) is human blood from a standard blood donation. It is used in the treatment of massive bleeding, in exchange transfusion, and when people donate blood to themselves. One unit of whole blood (~517 mls) brings up hemoglobin levels by about 10 g/L. Cross matching is typically done before the blood is given. It is given by injection into a vein.
Side effects include red blood cell breakdown, high blood potassium, infection, volume overload, lung injury, and allergic reactions such as anaphylaxis. Whole blood is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and blood plasma. It is best within a day of collection; however, can be used for up to three weeks. The blood is typically combined with an anticoagulant and preservative during the collection process.
The first transfusion of whole blood was in 1818; however, common use did not begin until the First and Second World Wars. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. In the 1980s the cost of whole blood was about US$50 per unit in the United States. Whole blood is not commonly used outside of the developing world and military. It is used to make a number of blood products including packed red blood cells, platelet concentrate, cryoprecipitate, and fresh frozen plasma.
Medical use
Whole blood has similar risks to a transfusion of red blood cells and must be cross-matched to avoid hemolytic transfusion reactions. Most of the reasons for use are the same as those for RBCs, and whole blood is not frequently used in high income countries where packed red blood cells are readily available. However, use of whole blood is much more common in low and middle income countries. Over 40% of blood collected in low-income countries is administered as whole blood, and approximately a third of all blood collected in middle-income countries is administered as whole blood.
Whole blood is sometimes "recreated" from stored red blood cells and fresh frozen plasma (FFP) for neonatal transfusions. This is done to provide a final product with a very specific hematocrit (percentage of red cells) with type O red cells and type AB plasma to minimize the chance of complications.
Transfusion of whole blood is being used in the military setting and is being studied in pre-hospital trauma care and in the setting of massive transfusion in the civilian setting.
Processing
Historically, blood was transfused as whole blood without further processing. Most blood banks now split the whole blood into two or more components, typically red blood cells and a plasma component such as fresh frozen plasma. Platelets for transfusion can also be prepared from a unit of whole blood. Some blood banks have replaced this with platelets collected by plateletpheresis because whole blood platelets, sometimes called "random donor" platelets, must be pooled from multiple donors to get enough for an adult therapeutic dose.
The collected blood is generally separated into components by one of three methods. A centrifuge can be used in a "hard spin" which separates whole blood into plasma and red cells or a "soft spin" which separates it into plasma, buffy coat (used to make platelets), and red blood cells. The third method is sedimentation: the blood simply sits overnight and the red cells and plasma are separated by gravitational interactions.
Storage
Whole blood is typically stored under the same conditions as red blood cells and can be kept up to 35 days if collected with CPDA-1 storage solution or 21 days with other common storage solutions such as CPD.
If the blood is used to make platelets, it is kept at room temperature until the process is complete. This must be done quickly to minimize the warm storage of RBCs in the unit.
Name
In the US, the capitalized "Whole Blood" means a specific standardized product for transfusion or further processing, where "whole blood" is any unmodified collected blood.
References
External links
Circular of Information for Blood Products from U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
Blood products
World Health Organization essential medicines
Transfusion medicine
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Currall
|
Alan Currall
|
Alan Currall (born 1964) is an English artist based in Scotland.
Currall was born in Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, England, and grew up in Staffordshire and Ayrshire, Scotland. Currall studied at the Glasgow School of Art and since 1993 has been based in Glasgow and rural Dumfries & Galloway.
Much of Currall's work is video-based, shot cheaply with a tripod-mounted camera, and features Currall himself. Message to My Best Friend is Currall apparently praising his best friend to the skies ("You've got a great record collection. The way you dress is cool but funky."). Other video works have seen him asking his parents for their advice on how best to survive such disasters as a shipwreck, a plane crash and nuclear war, and reading his own will out loud.
In 2000, Currall produced Encyclopaedia with the support of the film and video umbrella. Encyclopaedia is a CD-ROM encyclopaedia with video clips by 'non-experts' who have influenced the artist in some way, such as his friends and family.
In 1998, Currall won the Richard Hough Bursary.
In 2003, Currall was shortlisted for the Beck's Futures prize.
In 2004, Currall was one of five selected artists for the Jerwood Artists Platform.
References
External links
Film and Video Umbrella
Jerwood Artist's Platform
Artist's own website: http://www.alancurrall.com/
1964 births
Living people
Alumni of the Glasgow School of Art
Scottish artists
People from Stoke-on-Trent
|
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] |
212213
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Sherry%20%28artist%29
|
David Sherry (artist)
|
David Sherry (born 1974) is an artist.
Sherry was born in Northern Ireland before studying at the Glasgow School of Art. He is best known for his performance art. Stitching is a video of him stitching pieces of wood to his feet while he offers verbal instructions on how to do this. Other works include Carrying a bucket of water about for a week and Avoiding eye contact for one seven-day period, both of which consist of the activities in their titles. Sherry has said he is trying to "expose the systematic processes of day to day life".
In 2003, Sherry was shortlisted for the Beck's Futures prize.
In 2006 Sherry exhibited at WestGermany Gallery, Berlin. The exhibition was entitled 'Solid'.
In 2012 Flawedcore Records released Sherry's album of spoken word and music "I Love Those Paintings". This release triggered a curated group exhibition by Mother's Tankstation, an art gallery in Dublin, Ireland.
He lives and works in Glasgow.
References
1974 births
Living people
Alumni of the Glasgow School of Art
Artists from Northern Ireland
Scottish artists
Performance artists from Northern Ireland
Scottish performance artists
|
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] |
212217
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inventory%20%28artists%29
|
Inventory (artists)
|
Inventory are a collective of British artists, writers and art theorists, founded in 1996.
Some of their pieces see them engage in performance art in public spaces.
Coagulum (Oxford Street) in 2000, saw them form into a close group on London's Oxford Street, thus disrupting the flow of pedestrians, before entering a shopping centre and dancing to the piped music. For another piece, they played football on The Mall with a rubber skull, using Buckingham Palace and Admiralty Arch as goals.
Other pieces, such as the installation Requiem for the Empty Quarter at The Approach Gallery in Bethnal Green during 2002, used modified and written-upon objects found on the street.
In 2003, Inventory were nominated for the Beck's Futures prize.
External links
Inventory's page at the Approach Gallery
Inventory's website
British performance artists
Arts organizations established in 1996
1996 establishments in the United Kingdom
|
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] |
212219
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalind%20Nashashibi
|
Rosalind Nashashibi
|
Layla Rosalind Nashashibi (born 1973) is a Palestinian-English artist based in London. Nashashibi works mainly with 16 mm film but also makes paintings and prints. Her work often deals with everyday observations merged with mythological elements, considering the relationships and moments between community and extended family
Early life and education
Nashashibi was born in 1973 to a Palestinian father and Irish mother, in Croydon, a large town in South London. She received a Bachelor of Fine Arts in Fine Art from Sheffield Hallam University, South Yorkshire, United Kingdom in 1995. She completed a Master of Fine Arts degree at The Glasgow School of Art in 2000. During this time she spent three months in CalArts, California, as part of a masters exchange program.
Work
Much of Nashashibi's work consists of films of everyday life in urban environments. She works mainly with 16 mm film as well as photography, print and painting. Her films often use various narrative techniques in order to link staged scenes with imagery of real life.
Abbeys (2006) comprises a series of four black and white photographs that each depicts an upside-down view of an abbey's archway that when flipped as such reveals an anthropomorphic face. The uncanny images are based on photos Nashashibi found in an old photograph album.
The State of Things is a black-and-white film of old ladies at a Salvation Army jumble sale in Glasgow with a love song by the Egyptian singer Umm Kulthum on the soundtrack. The exact location of the film is unclear, and Nashashibi has said that many people, when first seeing the grainy footage, assume the women to be from some non-British culture or from an earlier time.
Dahiet a Bareed, District of the Post Office was filmed in the West Bank in an area designed by the artist's grandfather. The film is of people playing football, having their hair cut and so on. Midwest and Midwest Field depict life in Omaha, Nebraska.
She works collaboratively with artist Lucy Skaer under the name Nashashibi/Skaer. Meeting in Glasgow, they began working together in 2005 when they made their first joint work called The Ambassador, a two screen video about the British Consul General in Hong Kong. They have continued to collaborate alongside their individual practices, most often making 16mm films together, to explore shared interests through film and exhibition making including female representation and global cultures. Their joint work has been exhibited widely internationally.
In 2019 Nashashibi became the first artist in residence at the National Gallery, London, in a new residency scheme linked to its Modern and contemporary art programme. The year long residency includes working in the gallery's onsite studio, receipt of an award to fund her work for the year, access to the gallery's collections and research, and culminates in an exhibition and publication of work.
In 2017 she was nominated for the Turner Prize, exhibiting work in the Turner prize exhibition in the Ferens Gallery in Hull alongside the three other nominees. She exhibited the two films she was nominated for; Vivian's Garden (2017) and Electrical Gaza (2015). The work Vivian's Garden was previously presented at Documenta 14, which focuses on the relationship between and daily life of mother and daughter artists Vivian Suter and Elisabeth Wild at their home in Guatemala. Electrical Gaza was commissioned by the Imperial War Museum, and combines real film footage with animation to depict the mixing of daily life in Gaza and the complex charged atmosphere of the place.
Awards
2003 won the Beck's Futures prize, the first woman to do so, for The State of Things.
2006 Decibel award recipient.
2013 shortlisted artist for the Northern Art Prize.
2014 Paul Hamlyn Foundation Award.
2017 nominated for the Turner Prize with a piece of work that was made collaboratively with her daughter, Pauline Manacorda.
Exhibitions
Bachelor Machines Part 1, Chisenhale Gallery, London, 2007
Carlo’s Vision, Body Habits, Nomas Foundation, Rome, 2011
The Painter and The Delivery Man, Objectif Exhibitions, Antwerp, 2013
Electrical Gaza, Imperial War Museum, London, 2015
Two Tribes, Murray Guy, New York, 2016
Rosalind Nashashibi: Vivian’s Garden, The Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, 2018
Rosalind Nashashibi, a solo exhibition, Witte de With Center for Contemporary Art, Rotterdam, 2018
DEEP REDDER, Secession, Vienna, 2019
An Overflow of Passion and Sentiment, National Gallery, London, 2020
Collections
Tate.
British Council
National Galleries Scotland
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Art Institute Chicago
The Museum of Modern Art, New York
References
1973 births
Living people
People from Croydon
Artists from London
Alumni of the Glasgow School of Art
British contemporary artists
English people of Palestinian descent
British film producers
English women artists
Feminist filmmakers
20th-century English women
20th-century English people
21st-century English women
21st-century English people
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carey%20Young
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Carey Young
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Carey Young (born 1970) is a visual artist whose work is inspired by multiple disciplines, including economics, law, politics, science and communication. These fields's tools act as material for her installations, text works and photographs, and for videos in which absurd relationships develop between the performer and the rhetoric of political, commercial and legal discourse. Young's work often develops from the professional cultures she explores. In her installations, she often dons attire appropriate to the business and legal worlds, and enacts scenarios examining and questioning each institution's power to shape society. Young also teaches internationally at art colleges such as the Slade School of Fine Art in London where she is also an Associate Professor in Fine Art.
Early life and education
Born in Lusaka in Zambia in 1970, Young grew up in Manchester, England and studied at Manchester Polytechnic, the University of Brighton and photography at the Royal College of Art in London. She has dual US/UK citizenship and lives and works in London, UK.
Exhibitions and themes
Young has exhibited her work at many galleries all over the world. Highlights include the ICA, the Whitechapel Art Gallery, the Hayward Gallery, Secession, Kunstverein München, Mass MOCA and the Brooklyn Museum of Art.
Young's work is included in the public collections of the Centre Pompidou, Arts Council England, Dallas Museum of Art, and the Tate. She is represented by Paula Cooper Gallery, New York.
Young's projects often center on notions of language, training and performance, and take an ambiguous political stance to create a web of complex questions for the viewer. Since 2003, her work has shifted into an interest in legal language and systems of thought, with 'Disclaimer', an exhibition at the Henry Moore Institute examining the legal disclaimer as a form of negative space. In 2005, she showed 'Consideration', a series of works exploring the connections between contract law and performance art at Paula Cooper Gallery in New York as part of the PERFORMA05 Biennial. RoseLee Goldberg has described the works in this show as "dealing with the overwhelming power of the law." This is seen again in 'Declared Void' (2005) which explores the relationship between the law and the constitutional identity of individuals.
Her 2013 exhibition "Legal Fictions" at Migros Museum in Zurich was described by Mousse Magazine as featuring: "law-based works [that] address the monolithic power of the legal system. The artist examines law as a conceptual and abstract space in which power, rights, and authority are played out through varying forms of performance and language. With the drafting assistance of legal advisers, her works often take the form of experimental but functional legal instruments such as contracts, and also employ media such as video, installation, and text."
Her 2017 video 'Palais de Justice', at Paula Cooper Gallery was described by critic Jeffrey Kastner as: “quietly stunning … vividly proposes a juridical world as it might otherwise be, a form of the Law that may someday be possible.” Johanna Fateman, Artforum, described the work as: "a transfixing (...) speculative fiction", a "tantalising (...) novel mockup of a postpatriarchal legal system."
Selected solo exhibitions
2017
Palais de Justice, Paula Cooper Gallery, New York;
The New Architecture, Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas
2013
Legal Fictions, Migros Museum für Gegenwartskunst, Zurich;
Let the World Speak for Itself, Le Quartier Centre d'Art Contemporain, Quimper
2010
Memento Park, Eastside Projects, Birmingham (and tour to Cornerhouse, Manchester and MiMA, Middlesbrough);
Contracting Universe, Paula Cooper Gallery, New York
2009
Carey Young: Uncertain Contracts, Museum of Art, Rhode Island School of Design, Providence;
Speech Acts, Contemporary Art Museum, St Louis;
Counter Offer, The Power Plant, Toronto
2008
Mutual Release, Thomas Dane, London
2007
If/Then, Paula Cooper Gallery, New York;
Speechcraft, Modern Art Oxford, Oxford (performance);
Consideration, Midway Contemporary Art, Minneapolis
2006
Image Transfer, Umea Art Academy, Umea, curated by Maria Lind
2005
Consideration, Paula Cooper Gallery, New York (part of Performa05 Biennial);
The Representative, solo presentation, IBID Projects booth, Zoo Art Fair, London;
Disclaimer, IBID Projects, London
Carey Young, Trafo Gallery, Budapest.
2004
Disclaimer, Henry Moore Institute, Leeds;
Participant Observer, participative workshop on art and economics, IASPIS, Stockholm;
Carey Young, Index, Stockholm;
Viral Marketing, (The Revolution is Us! & Getting Things Done When You're Not in Charge), Kunstverein München
2003
Optimum Performance, A Short History of Performance - Part II, Whitechapel Gallery, London;
Carey Young, IBID Projects, Vilnius;
Viral Marketing, Kunstverein Munich;
2001 - 2002
Business as Usual, John Hansard Gallery, Southampton, Angel Row, Nottingham; Firstsite, Colchester (curated and organised by Film & Video Umbrella)
2001
My Megastore, site-specific works at Virgin Megastore, London;
Carey Young, Video Project Space, Wilkinson Gallery, London
2000
Nothing Ventured, fig-1, London (exh. cat.)
Other publications
Young's work has been included in several publications, such as the book Contemporary Art in the United Kingdom, Black Dog Publishing, London, UK, edited by Adler P. (2012), and a number of videos and audio recordings.
Selected periodicals
Fateman, Johanna, "Carey Young at Paula Cooper", Artforum, Nov 2017
Farago, Jason, 'Palais de Justice', New York Times, 20 Sept 2017
Bryan- Wilson, Julia. 'Inside Job: Julia Bryan-Wilson on the art of Carey Young,' Artforum, Oct 2010
Bell, Natalie, 'Carey Young', Art Papers, March/April 2008
Schwabsky, Barry, "Carey Young", Artforum, Sept 2005
Smith, Roberta, "The Passions of the Good Citizen", The New York Times, 3 May 2002
Web articles
Kastner, Jeffrey, Garage magazine (Vice magazine), Oct 2017
Bourbon, Matthew, 'Critic's Pick: Carey Young at Dallas Museum of Art', Artforum.com, Feb 2017
Shore, Robert, and Young, Carey, 'Interview with Carey Young: “Friendly, Honest, Straightforward”: Meditations on Power', Elephant magazine, Feb 2017
Goldberg, RoseLee and Stallman, Nick, "Conversations..with RoseLee Goldberg', New York Foundation for the Arts, 2005
Baker, R.C., 'The Road to Dystopia', Village Voice, 2007
Books
Buskirk, Martha; Gygax, Raphael; Young, Carey and Zolghadr, Tirdad, in 'Carey Young: Subject to Contract', JRP Ringier and Migros Museum of Contemporary Art, Zurich, London, 2013
Farquharson, Alex; Gillick, Liam and Young, Carey; Kelsey, John and Millar, Jeremy, in 'Carey Young, Incorporated', John Hansard Gallery and Film & Video Umbrella, London, 2002
Nochlin, Linda, in Global Feminisms, Brooklyn Museum, New York, 2007
Bourriaud, Nicolas, in Moscow Biennale 7 catalogue, Moscow, 2007
Hoffman, Jens in 'Institutional Critique and After', edited by John C. Welchman, JRP/Ringier, Zürich, 2006
Newman, Michael, in 'How to Improve the World', Hayward Gallery, London, 2006
Townsend, Chris, 'New Art from London', Thames and Hudson, London, 2006
Farquharson, Alex, Schlieker, Andrea, and Mahony, Emma in 'British Art Show 6', Hayward Gallery Publishing, London, 2005
Latour, Bruno and Weibel, Peter, 'Making Things Public', ZKM and the MIT Press, Karlsruhe & Cambridge, 2005
Hoffmann, Jens and Jonas, Joan, 'Art Works: Perform', Thames and Hudson, London, 2005
Kimbell, Lucy (ed), 'New Media Art: Practice and Content in the UK 1994–2004', Arts Council of England / Cornerhouse publications, London, 2004
References
External links
Artist's web site
British Art Show 6
Artfacts.net artist ranking
Centre Pompidou artist talk, in English and French
Tate video recording of talk featuring the artist
Selected works plus bibliographical and biographical info on Paula Cooper Gallery website
1970 births
Alumni of Manchester Metropolitan University
Alumni of the University of Brighton
Alumni of the Royal College of Art
British women artists
British video artists
British performance artists
American video artists
American women video artists
Living people
American installation artists
British installation artists
Institutional Critique artists
British contemporary artists
21st-century American women
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis%20Upritchard
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Francis Upritchard
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Francis Upritchard (born in 1976) is a New Zealand contemporary artist based in London. In 2009, she represented New Zealand at the Venice Biennale.
Education
Upritchard graduated from the Ilam School of Fine Arts at the University of Canterbury, School of Fine Arts in 1997. She had initially thought to study painting, but became interested in sculpture during her first year.
Soon after graduating, Upritchard moved to London.
Work
Upritchard's early work often referenced museum displays, collections of artefacts, and ancient cultures. She often combined found objects with her own hand-made additions, such as sculpted heads made from modelleing clay of dogs, monkeys and birds inserted into the necks of ceramic and glass vessels, or fastened onto pieces of sporting equipment like hockey sticks and cricket bats. Other works showed faux-antique delicate instruments in shabby velvet-lined boxes. She also became known for her sculptures that replicated shrunken heads, resting on display cabinets or mounted on small pedestals. Made of plaster and paper mache, the heads referenced mokomokai, tattooed shrunken heads made by New Zealand's indigenous Māori, but the features were those of Pākeha peoples.
In 2006/2007, Upritchard decided to start exploring the human figure in her work. In a 2012 newspaper profile she said: 'I didn't think there was so much good figurative work in contemporary sculpture. [...] I went to Munich and saw [the 15th-century sculptor] Erasmus Grasser's Morris Dancers.' Upritchard's figures are made of polymer clay laid over wire armatures; their skin is painted in everything from neutral tones to brightly coloured grids, and they are variously naked and clothed in robes and gowns, also made by the artist. Curator Anne Ellegood writes:
Some hail from long-ago eras—protagonists of medieval mythology like the knight, the harlequin, the jester—while others are from the more recent past—beatniks, hippies, and other nonconformists. Various figures are identified by their vocation—music teacher, potato seller, psychic—or distilled to a primary, and often less than laudatory, characteristic, such as “liar,” “misanthrope,” “ninny,” or “nincompoop.”
The influences on Upritchard's figurative sculptures are various: the figures in the Bayeux tapestry, Japanese Noh theatre, 1960s psychedelic portraiture, Grasser's wooden figures, the bronze figures of the Chola dynasty, court jesters and medieval performers. Writers about these works often reference counter-cultural movements, hippies, shamans and marionettes when describing them. Comparisons have been made to the earlier work of Bruce Conner and Paul Thek and Upritchard's closer contemporaries Ryan Trecartin, Lizzie Fitch and Saya Woolfalk.
Upritchard often collaborates with furniture designer Martino Gamper (also her husband) on the plinths her sculpted forms stand on, which sometimes take the forms of tables and bureaus, and more recently of steel pedestals. Natalie Hegert writes:
The care taken in the aesthetic choices of furniture reveals Upritchard’s interest in craft, further evidenced by her attention to textiles, lamps, jewelry, urns, and other accoutrements. In Upritchard’s sculpture, it is not enough for the figure to be sculpted from clay and set upright—the drapery, adornment, and environment related to the figure are integral to the work itself.
Career
Bart Wells Institute and Beck's Future nomination
In December 2001, Upritchard co-founded an artist-run space, the Bart Wells Institute, with fellow artist Luke Gottelier in a semi-derelict Hackney warehouse. The Bart Wells Institute ran for about two years and exhibitions were curated by artists including Sam Basu, Brian Griffiths, David Thorpe and Harry Pye.
In 2003 Upritchard was shortlisted for the Beck's Futures prize for an installation titled Save Yourself, now in the Saatchi Gallery collection. The installation, featuring a small mummy figure, wrapped in rags lying on the floor vibrating and moaning, surrounded by canopic jars, was shown at the Bart Wells Institute. The work was seen by Beck's Future selector Michael Landy, who nominated it for the award. The work was seen by collector Charles Saatchi and the nomination and acquisition were Upritchard's career break-through.
Walters Prize award
In 2005 Upritchard had her first exhibition in New Zealand, Doomed, Doomed, All Doomed at Artspace, Auckland. The previous year her work had been shown at City Gallery Wellington in the survey exhibition of recent New Zealand contemporary art Prospect: New New Zealand Art. Doomed, Doomed, All Doomed was nominated for the 2006 Walters Prize, hosted by Auckland Art Gallery and Upritchard was selected as the winner by judge Carolyn Christov-Bakargiev. In her citation Christov-Bakargiev wrote:
I had seen images of Upritchard's work, and of some of the other finalists' works, previous to experiencing this exhibition. But I had never seen the work in the flesh. The difference is astounding. Upritchard's work resists photography and reproduction, and this too, in the age of overwhelming communications and surveillance technology, gives me a good feeling, somewhat of an escape route.
Venice Biennale
In 2008 New Zealand's public arts funding body Creative New Zealand announced that two artists would represent New Zealand at the 2009 Venice Biennale: Upritchard and painter Judy Millar.
Upritchard's work for the Biennale consisted of a number of sculptural installations displayed in the former private residence, the Fondazione Claudio Buziol. Titled Save Yourself, the works showed dreamy or dancing figures displayed on hand-made tables, mixed with ceramic lamps. It was the first time Upritchard mixed figures and furniture in such a way, an approach which has become a signature aspect of her current work. The figures, handbuilt from polymer clay, stand about 50 centimetres tall. Usually naked, or adorned with handmade and hand-dyed cloaks and textile wrappers, they are painted variously in solid block colours or patterns, including Harlequin blocks and grids. The artist said of these works:
I want to create a visionary landscape, which refers to the hallucinatory works of the medieval painters Hieronymus Bosch and Pieter Bruegel, and simultaneously draws on the utopian rhetoric of post-sixties counterculture, high modernist futurism and the warped dreams of survivalists, millenarians, and social exiles.
The Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa acquired the work Dancers from the installation for its permanent collection. Two other works, Horse Man and Rainwob Tree, are in the collection of the Govett-Brewster Art Gallery.
Collaborative works
In recent years Upritchard has frequently collaborated with furniture designer Martino Gamper (also her husband) and jeweller Karl Fritsch. In their 2009 exhibition Feierabend at Kate Macgarry was an early outing of their collaborative works, mixing Gamper's furniture with Upricthard's sculpted figures and Fritsch's jewellery and objects.
For their 2011 installation Gesamtkunsthandwerk for the Govett-Brewster Art Gallery's international group exhibition Stealing the Senses, Upritchard, Fritsch and Gamper collaborated with other New Zealand artists, most from New Plymouth: weaver Lynne Mackay, potter Nicholas Brandon, bronze-caster Jonathan Campbell, felter Pam Robinson, glass blower Jochen Holz and woodturners Jan Komarkowski and Peter Wales. The exhibition was re-presented at Hamish McKay Gallery in Wellington. The title is a German word meaning 'a total artwork that involves all the parts of the arts and in particular the work of the handmade'. The artists stated:
We don't understand why there needs to be such distinctions amongst art, craft and design. Arts and crafts weren't always separated.
We are interested in collapsing hierarchies that operate in language and value.
We feel that we are making work with similar intuition, care and intent.
Upritchard continues to work collaboratively and enlist others in the making of her work, most recently with New Plymouth potter Nicholas Brandon, who was trained by Mirek Smíšek. For her 2016 exhibition Dark Resters at Ivan Anthony Gallery in Auckland and the Ilam Campus Gallery at Canterbury University Brandon made ceramic works and glazes that formed part of Upritchard's installations, with textiles and her signature figures.
Public art
Upritchard's only piece of public art to date is installed in inner-city Auckland on Symonds Street. Titled Loafers, the work consists of three bowl-shaped concrete plinths topped with Upritchard's idiosyncratic human figures, and several snake forms, cast from bronze. Upritchard has said of these works:
The Loafers plinths reference important ceramic artist Lucie Rie. Rie pioneered domestic-ware in Britain, and her small works were developed at the same time as huge outdoor bronzes and in my mind, share a sort of 1950's aesthetic.
Survey exhibition: Jealous Saboteurs
In February 2016 a survey show of the first 20 years' of Upritchard's work, Francis Upritchard: Jealous Saboteurs, opened at MUMA (the Monash University Museum of Art, Melbourne). The exhibition was co-curated by MUMA director Charlotte Day and City Gallery Wellington chief curator Robert Leonard. The exhibition opened at City Gallery Wellington in May 2016.
Publications
Upritchard's own work is informed by her reading, especially in the area of speculative fiction, and the catalogues accompanying her work often feature essays by novelists, including Hari Kunzru, David Mitchell and Ali Smith.
Publications on Upritchard's work include:
Heads of Yesteryear, London: Kate Macgarry, 2005
Doomed, Doomed, All Doomed, Auckland: Artspace, 2005.
Human Problems, London and Rotterdam: Kate Macgarry and Veenman, 2006.
Every colour by itself, London: Dent-de-Leone, 2009.
Save Yourself, New Plymouth: Govett-Brewster Art Gallery, 2009.
In die Hole, London: Dent-de-Leone, 2010.
A hand of cards, Nottingham: Nottingham Contemporary, 2012.
Francis Upritchard: Mandrake, Dublin: The Douglas Hyde Gallery, 2013.
Francis Upritchard: Potato poem, Kyoto: Foiru, 2013.
Francis Upritchard's Moneksy and Sloth, London: Whitechapel Gallery and Garden Press, 2014.
Public gallery exhibitions
2016 Francis Upritchard: Jealous Saboteurs, Monash University Museum of Art, Melbourne and City Gallery Wellington; Dark Resters, Ilam Campus Gallery, University of Canterbury and Ivan Anthony Gallery Auckland
2014 Hammer Projects: Francis Upritchard, Hammer Museum Los Angeles; Whitechapel Gallery Children's Art Commission, Whitechapel Gallery
2013 Potato Poem, Marugame Genichiro-Inokuma Museum of Contemporary Art (MIMOCA), Kargawa, Japan
2012 Francis Upritchard: A Long Wait, Contemporary Arts Center, Cincinnati; A Hand of Cards, Nottingham Contemporary, Nottingham
2011 Echo, Kunsthal KAdE, Amersfoor, the Netherlands; Gesamtkunsthandwerk with Martino Gamper and Karl Fritsch
2010 IN DIE HÖHLE, Wiener Secession, Vienna
2010 Save Yourself, Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa
2009 Save Yourself, New Zealand representation at the 53rd Venice Biennale,
2008 Rainwob I, Govett-Brewster Art Gallery; Rainwob II, Artspace, Auckland and Gertrude Contemporary Art Spaces, Melbourne
2006 The Walters Prize, Auckland Art Gallery
2005 Doomed, Doomed, All Doomed, Artspace, Auckland
2004 Artist in Residence, Camden Arts Centre
2003 Boxing Arms, Dunedin Public Art Gallery
References
1976 births
Living people
New Zealand contemporary artists
People from New Plymouth
New Zealand women sculptors
21st-century New Zealand sculptors
21st-century New Zealand women artists
Ilam School of Fine Arts alumni
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy%20Skaer
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Lucy Skaer
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Lucy Skaer (born 1975) is a contemporary English artist who works with sculpture, film, painting, and drawing. Her work has been exhibited internationally. Skaer is a member of the Henry VIII’s Wives artist collective, and has exhibited a number of works with the group.
She currently lives and works in Glasgow and London.
Early life and education
Skaer was born in Cambridge. She studied Fine Art at Glasgow School of Art.
Work
Lucy Skaer's works often depicts relationships between abstraction and the direct material nature of objects. Many of her works are replicas of historical objects which are translated and re-contextualized in new mediums. Skaer's work has had a particularly strong engagement with images and historical objects depicting archaeology, ecology, the English landscape, British Empire, and Neolithic architecture as her 2008 installation, The Siege.
Much of Skaer's work also consists of objects which interact with and change public spaces. In one piece, she took up a paving stone on Glasgow's Buchanan Street and then had the Earl of Glasgow ceremoniously lay down a replacement, while in an Amsterdam-based piece, she left a diamond and a scorpion side-by-side on a pavement. She has also secretly hidden moth and butterfly pupae in criminal courts in the hope that they will hatch in mid-trial.
In 2003, Skaer was shortlisted for the Beck's Futures prize. In 2008, Skaer was the subject of a retrospective of her works since 2001 at the Fruitmarket Gallery in Edinburgh, Scotland which included newly commissioned work, and a comprehensive monograph book was published to accompany the show. In April 2009, Skaer was shortlisted for the prestigious Turner Prize for the sculptures Black Alphabet, (26 slender sculptures made of coal dust in the shape of Constantin Brâncuși's Bird in Space), and Leviathan Edge, an installation which included the skull of a sperm whale, drawings, and sculptures. (She lost out to Glasgow-based artist Richard Wright).
Skaer has made a number of 16mm films with the British artist Rosalind Nashashibi including Flash in the Metropolitan in 2006, which depicts the artifacts and artworks of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York as they appeared in a dimmed light of the museum interrupted by the flashes of a strobe. The two have collaborated on the films Our Magnolia and Pygmalion Event, as well as several others.
Exhibitions
52nd Venice Biennale, Scottish Show, 2007
Fruitmarket Gallery, Edinburgh, 2008
Turner Prize Exhibition, Finalist, 2009
"A Boat Used As A Vessel", Kunsthalle Basel, Basel, Switzerland, April 2009 – June 2009.
"Rachael, Peter, Caitlin, John." Location One, New York, 2010.
Rosalind Nashashibi/ Skaer, (collaborative films) Murray Guy, 2010
"Reanimation. Nashashibi/Skaer." Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh, PA, 2010.
The Centre Pompidou, 2010.
"Film for an Abandoned Projector." Leeds, UK, 2011.
"Harlequin is as Harlequin Does." Murray Guy, New York, 2012.
"Scene, Hold, Ballast," SculptureCenter, New York, 2012.
"Flash in the Metropolitan", Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 2012.
"Lucy Skaer," Mount Stuart House, Scotland, June–Oct 2013.
"Lucy Skaer," Yale Union, Portland, OR, July–September 2013.
"Lucy Skaer, Available Fonts", KW, Berlin, October 2017 – January 2018.
"Lucy Skaer: The Green Man", Talbot Rice Gallery, Edinburgh, 26 July – 6 October 2018.
References
General references
Vitamin D: New perspectives in drawing. London: Phaidon. 2005. (pgs on Lucy Skaer)
Interview for "Rachael, Peter, Caitlin, John." Location One, NY. 2010.
External links
Saatchi Gallery Additional information on Lucy Skaer including artworks, articles, text panels and full biography
Interview with Lucy Skaer from MAP Magazine
1975 births
Living people
21st-century British women artists
Alumni of the Glasgow School of Art
Artists from Cambridge
Scottish contemporary artists
Scottish women artists
|
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212229
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick%20Crowe%20%28artist%29
|
Nick Crowe (artist)
|
Nick Crowe (born 1968) is a Yorkshire artist. He works in a range of raw materials and live comic situations; some of his earlier work is internet-based. He is a Senior Lecturer in Fine Art Practice at Goldsmiths, University of London. Crowe lives in Berlin and works in London and Manchester. You can also find Crowe live streaming on Twitch as he documents his artistic progress in his rustic Berlin countryside barn.
Biography
Crowe was born in Barnsley and studied English literature and drama at Hull University. He began working in experimental theatre and performance in 1989, establishing Index Theatre Co-operative with David Whitaker, Julian Hammond, Jane Gant, Adele Fowles and Les Hampson. Index changed its membership over time, producing innovative performance works.
Crowe then went on to develop his practice in a range of media including film, drawing, new media and etched glass. His art uses a range of strategies including the exploration of the role of technology and its effects on everyday life.
Since the 1990s he was involved in setting up a range of artist-led initiatives including The Annual Programme in Manschester (1995–2000) and The Manchester Pavilion at the Venice Biennale (2001–2005). In 2003, he and regular collaborator Ian Rawlinson co-curated Artranpennine03, a trans-regional exhibition of public art.
Several of Crowe's pieces are internet-based. SERVICE 2000, for example, was a ring of spoof websites for notable art galleries. Other work, like "Discrete Packets" and "Police Radio" use the web as a medium for exploring wider cultural concerns. Crowe also works a great deal in more traditional art media including film and photography as well as installation and publishing. He also produces engraved glass works which deal with subjects as wide as internet memorial web pages and the occupation of Iraq. Some film and video work, uploaded to YouTube has engaged with the pitfalls and possibilities of the online participatory culture with increasingly subtle use of displacement and irony.
In 2003, Chisenhale Gallery commissioned Crowe to produce "Getting On", a reflection on age, youth and contemporary Britain, that comprised "a group of metallic-finish, scarlet mobility scooters and a soundtrack of Deutsche Grammophon classical pieces. In the same year, Nick Crowe was shortlisted for the Beck's Futures prize.
Crowe & Rawlinson
Since 1994 Crowe also has a collaborative practice with Manchester based artist Ian Rawlinson. Together they have worked on many projects using boredom to deal with issues surrounding national identity, politics and faith.
Exhibitions include:
'Song for Coal', Yorkshire Sculpture Park, Wakefield, 2014
'Ride Across Lake Constance' (collaboration with Awst & Walter), LoBe, Berlin, 2013
'Six White Horses', Whitworth Art Gallery, Manchester, 2013
'The Opera', Plataforma Revolver, Lisbon, 2012
'Nick Crowe and Ian Rawlinson', SALT, Istanbul, 2012
'Towards A Free Society', Institute of Jamais Vu, London, 2012
'Stolen Artifact', Kotti Shop, Berlin, 2011
'The Fireworks', Gallery Kit, St Louis, 2011
'No Sign of Helicopters', Ceri Hand Gallery, Liverpool, 2010
'Nick Crowe & Ian Rawlinson', Newlyn Art Gallery, Penzance, 2008
'At 25 Metres', FACT, Liverpool (cat.), 2007
'Nick Crowe and Ian Rawlinson', Manchester Art Gallery; Aspex Gallery, Portsmouth (cat.), 2003
'Explaining Urbanism to Wild Animals', Tmesis Gallery, Manchester, 2002
'Two Speakers', ICA, London, 1999
'Mugger Music', LMCC, multiple sites, New York (with Graham Parker), 1997
'Mugger Music', Manchester International Arts, multiple sites, Manchester (with Graham Parker), 1996
In 2009, they were shortlisted for the Northern Art Prize.
References
External links
Home page
www.croweandrawlinson.net
English artists
1968 births
Living people
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi%20Boccherini
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Luigi Boccherini
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Ridolfo Luigi Boccherini (19 February 1743 – 28 May 1805) was an Italian, later Spanish, composer and cellist of the Classical era whose music retained a courtly and galante style even while he matured somewhat apart from the major European musical centres. He is best known for a minuet from his String Quintet in E, Op. 11, No. 5 (G 275), and the Cello Concerto in B flat major (G 482). The latter work was long known in the heavily altered version by German cellist and prolific arranger Friedrich Grützmacher, but has recently been restored to its original version.
Boccherini's output also includes several guitar quintets. The final movement of the Guitar Quintet No. 4 in D (G 448) is a fandango, a lively Spanish dance.
Biography
Boccherini was born into a musical family in Lucca, Italy in 1743. He was the third child of Leopoldo Boccherini, a cellist and double-bass player, and the brother of Giovanni Gastone Boccherini, a poet and dancer who wrote librettos for Antonio Salieri and Joseph Haydn. Luigi received his first music lessons at age five by his father, who taught him cello, and then continued his studies at age nine with Abbé Vanucci, music director of a local cathedral, at San Martino. When his son reached thirteen, Leopoldo Boccherini sent him to study in Rome with Giovanni Battista Costanzi. In 1757 Luigi Boccherini and his father both went to Vienna, where the court employed them as musicians in the Burgtheater. In 1761 Boccherini went to Madrid, entering in 1770 the employ of Infante Luis Antonio of Spain (1727–1785), younger brother of King Charles III of Spain. There, Boccherini flourished under royal patronage, until one day when the King expressed his disapproval at a passage in a new trio, and ordered Boccherini to change it. The composer, no doubt irritated with this intrusion into his art, doubled the passage instead, which led to his immediate dismissal. Then he accompanied Don Luis (the Infante) to Arenas de San Pedro, a little town in the Gredos Mountains in Ávila; there and in the nearest town of Candeleda Boccherini wrote many of his most famous works.
Later patrons included the French ambassador to Spain, Lucien Bonaparte (1775–1840), as well as King Friedrich Wilhelm II of Prussia (1744–1797), himself an amateur cellist, flautist, and avid supporter of the arts. Boccherini fell on hard times following the deaths of his Spanish patron (1785), his two wives (1785 and 1805), and his four daughters (1796, 1802 and 1804). He died in Madrid in 1805, survived by two sons. His body lay buried in the Pontifical Basilica of St. Michael in Madrid until 1927, when his remains were repatriated and buried in the church of San Francesco in his native Lucca.
Works
Much of Boccherini's chamber music follows models established by Joseph Haydn; however, Boccherini is often credited with improving Haydn's model of the string quartet by bringing the cello to prominence, whereas Haydn had frequently relegated it to an accompaniment role. Some sources for Boccherini's style are in the works of a famous Italian cellist, Giovanni Battista Cirri, who was born before Boccherini and before Haydn, and in Spanish popular music.
A virtuoso cellist, Boccherini often played violin repertoire on the cello, at pitch, a skill he developed by substituting for ailing violinists while touring. This supreme command of the instrument brought him much praise from his contemporaries (notably Pierre Baillot, Pierre Rode, and Bernhard Romberg), and is evident in the cello parts of his compositions (particularly in the quintets for two cellos, treated often as cello concertos with string quartet accompaniment).
He wrote a large amount of chamber music, including over one hundred string quintets for two violins, viola and two cellos (a type which he pioneered, in contrast with the then common scoring for two violins, two violas and one cello), a dozen guitar quintets, not all of which have survived, nearly a hundred string quartets, and a number of string trios and sonatas (including at least 19 for the cello). His orchestral music includes around 30 symphonies and 12 virtuoso cello concertos.
In 1851, Louis Picquot wrote a biography of Boccherini and compiled a catalogue of his works. French musicologist Yves Gérard published the Gérard catalog in 1969, hence the "G" numbers applied to his output.
With a ministerial decree dated 27 April 2006, the Opera Omnia (complete works) of Boccherini was promoted to the status of Italian National Edition.
Boccherini's style is characterized by Rococo charm, lightness, and optimism, and exhibits much melodic and rhythmic invention, coupled with frequent influences from the guitar tradition of his adopted country, Spain.
Recordings
Flute Quintets, Op. 19, Auser Musici, Carlo Ipata, director, Hyperion CDA67646 (2008)
Media
(All performed by Jacques Lochet, violin and synthesizer.)
See also
Category:Compositions by Luigi Boccherini
Romantic guitar
Notes and references
Notes
References
External links
Centro Studi Opera Omnia di Luigi Boccherini (Boccherini Studies Centre)
Centro Studi Opera Omnia Luigi Boccherini
Literature on Boccherini
Luigi Boccherini, more extensive biography
Biography, works, musiqueorguequebec.ca
1743 births
1805 deaths
Musicians from Lucca
Italian Classical-period composers
Italian male classical composers
18th-century Italian composers
18th-century Italian male musicians
Composers for cello
Composers for the classical guitar
Italian classical cellists
19th-century deaths from tuberculosis
String quartet composers
19th-century Italian male musicians
Tuberculosis deaths in Spain
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamb%20of%20God
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Lamb of God
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Lamb of God (; , ) is a title for Jesus that appears in the Gospel of John. It appears at John 1:29, where John the Baptist sees Jesus and exclaims, "Behold the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world." It appears again in John 1:36.
Christian doctrine holds that a divine Jesus chose to suffer crucifixion at Calvary as a sign of his full obedience to the will of his divine Father, as an "agent and servant of God" in carrying away the sins of the world. In Christian theology the Lamb of God is viewed as both foundational and integral to the message of Christianity.
A lion-like lamb that rises to deliver victory after being slain appears several times in the Book of Revelation. It is also referred to in Pauline writings; 1 Corinthians 5:7 suggests that Saint Paul intends to refer to the death of Jesus, who is the Paschal Lamb, using the theme found in Johannine writings. In Genesis 22, the binding of Isaac foretells the Gospel of Jesus Christ, when Isaac asked his father Abraham "where is the lamb for the burnt offering" to which Abraham responded "God himself will provide the lamb for the burnt offering, my son." (Genesis 22:7-8). However, it was a Ram (not a Lamb) that was ultimately sacrificed in Isaac's place, and the Ram was caught in a thicket (i.e. thornbush). (Genesis 22:13). The lamb metaphor is also in line with Psalm 23, which depicts God as a shepherd leading his flock (mankind).
The Lamb of God title is widely used in Christian prayers. The Latin version, Agnus Dei, and translations are a standard part of the Catholic Mass, as well as the classical Western Liturgies of the Anglican and Lutheran churches. It is also used in liturgy and as a form of contemplative prayer. The also forms a part of the musical setting for the Mass.
As a visual motif the lamb has been most often represented since the Middle Ages as a standing haloed lamb with a foreleg cocked "holding" a pennant with a red cross on a white ground, though many other ways of representing it have been used.
Gospel of John
The title Lamb of God for Jesus appears in the Gospel of John, with the initial proclamation: "Behold the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world" in , the title reaffirmed the next day in . The second use of the title Lamb of God takes place in the presence of the first two apostles of Jesus, who immediately follow him, address him as Rabbi with respect and later in the narrative bring others to meet him.
These two proclamations of Jesus as the Lamb of God closely bracket the Baptist's other : "I have borne witness that this is the Son of God". From a Christological perspective, these proclamations and the descent of the Holy Spirit as a dove in reinforce each other to establish the divine element of the Person of Christ. In Johannine Christology the proclamation "who takes away the sin of the world" begins the unfolding of the salvific theme of the redemptive and sacrificial death of Jesus followed by his resurrection which is built upon in other proclamations such as "this is indeed the Saviour of the world" uttered by the Samaritans in .
Book of Revelation
The Book of Revelation includes over twenty-nine references to a lion-like lamb ("slain but standing") which delivers victory in a manner reminiscent of the resurrected Christ. In the first appearance of the lamb in Revelation (5:1–7) only the lamb (which is of the tribe of Judah, and the root of David) is found worthy to take the judgment scroll from God and break the seals. The reference to the lamb in Revelation 5:6 relates it to the Seven Spirits of God which first appear in Revelation 1:4 and are associated with Jesus who holds them along with seven stars.
In Rev. 19:6-9, the lamb is said to be having a wedding feast, and that his bride's pure linen garment is said to be the "righteous acts of the saints." A wedding feast, in Jewish law, is an obligatory banquet after a Jewish wedding. In Jewish eschatology, the messiah will hold a wedding feast with the righteous of every nation (people), called a Seudat Chiyat HaMatim, wherein the messiah and his wedding guests will feast on the flesh of the Leviathan. The identity of the lamb's bride is not specified in the passage, but the Christian Church is referred to as the bride of Christ elsewhere in the New Testament.
In Revelation 21:14 the lamb is said to have twelve apostles. The handing of the scroll (i.e. the book containing the names of those who will be saved) to the risen lamb signifies the change in the role of the lamb. In Calvary, the lamb submitted to the will of the Father to be slain, but now is trusted with the judgment of mankind.
From the outset, the book of Revelation is presented as a "revelation of Jesus Christ" and hence the focus on the lamb as both redeemer and judge presents the dual role of Jesus: he redeems man through self-sacrifice, yet calls man to account on the day of judgment.
Christology
The concept of the Lamb of God fits well within John's "agent Christology", in which sacrifice is made as an agent of God or servant of God for the sake of eventual victory.
The theme of a sacrificial lamb which rises in victory as the Resurrected Christ was employed in early Christology. For example, in 375 Saint Augustine wrote: "Why a lamb in his passion? Because he underwent death without being guilty of any iniquity. Why a lion in his passion? Because in being slain, he slew death. Why a lamb in his resurrection? Because his innocence is everlasting. Why a lion in his resurrection? Because everlasting also is his might."
The 11th century Christology of Saint Anselm of Canterbury specifically disassociates the Lamb of God from the Old Testament concept of a scapegoat, which is subjected to punishment for the sins of others without knowing it or willing it. Anselm emphasized that as Lamb of God, Jesus chose to suffer in Calvary as a sign of his full obedience to the will of the Father.
John Calvin presented the same Christological view, of "The Lamb as the agent of God", by arguing that in his trial before Pilate and while at Herod's Court Jesus could have argued for his innocence, but instead remained mostly quiet and submitted to crucifixion in obedience to the Father, for he knew his role as the Lamb of God.
In modern Eastern Orthodox Christology, Sergei Bulgakov argued that the role of Jesus as the Lamb of God was "pre-eternally" determined by the Father, before the creation of the world, by considering the scenario that it would be necessary to send The Son as an agent to redeem humanity disgraced by the fall of Adam, and that this is a sign of His love.
Multiple hypotheses about the suitable symbolism for the Lamb of God have been offered, within various Christological frameworks, ranging from the interpretation of Old Testament references to those of the Book of Revelation. One view suggests the symbolism of Leviticus 16 as scapegoat, coupled with Romans 3:21–25 for atonement, while another view draws parallels with the Paschal Lamb in Exodus 12:1–4, coupled with John 1:29–36, and yet another symbolism relies on Revelation 5:5–14 in which the lamb is viewed as a lion who destroys evil. However, as above, the view adopted by Saint Anselm and John Calvin rejects the scapegoat symbolism. They view Jesus as making a knowing sacrifice as an agent of God, unlike an unwitting scapegoat.
In modern Roman Catholic Christology, Karl Rahner has continued to elaborate on the analogy that the blood of the Lamb of God, and the water flowing from the side of Christ on Calvary, had a cleansing nature, similar to baptismal water. In this analogy, the blood of the Lamb washed away the sins of humanity in a new baptism, redeeming it from the fall of Adam.
Liturgy and music
In the Mass of the Roman Rite and also in the Eucharist of the Anglican Communion, the Lutheran Church, and the Western Rite of the Eastern Orthodox Church the Agnus Dei is the invocation to the Lamb of God sung or recited during the fraction of the Host. It is said to have been introduced into the Mass by Pope Sergius I (687–701).
Agnus Dei has been set to music by many composers, usually as part of a Mass setting.
Art
In Christian iconography, an Agnus Dei is a visual representation of Jesus as a lamb, since the Middle Ages, usually holding a standard or banner with a cross. This normally rests on the lamb's shoulder and is held in its right foreleg. Often the cross will have a white banner suspended from it charged with a red cross (similar to St George's Cross), though the cross may also be rendered in different colors. Sometimes the lamb is shown lying atop a book with seven seals hanging from it. This is a reference to the imagery in the Book of Revelation , ff. Occasionally, the lamb may be depicted bleeding from the area of the heart (Cf. ), symbolizing Jesus' shedding of his blood to take away the sins of the world (Cf. , ).
In Early Christian art the symbol appears very early on. Several mosaics in churches include it, some showing a row of twelve sheep representing the apostles flanking the central Agnus Dei, as in Santi Cosma e Damiano, Rome (526–30).
The Moravian Church uses an Agnus Dei as their seal with the surrounding inscription Vicit agnus noster, eum sequamur ("Our Lamb has conquered, let us follow him").
Although the depiction of Jesus as the Lamb of God is of ancient origin, it is not used in the liturgical iconography of the Eastern Orthodox Church. The reason for this is that the depictions of Jesus in the Orthodox Church are anthropomorphic rather than symbolic, as a confession of the Orthodox belief in the Incarnation of the Logos. However, there is no objection to the application of the term "Lamb of God" to Jesus. In fact, the Host used in the Orthodox Divine Liturgy is referred to as the Lamb (; ).
Heraldry
A Paschal Lamb is a charge used in heraldry, for example as the crest of the Davie Baronets, and is blazoned: A paschal lamb This charge is depicted as a lamb standing with body facing towards the dexter (viewer's left), with nimbus, and with head facing forwards (or turned looking backwards to sinister, termed reguardant) holding under its right foreleg a flagpole, tipped with a small cross, resting at a diagonal angle over its shoulder, flying a banner of the Cross of St. George (except in Perth's coat of arms, where it flies a banner of the Cross of St Andrew).
Catholic sacramental
In the Roman Catholic Church, an Agnus Dei is a disc of wax, stamped with an image of Jesus as a lamb bearing a cross, that is consecrated by the pope as a sacramental. These were often set in jewelry, and might be worn round the neck on a chain, or as a brooch.
Gallery
See also
Binding of Isaac
Jesus in Christianity
Lion of Judah
Suffering servant
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Animals in the Bible
Christian iconography
Christian terminology
Gospel of John
Metaphors referring to sheep or goats
Sheep
Visual motifs
Western Christianity
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackie%20McLean
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Jackie McLean
|
John Lenwood "Jackie" McLean (May 17, 1931 – March 31, 2006) was an American jazz alto saxophonist, composer, bandleader, and educator, and is one of the few musicians to be elected to the DownBeat Hall of Fame in the year of their death.
Biography
McLean was born in New York City. His father, John Sr., played guitar in Tiny Bradshaw's orchestra. After his father's death in 1939, Jackie's musical education was continued by his godfather, his record-store-owning stepfather, and several noted teachers. He also received informal tutoring from neighbors Thelonious Monk, Bud Powell, and Charlie Parker. During high school McLean played in a band with Kenny Drew, Sonny Rollins, and Andy Kirk, Jr. (the saxophonist son of Andy Kirk).
Along with Rollins, McLean played on Miles Davis' Dig album, when he was 20 years old. As a young man he also recorded with Gene Ammons, Charles Mingus (for Pithecanthropus Erectus), George Wallington, and as a member of Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers. McLean joined Blakey after reportedly being punched by Mingus. Fearing for his life, McLean pulled out a knife and contemplated using it against Mingus in self-defense, but later stated that he was grateful that he had not stabbed the bassist.
McLean's early recordings as leader were in the hard bop school. He later became an exponent of modal jazz without abandoning his foundation in hard bop. Throughout his career he was known for a distinctive tone, akin to the tenor saxophone and often described with such adjectives as "bitter-sweet", "piercing", or "searing", a slightly sharp pitch, and a strong foundation in the blues.
McLean was a heroin addict throughout his early career, and the resulting loss of his New York City cabaret card forced him to undertake a large number of recording dates to earn income in the absence of nightclub performance opportunities. Consequently, he produced an extensive body of recorded work in the 1950s and 1960s. He was under contract with Blue Note Records from 1959 to 1967, having previously recorded for Prestige. Blue Note offered better pay and more artistic control than other labels, and his work for this organization is highly regarded and includes leadership and sideman dates with a wide range of musicians, including Donald Byrd, Sonny Clark, Lee Morgan, Ornette Coleman, Dexter Gordon, Freddie Redd, Billy Higgins, Freddie Hubbard, Grachan Moncur III, Bobby Hutcherson, Mal Waldron, Tina Brooks and many others.
In 1962, he recorded Let Freedom Ring for Blue Note. This album was the culmination of attempts he had made over the years to deal with harmonic problems in jazz, incorporating ideas from the free jazz developments of Ornette Coleman and the "new breed" which inspired his blending of hard bop with the "new thing": "the search is on, Let Freedom Ring". Let Freedom Ring began a period in which he performed with avant-garde jazz musicians rather than the veteran hard bop performers he had been playing with previously. His adaptation of modal jazz and free jazz innovations to his vision of hard bop made his recordings from 1962 on distinctive.
McLean recorded with dozens of musicians and had a gift for spotting talent. Saxophonist Tina Brooks, trumpeter Charles Tolliver, pianist Larry Willis, trumpeter Bill Hardman, and tubist Ray Draper were among those who benefited from McLean's support in the 1950s and 1960s. Drummers such as Tony Williams, Jack DeJohnette, Lenny White, Michael Carvin, and Carl Allen gained important early experience with McLean.
In 1967, his recording contract, like those of many other progressive musicians, was terminated by Blue Note's new management. His opportunities to record promised so little pay that he abandoned recording as a way to earn a living, concentrating instead on touring. In 1968, he began teaching at The Hartt School of the University of Hartford. He later set up the university's African American Music Department (now the Jackie McLean Institute of Jazz) and its Bachelor of Music degree in Jazz Studies program. His Steeplechase recording New York Calling, made with his son René McLean, showed that by 1980 the assimilation of all influences was complete.
In 1970, he and his wife, Dollie McLean, along with jazz bassist Paul (PB) Brown, founded the Artists Collective, Inc. of Hartford, an organization dedicated to preserving the art and culture of the African Diaspora. It provides educational programs and instruction in dance, theatre, music and visual arts. The membership of McLean's later bands were drawn from his students in Hartford, including Steve Davis and his son René, who is a jazz saxophonist and flautist as well as a jazz educator. Also in McLean's Hartford group was Mark Berman, the jazz pianist and broadway conductor of Smokey Joe's Cafe and Rent. In 1979 he reached No. 53 in the UK Singles Chart with "Doctor Jackyll and Mister Funk". This track, released on RCA as a 12" single, was an unusual sidestep for McLean to contribute towards the funk/disco revolution of the late 1970s. Many people, at the time, in the clubs where it was played confused the female singers on the track with his name thinking he was actually female.
He received an American Jazz Masters fellowship from the National Endowment for the Arts in 2001 and numerous other national and international awards. McLean was the only American jazz musician to found a department of studies at a university and a community-based organization almost simultaneously. Each has existed for over three decades.
McLean died on March 31, 2006, in Hartford, Connecticut after a long illness. In 2006, Jackie McLean was elected to the DownBeat Hall of Fame via the International Critics Poll. He is interred in Woodlawn Cemetery, The Bronx, New York City.
A. B. Spellman's 1966 study, Black Music, Four Lives: Cecil Taylor, Ornette Coleman, Herbie Nichols, Jackie McLean, still in print, includes extensive mid-career reflections by McLean on his youth and career to date. Derek Ansell's full-length biography of McLean, Sugar Free Saxophone. details the story of his career and provides a full analysis of his music on record.
Discography
As leader/co-leader
As sideman
The sortable table's default is the date of the recording session. An asterisk (*) behind the album's title signifies only a minor contribution by McLean to the recording.
Filmography
The Connection, as himself (dir. Shirley Clarke)
Jackie McLean on Mars (1980), as himself (dir. Ken Levis) http://vimeo.com/12192828
Ken Burns' Jazz (2000), as himself (dir. Ken Burns)
References
Further reading
Derek Ansell, Sugar Free Saxophone: The Life and Music of Jackie McLean. London: Northway Publications, 2012.
Guillaume Belhomme, Jackie McLean. Nantes: Lenka lente, 2014.
