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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike%20Caro
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Mike Caro
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Mike A. Caro (born May 16, 1944) is an American professional poker player, pioneer poker theorist, author of poker books, and casino executive.
Author
In 1978 he contributed 50 statistical tables to Doyle Brunson's Super/System and wrote that book's chapter on draw poker. He acts as a consultant to many casinos, providing odds, and he helped develop the Poker Probe, the first serious commercial PC program for analyzing poker situations. He is the founder of the Mike Caro University of Poker, Gaming and Life Strategy, the world's first permanent poker school. He was an early predictor that real money online poker would work.
Caro is the author of a number of books about poker, including:
The Body Language of Poker
Bobby Baldwin's Winning Poker Secrets
Caro on Gambling – a collection of his columns published in Gambling Times magazine
Mike Caro's Book of Poker Tells – There is also a companion Video/DVD
Caro's Fundamental Secrets of Winning Poker
Gambling Times Official Rules of Poker
Gambling Times Quiz Book
Master Hold'em and Omaha Poker
New Poker Games – Descriptions and rules of esoteric or newly invented poker variants
Odds Quick and Simple
Professional Hold'em Play by Play
Poker at the Millennium by Mike Caro & Mike Cappelletti
Poker for Women: A Course in Destroying Male Opponents at Poker and Beyond
Caro’s Most Profitable Hold’em Advice
He also has made multiple videos, some of which correspond to his books. He was formerly editor-in-chief of Poker Player magazine and senior editor of Gambling Times magazine.
Mike Caro coined the famous poker tells "Weak means Strong" and "Strong means Weak", meaning that players will try to fool other players by acting the opposite way of the true strength of their poker hand.
In 1984 at the World Series of Poker he demonstrated Orac (Caro backwards), a poker-playing computer program that he had written. Orac was the world's first serious attempt at an AI poker player, and most poker professionals were surprised at how well it played.
Casino executive and poker player
Caro was the chief strategist for the Bicycle Casino when it opened in 1984 and was named the general manager of the Huntington Park Casino in 1986. In 1992 he helped organize the "World Poker Finals" at Foxwoods Resort Casino, the first corporate sponsored tournament.
He is also a persistent advocate for four-color decks in card rooms and tournaments.
, his total career live tournament winnings exceed $175,000.
His wife, Phyllis, is director of poker operations at Hollywood Park Casino.
References
External links
Mike Caro's official site
American poker players
American gambling writers
American male non-fiction writers
American casino industry businesspeople
1944 births
Living people
People from Joplin, Missouri
People from Signal Hill, California
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%20Hornet
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Green Hornet
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The Green Hornet is a fictional masked crime-fighting superhero created in 1936 by George W. Trendle and Fran Striker, with input from radio director James Jewell. Since his 1930s radio debut, the character has appeared in numerous serialized dramas in a wide variety of media. The Green Hornet appeared in film serials in the 1940s, The Green Hornet television series in the 1960s (which costarred Bruce Lee in his first major adult role), multiple comic book series from the 1940s on, and a feature film in 2011. The franchise is owned by Green Hornet, Inc., who license the property across a wide variety of media that includes comics, films, TV shows, radio and books. As of the 2010s, the comic-book rights are licensed to Dynamite Entertainment.
History
Though various incarnations sometimes change details, in most versions the Green Hornet is the alter ego of Britt Reid (), wealthy young publisher of the Daily Sentinel newspaper by day. But by night, clad in a long green overcoat, gloves, green fedora hat and green mask, Reid fights crime as the mysterious vigilante known as "The Green Hornet" and is accompanied by his loyal and similarly masked partner and confidant, Kato, who drives their technologically advanced car, the "Black Beauty". Though both the police and the general public believe the Hornet to be a wanted criminal, Reid uses that perception to help him infiltrate the underworld, leaving behind for the police the criminals and any incriminating evidence he has found.
In the original radio incarnation, Britt Reid is the son of Dan Reid, Jr., the nephew of John Reid, the Lone Ranger, making the Green Hornet the grand-nephew of the Ranger. The relationship is alluded to at least once in the radio shows, when Dan Reid visits his son to question him on why Britt has never captured the Hornet. On learning the truth behind his son's dual identity, Dan Reid recalls his days riding in Texas with his Uncle John, as the William Tell Overture plays briefly and softly in the background.
Radio series
The character debuted in The Green Hornet, an American radio program that premiered on January 31, 1936, on WXYZ, the same local Detroit station that originated its companion shows The Lone Ranger and Challenge of the Yukon. Beginning on April 12, 1938, the station supplied the series to the Mutual Broadcasting System radio network, and then to NBC Blue and its successors, the Blue Network and ABC, from November 16, 1939, through September 8, 1950. It returned from September 10 to December 5, 1952. It was sponsored by General Mills from January to August 1948, and by Orange Crush in its brief 1952 run.
Film
Serials
The Green Hornet was adapted into two movie serials, 1940's The Green Hornet and, in 1941, The Green Hornet Strikes Again! Disliking the treatment Republic gave The Lone Ranger in two serials, George W. Trendle took his property to Universal Pictures, and was much happier with the results. The first serial, titled simply The Green Hornet (1940), stars Gordon Jones in the title role, albeit dubbed by original radio Hornet Al Hodge whenever the hero's mask was in place, while The Green Hornet Strikes Again! (1941) stars Warren Hull. Keye Luke, who played the "Number One Son" in the Charlie Chan films, plays Kato in both. Also starring in both serials are Anne Nagel as Lenore Case, Britt Reid's secretary, and Wade Boteler as Mike Axford, a reporter for the Daily Sentinel, the newspaper that Reid owns and publishes. Ford Beebe directed both serials, partnered by Ray Taylor on The Green Hornet and John Rawlins on The Green Hornet Strikes Again!, with George H. Plympton and Basil Dickey contributing to the screenplays for both serials. The Green Hornet runs for 13 chapters while The Green Hornet Strikes Again! has 15 installments, with the Hornet and Kato smashing a different racket in each chapter. In each serial, they are all linked to a single major crime syndicate which is itself put out of business in the finale, while the radio program had the various rackets completely independent of each other.
The Green Hornet (2006)
A 10-minute 2006 French short film titled Le frelon vert is based on the Green Hornet.
The Green Hornet (2011)
A film version of the character had been contemplated since the 1990s, with Universal Pictures and Miramax each attempting to develop a film. Sony Pictures announced plans for a feature film of the superhero in 2008. Eventually, Sony Pictures, through its subsidiary Columbia Pictures, released an action-comedy Green Hornet feature on January 14, 2011, starring Seth Rogen, who co-wrote the script with Superbad co-writer Evan Goldberg. It was directed by Michel Gondry. Jay Chou co-starred as Kato. Also starring were Cameron Diaz as Lenore Case, Edward James Olmos as Mike Axford, David Harbour as Frank Scanlon, Christoph Waltz as the main villain Benjamin Chudnofsky, and Tom Wilkinson as James Reid.
Reboot
In 2016, Paramount Pictures and Chernin Entertainment acquired the rights to The Green Hornet and started preliminary work on developing a reboot with Gavin O'Connor as producer and director of the film and Sean O'Keefe as writer. In 2020, Amasia Entertainment gained the rights of the Green Hornet and officially teamed with Universal Pictures for the reboot titled Green Hornet and Kato with David Koepp writing the script.
Television
The Green Hornet (1966)
The Green Hornet is a television series shown on the ABC U.S. television network. It aired for the 1966–1967 television season and stars Van Williams as both the Green Hornet and Britt Reid, and Bruce Lee as Kato. With his insistence on using his martial arts skills, Bruce Lee stole the show as Kato. This was perhaps the first time Asian martial arts fighting was seen on American TV. The show launched Bruce Lee's career as a popular actor in the US as well as in Hong Kong. Audience interest even led to Van Williams asking to learn some martial art moves.
Williams and Lee's Green Hornet and Kato appear as anti-heroes in the second season of the Batman TV series in the two-part episode "A Piece of the Action" / "Batman's Satisfaction". The episode ended with Robin questioning whether the Green Hornet was really a good guy or a bad guy; even Batman himself was not sure. Unlike the "campy" version of Batman, this version of The Green Hornet was played more seriously.
Animated series
In July 2020, Kevin Smith and WildBrain announced plans to develop a Green Hornet animated series.
Comic books
Early comics
Green Hornet comic books began in December 1940. The series, titled Green Hornet Comics published by Helnit Comics (sometimes called Holyoke), with the writing attributed to Fran Striker. The stories were loosely based on episodes of the radio show. This series ended after six issues.
Several months later, Harvey Comics launched its own version, beginning with issue #7. This series lasted until issue #47 in 1949; during that time it also changed its title twice: first to Green Hornet Fights Crime (issue #34) and later to Green Hornet, Racket Buster (issue #44).