External links
Jackie McLean at Allmusic
Jackie McLean complete discography from Music City
Jackie McLean discography at JazzDisco.org
Jackie McLean at NEA Jazz Masters
Jackie McLean at Hard Bop
Jackie McLean audio interviews at New England Jazz History Database
Artists Collective Inc. – official history
Artists Collective Inc. – history
Jackie McLean obituary in The Guardian (London) by John Fordham, April 3, 2006
Jackie McLean obituary "Blues for Jackie" in Hartford Courant (Hartford, CT) by Owen McNally, April 1, 2006
Jackie McLean – Jazz Portraits from the WGBH Archives, a radio documentary from WGBH Radio Boston
Jackie McLean on Mars – film
1931 births
2006 deaths
American jazz composers
American male jazz composers
American jazz alto saxophonists
American male saxophonists
African-American saxophonists
Bebop saxophonists
Hard bop saxophonists
Modal jazz saxophonists
Post-bop saxophonists
Mainstream jazz saxophonists
The Jazz Messengers members
Miles Davis
Musicians from Hartford, Connecticut
Musicians from New York City
SteepleChase Records artists
Prestige Records artists
Inner City Records artists
Verve Records artists
Blue Note Records artists
University of Hartford Hartt School faculty
Jazz musicians from New York (state)
20th-century saxophonists
Burials at Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx, New York)
20th-century jazz composers
20th-century American male musicians
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Pendergast
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Tom Pendergast
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Thomas Joseph Pendergast (July 22, 1872 – January 26, 1945), also known as T. J. Pendergast, was an American political boss who controlled Kansas City and Jackson County, Missouri, from 1925 to 1939.
Pendergast only briefly held elected office, as an alderman, but his capacity as chairman of the Jackson County Democratic Party allowed him to use his large network of family and friends to help the election of politicians, in some cases by voter fraud, and to hand out government contracts and patronage jobs. He became wealthy in the process, but his addiction to gambling, especially horse racing, later led to a large accumulation of personal debts.
In 1939, he was convicted of income tax evasion and served 15 months in a federal prison. The Pendergast organization helped to launch the political career of future US President Harry S. Truman, which caused Truman's early enemies to dub him "the senator from Pendergast".
Early years
Thomas Joseph Pendergast, also known to close friends as "TJ", was born in St. Joseph, Missouri. Raised as a Catholic, he had nine brothers and sisters. The family's name is misspelled as Pendergest in the 1880 census and is listed accordingly.
It has been claimed that Pendergast attended St. Mary's College, a boarding school for boys as young as nine and as old as eighteen, conducted by the Jesuits in St. Marys, Kansas, but records of the school, which are kept in the Jesuit archives in St. Louis, disprove that claim. (St. Mary's College was not connected in any way to the girls' school of the same name in Leavenworth, Kansas, conducted by the Sisters of Charity.) It is sometimes claimed that he earned a football scholarship to St. Mary's College, but that is also untrue. There were then no athletic scholarships awarded, and there were no intramural games.
In the 1890s, the young Tom Pendergast worked in his older brother James Pendergast's West Bottoms tavern. The West Bottoms were then an immigrant section of town located at the "bottom" of the bluffs overlooking the Missouri River above which spread the more prosperous sections of Kansas City. James Pendergast, an alderman in Kansas City's city council, tutored him in the diversities of the city's political ways and systems and in the strategic advantages of controlling blocs of voters. James retired in 1910 and died the next year after he had named Tom as his successor. After his brother's death, Tom Pendergast served in the city council until he stepped down in 1916 to focus on consolidating the factions of the Jackson County Democratic Party.
After a new city charter was passed in 1925 that placed the city under the auspices of a city manager picked by a smaller council, Pendergast easily gained control of the government.
Pendergast married Caroline Snyder in February 1911 and raised three children (two girls and a boy) at their home on 5650 Ward Parkway. He was a member of the Knight of Columbus, which used his connection to reach Truman during the 1930s persecution of Catholics and others in Mexico.
Chairman of Jackson County Democratic Club
Pendergast ruled from a simple two-story yellow brick building at 1908 Main Street. Messages marked with his red scrawl were used to secure all manner of favors. He was unquestionably corrupt, and there were regularly shootouts and beatings on election days during his watch. However, the permissive go-go days also gave rise to the golden era of Kansas City jazz (now commemorated at the American Jazz Museum at 18th and Vine) as well as a golden era of building in Kansas City. Pendergast tried to portray a "common touch" and made attention-grabbing displays of helping pay medical bills, providing "jobs", and hosting famous Thanksgiving and Christmas dinners for the poor. Fraud and intimidation often caused Kansas City voter turnout to be close to 100 percent in the Pendergast days.
Despite Prohibition, Pendergast's machine and a bribed police force allowed alcohol and gambling. Additionally, many elections were fixed to keep political friends in power. In return, Pendergast's companies like Ready-Mixed Concrete were awarded government contracts. Under a $40 million bond program, the city constructed many civic buildings during the Depression. Among the projects were the Jackson County Courthouse, in Downtown Kansas City, and the concrete "paving" of Brush Creek, near the Country Club Plaza. (A local urban legend in which bodies of Pendergast opponents were buried under the Brush Creek concrete was finally put to rest when the concrete was torn up for a renewal project in the 1980s.) Pendergast also had a hand in other projects like the Power and Light Building, Fidelity Bank and Trust Building, Municipal Auditorium, and the construction of inner-city high schools.
Pendergast placed many of his associates in positions of authority throughout Jackson County and exercised strong influence in determining the Democratic candidates for statewide office. For example, he picked Guy Brasfield Park as Democratic candidate for Missouri governor in 1932 after the previous candidate, Francis Wilson, died two weeks before the election. Pendergast also extended his rule into neighboring cities such as Omaha, Nebraska, and Wichita, Kansas, where members of his family had set up branches of the Ready-Mixed Concrete company. The Pendergast stamp was to be found in the packing plant industries, local politics, bogus construction contracts, and the jazz scene in those cities as well.
Downfall and later years
Pendergast's downfall was related to a falling out with Missouri Governor Lloyd C. Stark. Pendergast had endorsed Stark, the heir to an agricultural fortune and known for promoting the Golden Delicious variety of apples, for governor in 1936. Pendergast was out of the country during the election, and his followers were even more obvious and corrupt than usual in Stark's successful election. With Mafia-related shootings and election violence underway in Jackson County, US Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau, Jr., went after a Mafia boss, Charles Carrollo, and Pendergast as part of Morgenthau's crackdown on corruption and organized crime. Despite Pendergast's history of delivering votes for Roosevelt and other leading Democrats, Morgenthau directed his subordinates to "let the chips fall where they may". With investigations looming, Stark turned against Pendergast, which prompted federal investigations and the pulling of federal funds from Pendergast's control. In 1939 Edward L. Schneider, the secretary-treasurer of eight of the Pendergast businesses, took his own life.
Another factor in the downfall was Pendergast's failing health. Shortly after attending the Democratic National Convention in Philadelphia in 1936, he was taken ill and later diagnosed with colon cancer and was in poor health for the remainder of his life. In 1939, Pendergast was arraigned for failing to pay taxes on a bribe received to pay off gambling debts. After serving 15 months in prison at the nearby United States Penitentiary, Leavenworth, he lived quietly at his home, 5650 Ward Parkway, until his death in 1945.
Pentergast's headquarters at 1908 Main are listed on the Kansas City Register of Historic Places but not on the National Register of Historic Places.
Truman connection
During his military service during World War I, Harry Truman had become close friends with Jim Pendergast, T. J.'s nephew. When Truman's attempt at a clothing business failed in 1922, Jim Pendergast suggested that he run for a "judgeship" in eastern Jackson County (actually an administrative, rather than a judicial position). With the help of the Pendergast organization, Truman was elected to that and later to a similar county-wide position. In 1934, after several other potential candidates turned him down, T. J. was persuaded to support Truman, whom he considered something of a lightweight, for the Democratic nomination for a US Senate seat. Truman prevailed in a close primary and went on to win in the general election. Although Truman was derisively named "the senator from Pendergast" by his opponents, he does not appear to have had a close personal relationship with Pendergast himself. Both men met on only a handful of occasions and were photographed together only once, at the 1936 Democratic Party convention.
After Pendergast was convicted of income tax evasion, Missouri Governor Lloyd C. Stark sought to unseat Truman in the 1940 US Senate election. It was a very bitter campaign, which made both men lifelong enemies. Truman was re-elected after US Attorney Maurice Milligan, who had prosecuted Pendergast, also entered the race, which caused Milligan and Stark to split the anti-Pendergast vote.
In his second term as Senator, with Pendergast out of power and World War II underway, Truman was finally able to shake his association with the Pendergast machine and build a national reputation as a military spending reformer. In 1945, Vice President Truman shocked many when he attended the Pendergast funeral. He was reportedly the only elected official who attended the funeral. Truman brushed aside the criticism and said simply: "He was always my friend and I have always been his."
Legacy
Two of his biographers have summed up Pendergast's uniqueness as a political boss:
Pendergast may bear comparison to various big-city bosses, but his open alliance with hardened criminals, his cynical subversion of the democratic process, his monarchistic style of living, his increasingly insatiable gambling habit, his grasping for a business empire, and his promotion of Kansas City as a wide-open town with every kind of vice imaginable, combined with his professed compassion for the poor and very real role as city builder, made him bigger than life, difficult to characterize.
Pendergast's legacy is evident in Kansas City.
See also
Alcohol laws of Missouri
Byrd Organization
References
Further reading
Dorsett, Lyle W. The Pendergast Machine (1968).
Lawrence H. Larsen and Nancy J. Hulston, "Criminal Aspects Of The Pendergast Machine", Missouri Historical Review (91#2) (1997) pp. 168–180.
Matlin, John S. "Political party machines of the 1920s and 1930s: Tom Pendergast and The Kansas City Democratic machine". (PhD Dissertation, University of Birmingham, UK, 2009) online; Bibliography on pp. 277–292.
Milligan, Maurice M. Missouri Waltz: The Inside Story of the Pendergast Machine by the Man Who Smashed It (Charles Scribner's Sons, 1948).
Roe, Jason (2018). "Thomas Joseph Pendergast", Biography from The Pendergast Years: Kansas City in the Jazz Age & Great Depression. Kansas City Public Library.
External links
Missouri's Most Important Politician – history essay at Secretary of State office; includes photos and cartoons
Kansas City Police Memorial on Pendergast
Kansas City Public Library biography on Pendergast
Men Who Made Kansas City: Thomas J. Pendergast
Byte Out of History – FBI Involvement in Early Election Fraud Case in Kansas City (FBI)
1873 births
1945 deaths
American people convicted of tax crimes
American political bosses
Kansas City crime family
Leaders of political parties in the United States
Missouri Democrats
Missouri local politicians
Politicians from Kansas City, Missouri
Politicians from St. Joseph, Missouri
Missouri politicians convicted of crimes
American politicians of Italian descent
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood%20plasma
|
Blood plasma
|
Blood plasma is a light amber-colored liquid component of blood in which blood cells are absent, but contains proteins and other constituents of whole blood in suspension. It makes up about 55% of the body's total blood volume. It is the intravascular part of extracellular fluid (all body fluid outside cells). It is mostly water (up to 95% by volume), and contains important dissolved proteins (6–8%; e.g., serum albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen), glucose, clotting factors, electrolytes (, , , , , etc.), hormones, carbon dioxide (plasma being the main medium for excretory product transportation), and oxygen. It plays a vital role in an intravascular osmotic effect that keeps electrolyte concentration balanced and protects the body from infection and other blood-related disorders.
Blood plasma is separated from the blood by spinning a tube of fresh blood containing an anticoagulant in a centrifuge until the blood cells fall to the bottom of the tube. The blood plasma is then poured or drawn off. For point-of-care testing applications, plasma can be extracted from whole blood via filtration or via agglutination to allow for rapid testing of specific biomarkers. Blood plasma has a density of approximately .
Blood serum is blood plasma without clotting factors.
Plasmapheresis is a medical therapy that involves blood plasma extraction, treatment, and reintegration.
Fresh frozen plasma is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system. It is of critical importance in the treatment of many types of trauma which result in blood loss, and is therefore kept stocked universally in all medical facilities capable of treating trauma (e.g., trauma centers, hospitals, and ambulances) or that pose a risk of patient blood loss such as surgical suite facilities.
Volume
Blood plasma volume may be expanded by or drained to extravascular fluid when there are changes in Starling forces across capillary walls. For example, when blood pressure drops in circulatory shock, Starling forces drive fluid into the interstitium, causing third spacing.
Standing still for a prolonged period will cause an increase in transcapillary hydrostatic pressure. As a result, approximately 12% of blood plasma volume will cross into the extravascular compartment. This causes an increase in hematocrit, serum total protein, blood viscosity and, as a result of increased concentration of coagulation factors, it causes orthostatic hypercoagulability.
Plasma proteins
Albumins
Serum albumins are the most common plasma proteins and they are responsible for maintaining the osmotic pressure of blood. Without albumins, the consistency of blood would be closer to that of water. The increased viscosity of blood prevents fluid from entering the bloodstream from outside the capillaries. Albumins are produced in the liver assuming the absence of a hepatocellular deficiency.
Globulins
The second most common type of protein in the blood plasma are globulins. Important globulins include immunoglobins which are important for the immune system and transport hormones and other compounds around the body. There are three main types of globulins. Alpha-1 and Alpha-2 globulins are formed in the liver and play an important role in mineral transport and the inhibition of blood coagulation. An example of beta globulin found in blood plasma includes low-density lipoproteins (LDL) which are responsible for transporting fat to the cells for steroid and membrane synthesis. Gamma globulin, better known as immunoglobulins, are produced by plasma B cells, and provides the human body with a defense system against invading pathogens and other immune diseases.
Fibrinogen
Fibrinogen proteins make up most of the remaining proteins in the blood. Fibrinogens are responsible for clotting blood to help prevent blood loss.
Color
Plasma is normally yellow due to bilirubin, carotenoids, hemoglobin and transferrin. In abnormal cases, plasma can have varying shades of orange, green or brown. Green color can be due to ceruloplasmin or sulfhemoglobin. Latter may form due to medicines that are able to form sulfonamides once ingested (see sulfhemoglobinemia). Dark brown or reddish color can appear due to hemolysis, in which methemoglobin is released from broken blood cells (see methemoglobinemia). Plasma is normally relatively transparent, but sometimes it can be opaque. Opaqueness is typically due to elevated content of lipids like cholesterol and triglycerides (see hyperlipidemia).
Plasma vs. serum in medical diagnostics
Blood plasma and blood serum are often used in blood tests. Some tests can be done only on plasma and some only on serum. Some can be done on both, but depending on the test, use of either plasma or serum can be more practical. In addition, some tests have to be done with whole blood, such as the determination of the amount of blood cells in blood via flow cytometry.
History
Plasma was already well known when described by William Harvey in de Mortu Cordis in 1628, but knowledge of it probably extends as far back as Vesalius (1514–1564). The discovery of fibrinogen by William Henson, c. 1770, made it easier to study plasma, as ordinarily, upon coming in contact with a foreign surface – something other than vascular endothelium – clotting factors become activated and clotting proceeds rapidly, trapping RBCs etc. in the plasma and preventing separation of plasma from the blood. Adding citrate and other anticoagulants is a relatively recent advance. Note that, upon formation of a clot, the remaining clear fluid (if any) is Serum (blood), which is essentially plasma without the clotting factors.
The use of blood plasma as a substitute for whole blood and for transfusion purposes was proposed in March 1918, in the correspondence columns of the British Medical Journal, by Gordon R. Ward. "Dried plasmas" in powder or strips of material format were developed and first used in World War II. Prior to the United States' involvement in the war, liquid plasma and whole blood were used.
The origin of plasmapheresis
Dr. José Antonio Grifols Lucas, a scientist from Vilanova i la Geltrú, Spain, founded Laboratorios Grifols in 1940. Dr. Grifols pioneered a first-of-its-kind technique called plasmapheresis, where a donor's red blood cells would be returned to the donor's body almost immediately after the separation of the blood plasma. This technique is still in practice today, almost 80 years later. In 1945, Dr. Grifols opened the world's first plasma donation center. Thirteen years after the center's opening, Dr. Grifols unexpectedly died at the young age of 41 due to leukemia.
Blood for Britain
The "Blood for Britain" program during the early 1940s was quite successful (and popular in the United States) based on Charles Drew's contribution. A large project began in August 1940 to collect blood in New York City hospitals for the export of plasma to Britain. Drew was appointed medical supervisor of the "Plasma for Britain" project. His notable contribution at this time was to transform the test tube methods of many blood researchers into the first successful mass production techniques.
Nevertheless, the decision was made to develop a dried plasma package for the armed forces as it would reduce breakage and make the transportation, packaging, and storage much simpler. The resulting dried plasma package came in two tin cans containing 400 cc bottles. One bottle contained enough distilled water to reconstitute the dried plasma contained within the other bottle. In about three minutes, the plasma would be ready to use and could stay fresh for around four hours. The Blood for Britain program operated successfully for five months, with total collections of almost 15,000 people donating blood, and with over 5,500 vials of blood plasma.
Following the Supplying Blood Plasma to England project, Drew was named director of the Red Cross blood bank and assistant director of the National Research Council, in charge of blood collection for the United States Army and Navy. Drew argued against the armed forces directive that blood/plasma was to be separated by the race of the donor. Drew insisted that there was no racial difference in human blood and that the policy would lead to needless deaths as soldiers and sailors were required to wait for "same race" blood.
By the end of the war the American Red Cross had provided enough blood for over six million plasma packages. Most of the surplus plasma was returned to the United States for civilian use. Serum albumin replaced dried plasma for combat use during the Korean War.
Plasma donation
Plasma as a blood product prepared from blood donations is used in blood transfusions, typically as fresh frozen plasma (FFP) or Plasma Frozen within 24 hours after phlebotomy (PF24). When donating whole blood or packed red blood cell (PRBC) transfusions, O- is the most desirable and is considered a "universal donor," since it has neither A nor B antigens and can be safely transfused to most recipients. Type AB+ is the "universal recipient" type for PRBC donations. However, for plasma the situation is somewhat reversed. Blood donation centers will sometimes collect only plasma from AB donors through apheresis, as their plasma does not contain the antibodies that may cross react with recipient antigens. As such, AB is often considered the "universal donor" for plasma. Special programs exist just to cater to the male AB plasma donor, because of concerns about transfusion related acute lung injury (TRALI) and female donors who may have higher leukocyte antibodies. However, some studies show an increased risk of TRALI despite increased leukocyte antibodies in women who have been pregnant.
United Kingdom
Following fears of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) being spread through the blood supply, the British government began to phase out blood plasma from U.K. donors and by the end of 1999 had imported all blood products made with plasma from the United States. In 2002, the British government purchased Life Resources Incorporated, an American blood supply company, to import plasma. The company became Plasma Resources UK (PRUK) which owned Bio Products Laboratory. In 2013, the British government sold an 80% stake in PRUK to American hedge fund Bain Capital, in a deal estimated to be worth £200 million. The sale was met with criticism in the UK. In 2009, the U.K. stopped importing plasma from the United States, as it was no longer a viable option due to regulatory and jurisdictional challenges.
Currently, blood donated in the United Kingdom is used by UK Blood Services for the manufacture of plasma blood components (Fresh Frozen Plasma (FFP) and cryoprecipitate). However, plasma from UK donors is still not used for the commercial manufacture of fractionated plasma medicines.
Synthetic blood plasma
Simulated body fluid (SBF) is a solution having a similar ion concentration to that of human blood plasma. SBF is normally used for the surface modification of metallic implants, and more recently in gene delivery application.
See also
Blood plasma fractionation
Blood proteins
Chromatography in blood processing
Hypoxia preconditioned plasma
Intravascular volume status
References
Blood
Blood products
Body fluids
Hematology
Transfusion medicine
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity%20retailing
|
Electricity retailing
|
Electricity retailing is the final sale of electricity from generation to the end-use consumer. This is the fourth major step in the electricity delivery process, which also includes generation, transmission and distribution.
Beginnings
Electricity retailing began at the end of the 19th century when the bodies which generated electricity for their own use made supply available to third parties. In the beginning, electricity was primarily used for street lighting and trams. The public could buy once large scale
electric companies had been started.
The provision of these services was generally the responsibility of electric companies or municipal authorities who either set up their own departments or contracted the services from private entrepreneurs. Residential, commercial and industrial use of electricity was confined, initially, to lighting but this changed dramatically with the development of electric motors, heaters and communication devices.
The basic principle of supply has not changed much over time. The amount of energy used by the domestic consumer, and thus the amount charged for, is measured through an electricity meter that is usually placed near the input of a home to provide easy access to the meter reader.
Customers are usually charged a monthly service fee and additional charges based on the electrical energy (in kWh) consumed by the household or business during the month. Commercial and industrial consumers normally have more complex pricing schemes. These require meters that measure the energy usage in time intervals (such as a half-hour) to impose charges based on both the amount of energy consumed and the maximum rate of consumption, i.e. the maximum demand. This is usually called peak demand charge. Frequent reporting also allows the retailer to pass on the spot price (with some markup) to its customers.
Monopoly supply
The rapid growth in electric appliance usage in the early part of the 20th century contributed to an explosive growth in electrification around the world.
The supply of electricity to homes, offices, shops, factories, farms, and mines became the responsibility of public utilities, which were either private organizations subject to monopoly regulation or public authorities owned by local, state or national bodies.
In some countries a statutory or government-granted monopoly was created to be controlled by legislation, for example Eskom in South Africa.
Electricity retailing in the period from approximately 1890 to 1990 consisted of managing the connection, disconnection and billing of electricity consumers by the local monopoly supplier.
In many utilities there was a marketing function which encouraged electricity usage when there was excess capacity to supply and encouraged conservation when supply was tight.
Creating a market
An electricity provider is often known as "the electric company" or "the power company".
In 1990 there was a significant development in the way electricity was bought and sold. In many countries, the electricity market was deregulated to open up the supply of electricity to competition. In the United Kingdom the electricity supply industry was radically reformed to establish competition, including a market in advising users about switching supplier. This trend continued in other countries (see New Zealand Electricity Market and deregulation) and the role of electricity retailing changed from what was essentially an administrative function within an integrated utility to become a risk management function within a competitive electricity market.
Electricity retailers now offer fixed prices or variable for electricity to their customers and manage the risk involved in purchasing electricity from spot markets or electricity pools. This development has not been without casualties. The most notable example of poor risk management (coupled with poor market regulation) was the 2001 California electricity crisis, when Pacific Gas and Electric and Southern California Edison were driven into bankruptcy by having to purchase electricity at high spot prices and sell at low fixed rates.
Customers may choose from a number of competing suppliers. They may also opt to purchase "green" power, i.e. electricity sourced from renewable energy generation such as wind power or solar power.
United States
Over the past several decades, many US states have moved to deregulate their electric markets, with 24 states allowing for at least some competition among retail electric providers (REPs) including California, Texas, and New York. Deregulation of electric retailers has been subject to much controversy as more states have opted for competitive markets.
See also
Distributed generation
Eugene Green Energy Standard
Net metering
Microgeneration
Peak demand and off-peak
Vehicle-to-grid
Deregulation of the Texas electricity market
References
Electric power
Electric power distribution
Electricity markets
Service retailing
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homotopy
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Homotopy
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In topology, a branch of mathematics, two continuous functions from one topological space to another are called homotopic (from "same, similar" and "place") if one can be "continuously deformed" into the other, such a deformation being called a homotopy between the two functions. A notable use of homotopy is the definition of homotopy groups and cohomotopy groups, important invariants in algebraic topology.
In practice, there are technical difficulties in using homotopies with certain spaces. Algebraic topologists work with compactly generated spaces, CW complexes, or spectra.
Formal definition
Formally, a homotopy between two continuous functions f and g from a
topological space X to a topological space Y is defined to be a continuous function from the product of the space X with the unit interval [0, 1] to Y such that and for all .
If we think of the second parameter of H as time then H describes a continuous deformation of f into g: at time 0 we have the function f and at time 1 we have the function g. We can also think of the second parameter as a "slider control" that allows us to smoothly transition from f to g as the slider moves from 0 to 1, and vice versa.
An alternative notation is to say that a homotopy between two continuous functions is a family of continuous functions for such that and , and the map is continuous from to . The two versions coincide by setting . It is not sufficient to require each map to be continuous.
The animation that is looped above right provides an example of a homotopy between two embeddings, f and g, of the torus into . X is the torus, Y is , f is some continuous function from the torus to R3 that takes the torus to the embedded surface-of-a-doughnut shape with which the animation starts; g is some continuous function that takes the torus to the embedded surface-of-a-coffee-mug shape. The animation shows the image of ht(x) as a function of the parameter t, where t varies with time from 0 to 1 over each cycle of the animation loop. It pauses, then shows the image as t varies back from 1 to 0, pauses, and repeats this cycle.
Properties
Continuous functions f and g are said to be homotopic if and only if there is a homotopy H taking f to g as described above. Being homotopic is an equivalence relation on the set of all continuous functions from X to Y.
This homotopy relation is compatible with function composition in the following sense: if are homotopic, and are homotopic, then their compositions and are also homotopic.
Examples
If are given by and , then the map given by is a homotopy between them.
More generally, if is a convex subset of Euclidean space and are paths with the same endpoints, then there is a linear homotopy (or straight-line homotopy) given by
Let be the identity function on the unit n-disk; i.e. the set . Let be the constant function which sends every point to the origin. Then the following is a homotopy between them:
Homotopy equivalence
Given two topological spaces X and Y, a homotopy equivalence between X and Y is a pair of continuous maps and , such that is homotopic to the identity map idX and is homotopic to idY. If such a pair exists, then X and Y are said to be homotopy equivalent, or of the same homotopy type. Intuitively, two spaces X and Y are homotopy equivalent if they can be transformed into one another by bending, shrinking and expanding operations. Spaces that are homotopy-equivalent to a point are called contractible.
Homotopy equivalence vs. homeomorphism
A homeomorphism is a special case of a homotopy equivalence, in which is equal to the identity map idX (not only homotopic to it), and is equal to idY. Therefore, if X and Y are homeomorphic then they are homotopy-equivalent, but the opposite is not true. Some examples:
A solid disk is homotopy-equivalent to a single point, since you can deform the disk along radial lines continuously to a single point. However, they are not homeomorphic, since there is no bijection between them (since one is an infinite set, while the other is finite).
The Möbius strip and an untwisted (closed) strip are homotopy equivalent, since you can deform both strips continuously to a circle. But they are not homeomorphic.
Examples
The first example of a homotopy equivalence is with a point, denoted . The part that needs to be checked is the existence of a homotopy between and , the projection of onto the origin. This can be described as .
There is a homotopy equivalence between (the 1-sphere) and .
More generally, .
Any fiber bundle with fibers homotopy equivalent to a point has homotopy equivalent total and base spaces. This generalizes the previous two examples since is a fiber bundle with fiber .
Every vector bundle is a fiber bundle with a fiber homotopy equivalent to a point.
For any , by writing as and applying the homotopy equivalences above.
If a subcomplex of a CW complex is contractible, then the quotient space is homotopy equivalent to .
A deformation retraction is a homotopy equivalence.
Null-homotopy
A function f is said to be null-homotopic if it is homotopic to a constant function. (The homotopy from f to a constant function is then sometimes called a null-homotopy.) For example, a map f from the unit circle S1 to any space X is null-homotopic precisely when it can be continuously extended to a map from the unit disk D2 to X that agrees with f on the boundary.
It follows from these definitions that a space X is contractible if and only if the identity map from X to itself—which is always a homotopy equivalence—is null-homotopic.
Invariance
Homotopy equivalence is important because in algebraic topology many concepts are homotopy invariant, that is, they respect the relation of homotopy equivalence. For example, if X and Y are homotopy equivalent spaces, then:
X is path-connected if and only if Y is.
X is simply connected if and only if Y is.
The (singular) homology and cohomology groups of X and Y are isomorphic.
If X and Y are path-connected, then the fundamental groups of X and Y are isomorphic, and so are the higher homotopy groups. (Without the path-connectedness assumption, one has π1(X, x0) isomorphic to π1(Y, f(x0)) where is a homotopy equivalence and
An example of an algebraic invariant of topological spaces which is not homotopy-invariant is compactly supported homology (which is, roughly speaking, the homology of the compactification, and compactification is not homotopy-invariant).
Variants
Relative homotopy
In order to define the fundamental group, one needs the notion of homotopy relative to a subspace. These are homotopies which keep the elements of the subspace fixed. Formally: if f and g are continuous maps from X to Y and K is a subset of X, then we say that f and g are homotopic relative to K if there exists a homotopy between f and g such that for all and Also, if g is a retraction from X to K and f is the identity map, this is known as a strong deformation retract of X to K.
When K is a point, the term pointed homotopy is used.
Isotopy
In case the two given continuous functions f and g from the topological space X to the topological space Y are embeddings, one can ask whether they can be connected 'through embeddings'. This gives rise to the concept of isotopy, which is a homotopy, H, in the notation used before, such that for each fixed t, H(x, t) gives an embedding.
A related, but different, concept is that of ambient isotopy.
Requiring that two embeddings be isotopic is a stronger requirement than that they be homotopic. For example, the map from the interval [−1, 1] into the real numbers defined by f(x) = −x is not isotopic to the identity g(x) = x. Any homotopy from f to the identity would have to exchange the endpoints, which would mean that they would have to 'pass through' each other. Moreover, f has changed the orientation of the interval and g has not, which is impossible under an isotopy. However, the maps are homotopic; one homotopy from f to the identity is H: [−1, 1] × [0, 1] → [−1, 1] given by H(x, y) = 2yx − x.
Two homeomorphisms (which are special cases of embeddings) of the unit ball which agree on the boundary can be shown to be isotopic using Alexander's trick. For this reason, the map of the unit disc in R2 defined by f(x, y) = (−x, −y) is isotopic to a 180-degree rotation around the origin, and so the identity map and f are isotopic because they can be connected by rotations.
In geometric topology—for example in knot theory—the idea of isotopy is used to construct equivalence relations. For example, when should two knots be considered the same? We take two knots, K1 and K2, in three-dimensional space. A knot is an embedding of a one-dimensional space, the "loop of string" (or the circle), into this space, and this embedding gives a homeomorphism between the circle and its image in the embedding space. The intuitive idea behind the notion of knot equivalence is that one can deform one embedding to another through a path of embeddings: a continuous function starting at t = 0 giving the K1 embedding, ending at t = 1 giving the K2 embedding, with all intermediate values corresponding to embeddings. This corresponds to the definition of isotopy. An ambient isotopy, studied in this context, is an isotopy of the larger space, considered in light of its action on the embedded submanifold. Knots K1 and K2 are considered equivalent when there is an ambient isotopy which moves K1 to K2. This is the appropriate definition in the topological category.
Similar language is used for the equivalent concept in contexts where one has a stronger notion of equivalence. For example, a path between two smooth embeddings is a smooth isotopy.
Timelike homotopy
On a Lorentzian manifold, certain curves are distinguished as timelike (representing something that only goes forwards, not backwards, in time, in every local frame). A timelike homotopy between two timelike curves is a homotopy such that the curve remains timelike during the continuous transformation from one curve to another. No closed timelike curve (CTC) on a Lorentzian manifold is timelike homotopic to a point (that is, null timelike homotopic); such a manifold is therefore said to be multiply connected by timelike curves. A manifold such as the 3-sphere can be simply connected (by any type of curve), and yet be timelike multiply connected.
Properties
Lifting and extension properties
If we have a homotopy and a cover and we are given a map such that (h0 is called a lift of h0), then we can lift all H to a map such that The homotopy lifting property is used to characterize fibrations.
Another useful property involving homotopy is the homotopy extension property,
which characterizes the extension of a homotopy between two functions from a subset of some set to the set itself. It is useful when dealing with cofibrations.
Groups
Since the relation of two functions being homotopic relative to a subspace is an equivalence relation, we can look at the equivalence classes of maps between a fixed X and Y. If we fix , the unit interval [0, 1] crossed with itself n times, and we take its boundary as a subspace, then the equivalence classes form a group, denoted , where is in the image of the subspace .
We can define the action of one equivalence class on another, and so we get a group. These groups are called the homotopy groups. In the case , it is also called the fundamental group.
Homotopy category
The idea of homotopy can be turned into a formal category of category theory. The homotopy category is the category whose objects are topological spaces, and whose morphisms are homotopy equivalence classes of continuous maps. Two topological spaces X and Y are isomorphic in this category if and only if they are homotopy-equivalent. Then a functor on the category of topological spaces is homotopy invariant if it can be expressed as a functor on the homotopy category.
For example, homology groups are a functorial homotopy invariant: this means that if f and g from X to Y are homotopic, then the group homomorphisms induced by f and g on the level of homology groups are the same: Hn(f) = Hn(g) : Hn(X) → Hn(Y) for all n. Likewise, if X and Y are in addition path connected, and the homotopy between f and g is pointed, then the group homomorphisms induced by f and g on the level of homotopy groups are also the same: πn(f) = πn(g) : πn(X) → πn(Y).
Applications
Based on the concept of the homotopy, computation methods for algebraic and differential equations have been developed. The methods for algebraic equations include the homotopy continuation method and the continuation method (see numerical continuation). The methods for differential equations include the homotopy analysis method.
See also
Fiber-homotopy equivalence (relative version of a homotopy equivalence)
Homeotopy
Homotopy type theory
Mapping class group
Poincaré conjecture
Regular homotopy
References
Sources
Continuous mappings
Maps of manifolds
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric%20power%20distribution
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Electric power distribution
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Electric power distribution is the final stage in the delivery of electric power; it carries electricity from the transmission system to individual consumers. Distribution substations connect to the transmission system and lower the transmission voltage to medium voltage ranging between and with the use of transformers. Primary distribution lines carry this medium voltage power to distribution transformers located near the customer's premises. Distribution transformers again lower the voltage to the utilization voltage used by lighting, industrial equipment and household appliances. Often several customers are supplied from one transformer through secondary distribution lines. Commercial and residential customers are connected to the secondary distribution lines through service drops. Customers demanding a much larger amount of power may be connected directly to the primary distribution level or the subtransmission level.
The transition from transmission to distribution happens in a power substation, which has the following functions:
Circuit breakers and switches enable the substation to be disconnected from the transmission grid or for distribution lines to be disconnected.
Transformers step down transmission voltages, or more, down to primary distribution voltages. These are medium voltage circuits, usually .
From the transformer, power goes to the busbar that can split the distribution power off in multiple directions. The bus distributes power to distribution lines, which fan out to customers.
Urban distribution is mainly underground, sometimes in common utility ducts. Rural distribution is mostly above ground with utility poles, and suburban distribution is a mix.
Closer to the customer, a distribution transformer steps the primary distribution power down to a low-voltage secondary circuit, usually 120/240 V in the US for residential customers. The power comes to the customer via a service drop and an electricity meter. The final circuit in an urban system may be less than , but may be over for a rural customer.
History
Electric power distribution became necessary only in the 1880s when electricity started being generated at power stations. Before that, electricity was usually generated where it was used. The first power distribution systems installed in European and US cities were used to supply lighting: arc lighting running on very high voltage (around 3000 volts) alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC), and incandescent lighting running on low voltage (100 volt) direct current. Both were supplanting gas lighting systems, with arc lighting taking over large area and street lighting, and incandescent lighting replacing gas for business and residential lighting.
Due to the high voltages used in arc lighting, a single generating station could supply a long string of lights, up to long circuits. Each doubling of the voltage would allow the same size cable to transmit the same amount of power four times the distance for a given power loss. Direct current indoor incandescent lighting systems, for example the first Edison Pearl Street Station installed in 1882, had difficulty supplying customers more than a mile away. This was due to the low 110 volt system being used throughout the system, from the generators to the final use. The Edison DC system needed thick copper conductor cables, and the generating plants needed to be within about of the farthest customer to avoid excessively large and expensive conductors.
Introduction of the transformer
Transmitting electricity a long distance at high voltage and then reducing it to a lower voltage for lighting became a recognized engineering roadblock to electric power distribution with many, not very satisfactory, solutions tested by lighting companies. The mid-1880s saw a breakthrough with the development of functional transformers that allowed the AC voltage to be "stepped up" to much higher transmission voltages and then dropped down to a lower end user voltage. With much cheaper transmission costs and the greater economies of scale of having large generating plants supply whole cities and regions, the use of AC spread rapidly.
In the US the competition between direct current and alternating current took a personal turn in the late 1880s in the form of a "war of currents" when Thomas Edison started attacking George Westinghouse and his development of the first US AC transformer systems, pointing out all the deaths caused by high-voltage AC systems over the years and claiming any AC system was inherently dangerous. Edison's propaganda campaign was short-lived, with his company switching over to AC in 1892.
AC became the dominant form of transmission of power with innovations in Europe and the US in electric motor designs and the development of engineered universal systems allowing the large number of legacy systems to be connected to large AC grids.
In the first half of the 20th century, in many places the electric power industry was vertically integrated, meaning that one company did generation, transmission, distribution, metering and billing. Starting in the 1970s and 1980s, nations began the process of deregulation and privatisation, leading to electricity markets. The distribution system would remain regulated, but generation, retail, and sometimes transmission systems were transformed into competitive markets.
Generation and transmission
Electric power begins at a generating station, where the potential difference can be as high as 33,000 volts. AC is usually used. Users of large amounts of DC power such as some railway electrification systems, telephone exchanges and industrial processes such as aluminium smelting use rectifiers to derive DC from the public AC supply, or may have their own generation systems. High-voltage DC can be advantageous for isolating alternating-current systems or controlling the quantity of electricity transmitted. For example, Hydro-Québec has a direct-current line which goes from the James Bay region to Boston.
From the generating station it goes to the generating station's switchyard where a step-up transformer increases the voltage to a level suitable for transmission, from 44 kV to 765 kV. Once in the transmission system, electricity from each generating station is combined with electricity produced elsewhere. Electricity is consumed as soon as it is produced. It is transmitted at a very high speed, close to the speed of light.
Primary distribution
Primary distribution voltages range from 4 kV to 35 kV phase-to-phase (2.4 kV to 20 kV phase-to-neutral) Only large consumers are fed directly from distribution voltages; most utility customers are connected to a transformer, which reduces the distribution voltage to the low voltage "utilization voltage", "supply voltage" or "mains voltage" used by lighting and interior wiring systems.
Network configurations
Distribution networks are divided into two types, radial or network. A radial system is arranged like a tree where each customer has one source of supply. A network system has multiple sources of supply operating in parallel. Spot networks are used for concentrated loads. Radial systems are commonly used in rural or suburban areas.
Radial systems usually include emergency connections where the system can be reconfigured in case of problems, such as a fault or planned maintenance. This can be done by opening and closing switches to isolate a certain section from the grid.
Long feeders experience voltage drop (power factor distortion) requiring capacitors or voltage regulators to be installed.
Reconfiguration, by exchanging the functional links between the elements of the system, represents one of the most important measures which can improve the operational performance of a distribution system. The problem of optimization through the reconfiguration of a power distribution system, in terms of its definition, is a historical single objective problem with constraints. Since 1975, when Merlin and Back introduced the idea of distribution system reconfiguration for active power loss reduction, until nowadays, a lot of researchers have proposed diverse methods and algorithms to solve the reconfiguration problem as a single objective problem. Some authors have proposed Pareto optimality based approaches (including active power losses and reliability indices as objectives). For this purpose, different artificial intelligence based methods have been used: microgenetic, branch exchange, particle swarm optimization and non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm.
Rural services
Rural electrification systems tend to use higher distribution voltages because of the longer distances covered by distribution lines (see Rural Electrification Administration). 7.2, 12.47, 25, and 34.5 kV distribution is common in the United States; 11 kV and 33 kV are common in the UK, Australia and New Zealand; 11 kV and 22 kV are common in South Africa; 10, 20 and 35 kV are common in China. Other voltages are occasionally used.
Rural services normally try to minimize the number of poles and wires. It uses higher voltages (than urban distribution), which in turn permits use of galvanized steel wire. The strong steel wire allows for less expensive wide pole spacing. In rural areas a pole-mount transformer may serve only one customer. In New Zealand, Australia, Saskatchewan, Canada, and South Africa, Single-wire earth return systems (SWER) are used to electrify remote rural areas.
Three phase service provides power for large agricultural facilities, petroleum pumping facilities, water plants, or other customers that have large loads (Three phase equipment).
In North America, overhead distribution systems may be three phase, four wire, with a neutral conductor. Rural distribution system may have long runs of one phase conductor and a neutral.
In other countries or in extreme rural areas the neutral wire is connected to the ground to use that as a return (Single-wire earth return). This is called an ungrounded wye system.
Secondary distribution
Electricity is delivered at a frequency of either 50 or 60 Hz, depending on the region. It is delivered to domestic customers as single-phase electric power. In some countries as in Europe a three phase supply may be made available for larger properties. Seen with an oscilloscope, the domestic power supply in North America would look like a sine wave, oscillating between −170 volts and 170 volts, giving an effective voltage of 120 volts RMS. Three-phase electric power is more efficient in terms of power delivered per cable used, and is more suited to running large electric motors. Some large European appliances may be powered by three-phase power, such as electric stoves and clothes dryers.
A ground connection is normally provided for the customer's system as well as for the equipment owned by the utility. The purpose of connecting the customer's system to ground is to limit the voltage that may develop if high voltage conductors fall down onto lower-voltage conductors which are usually mounted lower to the ground, or if a failure occurs within a distribution transformer. Earthing systems can be TT, TN-S, TN-C-S or TN-C.
Regional variations
220–240 volt systems
Most of the world uses 50 Hz 220 or 230 V single phase, or 400 V 3 phase for residential and light industrial services. In this system, the primary distribution network supplies a few substations per area, and the 230 V / 400 V power from each substation is directly distributed to end users over a region of normally less than 1 km radius. Three live (hot) wires and the neutral are connected to the building for a three phase service. Single-phase distribution, with one live wire and the neutral is used domestically where total loads are light. In Europe, electricity is normally distributed for industry and domestic use by the three-phase, four wire system. This gives a phase-to-phase voltage of wye service and a single-phase voltage of between any one phase and neutral. In the UK a typical urban or suburban low-voltage substation would normally be rated between 150 kVA and 1 MVA and supply a whole neighbourhood of a few hundred houses. Transformers are typically sized on an average load of 1 to 2 kW per household, and the service fuses and cable is sized to allow any one property to draw a peak load of perhaps ten times this.
For industrial customers, 3-phase is also available, or may be generated locally.
Large industrial customers have their own transformer(s) with an input from 11 kV to 220 kV.
100–120 volt systems
Most of the Americas use 60 Hz AC, the 120/240 volt split-phase system domestically and three phase for larger installations. North American transformers usually power homes at 240 volts, similar to Europe's 230 volts. It is the split-phase that allows use of 120 volts in the home.
In the electricity sector in Japan, the standard voltage is 100 V, with both 50 and 60 Hz AC frequencies being used. Parts of the country use 50 Hz, while other parts use 60 Hz. This is a relic from the 1890s. Some local providers in Tokyo imported 50 Hz German equipment, while the local power providers in Osaka brought in 60 Hz generators from the United States. The grids grew until eventually the entire country was wired. Today the frequency is 50 Hz in Eastern Japan (including Tokyo, Yokohama, Tohoku, and Hokkaido) and 60 Hz in Western Japan (including Nagoya, Osaka, Kyoto, Hiroshima, Shikoku, and Kyushu).
Most household appliances are made to work on either frequency. The problem of incompatibility came into the public eye when the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami knocked out about a third of the east's capacity, and power in the west could not be fully shared with the east, since the country does not have a common frequency.
There are four high-voltage direct current (HVDC) converter stations that move power across Japan's AC frequency border. Shin Shinano is a back-to-back HVDC facility in Japan which forms one of four frequency changer stations that link Japan's western and eastern power grids. The other three are at Higashi-Shimizu, Minami-Fukumitsu and Sakuma Dam. Together they can move up to 1.2 GW of power east or west.
240 volt systems and 120 volt outlets
Most modern North American homes are wired to receive 240 volts from the transformer, and through the use of split-phase electrical power, can have both 120 volt receptacles and 240 volt receptacles. The 120 volts is typically used for lighting and most wall outlets. The 240 volt circuits are typically used for appliances requiring high watt heat output such as ovens and heaters. They may also be used to supply an electric car charger.
Modern Distribution Systems
Traditionally, the distribution systems would only operate as simple distribution lines where the electricity from the transmission networks would be shared among the customers. Today's distribution systems are heavily integrated with renewable energy generations at the distribution level of the power systems by the means of distributed generation resources, such as solar energy and wind energy. As a result, distribution systems are becoming more independent from the transmission networks day-by-day. Balancing the supply-demand relationship at these modern distribution networks (sometimes referred to as microgrids) is extremely challenging, and it requires the use of various technological and operational means to operate. Such tools include battery storage power station, data analytics, optimization tools, etc.
See also
Backfeeding
Cost of electricity by source
Dynamic voltage restoration
Electric utility
Electricity distribution companies by country
Electricity generation
Electricity retailing
Network protector
Power distribution unit
Power-system automation – IEEE standard to interconnect tele-protection and multiplexer devices of power utility companies
Power system simulation
Transmission system operator
High-voltage transformer fire barriers
References
External links
IEEE Power Engineering Society
IEEE Power Engineering Society Distribution Subcommittee
U.S. Department of Energy Electric Distribution website
Electrical engineering
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212263
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodlawn%20Cemetery%20%28Bronx%2C%20New%20York%29
|
Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx, New York)
|
Woodlawn Cemetery is one of the largest cemeteries in New York City and a designated National Historic Landmark. Located south of Woodlawn Heights, Bronx, New York City, it has the character of a rural cemetery. Woodlawn Cemetery opened during the Civil War in 1863, in what was then southern Westchester County, in an area that was annexed to New York City in 1874. It is notable in part as the final resting place of some well known figures.
Locale and grounds
The Cemetery covers more than and is the resting place for more than 300,000 people. Built on rolling hills, its tree-lined roads lead to some unique memorials, some designed by famous American architects: McKim, Mead & White, John Russell Pope, James Gamble Rogers, Cass Gilbert, Carrère and Hastings, Sir Edwin Lutyens, Beatrix Jones Farrand, and John La Farge. The cemetery contains seven Commonwealth war graves – six British and Canadian servicemen of World War I and an airman of the Royal Canadian Air Force of World War II. In 2011, Woodlawn Cemetery was designated a National Historic Landmark, since it shows the transition from the rural cemetery popular at the time of its establishment to the more orderly 20th-century cemetery style.
As of 2007, plot prices at Woodlawn were reported as $200 per square foot, $4,800 for a gravesite for two, and up to $1.5 million for land to build a family mausoleum.
Burials moved to Woodlawn
Woodlawn was the destination for many human remains disinterred from cemeteries in more densely populated parts of New York City:
Rutgers Street church graves were moved to Woodlawn. Most graves were re-interred with a stated date of December 20, 1866 into the Rutgers Plot, lots 147–170.
West Farms Dutch Reformed Church, at Boone Avenue and 172nd Street in The Bronx, had most of its graves moved to Woodlawn Cemetery in 1867 and interred in the Rutgers Plot, Lots 214–221.
Bensonia Cemetery, also known as "Morrisania Cemetery", was originally a Native American burial ground. The graves were moved to Woodlawn Cemetery with a stated date of April 21, 1871 and re-interred into Lot 3. Public School #138, in The Bronx, is now on the site.
Harlem Church Yard cemetery internees were moved to Woodlawn. Most graves were re-interred with a stated date of August 1, 1871 into the Sycamore Plot, lots 1061–1080.
Nagle Cemetery remains were moved in November–December 1926 and reinterred in Primrose Plot, Lot 16150. Identities of those interred are apparently unknown.
The Dyckman-Nagle Burying Ground, West 212th Street at 9th Avenue, in the Borough of Manhattan, was originally established in 1677 and originally contained 417 plots. In 1905, the remains, with the exception of Staats Morris Dyckman and his family, were removed. By 1927, the Dyckman graves were finally moved to Woodlawn Cemetery. The former Dutch colonial-era cemetery is now a 207th Street subway train yard.
The fictional cemetery of the Synagogue in Brooklyn in the film Once Upon a Time in America is actually located here, renamed "Riverdale Cemetery".
Notable burials
Numerous notable persons have been interred at Woodlawn Cemetery including: Chief Justice of the United States Charles Evans Hughes; aviation pioneer Harriet Quimby, performer, playwright and producer George M Cohan; gangster Bumpy Johnson; authors Nellie Bly, Countee Cullen, Clarence Day, Damon Runyon, Herman Melville, and Dorothy Parker; musicians Irving Berlin, Miles Davis, Duke Ellington, W. C. Handy, Fritz Kreisler, King Oliver, and Max Roach; singers Celia Cruz and Florence Mills; husband and wife magicians Alexander Herrmann and Adelaide Herrmann; sportswriter Grantland Rice; gunfighter and US marshal Bat Masterson; and, businessmen such as shipping magnate Archibald Gracie, cosmetics manufacturer Richard Hudnut, department store founder Rowland Hussey Macy, and variety store mogul F. W. Woolworth. A large number of New York brewers (e.g., the Haffens of Haffen Brewing Company) are interred there on "Brewer's Row", along with a dozen other brewing scions and their families.
Gallery
See also
List of cemeteries in the United States
List of mausolea
List of National Historic Landmarks in New York City
Rural Cemetery Act
References
External links
Woodlawn Official Page
Photographs of graves of famous persons in Woodlawn
Woodlawn Cemetery Records are held by the Drawings and Archives Department of the Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library, Columbia University
Cemeteries in the Bronx
Tourist attractions in the Bronx
National Historic Landmarks in New York City
Cemeteries on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
National Register of Historic Places in the Bronx
1863 establishments in New York (state)
Rural cemeteries
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice%20in%20Wonderland%20%281985%20film%29
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Alice in Wonderland (1985 film)
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Alice in Wonderland is a 1985 American two-part made-for-television adventure family fantasy musical film of Lewis Carroll's books Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865) and Through the Looking-Glass (1871). An Irwin Allen production, it used a huge all-star cast of notable actors and actresses. The title role was played by Natalie Gregory, who wore a blonde wig for this miniseries. Alice in Wonderland was first telecast December 9, 1985, (part one) and December 10, 1985 (part two), at 8:00pm EST on CBS.
It was filmed in Los Angeles at the MGM Studios (now known as Sony Pictures Studios) in Culver City over a 55-day period from March 12, 1985, to May 28 of that same year. Additional filming took place at Malibu Beach for the oysters scene, and establishing shots of Alice's house took place at the S. S. Hinds Estate, also in the Los Angeles area.
Plot
Part 1 – Alice in Wonderland
The first part opens with Alice helping Mother set the table for tea time. Although thankful for her daughter's help, Mother tells Alice that she is still not grown-up enough to join the adults at tea. Alice goes outside to see her sister (played by Natalie's real-life older sister Sharee Gregory), but gets bored with reading a book with no pictures. Her sister tells her that she will understand when she grows up, but Alice thinks she is already grown up (after all, she's seven and a half).
While playing with her kitten, Dinah, the White Rabbit comes running by, saying he's late. Wondering where he is going, Alice follows him and tumbles into his hole. (Unlike the book and most movie versions, this hole appears to be dark and spooky.)
Alice finds herself in a hall with many doors, and all of them locked. On a table is a key which she can use to open one small door. Yet the door is far too small to even fit her head in. A small bottle appears labeled "Drink Me". She comes back to the table and puts it to her lips. Doing this, she shrinks to the right size for the door, but can no longer reach the key to open it. She then sees a small box which she opens and finds a little cake with the words "Eat Me" on it. She then grows to over nine feet tall. Frustrated with the thought of being stuck at nine feet tall, she begins to cry. Her tears fall on the floor and flow under the cracks. The White Rabbit appears, but frightened of the giant Alice runs away dropping his fan and gloves. Using the fan makes Alice shrink again to a size small enough to crawl into one of the cracks, which takes her diving in her pool of tears.
While swimming in the pool of her own tears, she meets The Lory Bird, The Dodo Bird and the Mouse, who tells her why he hates dogs and cats ("I Hate Dogs and Cats"). Alice catches up with the White Rabbit. He mistakes Alice for his housemaid Mary Ann and orders her to go get his fan and gloves from his house. While searching his house, Alice curiously finds another "Drink Me" bottle and it makes her sprout to her full nine-foot character once again. Angry at Alice, the rabbit and his butler Pat the Pig try to employ the Rabbit's head gardener Bill the Lizard to remove Alice by pulling her out the chimney. Having tried unsuccessfully the White Rabbit and Pat begin throwing berries at her which turn into little cakes. She eats one and shrinks to back to size. After running away she meets the Caterpillar who tells her the story ("You are Old, Father William"). She then goes to the house of The Duchess and her pepper loving, plate throwing cook. Finding the house too violent and hateful, she takes the Duchess' baby away, but then it turns into a pig. She meets the Cheshire Cat, who tells her that she can't get out of this land ("There's No Way Home"). He then gives her directions to see either the March Hare or the Mad Hatter, but warns Alice that they, along with everyone else, are mad. Alice finds the Mad Hatter, March Hare, and the Dormouse having an outdoor tea party, and sits down to join them. As tea time entertainment the Mad Hatter, who doesn't like her version of twinkle, twinkle little star, sings Alice a song of his own ("Laugh"). Upset by the rudeness of the Mad Tea Party, Alice runs off back on her quest for the White Rabbit, and meets a baby fawn in the forest, the only normal thing she's seen so far ("Why Do People Act as If They're Crazy?").
Alice stumbles upon a doorway that leads to the rose garden of the Queen of Hearts, who always yells ("Off with her Head!") and plays croquet, or at least watches the others play. She leaves to visit the Gryphon as well as the Mock Turtle, who sings about how there is far too much sense in the world ("Nonsense"), but then she is called to attend a trial.
The trial deals with the Knave of Hearts, who is accused of having stolen The Queen's tarts. There's no proof that he did it, but again there is no proof that he didn't do it, nor is there proof that anybody else did it, which proves him guilty, according to the Queen. Alice argues with the ways of the court, but inexplicably begins to grow larger again. Alice continues to argue with the Queen and even though she tells her to hold her tongue Alice refuses and tells the Queen to hold hers. The Queen becoming angry, yells "Off with her Head!" and has the guards chase the giant Alice, who is hardly afraid of them as "they're nothing but a pack of cards". Alice keeps running until she trips and falls and finds herself back home, in her normal size.
She runs happily back home, but finds that nobody is there. Hearing her cat Dinah she sees her on the other side of the mirror, along with her parents, who can only see their own reflection, and can't see or hear their daughter. Alice doesn't know how to get through to the other side so she sits at a nearby chair, and notices a large strange book next to her and starts reading it. It is a poem called Jabberwocky about a scary monster. Trying to prove that she's not afraid, she keeps reading, but she gets very scared as the room becomes dark and the Jabberwocky appears in the house.
Part 2 – Through the Looking-Glass
The second part opens with Alice at home trapped behind the living-room mirror and invisible to her parents. The Jabberwocky scares Alice and she wishes it away, it disappears as she hides behind the chessboard, knocking it over. She sees that she has knocked all the pieces onto the floor and begins placing them back on the table, but realizes they are all alive, but can't hear her. The White Queen, White King, The Red King (Patrick Culliton) and the Red Queen decide that Alice's lifting them up was a "Tornado". Alice looks around the room and sees that a painting of an Owl has come to life. The Owl explains that until she overcomes her fear of growing up, she will be unable to return to the real world. Until then she will be stuck in Looking-Glass World, where everything is the reverse of what she expected. She is informed by The Owl that the Jabberwocky may come back any time and reveals to her that it is a creation of Alice's own fears. Alice looks around and is back in the forest again.
Along her way once more Alice has an interesting conversation with talking flowers. Alice meets The Red Queen once more, this time she is the same size as her. She tells her that she is to take the place of one of the pawns of The White Queen in a giant game of chess. Alice is to play a pawn, and finds herself now on the second square. The Red Queen tells her that she must reach the eighth square to become a queen to discover her real extended family, and only when she becomes a queen may she go home.
She boards a train to the fourth square, getting into a compartment with The Goat, The Gentleman in the Paper Suit, and The Horse. Hurt by all their teasing, and gibberish rantings, she calls the goat a silly billy goat. Realizing the train is dangerously picking up speed and has no emergency stop cord, Alice pulls the only thing she can think of, The Goat's whiskers. The train comes to a screeching stop and the Conductor tells her to get off the train.
Once she gets off the train, she asks The Gnat, if she's in the Fourth square. He says that she is and warns her about going into the woods. In the woods Alice meets Tweedledum and Tweedledee, who sing and dance about the proper edict of greeting one another ("Shake Hands"). After confirming that they aren't in the least bit tired they sing Alice the story of ("The Walrus and the Carpenter"). After realizing that the Walrus and the Carpenter ate all the Oysters, she runs back into the woods. She bumps into The White Queen again, who sings of the logic of ("Jam Tomorrow, Jam Yesterday") "but never ever jam today" as a consequence of living backwards and ends up turning herself into a sheep. She is then chased by a giant bird, which she initially thought was the Jabberwocky, and meets Humpty Dumpty. The Jabberwocky appears again when Alice can't control her fears, and she flees. As it pursues her the Jabberwocky knocks Humpty Dumpty off of his wall.
Alice then meets The White King and his Messenger, Haigha, who bring Alice to see ("The Lion and the Unicorn") who are fighting for the crown. The Lion and the Unicorn call a temporary truce and are intrigued by Alice, whom they perceive as a "fabulous monster". Alice then hands out a tray of cake, but every times she cuts it in half, it turns itself into a whole cake again! They explain that it is "Looking-Glass Cake", and must be past round first, then cut after. She flees the group after a deafening barrage of drums begins to play, which apparently only she can hear. Thereafter, she is captured by the Red Knight, but is rescued by the White Knight, who sings and dances her all the way to the eighth square ("We are Dancing"). Finally, Alice reaches the eighth square, where she becomes a Queen! She meets up with the Red Queen and White Queens, who reveal themselves to be Alice's real sisters. They have a few "Queenly" tests ("Can You do Addition"), and some words of wisdom for her ("Emotions"). The White Queen, exhausted from all the excitement, falls asleep on Alice's lap, and the Red Queen sings her a soothing lullaby ("Hush-a-bye Lady"). Alice pines for her Mother and Father, who she fears she'll never see again. Alice finds her way to her castle, where a great feast has been set in her honor, with the extended family Alice has searching for her whole life in attendance ("To the Looking-Glass World").
Alice appreciates the feast but tells everybody that what she really wants is to go home. A present is then brought to her, out of which comes The Jabberwock. The beast starts frightening and terrorizing everyone in the castle. The White Knight tries to rescue Alice, but fails. Alice talks to the owl who tells her to act brave which is the only way for the Jabberwocky to be gone, proving that it's not real. Alice manages to find her way back to the mirror and into her home, where she gets to confront The Jabberwocky. Telling him that he is just in her imagination and that she does not believe in him, in a billow of smoke and lightning he finally disappears. Alice slumps into a chair and is suddenly woken up by her Mother. She was calling Alice to tell her she is finally old enough to join the grown-ups at tea time. Alice heads upstairs to change for tea, but sees her family in the mirror, and they sing farewell to her ("Alice").
Cast
In order of appearance.
Part 1 – Alice in Wonderland
Natalie Gregory as Alice
Sheila Allen as Mother
Sharee Gregory as Sister
Red Buttons as The White Rabbit
Sherman Hemsley as The Mouse
Donald O'Connor as The Lory Bird
Charles Dougherty as The Duck
Shelley Winters as The Dodo Bird
Billy Braver as The Eaglet
Scott Baio as Pat the Pig
Ernie F. Orsatti as Bill the Lizard
Sammy Davis Jr. as The Caterpillar/Father William
Scotch Byerley as Fish Footman
Robert Axelrod as Frog Footman
Martha Raye as The Duchess
Imogene Coca as The Cook
Telly Savalas as The Cheshire Cat
Anthony Newley as The Mad Hatter
Roddy McDowall as The March Hare
Arte Johnson as The Dormouse
Lana Beeson as Alice (singing) (uncredited)
Michael Chieffo as Two of Spades
Jeffrey Winner as Five of Spades
John Walter Davis as Seven of Spades
Jayne Meadows as The Queen of Hearts
Robert Morley as The King of Hearts
James Joseph Galante as Knave of Hearts
Selma Archerd as The Queen of Diamonds
George Savalas as The Courtier
Candance Savalas as The Lady in Waiting
Sid Caesar as The Gryphon
Ringo Starr as The Mock Turtle
Troy Jordan as The Black Cat
Tom McLoughlin as Jabberwocky
Part 2 – Through The Looking-Glass
Tom McLoughlin as Jabberwocky
Natalie Gregory as Alice
Ann Jillian as Red Queen
Patrick Culliton as Red King
Carol Channing as White Queen
Harvey Korman as White King
Jack Warden as The Owl
Sally Struthers as The Tiger Lily
Donna Mills as The Rose
Laura Carlson as The Daisy
Merv Griffin as The Conductor
Patrick Duffy as The Goat
Steve Allen as The Gentleman in Paper Suit
Pat Morita as The Horse
George Gobel as The Gnat
Eydie Gormé as Tweedle Dee
Steve Lawrence as Tweedle Dum
Karl Malden as The Walrus
Louis Nye as The Carpenter
Kristi Lynes as Oyster #1
Desiree Sbazo as Oyster #2
Barbie Alison as Oyster #3
Janie Walton as Oyster #4
Jonathan Winters as Humpty Dumpty
Tom McLoughlin as Jabberwocky
John Stamos as The Messenger
Ernest Borgnine as The Lion
Beau Bridges as The Unicorn
Dee Brantlinger as The Lady of the Court
Don Matheson as The Red Knight
Lloyd Bridges as The White Knight
Red Buttons as The White Rabbit
Jayne Meadows as The Queen of Hearts
Robert Morley as The King of Hearts
James Joseph Galante as Knave of Hearts
Anthony Newley as The Mad Hatter
Roddy McDowall as The March Hare
Arte Johnson as The Dormouse
Sheila Allen as Mother
Musical numbers
(All Musical Numbers composed by Steve Allen)
Part 1 – Alice in Wonderland
"I Hate Dogs and Cats" – Sherman Hemsley
"You Are Old, Father William" – Sammy Davis Jr.
"There's Something To Say For Hatred" – Martha Raye & Imogene Coca
"There's No Way Home" – Telly Savalas
"Laugh" – Anthony Newley
"Why Do People…?" – Lana Beeson (Uncredited for Natalie Gregory)
"Off With Their Heads" – Jayne Meadows feat. Robert Morley
"Nonsense" – Ringo Starr
"I Didn't; You Did!" – Anthony Newley and Roddy McDowall
Part 2 – Alice Through The Looking-Glass
"How Do You Do, Shake Hands" – Eydie Gormé and Steve Lawrence
"The Walrus and the Carpenter" – Steve Lawrence, Eydie Gormé, Karl Malden, Louis Nye and the Oysters
"Jam Tomorrow" – Carol Channing
"The Lion and the Unicorn" – Harvey Korman, John Stamos, and Natalie Gregory
"We Are Dancing" – Lloyd Bridges and Natalie Gregory
"Can You Do Addition?" – Ann Jillian and Carol Channing
"Emotions" – Ann Jillian
"Hush-A-Bye Lady" – Ann Jillian
"To The Looking-Glass World" – Red Buttons, Lana Beeson, and Company
"Alice" – Company
Ratings
The miniseries was a modest success during its original airing. Out of 71 shows, part 1 ranked at 13, and came in at 21.2 points out of a 31-point share. Part 2 ranked at 35, and came in at 16.8 points out of a 25-point share. In total, the miniseries averaged 19 points out of a 28-point share. Part 1 won easily from 8-9 P.M. opposite Hardcastle and McCormick on ABC, and TV's Bloopers and Practical Jokes on NBC. From 9–9:30 p.m., part 1 was 0.6 points ahead of Monday Night Football on ABC.
Home media
The film was first released on VHS by Warner Home Video in 1986. It was reissued again in 1993, but in the case of the latter, both parts were released separately in slightly re-edited form. Part One ended with an onscreen quote from the final chapter of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland as Alice ran happily towards her house, rather than the original cliffhanger. Part Two began with a "prologue" of sorts (the final minutes of Part One) and was retitled Alice Through the Looking Glass for release.
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the film on DVD on August 1, 2006, with both parts restored to how they originally aired on TV.
References
External links
Alice in Wonderland: Film and TV productions across the year
American television films
American films
1985 television films
1980s fantasy films
Films based on Alice in Wonderland
Films produced by Irwin Allen
Films based on multiple works of a series
Films shot in Los Angeles
1985 films
English-language films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Mountain
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The Mountain
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The Mountain () was a political group during the French Revolution. Its members, called the Montagnards (), sat on the highest benches in the National Convention.
They were the most radical group and opposed the Girondins. The term, first used during a session of the Legislative Assembly, came into general use in 1793. By the summer of 1793, that pair of opposed minority groups divided the National Convention. That year, led by Maximilien Robespierre, the Montagnards unleashed the Reign of Terror.
The Mountain was composed mainly of members of the middle class, but represented the constituencies of Paris. As such, the Mountain was sensitive to the motivations of the city and responded strongly to demands from the working class sans-culottes. The Mountain operated on the belief that what was best for Paris would be best for all of France. Although they attempted some rural land reform, most of it was never enacted and they generally focused on the needs of the urban poor over that of rural France.
The Girondins were a moderate political faction created during the Legislative Assembly period. They were the political opponents of the more radical representatives within the Mountain. The Girondins had wanted to avoid the execution of Louis XVI and supported a constitution which would have allowed a popular vote to overturn legislation. The Mountain accused the Girondins of plotting against Paris because this caveat within the proposed constitution would have allowed rural areas of France to vote against legislation that benefits Paris, the main constituency of the Mountain. However, the real discord in the Convention occurred not between the Mountain and the Gironde, but between the aggressive antics of the minority of the Mountain and the rest of the Convention.
The Mountain was not unified as a party and relied on leaders like Maximilien Robespierre, Georges Danton and Jacques Hébert, who themselves came to represent different factions. Hébert, a journalist, gained a following as a radical patriot Montagnard (members who identified with him became known as the Hébertists) while Danton led a more moderate faction of the Mountain (followers came to be known as Dantonists). Regardless of the divisions, the nightly sessions of the Jacobin club, which met in the rue Saint-Honoré, can be considered to be a type of caucus for the Mountain. In June 1793, the Mountain successfully ousted most of the moderate Gironde members of the Convention with the assistance of radical sans-culottes.
Following their coup, the Mountain, led by Hérault de Séchelles, quickly began construction on a new constitution which was completed eight days later. The Committee of Public Safety reported the constitution to the Convention on 10 June and a final draft was adopted on 24 June. The process occurred quickly because as Robespierre, a prominent member of the Mountain, announced on 10 June the "good citizens demanded a constitution" and the "Constitution will be the reply of patriotic deputies, for it is the work of the Mountain". However, this constitution was never actually enacted. The Constitution of 1793 was abandoned when Robespierre later granted himself and the Committee of Public Safety dictatorial powers in order to "defend the Revolution".
History
Origins
It is difficult to pinpoint the conception of the Montagnard group because the lines which defined it were themselves quite nebulous early on. Originally, members of The Mountain were the men who sat in the highest rows of the Jacobin Clubs, loosely organized political debate clubs open to the public. Though members of the Montagnards were known for their commitment to radical political resolutions prior to 1793, the contours of political groups presented an ever-evolving reality that shifted in response to events. Would-be prominent Montagnard leaders like Jean-Baptiste Robert Lindet and Jean Bon Saint-André were tempted by early Girondin proposals and soon many moderates—even anti-radicals—felt the need to push for radical endeavors in light of threats both within and without the country. It was only after the trial of Louis XVI in December 1792, which united the Montagnards on a position of regicide, that the ideals and power of the group fully consolidated.
Rise and terror
The rise of Montagnards corresponds to the fall of the Girondins. The Girondins hesitated on the correct course of action to take with Louis XVI after his attempt to flee France on 20 June 1791. Some of the Girondins believed they could use the king as figurehead. While the Girondins hesitated, the Montagnards took a united stand during the trial in December 1792–January 1793 and favored the king's execution.
Riding on this victory, the Montagnards then sought to discredit the Girondins. They used tactics previously employed by the Girondins to denounce them as liars and enemies of the Revolution. They also formed a legislative committee in which Nicolas Hentz proposed a limitation of inheritances, gaining more support for the Montagnards. Girondin members were subsequently banned from the Jacobin club and excluded from the National Convention on 31 May2 June 1793. Any attempted resistance was crushed. Maximilien Robespierre then continued to consolidate his power over the Montagnards with the use of the Committee of Public Safety.
Policies of the Mountain
Through attempted land redistribution policies, the Mountain showed some support for the rural poor. In August 1793, Montagnard member Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès drafted a piece of legislation which dealt with agricultural reform; in particular, he urged "relief from rent following harvest loss, compensation for improvements and fixity of tenure". This was in part to combat restlessness of share-croppers in the southwest. This draft never made it into law, but the drastic reforms suggest the Mountain's awareness of the need to please their base of support, both the rural and urban poor.
Other policies aimed at supporting the poor included price controls enacted by the Mountain in 1793. This law, called the General Maximum, was supported by a group of agitators within the Mountain known as the Enragés. It fixed prices and wages throughout France. At the same time, bread prices were rising as the commodity became scarce, and in an initiative spearheaded by Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varenne, a law was enacted in July 1793 that forbade the hoarding of "daily necessities". The hoarding of grain became a crime punishable by death.
Other economic policies enacted by the Mountain included an embargo on the export of French goods. As a result of this embargo, France was essentially unable to trade with foreign markets and the import of goods effectively ended. In theory, this protected French markets from foreign goods and required French people to support French goods. In addition to the embargo against foreign goods, Act 1651, passed by the Mountain in October 1793, further isolated France from the rest of Europe by forbidding any foreign vessels from trading along the French coast.
Decline and fall
The fall and exclusion of the Montagnards from the National Convention began with the collapse of the Revolution's radical phase and the death of Robespierre on 10 Thermidor (28 July 1794). While the Montagnards celebrated unity, there was growing heterogeneity within the group as Robespierre and his Committee of Public Safety overextended themselves with their tight control over the military and their extreme opposition to corruption in the government. Their overextension drew the ire of other revolutionary leaders and a number of plots coalesced on 9 Thermidor (Thermidorian Reaction) when collaborators with the more moderate group the Dantonists acted in response to fears that Robespierre planned to execute them.
The purge of Robespierre was strongly similar to previous measures employed by the Montagnards to expel factions, such as the Girondins. However, as Robespierre was widely considered the heart of the Montagnards, his death symbolized their collapse. Few desired to take on the name of Montagnards afterwards, leaving around only about 100 men. Finally, at the end of 1794 the Mountain largely devolved into a group called The Crest (), which lacked any real power.
Factions and prominent members
The Mountain was born in 1792, with the merger of two prominent left-wing clubs: the Jacobins and Cordeliers. The Jacobins were initially moderate republicans and the Cordeliers were radical populist. In late 1792, Danton and his supporters wanted a reconciliation with the Girondins, which caused a break with Robespierre. After the trial of Girondins in 1793, Danton became strongly moderate while Robespierre continued his authoritarian policies.
The moderates of Danton were also rival to the followers of Jacques Hébert who wanted the persecution of all non-Montagnards and the dechristianisation of France. When Robespierre eliminated first the Hébertists (March 1794) and then the Dantonistes (April 1794), his group ruled The Mountain. This was until the Thermidorian Reaction, when several conspirators supported by The Plain instituted a coup d'état. They executed Robespierre and his supporters and split from The Mountain to form the Thermidorian Left. The Montagnards that survived were arrested, executed or deported. By 1795 the Mountain had effectively been obliterated.
Robespierrists
Maximilien Robespierre
Louis Antoine de Saint-Just
Georges Couthon
Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles
Pierre-François-Joseph Robert
Paul Barras
Joseph Fouché
Augustin Robespierre
Jacques-Louis David
Bertrand Barère
Pierre Choderlos de Laclos
Jacques Nicolas Billaud-Varenne
Jean-Lambert Tallien
Louis-Michel le Peletier
François Hanriot
Jean-Baptiste de Lavalette
Jean-Baptiste Fleuriot-Lescot
Antoine Simon
Hébertists
Jacques Hébert
Pierre Gaspard Chaumette
Jean-Paul Marat (supporter)
Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Gobel
Anacharsis Cloots
François Chabot
Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte
Stanislas-Marie Maillard
François-Nicolas Vincent
Antoine-François Momoro
Charles-Philippe Ronsin
Joseph Le Bon
Jean-Baptiste Carrier
Indulgents
Georges Danton
Camille Desmoulins
Fabre d'Églantine
Julien of Toulouse
Louis-Marie Stanislas Fréron
Pierre Philippeaux
François Joseph Westermann
Isaac René Guy le Chapelier
Electoral results
See also
Anti-clericalism
Left-wing populism
Liberalism and radicalism in France
Republicanism
Socialism in France
References
Bibliography
François Furet and Mona Ozouf. A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution. (Belknap Press, 1989).
Jeremy D. Popkin, A Short History of the French Revolution, 5th ed. (Pearson, 2009).
Marisa Linton, Choosing Terror: Virtue, Friendship, and Authenticity in the French Revolution. (Oxford University Press, 2013).
Morris Slavin. The Making of an Insurrection: Parisian Sections and the Gironde. (Harvard University Press, 1986).
Peter Kropotkin, Trans. N. F. Dryhurst The Great French Revolution, 1789–1793. (New York: Vanguard Printings, 1927).
Peter McPhee, Robespierre: A Revolutionary Life. (Yale University Press, 2012).
Robert J. Alderson, This Bright Era of Happy Revolutions: French Consul Michel-Ange-Bernard Mangourit and International Republicanism in Charleston, 1792-1794. (University of South Carolina Press, 2008).
"Mountain (the Mountain)". Collins English Dictionary Online. Retrieved 24 May 2014.
"Montagnard (French history)". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 8 May 2014.
Further reading
Jordan, David P. (1983). The Jacobins and Their Victims in The Eighteenth Century. University of Pennsylvania. p. 268. .
Palmer, R.R. (2005). Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution. Princeton University Press. .
Popkin, Jeremy D. (2014). A Short History of the French Revolution. 6th Edition. Pearson Higher Education. .
Montagnards
1793 establishments in France
1795 disestablishments in France
Abolitionist organizations
French National Convention
Groups of the French Revolution
Jacobinism
Left-wing parties in France
Left-wing populism in France
Political parties established in 1793
Political parties disestablished in 1795
Radical parties in France
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Astoria%20%28CL-90%29
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USS Astoria (CL-90)
|
The third USS Astoria (CL-90) was a light cruiser of the United States Navy.
The ship was laid down on 6 September 1941 at William Cramp & Sons Shipbuilding Company, Philadelphia, as Wilkes-Barre. It was subsequently renamed to Astoria in honor of the heavy cruiser which was sunk on 9 August 1942 during the Battle of Savo Island. Astoria was launched on 6 March 1943, sponsored by Mrs. Robert Lucas (wife of the editor of the Astorian-Budget), and commissioned at the Philadelphia Navy Yard on 17 May 1944, Captain George Carroll Dyer in command.
Design
Astoria was long overall and had a beam of and a draft of . Her standard displacement amounted to and increased to at full load. The ship was powered by four General Electric steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft, using steam provided by four oil-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers. Rated at , the turbines were intended to give a top speed of . Her crew numbered 1285 officers and enlisted men.
The ship was armed with a main battery of twelve 6 in /47 caliber Mark 16 guns in four 3-gun turrets on the centerline. Two were placed forward in a superfiring pair; the other two turrets were placed aft of the superstructure in another superfiring pair. The secondary battery consisted of twelve /38 caliber dual purpose guns mounted in twin turrets. Two of these were placed on the centerline, one directly behind the forward main turrets and the other just forward of the aft turrets. Two more were placed abreast of the conning tower and the other pair on either side of the aft superstructure. Anti-aircraft defense consisted of twenty-eight Bofors guns in four quadruple and six double mounts and ten Oerlikon guns in single mounts.
The ship's belt armor ranged in thickness from , with the thicker section amidships where it protected the ammunition magazines and propulsion machinery spaces. Her deck armor was thick. The main battery turrets were protected with faces and sides and tops, and they were supported by barbettes 6 inches thick. Astorias conning tower had 5-inch sides.
Service history
Construction and early service
Astoria was laid down at the William Cramp & Sons shipyard in Philadelphia on 6 September 1941 and was launched on 6 March 1943. She was originally named Wilkes-Barre, but during construction, she was renamed Astoria for Astoria, Oregon. After completing fitting-out, she was commissioned for active service on 17 May 1944. The ship thereafter embarked on her shakedown cruise along the western Atlantic, as far south as Bermuda, which lasted from 6 June to 23 July. She then returned to Philadelphia for an overhaul before departing to join the Pacific Fleet on 19 September. She passed through the Panama Canal and arrived in San Diego, California, on 3 October. Astoria later moved to the Mare Island Navy Yard before sailing for Pearl Harbor on 25 October. She arrived five days later and remained there through 16 November.
World War II
On 16 November, Astoria left Pearl Harbor to join Task Force 38, the fast carrier task force, which was at that time based in Ulithi in the western Caroline Islands. She stopped in Eniwetok in the Marshall Islands while en route and reached Ulithi on 25 November. After arriving, she was assigned to Task Group 38.2, one of the carrier battle groups that formed TF 38. Astoria was assigned the role of anti-aircraft escort for the fleet's aircraft carriers. The American fleet sortied on 11 December to support the invasion of Mindoro; the carriers conducted a series of raids from 14 to 16 December before poor weather on the 17th grounded the aircraft. That night, Typhoon Cobra struck the fleet and inflicted significant damage to a number of ships, sinking three destroyers, though Astoria was not seriously damaged. The fleet searched for two days for survivors from the destroyers that sank before returning to Ulithi.
TF 38 sortied from Ulithi again on 30 December to cover the invasion of Luzon, striking Japanese positions on the islands from 6 to 9 January 1945. Late on the 9th, the fleet began the South China Sea raid to attack Japanese holdings in China and Southeast Asia. Astoria escorted the carriers over the next two weeks as they struck various targets in Japanese occupied China, including Hong Kong, Guangzhou, Hainan, and Formosa, and French Indochina, including the naval base at Cam Ranh Bay. The fleet returned to Ulithi on 25 January. By early February, command of the fast carrier task force had passed to 5th Fleet, and so the unit was re-numbered TF 58. The fleet, including Astoria, sortied early that month to conduct a series of air attacks on the Japanese home islands, which began on 18 February. Later that day, the fleet sailed south to support the invasion of Iwo Jima, and Astoria was detached to conduct shore bombardment on 21 February. She thereafter rejoined the carriers for another round of strikes on the Japanese capital, Tokyo, and thereafter returned to Ulithi on 3 March.
TF 58 got underway again on 14 March to begin air strikes to prepare for the upcoming invasion of Okinawa. Astoria once again served in the anti-aircraft screen for the carriers during these operations. Over the course of the next three months of sustained combat, Astorias gunners claimed credit for eleven Japanese aircraft and partial credit for several others. Astoria returned to Leyte in the Philippines on 1 June for periodic maintenance that lasted for a month. On 1 July, she sailed to return to the fast carrier task force for another major operation against the Japanese home islands. During this period, she served in Cruiser Division 17, and she was twice detached to conduct patrols for Japanese vessels off Honshu. These were carried out on 17–18 and 24–25 July. TF 38's operations off Japan continued through the end of July and into the first two weeks of August. On 15 August, Japan agreed to surrender and TF 38 ceased offensive operations, though the fleet continued to patrol off the coast of Japan. Astoria remained with the fleet until 3 September, when she received orders to return home. For her wartime service, Astoria received five battle stars.
Post war
Astoria reached San Pedro, California, on 15 September, anchoring there until she departed to return to Pearl Harbor on 24 November. Arriving there six days later, she took part in training exercises over the following days. She left to return to San Pedro on 10 December, arriving five days later. Over the course of the following ten months, the ship cruised along the western coast of North America, as far north as Vancouver, British Columbia, ad as far south as San Diego. The ship got underway for a lengthy voyage to the central Pacific on 15 October 1946, which included lengthy stops in Guam and Saipan in the Marianas Islands. On 17 February 1947, she left Guam to return home by way of Kwajalein and Pearl Harbor, arriving in San Diego on 24 March. She resumed her peacetime cruises along the west coast through September 1948.
The ship departed for another overseas cruise on 1 October, this time headed to East Asian waters. She stopped in Pearl Harbor for three days while en route and then resumed her voyage across the Pacific, arriving in Qingdao, China, on 29 October. Astoria visited a number of ports in the area over the next three and a half months, including Inchon and Pusan in Korea, Sasebo and Yokosuka in Japan, and Shanghai, China. The ship left Yokosuka on 16 February 1949, bound for the United States. She stopped in Pearl Harbor on the way and arrived in San Francisco on 8 March. While there on 1 July, Astoria was decommissioned and assigned to the San Francisco Group, Pacific Reserve Fleet. She remained in the Navy's inventory until 1 November 1969, when she was struck from the naval register. She was sold for scrap to the Nicolai Joffe Corp. on 12 January 1971 and subsequently broken up.
Footnotes
Notes
Citations
References
External links
Homepage of USS Astoria CL-90
Cleveland-class cruisers
World War II cruisers of the United States
Ships built by William Cramp & Sons
United States Navy Oregon-related ships
1943 ships
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7.5%20cm%20leichtes%20Infanteriegesch%C3%BCtz%2018
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7.5 cm leichtes Infanteriegeschütz 18
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The 7.5 cm leichtes Infanteriegeschütz 18 (7.5 cm le.IG 18) was an infantry support gun of the German Wehrmacht used during World War II.
History
Development of the gun began in 1927, by Rheinmetall. The crew was protected by an armoured shield. There was a mountain gun variant, the 7.5 cm le.GebIG 18. For transport, the mountain variant could be broken down into six to ten packs, the heaviest weighing 74.9 kg. These were typically assigned at two to each mountain battalion. Six 7.5 cm le.IG 18F were manufactured in 1939. These were airborne guns, capable of being broken down into four 140 kg loads. The airborne variant had smaller wheels and no shield. There was also an infantry support gun, known as the 7.5 cm Infanteriegeschütz L/13 and designed as a replacement for the le.IG 18, which could be broken into four to six loads. However, though prototypes were tested, the German army felt that it did not improve on the existing design sufficiently to merit introduction and the army stayed with the earlier gun.
Statistics of the 7.5 cm le.IG 18 and 7.5 cm le.GebIG 18
Calibre: 75 mm (2.95 in)
Elevation: -10° to 73°
Muzzle Velocity (w/HE shell): 210 m/s (689 ft/s)
Range: 3,550 m (3,882 yd)
Traverse: 12°
Weight: 400 kg (882 lb)
Weight of the 7.5 cm le.GebIG 18: 440 kg (970 lb)
Weight of HE Shell: 6 kg (13.22 lb)
Weight of HC Shell: 3 kg (6.6 lb)
Statistics of the 7.5 cm IG L/13
Calibre: 75 mm (2.95 in)
Elevation: -5° to 43°
Muzzle Velocity: 305 m/s (1,000 ft/s)
Range: 5,100 m (5,577 yd)
Traverse: 50°
Weight: 375 kg (827 lb)
Weight of Shell: 6.35 kg (14 lb)
See also
7.5 cm Infanteriegeschütz 37
7.5 cm Infanteriegeschütz 42
Artillery
List of artillery
References
Hogg, Ian V. German Artillery of World War Two. 2nd corrected edition. Mechanicsville, PA: Stackpole Books, 1997
External links
World War II artillery of Germany
World War II field artillery
Infantry guns
75 mm artillery
Military equipment introduced in the 1930s
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] |
212290
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airborne%20gun
|
Airborne gun
|
Airborne guns are airborne artillery pieces, designed for use by paratroopers. They are generally specific or specialised types of infantry support guns, being in the traditional sense capable of being broken down into smaller loads for transport by aircraft and soldiers, thus also suitable as mountain guns. The historical concept of the "airborne guns" is to some degree outdated, their role being filled by mortars, wire-guided missiles, and/or light anti-tank weapons. As it has been many decades since two industrialized great powers engaged directly in warfare, the concept of the "airborne gun" allowing paratroopers to maintain an airhead against an armored force is in that sense non-functional, but currently, all three of the U.S. Army's howitzers (for example), are air-mobile.
Airborne Guns Used by Various Nations
China
Chinese airborne forces have mounted 105mm recoilless rifles on jeeps but otherwise conform to the Warsaw Pact doctrine of light armored vehicles.
Germany (historical)
7.50cm leichtes, geeicheltes Infantriegeschütz
Italy
OTO Melara Mod 56 The Mod 56 was quite popular among mountain and airborne units, as it could be broken down into 12 components.
Soviet Union / Russia
Soviet (and Russian) military doctrine calls for its airborne forces to be fully mechanized (via the BMD series) and hence its artillery to be self-propelled. Turretless AT gun carriers like the ASU-57 and ASU-85 equipped Warsaw Pact airborne forces as well. The older 2S9 Nona and the newer 2S25 Sprut-SD heavily resemble light tanks, and are armed with a 120 mm gun-howitzer-mortar and a 125 mm autoloaded tank gun, respectively. The BM-21V (no longer in service) was a lightened variant of the BM-21 Grad MLRS. Additionally, the VDV employs a range of more traditional towed guns, namely the 2B16 Nona non-self-propelled variant, the D-30 122 mm howitzer, and the ZU-23 23 mm twin AA autocannon.
Turkey
MKE launched the 105 mm air transportable light towed howitzer (Boran) project to fulfill the operational requests of the Commando and Infantry units for Airborne Operations. The system can calculate its own position and identify targets without usual deployment procedures thanks to its modern command and fire control systems. It has a minimum range of 17 kilometers and 6400 NATO mils (360°) firing capability. The howitzer weights around 1800 kg and can be airlifted with a medium-lift utility helicopter and deployed in a short time for fire missions. Based on L118.
UK
Ordnance QF 6 pounder- antitank gun ( - ~1960 )
USA
M119 air mobile / air assault (slingload/parachute) is based on the UK L118 Light Gun, firing a 105mm shell that is useful against light vehicles and/or fixed emplacements but would be ineffective against a Main Battle Tank
the medium M198 can be dropped by parachute or transported by heavy-lift cargo helicopter, will be replaced by the even lighter titanium M777, firing 155mm shells with significant anti-personnel capabilities. Can achieve anti-armor capability with specialised shells, e.g. SADARM
See also
Mountain gun a/k/a "pack howitzer"
Boeing YAL-1 "airborne laser"
References
Artillery by type
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status%20Quo%20%28band%29
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Status Quo (band)
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Status Quo are an English rock band that formed in 1962. The group originated in London as The Scorpions and was founded by Francis Rossi and Alan Lancaster while they were still schoolboys. After a number of lineup changes, which included the introduction of Rick Parfitt in 1967, the band became The Status Quo in 1967 and Status Quo in 1969.
They have had over 60 chart hits in the UK, more than any other rock band, including "Down Down", "Rockin' All Over the World", "Whatever You Want" and "In the Army Now". Twenty-two of these reached the Top 10 in the UK Singles Chart, and fifty-seven reached the Top 40. In July 1985 the band opened Live Aid at Wembley Stadium with "Rockin' All Over the World". In 1991, Status Quo received a Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music.
Status Quo appeared on the BBC's Top of the Pops more than any other band. They have released over 100 singles and 33 albums, many of which were best-sellers. Since reaching number 5 on the UK albums chart in 1972 with Piledriver, Status Quo have achieved a career total of 25 UK top ten albums, extending all the way up to their most recent release, Backbone, in 2019.
History
1962–1968: Formative years
Status Quo was formed in 1962 under the name The Scorpions by Francis Rossi and Alan Lancaster at Sedgehill Comprehensive School, Catford, London, along with classmates Jess Jaworski (keyboards) and Alan Key (drums). Rossi and Lancaster played their first gig at the Samuel Jones Sports Club in Dulwich, London. In 1963, Key was replaced by John Coghlan and the band changed their name to The Spectres. After changing their name, Lancaster's father arranged for the group to perform weekly at a venue called the Samuel Jones Sports Club, where they were noticed by Pat Barlow, a gasfitter and budding pop music manager. Barlow became the group's manager and secured them spots at venues around London, such as El Partido in Lewisham and Café des Artistes in Chelsea. In 1965, when Rossi, Lancaster and Jaworski left school, Jaworski opted to leave the band and was replaced by Roy Lynes.
They began writing their own material, and later that year met Rick Parfitt who was playing with a cabaret band called The Highlights. By the end of 1965, Rossi and Parfitt – who had become close friends after meeting at Butlins – made a commitment to continue working together. On 18 July 1966, the Spectres signed a five-year deal with Piccadilly Records, releasing two singles that year, "Hurdy Gurdy Man" (written by Alan Lancaster) and "I (Who Have Nothing)", and one the next year called "(We Ain't Got) Nothin' Yet" (a song originally recorded by New York psychedelic band the Blues Magoos). All three singles failed to make an impact on the charts.
By 1967, the group had discovered psychedelia and named themselves Traffic, but were soon forced to change it to Traffic Jam to avoid confusion with Steve Winwood's Traffic, following an argument over who had registered the name first. The band secured an appearance on BBC Radio's Saturday Club, but in June their next single, "Almost But Not Quite There", underperformed. The following month saw Parfitt, at the request of manager Pat Barlow, joining the band as rhythm guitarist and vocalist. Shortly after Parfitt's recruitment, in August 1967, the band officially became The Status Quo.
1968–1970: "Pictures of Matchstick Men" and psychedelic years
In January 1968, the group released the psychedelic-flavoured "Pictures of Matchstick Men". The song hit the UK Singles Chart, reaching number seven; "Matchstick Men" became the group's only Top 40 hit in the United States, peaking at number twelve on the Billboard Hot 100. Although Status Quo's albums have been released in the United States throughout their career, they never achieved the same level of success there as they have in Britain. Though the follow-up was the unsuccessful single "Black Veils of Melancholy", they had a hit again the same year with a pop song penned by Marty Wilde and Ronnie Scott, "Ice in the Sun", which climbed to number eight. After the breakthrough, the band management hired Bob Young as a roadie and tour manager. Over the years Young became one of the most important songwriting partners for Status Quo, in addition to playing harmonica with them on stage and on record.
1970–1981: Piledriver and Rockin' All Over The World
After their second album, Spare Parts, failed commercially, the band abandoned psychedelia and Carnaby Street fashions in favour of a hard rock/boogie sound, and faded denims and T-shirts, an image which was to become their trademark throughout the 1970s. Lynes left the band in 1970 and was replaced in the studio by guests including keyboard player Jimmy Horowitz and Tom Parker. By 1976, Andy Bown – an ex-member of The Herd, Judas Jump and the Peter Frampton Band – was brought in to cover keyboards, although as he was contracted as a solo artist with EMI he was not credited as an official member of Status Quo until 1982.
After two relatively poor-selling albums, Ma Kelly's Greasy Spoon and Dog of Two Head in 1970 and 1971, their major breakthrough came when they signed with the heavy rock and progressive label Vertigo. Their first album for Vertigo, Piledriver, was released in 1972 and heralded an even heavier, self-produced sound. This album was essentially the stylistic template for each album they released up to and including Blue for You in 1976. Quo's more popular songs from this era include "Paper Plane" (No. 8 in the UK chart) (1972), "Caroline" (No. 5 in the UK chart) (1973), "Break The Rules", (No. 8 in the UK Chart) (1974), "Down Down" (No. 1 in the UK chart) (1975), "Roll Over Lay Down" (No. 10 in the UK chart) (1975), "Rain" (No. 7 in the UK chart) (1976), "Mystery Song" (No. 11 in the UK Chart) (1976), "Wild Side of Life" (No. 9 in the UK chart) (1976), "Rockin' All Over the World" (No. 3 in the UK chart) (1977) and "Whatever You Want" (No. 4 in the UK Chart) (1979). "Down Down" topped the UK Singles Chart in January 1975, becoming their only UK No. 1 single to date. In 1976, they signed a pioneering sponsorship deal with Levi's. Quo have now sold approximately 118 million records worldwide.
From 1977 onwards, the band's sound became more polished as they began to employ outside producers. These included Pip Williams, Roger Glover, and John Eden. Glover was the first outside producer to work with Quo since Pye's John Schroeder in the early 1970s, and produced "Wild Side of Life" and its B-side "All Through The Night" in 1976.
1977's Rockin' All Over the Worlds title track, a minor hit for its writer John Fogerty (formerly of Creedence Clearwater Revival), became one of Status Quo's most enduring anthems. Sales remained high in the UK throughout the 1980s.
1981–1991: Lineup changes, Live Aid and In The Army Now
Tensions within the band saw Coghlan leaving late in 1981. His replacement early the following year was Pete Kircher from the 1960s pop band Honeybus. Andy Bown joined the band in an official capacity at this time. Although contracted to record more albums, this line-up played its last full-length gig on 21 July 1984 at the Milton Keynes Bowl. "Everybody was coked-up and hating each other", Rossi recalled, "and I'd started drinking tequila on that tour. I don't remember that show at all – the encores or anything; just falling flat on my back at one point." "Deciding to retire from the road – all that was about was getting Francis a solo career," declared Lancaster. "Nobody on the outside knew it, but he didn't want to work with me or Rick anymore."
Status Quo's final appearance with the Kircher line-up opened the Live Aid charity event at Wembley Stadium in July 1985. That year, Rossi recorded and released two solo singles with long-time writing partner Bernie Frost. Parfitt recorded a solo album, Recorded Delivery, with bass player John "Rhino" Edwards and drummer Jeff Rich. The album remains unreleased, although some tracks were reworked and released sporadically as Quo B-sides until 1987.
In mid-1985, Rossi, Parfitt and Bown, with Edwards and Rich, started work on a new Quo album. Lancaster – by this time more or less settled in Australia – took out a legal injunction to stop the band using the Status Quo name on records, citing increasing musical differences, notably during sessions for 1983's Back to Back. The specific dispute concerned two tracks that became hits for the group around that time. Lancaster had co-written "Ol' Rag Blues", but was angered when the producers chose to release a version with Rossi singing the lead vocal instead of one sung by himself. The injunction also prevented the release of a single, "Naughty Girl", for which a catalogue number was issued by Vertigo.
An out-of-court settlement was made in January 1986, enabling the new Status Quo line-up to continue recording In The Army Now, for which "Naughty Girl" was reworked as "Dreamin'". Lancaster remained in Australia, and in 1986 joined an Australian supergroup, The Party Boys, featuring Angry Anderson of Rose Tattoo, John Brewster of The Angels and Kevin Borich, but achieved little success outside Australia. Lancaster left Status Quo formally in 1987.
In 1986, Quo supported Queen on the latter's Magic Tour. The commercially successful In the Army Now album was released later that year. Its title track became one of the band's biggest UK singles, reaching number 2. The following album, Ain't Complaining, in 1988, was less successful but produced the number 5 hit "Burning Bridges". Rerecorded (with new lyrics) in April 1994 with Manchester United F.C. as "Come On You Reds", the single would have given the band their second UK Number 1, but it was credited as 'by Manchester United'.
1991–2010: Rock 'Til You Drop, "Fun, Fun, Fun" and touring
The early-to-mid-1990s saw falling album sales for the band. To promote the release of the Rock 'Til You Drop album (1991), Quo performed four arena gigs in Sheffield, Glasgow, Birmingham and London in the space of 12 hours, earning them a place in the Guinness Book of Records. The 1994 Quo album Thirsty Work included a cover of the Jennifer Warnes song "I'm Restless" revealing an alternative and lighter sound to the band. Don't Stop (1996), and Famous in the Last Century (2000) consisted almost entirely of cover versions, (with the only exception being the title track to the latter). The former brought some chart success for Quo with covers of Fleetwood Mac's "Don't Stop" and The Beach Boys' "Fun, Fun, Fun". The band became involved in an acrimonious dispute with Radio 1 after the station refused to include the "Fun Fun Fun" single on the radio station's playlist.
In 1993, Francis Rossi and Rick Parfitt attracted a crowd of over 25,000 when they performed the annual Blackpool Illuminations lights switch-on.
Parfitt underwent quadruple by-pass surgery in 1997, but was able to make a full recovery and returned with a performance at the Norwich City Football Club ground Carrow Road three months later. Status Quo also returned to Australia in 1997, completing their first tour there since 1978. A greatest hits compilation, Whatever You Want – The Very Best of Status Quo was also released, achieving silver sales in the UK that year. In 1999, Quo toured Germany, the Netherlands and Switzerland. Dubbed the 'Last Night of the Proms', the band were backed by a full orchestra during the concerts.
Rich left in 2000 and was replaced by Matt Letley. Andrew Bown also took a year off at the same time following the death of his wife, and was temporarily replaced on stage by Paul Hirsh, formerly of Voyager.
In November 2000, the band played a gig at Grandchester in the outback in Australia, performing on a carriage of Australia's Orient Express, the Great South Pacific Express.
In 2005 Rossi and Parfitt made cameo appearances in the long-running ITV soap opera Coronation Street in a storyline which involved them being sued by the notorious layabout Les Battersby, and performing live at his wedding as compensation.
In December 2005, it was announced that Parfitt had been taken ill and was undergoing tests for throat cancer. All subsequent dates of the UK tour were cancelled as a result. However, the growths in Parfitt's throat were later found to be benign and were successfully removed. In May 2006, a fully recovered Parfitt and the band returned to the NEC Birmingham to play the show that they had postponed in December. This was their 40th show at the venue, and was recorded for a DVD, entitled "Just Doin' It".
On 1 July 2007, they performed in front of 63,000 people at the newly built Wembley Stadium as part of the Concert for Diana. They also appeared on the TV programme Tiswas Reunited, in which the band got the usual greeting of custard pies and buckets of water whilst playing the song, "Gerdundula".
On 15 September 2007, Rossi and Parfitt appeared on ITV programme Who Wants To Be A Millionaire and won £50,000 for their 2 charities Ebbisham Association and Nordoff Robbins.
Their twenty-eighth studio album, In Search of the Fourth Chord, was released on the band's own Fourth Chord label in September 2007 in the UK, and on Edel Records in the rest of Europe. Produced by veteran producer Pip Williams, who had worked with Quo in the studio since 1977, the album was only moderately successful.
In 2008, they teamed up with German techno group Scooter to record a jumpstyle version of their 1979 single "Whatever You Want" entitled "Jump That Rock (Whatever You Want)". In December 2008, they released their 75th single and first Christmas single, entitled "It's Christmas Time", which peaked at No. 40 in the UK Singles Chart.
2010–2013: Hello Quo, "Frantic Four" reunion tours and Bula Quo!
Rossi and Parfitt were each awarded the OBE in the 2010 New Year Honours for services to music. Their long-standing work for charities includes The Prince's Trust, British Heart Foundation and Nordoff-Robbins Music Therapy.
Classic Rock magazine had reported on 17 March 2010 that the band had patched up their relationship with Alan Lancaster, and were discussing the possibility of a future collaboration. The article stated "While the band are back on friendly terms with Alan, it's unlikely we'll see any future reunion, with Quo continuing as normal and Lancaster busy with charity events and overseeing the activities of his son's band The Presence".
On 20 September 2010, Status Quo was honoured with a PRS for Music plaque commemorating their first gig at the Welcome Inn in Well Hall Road, Eltham, where the band first performed in 1967.
On 26 September 2010, a new version of "In the Army Now" was released through Universal / UMC. All profits from this updated and lyrically reworked version will be donated equally to the British Forces Foundation and Help for Heroes charities.
A box set of sessions, live concerts and TV appearances at the BBC was released on 25 October 2010, titled Live at the BBC. The full 7CD version (+DVD) covers almost all appearances, while the 2CD and 4CD version present some highlights.
Their twenty-ninth studio album, Quid Pro Quo, was released in a deluxe format exclusively at Tesco on 30 May 2011. The regular edition was released elsewhere on 7 June. The album peaked at number 10 in the UK chart.
December 2011 saw Status Quo undertake their first all-arenas UK winter tour. Quo also performed for the first time at The O2 in London. The tour was dubbed Quofest and featured Roy Wood and Kim Wilde as support for all shows. They joined the band during the encore.
In August 2011, Status Quo began filming their first cinematic documentary with film director Alan G. Parker. Entitled Hello Quo!, the production opened in cinemas on 22 October 2012. A Blu-ray/DVD release followed, through Anchor Bay Productions, on 29 October. The movie included contributions from Brian May, Jeff Lynne, Cliff Richard, Joe Elliott, Paul Weller, Joe Brown, Jim Lea, Andy Scott and Steve Diggle.
In April 2012, Status Quo announced they were shooting their first feature film, over several weeks in Fiji. A 90-minute action comedy, entitled Bula Quo!, taking its name from the islanders' traditional Fijian greeting, and also referencing the title of the band's best-selling album, Hello! featuring the band as themselves, and also starring Jon Lovitz, Craig Fairbrass and Laura Aikman. The film was directed by Stuart St. Paul, produced by Tim Major and was released in cinemas on 5 July 2013. The film was accompanied by a soundtrack album of the same name, the band's 30th studio album, released on 10 June. It featured nine new songs and ten re-records and live tracks, and debuted in the UK chart at number 10.
On 9 July 2012, the band released the single "The Winner" for the 2012 Summer Olympics. In July 2012 Coles, an Australian national supermarket chain, signed Status Quo to record a version of "Down Down" using Coles' tag line 'Down, down, prices are down'. In November 2012, Coles continued their association with Status Quo, producing a series of television adverts with the band appearing and performing "It's Christmas Time". In 2013, new adverts were released by Coles with Quo using "Whatever You Want" as the new jingle.
In December that year, Quo toured under the Quofest banner for a second year, this time supported by Bonnie Tyler and Eddie and the Hot Rods. On 17 December 2012, Matt Letley announced his decision to leave the band after 12 years, and subsequently departed following completion of their 2012 winter tour. However, Letley toured with Quo their Australia and Mexico tour in March and April 2013, due to limited time to find a new drummer after the Frantic Four Tour.
The 1970–76 line-up (Francis Rossi, Rick Parfitt, Alan Lancaster and John Coghlan) reunited in March 2013 for a series of dates in Manchester, Wolverhampton, Glasgow and London. The last date of the tour, at Wembley Arena on 17 March, was filmed for a DVD, released in September 2013.
In May 2013 Leon Cave became Quo's new drummer. In the latter months of 2013, Status Quo embarked on their Bula Quo tour, supported by Uriah Heep on German dates, and by 10cc in the UK. This was followed by nine concert dates in the UK during 2014. On 25 November 2013, it was announced that Status Quo would headline the second stage at the Download Festival in June 2014.
2014–present: Aquostic, Parfitt's death and Backbone
In January 2014, Wychwood Brewery announced they would be releasing a Status Quo brand of beer, named after their 1972 album Piledriver, exclusively in JD Wetherspoon pubs across the UK in February, before going on general sale in April. March 2014 saw the second 'Frantic Four' reunion tour featuring Rossi and Parfitt with original members Alan Lancaster and John Coghlan with their last gig being at The O2 in Dublin. Rossi indicated that this would be the last reunion tour of the 'Frantic Four' line-up. On 8 March 2014, Rossi and Parfitt appeared on ITV show Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway performing "Rockin' All Over the World" with McBusted.
In August 2014, it was reported that founding keyboardist Jess Jaworski had died. In October 2014, Parfitt and Rossi appeared on BBC's The One Show, performing an acoustic version of "Pictures of Matchstick Men". In May 2015, the twosome appeared on BBC's Later... with Jools Holland, to talk about their Aquostic (Stripped Bare) album. On 9 May 2015, they performed "In the Army Now" at the VE Day 70: A Party to Remember.
On 22 October 2014 the band launched the Aquostic album with a 90-minute performance at London's Roundhouse, with the concert recorded and broadcast live by BBC Radio 2 as part of their In Concert series. Footage from the concert was later used, interspersed with interviews with Rossi and Parfitt, in BBC Four's Status Quo: Live and Acoustic, in January 2017.
On 5 June 2015 Status Quo were the headline act at Palmerston Park in Dumfries, at the stadium of Queen of the South and were supported by Reef and Big Country, in the first ever live concert at the venue.
On 1 February 2016, it was announced that Status Quo, in addition to the spring and summer dates already scheduled, would tour Europe starting in October. The final dates would take place in the UK towards the end of the year, after which the group would retire from playing 'electric' tours. The 'Last of The Electrics' tour was subsequently extended into 2017, with additional concerts outside the UK.
In September 2016 the band performed, in Aquostic line-up, at BBC Radio 2's Live in Hyde Park from Hyde Park, London.
The band's next album Aquostic II – That's a Fact! was released on 21 October 2016.
On 28 October 2016, Parfitt permanently retired from live performances after suffering a heart attack earlier the same year. On 24 December, he died in hospital in Marbella, Spain as a result of severe infection, after suffering an injury to his shoulder. Parfitt's funeral was held at Woking Crematorium on 19 January 2017. Irish guitarist Richie Malone, who had substituted for Parfitt during some 2016 live shows, took his place in the group on rhythm guitar, playing on both recorded material and at live shows. The band had to postpone a concert in June 2017 after frontman Rossi became ill.
In June 2019, Status Quo were the special guests for Lynyrd Skynyrd, on their UK farewell tour.
On 14 June 2019, the band announced that they were working on Backbone, their 33rd studio album - the first Status Quo studio album not to feature Parfitt. On 25 August 2019, the band appeared on ITV show The Sara Cox Show where Rossi spoke about the new album Backbone and also his autobiography I Talk Too Much, after which they performed an upcoming track called "Liberty Lane" as well as "Rockin All Over The World". The album was released on 6 September 2019 and it reached number 6 in the UK Albums Chart. On 15 September 2019, the band performed, at BBC Radio 2's Live in Hyde Park from Hyde Park, London for the second time. They were third from top of the bill, playing in the early evening and followed by Westlife and then The Pet Shop Boys. On Christmas Day 2019, the band appeared on Channel 4's The Great British Bake Off, performing "Rockin All Over The World". On 11 August 2020, Status Quo cancelled their forty-date Backbone UK and European tour due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Due to various commitments for the following year, the band are unable to reschedule these shows for 2021. On 20 August 2020, Rossi appeared on ITV daytime show This Morning and spoke about what he was doing during lockdown and the pandemic, and announced a new tour called Out Out Quoing to be scheduled for 2022.
On September 26, 2021, co-founder Alan Lancaster died at the age of 72, following a long battle with multiple sclerosis. On January 29, 2022 Rossi appeared on ITV cooking show James Martin's Saturday Morning talking about the early days of Status Quo, the album Backbone and the new tour and also eating some delicious food made by James Martin.
Personnel
Current members
Francis Rossi – lead guitar, vocals (1962–present)
Andy Bown – keyboards, rhythm guitar, harmonica, vocals (1976–present)
John "Rhino" Edwards – bass, rhythm guitar, vocals (1985–present)
Leon Cave – drums, percussion, backing vocals (2013–present)
Richie Malone – rhythm guitar, vocals (2016–present)
Former members
Rick Parfitt – rhythm guitar, vocals (1967–2016; died 2016)
Alan Lancaster – bass, vocals (1962–1985; reunion – 2013–2014; died 2021)
John Coghlan – drums, percussion (1963–1981; reunion – 2013–2014)
Pete Kircher – drums, percussion, vocals (1982–1985)
Jeff Rich – drums, percussion (1985–2000)
Matt Letley – drums, percussion, vocals (2000–2013)
Jess Jaworski – keyboards (1962–1965; died 2014)
Alan Key – drums, percussion (1962–1963)
Roy Lynes – keyboards, vocals (1965–1970)
Discography
Picturesque Matchstickable Messages from the Status Quo (1968)
Spare Parts (1969)
Ma Kelly's Greasy Spoon (1970)
Dog of Two Head (1971)
Piledriver (1972)
Hello! (1973)
Quo (1974)
On the Level (1975)
Blue for You (1976)
Rockin' All Over the World (1977)
If You Can't Stand the Heat... (1978)
Whatever You Want (1979)
Just Supposin' (1980)
Never Too Late (1981)
1+9+8+2 (1982)
Back to Back (1983)
In the Army Now (1986)
Ain't Complaining (1988)
Perfect Remedy (1989)
Rock 'til You Drop (1991)
Thirsty Work (1994)
Don't Stop (1996)
Under The Influence (1999)
Famous in the Last Century (2000)
Heavy Traffic (2002)
Riffs (2003)
The Party Ain't Over Yet (2005)
In Search of the Fourth Chord (2007)
Quid Pro Quo (2011)
Bula Quo! (2013)
Aquostic: Stripped Bare (2014)
Aquostic II: That's a Fact (2016)
Backbone (2019)
Remakes and cover versions
In 1989, American alternative rock group Camper Van Beethoven scored a number one hit on Billboard magazine's Modern Rock Tracks chart with a cover version of "Pictures of Matchstick Men". The song is from their album Key Lime Pie. British alternative rock band Kasabian released their own cover version of the same song as a B-side from their 2006 single Shoot the Runner.
The 1996 re-issue of the album Too-Rye-Ay by Dexys Midnight Runners contained a cover version of "Marguerita Time".
Ozzy Osbourne, backed by Type O Negative, covered "Pictures of Matchstick Men" as part of the soundtrack to the Howard Stern biographical movie Private Parts in 1997.
Towards the end of his life, DJ John Peel was known for playing "Down Down" as part of his eclectic DJ sets.
Arjen Lucassen (from the Dutch project Ayreon) covered "Pictures Of Matchstick Men" and "Ice in the Sun" on his solo album Strange Hobby.
Bad Religion guitarist Brett Gurewitz recorded a cover version of "Pictures of Matchstick Men", on his 1985 solo album Seeing Eye Gods.
German Power metal band Helloween covered "Rain" for their single "Power". It can also be found on the bonus disc of the special edition of their 1996 album, The Time of the Oath.
References
Further reading
John Shearlaw, Bob Young: Again & Again. Sidgwick & Jackson, October 1984, Paperback, (1st edition (1979) and 2nd edition (1982) as The Authorised Biography by John Shearlaw)
Tom Hibbert: Status Quo. Omnibus Press, 1982,
Neil Jeffries: Rockin' All Over the World. Proteus Books, March 1985, Paperback,
Bob Young: Quotographs – Celebrating 30 Years of Status Quo, IMP International Music Publications Limited, 1985,
Francis Rossi, Rick Parfitt: Just For The Record. Bantam Press, September 1994, hardcover,
Patti Parfitt: Laughing All over the World: My Life Married to Status Quo. Blake Publishing Ltd, October 1998,
David J. Oxley: Rockers Rollin' – The Story of Status Quo. ST Publishing, Januar 2000, Paperback,
David J. Oxley: Tuned To The Music of Status Quo. ST Publishing, 2001, Paperback,
Francis Rossi, Rick Parfitt, Mick Wall: Status Quo. XS All Areas. Sidgwick & Jackson, September 2004, hardcover, (paperback edition: Macmillan Publishers Ltd, August 2005, )
Francis Rossi, Rick Parfitt, Bob Young: Status Quo: The Official 40th Anniversary Edition. Cassell Illustrated, October 2006, hardcover, .
Status Quo: La Route Sans Fin, foreword by Bob Young,
Eduard Soronellas Vidal (2008 - Spanish). Status Quo: Sobran Acordes, foreword by John 'Rhino' Edwards. Barcelona: Lenoir Ediciones.
External links
Status Quo official website
BBC Norfolk: Status Quo gig gallery – Thetford Forest 2008
Francis Rossi, Interview: "I Have Eight Children, and They All Vary" 18 May 2011
Status Quo's ultimate gig history compiled by Thomas Franck
1962 establishments in England
Musical groups established in 1962
Musical groups from London
Musical quartets
English hard rock musical groups
English psychedelic rock music groups
Mercury Records artists
Vertigo Records artists
A&M Records artists
Capitol Records artists
Eagle Records artists
Brit Award winners
Kerrang! Awards winners
Articles which contain graphical timelines
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212296
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oenanthe
|
Oenanthe
|
Oenanthe can refer to:
Taxonomy
Oenanthe (bird), a genus of birds in the family Muscicapidae
Oenanthe (plant), a genus of plants in the family Apiaceae
Persons
Oenanthe of Egypt (flourished 3rd century BC), Egyptian Greek noblewoman and the wife of Agathocles
|
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212300
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20wheatear
|
Northern wheatear
|
The northern wheatear or wheatear (Oenanthe oenanthe) is a small passerine bird that was formerly classed as a member of the thrush family Turdidae, but is now more generally considered to be an Old World flycatcher, Muscicapidae. It is the most widespread member of the wheatear genus Oenanthe in Europe and North and Central Asia.
The northern wheatear is a migratory insectivorous species breeding in open stony country in Europe and east across the Palearctic with footholds in northeastern Canada and Greenland as well as in northwestern Canada and Alaska. It nests in rock crevices and rabbit burrows. All birds spend most of their winter in Africa.