Harvey additionally used the character in the public-service one-shot War Victory Comics in 1942, and gave him one adventure in each of two issues of All-New Comics, #13 (where he was also featured on the cover) and #14, in 1946.
In 1953, several months after the radio series ended, Dell Comics published a one-shot with the character (officially entitled Four Color #496). Both stories therein share titles with late-era radio episodes ("The Freightyard Robberies", June 23, 1949; and "[The] Proof of Treason", October 17, 1952) and might be adaptations.
In 1967, Gold Key Comics produced a 3-issue series based on the TV show.
NOW Comics
In 1989, NOW Comics introduced a line of Green Hornet comics, initially written by Ron Fortier and illustrated by Jeff Butler. It attempted to reconcile the different versions of the character into a multigenerational epic. This took into account the character's ancestral connection to The Lone Ranger, though due to the legal separation of the two properties, his mask covered his entire face (as in the Republic serials) and he could not be called by name. In this interpretation, the Britt of the radio series had fought crime as the Hornet in the 1930s and 1940s before retiring. In NOW's first story, in Green Hornet #1 (November 1989), set in 1945, the nationality of the original Kato (named in this comic series Ikano Kato) is given as Japanese, but because of the American policy regarding the Japanese minority during World War II, Reid referred to Kato as Filipino in order to prevent Kato's being sent to an American internment camp.
The NOW comics considered the 1960s television character as the namesake nephew of the original, 1930s–1940s Britt Reid, referred to as "Britt Reid II" in the genealogy, who took up his uncle's mantle after a friend is assassinated. Britt Reid II eventually retired due to a heart attack, and Kato—given the first name Hayashi, after that of the first actor to play Kato on radio—goes on to become a star of ninja movies. The NOW comics established Hayashi Kato as Ikano Kato's son. Britt Reid's nephew, Paul Reid, a concert pianist, takes on the role of the Hornet after his older brother Alan, who had first taken on the mantle, is killed on his debut mission. Paul Reid is assisted by Mishi Kato, Hayashi's much-younger half-sister who was trained by Ikano Kato. Her being female caused problems between the publishers and the rights-holders, who withdrew approval of that character and mandated the return of "the Bruce Lee Kato". After Mishi's departure—explained as orders from her father to replace an injured automobile designer at the Zurich, Switzerland, facility of the family corporation, Nippon Today—Hayashi Kato returned to crime fighting alongside the Paul Reid Green Hornet. Mishi Kato returned in volume two as the Crimson Wasp, following the death of her Swiss police-officer fiancé, on orders of a criminal leader. In NOW's final two issues, vol. 2, #39-40, a fourth Kato—Kono Kato, grandson of Ikano and nephew of Hayashi and Mishi—took over as Paul Reid's fellow masked vigilante. The comics also introduced Diana Reid, the original Britt Reid's daughter, who had become district attorney after the TV series' Frank Scanlon had retired. A romantic relationship eventually formed between her and Hayashi Kato.
NOW's first series began in 1989 and lasted 14 issues. Volume Two began in 1991 and lasted 40 issues, ending in 1995 when the publisher went out of business. Kato starred solo in a four-issue miniseries in 1991, and a two-issue follow-up in 1992, both written by Mike Baron. He also wrote a third, first announced as a two-issue miniseries, then as a graphic novel, but it was never released due to the company's collapse.
Tales of the Green Hornet, consisting of nine issues spread out over three volumes (two, four, and three issues, respectively), presented stories of the two previous Hornets. Volume One featured Green Hornet II, and its story was plotted by Van Williams, star of the 1960s TV series, and scripted by Bob Ingersoll. The follow-ups were written by James Van Hise. Other miniseries included the three-issue The Green Hornet: Solitary Sentinel; the four-issue Sting of the Green Hornet, set during World War II and Clint McElroy's three-issue Dark Tomorrow (June–August 1993), featuring a criminal Green Hornet in 2080 being fought by the Kato of that era.
Discounting depictions of the cars utilized by the 1940s and 1960s Hornets, there were two versions of the Black Beauty used in the NOW comic series. The first was based on the Pontiac Banshee. The second was a four-door sedan based on the eleventh-generation Oldsmobile 98 Touring Sedan.
Dynamite Entertainment
In March 2009, Dynamite Entertainment acquired the license to produce Green Hornet comic books. Its first release was a miniseries written by Kevin Smith with pencils by Jonathan Lau. Revamped in 2010 as an ongoing series set in modern times, the new Green Hornet stars Britt Reid, Jr., the rebellious and spoiled son of Britt Reid, Sr., now a retired industrial and family man. When Britt Sr. is slain by the Black Hornet, a yakuza mobster whose family was shamed by the original Green Hornet, the aging but still fit Kato returns. With his daughter, Mulan Kato, who has taken over the costumed identity of her father, he brings Britt Jr. to China for training and safekeeping as he becomes the new Green Hornet. Writer Jai Nitz also wrote Green Hornet: Parallel Lives, a miniseries prequel to the 2011 Green Hornet feature film.
In 2013, an eight-issue miniseries called Masks brought together famous heroes from the pulp era. It starred The Shadow, The Green Hornet and Kato, The Spider and a 1930s descendant of Zorro. It was written by Chris Roberson with art by Alex Ross and Dennis Calero.
Kevin Smith and Ralph Garman wrote a crossover title, Batman '66 meets the Green Hornet, released in June 2014.
Comic strip
In 2018, the Green Hornet appeared in newspaper strips as a guest-star in Dick Tracy by Mike Curtis (script) and Joe Staton (art), continuing the trend of Tracy stories reviving characters from defunct strips.
Prose fiction
Western Publishing subsidiary Whitman Books released four works of text fiction based on the character, targeting younger readers. There were three entries in the children's line of profusely illustrated Big Little Books, The Green Hornet Strikes!, The Green Hornet Returns, and The Green Hornet Cracks Down, in 1940, 1941 and 1942, respectively, all attributed to Fran Striker. In 1966, their line for older juveniles included Green Hornet: Case of the Disappearing Doctor by Brandon Keith, a tie-in to the television series. At about the same time, Dell Publishing released a mass-market paperback, The Green Hornet in The Infernal Light by Ed Friend, not only derived from the small-screen production as well, but, "allegedly based on one of the TV episodes".
In 2009, Moonstone Books gained the prose license and has released three Green Hornet anthologies as part of its "Chronicles" line: The Green Hornet Chronicles, The Green Hornet Casefiles, and The Green Hornet: Still at Large.
Merchandising
Few examples of Green Hornet merchandise have appeared since the 1960s. To coincide with the 2011 movie, Factory Entertainment produced six-inch action figures and a die cast Black Beauty, among other collectibles. Hollywood Collectibles has made a full-size prop gas gun replica. Mezco Toyz has made a set of 12-inch action figures, with the prototypes donated to the Museum of the Moving Image.
CKE Restaurants, Inc., the parent company of Carl's Jr. and Hardee's, teamed with the studio on a promotional marketing partnership that included commercials featuring Seth Rogen and Jay Chou in character as the Green Hornet and Kato; a beverage promotion with Dr. Pepper; The Green Hornet food items, kids' meal toys, and employee uniforms; and a contest with the grand prize of the Black Beauty car from the film.
In June 2018, the toy company Funko released a Funko Pop of the Green Hornet.
In other popular culture
Art, entertainment, and media
Aretha Franklin's 1967 album I Never Loved a Man the Way I Love You contains the song "Save Me" which includes the lyric "Calling the Caped Crusader, Green Hornet, Kato, too / I'm in so much trouble I don't know what to do".
The 1960s cartoon series Batfink is a parody of both Batman and the Green Hornet. Batfink rides in a pink vehicle called the Battilac, which is driven by his assistant Karate who is a martial artist.
Bill Cosby parodied The Green Hornet in his c. 1970 syndicated five-minute daily radio program, The Brown Hornet, which he revived in the late 1970s for his Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids cartoon show.
In 1973 George Garabedian Productions on MARK56 Records released an LP of two of the radio shows. The cover included a green AMC Hornet.
Inspector Clouseau's valet/houseboy is called Cato (spelled with a "C" instead of a "K"), and his car in the film Revenge of the Pink Panther (1978) is a heavily modified Citroën 2CV, "The Silver Hornet".
The 1993 American semi-fictionalized biographical film Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story, in which Jason Scott Lee portrayed Bruce Lee, features scenes involving the filming of the 1966 Green Hornet television series. Van Williams, who starred in the TV series, appeared in the film as the show's director.
A 1994 Hong Kong film, Qing feng xia, stars Kar Lok Chin as a Kato-like masked hero called the Green Hornet in English subtitles. In one scene, he is reminded of his predecessors, one of whom is represented by a picture of Bruce Lee in his TV Kato costume.