Taxonomy and systematics
The northern wheatear was first formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae as Motacilla oenanthe. The species is now placed in the genus Oenanthe that was introduced by the French ornithologist Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot in 1816. The generic name, Oenanthe, is also the name of a plant genus, the water dropworts, and is derived from the Greek ainos "wine" and anthos "flower", from the wine-like scent of the flowers. In the case of the wheatear, it refers to the birds' return to Greece in the spring at the time that the grapevines blossom.
Its English name has nothing to do with wheat or with ear, but is an altered (perhaps bowdlerised) form of white-arse, which refers to its prominent white rump.
The four generally accepted subspecies of the Northern Wheatear with their breeding range are as follows:
O. o. leucorhoa (Gmelin, JF, 1789) – northeast Canada, Greenland and Iceland (the 'Greenland wheatear')
O. o. oenanthe (Linnaeus, 1758) – north and central Europe through north Asia to east Siberia and northwest North America
O. o. libanotica (Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833) – southern Europe through the Middle East and southwest Asia to Mongolia and northwest China
O. o. seebohmi (Dixon, 1882) – northwest Africa
O.o. seebohmi is regarded as a distinct species by some authorities such as the International Ornithological Committee, Seebohm’s or the Atlas wheatear.
Description
The northern wheatear is larger than the European robin at in length. The northern wheatear also has a wingspan of 26– 32 cm and weighs 17-30 g.
Both sexes have a white rump and tail, with a black inverted T-pattern at the end of the tail.
The plumage of the summer male has grey upperparts, buff throat and black wings and face mask. In autumn it resembles the female apart from the black wings. The female is pale brown above and buff below with darker brown wings. The male has a whistling, crackly song. Its call is a typical chat chack noise, and the flight call is the same.
Behaviour and ecology
Migration
The northern wheatear makes one of the longest journeys of any small bird, crossing ocean, ice, and desert. It migrates from Sub-Saharan Africa in spring over a vast area of the Northern Hemisphere that includes northern and central Asia, Europe, Greenland, Alaska, and parts of Canada. In autumn all return to Africa, where their ancestors had wintered. Arguably, some of the birds that breed in north Asia could take a shorter route and winter in south Asia; however, their inherited inclination to migrate takes them back to Africa, completing one of the longest migrations for its body size in the animal kingdom
Birds of the large, bright Greenland race, leucorhoa, makes one of the longest transoceanic crossings of any passerine. In spring most migrate along a route (commonly used by waders and waterfowl) from Africa via continental Europe, the British Isles, and Iceland to Greenland. However, autumn sightings from ships suggest that some birds cross the North Atlantic directly from Canada and Greenland to southwest Europe, a distance of up to . Birds breeding in eastern Canada are thought to fly from Baffin Island and Newfoundland via Greenland, Ireland, and Portugal to the Azores, crossing of the North Atlantic) before flying onwards to Africa. Other populations from western Canada and Alaska migrate by flying over much of Eurasia to Africa.
Miniature tracking devices have recently shown that the northern wheatear has one of the longest migratory flights known - 30,000 km (18,640 miles), from sub-Saharan Africa to their Arctic breeding grounds.
"The Alaskan birds travelled almost 15,000km (9,000 miles) each way - crossing Siberia and the Arabian Desert, and travelling, on average, 290km per day. "This is the longest recorded migration for a songbird as far as we know," said Dr Schmaljohann.
Breeding
Northern wheatears first breed when they are one year old. The nest is built entirely by the female while the male perches nearby, sings and sometimes performs song-flights. The nest is placed in a cavity such as a rabbit burrow, a crevice among rocks or in a man-made object such as a wall or pipe. The nest typically has a foundation of untidy plant material. The nest cup is constructed of finer grasses, leaves, moss and lichen. The female lays eggs at daily intervals. The clutch is 4-7 smooth but not glossy eggs that are around in size with an average weight of . The eggs are very pale blue in colour and sometimes have a few red-brown marks at the larger end. They are incubated almost entirely by the female beginning after the penultimate or final egg has been laid. The eggs hatch after approximately 13 days. The chicks are fed by both parents and are brooded by the female for the first five or six days. They fledge after 15 days and become independent of their parents when they are between 28 and 32 days old. Normally only a single brood is raised each year but when a clutch of eggs is lost, the female will lay a second clutch.
Status and conservation
The northern wheatear has an extensive range, estimated at 2.3 million square kilometres (0.87 million square miles), and a large population estimated at 2.9 million individuals in the Old World and the Americas combined. The species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e., declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations), and is therefore evaluated as least concern.
Relationship with humans
In the 18th and 19th centuries wheatears were considered a delicacy in England, called "the English ortolan" and Sussex shepherds supplemented their income by selling the birds they trapped.
References
Sources
External links
Northern Wheatear videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 4.3 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
Xeno-canto: audio recordings of the Northern Wheatear
northern wheatear
Holarctic birds
northern wheatear
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Birds of Europe
Birds of Russia
Birds of Africa
Birds of the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champ%20de%20Mars
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Champ de Mars
|
The Champ de Mars (; ) is a large public greenspace in Paris, France, located in the seventh arrondissement, between the Eiffel Tower to the northwest and the École Militaire to the southeast. The park is named after the Campus Martius ("Mars Field") in Rome, a tribute to the Roman god of war. The name alludes to the fact that the lawns here were formerly used as drilling and marching grounds by the French military.
The nearest Métro stations are La Motte-Picquet–Grenelle, École Militaire, and Champ de Mars-Tour Eiffel, an RER suburban-commuter-railway station. A disused station, Champ de Mars, is also nearby.
History
Originally, the Champ de Mars was part of a large flat open area called Grenelle, which was reserved for market gardening. Citizens would claim small plots and exploit them by growing fruits, vegetables, and flowers for the local market. However, the plain of Grenelle was not an especially fertile place for farming.
The construction, in 1765, of the École Militaire designed by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, was the first step toward the Champ de Mars in its present form. Grounds for military drills were originally planned for an area south of the school, the current location of the place de Fontenoy. The choice to build an esplanade to the north of the school led to the erection of the noble facade which today encloses the Champ de Mars. The planners leveled the ground, surrounded it with a large ditch and a long avenue of elms, and, as a final touch, the esplanade was enclosed by a fine grille-work fence.
The Isle of Swans, formerly a riverine islet at the location of the northeastern foot of the Eiffel Tower, was, for the sake of symmetry and pleasing perspectives, attached to the shore. (Note that the Isle of Swans discussed here should not be confused with the Isle of Swans that sits in the middle of the Seine downstream and around the next bend in the river, between the fifteenth and sixteenth arrondissements.)
Jacques Charles and the Robert brothers launched the world's first hydrogen-filled balloon from the Champ-de-Mars on 27 August 1783.
This place witnessed the spectacle and pageantry of some of the best-remembered festivals of the French Revolution. On 14 July 1790 the first "Federation Day" celebration (fête de la Fédération), now known as Bastille Day, was held on the Champ de Mars, exactly one year after the storming of the prison. The following year, on 17 July 1791, the massacre on the Champ de Mars took place. Jean Sylvain Bailly, the first mayor of Paris, became a victim of his own revolution and was guillotined there on 12 November 1793.
The Champ de Mars was also the site of the Festival of the Supreme Being on 8 June 1794. With a design by the painter Jacques-Louis David, a massive "Altar of the Nation" was built atop an artificial mountain and surmounted by a tree of liberty. The festival is regarded as the most successful of its type in the Revolution. During the Hundred Days a restored Napoleon held the Champ de Mai ceremony, during which he swore to uphold the Charter of 1815, at the Champ de Mars.
The Champ de Mars was the site of Expositions Universelles in 1867, 1878, 1889, 1900, and 1937.
In art, culture, film and sport
Art and culture
In 2012, the United Buddy Bears exhibit was held on the Champ de Mars, an international art exhibition with more than 140 two-meter-tall bears representing individual countries. They promote peace, love, tolerance and international understanding and are displayed across the planet. They stand at Champ de Mars in Paris, fronting the Eiffel Tower.
Use in film and television
Champ de Mars was used as a filming location in the 1985 James Bond film A View to a Kill, in which Bond (played for the last time by Roger Moore) drove a Renault 11 taxi which he had hijacked at the Eiffel Tower in pursuit of a mysterious assassin, later revealed to be May Day (Grace Jones).
Sports
The Champ de Mars will be the site of Beach Volleyball at the 2024 Summer Olympics and of five-a-side football at the 2024 Summer Paralympics.
Gallery
See also
List of world's fairs
Champ de Mars Massacre
Fête de la Concorde
References
Parks and open spaces in Paris
World's fair sites in Paris
Exposition Universelle (1900)
Buildings and structures in the 7th arrondissement of Paris
Venues of the 2024 Summer Olympics
Olympic volleyball venues
|
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212306
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Avidan
|
David Avidan
|
David Avidan (Hebrew: דוד אבידן) (February 21, 1934 – May 11, 1995) was an Israeli "poet, painter, filmmaker, publicist, and playwright" (as he often put it). He wrote 20 published books of Hebrew poetry.
Biography and literary career
He was born in Tel Aviv, Israel, and studied Literature and Philosophy while briefly studying at Hebrew University. He wrote mostly in Hebrew, and was an avant-garde artist throughout his life. He translated many of his own poems into English, and received several awards both as a poet and as a translator.
He was not popular with most critics or the general public throughout his life, often criticized as being egocentric, chauvinistic, and technocratic. His first book, Lipless Faucets (1954), was attacked by nearly all poetry critics; the first favorable review was by Gabriel Moked, editor of the literary quarterly Akhshav, who later became one of Avidan's closest friends.
By the early 1990s he could scarcely make a living, and his mental condition had deteriorated. Avidan died in Tel Aviv, the city which had played a central role in his life, and was, in many ways, the center of his creation.
Avidan died on May 11, 1995 in his Tel Aviv apartment at the age of 61. Since his death, Avidan's reputation has been on the rise both in literary circles and in the popular imagination, positioning him as one of the core poets of the Israeli canon. A volume of Selected Poems by Avidan, "Futureman," translated by Tsipi Keller, has been published by Phoneme Media in 2017.
Awards
In 1993, Avidan was the co-recipient (jointly with Amalia Kahana-Carmon) of the Bialik Prize for Hebrew literature.
Movies
Message from the Future, a 1981 Israeli film Avidan wrote, directed and starred in, is a science fiction movie in English about future humans visiting present-day Israel. In the year 3005, a man is sent back to 1985 to convince the present leaders make certain that World War III happens, which he guarantees will make for a better future. Having already caused natural disasters and catastrophes by coming back from the future, he now tries to force his message on the world press and TV. Sheldon Teitelbaum has judged the film 'execrable'.
Books (poetry) – partial list
Lipless Faucets, 1954
Personal Problems, 1957
Subtotal, 1960
Pressure Poems, 1962
Something for Someone, 1964
A Book of Possibilities – Poems and More, 1985
See also
List of Bialik Prize recipients
References
Further reading
The Modern Hebrew Poem Itself (2003),
Futureman (2017)
External links
לקסיקון הספרות העברית החדשה – דוד אבידן
NY Times obituary, retrieved October 5, 2008
http://mailchi.mp/1480e735fb8d/a-very-phoneme-fall
1934 births
1995 deaths
Jewish Israeli writers
Jewish Israeli artists
Jewish Israeli male actors
Israeli male poets
Israeli male painters
Israeli film directors
Israeli male film actors
Israeli male screenwriters
Burials at Yarkon Cemetery
20th-century Israeli poets
20th-century Israeli male actors
20th-century Israeli male artists
20th-century Israeli male writers
20th-century Israeli painters
Israeli science fiction writers
Hebrew-language poets
Hebrew-language playwrights
Film people from Tel Aviv
Hebrew University of Jerusalem alumni
Hebrew–English translators
Recipients of Prime Minister's Prize for Hebrew Literary Works
20th-century Israeli screenwriters
20th-century translators
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xishuangbanna%20Dai%20Autonomous%20Prefecture
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Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture
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Xishuangbanna, Sibsongbanna or Sipsong Panna (Tham: , New Tai Lü script: ; ; ; ; ; ), shortened to Banna, is an autonomous prefecture for Dai people in the extreme south of Yunnan Province, China, bordering both Myanmar and Laos. The prefectural seat is Jinghong, the largest settlement in the area and one that straddles the Mekong, called the "Lancang River" in Chinese.
This region of China is noted for the distinct culture of its ethnic groups, one that is very different from that of the Han Chinese. The people, architecture, language and culture more closely resemble those of the Shan, Dai and Tai peoples, which includes the Thai and Lao.
Etymology
Sipsongpanna (cognate to the Thai , ) is a Tai Lü compound consisting of sipsong "twelve", pan "township" and na "rice paddy". The name refers to the traditional division of the mueang into twelve districts that were called panna (literally "township rice-fields") The etymology is parallel to the autonomous Tai-speaking region in French Indochina from 1890 to 1945 called Sip Song Chau Tai meaning "twelve Tai cantons".
History
Before 1886, the region was called Chiang Hung, a Tai Lue Kingdom contended between Lanna and the Burmese dynasties.British occupied the whole Burma in 1886, it became a part of British India.In 1892,British transferred Chiang Hung to Qing Dynasty . In the 19th century, it briefly became a tributary state of Luang Prabang and the Rattanakosin dynasty. Chiang Hung Kingdom submitted to the Qing dynasty during the late 19th century.
In the chaos of the Xinhai Revolution that overthrew the Qing government in 1911 in favor of a Chinese republican government, a local leader, the Chao Maha of Meng Jie, staged a rebellion against Qing remnant officials. The Yunnan provincial government of the newly established Republic of China sent troops in 1913 to oust the Chao Meng Jie rebels. Ke Shuxun remained in Xishuangbanna to govern with his "13 Principles of Governing the Frontier", which emphasized equality between Han and Dai in areas such as land ownership and taxation, allowed intermarriage between the ethnic groups and promoted education in secular and technical subjects, rather than Burmese-based monastic education. The Second Sino-Japanese War (1931-1945) saw the heavy bombardment of Xishuangbanna by Japanese troops and a simultaneous influx of Pan-Taiist propaganda from Japan's ally, Thailand. According to Hsieh, this reduced the appeal of a broad pan-Tai identity among the Dai Lue.
During the final phase of the Chinese Civil War, many remnants of the Kuomintang fled from Communists forces into Burma's Shan State from Xishuangbanna. The new People's Republic of China sent various non-military expeditions to Xishuangbanna from 1949 to provide services such as schools and hospitals to replace those from Christian western missionaries.
The Communists took control of the prefecture from Kuomintang loyalists in 1952. On January 23, 1953, the PRC established the Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Region and ended the native-chieftain system. That year, the People's Congress of Xishuangbanna created the New Tai Lue alphabet, based on the Tai Tham alphabet, for printing material in the Tai Lü language.
Xishuangbanna was made an autonomous prefecture in 1955 but lost some territory on the creation of Jingdong Yi Autonomous County and Jiangcheng Hani and Yi Autonomous County. Land reform started in earnest in January 1956, destroying the power of the village headmen. State-owned rubber plantations accounted for most of the region's wealth during the early PRC period.
Xishuangbanna also received an influx of educated youth during the Down to the Countryside Movement of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976). During this period Buddhist temples in Xishuangbanna were used as barns, only being restored to their original purpose in 1981.
In 1987, the Xishuangbanna government promulgated the Law of the Xishuangbanna Dai Nationality Autonomous Prefecture for Self-government to bring local laws into line with the national Law of the People's Republic of China for Regional National Autonomy.
Shao Cunxin (, 1922–2015), former head of the Chieftain's outer council (1944–1950) and chief of Meng Peng (1938–1950), was the chief of the autonomous prefecture from 1955 to 1992.
Administrative subdivisions
Xishuangbanna governs one county-level city and two counties.
references:Xishuangbanna Gov, Citypopulation.de Yunnan Urban Populations.
Geography
The prefecture has an area of . Xishuangbanna is the home of the Dai people. The region sits at a lower altitude than most of Yunnan, and borders closely on tropical climate. It is fast becoming a sought after tourist destination. It has close proximity to Myanmar, Laos, and Thailand.
Biodiversity
Xishuangbanna harbors much of the biodiversity of Yunnan, which harbors much of the biodiversity of China. Its tropical climate and its remoteness until recent times account for this. In addition to an abundance of plants, Xishuangbanna is home to the last few Asian elephants still in China; the species roamed over a large part of the country even as late as a few hundred years ago. The elephants are protected in a reserve, but the plant diversity is threatened by, and has for five decades been threatened by, the proliferation of natural rubber plantations which completely destroy the rainforest and replace it with a monoculture of trees originally from Brazil.
Passiflora xishuangbannaensis is a recently discovered passiflora species that is endemic to Xishuangbanna.
Demographics
With censuses in the year, 2000 Xishuangbanna had 993,397 inhabitants with a population density of 50.43 inhabitants per km2. According to the 2000 national census, Dai people make up the plurality at 29.89%, with the Han Chinese coming in at a close second at 29.11%. At the time of the 1977 census, however, Han people made up the largest single ethnic group in Xishuangbanna, making up 36.53% of a population of 627,089, while Dai made up 33.15%, and others 30.32%. The Xishuangbanna government has strived to maintain this ethnic balance of around 33% of each group: Han, Dai, and other; this policy is known as "the plan of three-three-three" ()
Before the increasing social mobility of the 1940s, inhabitants of Xishuangbanna called each other "basin people" () or "mountain people" () in reference to the groups' stereotyped location. The Han and Dai lived mostly around the mountains and played a socially dominant role, while the non-Dai ethnic minorities lived in the basins and were politically disenfranchised. The Dai used to be called the Baiyi (), and until a 1936 Kuomintang reform, the bai part was written with the dog radical (). The PRC government decided that regardless of radical, the term Baiyi is pejorative, and adopted Dai () instead. Historically, some ethnic minorities adapted some Dai characteristics in order to alleviate discrimination and increase their social status, such as the Blang people adopting the sarong, practicing matrilocal residence, and learning the Tai Tham alphabet.
Ethnic groups
Ethnic groups in Xishuangbanna, 2000 census
In Jinghong City and Menghai County, the two major Hani subgroups are Jiuwei 鸠为 and Jizuo 吉坐. The Jizuo 吉坐 are the largest Hani ethnic subgroup in Jinghong.
The Jiuwei claim to have migrated from Honghe and Mojiang. The Jiuwei live in various villages in Jinghong, including:
Mengbozhai 勐波寨, Menghan Town 勐罕寨, Jinghong City
Agupu 阿古普 (also called Manwoke 曼窝科) in Leiwu 类吴, Mengsong Township 勐宋, Jinghong City
Napazhai 那帕寨 in Damenglong 大勐笼, Jinghong City
Baiya village 拜牙村 in Menghun 勐混, Menghai County (The Ake 阿克 subgroup lives in Lougu 楼固村, located in Menghun 勐混 as well.)
Babingzhai 坝丙寨, Xidingshan 西定山, Menghai County
There are also ethnic Hani that are locally called Aini 爱尼 living in 7 villages on Nanlin Mountain 南林山 of southwestern Jinghong, namely Manbage 曼八阁, Manjinglong 曼景龙, Manjingnan 曼景囡, Mangudu 曼固独, Manbaqi 曼把奇, Manbasan 曼巴伞, and Manjingmai 曼景卖.
Ethnic minority languages spoken in Sipsongpanna include:
Tai Lü language
Man Met language
Hu language
Blang language
Muak Sa-aak language
Bit language
Culture
The Six famous tea mountains region () located in the prefecture produce some of the most highly regarded Pu-erh tea in the 20th century.
Xishuangbanna is rich in nature, historical and cultural resources, noted for its folklore, rain forests, rare plants, and wildlife. Its major tourist attractions include Menglun Tropical Botanical Garden, Manfeilong Pagodas (Tanuozhuanglong), Jingzhen Pavilion, Wild Elephant Gully, Dai people's village at Ganlanba. The Manchunman Buddhist Temple, which has a history of more than 1400 years, is also a very popular tourist attraction. The complex is made up of four parts, the main hall, the sutra collection pavilion, the gold pagoda, and the drum tower. The temple is well known within the Southeast Asian region and each year attracts Buddhist monks and visitors from Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar and Laos.
The well-known traditional festival is the Dai New Year, known as the Water-Splashing Festival. It lasts for three days from April 13 to 15. Besides the water festival event it also consists of some other events such as Dragon boat races, the firing of indigenous missiles, flying Kongming Lamps.
Transport
Since the opening of the Xishuangbanna Gasa Airport (formerly "Jinghong International Airport") in 1990, traveling to Xishuangbanna by air has become more popular and convenient and there are daily flights connecting Xishuangbanna with Kunming City. The area also has air connections with Dali, Chengdu and Bangkok. The Xishuangbanna Airport is south of Jinghong City.
There are also bus routes to places all over Yunnan and neighboring provinces.
It is 590 kilometers from Kunming to Jinghong. Long-distances buses depart from Kunming South Station and arrive at Jinghong Bus Station, costing CNY 210–250, which is about 8–10 hours duration.
In October 2010, plans were announced for a railway linking Xishuangbanna to Vientiane, Laos; connections to Thailand are also possible.
See also
Sip Song Chau Tai
Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden
References
Literature
External links
Xishuangbanna Prefecture government website
Xishuangbanna-Jinghong city government website
Xishuangbanna-Mengbalanaxi
Xishuangbanna Daily
Xishuangbanna travel information
Xishuangbanna Biodiversity Centre and Guide
Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden
Autonomous prefectures of the People's Republic of China
Biosphere reserves of China
Dai people
Tourism in Yunnan
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] |
212318
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas%20Private%20Investment%20Corporation
|
Overseas Private Investment Corporation
|
The Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) was the United States government's development finance institution until it merged with the Development Credit Authority (DCA) of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) to form the U.S. International Development Finance Corporation (DFC). OPIC mobilized private capital to help solve critical development challenges and, in doing so, advanced the foreign policy of the United States and national security objectives.
Working with the U.S. private sector, it helped U.S. businesses gain footholds in emerging markets, catalyzing revenues, jobs and growth opportunities both at home and abroad. It achieved its mission by providing investors with financing, political risk insurance, and support for private equity investment funds, when commercial funding could not be obtained elsewhere. Established as an agency of the U.S. government in 1971, OPIC operated on a self-sustaining basis at no net cost to American taxpayers.
All OPIC projects adhered to high environmental and social standards and respected human rights, including worker's rights. By mandating high standards, OPIC aimed to raise the industry and regional standards in countries where it funded projects. OPIC services were available for new and expanding business enterprises in more than 160 countries worldwide.
Products and services
Financing
OPIC helped provide medium- to long-term funding through direct loans and loan guarantees to eligible investment projects in developing countries and emerging markets. By complementing the private sector, OPIC used to provide financing in countries where commercial financial institutions often are reluctant or unable to lend.
Recognizing that businesses both large and small played an important role in developing nations, OPIC made it a priority to work with American small businesses, which comprised, on average, 80 percent of projects supported by the agency. OPIC's Department of Small and Medium-sized Enterprise Finance offered qualified small businesses a streamlined approval process and direct loans from $100,000 to $10 million with terms from three to 15 years. While the eligible U.S. small business must have owned at least 25 percent of the overseas project, OPIC used to be able to finance up to 65 percent of the total project cost. OPIC had conducted more than a dozen small business workshops around the United States since 2006, educating nearly 1,600 business owners about OPIC products and services.
Political risk insurance
OPIC's political risk insurance enabled U.S. businesses to take advantage of commercially attractive opportunities in emerging markets, mitigating risk and helping them compete in a global marketplace. OPIC helped U.S. investors protect their investments in a variety of situations, including political violence, expropriation or other government interference, and currency inconvertibility.
Investment funds
OPIC provided support for the creation of privately owned and manage investment funds. These funds made direct equity and equity-related investments in new, expanding or privatizing emerging market companies. OPIC-supported funds helped emerging market economies access long-term growth capital, management skills, and financial expertise, all of which are key factors in expanding economic development for people in developing nations.
Investment projects
OPIC supported projects in a range of industries—from energy to housing, agriculture and financial services. It focused on regions where the need was greatest and in sectors that could have the greatest developmental impact. OPIC had increasingly focused on projects that encouraged the use of renewable resources, which represented not only an urgent global need but also a significant investment opportunity.
Another key priority was impact investing, which aimed to produce positive social impacts while generating financial returns sufficient to make projects sustainable.
Initiatives
Connect Africa
In July 2018, OPIC had launched its Connect Africa Initiative which aimed to fund more projects which would target infrastructure, technology, and value chains in Africa. With projects within Sub-Saharan Africa accounting for over one quarter of OPIC's portfolio, the region was a key area of focus for the corporation. Through Connect Africa, OPIC had pledged to $1 billion over three years to projects supporting telecommunications and internet access, value chains that connected producers of raw materials to end users, and essential infrastructure, such as roads, railways, ports, and airports. These commitments to connectivity would support economic growth and shore up regional security.
This initiative built upon the Power Africa Project launched during the Obama administration that committed to spending $1.5 billion in energy investments on the continent over a five-year span.
Some examples of investment projects under the Connect Africa Initiative were a $125 million loan to help the diamond industry become more sustainable in Botswana and the commitment of $100 million to expand mobile networks and technological infrastructure across the Gambia, Sierra Leone, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Uganda.
This initiative will be continued under the U.S. International Development Finance Corporation (DFC). In June, 2021 The DFC and G7 nations pledged $80 Billion to the continent.
2X Women's Initiative
Launched in March 2018, OPIC's 2X Women's Initiative was a commitment to mobilize $1 billion in capital to invest in women in developing countries. To decide which projects to invest in, OPIC had utilized gender lens investing which called for applying gender analysis to financial analysis – using capital to impact the lives of women.
Having exceeded their investment goal by the end of the financial year, OPIC had challenged other G7 countries to join in the 2X Challenge which organized DFIs from around the world to take part in achieving gender equality through private investment.
Popular examples of projects included financially backing WaterHealth in India to create WaterHealth Vending Machines (WVM) in heavily populated areas thereby increasing women, and their families’, access to clean drinking water. Another example was a $5 million loan for Twiga Foods in Kenya which aimed to combat food scarcity.
This initiative will be continued under the U.S. International Development Finance Corporation (DFC).
Another key priority is impact investing, which aims to produce positive social impacts while generating financial returns sufficient to make these projects sustainable. OPIC has committed to provide $1.5 billion to develop energy projects in Africa over the next five years, in support of President Obama's Power Africa initiative to double the number of people on the continent who have access to electricity. The Power Africa initiative will help African countries develop more of their extensive energy resources, including oil and gas, geothermal, hydro, wind, solar and biomass, while also building out power generation and transmission infrastructure.
Eligibility Requirements
OPIC required that its projects have a meaningful connection to the U.S. private sector. For financing, this meant a U.S.-organized entity 25 percent or more U.S.-owned or a majority U.S.-owned foreign-organized entity run by U.S. citizens, lawful permanent residents and U.S.-organized non-governmental organizations. OPIC did not support projects that negatively affected the U.S. economy.
Environmental and Social Standards
OPIC projects had to meet congressionally mandated requirements regarding protection of the environment, social impacts, health, and safety. The guidelines and procedures were based in large part on environmental and social impact assessment procedures applied by organizations such as the World Bank Group, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the Inter-American Development Bank and the U.S. Export-Import Bank. Projects that were likely to have significant adverse environmental or social impacts are disclosed to the public for a comment period of 60 days.
History
In the American effort to rebuild Europe following World War II, it became clear to policy makers that private investment is a powerful generator of economic development and that there is an appropriate role for government in encouraging private investment where it has the potential to do the most good. Accordingly, the Marshall Plan authorized the U.S. government to insure private U.S. investors against the risk that earnings generated overseas in foreign currencies might not be convertible into U.S. dollars. This new tool—political risk insurance—was expanded in the 1950s to cover losses from war and expropriation, as well as government interference with investors' rights to the proceeds of their investments. It was subsequently complemented with the addition of project financing.
In 1966, Congress established the International Private Investment Advisory Council (IPIAC) under the Foreign Assistance Act of 1966. In December 1968, IPIAC published "The Case for a U.S. Overseas Private Enterprise Development Corporation", a report articulating the need for such an entity. In the report, the IPIAC recommended the organization of an overseas private enterprise development corporation of and funded by the United States, as responsive to the Javits Amendment to the 1968 Foreign Assistance Act.
As administration of the U.S. guaranty program moved among various agencies, bipartisan support grew to establish it on a permanent basis as a self-sustaining, independent agency.
Congress created OPIC in 1969 through an amendment to the Foreign Assistance Act, and the agency began operations in 1971, during the Nixon administration, with a portfolio of $8.4 billion in political risk insurance and $169 million in loan guaranties. In a special message to Congress in 1971, President Nixon stated that OPIC's establishment will help "give new direction to U.S. private investment abroad ... and provide new focus to our foreign assistance effort."
Organized as a corporation with a corporate structure, OPIC is governed by a Board of Directors, President and CEO, and Executive Vice President, all nominated by the President of the United States and approved by the U.S. Senate. The majority of the Board of Directors, including its president, are "drawn from private life and have business experience." Although it operates on a self-sustaining basis at no net cost to American taxpayers, OPIC is appropriated administrative funding, and reauthorized on a regular basis, by the U.S. Congress.
Leadership
Criticism
In the 2000s, Friends of the Earth; Greenpeace; and the cities of Boulder, Arcata and Oakland won against the Overseas Private Investment Corporation (and the Export–Import Bank of the United States), which were accused of financing fossil-fuel projects detrimental to a stable climate in violation of the National Environmental Policy Act in a case filed in 2002 and settled in 2009.
See also
Title 22 of the Code of Federal Regulations
Export Development Canada
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)
UK Export Finance
References
Further reading
U.S. Fiscal Commission Suggests Killing OPIC - The Government's Cash Cow
External links
Official website
Overseas Private Investment Corporation in the Federal Register
Governing Legislation through 2005
1971 establishments in the United States
Government agencies established in 1971
Independent agencies of the United States government
Government-owned companies of the United States
Corporations chartered by the United States Congress
|
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212328
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean%20O%27Grady%20%28boxer%29
|
Sean O'Grady (boxer)
|
Sean O'Grady (born February 10, 1959) is the former World Boxing Association (WBA) Lightweight Champion of the World, and currently an American commercial realtor.
O'Grady had a record of 81 wins and five losses as a professional boxer, with 70 wins by knockout.
O'Grady is also a college graduate, boxing analyst, television personality, actor and former teen idol across the United States Midwest.
Early life
O'Grady was born in Austin, Texas. The son of boxing trainer Pat O'Grady and boxing promoter Jean O'Grady, he moved around a lot when he was a younger kid, but his family settled in Oklahoma City, when he was 11 years old.
Boxing career
O'Grady started boxing professionally in 1975. In 1980, he had his first world title try, when the World Boxing Council Lightweight champion Jim Watt gave him an opportunity to fight for the title. O'Grady travelled to Scotland to fight Watt, but sustained a cut over the forehead due to a head butt late in the bout and lost by a technical knockout in round 12. The O'Grady's protested the fight's result 24 hours later while in Ireland, arguing that the cut had been caused by the headbutt, not a punch. Because of the controversy surrounding the fight, the World Boxing Association Lightweight champion, Hilmer Kenty, gave O'Grady another opportunity at the title. They met on April 12, 1981. O'Grady again suffered a cut early in the bout, but he dropped Kenty in round eight and won a unanimous decision. The fight was one of the ten best fights of 1981 according to Ring Magazine.
In part because of problems with his manager/father, he never defended the WBA title and was eventually stripped of it. Pat O'Grady then formed the little-regarded (and very short lived) World Athletic Association to recognize Sean as a champion. O'Grady promptly lost this "championship" to Andy Ganigan of Hawaii.
He regularly chewed bubble gum upon entering the ring prior to fights, and because of this, he earned the nickname "Bubble Gum Bomber."
TV analyst
O'Grady served as analyst for television boxing show USA Tuesday Night Fights which aired from October 1982 to August 1998 on the USA Network.
References
External links
1959 births
Northwest Classen High School alumni
Boxing commentators
Living people
American male boxers
Sportspeople from Austin, Texas
World lightweight boxing champions
Boxers from Texas
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lye
|
Lye
|
A lye is a metal hydroxide traditionally obtained by leaching wood ashes, or a strong alkali which is highly soluble in water producing caustic basic solutions. "Lye" most commonly refers to sodium hydroxide (NaOH), but historically has been used for potassium hydroxide (KOH).
Today, lye is commercially manufactured using a membrane cell chloralkali process. It is supplied in various forms such as flakes, pellets, microbeads, coarse powder or a solution. Lye has traditionally been used as a major ingredient in soap making.
Etymology
The English word "lye" has cognates in all Germanic languages, and originally designated a bath or hot spring.
Uses
Food
Lyes are used to cure many types of food, including the traditional Nordic lutefisk, olives (making them less bitter), canned mandarin oranges, hominy, lye rolls, century eggs, pretzels, and bagels. They are also used as a tenderizer in the crust of baked Cantonese moon cakes, in "zongzi" (glutinous rice dumplings wrapped in bamboo leaves), in chewy southern Chinese noodles popular in Hong Kong and southern China, and in Japanese ramen noodles. They are also used in kutsinta, a type of rice cake from the Philippines together with pitsi-pitsî. In Assam, north east India, extensive use is made of a type of lye called khar in Assamese and karwi in Boro which is obtained by filtering the ashes of various banana stems, roots and skin in their cooking and also for curing, as medicine and as a substitute for soap.
Lye made out of wood ashes is also used in the nixtamalization process of hominy corn by the tribes of the Eastern Woodlands in North America.
In the United States, food-grade lye must meet the requirements outlined in the Food Chemicals Codex (FCC), as prescribed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Lower grades of lye that are unsuitable for use in food preparation are commonly used as drain de-cloggers and oven cleaners.
Soap
Lye in the form of both sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide is used in making soap. Potassium hydroxide soaps are softer and more easily dissolved in water than sodium hydroxide soaps. Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are not interchangeable in either the proportions required or the properties produced in making soaps.
"Hot process" soap making also uses lye as the main ingredient. Lye is added to water, cooled for a few minutes and then added to oils and butters. The mixture is then cooked over a period of time (1–2 hours), typically in a slow cooker, and then placed into a mold.
Household
Lyes are also valued for their cleaning effects. Sodium hydroxide is commonly the major constituent in commercial and industrial oven cleaners and clogged drain openers, due to its grease-dissolving abilities. Lyes decompose greases via alkaline ester hydrolysis, yielding water-soluble residues that are easily removed by rinsing.
Tissue digestion
Sodium or potassium hydroxide can be used to digest tissues of animal carcasses. Often referred to as alkaline hydrolysis, the process involves placing the carcass or body into a sealed chamber, adding a mixture of lye and water and the application of heat to accelerate the process. After several hours the chamber will contain a liquid with coffee-like appearance, and the only solids that remain are very fragile bone hulls of mostly calcium phosphate, which can be mechanically crushed to a fine powder with very little force. Sodium hydroxide is frequently used in the process of decomposing roadkill dumped in landfills by animal disposal contractors. Due to its low cost and high availability, it has also been used to dispose of corpses by criminals. Italian serial killer Leonarda Cianciulli used this chemical to turn dead bodies into soap. In Mexico, a man who worked for drug cartels admitted to having disposed of more than 300 bodies with it.
Fungus identification
A 3–10% solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) gives a color change in some species of mushrooms:
In Agaricus, some species such as A. xanthodermus turn yellow with KOH, many have no reaction, and A. subrutilescens turns green.
Distinctive change occurs for some species of Cortinarius and boletes
Safety
First aid
Sources recommend immediate removal of contaminated clothing/materials, gently brushing/wiping excess off of skin, and then flushing the area of exposure with running water for 15–60 minutes while contacting emergency services.
Protection
Personal protective equipment including safety glasses, chemical-resistant gloves, and adequate ventilation are required for the safe handling of lyes. When in proximity to a lye that is dissolving in an open container of water, the use of a vapor-resistant face mask is recommended. Adding lye to water too quickly can cause the solution to boil.
Storage
Solid lyes are deliquescents and have a strong affinity for air moisture. Solid lyes will deliquesce or dissolve when exposed to open air, absorbing a relatively large amount of water vapour. Accordingly, lyes are stored in air-tight plastic containers. Glass is not a good material to be used for storage as lyes are mildly corrosive to it. Similar to the case of other corrosives, the containers should be labeled to indicate the potential danger of the contents and stored away from children, pets, heat, and moisture.
Hazardous reactions
The majority of safety concerns with lye are also common with most corrosives, such as their potentially destructive effects on living tissues; examples are the skin, flesh, and the cornea. Solutions containing lyes can cause chemical burns, permanent injuries, scarring and blindness, immediately upon contact. Lyes may be harmful or even fatal if swallowed; ingestion can cause esophageal stricture. Moreover, the solvation of dry solid lyes is highly exothermic; the resulting heat may cause additional burns or ignite flammables.
The reaction between sodium hydroxide and a few metals is also hazardous. Aluminium reacts with lyes to produce hydrogen gas. Since hydrogen is flammable, mixing a large quantity of a lye such as sodium hydroxide with aluminium in a closed container is dangerous—especially when the system is at a high temperature, which speeds up the reaction. In addition to aluminium, lyes may also react with magnesium, zinc, tin, chromium, brass or bronze—producing hydrogen gas. Both the potassium and sodium forms are able to dissolve copper.
References
Further reading
See also
Slaked lime (calcium hydroxide)
External links
Hydroxides
Household chemicals
Deliquescent substances
Desiccants
Soaps
Sodium compounds
|
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] |
212331
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed%20Qalamuddin
|
Mohammed Qalamuddin
|
Mohammed Qalamuddin (), an Afghan politician, served under the Taliban regime as deputy head of the Vice and Virtue Ministry. He also served as deputy minister of mosques and Hajj, and as head of the Afghan National Olympic Committee.
References
External links
UN may lift sanctions on some former Taliban members BBC, June 2011
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaqueros%20de%20Bayam%C3%B3n
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Vaqueros de Bayamón
|
The Vaqueros de Bayamón are a Puerto Rican basketball team of the Baloncesto Superior Nacional based in Bayamón, Puerto Rico. The Vaqueros play their home games at Rubén Rodríguez Coliseum, a venue shared with the Liga de Voleibol Superior Femenino women's volleyball team Vaqueras de Bayamón. The Vaqueros are the most successful team in the history of the Baloncesto Superior Nacional, having won 15 league championships, their last being in 2020.
The franchise began in 1930 and still stands as one of the league's original clubs. Led by Rubén Rodríguez, Bayamón established a BSN record for most consecutive championships with 5, from 1971 to 1975. After losing in the 2001, 2002 and 2005 BSN Finals, the Vaqueros won their record fourteenth championship by defeating the Piratas de Quebradillas for the 2009 title, their first in 13 years.
In December 2020, the Vaqueros won their 15th championship and first in eleven years, winning the tournament that was held inside a bubble due to the COVID-19 outbreak.
Among other records, the Vaqueros hold the record for most games won in a BSN season, 29 of them, set during the 1993 season.
Rubén Rodríguez
Rubén Rodríguez played for the Vaqueros for 23 seasons, always wearing number 15. He debuted in the league in 1969 and scored 11,549 points and 6,178 rebounds in 631 games. He established various records in the league:
Points in a career - 11,549 .
Points in a season - 810 (1979)
Points in a game - 52 (1973)
Rebounds in a career - 6,178
He also had the record of rebounds in a season from 1978 to 2008; this record was broken by Lee Benson on May 3, 2008, also joining the Vaqueros.
Rodríguez spent his whole career with the team Vaqueros of Bayamón. With the Vaqueros, he won 9 national championships, 1967, 1969, five in a row from 1971 to 1975, one in 1981 and one in 1988, the year that the team inaugurated his actual venue, that carries his name, the Rubén Rodríguez Coliseum. He also garnered the MVP award in 1979, and, once the three-point shot was established for the first time in the Puerto Rican tournament during the 1980 season, he started making shots from behind the three-point line too.
Franchise history
The Vaqueros de Bayamon team was founded in 1930 on what was formerly known as the Baloncesto Nacional (now Baloncesto Superior Nacional BSN) league, an amateur league. The team's original name was Bayamon. The Bayamon team won their first championships in the league in 1933 and 1935. Becoming the second team to win two titles in the league, they were guided by the Professional Head Coach Onofre Carballeira. During the following decade (the 1940s) the team was inactive due to WWII. By 1954 the team was competing in the BSN League again, but this time the team would be known as the Azules de Bayamón (lit. "Bayamon Blues") in Spanish. Under that name, Bayamon did not win a title.
The following season the team was renamed to The Vaqueros de Bayamon. This new name was given by the team sponsor Espasas Dairy Company as a reference to their business. It wasn't until 1967 that the team reached the Finals against the Ponce team, against whom the Vaqueros won the series and their third championship (their first in 34 years). The team was starting to become known as a competitive one around the league. In less than two years, the team would repeat its success when they reached the finals and conquered another title in 1969. The success of the team was about to reach its climax in the 1970s. The Vaqueros won five consecutive championships during the decade, from 1971 to 1975. They became the top team in the league. During their golden era (1970s) the team was guided by coaches Roy Rubbins, Art Loche, Lou Rossini, Fufi Santori, Tom Nissalke and Del Harris. During the 1980s a new rivalry was taking place in the BSN; this time the Vaqueros had to battle for supremacy against the Guaynabo Mets team, which was led by Mario Morales and Federico Lopez. The Vaqueros de Bayamon won the final series against Guaynabo in 1981 giving them another championship. Another achievement for the team was their fanatics which were counted in many thousands by the 1980s and 1990s. In 1988 guided by Robert Corn the team reached the finals against the Canovanas team and once again won a championship. In the 90s the team had an average decade with two more championships in 1995 and 1996 Both against the Ponce Lions. These titles came with Flor Melendez, who had coached the team to their 1981 championship, as head coach.
By the late 1990s the team was about to face one of its worst decades since the 50s. From 1999 to 2008, the team could hardly make it into the semifinals (except in 2005 when they reached the finals and lost for the title against the Arecibo Captains in four games); as a consequence, the franchise's quality and prestige as well as the fan base began to decrease. However most of the fanbase remained throughout the years.
In 2009 the franchise won their most recent championship, tying at fourteen with the San German Athletics for most overall titles in the league.
Nowadays the team still is considered among the best teams in the league.
Coronavirus outbreak
Late in 2020, it was announced that eight members of the Vaqueros were suffering from the coronavirus disease, heading into a November continuation of the 2020 BSN tournament at a hotel in Rio Grande.
Players
Current roster
Traditions
Uniforms
The Vaqueros have two different uniforms: a white home uniform and blue road uniform. The design of the white and blue sets are nearly identical, with the team name featured on the front over the number, and the player's last name over the number on the back and under the vaqueros' logo. The shorts have golden stripes on the sides of the pants and shirts in both designs.
Arena
Inaugurated in 1988, The Rubén Rodriguez Coliseum is the hosting arena for the team's local games. It was the named after the former team player. This coliseum is the third-largest indoor sports arena in Puerto Rico. It can accommodate up to 13,000 spectators, though it is known that this arena was able to fit nearly 16,000 on the team's finals. The seating of the coliseum divides in three sections:
Box area (Palco) (blue section)
Middle area (Preferencia) (yellow)
General area (orange)
Originally (by the 1980s and early 1990s) the home arena for the Cowboys was the Pepín Cestero Arena, also located in Bayamon.
Logos
Fan base
The Vaqueros have always kept a large fandom, however within most of the last decade (from 2000 to 2008) it decreased due to the lack of success or championships. In the 1990s the fanbase of the Vaqueros reached over 12,000 fans. In the season '09 the fandom increased at a high tendency, as the team conquered its 14 championship. The attendance to the final game was estimated over 14,000 fans from which over 11,000 were Cowboys fans. From 1988 to 2009 the team averaged just over 10,000 fans, which is still in the top of the BSN . The team has sold out every home final game since their golden seasons 1970s, Making it the largest BSN franchise according to many commentators.
Rivalries
Some important rivalries during the team's history include (the teams who have been confronted in at least two finals.)
The Ponce Lions (late 1960s and mid 90s)
The Quebradillas Pirates (from the early 1970s to the late 90s and again started in 2009 with a Dalmau joining Bayamon and both teams reaching the finals.)
Río Piedras (1969 and 1971)
Guaynabo Mets (early 1980s)
Capitanes de Arecibo (2005, 2010 and 2018)
Vega Baja (former team/1933-1934)
Radio
The flagship station for the Vaqueros is WIAC, 740 AM, the official flagship for the '09 season. The announcers are Ralph Pagán and Angel Pérez Moll. Transmissions are broadcast regionally through the local AM frequency and globally through the Internet. all games are broadcast live and games stats are provided in the transmission. Some other games are transmitted on WKAQ 580 (the official BSN flagship station for this season)
TV
The Vaqueros TV broadcasts are transmitted by BSN on live television, which broadcasts some of the games. Announcers are Ernesto Diaz, Diego Marti and Leonel Arill. The transmission airs all of the selected games nationwide. The games can be seen on América CV Network (Channel 24), Direct TV (Channel 161).
These pre-selected broadcast are also re-transmitted to the USA throughout WAPA America channel. Games can also be seen throughout the Internet in mediasportstv (online live) or at the official team's webpage.
Championships
What follows is a detailed list of every championship:
5: The Vaqueros have the record in the BSN for most consecutive championships: 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974 and 1975.
2: The team won their last two consecutive championships in the years: 1995 and 1996.
Runners-up
The Vaqueros have been runners-up 8 times: 1930, 1934, 1970, 2001, 2002, 2005, 2010, 2016 and 2018
Team records
The Vaqueros have the record in victories in a season with 28–1 (1972). The only defeat was against the Cangrejeros de Santurce.
Season played - 67.
Games played and victory averages - 1643 / .611 .
Games won in a season - 29 (1993) .
Points in a game - Bayamón 143 v. Fajardo 121 (1978) .
Victories and defeats - 1004- 639.
Consecutive victories - 29 in two seasons.
Greatest attendance to a game: 17,621 people on September 8, 1969.
Post-seasons' classifications: 21 consecutive classifications to the Post-season.
Rebounds in a game: 29 (Lee Benson) 2008
References
External links
vaquerosahi.com - Rancho Cibernético de los Vaqueros en el BSN.
bsnpr.com - Official site of the Baloncesto Superior Nacional (BSN).
Vaqueros' Team History
BSN teams
Basketball teams established in 1930
1930 establishments in Puerto Rico
Sports in Bayamón, Puerto Rico
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] |
212335
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean
|
Boolean
|
Any kind of logic, function, expression, or theory based on the work of George Boole is considered Boolean.
Related to this, "Boolean" may refer to:
Boolean data type, a form of data with only two possible values (usually "true" and "false")
Boolean algebra, a logical calculus of truth values or set membership
Boolean algebra (structure), a set with operations resembling logical ones
Boolean domain, a set consisting of exactly two elements whose interpretations include false and true
Boolean circuit, a mathematical model for digital logical circuits.
Boolean expression, an expression in a programming language that produces a Boolean value when evaluated
Boolean function, a function that determines Boolean values or operators
Boolean model (probability theory), a model in stochastic geometry
Boolean network, a certain network consisting of a set of Boolean variables whose state is determined by other variables in the network
Boolean processor, a 1-bit variable computing unit
Boolean ring, a mathematical ring for which x2 = x for every element x
Boolean satisfiability problem, the problem of determining if there exists an interpretation that satisfies a given Boolean formula
Boolean prime ideal theorem, a theorem which states that ideals in a Boolean algebra can be extended to prime ideals
See also
Binary (disambiguation)
Broad-concept articles
Computer science
|
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] |
212336
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesodma
|
Mesodma
|
Mesodma is an extinct genus of mammal, a member of the extinct order Multituberculata within the suborder Cimolodonta, family Neoplagiaulacidae. It lived during the upper Cretaceous and Paleocene Periods of what is now North America.
Species
Mesodma ambigua
Place: Mantua Lentil, Wyoming (USA)
Age: Maastrichtian-Puercan, Upper Cretaceous - Paleocene
Weight: about 55 g
Mesodma formosa
Place: Hell Creek and Frenchman Formation, USA & Canada. This species is possibly also known from Utah.
Age: Maastrichtian-Puercan (Upper Cretaceous to the Paleocene).
Weight: about 30 g
Mesodma hensleighi
Place: Hell Creek Formation in the U.S. and in Saskatchewan, Canada.
Age: Campanian (Upper Cretaceous).
Weight: around 15 g
Mesodma pygmaea
Place: Gidley Quarry, Montana, as well as Wyoming and Alberta, Canada
Age: Torrejonian-Tiffanian (Middle Paleocene).
Weight: about 8 g
Mesodma senecta
Age: Campanian (Upper Cretaceous)
Weight: about 50 g
Mesodma thompsoni (=M. garfieldensis)
Place: St Mary River Formation & Montana and Wyoming of the US and Canada
Age: Maastrichtian-Puercan, Upper Cretaceous - Paleocene
Weight: about 55 g
The species "Mesodma" primaeva from the Judithian of Western Interior of North America was formerly assigned to the genus Mesodma, but subsequently it was made the type species of a separate genus Filikomys.
References
Osborn (1891); "A review of the Cretaceous Mammalia". Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 124 - 135.
Simpson (1929), "American Mesozoic Mammalia". Mem. Peabody Mus. Nat. Hist. iii (i): p. 1-235.
Clemens (1963), "Fossil mammals of the type Lance formation Wyoming. Part I. Introduction and Multituberculata". Univ. Calif. Pub;. Geol. Sci. 48, p. 1-105. (According to Peabody Museum database.)
Marsh (1889), "Discovery of Cretaceous Mammalia". Am. J. Sci. (3) xxxviii, p. 177-180.
Archibald (1982), A study of Mammalia and geology across the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in Garfield County, Montana. Univ. of Calif. Publ. Geol. Sci. 122xvi+, 286pp.
Jepsen (1940), "Paleocene faunas of the Polecat Bench formation, Park County, Wyoming". Pro. Amer. Philos. Soc 83, p. 217-341, 21 figs., 5 pls.
Ptilodontoids
Paleocene genus extinctions
Cretaceous mammals of North America
Paleocene mammals of North America
Ojo Alamo Formation
Milk River Formation
Hell Creek fauna
Prehistoric mammal genera
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20tank
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History of the tank
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The history of the tank begins with World War I, when armoured all-terrain fighting vehicles were introduced as a response to the problems of trench warfare, ushering in a new era of mechanized warfare. Though initially crude and unreliable, tanks eventually became a mainstay of ground armies. By World War II, tank design had advanced significantly, and tanks were used in quantity in all land theatres of the war. The Cold War saw the rise of modern tank doctrine and the rise of the general-purpose main battle tank. The tank still provides the backbone to land combat operations in the 21st century.
Development
World War I generated new demands for armoured self-propelled weapons which could navigate any kind of terrain, and this led to the development of the tank. The great weakness of the tank's predecessor, the armoured car, was that it required smooth terrain to move upon, and new developments were needed for cross-country capability.
The tank was originally designed as a special weapon to solve an unusual tactical situation: the stalemate of the trenches on the Western Front. "It was a weapon designed for one simple task: crossing the killing zone between trench lines and breaking into enemy [defences]." The armoured tank was intended to be able to protect against bullets and shell splinters, and pass through barbed wire in a way infantry units could not hope to, thus allowing the stalemate to be broken.
Few recognised during World War I that the means for returning mobility and shock action to combat was already present in a device destined to revolutionise warfare on the ground and in the air. This was the internal combustion engine, which had made possible the development of the tank and eventually would lead to the mechanised forces that were to assume the old roles of horse cavalry and to loosen the grip of the machine-gun on the battlefield.
With increased firepower and protection, these mechanised forces would, only some 20 years later, become the armour of World War II. When self-propelled artillery, the armoured personnel carrier, the wheeled cargo vehicle, and supporting aviation — all with adequate communications — were combined to constitute the modern armoured division, commanders regained the capability of manoeuvre.
Numerous concepts of armoured all-terrain vehicles had been imagined for a long time. With the advent of trench warfare in World War I, the Allied French and British developments of the tank were largely parallel and coincided in time.
Early concepts
Leonardo da Vinci is often credited with the invention of a war machine that resembled a tank.
In the 15th century, a Hussite called Jan Žižka won several battles using armoured wagons containing cannon that could be fired through holes in their sides. But his invention was not used after his lifetime until the 20th century.
In 1903, a French artillery captain named Léon Levavasseur proposed the Levavasseur project, a canon autopropulseur ("self-propelled cannon"), moved by a caterpillar system and fully armoured for protection. Powered by an 80 hp petrol engine, "the Levavasseur machine would have had a crew of three, storage for ammunition, and a cross-country ability", but the viability of the project was disputed by the Artillery Technical Committee, until it was formally abandoned in 1908 when it was known that a caterpillar tractor had been developed, the Hornsby of engineer David Roberts.
H. G. Wells, in his short story The Land Ironclads, published in The Strand Magazine in December 1903, had described the use of large, armed, armoured cross-country vehicles equipped with pedrail wheels (an invention which he acknowledged as the source for his inspiration), to break through a system of fortified trenches, disrupting the defence and clearing the way for an infantry advance:
In the years before the Great War, two practical tank-like designs were proposed but not developed. In 1911, the Austrian engineering officer Günther Burstyn submitted a proposal for a fighting vehicle that had a gun in a rotating turret, known as the Motorgeschütz. In 1912, the Australian civil engineer Lancelot de Mole's proposal included a scale model of a functional fully tracked vehicle. Both of these were rejected by their respective governmental administrations.
American tracked tractors in Europe
Benjamin Holt of the Holt Manufacturing Company of Stockton, California was the first to file a US patent for a workable crawler type tractor in 1907. The centre of such innovation was in England, and in 1903 he travelled to England to learn more about ongoing development, though all those he saw failed their field tests. Holt paid Alvin Lombard for the right to produce vehicles under Lombard's patent for the Lombard Steam Log Hauler.
Holt returned to Stockton and, utilizing his knowledge and his company's metallurgical capabilities, he became the first to design and manufacture practical continuous tracks for use in tractors. In England, David Roberts of Hornsby & Sons, Grantham, obtained a patent for a design in July 1904. In the United States, Holt replaced the wheels on a Holt steamer, No. 77, with a set of wooden tracks bolted to chains. On November 24, 1904, he successfully tested the updated machine ploughing the soggy delta land of Roberts Island.
When World War I broke out, with the problem of trench warfare and the difficulty of transporting supplies to the front, the pulling power of crawling-type tractors drew the attention of the military. Holt tractors were used to replace horses to haul artillery and other supplies. The Royal Army Service Corps also used them to haul long trains of freight wagons over the unimproved dirt tracks behind the front. Holt tractors were, ultimately, the inspiration for the development of the British and French tanks.
By 1916, about 1,000 of Holt's Caterpillar tractors were used by the British in World War I. Speaking to the press, in claiming the British tanks in use in 1916 were Holt-built, Holt vice president Murray M. Baker said that these tractors weighed about and had . By the end of the war, 10,000 Holt vehicles had been used in the Allied war effort.
French development
The French colonel Jean Baptiste Eugène Estienne articulated the vision of a cross-country armoured vehicle on 24 August 1914:
Some privately owned Holt tractors were used by the French Army soon after the start of World War I to pull heavy artillery pieces in difficult terrain, but the French did not purchase Holts in large numbers. It was the sight of them in use by the British that later inspired Estienne to have plans drawn up for an armoured body on caterpillar tracks. In the meantime, several attempts were made to design vehicles that could overcome the German barbed wire and trenches.
From 1914 to 1915, an early experiment was made with the Boirault machine, with the objective of flattening barbed wire defences and riding over gaps in a battlefield. The machine was made of huge parallel tracks, formed by 4×3 metre metallic frames, rotating around a triangular motorized centre. This device proved too fragile and slow, as well as incapable of changing direction easily, and was abandoned.
In France, on 1 December 1914, Paul Frot, an engineer constructing canals for the Compagnie Nationale du Nord, proposed to the French Ministry a design for a "landship" with armour and armament based on the motorisation of a compactor with heavy wheels or rollers. The Frot-Laffly was tested on 18 March 1915, and effectively destroyed barbed wire lines, but was deemed lacking in mobility. The project was abandoned in favour of General Estienne's development using a tractor base, codenamed "Tracteur Estienne".
In 1915, attempts were also made to develop vehicles with powerful armour and armament, mounted on the cross-country chassis of agricultural tractors, with large wheels having coarse treads, such as the Aubriot-Gabet "Fortress" (Fortin Aubriot-Gabet). The vehicle was powered by electricity (complete with a supply cable), and armed with a Navy cannon of 37mm, but it too proved impractical.
In January 1915, the French arms manufacturer Schneider & Co. sent out its chief designer, Eugène Brillié, to investigate tracked tractors from the American Holt Manufacturing Company, at that time participating in a test programme in England, for a project of mechanical wire-cutting machines. On his return Brillié, who had earlier been involved in designing armoured cars for Spain, convinced the company management to initiate studies on the development of a Tracteur blindé et armé (armoured and armed tractor), based on the Baby Holt chassis, two of which were ordered.
Experiments on the Holt caterpillar tracks started in May 1915 at the Schneider plant with a 75-hp wheel-directed model and the 45-hp integral caterpillar Baby Holt, showing the superiority of the latter. On 16 June, new experiments followed, which were witnessed by the President of the Republic, and on 10 September, by Commander Ferrus. The first complete chassis with armour was demonstrated at Souain on 9 December 1915, to the French Army, with the participation of Colonel Estienne.
On 12 December, unaware of the Schneider experiments, Estienne presented to the High Command a plan to form an armoured force, equipped with tracked vehicles. He was put in touch with Schneider, and in a letter dated 31 January 1916 Commander-in-chief Joffre ordered the production of 400 tanks of the type designed by Brillié and Estienne, although the actual production order of 400 Schneider CA1 was made a bit later on 25 February 1916. Soon after, on 8 April 1916, another order for 400 Saint-Chamond tanks was also placed. Schneider had trouble with meeting production schedules, and the tank deliveries were spread over several months from 8 September 1916. The Saint-Chamond tank would start being delivered from 27 April 1917.
British development
The Lincolnshire firm Richard Hornsby & Sons had been developing the caterpillar tractor since 1902, and built an oil engine powered crawler to move lifeboats up a beach in 1908. In 1909 The Northern Light and Power Company of Dawson City, Canada, owned by Joe Boyle, ordered a steam powered caterpillar tractor. It was delivered to the Yukon in 1912.
Hornsby's tractors were trialled between 1905 and 1910 on several occasions with the British Army as artillery tractors, but not adopted. Hornsby sold its patents to Holt Tractor of California.
In 1914, the British War Office ordered a Holt tractor and put it through trials at Aldershot. Although it was not as powerful as the Foster-Daimler tractor, the Holt was better suited to haul heavy loads over uneven ground. Without a load, the Holt tractor managed a walking pace of . Towing a load, it could manage . Most importantly, Holt tractors were readily available in quantity. The War Office was suitably impressed and chose it as a gun-tractor.
In July 1914, Lt. Col. Ernest Swinton, a British Royal Engineer officer, learned about Holt tractors and their transportation capabilities in rough terrain from a friend who had seen one in Antwerp, but passed the information on to the transport department. When the First World War broke out, Swinton was sent to France as the Army's war correspondent and in October 1914 identified the need for what he described as a "machine-gun destroyer" - a cross-country, armed vehicle. He remembered the Holt tractor, and decided that it could be the basis for an armoured vehicle.
Swinton proposed in a letter to Sir Maurice Hankey, Secretary of the British Committee of Imperial Defence, that the Committee build a power-driven, bullet-proof, tracked vehicle that could destroy enemy guns. Hankey persuaded the War Office - which was lukewarm to the idea - to make a trial on 17 February 1915 with a Holt tractor, but the caterpillar bogged down in the mud, the project was abandoned, and the War Office gave up investigations.
In May 1915, the War Office made new tests on a trench-crossing machine: the Tritton Trench-Crosser. The machine was equipped with large tractor wheels, in diameter, and carried girders on an endless chain which were lowered above a trench so that the back wheels could roll over it. The machine would then drag the girder behind until on flat terrain, so that it could reverse over them and set them back in place in front of the vehicle. The machine proved much too cumbersome and was abandoned.
When Winston Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, learned of the armoured tractor idea, he reignited investigation of the idea of using the Holt tractor. The Royal Navy and the Landship Committee (established on 20 February 1915), at last agreed to sponsor experiments and tests of armoured tractors as a type of "land ship". In March, Churchill ordered the building of 18 experimental landships: 12 using Diplock pedrails (an idea promoted by Murray Sueter), and six using large wheels (the idea of Thomas Gerard Hetherington). Construction however failed to move forward, as the wheels seemed impractical after a wooden mock-up was realized: the wheels were initially planned to be 40-feet in diameter, but turned out to be still too big and too fragile at 15-feet. The pedrails also met with industrial problems, and the system was deemed too large, too complicated and under-powered.
Instead of choosing to use the Holt tractor, the British government chose to involve a British agricultural machinery firm, Foster and Sons, whose managing director and designer was Sir William Tritton.
After all these projects failed by June 1915, ideas of grandiose landships were abandoned, and a decision was taken to make an attempt with US Bullock Creeping Grip caterpillar tracks, by connecting two of them together to obtain an articulated chassis deemed necessary for manoeuvring. Experiments failed in tests made in July 1915.
Another experiment was conducted with an American Killen-Strait tracked tractor. A wire-cutting mechanism was successfully fitted, but the trench-crossing capability of the vehicle proved insufficient. A Delaunay-Belleville armoured car body was fitted, making the Killen-Strait Armoured Tractor the first armoured tracked vehicle, but the project was abandoned as it turned out to be a blind alley, unable to fulfil all-terrain warfare requirements.
After these experiments, the Committee decided to build a smaller experimental landship, equivalent to one half the articulated version, and using lengthened US-made Bullock Creeping Grip caterpillar tracks. This new experimental machine was called the No1 Lincoln Machine: construction started on 11 August 1915, with the first trials starting on 10 September 1915. These trials failed however because of unsatisfactory tracks.
Development continued with new, re-engineered tracks designed by William Tritton, and the machine, now renamed Little Willie, was completed in December 1915 and tested on 3 December 1915. Trench-crossing ability was deemed insufficient however, and Walter Gordon Wilson developed a rhomboidal design, which became known as "His Majesty's Landship Centipede" and later "Mother", the first of the "Big Willie" types of true tanks. After completion on 29 January 1916 very successful trials were made, and an order was placed by the War Office for 100 units to be used on the Western front in France, on 12 February 1916, and a second order for 50 additional units was placed in April 1916.
France started studying caterpillar continuous tracks from January 1915, and actual tests started in May 1915, two months earlier than the Little Willie experiments. At the Souain experiment, France tested an armoured tracked tank prototype, the same month Little Willie was completed.Ultimately however, the British were the first to put tanks on the battlefield, at the battle of the Somme in September 1916.
The name "tank" was introduced in December, 1915 as a security measure and has been adopted in many languages. William Tritton, stated that when the prototypes were under construction from August, 1915 they were deliberately falsely described in order to conceal their true purpose. In the workshop the paperwork described them as "water carriers," supposedly for use on the Mesopotamian Front. In conversation the workers referred to them as "water tanks" or, simply, "tanks." In October the Landships Committee decided, for security purposes, to change its own name to something less descriptive.
One of the members, Ernest Swinton suggested "tank," and the committee agreed. The name "tank" was used in official documents and common parlance from then on, and the Landships Committee was renamed the Tank Supply Committee. This is sometimes confused with the labelling of the first production tanks (ordered in February, 1916) with a caption in Russian. It translated as "With Care to Petrograd," probably again inspired by the workers at Foster's, some of whom believed the machines to be snowploughs meant for Russia, and was introduced from May 15, 1916. The Committee was happy to perpetuate this misconception since it might also mislead the Germans.
The naval background of the tank's development also explains such nautical tank terms as hatch, hull, bow, and ports. The great secrecy surrounding tank development, coupled with the scepticism of infantry commanders, often meant that infantry at first had little training to cooperate with tanks.
Russian development
Vasily Mendeleev, an engineer in a shipyard, worked privately on a design of a super-heavy tank from 1911 to 1915. It was a heavily armoured 170 ton tracked vehicle armed with one 120 mm naval gun. The design envisioned many innovations that became standard features of a modern battle tank – protection of the vehicle was well-thought out, the gun included automatic loading mechanism, pneumatic suspension allowed adjusting of clearance, some critical systems were duplicated, transportation by railroad was possible by a locomotive or with adapter wheels. However, the cost was almost as much as a submarine and it was never built.
The Vezdekhod was a small cross-country vehicle designed by aero-engineer Aleksandr Porokhovschikov that ran on a single wide rubber track propelled by a 10 hp engine. Two small wheels either side were provided for steering but while the vehicles could cross ground well its steering was ineffectual. In post-revolution Russia, the Vezdekhod was portrayed in propaganda as the first tank.
The Tsar Tank, also known as the Lebedenko tank after its designer – was a tricycle design vehicle on 9 m high front wheels. It was expected that such large wheels would be able to cross any obstacle but because of a flawed design most of the weight was forced through the smaller rear wheel, which became stuck when tested in 1915. The designers were prepared to fit larger engines but the project – and the vehicle – was abandoned.
German development
The A7V was the only German tank of World War I that saw actual combat. A prototype was built in early 1917 for trials, with production of the vehicles beginning in October of the same year. They were used on about six occasions from March 1918. Only twenty were produced. Germany also had several other projects on paper as well as other prototype tanks in development.
Operational use in World War I
The first offensive using tanks took place on 15 September 1916, during the Battle of the Somme. Forty-nine of the Mark I type were committed, of which thirty-two were mechanically fit to take part in the advance and achieved some small, local successes. In July 1917, 216 British tanks were employed in the Third Battle of Ypres but found it almost impossible to operate in the muddy conditions and achieved little. Not until 20 November 1917, at Cambrai, did the British Tank Corps get the conditions it needed for success. Over 400 tanks penetrated almost 6 miles on a 7-mile wide front.
However, success was not complete because the infantry failed to exploit and secure the tanks' gains, and almost all the territory gained was recaptured by the Germans. The Australian, Canadian, and British forces then scored a far more significant victory the following year, on 8 August 1918, with 600 tanks in the Battle of Amiens. General Erich Ludendorff referred to that date as the "Black Day" of the German Army.
Parallel to the British development, France designed its own tanks. The first two, the medium Schneider CA and heavy Saint-Chamond, were not well-conceived, though produced in large numbers and showing technical innovations, the latter using an electro-mechanical transmission and a long 75 mm gun. Both types saw action on numerous occasions but suffered consistently high losses. In 1918, the Renault FT light tank was the first tank in history with a "modern" configuration: a revolving turret on top and an engine compartment at the rear; it would be the most numerous tank of the war. A last development was the superheavy Char 2C, the largest tank ever to see service, some years after the armistice.
The German response to the Cambrai assault was to develop its own armoured program. Soon the massive A7V appeared. The A7V was a clumsy monster, weighing 30 tons and with a crew of eighteen. By the end of the war, only twenty had been built. Although other tanks were on the drawing board, material shortages limited the German tank corps to these A7Vs and about 36 captured Mark IVs. The A7V would be involved in the first tank vs. tank battle of the war on April 24, 1918 at the Second Battle of Villers-Bretonneux—a battle in which there was no clear winner.
Numerous mechanical failures and the inability of the British and French to mount any sustained drives in the early tank actions cast doubt on their usefulness—and by 1918, tanks were extremely vulnerable unless accompanied by infantry and ground-attack aircraft, both of which worked to locate and suppress anti-tank defences.
But Gen. John J. Pershing, Commander in Chief, American Expeditionary Forces (AEF), requested in September 1917 that 600 heavy and 1,200 light tanks be produced in the United States. When General Pershing assumed command of the American Expeditionary Force and went to France, he took Lt. Col. George Patton, who became interested in tanks. They were then unwieldy, unreliable, and unproved instruments of warfare, and there was much doubt whether they had any function and value at all on the battlefield. Against the advice of most of his friends, Patton chose to go into the newly formed US Tank Corps. He was the first officer so assigned.
The first American-produced heavy tank was the 43.5-ton Mark VIII (sometimes known as the "Liberty"), a US–British development of the successful British heavy tank design, intended to equip the Allied forces. Armed with two 6-pounder cannons and five rifle-caliber machine guns, it was operated by an 11-man crew, and had a maximum speed of 6.5 miles per hour and a range of 50 miles. Because of production difficulties, only test vehicles were completed before the War ended.
The American-built 6.5-ton M1917 light tank was a close copy of the French Renault FT. It had a maximum speed of 5.5 miles per hour and could travel 30 miles on its 30-gallon fuel capacity. Again, because of production delays, none were completed in time to see action. In the summer of 1918 a 3-ton, 2-man tank, (Ford 3-Ton M1918) originated by the Ford Motor Company was designed. It was powered by two Ford Model T, 4-cylinder engines, armed with a .30 inch machine gun, and had a maximum speed of 8 miles per hour. It was considered unsatisfactory as a fighting vehicle but to have possible value in other battlefield roles. An order was placed for 15,000, but only 15 were completed, and none saw service in the War.
American tank units first entered combat on 12 September 1918 against the Saint-Mihiel salient with the First Army. They belonged to the 344th and 345th Light Tank Battalions, elements of the 304th Tank Brigade, commanded by Lt. Col. Patton, under whom they had trained at the tank center in Bourg, France, and were equipped with the Renault FT, supplied by France. Although mud, lack of fuel, and mechanical failure caused many tanks to stall in the German trenches, the attack succeeded and much valuable experience was gained. By the armistice of 11 November 1918, the AEF was critically short of tanks, as no American-made ones were completed in time for use in combat.
Interwar period
After World War I, General Erich Ludendorff of the German High Command praised the Allied tanks as being a principal factor in Germany's defeat. The Germans had been too late in recognizing their value to consider them in their own plans. Even if their already hard-pressed industry could have produced them in quantity, fuel was in very short supply. Of the total of 90 tanks fielded by the Germans during 1918, 75 had been captured from the Allies.
The U.S. tank units fought so briefly and were so fragmented during the war, and the number of tanks available to them was so limited, that there was practically no opportunity to develop tactics for their large-scale employment. Nonetheless, their work was sufficiently impressive to imbue at least a few military leaders with the idea that the use of tanks in mass was the most likely principal role of armour in the future.
Highlights of U.S. Army appraisal for the development and use of tanks, developed from combat experience, were: (1) the need for a tank with more power, fewer mechanical failures, heavier armour, longer operating range, and better ventilation; (2) the need for combined training of tanks with other combat arms, especially the infantry; (3) the need for improved means of communication and of methods for determining and maintaining directions; and (4) the need for an improved supply system, especially for petrol and ammunition.
At the war's end, the main role of the tank was considered to be that of close support for the infantry. Although the tank of World War I was slow, clumsy, unwieldy, difficult to control, and mechanically unreliable, its value as a combat weapon had been clearly proven. But, despite the lessons of World War I, the combat arms were most reluctant to accept a separate and independent role for armor and continued to struggle among themselves over the proper use of tanks. At the outset, thought of the tank as an auxiliary to and a part of the infantry was the predominant opinion, although a few leaders contended that an independent tank arm should be retained.
In addition to the light and heavy categories of American-produced tanks of World War I, a third classification, the medium, began receiving attention in 1919. It was hoped that this in-between type would incorporate the best features of the 6-ton light and the Mark VIII heavy and would replace both. The meaning of the terms light, medium, and heavy tanks changed between the wars. During World War I and immediately thereafter, the light tank was considered to be up to 10 tons, the medium (produced by the British) was roughly between 10 and 25 tons, and the heavy was over 25 tons. For World War II, increased weights resulted in the light tank being over 20 tons, the medium over 30, and the heavy, developed toward the end of the war, over 60 tons. During the period between the world wars, the weights of the classifications varied generally within these extremes.
The U.S. National Defense Act of 1920 placed the Tank Corps under the Infantry. The Act's stipulation that "hereafter all tank units shall form a part of the Infantry" left little doubt as to the tank role for the immediate future. George Patton had argued for an independent Tank Corps. But if, in the interest of economy, the tanks had to go under one of the traditional arms, he preferred the cavalry, for Patton intuitively understood that tanks operating with cavalry would stress mobility, while tanks tied to the infantry would emphasize firepower. Tanks in peacetime, he feared, as he said, "would be very much like coast artillery with a lot of machinery which never works."
At a time when most soldiers regarded the tank as a specialized infantry-support weapon for crossing trenches, a significant number of officers in the Royal Tank Corps had gone on to envision much broader roles for mechanized organizations. In May 1918, Col. J.F.C. Fuller, the acknowledged father of tank doctrine, had used the example of German infiltration tactics to refine what he called "Plan 1919". This was an elaborate concept for a large-scale armoured offensive in 1919.
The Royal Tank Corps had to make do with the same basic tanks from 1922 until 1938. British armoured theorists did not always agree with each other. B. H. Liddell Hart, a noted publicist of armoured warfare, wanted a true combined arms force with a major role for mechanized infantry. Fuller, Broad, and other officers were more interested in a pure-tank role.
The Experimental Mechanized Force formed by the British under Percy Hobart to investigate and develop techniques was a mobile force with its own self-propelled guns, supporting infantry and engineers in motor vehicles and armoured cars.
Both advocates and opponents of mechanization often used the term "tank" loosely to mean not only an armored, tracked, turreted, gun-carrying fighting vehicle, but also any form of armored vehicle or mechanized unit. Such usage made it difficult for contemporaries or historians to determine whether a particular speaker was discussing pure tank forces, mechanized combined arms forces, or mechanization of infantry forces.
British armoured vehicles tended to maximize either mobility or protection. Both the cavalry and the Royal Tank Corps wanted fast, lightly armoured, mobile vehicles for reconnaissance and raiding—the light and medium (or "cruiser") tanks. In practice the "light tanks" were often small armoured personnel carriers. On the other hand, the "army tank battalions" performing the traditional infantry-support role required extremely heavy armoured protection. As a consequence of these two doctrinal roles, firepower was neglected in tank design.
Among the German proponents of mechanization, General Heinz Guderian was probably the most influential. Guderian's 1914 service with radiotelegraphs in support of cavalry units led him to insist on a radio in every armoured vehicle. By 1929, when many British students of armour were tending towards a pure armour formation, Guderian had become convinced that it was useless to develop just tanks, or even to mechanize parts of the traditional arms. What was needed was an entirely new mechanized formation of all arms that would maximize the effects of the tank.
The German tanks were not up to the standards of Guderian's concept. The Panzer I was really a machine-gun-armed tankette, derived from the British Carden Loyd tankette. The Panzer II did have a 20-mm cannon, but little armour protection. These two vehicles made up the bulk of panzer units until 1940.
In the twenties France was the only country in the world with a large armour force. French doctrine viewed combined arms as a process by which all other weapons systems assisted the infantry in its forward progress. Tanks were considered to be "a sort of armoured infantry", by law subordinated to the infantry branch. This at least had the advantage that armour was not restricted purely to tanks; the French army would be among the most mechanised.
Tanks proper were however first of all seen as specialised breakthrough systems, to be concentrated for an offensive: light tanks had to limit their speed to that of the foot soldier; heavy tanks were intended to form a forward "shock front" to dislodge defensive lines. The doctrine was much preoccupied with the strength of the defender: artillery and air bombardments had to destroy machine guns and anti-tank guns. The envelopment phase was neglected. Though part of the Infantry branch, tanks were in fact concentrated in almost pure tank units and rarely trained together with foot soldiers.
In 1931, France decided to produce armour and other equipment in larger quantities, including the Char B1 bis. The B1 bis, developed by Estienne in the early 1920s, was still one of the most powerful tank designs in the world fifteen years later. In 1934 the French cavalry also began a process of mechanisation; tanks were to be used for exploitation also.
As the French Army was moving forward in the area of mechanization, doctrinal strife began to develop. In 1934, Lieutenant Colonel Charles de Gaulle published Towards the Professional Army (Vers l'Armée de Métier). De Gaulle favoured a professional mechanised force, capable of executing both the breakthrough and the exploitation phase. He envisioned a pure armour brigade operating in linear formation, followed by a motorized infantry force for mopping-up. His ideas were not adopted, as being too expensive.
From 1936 French tank production accelerated, but the doctrinal problems remained, resulting in 1940 in an inflexible structure, with the Infantry and Cavalry fielding separate types of armoured division.
During the course of the 1920s and early 1930s, a group of Soviet officers led by Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky developed a concept of "Deep Battle" to employ conventional infantry and cavalry divisions, mechanized formations, and aviation in concert. Using the expanded production facilities of the Soviet government's first Five Year Plan with design features taken in part from the American inventor J. Walter Christie, the Soviets produced 5,000 armoured vehicles by 1934. This wealth of equipment enabled the Red Army to create tank organizations for both infantry support and combined arms, mechanized operations.
On 12 June 1937, the Soviet government executed Tukhachevsky and eight of his high-ranking officers, as Stalin shifted his purge of Soviet society against the last power group that had the potential to threaten him, the Red Army. At the same time, the Soviet experience in the Spanish Civil War caused the Red Army to reassess mechanization. The Soviet tanks were too lightly armoured, their Russian crews could not communicate with the Spanish troops, and in combat the tanks tended to outpace the supporting infantry and artillery.
The United States was not nearly so advanced in the development of armoured and mechanized forces. As in France, the supply of slow World War I tanks and the subordination of tanks to the infantry branch impeded the development of any role other than direct infantry support. The US War Department policy statement, which finally came in April 1922, was a serious blow to tank development. Reflecting prevailing opinion, it stated that the tank's primary mission was "to facilitate the uninterrupted advance of the riflemen in the attack."
The War Department considered that two types of tanks, the light and the medium, should fulfill all missions. The light tank was to be truck transportable and not exceed 5 tons gross weight. For the medium, restrictions were even more stringent; its weight was not to exceed 15 tons, so as to bring it within the weight capacity of railroad flatcars, the average existing highway bridge, and, most significantly, available Engineer Corps pontoon bridges.
Although an experimental 15-ton tank, the M1924, reached the mock-up stage, this and other attempts to satisfy War Department and infantry specifications proved to be unsatisfactory. In reality it was simply impossible to build a 15-ton vehicle meeting both War Department and infantry requirements.
In 1926 the General Staff reluctantly consented to the development of a 23-ton tank, although it made clear that efforts were to continue toward the production of a satisfactory 15-ton vehicle. The infantry—its new branch chief overriding the protests of some of his tankmen who wanted a more heavily armed and armored medium—decided, too, that a light tank, transportable by truck, best met infantry requirements. The net effect of the infantry's preoccupation with light tanks and the limited funds available for tank development in general was to slow the development of heavier vehicles and, ultimately, to contribute to the serious shortage of mediums at the outbreak of World War II.
J. Walter Christie was an innovative designer of tanks, engines and propulsion systems. Although his designs did not meet US Army specifications, other countries used his chassis patents. Despite inadequate funding, the Ordnance Department managed to develop several experimental light and medium tanks and tested one of Walter Christie's models by 1929. None of these tanks was accepted, usually because each of them exceeded standards set by other Army branches.
For instance, several light tank models were rejected because they exceeded the 5-ton cargo capacity of the Transportation Corps trucks, and several medium tank designs were rejected because they exceeded the 15-ton bridge weight limit set by the engineers. Christie simply would not work with users to fulfill the military requirements but, instead, wanted the Army to fund the tanks that he wanted to build. Patton later worked closely with J. Walter Christie to improve the silhouette, suspension, power, and weapons of tanks.
The Christie tank embodied the ability to operate both on tracks and on large, solid-rubber-tired bogie wheels. The tracks were removable to permit operation on wheels over moderate terrain. Also featured was a suspension system of independently sprung wheels. The Christie had many advantages, including the amazing ability, in 1929, to attain speeds of 69 miles per hour on wheels and 42 miles per hour on tracks, although at these speeds the tank could not carry full equipment. To the infantry and cavalry the Christie was the best answer to their need for a fast, lightweight tank, and they were enthusiastic about its convertibility.
The Ordnance Department, while recognizing the usefulness of the Christie, was of the opinion that it was mechanically unreliable and that such dual-purpose equipment generally violated good engineering practice. The controversy over the advantages and drawbacks of Christie tanks raged for more than twenty years, with the convertible principle being abandoned in 1938. But the Christie ideas had great impact upon tank tactics and unit organization in many countries and, finally, upon the US Army as well.
In the United States the real beginning of the Armored Force was in 1928, twelve years before it was officially established, when Secretary of War Dwight F. Davis directed that a tank force be developed in the Army. Earlier that year he had been much impressed, as an observer of maneuvers in England, by a British experimental armoured Force. Actually the idea was not new. A small group of dedicated officers in the cavalry and the infantry had been hard at work since World War I on theories for such a force.
The continued progress in the design of armour, armament, engines, and vehicles was gradually swinging the trend toward more mechanization, and the military value of the horse declined. Proponents of mechanization and motorization pointed to advances in the motor vehicle industry and to the corresponding decrease in the use of horses and mules. Furthermore, abundant oil resources gave the United States an enviable position of independence in fuel requirements for the machines.
Secretary Davis' 1928 directive for the development of a tank force resulted in the assembly and encampment of an experimental mechanized force at Camp Meade, Maryland, from 1 July to 20 September 1928. The combined arms team consisted of elements furnished by Infantry (including tanks), Cavalry, Field Artillery, the Air Corps, Engineer Corps, Ordnance Department, Chemical Warfare Service, and Medical Corps. An effort to continue the experiment in 1929 was defeated by insufficient funds and obsolete equipment, but the 1928 exercise did bear fruit, for the War Department Mechanization Board, appointed to study results of the experiment, recommended the permanent establishment of a mechanized force.
As Chief of Staff from 1930 to 1935, Douglas MacArthur wanted to advance motorization and mechanization throughout the army. In late 1931 all arms and services were directed to adopt mechanization and motorization, "as far as is practicable and desirable", and were permitted to conduct research and to experiment as necessary. Cavalry was given the task of developing combat vehicles that would "enhance its power in roles of reconnaissance, counterreconnaissance, flank action, pursuit, and similar operations." By law, "tanks" belonged to the infantry branch, so the cavalry gradually bought a group of "combat cars", lightly armoured and armed tanks that were often indistinguishable from the newer infantry "tanks."
In 1933 MacArthur set the stage for the coming complete mechanization of the cavalry, declaring, "The horse has no higher degree of mobility today than he had a thousand years ago. The time has therefore arrived when the Cavalry arm must either replace or assist the horse as a means of transportation, or else pass into the limbo of discarded military formations." Although the horse was not yet claimed to be obsolete, his competition was gaining rapidly, and realistic cavalrymen, sensing possible extinction, looked to at least partial substitution of the faster machines for horses in cavalry units.
The War Department in 1938 modified its 1931 directive for all arms and services to adopt mechanization and motorization. Thereafter, development of mechanization was to be accomplished by two of the combat arms only—the cavalry and the infantry. As late as 1938, on the other hand, the Chief of Cavalry, Maj. Gen. John K. Herr, proclaimed, "We must not be misled to our own detriment to assume that the untried machine can displace the proved and tried horse." He favored a balanced force made up of both horse and mechanized cavalry. In testimony before a Congressional committee in 1939, Maj. Gen. John K. Herr maintained that horse cavalry had "stood the acid test of war", whereas the motor elements advocated by some to replace it had not.
Actually, between the world wars there was much theoretical but little tangible progress in tank production and tank tactics in the United States. Production was limited to a few hand-tooled test models, only thirty-five of which were built between 1920 and 1935. Regarding the use of tanks with infantry, the official doctrine of 1939 largely reiterated that of 1923. It maintained that "As a rule, tanks are employed to assist the advance of infantry foot troops, either preceding or accompanying the infantry assault echelon."
In the 1930s the American Army began to seriously discuss the integration of the tank and the airplane into existing doctrine, but the US Army remained an infantry-centered Army, even though sufficient changes had occurred to warrant serious study. In the spring of 1940, maneuvers in Georgia and Louisiana, where Patton was an umpire, showed how far U.S. Army General Adna R. Chaffee Jr. had brought the development of American armoured doctrine.
World War II
World War II forced armies to integrate all the available arms at every level into a mobile, flexible team. The mechanized combined arms force came of age in this war. In 1939, most armies still thought of an armoured division as a mass of tanks with relatively limited support from the other arms. By 1943, the same armies had evolved armoured divisions that were a balance of different arms and services, each of which had to be as mobile and almost as protected as the tanks they accompanied. This concentration of mechanized forces in a small number of mobile divisions left the ordinary infantry unit deficient in armour to accompany the deliberate attack. The German, Soviet, and American armies therefore developed a number of tank surrogates such as tank destroyers and assault guns to perform these functions in cooperation with the infantry.
Armour experts in most armies, however, were determined to avoid being tied to the infantry, and in any event a tank was an extremely complicated, expensive, and therefore scarce weapon. The British persisted for much of the war on a dual track of development, retaining Infantry tanks to support the infantry and lighter, more mobile cruiser tanks for independent armoured formations. The Soviets similarly produced an entire series of heavy breakthrough tanks.
During the war, German tank design went through at least three generations, plus constant minor variations. The first generation included such prewar vehicles as the Panzerkampfwagen (or Panzer) I and II, which were similar to Soviet and British light tanks. The Germans converted their tank battalions to a majority of Panzer III and Panzer IV medium tanks after the 1940 French campaign. The appearance of large numbers of the new generation T-34 and KV-1 Soviet tanks, that were unknown to Germans until 1941, compelled them to join a race for superior armour and gun power.
The third generation included many different variants, but the most important designs were the Panther (Panzer V) and Tiger (Panzer VI) tanks. Unfortunately for the Germans, lack of resources combined with emphasis on protection and firepower and a penchant for overly complex design philosophies in nearly every part of an armoured fighting vehicle's design compromised the production numbers. However, an assault gun casemate-hulled development of the Panzer III, the Sturmgeschütz III, would turn out to be Germany's most-produced armoured fighting vehicle of any type during the war, at just over 9,300 examples, a popular design which could also be very effectively tasked to perform the duties of a dedicated anti-tank vehicle.
The alternative to constant changes in tank design was to standardize a few basic designs and mass-produce them even though technology had advanced to new improvements. This was the solution of Germany's principal opponents. The Soviet T-34, for example, was an excellent basic design that survived the war with only one major change in armament, 76.2-mm to 85-mm main gun.
The United States had even more reason to standardize and mass-produce than did the Soviet Union. By concentrating on mechanical reliability, the US was able to produce vehicles that operated longer with fewer repair parts. To ensure that American tanks were compatible with American bridging equipment, the War Department restricted tank width and maximum weight to thirty tons. The army relaxed these requirements only in late 1944.
When Germany invaded western Europe in 1940, the US Army had only 28 new tanks – 18 medium and 10 light – and these were soon to become obsolete, along with some 900 older models on hand. The Army had no heavy tanks and no immediate plans for any. Even more serious than the shortage of tanks was industry's lack of experience in tank manufacture and limited production facilities. Furthermore, the United States was committed to helping supply its allies. By 1942 American tank production had soared to just under 25,000, almost doubling the combined British and German output for that year. And in 1943, the peak tank production year, the total was 29,497. All in all, from 1940 through 1945, US tank production totaled 88,410.
Tank designs of World War II were based upon many complex considerations, but the principal factors were those thought to be best supported by combat experience. Among these, early combat proved that a bigger tank was not necessarily a better tank. The development goal came to be a tank combining all the proven characteristics in proper balance, to which weight and size were only incidentally related. The key characteristics were mechanical reliability, firepower, mobility and protection.
The problem here was that only a slight addition to the thickness of armour plate greatly increased the total weight of the tank, thereby requiring a more powerful and heavier engine. This, in turn, resulted in a larger and heavier transmission and suspension system. Just this sort of "vicious circle" aimed at upgrading a tank's most vital characteristics tended to make the tank less maneuverable, slower, and a larger and easier target. Determining the point at which the optimum thickness of armour was reached, in balance with other factors, presented a challenge that resulted in numerous proposed solutions and much disagreement.
According to Lt. Gen. Lesley J. McNair, Chief of Staff of GHQ, and later Commanding General, Army Ground Forces, the answer to bigger enemy tanks was more powerful guns instead of increased size.
Since emphasis of the using arms was upon light tanks during 1940 and 1941, their production at first was almost two to one over the mediums. But in 1943, as the demand grew for more powerful tanks, the lights fell behind, and by 1945 the number of light tanks produced was less than half the number of mediums.
In 1945–46, the General Board of the US European Theater of Operations conducted an exhaustive review of past and future organization. The tank destroyer was deemed too specialized to justify in a peacetime force structure. In a reversal of previous doctrine, the US Army concluded that "the medium tank is the best antitank weapon." Although such a statement may have been true, it ignored the difficulties of designing a tank that could outshoot and defeat all other tanks.
The Cold War
In the Cold War, the two opposing forces in Europe were the Warsaw Pact countries on the one side, and the NATO countries on the other side.
Soviet domination of the Warsaw Pact led to effective standardization on a few tank designs. In comparison, NATO adopted a defensive posture. The major contributing nations, France, Germany, the USA, and the UK developed their own tank designs, with little in common.
After World War II, tank development continued. Tanks would not only continue to be produced in huge numbers, but the technology advanced dramatically as well. Medium tanks became heavier, their armour became thicker and their firepower increased. This led gradually to the concept of the main battle tank and the gradual elimination of the heavy tank. Aspects of gun technology changed significantly as well, with advances in shell design and effectiveness.
Many of the changes in tank design have been refinements to targeting and ranging (fire control), gun stabilization, communications and crew comfort. Armour evolved to keep pace with improvements in weaponry – the rise of composite armour is of particular note – and guns grew more powerful. However, basic tank architecture did not change significantly, and has remained largely the same into the 21st century.
Post-Cold War
With the end of the Cold War in 1991, questions once again started sprouting concerning the relevance of the traditional tank. Over the years, many nations cut back the number of their tanks or replaced most of them with lightweight armoured fighting vehicles with only minimal armour protection.
This period also brought an end to the superpower blocs, and the military industries of Russia and Ukraine are now vying to sell tanks worldwide. India and Pakistan have upgraded old tanks and bought new T-84s and T-90s from the former Soviet states. Both have demonstrated prototypes that the respective countries are not adopting for their own use, but are designed exclusively to compete with the latest western offerings on the open market.
Ukraine has developed the T-84-120 Oplot, which can fire both NATO 120 mm ammunition and ATGMs through the gun barrel. It has a new turret with auto-loader, but imitates western designs with an armoured ammunition compartment to improve crew survivability.
The Russian Chyorny Oryol ("Black Eagle") is based on a lengthened T-80 hull. An early mock-up, shown for the first time at the second VTTV-Omsk-97 International Exhibition of Armaments in 1997, appears to have dramatically heavier armour, and a completely new modern turret separating crew and ammunition. The prototype has a 125 mm tank gun, but is said to be able to mount a new 152 mm gun. Russia is also rumoured to be developing the Obiekt 775 MBT, sometimes called T-95, with a remote-controlled turret, for domestic service.
The Italian C1 Ariete MBT was among the latest all-new MBTs to be fielded, with deliveries running from 1995 to 2002. The tank is nearly the same size of the very first tank, both being 8 feet (2.5 m) high. The Mark I had a ~9.9 m long (hull) and the Ariete as a 7.6/9.52 m long (hull/hull+gun). However, the Ariete weighs over double and can travel ten times faster, 54,000 kg vs. 25,401 kg and 40 mph vs. 4 mph (60 v 6 km/h).
A number of armies have considered eliminating tanks completely, reverting to a mix of wheeled anti-tank guns and infantry fighting vehicles (IFV), though in general there is a great deal of resistance because all of the great powers still maintain large numbers of them, in active forces or in ready reserve. There has been no proven alternative, and tanks have had a relatively good track record in recent conflicts.
The tank continues to be vulnerable to many kinds of anti-tank weapons and is more logistically demanding than lighter vehicles, but these were traits that were true for the first tanks as well. In direct fire combat they offer an unmatched combination of higher survivability and firepower among ground-based warfare systems. Whether this combination is particularly useful in proportion to their cost is matter of debate, as there also exist very effective anti-tank systems, IFVs, and competition from air-based ground attack systems.
Due to vulnerability from RPGs, the tank has always had local defense from machine guns to solve the problem. This partially solved the problem in some cases, but produced another. Because the machine gun had to be operated by the commander from outside the tank, it made him vulnerable to enemy fire. To solve this problem, gun shields were made to reduce this threat, but did not completely solve the problem. So, when the development of the M1A2 TUSK (Tank Urban Survival Kit) came, the finalization of a remote machine gun came into place, and was one of the first main battle tanks to have one. Other examples of this gun have been seen, such as a 20 mm remote cannon on the M60A2. This remote machine gun, under the name CROWS (Common Remotely Operated Weapons Station) has solved the problem of enemy fire threat to the commander, when operating the machine gun. It can also be equipped with an optional grenade launcher.
Possibly one of the main evolution sources for tanks in this century are the active protection systems. Until 15 years ago, armour (reactive or passive) was the only effective measure against anti-tank assets. The most recent active protection systems (including Israeli TROPHY and Iron Fist and Russian Arena) offer high survivability even against volleys of RPG and missiles. If these kinds of systems evolve further and are integrated in contemporary tank and armoured vehicle fleets, the armour-antitank equation will change completely; therefore, 21st century tanks would experience a total revival in terms of operational capabilities.
See also
Tank classification
G-numbers (U.S. tanks)
Tank guns
Comparison of World War I tanks
Tanks of the interwar period
Comparison of early World War II tanks
Post-Cold War Tanks
Armoured fighting vehicle
Cultivator No. 6
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Achtung Panzer – The history of tanks and people of the Panzertruppe.
OnWar's Second World War Armour
Peter Wollen: Tankishness London Review of Books Vol. 22 No. 22, 16 November 2000. (A review of the book Tank: The Progress of a Monstrous War Machine by Patrick Wright, covering in detail some topics like the development of the first tank in Britain or the influence of the tank in culture)
Armoured warfare
Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugaritic
|
Ugaritic
|
Ugaritic () is an extinct Northwest Semitic language, classified by some as a dialect of the Amorite language and so the only known Amorite dialect preserved in writing. It is known through the Ugaritic texts discovered by French archaeologists in 1929 at Ugarit, including several major literary texts, notably the Baal cycle. It has been used by scholars of the Hebrew Bible to clarify Biblical Hebrew texts and has revealed ways in which the cultures of ancient Israel and Judah found parallels in the neighboring cultures.
Ugaritic has been called "the greatest literary discovery from antiquity since the deciphering of the Egyptian hieroglyphs and Mesopotamian cuneiform".
Corpus
The Ugaritic language is attested in texts from the 14th through the 12th century BCE. The city of Ugarit was destroyed roughly 1190 BCE.
Literary texts discovered at Ugarit include the Legend of Keret, the legends of Danel, the Myth of Baal-Aliyan, and the Death of Baal—the latter two are also collectively known as the Baal Cycle—all revealing aspects of ancient Northwest Semitic religion.
It has been proposed that Ugaritic texts might help solve such biblical puzzles as the anachronism of Ezekiel mentioning Daniel at .
Writing system
The Ugaritic alphabet is a cuneiform script used beginning in the 15th century BCE. Like most Semitic scripts, it is an abjad, where each symbol stands for a consonant, leaving the reader to supply the appropriate vowel.
Although it appears similar to Mesopotamian cuneiform (whose writing techniques it borrowed), its symbols and symbol meanings are unrelated. It is the oldest example of the family of West Semitic scripts such as the Phoenician, Paleo-Hebrew, and Aramaic alphabets (including the Hebrew alphabet). The so-called "long alphabet" has 30 letters while the "short alphabet" has 22. Other languages (particularly Hurrian) were occasionally written in it in the Ugarit area, although not elsewhere.
Clay tablets written in Ugaritic provide the earliest evidence of both the Levantine ordering of the alphabet, which gave rise to the alphabetic order of the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin alphabets; and the South Semitic order, which gave rise to the order of the Ge'ez script. The script was written from left to right.
Phonology
Ugaritic had 28 consonantal phonemes (including two semivowels) and eight vowel phonemes (three short vowels and five long vowels): a ā i ī u ū ē ō. The phonemes ē and ō occur only as long vowels and are the result of monophthongization of the diphthongs аy and aw, respectively.
The following table shows Proto-Semitic phonemes and their correspondences among Ugaritic, Classical Arabic and Tiberian Hebrew:
Grammar
Ugaritic is an inflected language, and its grammatical features are highly similar to those found in Classical Arabic and Akkadian. It possesses two genders (masculine and feminine), three grammatical cases for nouns and adjectives (nominative, accusative, and genitive), three numbers (singular, dual, and plural), and verb aspects similar to those found in other Northwest Semitic languages. The word order for Ugaritic is verb–subject–object (VSO) and subject–object–verb (SOV), possessed–possessor (NG), and noun–adjective (NA). Ugaritic is considered a conservative Semitic language, since it retains most of the phonemes, the case system, and the word order of the ancestral Proto-Semitic language.
See also
Northwest Semitic languages
Central Semitic languages
Semitic languages
Proto-Semitic language
Notes
References
(2 vols; originally in Spanish, translated by W. G. E. Watson).
(Contains Latin-alphabet transliterations of the Ugaritic texts and facing translations in English.)
Found at Google Scholar.
P. 1-404.
A more concise grammar.
External links
Ugarit and the Bible. An excerpt from an online introductory course on Ugaritic grammar (the Quartz Hill School of Theology's course noted in the links hereafter). Includes a cursory discussion on the relationship between Ugaritic and Old Testament/Hebrew Bible literature.
"El in the Ugaritic tablets" on the BBCi website gives many attributes of the Ugaritic creator and his consort Athirat.
Abstract of Mark Smith, The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel's Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Text.
Unicode Chart.
RSTI. The Ras Shamra Tablet Inventory: an online catalog of inscribed objects from Ras Shamra-Ugarit produced at the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
Languages attested from the 2nd millennium BC
Extinct languages of Asia
Languages of Syria
Northwest Semitic languages
Amorite language
|
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] |
212346
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesodmops
|
Mesodmops
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Mesodmops is a genus of small mammal from the Eocene of China. It was a late member of the extinct order of Multituberculata. It's within the suborder of Cimolodonta and family Neoplagiaulacidae. The genus was named by Y. Tong and T. Wang in 1994.
The primary species is Mesodmops dawsonae, also named by Tong and Wang. It has been found in the Lower Eocene of the Wutu Basin in Shandong, China.
References
Tong & Wang (1994), A new neoplagiaulacid multituberculate (Mammalia) from the lower Eocene of Wutu Basin, Shandong. Vertebrata PalAsiatica, 32, p. 275-284. (Chinese with summary in English.)
Kielan-Jaworowska Z. and Hurum J.H. (2001), Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals. Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Most of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS; Ptilodontoidea, an Internet directory.
Ptilodontoids
Eocene mammals
Fossils of China
Prehistoric mammal genera
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212347
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugaritic%20alphabet
|
Ugaritic alphabet
|
The Ugaritic writing system is a cuneiform abjad (consonantal alphabet) used from around either the fifteenth century BCE or 1300 BCE for Ugaritic, an extinct Northwest Semitic language, and discovered in Ugarit (modern Ras Al Shamra), Syria, in 1928. It has 30 letters. Other languages (particularly Hurrian) were occasionally written in the Ugaritic script in the area around Ugarit, although not elsewhere.
Clay tablets written in Ugaritic provide the earliest evidence of both the North Semitic and South Semitic orders of the alphabet, which gave rise to the alphabetic orders of the reduced Phoenician Writing System and its descendants (including the Paleo-Hebrew aleph-bet, Hebrew, Syriac, Greek and Latin) on the one hand, and of the Ge'ez alphabet on the other which was also influenced by the ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic writing system, and adapted for Amharic. The Arabic and Ancient South Arabian scripts are the only other Semitic alphabets which have letters for all or almost all of the 29 commonly reconstructed proto-Semitic consonant phonemes. (But note that several of these distinctions were only secondarily added to the Arabic alphabet by means of diacritic dots.) According to Manfried Dietrich and Oswald Loretz in Handbook of Ugaritic Studies (eds. Wilfred G.E. Watson and Nicholas Wyatt, 1999): "The language they [the 30 signs] represented could be described as an idiom which in terms of content seemed to be comparable to Canaanite texts, but from a phonological perspective, however, was more like Arabic" (82, 89, 614).
The script was written from left to right. Although cuneiform and pressed into clay, its symbols were unrelated to those of Akkadian cuneiform.
Function
Ugaritic was an augmented abjad. In most syllables only consonants were written, including the and of diphthongs. However, Ugaritic was unusual among early abjads in also writing vowels after the glottal stop. It is thought that the letter for the syllable originally represented the consonant , as aleph does in other Semitic abjads, and that it was later restricted to with the addition, at the end of the alphabet, of and .
The final consonantal letter of the alphabet, s2, has a disputed origin along with both "appended" glottals, but "The patent similarity of form between the Ugaritic symbol transliterated [s2], and the s-character of the later Northwest Semitic script makes a common origin likely, but the reason for the addition of this sign to the Ugaritic alphabet is unclear (compare Segert 1983:201-218; Dietrich and Loretz 1988). In function, [s2] is like Ugaritic s, but only in certain words – other s-words are never written with [s2]." The words that show s2 are predominantly borrowings, and thus it is often thought to be a late addition to the alphabet representing a foreign sound that could be approximated by native /s/; Huehnergard and Pardee make it the affricate /ts/. Segert instead theorizes that it may have been syllabic /su/, and for this reason grouped with the other syllabic signs /ʔi/ and /ʔu/.
Probably the last three letters of the alphabet were originally developed for transcribing non-Ugaritic languages (texts in the Akkadian language and Hurrian language have been found written in the Ugaritic alphabet), and were then applied to write the Ugaritic language. The three letters denoting glottal stop plus vowel combinations were used as simple vowel letters when writing other languages.
The only punctuation is a word divider.
Origin
At the time the Ugaritic script was in use (ca. 1300–1190 BCE), Ugarit, although not a great cultural or imperial centre, was located at the geographic centre of the literate world, among Egypt, Anatolia, Cyprus, Crete, and Mesopotamia. Ugaritic combined the system of the Semitic abjad with cuneiform writing methods (pressing a stylus into clay). However, scholars have searched in vain for graphic prototypes of the Ugaritic letters in Mesopotamian cuneiform. Recently, some have suggested that Ugaritic represents some form of the Proto-Sinaitic alphabet, the letter forms distorted as an adaptation to writing on clay with a stylus. (There may also have been a degree of influence from the poorly understood Byblos syllabary.) It has been proposed in this regard that the two basic shapes in cuneiform, a linear wedge, as in , and a corner wedge, as in , may correspond to lines and circles in the linear Semitic alphabets: the three Semitic letters with circles, preserved in the Greek Θ, O and Latin Q, are all made with corner wedges in Ugaritic: ṭ, ʕ, and q. Other letters look similar as well: 𐎅 h resembles its assumed Greek cognate E, while w, p, and θ are similar to Greek Y, Π, and Σ turned on their sides. Jared Diamond believes the alphabet was consciously designed, citing as evidence the possibility that the letters with the fewest strokes may have been the most frequent.
Abecedaries
Lists of Ugaritic letters (abecedaria, singular abecedarium) have been found in two alphabetic orders: the "Northern Semitic order" more similar to the one found in Arabic (earlier order), Hebrew and Phoenician, and more distantly, the Greek and Latin alphabets; and the "Southern Semitic order" more similar to the one found in the South Arabian, and the Ge'ez alphabets. The letters are given in transcription and in their Arabic, Hebrew, and Syriac cognates; letters missing from Hebrew are left blank.
North Semitic
South Semitic
Letters
Unicode
Ugaritic script was added to the Unicode Standard in April, 2003 with the release of version 4.0.
The Unicode block for Ugaritic is U+10380–U+1039F:
Six letters for transliteration were added to the Latin Extended-D block in March 2019 with the release of Unicode 12.0:
See also
Old Persian cuneiform – a much later, unrelated attempt at a cuneiform semi-alphabet.
References
External links
Download a Ugaritic font (includes Unicode font)
Ugaritic cuneiform characters from the Unicode Ugaritic cuneiform script
Ugaritic cuneiform Omniglot entry on the subject
Ugaritic script (ancientscripts.com)
Ugaritic writing
GNU FreeFont Unicode font family with Ugaritic range in its sans-serif face.
Ugartic
Alphabet
Semitic writing systems
Obsolete writing systems
Cuneiform
|
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] |
212349
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimetodon
|
Mimetodon
|
Mimetodon is a small mammal from the Paleocene of North America and perhaps Europe. It was a member of the extinct order Multituberculata within the suborder Cimolodonta and family Neoplagiaulacidae.
The genus Mimetodon was named by Jepsen G.L. in 1940. It has also been known as Ectypodus (partly); Mesodma (partly); Neoplagiaulax (partly). McKenna and Bell (1997) lists possible material from the Upper Paleocene(?) of Europe.
Species
The species Mimetodon churchilli was named by Jepsen G.L. in 1940. Remains were found in the Tiffanian (Middle Paleocene)-age strata of Princeton Quarry in Wyoming (United States). The holotype is in the collection of the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University.
The species Mimetodon krausei was named by Sloan R.E. in 1981. Remains were found in the Puercan (Lower Paleocene)-age strata of the San Juan Basin of New Mexico (United States). This holotype's also in the collection of the Peabody Museum, Yale.
The species ? Mimetodon nanophus was named by Holtzman in 1978. It has also been known as Neoplagiaulax nanophus (Holtzman 1978). Remains were found in the Middle-Upper Paleocene-age strata of the Tongue River Formation in North Dakota (United States). This might be the same as M. silberlingi.
The species Mimetodon silberlingi was named by Simpson G.G. in 1935 and Schiebout in 1974. It has also been known as Ectypodus? silberlingi (Simpson 1935d); Mesodma silberlingi (Van Valen & Sloan 1966); and ?M. nanophus. Remains were found in the Torrejonian-Tiffanian (Middle Paleocene)-age strata in the Gidley Quarry of Montana and in Wyoming, North Dakota and Alberta, Canada. This species weighed an estimated 20 g.
References
Sloan (1981), Systematics of Paleocene multituberculates from the San Juan Basin, New Mexico, p. 127-160, in Lucas et al. (eds), Advances in San Juan Basin paleontology. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Holtzman (1978), NDGS Reports Invest. 65.
Simpson (1935), "New Paleocene mammals from the Fort Union of Montana". Proc. US Nation. Museum 83, p. 221-244.
Jepsen (1940), "Paleocene faunas of the Polecat Bench formation, Park County, Wyoming". Pro. Amer. Philos. Soc 83, p. 217-340, 21 figs., 5pls.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
McKenna MC & Bell SK, (1997), "Classification of Mammals Above the Species Level". Columbia University Press.
Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS: Ptilodontoidea, an Internet directory.
Ptilodontoids
Paleocene mammals
Paleocene genus extinctions
Paleogene mammals of Europe
Prehistoric mammal genera
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212350
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short%20Parliament
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Short Parliament
|
The Short Parliament was a Parliament of England that was summoned by King Charles I of England on 20 February 1640 and sat from 13 April to 5 May 1640. It was so called because of its short life of only three weeks.
After 11 years of attempting Personal Rule between 1629 and 1640, Charles recalled Parliament in 1640 on the advice of Lord Wentworth, recently created Earl of Strafford, primarily to obtain money to finance his military struggle with Scotland in the Bishops' Wars. However, like its predecessors, the new parliament had more interest in redressing perceived grievances occasioned by the royal administration than in voting the King funds to pursue his war against the Scottish Covenanters.
John Pym, MP for Tavistock, quickly emerged as a major figure in debate; his long speech on 17 April expressed the refusal of the House of Commons to vote subsidies unless royal abuses were addressed. John Hampden, in contrast, was persuasive in private: he sat on nine committees. A flood of petitions concerning royal abuses were coming up to Parliament from the country. Charles's attempted offer to cease the levying of ship money did not impress the House.
Annoyed with the resumption of debate on Crown privilege and the violation of Parliamentary privilege by the arrest of the nine members in 1629, and unnerved about an upcoming scheduled debate on the deteriorating situation in Scotland, Charles dissolved Parliament on 5 May 1640, after only three weeks' sitting. It was followed later in the year by the Long Parliament.
See also
List of MPs elected to the English parliament in 1640 (April)
List of Parliaments of England
References
David Plant, "The Short Parliament"
"John Hampden in the Short Parliament"
1640 in England
Parliaments of Charles I of England
1640 in politics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Sorge
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Richard Sorge
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Richard Sorge (4 October 1895 – 7 November 1944) was a German journalist and Soviet military intelligence officer who was active before and during World War II and worked undercover as a German journalist in both Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan. His codename was "Ramsay" (). A number of famous personalities considered him one of the most accomplished spies.
Sorge is most famous for his service in Japan in 1940 and 1941, when he provided information about Adolf Hitler's plan to attack the Soviet Union. Then, in mid-September 1941, he informed the Soviets that Japan would not attack the Soviet Union in the near future. A month later, Sorge was arrested in Japan for espionage. He was tortured, forced to confess, tried and hanged in November 1944. Stalin declined to intervene on his behalf with the Japanese.
He was posthumously awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union in 1964.
Early life
Sorge was born on 4 October 1895 in the settlement of Sabunchi, a suburb of Baku, Baku Governorate of the Russian Empire now in Azerbaijan. He was the youngest of the nine children of Gustav Wilhelm Richard Sorge (1852–1907), a German mining engineer employed by the Deutsche Petroleum-Aktiengesellschaft (DPAG) and the Caucasian oil company Branobel and his Russian wife Nina Semionovna Kobieleva. His father moved back to Germany with his family in 1898, after his lucrative contract expired. In Sorge's own words,
Sorge attended Oberrealschule Lichterfelde when he was six. He described his father as having political views that were "unmistakably nationalist and imperialist", which he shared as a young man. However, the cosmopolitan Sorge household was "very different from the average bourgeois home in Berlin". Sorge considered Friedrich Adolf Sorge, an associate of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, to be his grandfather, but he was actually Sorge's great-uncle.
Sorge enlisted in the Imperial German Army in October 1914, shortly after the outbreak of World War I. At 18, he was posted to a field artillery battalion with the 3rd Guards Division. He served on the Western Front and was severely wounded there in March 1916. Shrapnel severed three of his fingers and broke both his legs, causing a lifelong limp. He was promoted to the rank of corporal, received the Iron Cross and was later medically discharged. While fighting in the war, Sorge, who had started out in 1914 as a right-wing nationalist, became disillusioned by what he called the "meaninglessness" of the war and moved to the left.
During his convalescence he read Marx, Engels and Rudolf Hilferding and eventually became a communist, mainly by the influence of the father of a nurse with whom he had developed a relationship. He spent the remainder of the war studying economics at the universities of Kiel, Berlin and Hamburg. In Kiel, he witnessed the sailors' mutiny which helped spark the German Revolution and joined the Independent Social Democratic Party. He subsequently moved on to Berlin, but arrived too late to participate in the Spartacist uprising. Sorge received his doctorate in political science (Dr. rer. pol.) from Hamburg in August 1919. By this time he had joined the Communist Party of Germany (KPD), and was engaged as an activist for the party in Hamburg and subsequently Aachen. His political views got him fired from both a teaching job and coal mining work.
Soviet military intelligence agent
Sorge was recruited as an agent for Soviet intelligence. With the cover of a journalist, he was sent to various European countries to assess the possibility of communist revolutions.
From 1920 to 1922, Sorge lived in Solingen, in present-day North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. He was joined there by Christiane Gerlach, the ex-wife of Kurt Albert Gerlach, a wealthy communist and professor of political science in Kiel, who had taught Sorge. Christiane Gerlach later remembered about meeting Sorge for the first time: "It was as if a stroke of lightning ran through me. In this one second something awoke in me that had slumbered until now, something dangerous, dark, inescapable...". Sorge and Christiane married in May 1921. In 1922, he was relocated to Frankfurt, where he gathered intelligence about the business community. In the summer of 1923, he took part in the Erste Marxistische Arbeitswoche ("First Marxist Work Week") Conference in Ilmenau. Sorge continued his work as a journalist and also helped organize the library of the Institute for Social Research, a new Marxist think tank in Frankfurt.
In 1924, he was made responsible for the security of a Soviet delegation attending the KPD's congress in Frankfurt. He caught the attention of one of the delegates, Osip Piatnitsky, a senior official with the Communist International, who recruited him. That year, he and Christiane moved to Moscow, where he officially joined the International Liaison Department of the Comintern, which was also an OGPU intelligence-gathering body. Apparently, Sorge's dedication to duty led to his divorce. After several years he became enmeshed in the factional struggles in the Communist movement that occurred between the death of Vladimir Lenin and the consolidation of power by Joseph Stalin, being accused of supporting Stalin's last factional opponent, Nikolai Bukharin, alongside three of his German comrades. However, in 1929, Sorge was invited to join the Red Army's Fourth Department (the later GRU, or military intelligence) by department head Yan Karlovich Berzin. He remained with the Department for the rest of his life. In 1929, Sorge went to the United Kingdom to study the labour movement there, the status of the Communist Party of Great Britain and the country's political and economic conditions. He was instructed to remain undercover and to stay out of politics.
In November 1929, Sorge was sent to Germany. He was instructed to join the Nazi Party and not to associate with any left-wing activists. As cover, he got a job with the agricultural newspaper Deutsche Getreide-Zeitung.