Black Mask is a 1996 Hong Kong action film starring Jet Li. The film is an adaptation of the 1992 manhua Black Mask by Li Chi-Tak. In the film, in homage to The Green Hornet, Black Mask wears a domino mask and chauffeur's cap in the same style as Kato from the series. The Black Mask is even compared to Kato in one scene. In 2002, it was followed by a sequel, Black Mask 2: City of Masks starring Andy On.
Season 6 of The Venture Bros. introduces parody characters of Green Hornet and Kato from 1960s TV show in the form of the masked crime-fighter Blue Morpho and his assistant Kano in a flashback, the latter having later become a member of the original Team Venture. It is also revealed that Blue Morpho was the father of the orphaned villain The Monarch, and he and Henchman 21 later take on the roles of the Blue Morpho and Kano respectively.<ref> (reprinted from Black Belt vol. 5, #10, October 1967, Rainbow Publications)
(Movie Publisher Services, 1991)
(reprinted from Black Belt vol. 5, #11, November 1967, Rainbow Publications)
External links
The Green Hornet at the International Catalogue of Superheroes
Green Hornet at the Grand Comics Database
Zoot Radio, free old time radio show downloads of The Green Hornet
The Green Hornet - Original Film Serial
William Dozier, the producer and narrator of The Green Hornet TV series, has his papers preserved at the American Heritage Center.
Masked Men: A Chronology of the Lone Ranger and the Green Hornet
Film serial characters
Dell Comics characters
Dynamite Entertainment characters
Fictional newspaper publishers (people)
Fictional vigilantes
Fictional detectives
Comics based on radio series
Gold Key Comics characters
Gold Key Comics titles
Harvey Comics titles
NOW Comics titles
Fictional orphans
Orphan characters in film
Orphan characters in television
Radio characters introduced in 1936
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] |
212659
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%20Hornet%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Green Hornet (disambiguation)
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Green Hornet and The Green Hornet may refer to:
The Green Hornet, a fictional character created by Fran Striker for the 1930s radio program and adapted into several media versions
The Green Hornet (radio series), the original 1936 radio series that introduced the Green Hornet character.
The Green Hornet (serial), the 1940 Universal movie serial based on the radio series
The Green Hornet Strikes Again!, the 1941 Universal movie serial based on the radio series
The Green Hornet (TV series), the 1960s television series based on the radio series
The Green Hornet (1994 film), a film unrelated to the original radio series, directed by Lam Ching-ying
The Green Hornet (2006 film), a French short-movie
The Green Hornet (2011 film), a film written by Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg
The Green Hornet (comics), a 2010 comic book series by Kevin Smith
"Green Hornet", a jazz version of Rimsky-Korsakov's "Flight of the Bumblebee", recorded by Al Hirt and used as the theme song on The Green Hornet TV series (later used in the 2003 film Kill Bill); the actual title of the piece is "Green Bee"
Green Hornet, a version of the 1972 AMC Hornet sedan built and marketed in Canada
Green Hornet, an MS Multi-section car (New York City Subway car)
Green Hornet, PCC streetcars used until 1958 by the Chicago Surface Lines and Chicago Transit Authority
Green Hornet, nickname for the Bell UH-1F variant of the "Huey" military utility helicopter used in Cambodia and Laos during the Vietnam War
Green Hornet, a cocktail made with brandy, lemon juice, and tonic
Green Hornets, a slang term in some Canadian cities for parking by-law enforcement officers; also "blue hornets" more recently in Toronto since the uniform is now blue (but formerly green)
SIGSALY, an early secure speech system also known as 'Green Hornet'
The Green Hornet, name under which Sea-Monkeys inventor Harold von Braunhut raced motorcycles
The Green Hornet was a nickname for an ice fishing rod used by Walter Matthau's character Max Goldman in the 1993 film Grumpy Old Men
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%20Centre
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Bell Centre
|
Bell Centre (), formerly known as Molson Centre (), is a multi-purpose arena located in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Opened on March 16, 1996, it is the home arena of the Montreal Canadiens of the National Hockey League (NHL), replacing the Montreal Forum. It is owned by the Molson family via the team's ownership group Groupe CH, and managed via Groupe CH subsidiary Evenko.
With a capacity of 21,302 in its hockey configuration, Bell Centre is the largest ice hockey arena in the world. Alongside hockey, Bell Centre has hosted major concerts, and occasional mixed martial arts and professional wrestling events. Since it opened in 1996, it has consistently been listed as one of the world's busiest arenas, usually receiving the highest attendance of any arena in Canada. In 2012, it was the fifth-busiest arena in the world based on ticket sales for non-sporting events.
History
Construction began on the site on June 22, 1993, almost two weeks after the Canadiens defeated the Los Angeles Kings at the Forum for their 24th and most recent Stanley Cup. The name of the arena initially reflected Molson, Inc., a brewing company which was owner of the Canadiens at the time. Molson elected not to keep the naming rights when they sold the team and the name was officially changed on September 1, 2002, after Bell Canada acquired the naming rights.
On October 14, 2015, it was announced that Bell Centre would undergo renovations, including the replacement of all the seats, renovated hallways and concessions, new restaurants, public Wi-Fi, and the planned conversion of Avenue des Canadiens-de-Montréal (the section of De la Gauchetière Street on which the arena is situated) into a pedestrian-only street. The renovations, which were not expected to interfere with normal operations, have a budget of $100 million.
Location
Bell Centre is located in downtown Montreal in the borough of Ville-Marie, near the corner of Avenue des Canadiens-de-Montréal (formerly Rue de la Gauchetière Ouest) and de la Montagne Street. The Lucien L'Allier commuter rail terminal, to which it is connected, is next door on that corner. In addition it is located across the street from the 1250 René-Lévesque skyscraper. It is easily accessible by public transportation, as it is linked to both Lucien-L'Allier and Bonaventure Metro stations. It is also connected to the underground city and Central Station.
Arena information
The building covers an area of (). It has a seating capacity of 21,302,
making it the largest hockey arena in the world. It also holds six restaurants.
Capacities of the Centre are:
Hockey: 21,302
Basketball: 22,114
Concerts: 19,200
Amphitheatre: 10,000–14,000
Theatre: 5,000–9,000
Hemicycle: 2,000–4,000
The public address announcer for the Canadiens' games is Michel Lacroix, while the national anthem singer alternates every home game after Charles Prevost-Linton was not asked to return at the end of the 2013–2014 season. Most notable amongst these rotating performers is Quebecois pop legend Ginette Reno, whose appearances to sing the Canadian anthem at playoff games were highly popular. Diane Bibeau plays the organ on Saturday nights.
A new scoreboard was installed prior of the 2008–2009 season. The new scoreboard consists of four video panels. It was the biggest in the NHL until 2012.
It is one of only two NHL arenas that uses an old-style siren to mark the end of periods instead of a horn; the other is TD Garden in Boston. The sirens were inherited from the arenas' predecessor facilities, coming from the disused Montreal Forum and the Boston Garden respectively.
Seating
Unlike most North American arenas, which have generally been designed by Populous and its predecessors, the Bell Centre was designed by a local consortium, and has many unique design features. The grandstands are sloped steeply to improve sight lines. Washrooms on the 100 level are centralized on a specific lower level located at each end.
Bell Centre is arranged in a three-tier layout: The lower 100 section, commonly referred to as "the reds" since these seats are coloured red; the 200 section situated between the two levels of private and corporate boxes, known as "Club Desjardins" (which features premium amenities such as larger seats and free food and non-alcoholic drinks), and the upper 300–400 section.
The 300–400 section is divided into three zones by seat colour: white section rows AA–FF, the grey section rows A–D, and the blue section, labelled "400," and consisting of rows A–D. The ends of the 400 section are further divided into two more groups. At the end where the Canadiens shoot towards twice is the Coors Light Zone, featuring section cheerleaders and a band playing in the hallway. At the opposite end is the Family Zone, which features child-specific ticket prices and limited alcohol.
Seats behind the press gondola, in Sections 318, 319, and 320, feature their own scoreboards on the back of the gondola due to the normal scoreboard being blocked.
Interior
After some early complaints of a generic feel, especially compared to the Forum, the Canadiens started to incrementally decorate the building with celebrations of the team's history, including a ring of players around the top level of seating. The Molson Ex Zone features a live band stage and its own red theme.