China 1930
In 1930, Sorge was sent to Shanghai. His cover was his work as the editor of a German news service and for the Frankfurter Zeitung. He contacted another agent, Max Clausen. Sorge also met the German Soviet agent Ursula Kuczynski and the American journalist Agnes Smedley. A well-known left-wing journalist, Smedley also worked for the Frankfurter Zeitung, and she introduced Sorge to Hotsumi Ozaki of the Japanese newspaper Asahi Shimbun (a future Sorge recruit) and to Hanako Ishii, with whom he would become romantically involved. Shortly after his arrival in China, he was able to send intelligence regarding plans by Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist government for a new offensive against the Chinese Communist Party in the Chinese Civil War, based largely on information gathered from German military advisors to the Nationalists.
As a journalist, Sorge established himself as an expert on Chinese agriculture. In that role, he travelled around the country and contacted members of the Communist Party of China. In January 1932, Sorge reported on fighting between Chinese and Japanese troops in the streets of Shanghai. In December, he was recalled to Moscow. His performance as an agent in Shanghai had been judged as successful by Berzin, having ensured that he and his agents had escaped detection and expanded the Soviet intelligence network.
Moscow 1933
Sorge returned to Moscow, where he wrote a book about Chinese agriculture. He also married Yekaterina Maximova ("Katya"), a woman he had met in China and brought back with him to Russia.
Japan 1933
In May 1933, the GRU decided to have Sorge organize an intelligence network in Japan. He was given the codename "Ramsay" ("Рамзай" Ramzai or Ramzay). He first went to Berlin, to renew contacts in Germany and to obtain a new newspaper assignment in Japan as cover. In September 1931, the Japanese Kwantung Army had seized the Manchuria region of China, which gave Japan another land border in Asia with the Soviet Union (previously, the Soviet Union and Japan had shared only the island of Sakhalin). At the time, several Kwantung Army generals advocated following up the seizure of Manchuria by invading the Soviet Far East, and as the Soviets had broken the Japanese Army codes, Moscow was aware of that and caused a "major Japanese war scare" in the winter of 1931–1932. Until the mid-1930s, it was Japan, rather than Germany, that was considered to be the main threat by Moscow.
Elsa Poretsky, the wife of Ignace Reiss, a fellow GPU agent, commented: "His joining the Nazi Party in his own country, where he had a well documented police record was hazardous, to say the least... his staying in the very lion's den in Berlin, while his application for membership was being processed, was indeed flirting with death".
In Berlin, he insinuated himself into the Nazi Party and read Nazi propaganda, particularly Adolf Hitler's Mein Kampf. Sorge attended so many beer halls with his new acquaintances that he gave up drinking to avoid saying anything inappropriate. His abstinence from drinking did not make his Nazi companions suspicious. It was an example of his devotion to and absorption in his mission, as he had been a heavy drinker. He later explained to Hede Massing, "That was the bravest thing I ever did. Never will I be able to drink enough to make up for this time". Later, his drinking came to undermine his work.
In Germany, he received commissions from two newspapers, the Berliner Börsen Zeitung and the Tägliche Rundschau, to report from Japan and the Nazi theoretical journal Geopolitik. Sorge was so successful at establishing his cover as an intensely-Nazi journalist that when he departed Germany, Joseph Goebbels attended his farewell dinner. He went to Japan via the United States, passing through New York in August 1933.
Sorge arrived in Yokohama on 6 September 1933. After landing in Japan, Sorge became the Japan correspondent for the Frankfurter Zeitung. As it was the most prestigious newspaper in Germany, Sorge's status as the Tokyo correspondent for the Frankfurter Zeitung made him, in many ways, the most senior German reporter in Japan. Sorge's reputation as a Nazi journalist who detested the Soviet Union served as an excellent cover for his espionage work. His task in Japan was more challenging than that in China: the Soviets had very little intelligence capacity in Japan, so Sorge would have to build a network of agents from nothing, under much tighter surveillance than he had faced in Shanghai. Sorge was told by his GRU superiors that his mission in Japan was to "give very careful study to the question of whether or not Japan was planning to attack the USSR". After his arrest in 1941, Sorge told his captors:
This was for many years the most important duty assigned to me and my group; it would not be far wrong to say that it was the sole object of my mission in Japan.... The USSR, as it viewed the prominent role and attitude taken by the Japanese military in foreign policy after the Manchurian incident, had come to harbor a deeply implanted suspicion that Japan was planning to attack the Soviet Union, a suspicion so strong that my frequently expressed opinions to the contrary were not always fully appreciated in Moscow....
He was warned by his commanders not to have contact with either the underground Japanese Communist Party or the Soviet embassy in Tokyo. His intelligence network in Japan included the Red Army officer and radio operator Max Clausen, Hotsumi Ozaki and two other Comintern agents, Branko Vukelić, a journalist working for the French magazine, Vu, and a Japanese journalist, Miyagi Yotoku, who was employed by the English-language newspaper, the Japan Advertiser. Max Clausen's wife, Anna, acted as ring courier from time to time. From summer 1937, Clausen operated under the cover of his business, M Clausen Shokai, suppliers of blueprint machinery and reproduction services. The business had been set up with Soviet funds and became a commercial success. Ozaki was a Japanese man from an influential family who had grown up in Taiwan, then a Japanese colony. He was an idealistic Sinophile who believed that Japan, which had started its modernisation with the Meiji Restoration, had much to teach China. However, Ozaki was shocked by the racism of Japanese policy towards China, with the Chinese being depicted as a people fit only to be slaves. Ozaki believed that the existing political system of Japan, with the emperor being worshipped as a living god, was obsolete, and that saving Japan from fascism would require Japan being "reconstructed as a socialist state".
Between 1933 and 1934, Sorge formed a network of informants. His agents had contacts with senior politicians and obtained information on Japanese foreign policy. His agent Ozaki developed a close contact with Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe. Ozaki copied secret documents for Sorge.
As he appeared to be an ardent Nazi, Sorge was welcome at the German embassy. One Japanese journalist who knew Sorge described him in 1935 as "a typical, swashbuckling, arrogant Nazi... quick-tempered, hard-drinking". As the Japan correspondent for the Frankfurter Zeitung, Sorge developed a network of sources in Japanese politics, and soon German diplomats, including the ambassador Herbert von Dirksen, came to depend upon Sorge as a source of intelligence on the fractious and secretive world of Japanese politics. The Japanese values of honne and tatemae (the former literally means "true sound", roughly "as things are", and the latter literally means "façade" or roughly "as things appear"), the tendency of the Japanese to hide their real feelings and profess to believe in things that they do not, made deciphering Japan's politics difficult. Sorge's fluency in Japanese enhanced his status as a Japanologist. Sorge was interested in Asian history and culture, especially those of China and Japan, and when he was sober, he tried to learn as much as he could. Meanwhile, Sorge befriended General Eugen Ott, the German military attaché to Japan and seduced his wife, Helma. Ott sent reports back to Berlin containing his assessments of the Imperial Japanese Army, which Helma Ott copied and passed on to Sorge, who passed them on to Moscow (Helma Ott believed Sorge to be working merely for the Nazi Party). As the Japanese Army had been trained by a German military mission in the 19th century, German influence was strong and Ott had good contacts with Japanese officers.
In October 1934, Ott and Sorge made an extended visit to the puppet "Empire of Manchukuo", which was actually a Japanese colony, and Sorge, who knew the Far East far better than Ott, wrote the report describing Manchukuo that Ott submitted to Berlin under his name. As Ott's report was received favourably at both the Bendlerstrasse and the Wilhelmstrasse, Sorge soon became one of Ott's main sources of information about the Japanese Empire, which created a close friendship between the two. In 1935, Sorge passed on to Moscow a planning document provided to him by Ozaki, which strongly suggested that Japan was not planning on attacking the Soviet Union in 1936. Sorge guessed correctly that Japan would invade China in July 1937 and that there was no danger of a Japanese invasion of Siberia.
On 26 February 1936, an attempted military coup took place in Tokyo. It was meant to achieve a mystical "Shōwa Restoration" and led to several senior officials being murdered by the rebels. Dirksen, Ott and the rest of the German embassy were highly confused as to why it was happening and were at a loss as to how to explain the coup to the Wilhelmstrasse. They turned to Sorge, the resident Japan expert, for help. Using notes supplied to him by Ozaki, Sorge submitted a report stating that the Imperial Way Faction in the Japanese Army, which had attempted the coup, was younger officers from rural backgrounds. They were upset at the impoverishment of the countryside, and that the faction was not communist or socialist but just anticapitalist and believed that big business had subverted the emperor's will. Sorge's report was used as the basis of Dirksen's explanation of the coup attempt, which he sent back to the Wilhelmstrasse, which was satisfied at the ambassador's "brilliant" explanation of the coup attempt.
Sorge lived in a house in a respectable neighborhood in Tokyo, where he was noted mostly for heavy drinking and his reckless way of riding his motorcycle. In the summer of 1936, a Japanese woman, Hanako Ishii, a waitress at a bar frequented by Sorge, moved into Sorge's house to become his common-law wife. Of all of Sorge's various relationships with women, his most durable and lasting one was with Ishii. She tried to curb Sorge's heavy drinking and his habit of recklessly riding his motorcycle in a way that everyone viewed as almost suicidal. An American reporter who knew Sorge later wrote that he "created the impression of being a playboy, almost a wastrel, the very antithesis of a keen and dangerous spy".
Ironically, Sorge's spying for the Soviets in Japan in the late 1930s was probably safer for him than if he had been in Moscow. Claiming too many pressing responsibilities, he disobeyed Josef Stalin's orders to return to the Soviet Union in 1937 during the Great Purge, as he realised the risk of arrest because of his German citizenship. In fact, two of Sorge's earliest GRU handlers, Yan Karlovich Berzin and his successor, Artur Artuzov, were shot during the purges. In 1938, the German ambassador to Britain, Joachim von Ribbentrop was promoted to foreign minister, and to replace Ribbentrop, Dirksen was sent to London. Ribbentrop promoted Ott to be Dirksen's replacement. Ott, now aware that Sorge was sleeping with his wife, let his friend Sorge have "free run of the embassy night and day", as one German diplomat later recalled: he was given his own desk at the embassy. Ott tolerated Sorge's affair with his wife on the grounds that Sorge was such a charismatic man that women always fell in love with him and so it was only natural that Sorge would sleep with his wife. Ott liked to call Sorge Richard der Unwiderstehliche ("Richard the Irresistible"), as his charm made him attractive to women. Ott greatly valued Sorge as a source of information about the secretive world of Japanese politics, especially Japan's war with China, since Ott found that Sorge knew so many things about Japan that no other Westerner knew that he chose to overlook Sorge's affair with his wife.
After Ott became the ambassador to Japan in April 1938, Sorge had breakfast with him daily and they discussed German–Japanese relations in detail, and Sorge sometimes drafted the cables that Ott sent under his name to Berlin. Ott trusted Sorge so much that he sent him out as a German courier to carry secret messages to the German consulates in Canton, Hong Kong and Manila. Sorge noted about his influence in the German embassy: "They would come to me and say, 'we have found out such and such a thing, have you heard about it and what do you think'?"
On 13 May 1938, while he rode his motorcycle in Tokyo, a very-intoxicated Sorge crashed into a wall and was badly injured. As Sorge was carrying around notes given to him by Ozaki at the time, if the police had discovered the documents, his cover would have been blown. However, a member of his spy ring got to the hospital and removed the documents before the police arrived. In 1938, Sorge reported to Moscow that the Battle of Lake Khasan had been caused by overzealous officers in the Kwantung Army and that there were no plans in Tokyo for a general war against the Soviet Union. Unaware that his friend Berzin had been shot as a "Trotskyite" in July 1938, Sorge sent him a letter in October 1938:
Dear Comrade! Don't worry about us. Although we are terribly tired and tense, nevertheless we are disciplined, obedient, decisive and devoted fellows who are ready to carry out the tasks connected with our great mission. I send sincere greetings to you and your friends. I request you to forward the attached letter and greetings to my wife. Please, take the time to see to her welfare.
Sorge never learned that Berzin had been shot as a traitor.
The two most authoritative sources for intelligence for the Soviet Union on Germany in the late 1930s were Sorge and Rudolf von Scheliha, the First Secretary at the German embassy in Warsaw. Unlike Sorge, who believed in communism, Scheliha's reasons for spying were money problems since he had a lifestyle beyond his salary as a diplomat, and he turned to selling secrets to provide additional income. Scheliha sold documents to the NKVD indicating that Germany was planning from late 1938 to turn Poland into a satellite state, and after the Poles refused to fall into line, Germany planned to invade Poland from March 1939 onward. Sorge reported that Japan did not intend for the border war with the Soviet Union that began in May 1939 to escalate into all-out war. Sorge also reported that the attempt to turn the Anti-Comintern Pact into a military alliance was floundering since the Germans wanted the alliance to be directed against Britain, but the Japanese wanted the alliance to be directed against the Soviets. Sorge's reports that the Japanese did not plan to invade Siberia were disbelieved in Moscow and on 1 September 1939, Sorge was attacked in a message from Moscow:
Japan must have commenced important movements (military and political) in preparation for war against the Soviet Union but you have not provided any appreciable information. Your activity seems to getting slack.
Wartime intelligence
Sorge supplied Soviet intelligence with information about the Anti-Comintern Pact and the German-Japanese Pact. In 1941, his embassy contacts made him learn of Operation Barbarossa, the imminent Axis invasion of the Soviet Union and the approximate date. On 30 May 1941, Sorge reported to Moscow, "Berlin informed Ott that German attack will commence in the latter part of June. Ott 95 percent certain war will commence". On 20 June 1941, Sorge reported: "Ott told me that war between Germany and the USSR is inevitable.... Invest [the code name for Ozaki] told me that the Japanese General Staff is already discussing what position to take in the event of war". Moscow received the reports, but Stalin and other top Soviet leaders ultimately ignored Sorge's warnings, as well as those of other sources, including early false alarms. Other Soviet agents who also reported an imminent German invasion were also regarded with suspicion by Stalin.
It has been rumoured that Sorge provided the exact date of "Barbarossa", but the historian Gordon Prange in 1984 concluded that the closest Sorge came was 20 June 1941 and that Sorge himself never claimed to have discovered the correct date (22 June) in advance. The date of 20 June was given to Sorge by Oberstleutnant (Lieutenant-Colonel) Erwin Scholl, the deputy military attaché at the German embassy. On a dispatch he sent the GRU on 1 June, which read, "Expected start of German-Soviet war around June 15 is based on information Lt. Colonel Scholl brought with him from Berlin... for Ambassador Ott". Despite knowing that Germany was going to invade the Soviet Union sometime in May or June 1941, Sorge was still shocked on 22 June 1941, when he learned of Operation Barbarossa. He went to a bar to get drunk and repeated in English: "Hitler's a fucking criminal! A murderer. But Stalin will teach the bastard a lesson. You just wait and see!" The Soviet press reported in 1964 that on 15 June 1941, Sorge had sent a radio dispatch saying, "The war will begin on June 22". Prange, who despite not having access to material released by the Russian authorities in the 1990s, did not accept the veracity of that report. Stalin was quoted as having ridiculed Sorge and his intelligence before "Barbarossa":
In late June 1941, Sorge informed Moscow that Ozaki had learned the Japanese cabinet had decided to occupy the southern half of French Indochina (now Vietnam) and that invading the Soviet Union was being considered as an option, but for the moment, Japanese Prime Minister Konoye had decided on neutrality. On 2 July 1941, an Imperial Conference attended by the emperor, Konoye and the senior military leaders approved occupying all of French Indochina and to reinforce the Kwantung Army for a possible invasion of the Soviet Union. At the bottom of the report, the deputy chief of the Soviet general staff wrote, "In consideration of the high reliability and accuracy of previous information and the competence of the information sources, this information can be trusted". In July 1941, Sorge reported that German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop had ordered Ott to start pressuring the Japanese to attack the Soviet Union but that the Japanese were resisting the pressure. On 25 August 1941, Sorge reported to Moscow: "Invest [Ozaki] was able to learn from circles closest to Konoye... that the High Command... discussed whether they should go to war with the USSR. They decided not to launch the war within this year, repeat, not to launch the war this year". On 6 September 1941, an Imperial Conference decided against war with the Soviet Union and ordered for Japan to start preparations for a possible war against the United States and the British Empire, which Ozaki reported to Sorge. At the same time, Ott told Sorge that all of his efforts to get Japan to attack the Soviet Union had failed. On 14 September 1941, Sorge reported to Moscow, "In the careful judgment of all of us here... the possibility of [Japan] launching an attack, which existed until recently, has disappeared...." Sorge advised the Red Army on 14 September 1941 that Japan would not attack the Soviet Union until:
Moscow had been captured.
The Kwantung Army had become three times the size of Soviet Far Eastern forces.
A civil war had started in Siberia.
Various writers have speculated that the information allowed the release of Siberian divisions for the Battle of Moscow, where the German Army suffered its first strategic defeat in the war. To that end, Sorge's information might have been the most important military intelligence work in World War II. However, Sorge was not the only source of Soviet intelligence about Japan, as Soviet codebreakers had broken the Japanese diplomatic codes and so Moscow knew from signals intelligence that there would be no Japanese attack on the Soviet Union in 1941.
Another important item allegedly reported by Sorge may have affected the Battle of Stalingrad. Sorge reported that Japan would attack the Soviet Union from the east as soon as the German army captured any city on the Volga.
Sorge's rival and opponent in Japan and East Asia was Ivar Lissner, an agent of the German Abwehr.
Arrests and trials
As the war progressed, Sorge was in increasing danger but continued his service. His radio messages were enciphered with unbreakable one-time pads, which were always used by the Soviet intelligence agencies and appeared as gibberish. However, the increasing number of the mystery messages made the Japanese begin to suspect that an intelligence ring was operating. Sorge was also coming under increasing suspicion in Berlin. By 1941, the Nazis had instructed SS Standartenführer Josef Albert Meisinger, the "Butcher of Warsaw", who was by then the Gestapo resident at the German embassy in Tokyo, to begin monitoring Sorge and his activities. Sorge was able, through one of his lovers, Margarete Harich-Schneider, a German musician living in Japan, to gain the key to Meisinger's apartment since it had once been her apartment. Much to his relief, he learned that Meisinger had concluded that the allegations that Sorge was a Soviet agent were groundless, and Sorge's loyalty was to Germany. Sorge befriended Meisinger by playing on his principal weakness, alcohol, and spent much time getting him drunk, which contributed to Meisinger's favourable evaluation of Sorge. Meisinger reported to Berlin that the friendship between Ott and Sorge "was now so close that all normal reports from attachés to Berlin became mere appendages to the overall report written by Sorge and signed by the Ambassador". The Kempeitai, the Japanese secret police, intercepted many messages and began to close in against the German Soviet agent. Sorge's penultimate message to Moscow in October 1941 reported, "The Soviet Far East can be considered safe from Japanese attack". In his last message to Moscow, Sorge asked to be sent back to Germany, as there was no danger of a Japanese attack on the Soviet Union, and he wished to aid the Soviet war effort by providing more intelligence about the German war effort. Ozaki was arrested on 14 October 1941 and immediately interrogated. As the Kempeitai trailed Sorge, it discovered that Ott's wife was a regular visitor to Sorge's house and that he had spent his last night as a free man sleeping with her.
Sorge was arrested shortly thereafter, on 18 October 1941, in Tokyo. The next day, a brief Japanese memo notified Ott that Sorge had been swiftly arrested "on suspicion of espionage", together with Max Clausen. Ott was both surprised and outraged as a result and assumed that it was a case of "Japanese espionage hysteria". He thought that Sorge had been discovered to have passed secret information on the Japan-American negotiations to the German embassy and also that the arrest could have been caused by anti-German elements within the Japanese government. Nonetheless, he immediately agreed with Japanese authorities to "investigate the incident fully". It was not until a few months later that Japanese authorities announced that Sorge had actually been indicted as a Soviet agent.
He was incarcerated in Sugamo Prison. Initially, the Japanese believed, because of his Nazi Party membership and German ties, that Sorge had been an Abwehr agent. However, the Abwehr denied that he had been one of their agents. Under torture, Sorge confessed, but the Soviet Union denied he was a Soviet agent. The Japanese made three overtures to the Soviet Union and offered to trade Sorge for one of their own spies. However, the Soviet Union declined all of the Japanese attempts and maintained that Sorge was unknown to them.
In September 1942, Sorge's wife, Katya Maximova, was arrested by the NKVD on the charges that she was a "German spy" since she was married to the German citizen Sorge (the fact that Sorge was a GRU agent did not matter to the NKVD), and she was deported to the gulag, where she died in 1943. Hanako Ishii, the Japanese woman who loved Sorge and the only woman whom Sorge loved in return, was the only person who tried to visit Sorge during his time in Sugamo Prison. During one of her visits, she expressed concern that Sorge, under torture by the Kempeitai, would name her as involved in his spy ring, but he promised her that he would never mention her name to the Kempeitai. The Kempeitai was much feared in Japan for its use of torture as an investigation method. Sorge ultimately struck a deal with the Kempeitai that if it spared Ishii and the wives of the other members of the spy ring, he would reveal all. Ishii was never arrested by the Kempeitai Sorge told his Kempeital captors:
That I successfully approached the German embassy in Japan and won the absolute trust by people there was the foundation of my organisation in Japan.... Even in Moscow that fact that I infiltrated into the centre of the embassy and made use of it for my spying activity is evaluated as extremely amazing, having no equivalent in history.
After the arrest of Sorge, Meisinger used the increased spy fear of the Japanese to fraudulently denounce "anti-Nazis" as "Soviet spies" to the Japanese authorities. He was responsible for the persecution, the internment and the torture of the "Schindler" of Tokyo, Willy Rudolf Foerster. Foerster was forced to sell his company, which had employed a sizable number of Jewish refugees from Germany and the countries occupied by Germany. He and his Japanese wife survived, but after the war, the same former German diplomats, who had denounced and persecuted him as an "anti-Nazi", would discredit him.
Death
Sorge was hanged on 7 November 1944, at 10:20 Tokyo time in Sugamo Prison and was pronounced dead 19 minutes later. Hotsumi Ozaki had been hanged earlier in the same day. Sorge's body was not cremated because of wartime fuel shortages. He was buried in a mass grave for Sugamo Prison inmates in the nearby Zoshigaya Cemetery.
Sorge was survived by his mother, then living in Germany, and he left his estate to Anna Clausen, the wife of his radio operator Max Clausen.
After hounding the American occupation authorities, Sorge's Japanese lover, Hanako Ishii (1911 – 1 July 2000), located and recovered his skeleton on 16 November 1949. After identifying him by his distinctive dental work and a poorly-set broken leg, she took his body away and had him cremated at the Shimo-Ochiai Cremation Centre. Nearly a year later she had his ashes interred in Section 17, Area 1, Row 21, Plot 16 at Tama Cemetery in Fuchū, Tokyo. She had erected a black marble tombstone bearing the epitaph, which reads in Japanese: "Here lies a hero who sacrificed his life fighting against war and for world peace".
She kept his own teeth, belt and spectacles and had made a ring of his gold bridgework, which she wore for the rest of her life. After her death, her own ashes were interred beside his.
The Soviet Union did not officially acknowledge Sorge until 1964.
It was argued that Sorge's biggest coup led to his undoing because Stalin could not afford to let it become known that he had rejected Sorge's warning about the German attack in June 1941. However, nations seldom officially recognise their own undercover agents.
Posthumous recognition
Initially, Sorge's reputation in West Germany in the 1950s was highly negative, with Sorge depicted as a traitor working for the Soviet Union who was responsible for the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Wehrmacht soldiers in the winter of 1941–1942. The 1950s were a transition moment in the German memory of Nazi Germany, as its German supporters sought a version of history that presented them as victims, rather than as followers, of Hitler. They portrayed Nazism as an aberration in German history that had no connections to traditional Prussian virtues, falsely portrayed the Wehrmacht as an honourable fighting force that had nothing to do with the Holocaust and presented the Soviets as guilty of crimes that were even more horrific than those committed by the Nazis. That way of remembering the Nazi past in the 1950s caused Operation Barbarossa and Germany's war on the Eastern Front to be seen as a heroic and legitimate war against the Soviet Union of which Germans should be unashamed.
The first tentative efforts at changing the memory of the Nazi past started in the early 1950s, when German President Theodor Heuss gave a speech on 20 July 1954 that praised the putsch attempt of 20 July 1944. He argued that "the men of July 20th" were patriots rather than traitors, which was then a bold gesture. The first effort to present Sorge in a positive light occurred in the summer of 1953, when the influential publisher Rudolf Augstein wrote a 17-part series in his magazine, Der Spiegel. He argued that Sorge was not a Soviet agent but a heroic German patriot opposed to the Nazi regime whose motivation in providing intelligence to the Soviet Union was to bring down Hitler, rather than to support Stalin. Augstein also attacked Willoughby for his book The Shanghai Conspiracy that claimed that Sorge had caused the "loss of China" in 1949 and that the Sorge spy ring was in the process of taking over the U.S. government. Augstein argued that Willoughby and his fans had completely misunderstood that Sorge's espionage was directed against Germany and Japan, not the U.S.
Such was the popularity of Augstein's articles that the German author Hans Hellmut Kirst published a spy novel featuring Sorge as the hero, and Hans-Otto Meissner wrote the book Der Fall Sorge (The Sorge Case) that was a cross between a novel and a history by blending fact and fiction together with a greater emphasis on the latter. Meissner had served as third secretary at the German Embassy in Tokyo and had known Sorge. Meissner's book, which was written as a thriller that engaged in "orientalism", portrayed Japan as a strange, mysterious country in which the enigmatic and charismatic master spy Sorge operated to infiltrate both its government and the German embassy. Meissner presented Sorge as the consummate spy, a cool professional who was dressed in a rumpled trench coat and fedora and was a great womanizer, and much of the book is concerned with Sorge's various relationships.
Later on, Meissner presented Sorge as a rather megalomaniac figure and, in the process, changed Sorge's motivation from loyalty to communism to colossal egoism. He had Sorge rant about his equal dislike for both Stalin and Hitler and had him say that he that supplied only enough information to both regimes to manipulate them into destroying each other since it suited him to play one against the other. At the book's climax, Sorge agreed to work for the American Office of Strategic Services, in exchange for being settled to settle in Hawaii, and he was in the process of learning that Japan is planning on bombing Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, but his love of women proved to be his undoing as the Japanese dancer Kiyomi rejected his sexual advances. Sorge finally seduced Kiyomi but lost valuable time, which allowed the Kempeitai to arrest him.
The American historian Cornelius Partsch noted some striking aspects of Meissner's book such as his complete exoneration of the Auswärtiges Amt from any involvement in the criminal aspects of the Nazi regime. Meissner had Sorge constantly breaking into offices to steal information, which he did not do, as security at the German embassy was sloppy, and Sorge was trusted as an apparently-dedicated Nazi journalist and so breaking into offices would have been unnecessary. Meissner avoided any mention of SS Standartenführer Josef Albert Meisinger, the "Butcher of Warsaw" who was stationed at the German embassy as the police attaché to Japan. Partsch wrote that Meissner gave Sorge almost-superhuman abilities at lockbreaking, as he broke into various offices, safes and filing cabinets with the greatest ease, but in reality, secret documents were all too often left out in the open in unlocked rooms, and Sorge was allowed to wander about the embassy without an escort. Meissner portrayed the Auswärtiges Amt in the traditional manner, as a glamorous, elitist group that operated in exotic places like Japan serving Germany, not the Nazi regime.
Kirst's book Die letzte Karte spielt der Tod was a novel that offered a considerably more realistic picture than Meissner's romanticised portrayal of Sorge. Kirst portrayed Sorge as an existential hero, a deeply-traumatized veteran of World War I, whose sleep was constantly disturbed by horrific nightmares of his war service, and when he was awake, he suffered from frequent panic attacks. Kirst's book depicted Sorge as a "lonely, desperate" man, a tragic, wounded individual with a reckless streak who engaged in maniacal binge drinking, nearly-suicidal motorcycle riding across the Japanese countryside, and though he wanted love, he was incapable of maintaining lasting relationships. Unlike Meissner, Kirst had Meisinger appear as one of the book's villains by portraying him as an especially-loathsome and stupid SS officer, who fully deserved to be deceived by Sorge. As part of Kirst's portrayal of Sorge as a tragic man on the brink and as victim led him to portray Sorge's spying for the Soviet Union by forces beyond his control. Kirst was more forceful in his condemnation of National Socialism than Meissner as his book maintained that the regime was so monstrously evil that an existential man forever on the brink of a mental breakdown like Sorge ended up spying for the Soviet Union as the lesser evil.
Partsch noted that both books were very much concerned with Sorge's womanising, which neither author exaggerated, but presented the aspect of his personality in different ways. Kirst portrayed Sorge's womanizing as part of the same self-destructive urges that led him to spy for the Soviet Union, but Meissner depicted Sorge's womanizing as part of his callous narcissism and as his principal weakness, as his desire for Kiyomi finally destroyed him. In turn, that led to different depictions of the male body. Meissner portrayed it as the seductive instrument that entices female desire and led women into ill-advised relationships with Sorge, whose body is perfectly fit and attractive to women. Kirst, by contrast, correctly noted that Sorge walked with a pronounced limp because of a war wound, which had Sorge sarcastically say was because of his "gallantry" in his book, and Sorge's wounded body served as a metaphor for his wounded soul. Partsch further commented that Meissner's book was a depoliticised and personalised account of the Sorge spy ring, as he omitted any mention of Hotsumi Ozaki, an idealistic man who sincerely believed his country was on the wrong course, and he portrayed Sorge as a "Faustian man" motivated only by his vanity to exercise "a god-like power over the world" and gave Sorge "an overblown, pop-Nietzsche an sense of destiny".
The ultimate "message" of Meissner's book was that Sorge was an amoral, egoistical individual whose actions had nothing to do with ideology and that the only reason for Germany's defeat by the Soviet Union was Sorge's spying, which suggested that Germany lost the war only because of "fate". Meissner followed the "great man" interpretation of history that a few "great men" decide the events of the world, with everyone else reduced to passive bystanders. By contrast, Kirst pictured Sorge as a victim, as a mere pawn in a "murderous chess game" and emphasised Sorge's opposition to the Nazi regime as the motivation for his actions. Kirst further noted that Sorge was betrayed by his own masters as after his arrest, and the Soviet regime denounced him as a "Trotskyite" and made no effort to save him. Partsch concluded that the two rival interpretations of Sorge put forward in the novels by Meissner and Kirst in 1955 have shaped Sorge's image in the West, especially Germany, ever since their publication.
In 1954, the West German film director Veit Harlan wrote and directed the film Verrat an Deutschland about Sorge's espionage in Japan. Harlan had been the favourite filmmaker of Nazi Information Minister Joseph Goebbels and directed many propaganda films, including Jud Süss. Harlan's film is a romantic drama, starring Harlan's wife, Kristina Söderbaum, as Sorge's love interest. The film was publicly premiered by the distributor before it passed the rating system and so was withdrawn from more-public performances and finally released after some editing had been done.
In 1961, a movie, Who Are You, Mr. Sorge?, was produced in France in collaboration with West Germany, Italy, and Japan. It was very popular in the Soviet Union as well. Sorge was played by Thomas Holtzmann.
In November 1964, twenty years after his death, the Soviet government awarded Sorge with the title of Hero of the Soviet Union. Sorge's widow, Hanako Ishii, received a Soviet and Russian pension until her death in July 2000 in Tokyo. In the 1960s, the KGB, seeking to improve its image in the Soviet Union, began the cult of the "hero spy" with former Chekists working abroad being celebrated as the great "hero spies" in books, films and newspapers. Sorge was one of those selected for "hero spy" status. In fact, the Soviets had broken Japanese codes in 1941 and had already known independently of the intelligence provided by Sorge that Japan had decided to "strike south" (attacking the United States and the British Empire), instead of "striking north" (attacking the Soviet Union).
The Kremlin gave much greater attention to signals intelligence in evaluating threats from Japan from 1931 to 1941 than it did to the intelligence that was gathered by the Sorge spy ring, but since Soviet intelligence did not like to mention the achievements of its codebreakers, Soviet propaganda from 1964 onward gloried Sorge as a "hero spy" and avoided all mention that the Soviets had broken the Japanese codes. The Soviets, during the Cold War, liked to give the impression that all of their intelligence came from human intelligence, rather than signals intelligence, to prevent Western nations from knowing how much the Soviets collected from the latter source. A testament to Sorge's fame in the Soviet Union was that even though Sorge worked for the GRU, not the NKVD, it was the KGB, which had far more power than the Red Army, that claimed him as one of its "hero spies" in the 1960s.
In 1965, three East German journalists published Dr Sorge funkt aus Tokyo in celebration of Sorge and his actions. Before the award, Sorge's claim that Friedrich Adolf Sorge was his grandfather was repeated in the Soviet press. In a strange Cold War oddity, the authors stirred up a free speech scandal with patriotic letters to former Nazis in West Germany, which caused the Verfassungsschutz to issue a stern warning in early 1967: "If you receive mail from a certain Julius Mader, do not reply to him and pass on the letter to the respective security authorities".
In 1971, a comic book based on Sorge's life, Wywiadowca XX wieku ("20th Century Intelligence Officer"), was published in the People's Republic of Poland to familiarise younger readers with Sorge.
There is a monument to Sorge in Baku, Azerbaijan. Sorge also appears in Osamu Tezuka's Adolf manga. In his 1981 book, Their Trade is Treachery, the author Chapman Pincher asserted that Sorge, a GRU agent himself, recruited the Englishman Roger Hollis in China in the early 1930s to provide information. Hollis later returned to England, joined MI5 just before World War II began and eventually became the director-general of MI5 from 1956 to 1965. As detailed by former MI5 staffer Peter Wright in his 1988 book Spycatcher, Hollis was accused of being a Soviet agent, but despite several lengthy and seemingly-thorough investigations, no conclusive proof was ever obtained.
One of Aleksandar Hemon's first stories in English is "The Sorge Spy Ring" (TriQuarterly, 1997). The 2003 Japanese film Spy Sorge, directed by Masahiro Shinoda, details his exploits in Shanghai and in Japan. In the film, he is portrayed by the Scottish actor Iain Glen. In 2016, one of Moscow's Moscow Central Circle rail stations was named after Sorge (Zorge). A Russian television series, "Richard Sorge. Master Spy", was a twelve-episode series filmed in 2019.
Reputation
Comments about Sorge by famous personalities include:
"A devastating example of a brilliant success of espionage". – Douglas MacArthur, General of the Army
"His work was impeccable." – Kim Philby
"In my whole life, I have never met anyone as great as he was." – Mitsusada Yoshikawa, Chief Prosecutor in the Sorge trials who obtained Sorge's death sentence.
"Sorge was the man whom I regard as the most formidable spy in history." – Ian Fleming
"Richard Sorge was the best spy of all time." – Tom Clancy
"The spy who changed the world". – Lance Morrow
"Somehow, amidst the Bonds and Smiley's People, we have ignored the greatest of 20th century spy stories – that of Stalin's Sorge, whose exploits helped change history." – Carl Bernstein
"Richard Sorge's brilliant espionage work saved Stalin and the Soviet Union from defeat in the fall of 1941, probably prevented a Nazi victory in World War II and thereby assured the dimensions of the world we live in today." – Larry Collins
"The spies in history who can say from their graves, the information I supplied to my masters, for better or worse, altered the history of our planet, can be counted on the fingers of one hand. Richard Sorge was in that group." – Frederick Forsyth
"Stalin's James Bond". – Le Figaro
In popular culture
There have been several literary and dramatic representations of Sorge's life:
The German Letzte Karte spielt der Tod by Hans Hellmut Kirst, published in English as The Last Card (New York: Pyramid Publications, Inc., 1967) and Death Plays the Last Card (London: Fontana, 1968).
The German film (1955), directed by Veit Harlan and starring Paul Muller as Sorge.
The French docu-drama Who Are You, Mr. Sorge? (1961), written by Yves Ciampi, Tsutomu Sawamura, and Hans-Otto Meissner, starring Thomas Holtzmann as Sorge.
Wywiadowca XX wieku (20th-Century Intelligencer), a comic book that narrated Sorge's exploits, published in Poland in 1983.
The American novel Wild Midnight Falls (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1968) in the Milo March series by M. E. Chaber, based on the supposition that Sorge was still alive and secretly active.
The Russian novel Кио ку мицу! Совершенно секретно - при опасности сжечь! (Kio ku mitsu! Top secret - burn in case of danger!) by Ю. М. Корольков (Yu. M. Korol'kov) (Беларусь, 1987).
The French L'Insensé by Morgan Sportes (Grasset, 2002) translated into Japanese as Sorge hametsu no fuga (Iwanami Shoten, 2005).
The 1997 novel Stepper by Australian Brian Castro.
"The Sorge Spy Ring", in the 2000 short story collection The Question of Bruno by Aleksandar Hemon.
The later chapters of Osamu Tezuka's manga Adolf.
The Japanese film Spy Sorge (2003), directed by Masahiro Shinoda and starring Iain Glen as Sorge.
The Book The Man with Three Faces by German Hans-Otto Meissner, who wrote it based in his experiences as a diplomat in wartime. He met Sorge on some occasions.
The Russian television mini-series Zorge (2019)
References
Bibliography
. An early account by two leading British historians of the time. It is informed by their differing perspectives, Deakin being an authority on 20th century European history and Storry an authority on 20th century Japan.
; translation of Der Fall Sorge (Mǖnchen: Wilhelm Andermann 1955).
Further reading
Johnson, Chalmers. An Instance of Treason: Ozaki Hotsumi and the Sorge Spy Ring. Stanford University Press, 1964. (paperback, )
Kirst, Hans Helmut. Death Plays The Last Card': The Tense, Brilliant Novel of Richard Sorge—World War II's Most Daring Spy. Translated from the German by J. Maxwell Brownjohn. Collins Fontana paperback, 1968.
Meissner, Hans-Otto. The Man with Three Faces: Sorge, Russia's Master Spy. London: Pan # GP88, 1957, 1st Printing Mass Market Paperback.
Rimer, J. Thomas. (ed.) Patriots and Traitors, Sorge and Ozaki: A Japanese Cultural Casebook. MerwinAsia, 2009. (paperback, ). Contains several essays on the spy ring, a translation of selected letters Hotsumi Ozaki wrote in prison, and the translation of Junji Kinoshita's 1962 play A Japanese Called Otto.
External links
The 2003 Japanese movie Spy Sorge about Richard Sorge's life includes some scenes shot in Kitakyushu, including one at the West Japan Industrial Club in Tobata ward, and another (a press conference) at the Mitsui club in Moji-ko.
Sorge: A Chronology, edited by Michael Yudell.
Richard Sorge Stalin's Spy In Tokyo
The Spy Who Saved The Soviets
1895 births
1944 deaths
20th-century executions by Japan
Comintern people
Communist Party of the Soviet Union members
Executed Azerbaijani people
Executed German people
Executed Russian people
Executed spies
German communists
German expatriates in China
German expatriates in Japan
German journalists
20th-century German journalists
German male journalists
German male writers
German Marxists
German people convicted of spying for the Soviet Union
German people of Russian descent
GRU officers
Heroes of the Soviet Union
Japan–Soviet Union relations
Male journalists
People executed by Japan by hanging
People from Baku Governorate
People of the Weimar Republic
Recipients of the Iron Cross (1914), 2nd class
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Russian communists
Russian Marxists
Russian people of German descent
Soviet people of World War II
Soviet spies
University of Hamburg alumni
World War II spies for the Soviet Union
German military personnel of World War I
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] |
212356
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronzewing%20pigeon
|
Bronzewing pigeon
|
The bronzewing pigeons are a group of pigeons native to Australia which have distinctive iridescent wing patches that appear bronze or green-brown in dull light, but flash in many bright colours in the sun as the bird moves.
Three species are always known as "bronzewings" in the genus Phaps, and several broadly similar birds also have the trademark wing patch to a more or less obvious degree. Bronzewings are ground feeders, but are capable of very fast flight. They tend to browse quietly until disturbed, then remain still, their earthy browns blending into the earth and leaf litter until the intruder approaches too closely, when the bronzewings take off with an explosive burst of sudden wing clapping and feather noise, and disappear from sight within moments.
The dividing line between the bronzewings and the rock pigeons is arbitrary; essentially, rock pigeons are bronzewings without bronze on their wings. Members of the group include:
The common bronzewing (Phaps chalcoptera) is a large, bulky pigeon with a small head, found in all parts of Australia bar some of the deep desert, Cape York Peninsula, and urban areas. Its advertising call is an extraordinary mournful repeated at metronomic intervals for an interminable length of time. Although rather wary by nature, birds in the urban fringes become quite used to humans.
The brush bronzewing (P. elegans) is uncommon, probably threatened. It is marginally smaller than the common bronzewing and rather secretive, except for its call, which is slightly faster and higher-pitched, but maintained through the hottest days with equally monotonous determination. Brush bronzewings nest low down, often on the ground, so are vulnerable to feral cats and foxes.
Flock bronzewings (P. histrionica) roams the grasslands of the northern half of the continent. Once found in enormous flocks, they are still to be seen in their thousands. Pizzey's description of their habits is memorable: "When locally abundant, at end of day, undulating, shearwater-like flocks fly to water, settle short distance away, and walk in. Thirsty latecomers may drop directly into water and drink while spreadeagled, before springing off."
Crested pigeons (Ocyphaps lophotes) are distinctive, common, and widespread. Usually seen in small flocks in open woodlands or grasslands, they are always close to water. With the clearing of much forest and the provision of water in arid regions for cattle, crested pigeons have increased in number.
The spinifex pigeon (Geophaps plumifera) is an unmistakable ground-dwelling small pigeon, reddish-bronze in colour and prominently crested, with a unique upright, military stance. When disturbed, it prefers to run erratically, breaking into rapid, noisy flight only if pressed. A desert specialist, it is found in the arid and semiarid zones of the northern half of the continent.
The partridge pigeon (G. smithii) is a dull brown bird about 26 cm long found only in pairs or small flocks in the grasslands of northern Northern Territory and northern Western Australia.
The squatter pigeon (G. scripta), like the very similar partridge pigeon, feeds, roosts, and nests on the ground, and prefers infertile sandy soils and gravel where the grass grows only thinly, allowing easy movement. Squatter pigeons are restricted to the eastern half of Queensland and north-eastern New South Wales.
References
Graham Pizzey & Frank Knight; Field guide to the birds of Australia. Angus & Roberson, 1977,
Columbinae
Bird common names
|
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] |
212357
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media%20coverage%20of%20the%20Iraq%20War
|
Media coverage of the Iraq War
|
The 2003 invasion of Iraq involved unprecedented U.S. media coverage, especially cable news networks.
U.S. mainstream media coverage
The most popular cable network in the United States for news on the war was Fox News, and had begun influencing other media outlets' coverage. Fox News is owned by Rupert Murdoch, a strong supporter of the war. On-screen during all live war coverage by Fox News was a waving flag animation in the upper left corner and the headline "Operation Iraqi Freedom" along the bottom. The network has shown the American flag animation in the upper-left corner since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. A study conducted in 2003 by Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR) tracking the frequencies of pro-war and antiwar commentators on the major networks found that pro-war views were overwhelmingly more frequent. The FAIR study found that the two networks notably least likely to present critical commentary were Fox and CBS.
Anti-war celebrities appearing frequently on news networks included actors Janeane Garofalo, Tim Robbins, Mike Farrell, Rob Reiner, Martin Sheen, Susan Sarandon and director Michael Moore. In a widely publicized story, the country music band Dixie Chicks ignited boycotts and record burnings in the U.S. for their negative remarks about President Bush in a concert in London.
MSNBC also brought the American flag back on screen and regularly ran a tribute called "America's Bravest" which showed photographs sent by family members of troops deployed in Iraq. MSNBC also fired liberal Phil Donahue, a critic of Bush's Iraq policy, a month before the invasion began and replaced his show with an expanded Countdown: Iraq, initially hosted by Lester Holt. Shortly after Donahue's firing, MSNBC hired Michael Savage, a controversial conservative radio talk show host for a Saturday afternoon show. Although Donahue's show had lower ratings than several shows on other networks, and most reports on its cancellation blamed poor ratings, it was the highest-rated program on MSNBC's struggling primetime lineup at the time of its cancellation. In September 2002, Donahue's show averaged 365,000 viewers, compared to rival Connie Chung's 686,000 on CNN and Bill O'Reilly's 2 million on Fox News, according to Nielsen Media Research.
In overall numbers, Fox News was number one, followed by CNN, and then MSNBC. It was a major success for Fox News, as many had believed CNN would reclaim the top spot, since it established itself with coverage from the 1990-1991 Gulf War.
In separate incidents, at least three different Western reporters were fired or disciplined due to their actions in covering the war. Peter Arnett, an NBC and National Geographic correspondent, was fired for giving an interview with Iraqi officials in which he questioned the United States' role and saying the "first war plan had failed." Brian Walski of the Los Angeles Times was fired on March 31 for altering a photo of a British soldier warning Iraqi civilians to take cover from an Iraqi aerial bombing. Geraldo Rivera left Iraq after drawing a crude map in the sand during a live broadcast on Fox News, which raised concerns at the Pentagon that he was possibly revealing vital troop movements on air.
One study has compared the number of insurgent attacks in Iraq to the number of "anti-resolve" statements in the US media, the release of public opinion polls, and geographic variations in access to international media by Iraqis. The purpose was to determine if insurgents responded to information on "casualty sensitivity." The researchers found that insurgent attacks spiked by 5 to 10% after increases in the number of negative reports of the war in the media. The authors identified this as an "emboldenment effect" and concluded "insurgent groups respond rationally to expected probability of US withdrawal."
Criticisms of pro-invasion bias
A University of Maryland study on American public opinion found that:
Fifty-seven percent of mainstream media viewers believed that Iraq gave substantial support to Al-Qaeda, or was directly involved in the September 11 attacks (48% after invasion).
Sixty-nine percent believed that Saddam Hussein was personally involved in the September 11 attacks.
Twenty-two percent believed that weapons of mass destruction had been found in Iraq. (Twenty-one percent believed that chem/bio weapons had actually been used against U.S. soldiers in Iraq during 2003)
In the composite analysis of the PIPA study, 80% of Fox News watchers had one or more of these perceptions, in contrast to 71% for CBS and 27% who tuned to NPR/PBS.
In an investigation of the news coverage of Colin Powell's 2003 U.N. address, rhetorical scholar John Oddo found that mainstream journalists "strengthened Powell's credibility, predisposed audiences to respond favorably to his discourse, and subtly altered his claims to make them seem more certain and warranted." In 2003, a study released by Fairness and Accuracy In Reporting stated the network news disproportionately focused on pro-war sources and left out many anti-war sources. According to the study, 64% of total sources were in favor of the Iraq War while total anti-war sources made up 10% of the media (only 3% of US sources were anti-war). The study stated that "viewers were more than six times as likely to see a pro-war source as one who was anti-war; with U.S. guests alone, the ratio increases to 25 to 1."
FAIR also conducted a similar study in February 2004. According to the study, which took place during October 2003, current or former government or military officials accounted for 76 percent of all 319 sources for news stories about Iraq which aired on network news channels.
After the invasion, the editors of the New York Times apologized for its coverage of Hussein's alleged weapons programs, acknowledging that "we wish we had been more aggressive in re-examining the claims (related to Iraqi weapons programs) as new evidence emerged — or failed to emerge."
During the invasion, critics argued that the mainstream media unduly focused on optimistic events, such as the toppling of a Saddam Hussein statue in Firdos Square, which was staged with the help of the U.S. military forces, thus downplaying more negative news developments.
In particular, the mainstream media has been criticized for underreporting news about Iraqi civilian casualties, which are estimated to be anywhere between 100,000 and 650,000.
As the security situation in Iraq has worsened since the invasion, many journalists have found it increasingly difficult to report from Iraq without jeopardizing their lives. Some media outlets, unable to afford the cost of additional security, have even abandoned their bureaus in Baghdad. This trend has forced journalists to depend even more heavily on U.S. military sources, which has led some critics to call into question the impartiality of their reports on events such as the Iraqi elections.
A post-2008 election poll by FactCheck.org found that 48% of Americans believe Hussein played a role in the 9/11 attacks; the group concluded that "voters, once deceived, tend to stay that way despite all evidence."
Use of propaganda
Media critics such as Noam Chomsky, have alleged that the media acted as propaganda for not questioning the legality of the Iraq war and thus, took on the fundamental assumptions given by the government. This is despite overwhelming public opinion in favor of only invading Iraq with UN authorization.
In a 2010 interview, Chomsky compared media coverage of the Afghan War Diaries released by WikiLeaks and lack of media coverage to a study of severe health problems in Fallujah. While there was ample coverage of WikiLeaks there was no American coverage of the Fallujah study, in which the health situation in Fallujah was described by the British media as "worse than Hiroshima".
Chomsky also asserts that the media accurately covered events such as the Battle of Fallujah but because of an ideological bias, it acts as pro-government propaganda. In describing coverage of raid on Fallujah General Hospital he states that The New York Times, "accurately recorded the battle of Fallujah but it was celebrated...it was celebration of ongoing war crimes". The article in question was "Early Target of Offensive Is a Hospital".
It was revealed on October 2, 2016 that the Pentagon paid British PR firm Bell Pottinger $540mn to create fake terrorist videos, fake news articles for Arab news channels and propaganda videos.
An investigation by the Bureau of Investigative Journalism revealed the details of the multi-million pound operation. Bell Pottinger is understood to have been funded some $540million from the US Department of Defence (DoD) for five contracts from May 2007 to December 2011, according to the Times and the Bureau of Investigative Journalism. Lord Tim Bell, the former spin doctor to Margaret Thatcher, confirmed Bell Pottinger reported to the Pentagon, the CIA and the National Security Council on its work in Iraq.
Pentagon military analyst group
An investigation by the New York Times discovered that top Pentagon officials met with news analysts where they gave the analysts 'special information' and then tried to convince them to speak favorably about the Iraq war. The discovery was based on 8000 pages of secret information that had been revealed to The New York Times through a lawsuit under the Freedom of Information Act. The article states that top Pentagon officials would invite news analysts to secret meetings, and urge the analysts to speak positively of the war. Often, the US would give "classified information," trips, and contracts to the news analysts.
U.S. independent media coverage
The Media Workers Against the War and the Indymedia network, among many other independent networks including many journalists from the invading countries, provided reports in a way difficult to control by any government, corporation or political party. In the United States Democracy Now, hosted by
Amy Goodman has been critical of the reasons for the 2003 invasion
and the alleged crimes committed by the US authorities in Iraq.
Australian war artist George Gittoes collected independent interviews with soldiers while producing his documentary Soundtrack To War.
The war in Iraq provided the first time in history that military on the front lines were able to provide direct, uncensored reportage themselves, thanks to blogging software and the reach of the internet. Dozens of such reporting sites, known as soldier blogs or milblogs, were started during the war.
Non-U.S. media coverage
Non-U.S. coverage sometimes differed strongly in tone and content from U.S. media coverage.
In some countries television journalists' behavior differed significantly during the conflict compared to Gulf War conflicts. Jean-Marie Charon said most journalists were more cautious, often using the conditional form and rigorously citing sources.
The crew of , Britain's flagship, demanded that the BBC be turned off on the ship because of what they saw as a clear anti-Coalition or "pro-Iraq" bias. One BBC correspondent had been embedded on the ship, but the crew said they had no complaints of his reporting specifically. The sailors on board the ship claimed that the BBC gave more credit to Iraqi reports than information coming from British or allied sources, often questioning and refusing to believe reports coming from Coalition sources while reporting Iraqi claims of civilian casualties without independent verification. The ship's news feed was replaced with Sky News. Ironically, it later emerged from a study conducted by Professor Justin Lewis of the School of Journalism at Cardiff University that the BBC was the most pro-war of British networks, a finding confirmed in a separate study by the German newspaper Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung.
The war in Iraq saw Abu Dhabi TV mature into a credible Al-Jazeera rival. However, the war did not benefit Al-Arabiya, the newest of Arabic news networks. Created by the Saudi audio-visual group MBC to compete with Al-Jazeera (whose tone often displeases Saudi leaders), Al-Arabiya was launched on February 19, 2003.
In Australia, the Seven Network launched a news bulletin in March 2003, titled "Target Iraq", covering the latest news from the crisis in the country. When the strike on Iraq ended, the bulletin was renamed Seven's 4:30 News and it became a permanent fixture on the Seven Network's schedule.
In Philippines, the ABS-CBN launched a news bulletin in March 2003, titled "ABS-CBN News Special Coverage: Iraq War 2003", covering the latest news from the crisis in the country.
When the strike on Iraq War ended, the bulletin was renamed TV Patrol and it became a permanent fixture on the ABS-CBN's schedule.
Iraqi media coverage
According to reports from three separate media watchdog groups, the Iraqi media was under tight state control prior to the invasion. Saddam Hussein's eldest son, Uday, oversaw as many as a dozen newspapers, sat on several important editorial boards, and ran the most popular television station, Youth TV. In a 2001 report, the French-based Committee to Protect Journalists wrote that Saddam Hussein's government maintained a "stranglehold" on Iraqi media outlets, and that "insulting the president or other government authorities is punishable by death."
In the wake of the invasion, the Iraqi media establishment changed drastically. Hundreds of newspapers, television stations, and radio stations sprouted both inside and outside of the country. Many of these new media outlets were closely linked with religious or political organizations, and closely reflected the interests of their backers. Some observers have suggested that this has contributed to increased sectarianism in the country.
The burgeoning Iraqi media market has also proven subject to manipulation by the United States government. In November 2005, the Los Angeles Times reported on a secret Pentagon program to pay Iraqi media outlets to publish articles favorable of the U.S. invasion and occupation. This initiative relied on U.S.-based subcontractors such as the Lincoln Group to write and place stories with headlines such as "Iraqis Insist on Living Despite Terrorism" and "More Money Goes to Iraq's Development." According to anonymous sources within the U.S. government, Army Lt. Gen. John R. Vines oversees the program. In March 2006, General George Casey, the Army's second in command, indicated that this practice, which did not "violate U.S. law or Pentagon guidelines," would continue.
"Embedded" reporters
Around 600 journalists were "embedded" with military units, 80% being British or American. The Pentagon established the policy of "embedding" reporters with military units.
Robert Entman, professor of communication at the George Washington University and critic of mainstream media for decades, indicated it was a very wise tactic from the Pentagon. He mentioned there were more chances for the journalists to make favorable reports whilst in Iraq with British and American soldiers than if they had been asking questions in Washington. Entman indicated there is a natural cultural bias of American journalists in favor of military troops of their own country and that journalists do like to satisfy the government upon which they rely for information, as well as the public on whom they depend commercially. Entman also mentioned the high number of retired generals making comments on TV, pointing out these could not be considered independent experts as they were still paid by the government. He claims the British Broadcasting Corporation was much more neutral and informative on cultural and historical background than most American television reports.
The Ministry of Defense (MoD) explained "maintaining morale as well as information dominance will rank as important as physical protection". An MoD-commissioned commercial analysis of the print output produced by embeds shows that 90% of their reporting was either "positive or neutral."
Firdos Square controversy
On April 9, 2003, a large statue of Saddam Hussein in Baghdad's Firdos Square, directly in front of the Palestine Hotel where the world's journalists had been quartered, was toppled by a U.S. M88 tank recovery vehicle surrounded by dozens of celebrating Iraqis, who had been attempting to pull down the statue earlier with little success. One such futile attempt by sledgehammer wielding weightlifter Kadhem Sharif particularly caught media attention. Eventually the M88 was able to topple the statue which was jumped upon by Iraqi citizens who then decapitated the head of the statue and dragged it through the streets of the city hitting it with their shoes. The destruction of the statue was shown live on cable news networks as it happened and made the front pages of newspapers and covers of magazines all over the world - symbolizing the fall of the Saddam government. The images of the statue falling came as a shock to many Arab viewers, who had thought that Iraq was winning the war.
Before the statue was toppled, Marine Corporal Edward Chin of the 3rd battalion 4th Marines regiment climbed the ladder and placed an American flag over the statue's face. An Iraqi flag was then placed over the statue. The event was widely publicized, but allegations that it had been staged were soon published. One picture from the event, published in the London Evening Standard, was allegedly doctored to make the crowd appear larger. A report by the Los Angeles Times stated it was an unnamed Marine colonel, not Iraqi civilians who had decided to topple the statue; and that a quick-thinking Army psychological operations team then used loudspeakers to encourage Iraqi civilians to assist and made it all appear spontaneous and Iraqi-inspired. According to Tim Brown at Globalsecurity.org: "It was not completely stage-managed from Washington, DC but it was not exactly a spontaneous Iraqi operation."
The 2004 film Control Room deals with the incident in depth and indicated that the overall impression of Al Jazeera reporters was that it was staged. The Marines present at the time, 3rd Battalion 4th Marines, maintain that the scene was not staged other than the assistance they provided.
Coverage of U.S. casualties
Media coverage of U.S. military casualties has been met by Bush administration efforts to downplay reports about soldiers' deaths throughout the invasion. Unlike the Vietnam War, when the media regularly published photographs of flag-draped coffins of American military personnel killed in action, the Bush administration prohibited the release of such photographs during the Iraq invasion. This ban mirrors a similar ban put in place during the Gulf War, though it appears to have been enforced less tightly during previous military operations.
According to Senator Patrick Leahy, the administration also scheduled the return of wounded soldiers to Dover Air Force Base for after midnight so that the press would not see them. This practice was documented by both the Drudge Report and Salon.com. A number of Dover photographs were eventually released in response to a Freedom of Information request filed by blogger Russ Kick.
Media coverage related to casualty milestones, such as the 1000th, 2000th, and 3000th U.S. soldier killed, have consistently sparked controversy among supporters and defenders of the invasion. On September 7, 2004 the US recorded its 1,000th casualty of the war, when four servicemen died that day (three in one incident, one in another). Presidential candidate John Kerry called it a "tragic milestone." Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld argued the 1000th milestone was passed long ago in the War on Terrorism, with the loss of life on September 11, 2001 being in the thousands, and going on the offensive against terrorism "has its cost."
On October 25, 2005 the Department of Defense announced the 2,000th U.S. death from the war as Staff Sergeant George T. Alexander Jr., who was killed when a roadside bomb detonated near his M2 Bradley in the city of Samarra. In response, Senators including Dick Durbin made statements opposing the war, and activists held six hundred anti-war protests and candlelight vigils across the United States.
In contrast, the Pentagon downplayed the death — Lt. Col. Steven Boylan, chief spokesman for the U.S. military in Iraq, told the Associated Press that "the 2,000 service members killed in Iraq supporting Operation Iraqi Freedom is not a milestone. It is an artificial mark on the wall set by individuals or groups with specific agendas and ulterior motives."
The U.S. death toll reached 3,000 on December 31, 2006 when Texas soldier Spc. Dustin R. Donica was killed in Baghdad, near the office of Saleh al-Mutlaq, a Sunni Arab politician and leader of the Iraqi National Dialogue Front. The milestone came just one day after the execution of Saddam Hussein and just as the Bush Administration was revising its wartime strategy.
As of May 29, 2012, according to the U.S. Department of Defense casualty website, there were 4,409 total deaths.
Ban lifted
Soon after taking office in January 2009, President Barack Obama asked Defense Secretary Robert Gates to review the ban on media coverage of coffins. In February Gates announced that the ban would be lifted, and permission for coverage of individual soldiers would be at the discretion of their next of kin. On 5 April the return of Phillip Myers, an Air Force Staff Sergeant killed in Afghanistan the day before, became the first return of a US serviceman's remains to receive media coverage since the instatement of the original ban in 1991.
Bombing of Al Jazeera
On April 8, 2003, U.S. aircraft bombed the Baghdad bureau of Qatar satellite TV station Al Jazeera killing a journalist and wounding another despite the U.S. being informed of the office's precise coordinates prior to the incident. An Al Jazeera correspondent said that very clear, yellow signs reading "Press" covered the building from all sides and on the roof. A U.S. Central Command spokesman said that the station "was not and never had been a target." The U.S. government had repeatedly criticized Al Jazeera as "endangering the lives of American troops."
The attack had drawn particular criticism because the Kabul office of Al Jazeera had been bombed in the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan.
On 2 April 2003, in a speech given in New York City, British Home Secretary David Blunkett commented on what he believed to be sympathetic and corrupt reporting of Iraq by Arab news sources. He told the audience that "It's hard to get the true facts if the reporters of Al Jazeera are actually linked into, and are only there because they are provided with facilities and support from, the régime." His speech came only hours before Al Jazeera was ejected from Baghdad by the US occupation.
A top secret memo leaked by a British civil servant and a parliamentary researcher detailed a lengthy conversation on April 16, 2004 between Prime Minister Blair and President Bush, in which Bush according to British media allegedly proposed bombing the Qatar central office of Al Jazeera. House press secretary, Scott McClellan, describing it as "outlandish" said, "Any such notion that we would engage in that kind of activity is just absurd." A UK government official suggested that the Bush threat had been "humorous, not serious." Another source said Bush was "deadly serious." The UK government refuses to publish the memo and two civil servants have been charged with violating Britain's Official Secrets Act for allegedly disclosing the document. For a more full discussion, see Al Jazeera bombing memo.
Attack on Palestine Hotel
On the same day as the destruction of the Baghdad bureau of Al Jazeera, a U.S. tank fired a HEAT round at what the U.S. military later said was a suspected Iraqi forward artillery observer. Due to what the U.S. states was a communications error, the tank fired at the Palestine Hotel, where approximately 100 international reporters in Baghdad were based, instead of the correct building, killing two journalists, Taras Protsyuk of Reuters and Jose Couso of the Spanish network Telecinco and wounding three other correspondents.
After interviewing "about a dozen reporters who were at the scene, including two embedded journalists who monitored the military radio traffic before and after the shelling occurred" the Committee to Protect Journalists said the facts suggested "that attack on the journalists, while not deliberate, was avoidable." The Committee to Protect Journalists went on to say that "Pentagon officials, as well as commanders on the ground in Baghdad, knew that the Palestine Hotel was full of international journalists and were intent on not hitting it". It is not clear that orders not to fire upon the hotel had actually made it to the tank level. Reporters Without Borders demanded proof from Donald Rumsfeld that incidents "were not deliberate attempts to dissuade the media from reporting." Amnesty International demanded independent investigation.
Journalist casualties
There were a number of journalist casualties during the invasion, including fourteen deaths (some not directly war-related). Michael Kelly, an influential reporter, columnist, and editor, died in a Humvee accident on April 3, 2003. NBC's David Bloom died of a blood clot three days later. Both Kelly and Bloom were embedded with the U.S. Army's 3rd Infantry Division.
ITN reporter Terry Lloyd, who originally broke the news that Saddam Hussein had used chemical weapons, was killed by US forces near Basra on March 22, 2003.
Critical journalists
Knight Ridder journalists Jonathan Landay and Warren Strobel wrote a series of critical articles in the months before the invasion questioning the need for war and criticizing the intelligence behind it. Charles J. Hanley of the Associated Press, reporting from on the scene in Iraq with U.N. inspectors, made clear there was no evidence of WMD. In one article, on January 18, 2003, he reported that the 13 "facilities of concern" cited by U.S. and British intelligence had been inspected repeatedly with no violations found. All three journalists were featured in Bill Moyers' 2007 special PBS report "Buying the War."
Journalist Peter Arnett was fired by MSNBC and National Geographic after he declared in an interview with the Iraqi information ministry that he believed the U.S. strategy of "shock and awe" had failed. He also went on to tell Iraqi State TV that he had told "Americans about the determination of the Iraqi forces, the determination of the government, and the willingness to fight for their country," and that reports from Baghdad about civilian deaths had helped antiwar protesters undermine the Bush administration's strategy. The interview was given 10 days before the fall of Baghdad.
See also
Military–industrial–media complex
Propaganda model
References
External links
Cable's War Coverage Suggests a New 'Fox Effect' on Television, The New York Times, April 16, 2003
MSNBC's Banfield: Media filtered realities of war, Topeka Capitol-Journal, Matt Moline, April 24, 2003
Why Phil Got Killed, TAPPED, February 27, 2003
Archive of well-documented media criticism of Iraqi war coverage, Provided by the national media watch group, FAIR.
Selection of links and resources on media coverage of the war in Iraq, Provided by The Roy H. Park School of Communications at Ithaca College.
Independent Media in a Time of War, Documentary on the media coverage of the invasion.
Faulk, Kent. "Soldier fought to make difference", The Birmingham News. October 27, 2005. Retrieved October 30, 2005.
Parsons, Claudia & Quinn, Andrew. "US military death toll in Iraq reaches 2,000", Reuters. October 25, 2005. Retrieved October 26, 2005.
"DoD Identifies Army Casualty", United States Department of Defense. October 25, 2005. Retrieved October 29, 2005.
, PIPA. October 2, 2003.
Media coverage
Iraq war
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joel%20Fuhrman
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Joel Fuhrman
|
Joel Fuhrman (born December 2, 1953) is an American celebrity doctor who advocates what he calls a "micronutrient-rich diet". His practice is based on his nutrition-based approach to obesity and chronic disease, also referred to as a nutritarian or restrictive diet, as well as promoting his products and books. He has written several books promoting his dietary approaches including the bestsellers Eat to Live, Super Immunity, The Eat to Live Cookbook, The End of Dieting (2016). and The End of Heart Disease (2016). He sells a related line of nutrition related products.
Life and career
Fuhrman was born in New York City, on December 2, 1953. He is Jewish. He was a competitor in the amateur figure skating circuit. He was a member of the US World Figure Skating Team and placed second in the US National Pairs Championship in 1973. In 1973, he suffered a heel injury which prevented him from competing. Fuhrman claims that an alternative medicine therapy recommended by a naturopath helped speed his recovery, and led him to become interested in alternative medicine. He came in 3rd place at the 1976 World Professional Pairs Skating Championship in Jaca, Spain, skating with his sister, Gale Fuhrman, but due to short-term massive muscle loss from fasting was unable to make the Olympic team. In 1988, he graduated from the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine. Fuhrman is a board-certified family physician and serves as Director of Research for the Nutritional Research Foundation.
Diet and health
Fuhrman has advocated eating at least one pound of raw vegetables and another pound of cooked vegetables each day with an emphasis on green vegetables along with beans, onions, mushrooms, berries, nuts and seeds. He also recommends eating at least one cup of beans a day to benefit from the resistant starch and increase satiety. The Nutritarian diet does not allow dairy products, animal products, snacks between meals, fruit juice, oils or processed foods.
Fuhrman popularized the notion of nutrient density in what he calls the Health Equation: Health = Nutrients/Calories (abbreviated as H = N/C). Peter Lipson, a physician and writer on alternative medicine, has been heavily critical of Fuhrman's health equation, writing that since its terms cannot be quantified, it is "nothing more than a parlor trick". Fuhrman created what he calls the "Aggregate Nutrient Density Index" or ANDI, a ranking of foods based on his claims of micronutrient concentration and kale is at the top of this list. Whole Foods began using the scores as a marketing project and reported that the sales of high scoring foods "skyrocketed".
David Gorski has commented that Fuhrman has promoted a vitalistic view of food and the pseudoscientific idea of detoxification.
Fuhrman has heavily marketed his products and his infomercials have "become a staple during the self-improvement bloc of PBS pledge drives." In the October 2012 edition of Men's Journal, Mark Adams stated that Fuhrman "preaches something closer to fruitarianism or Christian Science than to conventional medical wisdom". Adams also reported that Fuhrman believes that the flu vaccine "isn't effective at all".
Dietician Carolyn Williams has described Fuhrman's nutritarian diet as a fad diet. According to Williams "This can be helpful for people who feel stuck in their weight loss journey and want to totally reset or detox their diet following a holiday or vacation. Although this diet is marketed as an eating pattern, it is essentially a fad diet. Those who do try this diet should go into it knowing that it is not sustainable for everyone long-term, and is only a temporary quick fix to lose weight."
Harriet Hall who reviewed Fuhrman's nutritarian diet commented that he tends to incorrectly assume association studies show causation and that his diet has not been tested in controlled trials. Hall stated that "Fuhrman makes extraordinary claims for the Nutritarian diet, but extraordinary claims must be supported by extraordinary evidence, and the evidence he presents is far from compelling."
See also
Neal D. Barnard
T. Colin Campbell
Michael Greger
Michael Klaper
John A. McDougall
References
External links
1953 births
Alternative detoxification promoters
American figure skaters
American health and wellness writers
American male pair skaters
American medical researchers
American medical writers
American male non-fiction writers
American nutritionists
American primary care physicians
Living people
People in alternative medicine
Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania alumni
Plant-based diet advocates
Pseudoscientific diet advocates
Writers from New Jersey
Celebrity doctors
Family physicians
|
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212364
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre%20Claude%20Fran%C3%A7ois%20Daunou
|
Pierre Claude François Daunou
|
Pierre Claude François Daunou (; 18 August 176120 June 1840) was a French statesman of the French Revolution and Empire. An author and historian, he served as the nation's archivist under both the Empire and the Restoration, contributed a volume to the Histoire littéraire de la France, and published more than twenty volumes of lectures he delivered when he held the chair of history and ethics at the Collège de France.
Early career
He was born at Boulogne-sur-Mer. After studying at the school the Oratorians operates there, he joined the order in Paris in 1777. He was professor in various seminaries from 1780 to 1787, when he was ordained a priest. He had by then published essays and poems that established his reputation in literary circles.
With the onset of the French Revolution, he supported the Civil Constitution of the Clergy; a proffered appointment to a high Catholic Church office failed to induce him to alter his position.
Elected to the National Convention by the Pas-de-Calais département, he associated himself with the moderate Girondists and strongly opposed the death sentence imposed on King Louis XVI. Daunou took little part in the Girondist clash with their radical opponents, The Mountain, but was involved in the events of his party's overthrow in the summer of 1793 and was imprisoned for almost a year.
Directory
In December 1794 he returned to the Convention and was the principal author of the Constitution of the Year III that established the Directory in November 1795. It is probably because of his Girondinism that the Council of the Ancients was given the right of convoking the Council of Five Hundred outside Paris, an expedient which made possible Napoleon Bonaparte's coup d'état (the 18 Brumaire) in 1799.
Daunou was also drew up the plans for the erection and organization of the Institut de France. He was instrumental in crushing the Royalist insurgency known as the 13 Vendémiaire. He was elected by twenty-seven départements as member of the Council of Five Hundred and became its first president. He was ineligible for election as a director, having himself set the age qualification for that office at forty when he was thirty-four. When the government passed into the hands of Talleyrand and his associates, Daunou returned briefly to literature, but in 1798 he was sent to Rome to organize the Roman Republic.
Napoleon and Restoration
In 1799 Daunou returned the role of statesman, preparing the Constitution of the Year VIII, which established the Consulate, under which Napoleon held the position of First Consul. He remained largely ambivalent towards Napoleon, but supported him against Pope Pius VII and the Papal States, providing him historical arguments in a scholarly treatise Sur la puissance temporelle du Pape (On the Temporal Power of the Papacy) in 1809.
Nonetheless, he took little part in the new regime, of which he was resentful, and turned more and more to literature. At the Restoration in 1814, he was deprived of the post of archivist of the Empire, which he had held since 1807. In 1819 he became the chair of history and ethics at the Collège de France; in that role, his courses were among the most famous of the period. With the advent of the July Monarchy in 1830, he regained his old post, now under the title archivist of the Kingdom. In 1839, Daunou was made a peer.
Legacy
The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition'' writes:
See also
Society of the Friends of Truth
References
Additional sources
External links
Pierre Claude François Daunou pamphlets and works from the Ball State University Digital Media Repository
1761 births
1840 deaths
People from Boulogne-sur-Mer
Politicians from Hauts-de-France
Girondins
Orléanists
Deputies to the French National Convention
Presidents of the National Convention
Members of the Council of Five Hundred
Members of the Chamber of Deputies of the Bourbon Restoration
Members of the 1st Chamber of Deputies of the July Monarchy
Members of the 2nd Chamber of Deputies of the July Monarchy
Members of the Chamber of Peers of the July Monarchy
First French Empire
French archivists
French classical liberals
French essayists
French historians
French male essayists
18th-century French Roman Catholic priests
19th-century French Roman Catholic priests
Collège de France faculty
Members of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques
Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre%20Leroux
|
Pierre Leroux
|
Pierre Henri Leroux (7 April 1797 – 12 April 1871), was a French philosopher and political economist. He was born at Bercy, now a part of Paris, the son of an artisan.
Life
His education was interrupted by the death of his father, which compelled him to support his mother and family. Having worked first as a mason and then as a compositor, he joined P. Dubois in the foundation of Le Globe which became in 1831 the official organ of the Saint-Simonian community, of which he became a prominent member. In November of the same year, when Prosper Enfantin became leader of the Saint-Simonians and preached the enfranchisement of women and the functions of the couple-prétre, Leroux separated himself from the sect. In 1834, he published an essay entitled "Individualism and Socialism" which, despite its message of scepticism towards both tendencies, introduced the term socialism in French political discourse. In 1838, with Jean Reynaud, who had seceded with him, he founded the Encyclopédie nouvelle (eds. 1838–1841). Amongst the articles which he inserted in it were De l'egalité and Refutation de l'éclectisme, which afterwards appeared as separate works.
In 1840, he published his treatise De l'humanité (2nd ed. 1845), which contains the fullest exposition of his system, and was regarded as the philosophical manifesto of the Humanitarians. In 1841 he established the Revue indépendante, with the aid of George Sand, over whom he had great influence. Her Spiridion, which was dedicated to him, Sept cordes de la lyre, Consuelo, and La Comtesse de Rudolstadt, were written under the Humanitarian inspiration. Leroux also became embroiled in the philosophical controversy between F.W.J. Schelling and the Young Hegelians in the early 1840s. A favourable comment about Schelling prompted a public reply from Hegel's disciple Karl Rosenkranz. Leroux continued to take an interest in German philosophy and literature; he also translated and commented on some writings by Goethe.
In 1843, he established at Boussac (Creuse) a printing association organized according to his systematic ideas, and founded the Revue sociale. At the outbreak of the Revolution of 1848 Leroux proclaimed the republic in the town of Boussac, becoming its mayor on February 25. Subsequently, he was elected to the Constituent Assembly, and in 1849 to the Legislative Assembly, where he sat with the radical socialist deputies and often spoke, though his speeches were criticised as abstract and mystical. Within the Assembly, Leroux represented the Seine Department. He also published numerous writings, including La Plutocratie (1848), another term he seems to have coined.
An opponent of Louis Bonaparte, Leroux went into exile after the coup d'état of 1851, settling with his family in Jersey, where he pursued agricultural experiments and wrote his socialist poem La Grève de Samarez. Marx nominated Leroux for the Central Committee of the International Workingmen's Association. On the definitive amnesty of 1869 he returned to Paris. He supported the Paris Commune but died before its suppression.
Views
Leroux' thought is a unique medley of doctrines borrowed from Saint-Simonian, German Idealist, Pythagorean and Buddhistic sources. His fundamental philosophical principle is that of what he calls the "triad"—a triplicity which he finds to pervade all things, which in God is "power, intelligence and love," in man "sensation, sentiment and knowledge".
His religious doctrine is pantheistic; and, rejecting the belief in a future life as commonly conceived, he substitutes for it a theory of metempsychosis. In social economy he preserves the family, country and property, but finds in all three, as they now are, a despotism which must be eliminated. He imagines certain combinations by which this triple tyranny can be abolished. His solution seems to require the creation of families without heads, countries without governments and property without right of possession. In politics he advocates absolute equality — a democracy.
Leroux's significance in the history of ideas lies in his attempt to resuscitate spirituality and community in France in the wake of the revolutionary decades of the 1790s and the Napoleonic Era. As was the case with many of his romantic socialist contemporaries, Leroux sought a basis on which to refound the human community that did not rely on the pillars of the old Regime, authority, hierarchy, and the Catholic Church. The span of his lifetime were years of the rise of capitalism and liberal trade policies, and also of the rise of an organized workers' movement. Romantic socialism as a movement attempted to reconcile religious and material needs in society. Leroux' most thorough exposition of this idea is found in his Doctrine de l'Humanité, published first in 1840. In this and other works he argues for a reciprocal notion of human need and identity, emphasizing humanity's interdependence in lieu of atomized individuality.
See also
Liberté, égalité, fraternité
French demonstration of 15 May 1848
Circulus (theory)
Notes
References
This work in turn cites:
Raillard, Célestin (1899). Pierre Leroux at ses œuvres. Paris.
Reybaud, Louis (1842). Études sur les réformateurs et socialistes modernes. Brussels.
Thomas, Pierre-Félix (1904). Pierre Leroux: sa vie, son œuvre, sa doctrine. Paris.
article in R. H. Inglis Palgrave (ed). Dictionary of Political Economy.
Further reading
J. Maîtron (ed. by), Dictionnaire biographique du mouvement ouvrier français. Première partie: 1789-1864 (Paris, 1964): t. II, pp. 501–503.
Jack Bakunin, Pierre Leroux and the birth of democratic socialism, 1797-1848 (New York, 1976)
Jacques Viard, Pierre Leroux et les socialistes européens (Arles, 1982)
Armelle Le Bras-Chopard, De l'égalité dans la différence : le socialisme de Pierre Leroux (Paris, 1986)
Marisa Forcina, I diritti dell’esistente. La filosofia della “Encyclopédie nouvelle” (1833-1847) (Lecce, 1987)
Barbel Kuhn, Pierre Leroux: Sozialismus zwischen analytischer Gesellschaftskritik und sozialphilosophischer Synthese: ein Beitrag zur methodischen Erforschung des vormarxistischen Sozialismus (Frankfurt am Main, 1988)
Miguel Abensour, Le Procès des maîtres rêveurs (Paris, 2000)
Bruno Viard, Pierre Leroux, penseur de l’humanité (Aix-en-Provence, 2009)
Andrea Lanza, All'abolizione del proletariato! Il discorso socialista fraternitario. Parigi 1839-1847 (Milano, 2010)
External links
Biographical sketch (in Italian)
Biographical sketch (in French). Site discusses intellectual background of George Sand.
http://www.amisdepierreleroux.org (in French)
1798 births
1871 deaths
Writers from Paris
Politicians from Paris
The Mountain (1849) politicians
Members of the 1848 Constituent Assembly
Members of the National Legislative Assembly of the French Second Republic
Pantheists
French philosophers
Saint-Simonists
19th-century philosophers
French economists
French socialists
Utopian socialists
Forty-Eighters
French male writers
19th-century male writers
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charmed
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Charmed
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Charmed is an American fantasy drama television series created by Constance M. Burge and produced by Aaron Spelling and his production company Spelling Television, with Brad Kern serving as showrunner. The series was originally broadcast by The WB for eight seasons from October 7, 1998, until May 21, 2006. The series narrative follows a trio of sisters, known as The Charmed Ones, the most powerful good witches of all time, who use their combined "Power of Three" to protect innocent lives from evil beings such as demons and warlocks. Each sister possesses unique magical powers that grow and evolve, while they attempt to maintain normal lives in modern-day San Francisco. Keeping their supernatural identities separate and secret from their ordinary lives often becomes a challenge for them, with the exposure of magic having far-reaching consequences on their various relationships and resulting in a number of police and FBI investigations throughout the series. The series initially focuses on the three Halliwell sisters, Prue (Shannen Doherty), Piper (Holly Marie Combs), and Phoebe (Alyssa Milano). Following Prue's death in the third-season finale, their long-lost half sister Paige Matthews (Rose McGowan) assumes her place within the "Power of Three" from season four onwards.
Charmed achieved a cult following and popularity on The WB with its first episode "Something Wicca This Way Comes" garnering 7.7 million viewers, breaking the record for the network's highest-rated debut episode. The show's ratings, although smaller than rival shows on the "big four" networks (ABC, CBS, NBC, and Fox), were a success for the relatively new and smaller WB network. Charmed went through several timeslot changes during its eight-season run. For its first three seasons in the Wednesday/Thursday 9:00 pm timeslot, Charmed was the second-highest rated series on The WB, behind 7th Heaven. During its fifth season, the show moved to the Sunday 8:00 pm timeslot, where it became the highest-rated Sunday night program in The WB's history. At 178 episodes, Charmed was the second-longest drama broadcast by The WB, behind 7th Heaven. In 2006, it became the longest running hour-long television series featuring all female leads, before being surpassed by Desperate Housewives in 2012.
The series has also received numerous awards and nominations. In 2010, The Huffington Post and AOL TV ranked Charmed within their joint list of "The Top 20 Magic/Supernatural Shows of All Time," while in 2013, TV Guide listed the series as one of "The 60 Greatest Sci-Fi Shows of All Time." Charmed has also become a source of pop culture references in film and television and has influenced other succeeding television series in the same subgenre. The show's success has led to its development in other media, including a video game, board games, soundtracks, novels, and a comic book series which served as a continuation of its narrative. According to data research from The NPD Group in 2012, Charmed was the second-most binge watched television series on subscription video-on-demand services, such as Netflix. A reboot series of Charmed, featuring different cast members and characters, premiered on The CW on October 14, 2018.
Series overview
The series starts in 1998 when Phoebe Halliwell (Alyssa Milano) returns from New York and moves back into the family's Halliwell Manor in San Francisco to live with her sisters Prue (Shannen Doherty) and Piper (Holly Marie Combs). When Phoebe discovers the family's Book of Shadows in the attic, she learns that she and her sisters are the most powerful witches ever known, destined to protect both innocents and the world at large from demons, warlocks, and other evil creatures. Phoebe, reasonably suspecting the book to be a novelty, reads its initial inscription—unaware that it also happens to be an incantation activating the sisters' supernatural powers once all three are reunited in their ancestral home.
By the end of the first episode, each sister learns that she has a unique magical power that allows them to cast spells and brew potions. Prue, the eldest, has the power of telekinesis (the ability to move objects with her mind), and in season two she develops the power of astral projection (the ability to be in two places at once). Piper, the middle sister, has the power of molecular immobilization. As she grows more proficient, she learns how to freeze only certain people or objects or body parts, as she wishes. In season three, her powers evolve further, as she is able to cause evil beings or objects to explode using her hands as a development of her powers surrounding molecular movement. Phoebe, the youngest of the three, initially possesses the power of premonition allowing her to receive visions of the future and later of the past. She later develops the powers of levitation in season three, and empathy in season six, the latter allowing her to sense and tap into others' emotions and, sometimes, powers. In accordance with the series' mythology, witches' powers are tied to their emotions.
During the first two seasons, the sisters face various evil beings from week to week. However, in the third season, they discover that their ultimate enemy is The Underworld's demonic ruler, The Source of All Evil. Eventually, Prue is killed in the season three finale by The Source's personal assassin, Shax (Michael Bailey Smith). While grieving for their older sister, Piper and Phoebe discover that they also have a younger half-sister, Paige Matthews (Rose McGowan), who had been the secret love child of their witch mother, Patty (Finola Hughes), and her "whitelighter" (guardian angel) Sam Wilder (Scott Jaeck). Paige's magical abilities represent her dual heritage as both a witch and whitelighter; like Prue, she possesses a form of telekinesis, but she has to verbally call for objects to "orb" (teleport) them to their intended destination. As she attempts to control the two sides of her ancestry, Paige also learns how to orb herself and others, and to heal others with the touch of her hand; she eventually receives her own whitelighter charges to train and protect as they learn witchcraft. Paige can also "glamour", shapeshifting into a different human appearance.
The Source, responsible for the majority of attacks on the sisters, becomes the main villain during season four until he is finally vanquished. After his demise, an annual season-long storyline and several antagonists are introduced in subsequent seasons (occasionally following the "Big Bad" television format). These include Phoebe's demonic ex-husband, Cole Turner (Julian McMahon), until mid-season five; the scheming, misguided Elder, Gideon (Gildart Jackson), throughout season six; The Avatars until mid-season seven; the demon Zankou (Oded Fehr) until the season seven finale; and, in season eight, powerful sister witches Billie (Kaley Cuoco) and Christy Jenkins (Marnette Patterson), who fall under the influence of the demonic Triad (who earlier feature as early-season three antagonists). In addition to the supernatural themes explored in Charmed, the characters contend with serious issues in their day-to-day lives such as relationships, careers, marriage, childbirth, illness and the deaths of loved ones. The sisters also fight to prevent the exposure of the existence of magic to the human community at large, contending with several police and FBI investigations. Often through the assistance of their long-term ally, Darryl Morris (Dorian Gregory) of the San Francisco Police Department, they are able to avoid police suspicion, including the investigation of the most-recurring human antagonist, Inspector Sheridan (Jenya Lano), in the sixth and seventh seasons.
The sisters also face romantic storylines. Prue's love interests include her high school sweetheart, Inspector Andy Trudeau (Ted King), who dies in the season one finale in an attempt to save the sisters, and a brief co-worker, Jack Sheridan (Lochlyn Munro), in season two. Piper's central love interest throughout the series is the sisters' whitelighter Leo Wyatt (Brian Krause); their early relationship is problematic due to the forbidden nature of witch-whitelighter relationships, and so in season two a love triangle forms with Piper, Leo and her neighbor, Dan Gordon (Greg Vaughan). Eventually, the two manage to marry and consecrate their union in season three, producing a son named Wyatt in season five. The couple separate due to supernatural circumstances at the end of the fifth season; however, they reconnect in the subsequent season, resulting in a second son named Chris. The final episode of Charmed shows them to have a daughter, many grandchildren, and to grow old together in the future. Phoebe's romantic history involves a tortured relationship with half-demon Cole Turner in the show's third, fourth and fifth seasons; they have a turbulent marriage in the fourth, and in the fifth, following their divorce, she is compelled to vanquish him. Phoebe has a number of multi-episode human boyfriends in subsequent seasons, including her boss, Jason Dean (Eric Dane), before meeting a cupid named Coop (Victor Webster) in the eighth season, whom she marries. Paige, like Phoebe, has several multi-episode boyfriends, including fellow-witch and magic "addict" Richard Montana (Balthazar Getty) in season six, and an unstable FBI agent-turned-whitelighter Kyle Brody (Kerr Smith) in season seven. In the eighth season, she becomes committed to a human parole officer, Henry Mitchell (Ivan Sergei), whom she marries. The final episode's flashforward montage reveals Piper, Phoebe, and Paige to have three children each with their respective husbands.
Cast and characters
Main
Shannen Doherty as Prue Halliwell (seasons 1–3), the eldest sister who initially receives the power to move objects with her mind by channelling telekinesis through her eyes. As the series progresses, Prue learns how to channel her telekinetic powers through her hands and gains the power of astral projection, the ability to be in two places at once. Prue also develops martial arts skills and becomes an effective hand-to-hand fighter. During her three seasons on Charmed, she is regarded as the strongest and most powerful witch of the Halliwell sisters. Prue initially works as an appraiser for an auction house, and later becomes a professional photographer for a magazine company. In the season three finale, she is killed by Shax (Michael Bailey Smith), a powerful demonic assassin sent by The Source of All Evil.
Holly Marie Combs as Piper Halliwell, the second eldest sister who initially receives the power to freeze her surrounding environment. As the series progresses, she also gains the power to cause evil beings or objects to spontaneously explode. Piper is initially the middle sister of the family during the first three seasons, but later becomes the eldest sister after Prue dies. Piper's central love interest throughout the series is Leo Wyatt (Brian Krause), the sisters' whitelighter – a guardian angel for good witches. In season three, she marries Leo, and as the series progresses, they have two children; Wyatt (born in season five) and Chris (born in season six). Piper initially works as a chef and manager for the restaurant Quake, but from season two onwards, she becomes the owner and manager of the nightclub P3.
Alyssa Milano as Phoebe Halliwell, the third eldest sister who initially receives the power of premonition, the ability to see into the future and the past. To make up for initially only having a passive power, Phoebe develops martial arts skills in order to better assist her sisters when they fight evil. As the series progresses, she also gains the active powers of levitation and empathy. Phoebe is introduced into Charmed as the youngest and most rebellious of the Halliwell sisters. However, her progression as a witch helps her become more responsible and grow as a person. Phoebe later becomes the middle sister after Prue dies and the series introduces their younger half-sister Paige (Rose McGowan). Phoebe was initially a college student for the first few seasons, and later becomes an advice columnist for the newspaper company The Bay Mirror.
Rose McGowan as Paige Matthews (seasons 4–8), the youngest half-sister who initially receives the power to move objects with her mind by orbing ("teleporting") objects from one location to another through a vocal command. She was the secret love child of the Halliwell sisters' mother Patty (Finola Hughes) and her whitelighter Sam Wilder (Scott Jaeck), making Paige both a witch and whitelighter. She was given up at birth and raised by her adoptive parents. Paige is introduced upon Prue's funeral at the beginning of season four, where she goes on to help reconstitute The Charmed Ones by taking Prue's place in the "Power of Three". As the series progresses, Paige also receives the whitelighter powers of orbing herself and others, as well as sensing, glamouring, and healing.
Supporting
T.W. King as Andy Trudeau (season 1), introduced as the Halliwell sisters' childhood friend and Prue's high school sweetheart and first love. He works as an inspector for the San Francisco Police Department and is coincidentally assigned to almost every police case that involves the sisters. Andy eventually discovers that they are witches and serves as the sisters' initial connection to the police force. In the season one finale, Andy is killed by the demon Rodriguez (Carlos Gomez), who also happens to be one of the Internal Affairs officers investigating Andy's unsolved cases.
Dorian Gregory as Darryl Morris (seasons 1–7), a lieutenant in the San Francisco Police Department. Darryl is introduced into season one as Andy Trudeau's (Ted King) best friend and partner. At first, Darryl is suspicious of the Halliwell sisters' recurring connection to mysterious murders and crimes. However, in season two, the sisters reveal to him that they are good witches trying to bring justice and protection to the world. Throughout the series, Darryl helps the sisters cover up unsolved cases related to demonic activity, as well as granting them favors and giving them general support. His family also become close to the sisters and consider them part of their family. At the end of season seven, Darryl and his family move to the East Coast.
Greg Vaughan as Dan Gordon (season 2), introduced as the Halliwell sisters' new next-door neighbor. Dan and Piper become romantically involved after Piper and Leo (Brian Krause) break up due to the strenuous nature his whitelighter duties place on their relationship. Piper later breaks up with Dan and reconciles with Leo. At the end of season two, Dan moves to Portland to take a job offer.
Karis Paige Bryant as Jenny Gordon (season 2), introduced as Dan Gordon's (Greg Vaughan) niece who temporarily moves in with him for school because her parents are in Saudi Arabia on business. Whilst living with her uncle, Jenny forms a bond with the Halliwell sisters and often turns to them for advice on female issues that she is not comfortable talking to her uncle about. Midway through season two, Jenny moves back in with her parents after they return to the United States.
Brian Krause as Leo Wyatt (seasons 2–8; recurring season 1), the Halliwell sisters' whitelighter—a guardian angel for good witches—who has the powers to orb, heal, sense, levitate, glamour and hover. Leo is introduced into season one as the sisters' handyman hired to fix up their house, but they later discover that he is their whitelighter. Leo's whitelighter duties often causes problems for his marriage to Piper and their family. Their relationship is the first of many conflicts between the sisters and The Elders.
Julian McMahon as Cole Turner / Belthazor (seasons 3–5; guest season 7), a half-human and half-demon who has the powers to teleport and throw projective energy balls which could stun or kill. Cole is introduced into season three as an Assistant District Attorney sent by The Triad to kill The Charmed Ones, but instead he falls in love with Phoebe. Although Cole completely rids himself of his demonic nature and marries Phoebe in season four, he later returns to evil after he unwillingly becomes the new Source of All Evil. As The Source, Cole is eventually vanquished by The Charmed Ones, only to come back from death in his attempts to win Phoebe back. Driven insane, Cole is, through his own doing, once again killed by the sisters in season five. He later returns for a guest appearance in the season seven episode "The Seven Year Witch," where it is revealed his spirit is trapped between realms.
Debbi Morgan as The Seer (seasons 4-5), The Seer was an upper level demon . Duplicitous, manipulative and self-serving; she served several Sources. Her cunning gameplay pits the sisters against one another. Imbued with the power to see the future, she can only be eliminated by the Power of Three.
Drew Fuller as Chris Halliwell (season 6; guest seasons 5, 7–8), the second-eldest son of Leo and Piper. Chris is introduced into the season five finale as a whitelighter from the future who helps assist the Halliwell sisters against magical beings known as The Titans. In season six, Chris reveals that he is Leo and Piper's son and has traveled back in time to prevent his older brother Wyatt from growing up to be the evil dictator he becomes in the future. In the season six finale, adult Chris is killed by an Elder named Gideon (Gildart Jackson) and baby Chris is born.
Kaley Cuoco as Billie Jenkins (season 8), introduced as a young college student and a new charge for Paige (Rose McGowan). Billie has the power to move objects with her mind using telekinesis, and later develops the power of projection; the ability to warp reality. She spends most of season eight trying to find her eldest sister Christy (Marnette Patterson), who was kidnapped 15 years earlier by The Triad. Billie is eventually reunited with her sister, but does not know that Christy has been turned evil under the influence of demons. After Christy briefly sways her to betray the Charmed Ones, Billie eventually sides with them in the series finale and is forced to kill her sister in self-defense.
Production
Development
In 1998, when The WB began looking for a new drama series for the 1998–99 season, they approached Spelling Television (which had produced the network's then-most successful series, 7th Heaven) to create it. Expanding on the popularity of witch-themed dramas such as The Craft (1996) and Practical Magic (1998), the production company explored different forms of mythology to find characters they could realize with contemporary storytelling.
Constance M. Burge was hired to create the series as she was under contract with 20th Century Fox and Spelling Television after conceiving the drama series Savannah (1996–97). When the theme of witchcraft was first pitched to her, she was aware of stereotypes of witches (flying brooms, black cats, and warts). After researching Wicca, she changed her perspective and aimed at telling a story of good witches who looked and acted like ordinary people. With this, her initial concept was a series set in Boston, Massachusetts about three friends and roommates who were all witches. However, executive producer E. Duke Vincent lacked confidence, asking "Why would anybody want to watch a show about three witches?" He proposed that the series should focus on family values and developed the series-long mantra of it being about "three sisters who happen to be witches, not three witches who happen to be sisters." Spelling warmed to Burge's ideas and, after the concept was re-crafted to be a series about three sisters (now living in San Francisco) descended from a line of witches, it was pitched to The WB's President of Entertainment, Susanne Daniels, who liked it, allowing the series to begin development.
The series was retitled Charmed after Spelling's suggestion of House of Sisters was dropped. Burge wrote the pilot script and a 28-minute version of the pilot was filmed (the "unaired pilot," never aired on network television). After original cast member Lori Rom quit the series before its premiere, Alyssa Milano took over her role and a new pilot had to be filmed. Upon its debut, Charmed received the largest audience for a series premiere in The WB's history. The first season of 22 episodes was picked up by The WB after only two episodes had aired.
Casting
Former Beverly Hills, 90210 actress Shannen Doherty was cast as the eldest sister Prue Halliwell, while her best friend at the time and former Picket Fences actress Holly Marie Combs played the role of the middle sister Piper Halliwell. Lori Rom was originally cast as the youngest sister Phoebe Halliwell in the 28-minute unaired pilot episode. However, Rom quit the series, and a new pilot was filmed with former Who's the Boss? actress Alyssa Milano in the role of Phoebe. Doherty departed Charmed at the end of the third season. Jennifer Love Hewitt and Tiffani Thiessen were both considered as replacements. The part ultimately went to film actress Rose McGowan, who played the long-lost younger half-sister Paige Matthews in the fourth season.
In season one, Ted King was cast as the inspector Andy Trudeau, Dorian Gregory was cast as his inspector partner Darryl Morris, and Brian Krause was cast as the Halliwell sisters' whitelighter Leo Wyatt. King departed Charmed at the end of the first season, while Gregory remained on the show until the seventh season. In season two, Greg Vaughan joined the series as the Halliwell sisters' new next-door neighbor Dan Gordon, while Karis Paige Bryant was cast as his niece Jenny Gordon. Bryant left her role midway through the second season, while Vaughan left at the end of the season. Australian actor Julian McMahon joined the cast of Charmed in season three as the half-demon Cole Turner. He departed the show midway through season five. Drew Fuller joined Charmed at the end of the fifth season as Piper and Leo's second son from the future, Chris Halliwell. Fuller left his role at the end of season six. In the eighth and final season, Kaley Cuoco joined the show as the young witch Billie Jenkins.
Production and writing
Aaron Spelling and E. Duke Vincent maintained their positions as executive producers of the series until it ended. Constance M. Burge became an executive producer when she was hired to create the series and write the pilot script. After the 28-minute "unaired pilot" was shown to The WB and the series was picked up by the network, Brad Kern was recruited as the fourth executive producer and as the showrunner in order to decipher how the series would develop over the course of its run. Scripting was done by a large number of writers. Kern did the most writing, with a total of 26 episodes, as well as directing one of them. The writers with the most writing credits other than Kern include Daniel Cerone, Curtis Kheel, Zack Estrin, Chris Levinson, Krista Vernoff, Sheryl J. Anderson, Monica Owusu-Breen, Alison Schapker, Cameron Litvack, and Jeannine Renshaw. Burge wrote seven episodes for the first and second seasons before leaving her position as executive producer. Scripting was carried out after group brainstorms took place, discussing the events of the episodes, the emotions of the characters, and the mythology involved. Robert Masello, an executive story editor for the series, credits himself as the only demonologist hired for a series, in order to add his experience to the storyline.
The book Investigating Charmed: The Magic Power of TV (2007) revealed that viewers of the Wiccan religion appreciated the accurate portrayal of some Wiccan elements, but were disappointed with the way the series tied the Wiccan religion with Christianity, through the concept of demons and angels (Whitelighters). One Wiccan viewer noted that some of the evil demons in Charmed carry the names of benevolent gods and goddesses in the Wiccan religion. However, many Wiccan viewers appreciated the fact that Charmed brought their religion into the public eye in a positive way, through the use of other elements such as sacred objects, spellcasting, a Book of Shadows, solstice celebrations and handfastings. Cast member Holly Marie Combs revealed in The Women of Charmed documentary (2000) that the series aimed at following a mythology created by fantasy, and not adhering to Wiccan rules too closely, for fear of coming under criticism for either not being "technically correct enough" or missing the truth completely.
Ahead of the third season, Burge left her former position as executive producer to Kern, after she reportedly became frustrated that storylines for the third season were going to become more focused on the sisters' relationships with their love interests than each other. She had disagreements with Kern over bringing the character Cole Turner (Julian McMahon) into the show as a love interest for Alyssa Milano's character Phoebe, as there was already enough focus on the show's established couple Piper (Holly Marie Combs) and Leo Wyatt (Brian Krause). However, Burge remained on Charmed as a creative consultant until season four. Her departure resulted in changes in the story structure of the show, from a "demon of the week" system to using third or half-season-long story arcs. In addition, more importance was given to the protagonists' personal lives. The serial connection of episodes culminated in the second half of season four. Despite the ratings increasing during season four's final story arc from 4.19 to 4.21, The WB asked Kern to abandon the serial system. This led to the largely episodic structure of season five, and resulted in the two systems being balanced from the sixth season onwards.
Filming locations
The first six seasons of Charmed were filmed at Ray-Art Studios in Canoga Park, Los Angeles on four of the studio's sound stages. After Ray-Arts Studio was sold in 2003, production for Charmed moved to the Paramount Studios lot for seasons seven and eight. The Innes House located at 1329 Carroll Avenue in Los Angeles was used as the exterior for the show's fictional Halliwell Manor, and has become popular with tourists over the years.
Budget cuts
During the seventh season and for the first time in its history, the show had been in limbo as there was no guaranteed renewal for an eighth season. Charmed was ultimately renewed for a final season, but the budget was cut considerably compared to previous seasons due to expensive special effects and props and highly-paid actresses. Executive producer Brad Kern revealed that they had to cut back on special effects and guest stars, and that the entire season was shot only on the Paramount Studios lot as they could not go out on location anymore. These budget cuts also led to cast member Dorian Gregory being written out of the final season and Brian Krause being written out of several episodes as a cost-saving measure. Kern revealed that the show could not afford to have Krause in all 22 episodes of the final season, but he was brought back for the final two episodes to help bring closure to the storylines.
Opening credits
Charmed featured a cold opening, and its opening credits was used to introduce the main and supporting cast members in each season. It consisted of various scenes from episodes and individual footages of the cast that were mostly updated from season to season. The opening began with images of the Golden Gate Bridge and flashing shots of the triquetra symbol in a circle. The show's title card then appeared, featuring the triquetra symbol and Book of Shadows. After the title card shot in the seasons 1–3 opening, scenes from the pilot episode were shown, which included an overhead view of the sisters casting a spell at a round table and a shot of them coming downstairs. A scene of the sisters reciting a spell was then shown with the word "starring." This was followed by the individual footages and names of each lead actress; Shannen Doherty's appeared first, then Holly Marie Combs' and Alyssa Milano's, followed by the individual footages and names of each supporting cast member, with the exception of its first five episodes, in which Milano was the last to be billed. The last few scenes in the opening showed the sisters' cat, a San Francisco cable car, and lastly the sisters walking upstairs into their home, with Doherty's character closing the door using her telekinetic powers.
Following Doherty's departure at the end of season three, the season four opening credits had to be recreated to remove all footage of Doherty and to include her replacement, Rose McGowan. The beginning of the opening remained the same. However, after the title card was shown, scenes were changed to include images of the Golden Gate Bridge, a gargoyle, talisman, scrying crystal, tattoo of the triquetra symbol, and candles. The order in which each lead actresses individual footage and name appeared in the opening was also changed; Milano's was moved up first, McGowan's was put in second, and Combs' was moved down third and listed "as Piper". The last few scenes in the opening were also changed to include a cemetery, exterior shots of the Halliwell Manor, and pages in the Book of Shadows. A five-second opening was used for the two-part premiere episodes of seasons four and five; it featured flashing shots of the triquetra symbol and the show's title in large blue letters.
The opening theme song used in the television airings of all eight seasons was Love Spit Love's cover version of "How Soon Is Now?" by The Smiths. This version of the song had previously appeared on the soundtrack of The Craft, and is featured in the series' first soundtrack album. In the shortened five-second opening for the two-part premiere episodes of seasons four and five, the song was replaced by instrumental music. "How Soon Is Now?" was also replaced by hard-rock instrumental music in the season eight DVD because the music license to use it had expired. This hard-rock instrumental music was also used in the opening of all eight seasons on Netflix.
For its remaster, although most of the shots for the opening credits remained the same, some background images and flashing symbols were panned and scanned to fit the 1.78:1 aspect ratio.
Reception
Critical reception
The earlier seasons of Charmed received mostly favorable reviews from television critics, with its first season scoring a Metacritic score of 61 out of 100. During the first season, Entertainment Weekly writer Ken Tucker, speaking on the comparisons between Charmed and rival series, argued: "spike-heeled where Buffy is fleet-footed, Charmed is Charlie's Angels with an Ouija board." As well as the show's action sequences—describing the Halliwells as "superheroes"—he noted that the series "plays up the stars' separate-but-equal charms" and admired both its "casting and pop-culture timing." Vanessa Thorpe of The Guardian agreed with Alyssa Milano's description of Charmed as "perfect post-feminist girl-power," praising the balance between action and emotion as the "three sibling sorceresses know mischief, but are accessibly feminine." Entertainment Weekly critic Karyn L. Barr labelled Charmed a "crafty cult classic" and in her retrospective review of the first season, wrote that it "remains spellbinding thanks to its proper balance of quirky humor, Buffy-esque drama" and Shannen Doherty's character Prue. Angelica Bastien of Bustle magazine commended the "strong female characters" and felt that the show resembled Xena: Warrior Princess more than Buffy due to its "mix of drama, wacky humor, intensely layered mythology, and feminism-lite vibe."
During the third season, Michael Abernethy of PopMatters praised the "well-choreographed action sequences, respectable acting" and "believable" sisterly relationship between Milano, Doherty, and Holly Marie Combs. Abernethy credited Charmed as "more enjoyable than most shows in the good vs evil genre" largely due to the strength of the performers, and noted that despite the monster of the week format, "the writers tend to explore the sibling dynamics to keep the show from growing redundant." Christel Loar also from PopMatters agreed that "episodes go beyond the demon-of-the-week formula to tap into the relationships of the characters and their...flaws. Charmed...succeeded by combining sisterhood with the supernatural." Loar also claimed that the Halliwells' struggle for normal lives, "stability, and a sense of self is one of the reasons Charmed strikes such a chord with its viewers." The A.V. Clubs Kayla Kumari Upadhyaya described the fourth season as "one of the grimmest seasons of Charmed," following Doherty's departure and her character's death "informing the overall tone." Upadhyaya also praised the "smart decisions" the writers made of how they introduced a new sister into the series, calling the transition "Charmeds greatest accomplishment" that "opened up whole new avenues for grounded, emotional storytelling." During the sixth season, Gillian Flynn of Entertainment Weekly described Charmed as "a guilty-pleasure fantasy" that is "inherently cute and incredibly simple." Flynn also praised the comedic acting between Milano, Combs and Rose McGowan, adding that "selling this kind of comedy takes a certain gameness, and the actresses have got it."
The latter seasons of Charmed also received a mixed reception from some critics. Bustles Bastien felt that after Doherty's departure, "Charmed got pretty bad," noting that the show "lost track of its core theme" of witchcraft and sisterhood by bringing in mystical fairy tale beings and focusing more on soap opera-type plots and the sisters' love lives. Similarly, BuzzFeed writer Jarett Wieselman agreed that "After Doherty's exit, Charmed veered into slightly-absurd-yet-no-less-entertaining territory," noting that McGowan's addition "ushered in a wave of increasingly campy episodes." The A.V. Clubs Upadhyaya felt that the latter seasons "got too complicated" and campy by focusing too much on the magic "and not enough about the themes that grounded the show earlier on." Becca James also from The A.V. Club felt that the show "should have died the same time" Doherty's character did. Hugh Armitage of Digital Spy believed that Charmed "began to feel very self-indulgent towards its stars" in the latter seasons, noting that character-driven storylines were replaced with gimmicks such as the revealing outfits worn by the sisters, particularly both Milano's and McGowan's characters. Heart of Glass magazine's Kristina Adams felt that after creator Constance M. Burge's departure from the show, executive producer Brad Kern "ruined it" by focusing more on the magic and making a "cliché" magical world with the introduction of nymphs, Greek gods, valkyries, Egyptian gods, magic school, gnomes, and ogres. Adams further added that "storylines were less thought out," and the sisters' outfits were becoming "more and more revealing." Nick Romano of Screen Crush wrote that "the storylines became wicca ridiculous and the dialogue became too cheesy," particularly in season eight. Jon Langmead of PopMatters believed that Charmed "slipped markedly" in seasons seven and eight, noting that the final season lost appealing elements such as "smart casting" and "attention to relationship drama" of the show's earlier seasons. Langmead also disliked the introduction of Kaley Cuoco and Marnette Patterson in the eighth season, and felt that Cuoco was "consistently painful to watch." DVD Verdict's Ryan Keefer also felt that Cuoco joining the show was a "poor choice" by the producers, and commented that season eight "failed to recapture the glory days of the first few seasons."
Awards and nominations
Charmed has gathered several awards and nominations. The show was nominated for one TV Guide Award, two International Horror Guild Awards, three Teen Choice Awards, three Wand Awards and seven RATTY Awards, with Holly Marie Combs winning "Best Science Fiction Lead Actress" in 2003. It was also nominated for three Saturn Awards, including one "Best Network Television Series" nomination for its first season and two "Best Actress on Television" nominations for Shannen Doherty in 1999 and 2000. In 2001, Charmed won a Cable Guide Award in the United Kingdom for "Favorite Sci-Fi/Fantasy Series." The series also won a "Certificate of Merit" at the 2003 EDGE Awards for the season four episode "Muse to My Ears."
In 2004, Alyssa Milano was nominated for a Spacey Award in Canada for "Favorite Female TV Character" and in 2005, she was nominated for "Favorite Television Actress" at the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards. That same year, Rose McGowan won the award for "Favorite Sister" at the Family Television Awards. Charmed also received recognition for its young guest actors, having been nominated for five Young Artist Awards, with Alex Black winning once for his role in the season four episode "Lost and Bound."
Broadcasting and viewership
In the United States, Charmed premiered on The WB on October 7, 1998, and ended on May 21, 2006. The first season aired on Wednesday nights at 9:00 pm. For its second, third and fourth seasons, Charmed moved to Thursday nights. For the fifth season, the series moved to Sunday nights at 8:00 pm and remained there until its eighth and final season. By the end of season eight, Charmed had aired a total of 178 episodes and became the longest running hour-long television series in American history, featuring all female leads. Most seasons consisted of 22 episodes, except for the fifth and sixth seasons, which contained 23 episodes, including their double-episode premieres and double-episode finales.
TNT and Pop currently air reruns of Charmed during early weekday mornings. Full episodes of Charmed are also available for viewing on TNT's official website. WE tv had previously aired reruns during weeknights in 2010. The series was first released onto the subscription video-on-demand service Netflix in July 2011. According to data research from The NPD Group, Charmed was the second-most binge watched television series on subscription video-on-demand services such as Netflix in 2012.
Ratings
Charmeds first episode "Something Wicca This Way Comes" broke the record for the highest-rated debut episode for The WB, with 7.72 million viewers. The show's ratings, although smaller than rival shows on the "big four" networks (ABC, CBS, NBC, and Fox), were a success for the relatively new and smaller WB network. Charmeds premiere in 1998 helped ratings rise for The WB, with TV Guides Mark Schwed noting that the network's viewing figures were way up than the previous year. For its first three seasons, Charmed was the second-highest rated series on The WB, behind 7th Heaven. During its fifth season, the series became the highest-rated Sunday night program in The WB's history.
Cultural impact
Television
Charmed was the first primetime television show about a coven of witches. Following the broadcast of the season eight episode "Payback's a Witch" in January 2006, Charmed became the longest running hour-long series in American television history featuring all female leads. However, this accolade was surpassed in 2012 by Desperate Housewives, which also lasted for eight seasons but aired two more episodes than Charmed. In 2000, Cult TV placed Charmed at number forty-four on its list of the "Top 100 Cult TV Shows." In 2007, AOL TV ranked each Charmed One on its list of the "Top TV Witches"—Piper third, Phoebe seventh, Prue ninth and Paige twelfth. In 2010, HuffPost TV and AOL TV ranked Charmed at number ten on their joint list of "The Top 20 Magic/Supernatural Shows of All Time" and in 2013, TV Guide placed the series on its list of "The 60 Greatest Sci-Fi Shows of All Time."
In 2012, six years after its original broadcasting, Charmed was found by The NPD Group to be the second-most binge watched television series on subscription video-on-demand services, such as Netflix. After Charmed ended, there were never any other long-running shows about witches to rival shows about vampires and zombies. In 2013, Joe Rhodes of The New York Times referred to Charmed as "the last successful witch TV series," while BuzzFeed writer Jarett Wieselman wrote that "no subsequent [witch] series have been able to replicate Charmeds success." Many witch-themed shows since Charmed ended have been cancelled after one or two seasons. The 2013–14 season saw a resurgence of witches in new shows The Originals, Witches of East End, Salem, and in the third season of American Horror Story titled Coven. In an interview with E! Online, cast member Alyssa Milano stated that she believed the success of Charmed helped pave the way for these witch-themed shows, saying "I feel like networks are trying to replicate that." The growing trend of witches on television that year as well as Charmeds success on Netflix prompted CBS to develop a reboot of Charmed, which did not get picked up at the network. However, The CW network later developed a different reboot series, which premiered in October 2018, featuring different cast members and characters.
Witches of East End (2013–14) was noted by critics for its strong resemblance to Charmed, as both shows are about a sisterhood of witches battling evil and live in similar houses, which its executive producer Maggie Friedman has acknowledged. Other witch-themed shows that have been compared to Charmed include The Secret Circle (2011–12) and Hex (2004–05), which was described as "the U.K.'s edgier, oversexed response to Charmed." Eastwick (2009) was noted for its surface similarities to Charmed as it also focused on a trio of female witches, which led director David Nutter to come out and say that Eastwick was not a clone of Charmed. The season four episode of Smallville titled "Spell" also received comparisons to Charmed as it focused on three of its main female characters, who get possessed by a trio of 16th Century witches.
Charmed in popular culture
The depiction of witchcraft in Charmed has had a significant impact on popular culture. The book Investigating Charmed: The Magic Power of TV (2007) revealed that viewers of the Wiccan religion appreciated the fact that Charmed brought their religion into the public eye in a positive way, through the use of sacred objects, spellcasting, a Book of Shadows, solstice celebrations and handfastings. In 2008, the religious organisation Beliefnet ranked The Charmed Ones at number eight on their list of the "Top 10 Witches in Pop Culture." Beliefnet praised the cultural image of Charmed for its female empowerment, mythology and how the sisters "managed to solve their cases" week-on-week. In 2011, Seventeen magazine named The Charmed Ones ninth in its list of the top fictional witches of all time, while E! Online ranked Piper at number six on their list of "Pop Culture's Top 10 Most Bitchin' Witches." In 2012, the Chicago Tribune placed The Charmed Ones at number seven on their list of "The Top Pop Culture Witches of All Time." In 2014, The Charmed Ones were ranked at number six on the "Pop Culture's Favorite Witches" list by MSN's Wonderwall. In 2016, Piper was also ranked at number six in The Huffington Posts list of "The Top 10 Greatest Witches of All Time."