Entertainment
Bell Centre is the main venue in Montreal for large-scale entertainment events. Many artists have performed at the arena, like Céline Dion, Gloria Estefan, Stromae, Twenty One Pilots, Tina Turner, Prince, Elton John, Billy Joel, Shania Twain, Cher, Bon Jovi, Coldplay, Rihanna, Guns N' Roses, Slipknot, Ariana Grande, Taylor Swift, Katy Perry, Paul McCartney, Lady Gaga, Janet Jackson, Roger Waters, Spice Girls, Justin Timberlake, Barbra Streisand, Madonna, Metallica, Iron Maiden, The Rolling Stones and Aerosmith.
The singer who has performed the most times at the Bell Centre is Céline Dion with 50 performances between 1996 and 2020 from her Falling into You: Around the World tour in 1996 and 1997, Let's Talk About Love World Tour in 1998 and 1999, Taking Chances World Tour in 2008 and 2009, Summer Tour 2016 in 2016 and Courage World Tour in 2019 and 2020. On December 31, 1999, she performed the final show of the Let's Talk About Love World Tour, which was her last performance before a three-year hiatus from the music industry.
In August 1999, the Third National Tour of Les Miserables visited for a 12 day run. Robert Marien, who originated the role of Valjean in Paris in 1980, as well as in the bilingual Canadian tour which started in Montreal in 1991, joined the cast exclusively for the Montreal stop.
Sports
Ice hockey
The final two games of the three-game 1996 World Cup of Hockey championship series were held at Bell Centre (the United States won both games, defeating Canada in the series 2–1). Bell Centre was also host to two pool games in the 2004 World Cup of Hockey. The Bell Centre was the host of the 2009 NHL All-Star Game and hosted the 2009 NHL Entry Draft.
Montreal Canadiens home games have been consistently sold out since January 2004. Additionally, the Canadiens have among the top attendance figures in the NHL. For the 2009–2010 season, the Habs had the highest attendance played at their home arena. All 21,273 seats were sold in 45 minutes on May 12, 2010, for fans to watch the 7th game in the playoff series versus the Pittsburgh Penguins, which was shown on the big screens. Noise levels in the arena allegedly reached as high as 110 dB when goals were scored by the Canadiens, most notably, during the 2010 Stanley Cup playoffs, during Game #6 against the Pittsburgh Penguins on May 10, 2010, making it one of the loudest NHL arenas during hockey games.
On December 9, 2014, the Canadiens hosted the Vancouver Canucks, the first home game since the death of Jean Béliveau. The game was preceded by a memorial tribute to him. Bell Centre remained sold-out that night with 21,286 fans in attendance and one empty seat left for Mr. Beliveau, with the official attendance shortened by one to honour him.
Bell Centre hosted its first Stanley Cup Finals in 2021, with games three and four against the defending champion Tampa Bay Lightning played inside the arena. The Canadiens were allowed to have 2,500 fans from May 29 to June 14, and later, 3,500 fans was allowed for the third round against the Vegas Golden Knights and the Stanley Cup Finals due to Quebec government public health restrictions in response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Quebec. The Canadiens had hoped to further increase their arena capacity limit to 50% of the arena’s total seating capacity (10,500 people) for the Stanley Cup Finals, however, that request was denied by the Quebec government. While the arena's capacity was limited to 3,500 fans during the third round and the Finals, thousands more fans gathered outside the arena to watch the games on a TV screen outside of the La Cage sports bar situated adjacent to the arena.
From September 26 to October 8, 7,500 fans were allowed at Bell Centre for the pre-season games, and for the opening day on October 13, the Quebec government made new rules and stated that the Canadiens could return back to its full capacity of 21,302 people.
Basketball
Since October 2010, Bell Centre has hosted selected NBA preseason games, primarily featuring the Toronto Raptors; the first was held on October 22, 2010, with the Raptors hosting the New York Knicks. It has since hosted preseason games as part of the NBA Canada Series, which have also included all-U.S. games.
Mixed martial arts
Bell Centre hosted UFC 83 in April 2008, marking the first UFC mixed martial arts event to take place in Canada. The main event was a rematch between Welterweight champion Matt Serra and Montreal native Georges St-Pierre. The tickets available to the public sold out in under one minute, and the event set the all time UFC attendance record, at that time (since surpassed by UFC 129 in Toronto). Other UFC events have subsequently been held at Bell Centre, including UFC 97, UFC 113, UFC 124, UFC 154 and UFC 158, the most recent three of which were headlined by St-Pierre.
Professional wrestling
Bell Centre has occasionally hosted WWE professional wrestling events, including three pay-per-views (Survivor Series in 1997, No Way Out in 2003, and Breaking Point in 2009), as well as broadcasts of Raw and SmackDown. In April 2019, Bell Centre hosted both Raw and SmackDown on consecutive nights for the 2019 Superstar Shake-up, the first time in WWE history that the event was held at an arena outside of the United States.
During Survivor Series 1997, Bell Centre was the site of the infamous "Montreal Screwjob"—a match where Calgary-native Bret Hart controversially lost the WWF Championship to his rival Shawn Michaels. Hart had signed a contract to leave WWF for the rival World Championship Wrestling (WCW) the following month, and did not want to lose a championship match to Michaels in his own country. The original plan was for the match to end by disqualification after a brawl between the wrestlers' allies, which would have allowed Hart to lose or vacate the championship at a later date before leaving the promotion. However, WWF owner Vince McMahon intervened without Hart's knowledge, and had the referee declare a Michaels victory by submission after performing a Sharpshooter on Hart, even though he had not actually submitted. Wrestling writer Mike Johnson considered the match to be "arguably the most talked-about match in the history of professional wrestling".
Brock Lesnar made his televised WWE debut at Bell Centre on the March 16, 2002 Raw after WrestleMania X8 in Toronto, interfering in the Hardcore match that was taking place between Maven and Al Snow. A wall on the concourse of the arena depicting iconic events that took place inside the arena includes Lesnar’s debut among others.
Retired jerseys
The following numbers have been retired by the Canadiens and hang from the rafters:
While Elmer Lach and Henri Richard both wore the number 16, they were given separate ceremonies unlike Cournoyer and Moore. All have their own banner.
On October 18, 2005, the Canadiens also raised the following numbers on a single banner in honour of the former MLB team Montreal Expos, who left the city for Washington, D.C. after the 2004 season:
8 Gary Carter
10 Andre Dawson and Rusty Staub
30 Tim Raines
The only other banners hanging from the rafters at the arena are those of the Canadiens' Stanley Cup championship banners. Unlike other NHL arenas, the Canadiens do not display division or conference championship banners, despite the fact they have won many championships over the years (including 24 Stanley Cups). As with the Forum, only Stanley Cup championship banners are raised to the rafters.
See also
Connected via the underground city
List of indoor arenas in Canada
Statue of Guy Lafleur
References
External links
1996 establishments in Quebec
Basketball venues in Quebec
Boxing venues in Quebec
Bell Canada
Downtown Montreal
Indoor ice hockey venues in Quebec
Indoor lacrosse venues in Canada
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design certified buildings in Canada
Montreal Canadiens arenas
Music venues completed in 1996
Music venues in Montreal
National Basketball Association venues
National Hockey League venues
Quebec Major Junior Hockey League arenas
Sports venues completed in 1996
Sports venues in Montreal
|
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] |
212663
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20space
|
Open space
|
Open space may refer to:
In architecture, urban planning and conservation ethics:
Open plan, a generic term used in interior design for any floor plan, especially in workspaces, which makes use of large, open spaces and minimizes the use of small, enclosed rooms
Landscape, areas of land without human-built structures
Open space reserve, areas of protected or conserved land on which development is indefinitely set aside
Urban open space, urban areas of protected or conserved land on which development is indefinitely set aside
Greenway (landscape), a linear chain of open space reserves or a recreational corridor through the same
Public space, areas left open for the use of the public, such as a piazza, plaza, park, and courtyard
In business:
Open Space Technology, a procedure for conducting a business conference
In other uses:
Open Space (band), an indie rock band from Minsk, Belarus
Open Space (Italy), a faction within the Italian political party The People of Freedom
Open Space (magazine), magazine of the Open Spaces Society in the UK
Open Space (TV programme), a BBC TV programme produced by their Community Programme Unit
Open Space (publications), a music publishing collective
Open Space Theatre, a defunct London theatre run by Charles Marowitz
Open Space Technology, a method for organizing a participant-driven conference
See also
Outer space
Floor area ratio
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/So%20I%20Married%20an%20Axe%20Murderer
|
So I Married an Axe Murderer
|
So I Married an Axe Murderer is a 1993 American romantic black comedy film, directed by Thomas Schlamme and starring Mike Myers and Nancy Travis. Myers plays Charlie MacKenzie, a man afraid of commitment until he meets Harriet (Travis), who works at a butcher shop and is maybe a serial killer. Myers also plays his own character's father, Stuart. The film received a mixed reception from critics and did not fare well at the box office, grossing over $11 million, but it has gained a cult following since its release.
A spin-off miniseries called The Pentaverate has been announced to be released on Netflix, with Myers playing multiple characters.
Plot
Charlie MacKenzie is a popular local beat poet living in San Francisco who makes his frequent break-ups the subject of his poems. His best friend Tony, a recently promoted police detective, chastises Charlie for breaking up over minutiae—since Charlie's reasons for breaking up are often self-serving and paranoid. Tony points out that Charlie simply is afraid of commitment and tries to identify (or invent) any reason to break up with someone.
The following day, Charlie goes to purchase a meal for his dinner with his Scottish-born parents, Stuart and May, who both believe in conspiracy theories and get their news from the Weekly World News tabloid. On this errand, he encounters a butcher named Harriet, and he develops a slight crush on her. During his visit to his family, Charlie and May discuss his recent break up with another one of his girlfriends, during which May brings up an article in the tabloid that describes a character known as "Mrs. X", a bride who kills her husbands on their honeymoons using an axe.
Later on, Charlie goes back to the butchers where Harriet works and offers to help her, during which the two quickly find common bonds between them. They start to date, and after staying at her place one night, Charlie meets Harriet's eccentric sister, Rose, who warns Charlie to be careful. During their time together, he learns she used to live in Atlantic City, had been involved with a trainer in Russian martial arts, and screams for someone named Ralph in her sleep. As they continue to see each other, Charlie and Harriet fall in love. He arranges a dinner with her to meet his parents, who point out that she’s their favourite of all of his previous partners. Whilst there however, Charlie spots the article about Mrs. X and becomes panicked, as he realise that not only was one of the victims a martial arts expert, but another also happened to be named Ralph.
Charlie becomes paranoid and asks Tony to investigate Harriet and the Mrs. X story. Tony reveals that the husbands of Mrs. X were all reported missing alongside their wives, assuring that Harriet is unlikely to be Mrs. X. Charlie remains on edge, and after a few more troubled dates, decides to break up with her. Tony later reports that a killer in the Mrs. X story has confessed. Relieved, Charlie apologizes to Harriet by reciting one of his beat poems to her from his rooftop. They make up, and Harriet explains away some of the confusion Charlie had from her history, such as Ralph being the name of a woman she knows.
Some time later, at his parent's wedding anniversary Charlie proposes to Harriet, which she reluctantly accepts after some hesitation. Following the wedding ceremony, they embark on a honeymoon to a secluded mountain hotel. After they depart, Tony learns that the confessed killer is actually a compulsive liar. He sends a photo of Harriet to the known associates of the missing husbands, and all report back that she was their friends' wife. With phone lines to the hotel down due to a storm, Tony charters a plane. Once he lands, he is able to call Charlie locally and warn him that Harriet really is Mrs. X, but the hotel phone line is knocked out and power is lost.
Charlie is panicked and tries to stay away from Harriet without letting her know what he knows, but the hotel staff force him into the honeymoon suite for their first night together. After locking Harriet in the closet, Charlie discovers a "Dear Jane" letter, purportedly written by him, explaining his absence to Harriet. Suddenly, Rose appears wielding an axe. Rose tells Charlie he was not supposed to find the letter, and reveals herself as the Mrs. X killer, and that she feels that Harriet's husbands are taking her sister from her, motivating her to kill them on their honeymoon night and leave "Dear Jane" letters behind claiming to be from them, leading Harriet to believe that each husband simply left her. Charlie is then trapped in a game of cat-and-mouse, staying away from Rose while waiting for the police to arrive.
Tony leads the police into the hotel but arrests Harriet, still believing her to be the murderer. Charlie, having been chased to the hotel roof pursued by Rose, is able to get Tony’s attention as they prepare to take Harriet away, prompting Tony to run up the stairs to the roof to intervene. Whilst the police make their way up there Rose swings the axe at Charlie and is thrown off the building, with only Charlie holding her up from falling to her death. Tony comes to catch her fall, where she is arrested and taken away. Charlie and Harriet resume their lives afterward as a happy couple.
Cast
Mike Myers as Charlie MacKenzie / Stuart MacKenzie
Nancy Travis as Harriet Michaels
Anthony LaPaglia as Tony Giardino
Amanda Plummer as Rose Michaels
Michael Richards as Insensitive Man
Brenda Fricker as May MacKenzie
Matt Doherty as William "Heed" MacKenzie
Charles Grodin as Commandeered Driver
Phil Hartman as John "Vickie" Johnson, Alcatraz Guide
Debi Mazar as Susan, Tony's Girlfriend
Steven Wright as Pilot
Jessie Nelson as Ralph
Alan Arkin as Tony's Captain
Greg Germann as Concierge
Kelvin Han Yee as Master Cho
Patrick Bristow as Cafe Roads Performer
Luenell as Police Records Officer
Steve Dunleavy as Himself
Mike Hagerty as Obituary Writer
Paul Sanchez as Serenade Musician
Glen Vernon as Uncle Angus
Robert Nichols as Scottish Minister
Greg Germann as Concierge
Sheila Kelley as Sherry
Marla Sokoloff as Alcatraz Visitor
Production
The genesis of the film originated in 1987, when producer Robert N. Fried, who had recently left Orion Pictures to set up on his own, met with writer Robbie Fox to discuss story ideas. They ended up talking about the problems they had with women and agreed that "most women appeared to be out to destroy us!" Fried and co-producer Cary Woods formed their own production company in 1992. So I Married An Axe Murderer was their first film, for which they were given a $20 million budget. Fox wrote the screenplay in 1987. In the original version, Charlie was Jewish and, according to Fried, it was "initially conceived as being more about paranoia than commitment". Myers wanted changes to the script that would allow him to perform both serious acting and Saturday Night Live–style comedy.
He extensively rewrote the script with writer Neil Mullarkey, an old friend from Britain. According to Myers, they changed the story and many of the comedic moments. Fox was asked to consider a new set of credits that gave him a "story by" and co-screenplay credit. He rejected the proposal and in arbitration, the Writers Guild of America decided that Fox would receive sole screenwriting credit. Fried and Myers were upset that Mullarkey, who had put much work into the script, did not receive any credit.
Casting
Fried and co-producer Cary Woods asked Mike Myers to play Charlie MacKenzie because of the success he had with the film Wayne's World. He agreed because he liked the script, as many of his friends also had a fear of commitment, and "were all suffering from cold feet and what is cold feet but a low-grade terror? This story just expands on that terror." Before he was approached, Woody Allen considered playing Charlie. Chevy Chase, Albert Brooks, and Martin Short also considered the role but did not like the character. Sharon Stone was initially set to play Harriet Michaels, the supposed axe murderer of the film's title.
Like Myers, who has two roles in the film, Stone wanted to play Harriet and the role of Rose, Harriet's sister, the latter portrayed in the film by Amanda Plummer. Studio executives at Sony did not like the idea of Stone playing both roles, and she therefore refused to accept the part. Nancy Travis, Fried's partner and future wife, was then cast in the role instead. Travis was drawn to her character's "qualities of danger and compassion mixed with humor [which] make her an intriguing character."
Anthony LaPaglia said that his character "has grand illusions of being Serpico, you know he's ready to fight crime like his hero did. But he's just not competent." When the actors attended the first cast read-through of the script, Charlie's father, Stuart, had not yet been cast. Myers read the character's lines and the filmmakers so enjoyed his interpretation that they realized he could play that role as well. The film also features cameos by Charles Grodin, Phil Hartman, Michael Richards, Mike Hagerty, Debi Mazar, Steven Wright, and Alan Arkin, the latter appearing uncredited as Tony's sensitive boss. They all agreed to be in the film for the opportunity of working with Myers.
Principal photography
To fit both Charlie and his father in the same scene together, the filmmakers used a split-screen process. To look the role of Stuart, Myers spent over three-and-a-half hours having special prosthetic make-up applied. While filming scenes in the butcher shop, Nancy Travis was distracted by Myers' antics and accidentally took off the tip of her middle finger on her left hand while chopping vegetables with a kitchen knife. A local doctor sewed her finger back together. Travis said that she and Myers frequently improvised together, and he taught her more about comedy and showed her "how to be relaxed and spontaneous on the set."
There were stories in the press that Myers' over-inflated ego forced extensive re-shoots on the film, and that he tried to deny Robbie Fox credit for writing the film. On the set, director Thomas Schlamme said that he had his differences with Myers over how the film should be shaped. He said that Myers was "taking a stretch beyond his usual self and was playing outside himself. Personality clashes were bound to happen. We struggled." The director denied that Myers was a control freak, and praised the "total commitment to his work. (But) yes, it was difficult." In addition, several major newspapers and magazines claimed that the film went over budget, with in-fighting among the principal actors and lengthy release delays, and that it was unfunny. Despite these early reports, So I Married an Axe Murderer scored high at test screenings.