Charmed has also become a pop culture reference in television shows and films. In the 2000 parody film, Shriek If You Know What I Did Last Friday the Thirteenth, Barbara Primesuspect (Julie Benz) is said to be yelling "Charmed my ass!" at Shannen Doherty, who does not appear on-screen. The series is also mentioned in the episode "Ur-ine Trouble" of teen comedy-drama series Popular, when Josh Ford (Bryce Johnson) tells Brooke McQueen (Leslie Bibb) to go home and watch Charmed. In another episode of Popular, titled "The Shocking Possession of Harrison John," Josh asks George Austin (Anthony Montgomery) who is Michael Bernardino's (Ron Lester) "favorite hottie witch" on Charmed and George says it is Prue. In the episode "Faith" of Third Watch, Fred Yokas (Chris Bauer) mentions to his wife Faith (Molly Price) that their daughter was upset she could not watch Charmed. In the 2002 teen comedy film Big Fat Liar, Kaylee (Amanda Bynes) recalls watching an episode of Charmed on The WB where Alyssa Milano's character Phoebe was about to put a spell on her demon boyfriend.
In a 2003 episode of the Australian soap opera Neighbours, Serena Bishop (Lara Sacher) and Erin Perry (Talia Zucker) find out they have a lot in common like their love for Charmed. In a 2005 episode of Neighbours, Bree Timmins (Sianoa Smit-McPhee) mentions that The O.C. is the best show on television since Charmed. In the episode "Plucky" of sitcom So Notorious, Aaron Spelling tells his daughter Tori Spelling that "there's always room for another witch on Charmed" after hearing of her latest cable telemovie role. In another episode of So Notorious, titled "Cursed," Tori and Sasan (Zachary Quinto) discuss who has put a curse on her and Sasan says, "It's Shannen [Doherty]! She knows all that witchcraft from Charmed." In the season four episode "Me and the Devil" of True Blood, Sookie Stackhouse (Anna Paquin) tells a witch named Marnie Stonebrook (Fiona Shaw) that one of her favorite television shows she watched as a child was Charmed. In the episode "Boy Parts" of American Horror Story: Coven, a witch named Queenie (Gabourey Sidibe) mentions that she grew up watching Charmed. Both the show and character Piper were referenced in the episode "Sorry for Your Loss" of The Tomorrow People, when Piper Nichols (Aeriél Miranda) introduces herself to Russell Kwon (Aaron Yoo), who responds by saying "Charmed, Piper." Critics noted references of Charmed in the witchcraft-themed music video for British girl group Little Mix's song "Black Magic" (2015).
In the film Fighting with My Family (2019), Saraya is watching the episode “Happily Ever After” and this inspires her to come up with her ring name Paige.
Academia
Since Charmed ended in 2006, academics have appropriated its content and published essays and articles regarding Charmed. It has been the subject of several collective books such as Investigating Charmed: The Magic Power of TV edited by Karin and Stan Beeler, which adopts a gender perspective to carry out an in-depth analysis of third-wave feminism as shown in the series. Between 2012 and 2015, French academic and essayist Alexis Pichard delivered a set of three lectures on Charmed. In 2012, he spoke about intertextuality and postmodernism in the series at the Université de Rouen. In 2014, he explored Charmed transmedia storytelling at the Université Paris 3. In 2015, he investigated the show's postfeminist subversion of fairy tales at the University of Lorient, a presentation which was followed two years later by the publication in French academic journal TV/Series of an article titled "'When you said sea hag, did you mean like old woman hag or evil magic hag?' : Imbrication du conte de fées et du (post)féminisme dans Charmed" ('The embedding of fairy tales and (post)feminism in Charmed'). The journal's editor summarises Pichard's work as follows: "Alexis Pichard examines gender norms as they appear on the small screen, scrutinizing the relationship between supernatural soap Charmed (The WB, 1998-2006) and the fairy tale. He describes a complex relationship where literary associations are a way of subverting traditions and expectations on the one hand – and ultimately succumbing to them on the other, with a problematic post-feminist emphasis on 'having it all'".
Other media
Novels
The Charmed novels are a series of books that accompany the television series. Between 1999 and 2008, forty-three novels were published by Simon & Schuster and were roughly set during the same period as the events of the television series. The first novel, The Power of Three, was released in November 1999 as a novelization of the series premiere episode, "Something Wicca This Way Comes." All subsequent novels – apart from Charmed Again (2001) which narrates the events of the two-part episode of the same name – are original stories revolving around the Halliwell sisters and their allies. The first ten novels involve the original Charmed Ones, Prue, Piper, and Phoebe Halliwell, while the remaining thirty-three are set after both Prue's murder and the introduction of Paige Matthews as the youngest, new Charmed One. Two novels, Seasons of the Witch (2003) and The Warren Witches (2005), are anthologies of short stories. Writers of the series include Diana G. Gallagher and Paul Ruditis who also co-authored two volumes of the official guidebook, The Book of Three (2004; 2006).
In 2015, HarperCollins acquired the rights to publish a second series of Charmed novels from CBS Consumer Products. The first novel, The War on Witches, was published in May 2015 and its narrative is set between the events of Seasons 9 and 10 of the comic book series. It is written by Ruditis, who previously authored Season 9 and edited Season 10, and follows the younger Charmed Ones' reunions with Prue and Cole Turner after their resurrections.
Comic books
The Charmed comic books serve as a continuation of the television series and were originally published by Zenescope Entertainment. The first comic book series, Charmed: Season 9, was released in June 2010 and is set eighteen months after the events of the televised show's final episode, "Forever Charmed." Author Paul Ruditis was the lead writer of the first series and Raven Gregory helped him co-write the first three issues. The second and final comic book series by Zenescope, Charmed: Season 10, debuted at the New York Comic Con during the weekend of October 9, 2014. Pat Shand was the lead writer of the second series while Ruditis assumed the role of editor. In 2017, Dynamite Entertainment acquired the rights to publish a new comic book series titled Charmed: A Thousand Deaths. It was written by Erica Schultz and illustrated by Maria Sanapo.
Soundtracks
Four soundtrack albums of Charmed have been released and feature music that were used in the show. The first soundtrack album, Charmed: The Soundtrack, was released in September 2003. The second soundtrack, Charmed: The Book of Shadows, was released in January 2005 and the third, Charmed: The Final Chapter, was released in May 2006. A retrospect of songs compiled from all eight seasons of the show, Charmed: The Final Chapter was positively received by Heather Phares of AllMusic, who praised it for "feel[ing] like a late '90s/early 2000s time capsule". The fourth soundtrack, Charmed: Score from the Television Series, was released as a limited edition in June 2013 and featured a selection of cues from the show by composer J. Peter Robinson. This is now out of print.
Merchandise
Several official board games of Charmed have been published by Clash of Arms and Tilsit. The show's first board game, Charmed: The Book of Shadows, was released in 2001 and the second board game, Charmed: The Source, was released in 2003. Other board games include Charmed: The Power of Three and Charmed: The Prophecy, both of which were released in 2005. An action, platform video game of Charmed was developed by DC Studios and published by In-Fusio. The game was released for mobile phones in Europe in 2003 and North America in 2004. Titan Magazines began publishing the Charmed Magazine in 2004, which was issued bi-monthly and featured interviews with the cast and crew, the latest news and developments, and behind-the-scenes information on the show. The 24th and final issue of Charmed Magazine was released in 2008.
All eight seasons of Charmed were released individually on DVD in Regions 1, 2 and 4 between February 2005 and September 2007. A new packaging of the Region 4 DVDs for all seasons were released in April 2011. A limited Book of Shadows box set edition was released in Region 4 on November 16, 2006, and featured seasons 1–7. A limited Magic Chest box set edition was released in Region 2 on March 5, 2007, and included all eight seasons. An ultimate box set was released in Region 2 on October 27, 2008 and Region 4 on November 6, 2008. The set includes all seasons, with a cover that features all four Halliwell sisters together. Two complete series box sets were released in Region 1 on November 18, 2008. Both sets are styled after the show's Book of Shadows, with one set being a regular release and the other being a limited deluxe edition. The complete series box set was re-released in the United States on November 11, 2014, and features a brand new cover of all four sisters.
In June 2018, CBS Studios (who own the rights to Charmed) announced that the whole series was in the process of being remastered to high-definition with a completion date of September 2019. The remastered version of season one was released on high-definition Blu-ray in the US on October 30, 2018. Season 2 was released through Manufacture on Demand in 2020. Season 3 is scheduled for release May 18, 2021, almost 20 years to the day that Season 3 finished airing on The WB.
On December 13, 2019, Koch Films announced a full series release on Blu-ray for Charmed in Germany, making Germany the first country worldwide to receive a full Blu-ray set rather than individual seasons like in the states. This release is expected to be released June 24, 2021.
Reboot series
Cancelled CBS reboot
On October 25, 2013, it was announced that CBS was developing a reboot of Charmed. Party of Five co-creator Christopher Keyser and Sydney Sidner were going to executive produce and write the pilot script for CBS Television Studios (who own the rights to Charmed) and The Tannenbaum Company. The reboot was described as a "re-imagining of the original series centered around four sisters who discover their destiny – to battle against the forces of evil using their witchcraft." CBS only ordered a script for a pilot, however; no commitment to filming was made.
Following the announcement, the original cast of Charmed shared their opinions of the reboot through Twitter. Rose McGowan tweeted, "They really are running out of ideas in Hollywood," followed up by another tweet, "lame lame lame lamertons." Alyssa Milano tweeted, "The thing about them doing a #charmed reboot is ... it just ... it feels like yesterday. It feels too close." Holly Marie Combs tweeted, "Here's the thing. Everything is a reboot. If you think otherwise you haven't read enough Shakespeare yet. At least they had the decency to call it what it is. Instead of ripping it off and then pretending to not be ripping it off." Shannen Doherty tweeted to a fan, "I don't know yet. It's strange to think about a reboot. I guess I'm still processing the idea." However, on August 12, 2014, TVLine's Michael Ausiello revealed that CBS were not moving forward with the reboot.
The CW reboot
On January 25, 2018, The CW network officially ordered a pilot of a new Charmed reboot, developed by Jennie Snyder Urman, Jessica O'Toole and Amy Rardin, for the 2018–19 television season. The reboot was described by The CW as "a fierce, funny, feminist reboot" of the original series. It follows the lives of three sisters—Macy, Mel and Maggie—who, after the death of their mother, discover they are The Charmed Ones, the most powerful trio of good witches, who are destined to protect innocent lives from demons and other dark forces. The eldest sister Macy is a "practical, driven, and brilliant geneticist" with the power of telekinesis. The middle sister Mel is "a passionate, outspoken activist" and lesbian with the power of time-freezing, while the youngest Maggie is "a bubbly college freshman" with the power to hear people's thoughts. Madeleine Mantock was cast as Macy, Melonie Diaz was cast as Mel, Sarah Jeffery was cast as Maggie, and Rupert Evans was cast as the trio's whitelighter Harry. The reboot premiered on The CW on October 14, 2018, 20 years after the original series' premiere. The CW renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on October 11, 2019. The CW renewed the reboot for a third season, which premiered on January 24, 2021.
References
External links
1998 American television series debuts
2006 American television series endings
1990s American drama television series
2000s American drama television series
1990s American supernatural television series
2000s American supernatural television series
American fantasy television series
American primetime television dramas
Angels in television
Dark fantasy television series
Demons in television
English-language television shows
Television about fairies and sprites
Feminist television
Fictional portrayals of the San Francisco Police Department
Television about magic
Serial drama television series
Television shows adapted into comics
Television shows adapted into novels
Television shows adapted into video games
Television series about ghosts
Television series about families
Television series about sisters
Television series by Spelling Television
Television shows filmed in Los Angeles
Television shows set in San Francisco
Vampires in television
The WB original programming
Witchcraft in television
Wizards in television
American fantasy drama television series
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barth%C3%A9lemy-Prosper%20Enfantin
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Barthélemy-Prosper Enfantin
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Barthélemy-Prosper Enfantin (8 February 17961 September 1864) was a French social reformer, one of the founders of Saint-Simonianism. He was also a proponent of a Suez canal.
Early life
Enfantin was born in Paris, the son of a banker of Dauphiné. After receiving his early education at a lyceum, he was sent in 1813 to the École polytechnique. In March 1814 he was one of the band of students who, on the heights of Montmartre and Saint-Chaumont, attempted resistance to the armies of the Sixth Coalition which had engaged in the invasion of Paris. In consequence of this outbreak of patriotic enthusiasm, the school was soon after closed by Louis XVIII, and the young student was compelled to seek another career.
Initially, he began working for a country wine merchant, travelling to Germany, Russia and the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. In 1821 he entered a banking-house newly established at Saint Petersburg, but returned two years later to Paris, where he was appointed cashier to the Caisse Hypothécaire. At the same time, he became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari.
In 1825 a new turn was given to his thoughts and his life by the friendship which he formed with Olinde Rodriguez, who introduced him to the Comte de Saint-Simon. He affiliated to Saint-Simon's version of utopian socialism, and, by 1829, he had become one of the acknowledged heads of the movement.
Preaching and politics
After the July Revolution of 1830 Enfantin resigned his office of cashier, and devoted all his energy to the cause. Besides contributing to Le Globe, he made appeals to the people by systematic preaching, and organized centres of action in some of the main cities of France.
The headquarters in Paris were moved from the modest rooms in the Rue Taranne to the large halls near the Boulevard des Italiens. Enfantin and Amand Bazard were proclaimed Pères Suprêmes ("Supreme Fathers") – a union which was, however, only nominal, as a divergence was already manifest. Bazard, who concentrated on organizing the group, had devoted himself to political reform, while Enfantin, who favoured teaching and preaching, dedicated his time to social and moral change. The antagonism was widened by Enfantin's announcement of his theory of the relation of man and woman, which would substitute a system of "free love" for the "tyranny of marriage".
Bazard and his disciples broke with Enfantin's group. The latter became sole "father", leading a chiefly religiously-oriented movement, joined by new converts (according to Enfantin's estimate, the total number of followers would have reached 40,000). He wore on his breast a badge with his title of Père, was referred to by his preachers as "the living law", declared himself to be the chosen of God, and sent out emissaries in a quest of a woman predestined to be the "female Messiah," and the mother of a new Saviour (the latter quest was very costly and altogether fruitless).
Success and repression
Meanwhile, the new religion gathered believers in all parts of Europe. His extravagances and success at length brought him to the attention of authorities, who argued that he was endangering public morality - Enfantin had announced that the gulf between the sexes was too wide and this social inequality would impede rapid growth of society. Enfantin called for the abolition of prostitution and for the ability for women to divorce and obtain legal rights. This was considered radical for the time. In May 1832 the halls of the new sect were closed by the government, and the Père, with some of his followers, appeared before the tribunals. He then retired to his estate at Menilmontant, near Paris, where with forty disciples, all of them men, he continued to carry out his socialist views. In August of the same year he was again arrested, and on his appearance in court he desired his defence to be undertaken by two women who were with him, alleging that the matter was of special concern to women; the request was promptly refused. The trial occupied two days and resulted in a verdict of guilty, and a sentence of imprisonment for a year with a small fine.
This prosecution discredited the new society. Enfantin was released in a few months.
Turkey and Egypt
Then, accompanied by twenty of his followers, many of whom were also engineers from the Ecole Polytechnique, including Charles Joseph Lambert, also known as Lambert-Bey, and some women, he went first to Istanbul. Enfantin had declared 1833 the Year of the Mother, and upon arrival in Istanbul the group began to strongly preach their views about gender relations and New Christianity. The Ottoman Empire told them to leave to avoid prison.
Enfantin and his group then arrived in Egypt, where he planned to penetrate the feminine Orient with the masculine Occident in a consummation of progression - build a canal connecting the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea. In Egypt at that time, Muhammad Ali, the Egyptian Viceroy, was at odds with the Ottoman Sultan in Constantinople, and also practiced public-private contracts known as concessions with mostly European companies to build cheap infrastructure. Ali did not agree to a project linking the two seas because he did not want to cut out the duties he collected from overland trade in Egypt, but did allow Enfantin's group to work on the Delta Barrage - a type of dam - north of Cairo - with unpaid laborers - that would act to limit Nile flooding and create predictable crop yields. During his time in Egypt, Enfantine also established technical schools based on the Ecole Polytechnique model with Ali's blessing. Also in Egypt he encountered and influenced Ferdinand de Lesseps. Enfantine returned to France in 1836, lacking the patience to finish the Nile barrage project that was encountering delays.
Return to France
On his return to France, he occupied minor offices. He became first a postmaster near Lyon, and in 1841 was appointed, through the influence of some of his friends who had risen to posts of power, member of a scientific commission on Algeria, which led him to engage in researches concerning North Africa and colonization in general.
In 1845 he was appointed a director of the Paris & Lyons railway. Three years later he established, in conjunction with Duveyrier, a daily journal, entitled Le Credit, which was discontinued in 1850. He was afterwards attached to the administration of the railway from Lyons to the Mediterranean.
Société d'Études du Canal de Suez
Father Enfantin held fast by his ideal to the end, but he had renounced the hope of giving it a local habitation and a name in the degenerate obstinate world. His personal influence over those who associated with him was immense. "He was a man of a noble presence, with finely formed and expressive features. He was gentle and insinuating in manner, and possessed a calm, graceful and winning delivery" (Gent. M . Jan. 1865). His evident sincerity, his genuine enthusiasm, gave him his marvellous ascendancy. The Société d'Études du Canal de Suez was established by Enfantin in 1846 to continue study of the Suez Canal. Its members included Arlès-Dufour, Jules, Lon and Paulin Talabot, the British Robert Stephenson and Edward Starbuck, the Austrian Alois Negrelli, inspector of the Emperor Ferdinand Northern Railway, and Feronce and Sellier of Leipzig as representatives of the German interest.
The Société sent surveying teams to Egypt, developed engineering plans, determined that the elevation difference between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea was negligible, but Muhammad Ali was still reticent to the idea of a canal. Upon his death in 1848, the activities of the Société were minimized until his successor was assassinated in 1854 and Ferdinand de Lesseps took up the initiative to build a canal. Lessups had corresponded at least once with the Société in the intervening years and had known the new Egyptian viceroy, Sa'id, when he was a young man. Enfantin was listed by Lessups as a founder of the Suez Canal Company.
Not a few of his disciples ranked afterwards amongst the most distinguished men of France. Enfantin died suddenly in Paris on September 1, 1864.
Literary works
Amongst his works are: Doctrine de Saint-Simon (written in conjunction with several of his followers), published in 1830, and several times republished; Economie politique et politique Saint-Simonienne (1831); (1835–1840); Corresp. philos. et religieuse (1843–1845); and La Vie eternelle passee, presente, future (1861). A large number of articles by his hand appeared in Le Producteur, L'Organisateur, Le Globe, and other periodicals. He also wrote in 1832 Le Livre nouveau, intended as a substitute for the Christian Scriptures, but it was not published.
See also
Saint-Simonianism
Footnotes
References
Attribution:
This work in turn cites:
1796 births
1864 deaths
Politicians from Paris
French feminists
French socialists
Saint-Simonists
French socialist feminists
Utopian socialists
Lycée Hoche alumni
Male feminists
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
French social reformers
French expatriates in the Russian Empire
French expatriates in the Ottoman Empire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebular%20hypothesis
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Nebular hypothesis
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The nebular hypothesis is the most widely accepted model in the field of cosmogony to explain the formation and evolution of the Solar System (as well as other planetary systems). It suggests the Solar System is formed from gas and dust orbiting the Sun. The theory was developed by Immanuel Kant and published in his Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens (1755) and then modified in 1796 by Pierre Laplace. Originally applied to the Solar System, the process of planetary system formation is now thought to be at work throughout the universe. The widely accepted modern variant of the nebular theory is the solar nebular disk model (SNDM) or solar nebular model. It offered explanations for a variety of properties of the Solar System, including the nearly circular and coplanar orbits of the planets, and their motion in the same direction as the Sun's rotation. Some elements of the original nebular theory are echoed in modern theories of planetary formation, but most elements have been superseded.
According to the nebular theory, stars form in massive and dense clouds of molecular hydrogen—giant molecular clouds (GMC). These clouds are gravitationally unstable, and matter coalesces within them to smaller denser clumps, which then rotate, collapse, and form stars. Star formation is a complex process, which always produces a gaseous protoplanetary disk (proplyd) around the young star. This may give birth to planets in certain circumstances, which are not well known. Thus the formation of planetary systems is thought to be a natural result of star formation. A Sun-like star usually takes approximately 1 million years to form, with the protoplanetary disk evolving into a planetary system over the next 10–100 million years.
The protoplanetary disk is an accretion disk that feeds the central star. Initially very hot, the disk later cools in what is known as the T Tauri star stage; here, formation of small dust grains made of rocks and ice is possible. The grains eventually may coagulate into kilometer-sized planetesimals. If the disk is massive enough, the runaway accretions begin, resulting in the rapid—100,000 to 300,000 years—formation of Moon- to Mars-sized planetary embryos. Near the star, the planetary embryos go through a stage of violent mergers, producing a few terrestrial planets. The last stage takes approximately 100 million to a billion years.
The formation of giant planets is a more complicated process. It is thought to occur beyond the frost line, where planetary embryos mainly are made of various types of ice. As a result, they are several times more massive than in the inner part of the protoplanetary disk. What follows after the embryo formation is not completely clear. Some embryos appear to continue to grow and eventually reach 5–10 Earth masses—the threshold value, which is necessary to begin accretion of the hydrogen–helium gas from the disk. The accumulation of gas by the core is initially a slow process, which continues for several million years, but after the forming protoplanet reaches about 30 Earth masses () it accelerates and proceeds in a runaway manner. Jupiter- and Saturn-like planets are thought to accumulate the bulk of their mass during only 10,000 years. The accretion stops when the gas is exhausted. The formed planets can migrate over long distances during or after their formation. Ice giants such as Uranus and Neptune are thought to be failed cores, which formed too late when the disk had almost disappeared.
History
There is evidence that Emanuel Swedenborg first proposed parts of the nebular theory in 1734. Immanuel Kant, familiar with Swedenborg's work, developed the theory further in 1755, publishing his own Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens, wherein he argued that gaseous clouds (nebulae) slowly rotate, gradually collapse and flatten due to gravity, eventually forming stars and planets.
Pierre-Simon Laplace independently developed and proposed a similar model in 1796 in his Exposition du systeme du monde. He envisioned that the Sun originally had an extended hot atmosphere throughout the volume of the Solar System. His theory featured a contracting and cooling protosolar cloud—the protosolar nebula. As this cooled and contracted, it flattened and spun more rapidly, throwing off (or shedding) a series of gaseous rings of material; and according to him, the planets condensed from this material. His model was similar to Kant's, except more detailed and on a smaller scale. While the Laplacian nebular model dominated in the 19th century, it encountered a number of difficulties. The main problem involved angular momentum distribution between the Sun and planets. The planets have 99% of the angular momentum, and this fact could not be explained by the nebular model. As a result, astronomers largely abandoned this theory of planet formation at the beginning of the 20th century.
A major critique came during the 19th century from James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879), who maintained that different rotation between the inner and outer parts of a ring could not allow condensation of material. Astronomer Sir David Brewster also rejected Laplace, writing in 1876 that "those who believe in the Nebular Theory consider it as certain that our Earth derived its solid matter and its atmosphere from a ring thrown from the Solar atmosphere, which afterwards contracted into a solid terraqueous sphere, from which the Moon was thrown off by the same process". He argued that under such view, "the Moon must necessarily have carried off water and air from the watery and aerial parts of the Earth and must have an atmosphere". Brewster claimed that Sir Isaac Newton's religious beliefs had previously considered nebular ideas as tending to atheism, and quoted him as saying that "the growth of new systems out of old ones, without the mediation of a Divine power, seemed to him apparently absurd".
The perceived deficiencies of the Laplacian model stimulated scientists to find a replacement for it. During the 20th century many theories addressed the issue, including the planetesimal theory of Thomas Chamberlin and Forest Moulton (1901), the tidal model of James Jeans (1917), the accretion model of Otto Schmidt (1944), the protoplanet theory of William McCrea (1960) and finally the capture theory of Michael Woolfson. In 1978 Andrew Prentice resurrected the initial Laplacian ideas about planet formation and developed the modern Laplacian theory. None of these attempts proved completely successful, and many of the proposed theories were descriptive.
The birth of the modern widely accepted theory of planetary formation—the solar nebular disk model (SNDM)—can be traced to the Soviet astronomer Victor Safronov. His 1969 book Evolution of the protoplanetary cloud and formation of the Earth and the planets, which was translated to English in 1972, had a long-lasting effect on the way scientists think about the formation of the planets. In this book almost all major problems of the planetary formation process were formulated and some of them solved. Safronov's ideas were further developed in the works of George Wetherill, who discovered runaway accretion. While originally applied only to the Solar System, the SNDM was subsequently thought by theorists to be at work throughout the Universe; as of astronomers have discovered extrasolar planets in our galaxy.
Solar nebular model: achievements and problems
Achievements
The star formation process naturally results in the appearance of accretion disks around young stellar objects. At the age of about 1 million years, 100% of stars may have such disks. This conclusion is supported by the discovery of the gaseous and dusty disks around protostars and T Tauri stars as well as by theoretical considerations. Observations of these disks show that the dust grains inside them grow in size on short (thousand-year) time scales, producing 1 centimeter sized particles.
The accretion process, by which 1 km planetesimals grow into 1,000 km sized bodies, is well understood now. This process develops inside any disk where the number density of planetesimals is sufficiently high, and proceeds in a runaway manner. Growth later slows and continues as oligarchic accretion. The end result is formation of planetary embryos of varying sizes, which depend on the distance from the star. Various simulations have demonstrated that the merger of embryos in the inner part of the protoplanetary disk leads to the formation of a few Earth-sized bodies. Thus the origin of terrestrial planets is now considered to be an almost solved problem.
Current issues
The physics of accretion disks encounters some problems. The most important one is how the material, which is accreted by the protostar, loses its angular momentum. One possible explanation suggested by Hannes Alfvén was that angular momentum was shed by the solar wind during its T Tauri star phase. The momentum is transported to the outer parts of the disk by viscous stresses. Viscosity is generated by macroscopic turbulence, but the precise mechanism that produces this turbulence is not well understood. Another possible process for shedding angular momentum is magnetic braking, where the spin of the star is transferred into the surrounding disk via that star's magnetic field. The main processes responsible for the disappearance of the gas in disks are viscous diffusion and photo-evaporation.
The formation of planetesimals is the biggest unsolved problem in the nebular disk model. How 1 cm sized particles coalesce into 1 km planetesimals is a mystery. This mechanism appears to be the key to the question as to why some stars have planets, while others have nothing around them, not even dust belts.
The formation timescale of giant planets is also an important problem. Old theories were unable to explain how their cores could form fast enough to accumulate significant amounts of gas from the quickly disappearing protoplanetary disk. The mean lifetime of the disks, which is less than ten million (107) years, appeared to be shorter than the time necessary for the core formation. Much progress has been done to solve this problem and current models of giant planet formation are now capable of forming Jupiter (or more massive planets) in about 4 million years or less, well within the average lifetime of gaseous disks.
Another potential problem of giant planet formation is their orbital migration. Some calculations show that interaction with the disk can cause rapid inward migration, which, if not stopped, results in the planet reaching the "central regions still as a sub-Jovian object." More recent calculations indicate that disk evolution during migration can mitigate this problem.
Formation of stars and protoplanetary disks
Protostars
Stars are thought to form inside giant clouds of cold molecular hydrogen—giant molecular clouds roughly 300,000 times the mass of the Sun () and 20 parsecs in diameter. Over millions of years, giant molecular clouds are prone to collapse and fragmentation. These fragments then form small, dense cores, which in turn collapse into stars. The cores range in mass from a fraction to several times that of the Sun and are called protostellar (protosolar) nebulae. They possess diameters of 0.01–0.1 pc (2,000–20,000 AU) and a particle number density of roughly 10,000 to 100,000 cm−3.
The initial collapse of a solar-mass protostellar nebula takes around 100,000 years. Every nebula begins with a certain amount of angular momentum. Gas in the central part of the nebula, with relatively low angular momentum, undergoes fast compression and forms a hot hydrostatic (not contracting) core containing a small fraction of the mass of the original nebula. This core forms the seed of what will become a star. As the collapse continues, conservation of angular momentum means that the rotation of the infalling envelope accelerates, which largely prevents the gas from directly accreting onto the central core. The gas is instead forced to spread outwards near its equatorial plane, forming a disk, which in turn accretes onto the core. The core gradually grows in mass until it becomes a young hot protostar. At this stage, the protostar and its disk are heavily obscured by the infalling envelope and are not directly observable. In fact the remaining envelope's opacity is so high that even millimeter-wave radiation has trouble escaping from inside it. Such objects are observed as very bright condensations, which emit mainly millimeter-wave and submillimeter-wave radiation. They are classified as spectral Class 0 protostars. The collapse is often accompanied by bipolar outflows—jets—that emanate along the rotational axis of the inferred disk. The jets are frequently observed in star-forming regions (see Herbig–Haro (HH) objects). The luminosity of the Class 0 protostars is high — a solar-mass protostar may radiate at up to 100 solar luminosities. The source of this energy is gravitational collapse, as their cores are not yet hot enough to begin nuclear fusion.
As the infall of its material onto the disk continues, the envelope eventually becomes thin and transparent and the young stellar object (YSO) becomes observable, initially in far-infrared light and later in the visible. Around this time the protostar begins to fuse deuterium. If the protostar is sufficiently massive (above 80 Jupiter masses ()), hydrogen fusion follows. Otherwise, if its mass is too low, the object becomes a brown dwarf. This birth of a new star occurs approximately 100,000 years after the collapse begins. Objects at this stage are known as Class I protostars, which are also called young T Tauri stars, evolved protostars, or young stellar objects. By this time the forming star has already accreted much of its mass: the total mass of the disk and remaining envelope does not exceed 10–20% of the mass of the central YSO.
At the next stage the envelope completely disappears, having been gathered up by the disk, and the protostar becomes a classical T Tauri star. This happens after about 1 million years. The mass of the disk around a classical T Tauri star is about 1–3% of the stellar mass, and it is accreted at a rate of 10−7 to per year. A pair of bipolar jets is usually present as well. The accretion explains all peculiar properties of classical T Tauri stars: strong flux in the emission lines (up to 100% of the intrinsic luminosity of the star), magnetic activity, photometric variability and jets. The emission lines actually form as the accreted gas hits the "surface" of the star, which happens around its magnetic poles. The jets are byproducts of accretion: they carry away excessive angular momentum. The classical T Tauri stage lasts about 10 million years. The disk eventually disappears due to accretion onto the central star, planet formation, ejection by jets and photoevaporation by UV-radiation from the central star and nearby stars. As a result, the young star becomes a weakly lined T Tauri star, which slowly, over hundreds of millions of years, evolves into an ordinary Sun-like star.
Protoplanetary disks
Under certain circumstances the disk, which can now be called protoplanetary, may give birth to a planetary system. Protoplanetary disks have been observed around a very high fraction of stars in young star clusters. They exist from the beginning of a star's formation, but at the earliest stages are unobservable due to the opacity of the surrounding envelope. The disk of a Class 0 protostar is thought to be massive and hot. It is an accretion disk, which feeds the central protostar. The temperature can easily exceed 400 K inside 5 AU and 1,000 K inside 1 AU. The heating of the disk is primarily caused by the viscous dissipation of turbulence in it and by the infall of the gas from the nebula. The high temperature in the inner disk causes most of the volatile material—water, organics, and some rocks to evaporate, leaving only the most refractory elements like iron. The ice can survive only in the outer part of the disk.
The main problem in the physics of accretion disks is the generation of turbulence and the mechanism responsible for the high effective viscosity. The turbulent viscosity is thought to be responsible for the transport of the mass to the central protostar and momentum to the periphery of the disk. This is vital for accretion, because the gas can be accreted by the central protostar only if it loses most of its angular momentum, which must be carried away by the small part of the gas drifting outwards. The result of this process is the growth of both the protostar and of the disk radius, which can reach 1,000 AU if the initial angular momentum of the nebula is large enough. Large disks are routinely observed in many star-forming regions such as the Orion nebula.
The lifespan of the accretion disks is about 10 million years. By the time the star reaches the classical T-Tauri stage, the disk becomes thinner and cools. Less volatile materials start to condense close to its center, forming 0.1–1 μm dust grains that contain crystalline silicates. The transport of the material from the outer disk can mix these newly formed dust grains with primordial ones, which contain organic matter and other volatiles. This mixing can explain some peculiarities in the composition of Solar System bodies such as the presence of interstellar grains in the primitive meteorites and refractory inclusions in comets.
Dust particles tend to stick to each other in the dense disk environment, leading to the formation of larger particles up to several centimeters in size. The signatures of the dust processing and coagulation are observed in the infrared spectra of the young disks. Further aggregation can lead to the formation of planetesimals measuring 1 km across or larger, which are the building blocks of planets. Planetesimal formation is another unsolved problem of disk physics, as simple sticking becomes ineffective as dust particles grow larger.
One hypothesis is formation by the gravitational instability. Particles several centimeters in size or larger slowly settle near the middle plane of the disk, forming a very thin—less than 100 km—and dense layer. This layer is gravitationally unstable and may fragment into numerous clumps, which in turn collapse into planetesimals. However, the differing velocities of the gas disk and the solids near the mid-plane can generate turbulence which prevents the layer from becoming thin enough to fragment due to gravitational instability. This may limit the formation of planetesimals via gravitational instabilities to specific locations in the disk where the concentration of solids is enhanced.
Another possible mechanism for the formation of planetesimals is the streaming instability in which the drag felt by particles orbiting through gas creates a feedback effect causing the growth of local concentrations. These local concentration push back on the gas creating a region where the headwind felt by the particles is smaller. The concentration is thus able to orbit faster and undergoes less radial drift. Isolated particles join these concentrations as they are overtaken or as they drift inward causing it to grow in mass. Eventually these concentrations form massive filaments which fragment and undergo gravitational collapse forming planetesimals the size of the larger asteroids.
Planetary formation can also be triggered by gravitational instability within the disk itself, which leads to its fragmentation into clumps. Some of them, if they are dense enough, will collapse, which can lead to rapid formation of gas giant planets and even brown dwarfs on the timescale of 1,000 years. If these clumps migrate inward as the collapse proceeds tidal forces from the star can result in a significant mass loss leaving behind a smaller body. However it is only possible in massive disks—more massive than . In comparison, typical disk masses are . Because the massive disks are rare, this mechanism of planet formation is thought to be infrequent. On the other hand, it may play a major role in the formation of brown dwarfs.
The ultimate dissipation of protoplanetary disks is triggered by a number of different mechanisms. The inner part of the disk is either accreted by the star or ejected by the bipolar jets, whereas the outer part can evaporate under the star's powerful UV radiation during the T Tauri stage or by nearby stars. The gas in the central part can either be accreted or ejected by the growing planets, while the small dust particles are ejected by the radiation pressure of the central star. What is finally left is either a planetary system, a remnant disk of dust without planets, or nothing, if planetesimals failed to form.
Because planetesimals are so numerous, and spread throughout the protoplanetary disk, some survive the formation of a planetary system. Asteroids are understood to be left-over planetesimals, gradually grinding each other down into smaller and smaller bits, while comets are typically planetesimals from the farther reaches of a planetary system. Meteorites are samples of planetesimals that reach a planetary surface, and provide a great deal of information about the formation of the Solar System. Primitive-type meteorites are chunks of shattered low-mass planetesimals, where no thermal differentiation took place, while processed-type meteorites are chunks from shattered massive planetesimals. Interstellar objects could have been captured, and become part of the young Solar system.
Formation of planets
Rocky planets
According to the solar nebular disk model, rocky planets form in the inner part of the protoplanetary disk, within the frost line, where the temperature is high enough to prevent condensation of water ice and other substances into grains. This results in coagulation of purely rocky grains and later in the formation of rocky planetesimals. Such conditions are thought to exist in the inner 3–4 AU part of the disk of a Sun-like star.
After small planetesimals—about 1 km in diameter—have formed by one way or another, runaway accretion begins. It is called runaway because the mass growth rate is proportional to , where R and M are the radius and mass of the growing body, respectively. The specific (divided by mass) growth accelerates as the mass increases. This leads to the preferential growth of larger bodies at the expense of smaller ones. The runaway accretion lasts between 10,000 and 100,000 years and ends when the largest bodies exceed approximately 1,000 km in diameter. Slowing of the accretion is caused by gravitational perturbations by large bodies on the remaining planetesimals. In addition, the influence of larger bodies stops further growth of smaller bodies.
The next stage is called oligarchic accretion. It is characterized by the dominance of several hundred of the largest bodies—oligarchs, which continue to slowly accrete planetesimals. No body other than the oligarchs can grow. At this stage the rate of accretion is proportional to R2, which is derived from the geometrical cross-section of an oligarch. The specific accretion rate is proportional to ; and it declines with the mass of the body. This allows smaller oligarchs to catch up to larger ones. The oligarchs are kept at the distance of about (= is the Hill radius, where a is the semimajor axis, e is the orbital eccentricity, and Ms is the mass of the central star) from each other by the influence of the remaining planetesimals. Their orbital eccentricities and inclinations remain small. The oligarchs continue to accrete until planetesimals are exhausted in the disk around them. Sometimes nearby oligarchs merge. The final mass of an oligarch depends on the distance from the star and surface density of planetesimals and is called the isolation mass. For the rocky planets it is up to , or one Mars mass. The final result of the oligarchic stage is the formation of about 100 Moon- to Mars-sized planetary embryos uniformly spaced at about . They are thought to reside inside gaps in the disk and to be separated by rings of remaining planetesimals. This stage is thought to last a few hundred thousand years.
The last stage of rocky planet formation is the merger stage. It begins when only a small number of planetesimals remains and embryos become massive enough to perturb each other, which causes their orbits to become chaotic. During this stage embryos expel remaining planetesimals, and collide with each other. The result of this process, which lasts for 10 to 100 million years, is the formation of a limited number of Earth-sized bodies. Simulations show that the number of surviving planets is on average from 2 to 5. In the Solar System they may be represented by Earth and Venus. Formation of both planets required merging of approximately 10–20 embryos, while an equal number of them were thrown out of the Solar System. Some of the embryos, which originated in the asteroid belt, are thought to have brought water to Earth. Mars and Mercury may be regarded as remaining embryos that survived that rivalry. Rocky planets, which have managed to coalesce, settle eventually into more or less stable orbits, explaining why planetary systems are generally packed to the limit; or, in other words, why they always appear to be at the brink of instability.
Giant planets
The formation of giant planets is an outstanding problem in the planetary sciences. In the framework of the solar nebular model two theories for their formation exist. The first one is the disk instability model, where giant planets form in the massive protoplanetary disks as a result of its gravitational fragmentation (see above). The second possibility is the core accretion model, which is also known as the nucleated instability model. The latter scenario is thought to be the most promising one, because it can explain the formation of the giant planets in relatively low-mass disks (less than ). In this model giant planet formation is divided into two stages: a) accretion of a core of approximately and b) accretion of gas from the protoplanetary disk. Either method may also lead to the creation of brown dwarfs. Searches as of 2011 have found that core accretion is likely the dominant formation mechanism.
Giant planet core formation is thought to proceed roughly along the lines of the terrestrial planet formation. It starts with planetesimals that undergo runaway growth, followed by the slower oligarchic stage. Hypotheses do not predict a merger stage, due to the low probability of collisions between planetary embryos in the outer part of planetary systems. An additional difference is the composition of the planetesimals, which in the case of giant planets form beyond the so-called frost line and consist mainly of ice—the ice to rock ratio is about 4 to 1. This enhances the mass of planetesimals fourfold. However, the minimum mass nebula capable of terrestrial planet formation can only form cores at the distance of Jupiter (5 AU) within 10 million years. The latter number represents the average lifetime of gaseous disks around Sun-like stars. The proposed solutions include enhanced mass of the disk—a tenfold increase would suffice; protoplanet migration, which allows the embryo to accrete more planetesimals; and finally accretion enhancement due to gas drag in the gaseous envelopes of the embryos. Some combination of the above-mentioned ideas may explain the formation of the cores of gas giant planets such as Jupiter and perhaps even Saturn. The formation of planets like Uranus and Neptune is more problematic, since no theory has been capable of providing for the in situ formation of their cores at the distance of 20–30 AU from the central star. One hypothesis is that they initially accreted in the Jupiter-Saturn region, then were scattered and migrated to their present location. Another possible solution is the growth of the cores of the giant planets via pebble accretion. In pebble accretion objects between a cm and a meter in diameter falling toward a massive body are slowed enough by gas drag for them to spiral toward it and be accreted. Growth via pebble accretion may be as much as 1000 times faster than by the accretion of planetesimals.
Once the cores are of sufficient mass (), they begin to gather gas from the surrounding disk. Initially it is a slow process, increasing the core masses up to in a few million years. After that, the accretion rates increase dramatically and the remaining 90% of the mass is accumulated in approximately 10,000 years. The accretion of gas stops when the supply from the disk is exhausted. This happens gradually, due to the formation of a density gap in the protoplanetary disk and to disk dispersal. In this model ice giants—Uranus and Neptune—are failed cores that began gas accretion too late, when almost all gas had already disappeared. The post-runaway-gas-accretion stage is characterized by migration of the newly formed giant planets and continued slow gas accretion. Migration is caused by the interaction of the planet sitting in the gap with the remaining disk. It stops when the protoplanetary disk disappears or when the end of the disk is attained. The latter case corresponds to the so-called hot Jupiters, which are likely to have stopped their migration when they reached the inner hole in the protoplanetary disk.
Giant planets can significantly influence terrestrial planet formation. The presence of giants tends to increase eccentricities and inclinations (see Kozai mechanism) of planetesimals and embryos in the terrestrial planet region (inside 4 AU in the Solar System). If giant planets form too early, they can slow or prevent inner planet accretion. If they form near the end of the oligarchic stage, as is thought to have happened in the Solar System, they will influence the merges of planetary embryos, making them more violent. As a result, the number of terrestrial planets will decrease and they will be more massive. In addition, the size of the system will shrink, because terrestrial planets will form closer to the central star. The influence of giant planets in the Solar System, particularly that of Jupiter, is thought to have been limited because they are relatively remote from the terrestrial planets.
The region of a planetary system adjacent to the giant planets will be influenced in a different way. In such a region, eccentricities of embryos may become so large that the embryos pass close to a giant planet, which may cause them to be ejected from the system. If all embryos are removed, then no planets will form in this region. An additional consequence is that a huge number of small planetesimals will remain, because giant planets are incapable of clearing them all out without the help of embryos. The total mass of remaining planetesimals will be small, because cumulative action of the embryos before their ejection and giant planets is still strong enough to remove 99% of the small bodies. Such a region will eventually evolve into an asteroid belt, which is a full analog of the asteroid belt in the Solar System, located from 2 to 4 AU from the Sun.
Exoplanets
Thousands of exoplanets have been identified in the last twenty years. The orbits of many of these planets and systems of planets differ significantly from the planets in the Solar System. The exoplanets discovered include hot-Jupiters, warm-Jupiters, super-Earths, and systems of tightly packed inner planets.
The hot-Jupiters and warm-Jupiters are thought to have migrated to their current orbits during or following their formation. A number of possible mechanisms for this migration have been proposed. Type I or Type II migration could smoothly decrease the semimajor axis of the planet's orbit resulting in a warm- or hot-Jupiter. Gravitational scattering by other planets onto eccentric orbits with a perihelion near the star followed by the circularization of its orbit due to tidal interactions with the star can leave a planet on a close orbit. If a massive companion planet or star on an inclined orbit was present an exchange of inclination for eccentricity via the Kozai mechanism raising eccentricities and lowering perihelion followed by circularization can also result in a close orbit. Many of the Jupiter-sized planets have eccentric orbits which may indicate that gravitational encounters occurred between the planets, although migration while in resonance can also excite eccentricities. The in situ growth of hot Jupiters from closely orbiting super Earths has also been proposed. The cores in this hypothesis could have formed locally or at a greater distance and migrated close to the star.
Super-Earths and other closely orbiting planets are thought to have either formed in situ or ex situ, that is, to have migrated inward from their initial locations. The in situ formation of closely orbiting super-Earths would require a massive disk, the migration of planetary embryos followed by collisions and mergers, or the radial drift of small solids from farther out in the disk. The migration of the super-Earths, or the embryos that collided to form them, is likely to have been Type I due to their smaller mass. The resonant orbits of some of the exoplanet systems indicates that some migration occurred in these systems, while the spacing of the orbits in many of the other systems not in resonance indicates that an instability likely occurred in those systems after the dissipation of the gas disk. The absence of Super-Earths and closely orbiting planets in the Solar System may be due to the previous formation of Jupiter blocking their inward migration.
The amount of gas a super-Earth that formed in situ acquires may depend on when the planetary embryos merged due to giant impacts relative to the dissipation of the gas disk. If the mergers happen after the gas disk dissipates terrestrial planets can form, if in a transition disk a super-Earth with a gas envelope containing a few percent of its mass may form. If the mergers happen too early runaway gas accretion may occur leading to the formation of a gas giant. The mergers begin when the dynamical friction due to the gas disk becomes insufficient to prevent collisions, a process that will begin earlier in a higher metallicity disk. Alternatively gas accretion may be limited due to the envelopes not being in hydrostatic equilibrium, instead gas may flow through the envelope slowing its growth and delaying the onset of runaway gas accretion until the mass of the core reaches 15 Earth masses.
Meaning of accretion
Use of the term "accretion disk" for the protoplanetary disk leads to confusion over the planetary accretion process.
The protoplanetary disk is sometimes referred to as an accretion disk, because while the young T Tauri-like protostar is still contracting, gaseous material may still be falling onto it, accreting on its surface from the disk's inner edge. In an accretion disk, there is a net flux of mass from larger radii toward smaller radii.
However, that meaning should not be confused with the process of accretion forming the planets. In this context, accretion refers to the process of cooled, solidified grains of dust and ice orbiting the protostar in the protoplanetary disk, colliding and sticking together and gradually growing, up to and including the high-energy collisions between sizable planetesimals.
In addition, the giant planets probably had accretion disks of their own, in the first meaning of the word. The clouds of captured hydrogen and helium gas contracted, spun up, flattened, and deposited gas onto the surface of each giant protoplanet, while solid bodies within that disk accreted into the giant planet's regular moons.
See also
Asteroid belt
Bok globule
Comet
Exocomet
Formation and evolution of the Solar System
Herbig–Haro object
History of Earth
Kuiper belt
Oort cloud
T Tauri star
Notes
References
External links
Solar System
Circumstellar disks
Planetary systems
Planets
Pre-stellar nebulae
Concepts in astronomy
History of astronomy
Cosmogony
Articles containing video clips
1755 in science
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212375
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amand%20Bazard
|
Amand Bazard
|
Saint-Amand Bazard (18 September 179129 July 1832) was a French socialist, the founder of a secret society in France corresponding to the Carbonari of Italy.
Biography
He was born in Paris. He took part in the defence of Paris in 1815, and afterwards occupied a subordinate situation in the prefecture of the Seine département. At 25 years of age, he was appointed a knight of the Legion of Honor.
About 1820, he united some of his patriotic friends into a society called Amis de la vérité.
From this, a complete system of Carbonarism developed, whose peculiar principles were introduced from Italy by two of Bazard's friends.
Bazard himself was at the head of the central body, and, while taking a general lead, contributed extensively to the Carbonarist journal, L'Aristarque.
An unsuccessful outbreak at Belfort ruined the society, and the leaders were compelled to conceal themselves. Bazard, after remaining for some time in obscurity in Paris, came to the conclusion that the ends of those who wished well to the people would be most easily attained, not through political agitation, but by effecting a radical change in their social condition.
This train of thinking naturally drew him towards the socialist philosophers of the school of Saint-Simon, whom he joined, he contributed to their journal, Le Producteur; and in 1828 began to give public lectures on the principles of the school. His opposition to the emancipation of women brought about a quarrel with Enfantin in 1831, and Bazard found himself almost deserted by the members of the society. He attacked Enfantin violently, and, in a heated argument among them, he was struck down by apoplexy. After lingering for a few months, he died.
Notes
References
1791 births
1832 deaths
Politicians from Paris
Saint-Simonists
French socialists
Carbonari
|
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212377
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paco%20Pe%C3%B1a
|
Paco Peña
|
Paco Peña (born 1 June 1942) is a Spanish flamenco composer and guitarist. He is regarded as one of the world's foremost traditional flamenco players.
Biography
Born in Córdoba, Spain, as Francisco Peña Pérez, Paco Peña began learning to play the guitar from his brother at age six and made his first professional appearance at twelve. Encouraged by his family, he left home and began performing throughout Spain as part of a government-sponsored folk music and dance program. This led to calls from professional flamenco companies in Madrid and the Costa Brava, where Peña established himself as a highly regarded accompanist to flamenco dance and singing. However, dissatisfied with life on the coast and seeking a new challenge, he moved to London in the late 1960s to become a soloist.
Initially the star attraction in the Restaurante Antonio in Covent Garden, Peña generated so much interest among a British public previously uninitiated in flamenco that he soon found himself sharing concerts with artists such as Jimi Hendrix, and made his solo debut at Wigmore Hall in 1967. It was not long before Peña was touring the world, both as a soloist and an accompanist with performances at Carnegie Hall in New York City, the Royal Albert Hall in London and the Concertgebouw in Amsterdam. He later founded the world's first university course on flamenco guitar, at the Rotterdam conservatory of music. In 1984 Peña was interviewed by Julian Bream for the Channel 4 television series Guitarra! which traces the development of the guitar in Spain.
Peña also created the Centro Flamenco Paco Peña in Córdoba, and was responsible for the founding of the now-celebrated annual Córdoba Guitar Festival, which has seen appearances by other flamenco greats such as Manolo Sanlúcar and Paco de Lucía.
In 1997 Peña was named Oficial de la Cruz de la Orden del Mérito Civil by King Juan Carlos of Spain.
His most famous compositions include his Misa Flamenca (a flamenco Mass), and Requiem for the Earth, both of which have received great critical acclaim.
He has also had a number of notable collaborations, significantly with the Argentinian guitarist Eduardo Falú and the Chilean group Inti-Illimani.
Peña has homes in London and Córdoba. Recent shows include Flamenco Sin Fronteras, which explores the relationship between Venezuelan music and flamenco; and Quimeras, which features the Paco Peña Flamenco Dance Company performing a story about immigrants from Africa arriving in Andalusia.
Peña has collaborated with the classical guitarist John Williams. Peña also provided the chapter on flamenco guitar for the book The Guitar (A Guide For Students And Teachers).
Discography
CD
1987 Fragments of a Dream (Inti-Illimani with John Williams)
1987 Flamenco Guitar Music of Ramón Montoya and Niño Ricardo
1988 Azahara
1990 Leyenda (live in Cologne Inti-Illimani with John Williams)
1991 Misa Flamenca
1992 Encuentro (with Eduardo Falú)
1995 The Art of Paco Peña (anthology)
1999 Arte y Pasión (live, with Company)
2000 Flamenco Guitar (Montoya/Ricardo & Azahara)
2003 Flamenco Master: Essential flamenco recordings (anthology)
2004 Fabulous Flamenco / La Gitarra Flamenca (remastered)
2007 His Essential Recordings (anthology)
2007 A Flamenco Guitar Recital (live)
2007 Requiem for the Earth
2008 A Compás! (Live, with Company)
2014 Duo Recital (with Eliot Fisk)
LP
1966 Flamenco! (El Sali & his Ballet Espagnol)
1968 The Incredible Paco Peña
1969 Carnival (with Los Marachuchos)
1970 Flamenco
1970 The Art of Flamenco (with Company)
1972 Flamenco Puro Live (with Company)
1973 The Art of the Flamenco Guitar
1975 Fabulous Flamenco!
1976 Flamenco Festival
1976 Toques Flamencos (Student pieces, with book)
1977 La Gitarra
1978 The Flamenco World of Paco Peña
1979 Live in London
1980 Live at Sadler's Wells (with Company)
1985 Flamenco Vivo (live)
DVD
1985 Guitarra! (Julian Bream) [guest appearance]
1991 Misa Flamenca
References
External links
Paco Peña's website
Music Conservatory and Dance Academy of Rotterdam.
Rotterdam´s World Music and Dance Centre
Paco Peña biography and discography
1942 births
Living people
Spanish flamenco guitarists
Spanish male guitarists
Flamenco guitarists
Codarts University for the Arts alumni
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lahn-Dill-Kreis
|
Lahn-Dill-Kreis
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Lahn-Dill is a Kreis (district) in the west of Hesse, Germany. Neighboring districts are Siegen-Wittgenstein, Marburg-Biedenkopf, Gießen, Wetteraukreis, Hochtaunuskreis, Limburg-Weilburg, Westerwaldkreis.
History
The southern district belonged to the Princes of Solms-Braunfels and the Free Imperial City of Wetzlar. The latter had to give up its imperial freedom in 1803 as a result of the Imperial Deputation, then as the county of Wetzlar, in favor of the newly created Grand Duchy of Frankfurt of the prince primate (in the old empire Reichserzkanzler) Karl Theodor von Dalberg. The former Solmsian territories came to the Duchy of Nassau in 1806 and in 1815 also to Prussia in an exchange. In 1816, the Prussian districts of Wetzlar and Braunfels were created, which were united in 1822 to form the district of Wetzlar. The district belonged to the Prussian Rhine Province as an exclave until 1932. Since the Middle Ages, the northern part of the district belonged to the principality of Nassau-Dillenburg, which was part of the French-occupied Grand Duchy of Berg between 1806 and 1813, and to the principality of Nassau-Orianen between 1813 and 1815, which was absorbed into the Duchy of Nassau in 1816. This formed the two offices of Herborn and Dillenburg. After the Prussian annexation of the Duchy of Nassau in September 1866, both offices were united to form the Dillkreis.
After World War II, the entire district area as it is today became part of the state of Hesse. In the course of the territorial reform in Hesse, the Lahn-Dill district was formed on January 1, 1977. The new district consisted of
the entire area of the dissolved Dillkreis with the cities of Dillenburg, Haiger and Herborn as well as the municipalities of Breitscheid, Dietzhölztal, Driedorf, Eschenburg, Greifenstein, Mittenaar, Siegbach and Sinn
the largest part of the dissolved district of Giessen with the towns of Allendorf (Lumda), Grünberg, Hungen, Laubach, Lich, Linden and Staufenberg as well as the municipalities of Buseck, Fernwald, Langgöns, Lollar, Pohlheim, Rabenau and Reiskirchen
part of the dissolved administrative district of Wetzlar with the towns of Braunfels and Leun and the municipalities of Aßlar, Biebertal, Bischoffen (formerly Biedenkopf administrative district), Ehringshausen, Hohenahr, Hüttenberg, Schöffengrund, Solms and Waldsolms.
The new district had an area of 1695 km² and included a total of 36 municipalities. The seat of the district administration became the simultaneously formed district-free city "Lahn". This was created by uniting the district-free city of Giessen with the city of Wetzlar, 13 other municipalities from the district of Wetzlar and the municipality of Heuchelheim from the district of Giessen.
Due to strong protests, mainly from the people of Wetzlar, the territorial reform was partially reversed. Effective August 1, 1979, the city of Lahn was dissolved again and the Lahn-Dill district was reorganized:
The restored city of Wetzlar and the newly formed municipality of Lahnau were incorporated into the Lahn-Dill district.
The municipality of Biebertal as well as all municipalities belonging to the district of Giessen until 1976 left the Lahn-Dill district and came to the newly established district of Giessen.
Since then, the Lahn-Dill district has comprised 23 towns and municipalities on an area of 1066.5 km².
Geography
The main rivers of the district are the Lahn and the Dill, which also gave it the name. It is mountain landscape with the Westerwald in the west, the Taunus in the south, the Lahn-Dill-Bergland in the east and the Rothaargebirge of the Sauerland in the north. The highest elevation with 671 m is near Rittershausen (part of Dietzhölztal), the lowest with 135 is in the Lahn valley in Biskirchen (part of the town of Leun).
Coat of arms
The coat of arms shows the imperial eagle in the top, a sign for the imperial city Wetzlar. The bottom part - taken from the arms of the previous Dillkreis - shows the lion of Nassau and the horn of the princes of Orange-Nassau, which later became the Dutch royal family. Dillenburg was the capital of the county of Nassau and later of Nassau-Orange.
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
Official website (German)
Official Online-Community (German)
Districts of Hesse
Wetzlar
Taunus
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