Locations
Set in San Francisco, California, the film features many famous sights and neighborhoods of the Golden State metropolis, including the Golden Gate Bridge, the Palace of Fine Arts and Alcatraz. One scene on Alcatraz was filmed in "A" block, an area that is still in its original state from 1912 and is not open to the public. The space for actors, crew and equipment is narrow, a challenge also faced by the makers of The Rock, which features Nicolas Cage and Sean Connery as characters breaking in to the prison complex. The tiny Cloverdale Municipal Airport is also in the film.
The restaurant where Myers and Travis' characters double date with LaPaglia and Debi Mazar's is the Fog City Diner. The butcher shop used for "Meats of the World" was Prudente Meats on Grant Ave, in the North Beach Section of San Francisco.
The scene where Charlie breaks up with Harriet was set in Alamo Square, the background showing the skyline of the city.
The final scenes are set at Dunsmuir House in the East Oakland foothills. Additional special effects and matte paintings created the illusion that the location was secluded among mountains. The exterior shot for the café, Cafe Roads, where Myers recites his beat poetry, is the bar Vesuvio, at Columbus Avenue and Jack Kerouac Alley. The filmmakers picked San Francisco as the film's setting because it was an ideal place for a poet like Charlie to live.
Myers has said that he was attracted to its "coffeehouse culture, with its clothes and music and its whole sensibility ... people aren't going to bars as much. They tend to go out and have coffee." Several sets were built in warehouses near Candlestick Park, and these soundstages were used for many weeks.
Deleted scenes
At least two deleted scenes are known to exist. One scene filmed on BART and an epilogue that revealed that Charlie and Harriet have a son named Stuart, after Charlie's father. The late actor Keith Selvin is credited as Young Stuart in the movie.
Music
Soundtrack
Boo Radleys - "There She Goes" 2:18
Toad the Wet Sprocket - "Brother" 4:04
Soul Asylum - "The Break" 2:46
Chris Whitley - "Starve To Death" 3:14
Big Audio Dynamite II - "Rush" (New York City Club Version) 3:55
Mike Myers - "This Poem Sucks" 2:04
Ned's Atomic Dustbin - "Saturday Night" 3:08
The Darling Buds - "Long Day In The Universe" 4:08
The Spin Doctors - "Two Princes" 4:15
Suede - "My Insatiable One" 2:57
Sun-60 - "Maybe Baby" 3:43
The La's - "There She Goes" 2:42
Other music in the film
The Bay City Rollers - "Saturday Night"
Ron Gonnella - "A Touch of Gaelic"
Rod Stewart - "Da Ya Think I'm Sexy" (sung by Mike Myers)
Nancy Travis - "Only You"
Score
The film's original score was composed and conducted by Bruce Broughton. Due to the film's having a heavy emphasis on popular music, several of Broughton's cues were replaced with songs (such as his main title music being supplanted by The Boo Radleys' version of "There She Goes," and "Butcher Shop Montage" having Big Audio Dynamite's "Rush" substituted).
Broughton was appreciative of the support music supervisor Danny Bramson and director Thomas Schlamme gave him, stating "I was given the opportunity to make my case, and I didn't get slighted... But the way it ended up was the way it ended up. It was done with a lot of creative latitude, and creative permission and confidence. I can't complain about the way it came out."
Intrada Records released an album of his music on November 25, 2013, featuring the complete score, plus alternates and original versions of cues.
Main Title 2:55
Boy Meets Girl 1:09
Weekly World News 0:38
Butcher Shop Montage 1:58
Russian Stroll 2:23
Goin' For It 2:19
Forever Wet 1 1:00
Forever Wet 2 0:59
Creeping Doubt (Revised) 1:05
Ralph 1:05
Name Your Poison 1:12
Ear Needles (Revised) 0:45
Globe Bridge 1:08
Reflections 0:42
You Blew It 0:27
The Bath (Revised) 0:54
She's Guilty (Revised) 1:04
Wedding Bands 0:32
Inn Source #2 2:14
Stalking 0:42
She's Mrs. Axe (Revised) 0:57
The Finale 5:27
The Finale Part 2 3:13
End Theme 1:35
Go See The Folks 0:17
Dinner Drive (Original) 0:27
Goin' For It (Revised) 2:19
Creeping Doubt (Original) 1:05
Ear Needles (Original) 0:14
Globe Bridge (Alternate) 0:29
Second Thoughts 0:13
Second Thoughts (Revised) 0:12
The Bath 0:52
She's Guilty 1:05
She's Mrs. Axe 0:57
The Finale Part 2 (Alternate) 2:26
Inn Source #1 (Haydn Quartet) 1:46
Inn Source #2 (Alternate) 1:32
Only You (And You Alone) 1:31
Total Time: 52:56
Reception
Box office
So I Married an Axe Murderer was first shown at a screening to benefit the local San Francisco film office, on July 27, 1993, at the Palace of Fine Arts Theater. It had its official world premiere at the Galaxy Theater in Hollywood on July 28, with Myers, Travis, and LaPaglia in attendance. The film did not perform well at the box office. It was released on July 30 in 1,349 theaters, and grossed $3.4 million USD during its opening weekend, and a total of $11.5 million in North America.
Critical response
So I Married an Axe Murderer had a mixed critical reception. On Rotten Tomatoes it has an approval rating of 51% based on 37 reviews, with an average rating of 5.50/10. The critical consensus reads, "So I Married an Axe Murderer is a unique rom-com with moments of heart and hilarity -- even if they're all too scattered to cohere into a consistent whole." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 54 out of 100 based on 30 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade of "B" on scale of A to F.
Roger Ebert, in his review for the Chicago Sun-Times, described the film as "a mediocre movie with a good one trapped inside, wildly signaling to be set free." He rated it two and a half stars out of four. Rolling Stone magazine's Peter Travers felt that "Juggling mirth, romance and murder requires a deft touch - think of Hitchcock's Trouble with Harry. Axe is a blunt instrument." Entertainment Weekly'''s reviewer gave the film a "C-" and said, "In some perverse way, So I Married an Axe Murderer seems to be asking us to laugh at how not-funny it is."
In his review for the Washington Post, Hal Hinson had a mixed reaction to Myers' performance, writing "Everything he does is charmingly lightweight and disposable and reasonably impossible to resist. And in the end, because the character is so easily within reach for him, you may come away feeling a little cheated, as if you hadn't quite seen a movie at all." However, Janet Maslin's review in the New York Times said that it came as "a welcome surprise that So I Married an Axe Murderer, which might have been nothing more than a by-the-numbers star vehicle, surrounds Mr. Myers with amusing cameos and gives him a chance to do more than just coast."
In his review for the San Francisco Chronicle, Edward Guthmann called the film a "trifle, at best - but it's so full of good spirits, and so rich with talented actors having a marvelous time, that its flaws tend to wash away."
Home media
A DVD of the film was first released in June 1999. The artwork for the DVD was different than the original film poster, which had Harriet holding an axe behind her back. A "Deluxe Edition" DVD and Blu-ray edition were released in June 2008 which despite the aforementioned label does not contain any special features.
The Pentaverate
On April 17, 2019, it was announced that Netflix had picked up a then untitled six-episode miniseries from Myers where he will star as multiple characters. In June 2021, it was revealed that the miniseries will be titled The Pentaverate'', based on the conspiracy theories from the Weekly World News in the film where Myers' character, Stuart McKenzie discusses it to Tony Giardino. The series will feature Ken Jeong, Keegan Michael Key, Debi Mazar, Jennifer Saunders, and Lydia West in undisclosed roles. Myers, Tim Kirkby, John Lyons, Tony Hernandez, Lilly Burns, and Jason Weinberg will serve as executive producers with the latter three through Jax Media.
References
External links
locations where the film was shot
1990s black comedy films
1990s crime comedy films
1990s serial killer films
1993 films
American black comedy films
American crime comedy films
American films
American serial killer films
Films about writers
Films scored by Bruce Broughton
Films set in the San Francisco Bay Area
Films set in San Francisco
TriStar Pictures films
Films shot in San Francisco
|
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212673
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glen%20Clark
|
Glen Clark
|
Glen David Clark (born November 22, 1957) is a Canadian business executive and former politician who served as the 31st premier of British Columbia from 1996 to 1999.
Early life and education
Clark attended independent Roman Catholic schools, namely St. Jude’s Elementary and Notre Dame Secondary in East Vancouver. At Notre Dame, Clark was known as a small, fearless linebacker for the football team. He was also student council president and played the lead male role in The Sound of Music and later performed in South Pacific. Clark received a bachelor's degree from Simon Fraser University and a master's degree from the University of British Columbia. Before entering politics,he was part of the labour movement and worked as a natural resource policy consultant..
Premier of British Columbia
Clark was first elected to the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia in the 1986 provincial election. He served as the Minister of Finance and Corporate Relations and then as the Minister of Employment and Investment in the government of Mike Harcourt. When Harcourt resigned as a result of the Bingogate scandal, Clark stood for and won the leadership of the BC NDP and therefore became BC's 31st premier. Clark called an election in 1996 in which his party narrowly held onto its majority. Although it received fewer votes across the province than the second-place BC Liberal Party, the NDP was able to hold on to power by winning all but eight seats in Vancouver.
Clark largely continued the policies of the Harcourt government, particularly its implementation of the B.C. Benefits welfare reform package, similar to reforms carried out by Ralph Klein in Alberta and Mike Harris in Ontario. When the 1997 party convention adopted a motion condemning the reforms and calling for an increase in welfare rates, Clark responded, "No. We have a deficit."
Scandals
Fast ferry scandal
Clark undertook the B.C. fast ferries initiative, which was designed to upgrade the existing BC Ferries fleet as well as jump start the shipbuilding industry in Vancouver. Although the ferries were eventually produced, the project had massive cost overruns and long delays, and the ferries were never able to function up to expectations. The ferries were later sold by the incoming Liberal government, for a fraction of their original price, to the American owned Washington Marine Group.
Casinogate
In March 1999, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police executed a search warrant and searched the Clark household. The media was tipped off about the raid and television news showed live, primetime coverage of the premier pacing inside his house while the search was conducted. Two weeks later the RCMP conducted a search of the Premier's Office.
The subsequent investigation spawned intense coverage by the media. However, subsequent coverage also exposed numerous inaccuracies in the way the story was initially portrayed, with some critics alleging a media or RCMP conspiracy to smear him for ideological reasons.
Clark resigned suddenly on the night of August 21, 1999, following allegations that he had accepted favours (in the form of free renovations worth $10,000, which he had actually paid for) from Dimitrios Pilarinos in return for approving a casino application. He was later formally charged with committing breach of trust, a criminal offence.
Conflict of interest commissioner H.A.D. Oliver concluded in 2001 that Clark had violated conflict of interest laws in British Columbia. However, Clark was acquitted of all criminal charges by the Supreme Court of British Columbia on August 29, 2002, with Justice Elizabeth Bennett ruling that while Clark had unwisely left himself open to a perception of unethical behaviour, there was no solid evidence that he had actually done anything illegal.
After political life
Upon Clark's resignation, Deputy Premier Dan Miller acceded to the interim leadership of the New Democratic Party and the premiership. Miller was succeeded by Ujjal Dosanjh after winning the party's leadership convention in 2000. Due in part to the scandals surrounding Clark, the NDP was heavily defeated by the BC Liberals under Gordon Campbell in the 2001 provincial election, winning just two seats.
Clark is currently president and chief operating officer of the Jim Pattison Group in Vancouver.
References
External links
1957 births
Living people
Businesspeople from Vancouver
Canadian chief executives
Canadian people of Scottish descent
Finance ministers of British Columbia
Leaders of the British Columbia CCF/NDP
Members of the Executive Council of British Columbia
People from Nanaimo
Politicians from Vancouver
Premiers of British Columbia
Simon Fraser University alumni
University of British Columbia alumni
Heads of government who were later imprisoned
|
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212676
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike%20Harcourt
|
Mike Harcourt
|
Michael Franklin Harcourt (born January 6, 1943) served as the 30th premier of British Columbia from 1991 to 1996, and before that as the 34th mayor of Vancouver, BC's largest city, from 1980 to 1986.
Early life and education
Harcourt was student council president at Sir Winston Churchill Secondary School and studied at the University of British Columbia, where he graduated BA and LLB. He founded and became the first director (1969–71) of the Vancouver Community Legal Assistance Society, reputedly Canada's first community law office.
Municipal politics
Harcourt served as a Vancouver alderman from 1973 to 1980. He was first elected as a member of TEAM. He was Mayor of Vancouver from 1980 to 1986. As mayor, his term in office was dominated by planning for Expo 86, an event that saw many new developments come to the city, and an event he adamantly opposed coming to the City in the first place.
As a former Vancouver mayor in 2008, Harcourt provided support as a key advisor to then Mayor Gregor Robertson, including topics about sustainability and transportation.
Provincial politics and premiership
He was first elected to the British Columbia Legislature in the 1986 British Columbia provincial election. He became the leader of the British Columbia New Democratic Party (NDP) and the Leader of the Official Opposition in the following year. He was considered to be a moderate within the ranks of his social democratic party.
In the 1991 provincial election, Harcourt led the NDP back to power, defeating the Social Credit party led by Rita Johnston. This marked the second time that the NDP had ever been in power in BC, and the first since 1975.
On taking office, Harcourt's government increased the basic rate of social assistance from $500/month to $525/month, a 5% increase. By 1993, it had reached $535/month, coupled with increases in other rates and a relaxation of means testing of applicants. As Ralph Klein introduced severe spending cuts in neighbouring Alberta, Harcourt accused him in December 1993 of driving Albertan welfare recipients into British Columbia. An increase in out-of-province applications for income assistance and surge in welfare rolls and spending — The Vancouver Sun wrote that in 1993 almost 10% of the population were claiming social assistance —, coupled with a shift towards an intolerant view of welfare fraud in Canadian politics, affected the government's standing. A controversial news story about welfare fraud among British Columbia's Somali Canadian community, after the government had denied that system abuse was taking place, further hurt its standing.
Harcourt reacted by abandoning his social democratic policy and moving to the right on welfare. He fired Joan Smallwood as Minister of Social Services and replaced her with Joy MacPhail, reduced welfare rates, and made it more difficult for families to claim assistance. Announcing this policy shift in September 1993, he infamously described it as a crackdown on "cheats, deadbeats and varmints". He later expressed regret for these comments, blaming a "relentless" coverage of welfare fraud causes by the media for the action. The resulting BC Benefits welfare reform package, which included budget cuts, new restrictions, and a reduction in the basic rate to $500/month, the same it had been when Harcourt took office, proved hard to accept for the NDP and had a lasting effect on their reputation, hampering their attempts to condemn later governments for undertaking similar welfare crackdowns.
The NDP government under Mr. Harcourt entered into a contract with Carrier Lumber Ltd. to build roads and construct new mills to handle an increased volume of wood due to the infestation of the mountain pine beetle. On May 13, 1992, Mr. Harcourt ignored the contract between his government and Carrier Lumber Ltd. and promised several First Nations that no timber would be harvested and no roads would be built without their agreement. Phillip Halkett, deputy minister of forests, testified at trial that "The Premier had no authority to make that promise". The courts award Carrier Lumber Ltd. $156,000,000, ruling there was a deliberate attempt to destroy the company and government officials had conspired to withhold 2,000 pages of documents in an attempt to defeat Carrier's damage suit. Justice Glenn Parrett of the Supreme Court of British Columbia in his reasons stated of the NDP government that "It is difficult to conceive of a more compelling and cynical example of duplicity and bad faith."
Harcourt resigned as premier in February 1996 as the result of "Bingogate," a scandal in which an NDP member, former B.C. MLA and MP, David Stupich, used money raised by a charity bingo to fund the party. While it was determined by a BC Ministry of Justice Special Prosecutor that Harcourt was not directly responsible for the scandal, he took political responsibility for it. He was succeeded as premier by Glen Clark, who also ended up resigning as the result of another scandal.
Harcourt's challenges as premier, both within the legislature and with the media, were chronicled in Vancouver journalist Daniel Gawthrop's Highwire Act: Power, Pragmatism, and the Harcourt Legacy, which was published shortly after his resignation as the NDP was preparing for the leadership convention in which Clark was named his successor.
Post-politics
After serving as premier, Harcourt became associated with the University of British Columbia (UBC). He was involved in research relating to sustainable development and cities.
Harcourt was severely injured in a near-fatal fall at his cottage on Pender Island in November 2002, which resulted in a severe spinal-cord injury. After 13 years as a partial quadriplegic, he describes 20 percent of his body as still paralyzed. The former premier received a widespread outpouring of empathy and support from his fellow British Columbians and his rapid recovery astonished doctors. He spent several months at the world-renowned facility GF Strong. He later published a book about his ordeal, called Plan B.
He was named as a special advisor to Prime Minister Paul Martin on cities on December 12, 2003.
His latest book, City Making in Paradise, was released in August 2007.
In November 2007, he received an honorary doctoral degree in Law (LL.D) from UBC. In February 2009 he was appointed associate director of the new UBC Continuing Studies Centre for Sustainability, where he will contribute to the development of educational programs that emphasize practical knowledge in tackling climate change and other sustainability issues.
In the January 31st, 2014 issue of "High Country News", Harcourt stated he was recruited in the 1960s by an activist group to oppose a freeway that would have connected the Trans-Canada Highway to downtown Vancouver. 'You've been hired to stop the freeway,' he recalled in the article.
Harcourt revealed in April 2014 that he had allowed his NDP membership to lapse and now considers himself an independent. "I don’t know whether it’s a trial separation or a decree absolute," he told the Globe and Mail in an interview. Harcourt cited several complaints against his former party including former leader Adrian Dix's decision to oppose the Kinder-Morgan pipeline and the party's general disposition against mining, logging and other resource-extraction industries, the party's 2009 opposition to the BC Liberal government's proposed carbon tax, and the 2010 caucus revolt that forced the resignation of then-leader Carole James.
Harcourt had repeatedly supported the legalization of cannabis and in May 2014 announced that he would be an advisor to True Leaf Medicine Inc., a Vernon-based start-up company seeking Health Canada approval to produce and sell medicinal marijuana. Harcourt admitted previous personal use of marijuana in the 1960s and 1970s.
Harcourt sits as an advisor to Canada's Ecofiscal Commission.
References
External links
1943 births
Canadian politicians with physical disabilities
Canadian cannabis activists
Mike
Lawyers in British Columbia
Leaders of the British Columbia CCF/NDP
Living people
Mayors of Vancouver
Members of the Executive Council of British Columbia
Politicians from Edmonton
Premiers of British Columbia
Peter A. Allard School of Law alumni
20th-century Canadian politicians
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill%20Vander%20Zalm
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Bill Vander Zalm
|
William Nicholas Vander Zalm (born Wilhelmus Nicholaas Theodore Marie van der Zalm; May 29, 1934) is a politician and entrepreneur in British Columbia, Canada. He was the 28th premier of British Columbia from 1986 to 1991.
Early life
Wilhelmus Nicholaas Theodore Marie van der Zalm was born and raised in Noordwijkerhout, Netherlands. He emigrated to Canada after World War II, settling in the Fraser Valley in 1947. After completing high school, he sold tulip bulbs and ultimately established himself in the nursery and gardening business.
Early political career
Vander Zalm was elected an alderman of Surrey in 1965 and served as the city's mayor from 1969 to 1975. His tenure was marked by his crackdown on welfare "deadbeats" (until the early 1970s, welfare in BC was a municipal responsibility).
Vander Zalm was originally a supporter of both the Liberal Party of Canada and the BC Liberal Party. He sought election to the House of Commons of Canada in the 1968 federal election as a Liberal in Surrey. He lost by 4,445 votes. He was also a candidate at the 1972 provincial Liberal leadership convention, where he lost to David Anderson. He joined the BC Social Credit Party in 1974.
Social Credit MLA
Vander Zalm was first elected to the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia in the 1975 election for the riding of Surrey (he would later represent Richmond after the 1986 election). The Socreds won back power after a three-year hiatus.
He served in the cabinet of Premier Bill Bennett as minister of human resources from 1975 to 1978, where he continued his crusade against welfare fraud.
On June 22, 1978, the Victoria Daily Times published a political cartoon by Bob Bierman that portrayed the Minister of Human Resources as a grinning sadist, deliberately pulling the wings off flies. Vander Zalm launched legal action for libel, Vander Zalm v. Times Publishers. Justice Craig Munroe of the BC Supreme Court awarded Vander Zalm $3,500 in damages. The decision was overturned by the BC Court of Appeal in 1980, which was praised by journalists as a victory for free speech. The original cartoon was purchased by the National Archives of Canada for $350.
Vander Zalm also served as Minister of Municipal Affairs and Transit from 1978 to 1981 and as Minister of Education from 1981 to 1983.
Vander Zalm greatly overstepped his authority when, as Minister of Education, he personally intervened in a local matter in Smithers by publicly demanding the local school board to suspend without pay a school counsellor, Madeleine Sauve, over a Human Resources Ministry questionnaire that she distributed to students. Under public pressure, largely because of Vander Zalm's comments, Sauve lost her job. An inquiry commission into Sauve's firing found that she lost her job due to Vander Zalm's comments that "publicly tried, convicted and sentenced a teacher without the slightest hint of due process." Furthermore, the inquiry commission found that the counsellor was an innocent victim and strongly recommended the school district to find Madeleine Sauve another position in the district. After it was over, Vander Zalm said that if the same situation came up again, he would do exactly the same thing.
In 1984, he bought Fantasy Garden World, a theme park. The same year, he ran unsuccessfully for mayor of Vancouver for the candidate for the Non-Partisan Association. He lost to Mike Harcourt, who was later the provincial NDP leader during most of Vander Zalm's tenure as premier.
Premier
In 1986, Premier Bennett announced he was retiring. Vander Zalm attracted considerable attention as he considered whether he would run for the leadership of the Social Credit Party. He generated more press from the race than the other candidates did. At the party's convention in Whistler, British Columbia, he prevailed over 11 other candidates by winning on the fourth ballot.
He was sworn in as premier just a month before the 1986 election. During the subsequent provincial election campaign, "Vandermania" swept BC, and the Socreds easily won another term over the opposition New Democratic Party (NDP).
Vander Zalm promised a "fresh start" after the confrontational Bennett years. However, he and his government had no public plan for what they intended to do in the long term.
Once elected in his own right, Vander Zalm filled most of the cabinet slots with MLAs who had languished on the backbench under Bennett. Oddly, Vander Zalm decided to release the normally-secret list of cabinet appointments to two Vancouver Sun reporters hours before the official announcement was to be made.
On July 6, 1987, during the first session of the 34th Parliament, Vander Zalm introduced the Health Statutes Amendment Act (Bill 34). This amendment specified quarantine procedures for individuals with “serious reportable communicable diseases." The bill was met serious backlash and protest from HIV/AIDS activism groups like ACT UP, the Vancouver Lesbian Connection, and the Vancouver Persons With AIDS Coalition. The mobilization by activists in protest of the bill led to the formation of the Coalition for Responsible Health Legislation (CRHL) by Vancouver-based AIDS activists that led several actions for protest, but also education like safer sex workshops focused on preventing HIV transmission. The bill received Royal Assent on December 17, 1987, and was passed into law. The protests continued, but effort from the BC Civil Liberties Association shifted to the modification of the bill, rather than discarding it completely.
In 1990 The Gay Games opened to much fanfare in the city of Vancouver. The government of Premier Bill Vander Zalm refused to fund the event.
The Social Credit Party had been a tenuous alliance between urban fiscal conservatives, federal Liberals, and Christian conservatives in the province's Bible Belt. Fiscal conservatives had dominated the party for over a decade. However, Vander Zalm was a member of the social conservative wing, which quickly took control of the party. His government once tried to cut public funding for abortions that were not medically necessary. The resulting uproar forced Vander Zalm to drop the program.
His government also had a confrontational relationship with labour unions. These trends led moderate Socreds to begin drifting to the provincial Liberals even as Vander Zalm seemingly cruised to victory in 1986. This trend that would come back to haunt the party later.
As well, he appointed David Poole, a close friend, to be his "Principal Secretary." Before resigning in 1989, Poole had allegedly become the second most powerful person in the province, despite never being elected. That naturally attracted the anger of numerous cabinet ministers, such as Grace McCarthy, an influential Socred MLA who resigned in protest from Vander Zalm's cabinet in 1988.
Vander Zalm became embroiled in a conflict of interest controversy over the sale of his Fantasy Gardens flower garden and theme park. The conflict of interest arose because the Taiwanese buyer, Tan Yu, was provided VIP treatment by members of the Vander Zalm Government prior to the sale. Vander Zalm claimed that control over the theme park was his wife's responsibility. Adding fuel to the fire, Faye Leung, a colourful Chinese-Canadian entrepreneur and the woman who brokered the deal, had thought that Vander Zalm was a "bad man" since the day she first met him and secretly recorded conversations she had with him. She was happily willing to speak to the media and provide copies of her audio tapes.
Vander Zalm resigned in disgrace in 1991 when a provincial conflict of interest report, by Ted Hughes, found that he had mixed private business with his public office in the sale of the gardens. He was charged with criminal breach of trust, but was found not guilty in BC Supreme Court in 1992. The judge ruled that Vander Zalm had acted in a manner that was "foolish, ill-advised and in apparent or real conflict of interest or breach of ethics", but that the prosecution had not proved its case beyond a reasonable doubt. It was revealed that during the sale of Fantasy Gardens, Vander Zalm had accepted $20,000 payment in cash from Tan Yu, the buyer of Fantasy Gardens, to which Vander Zalm said he took "for innocent reasons." He never really explained why he had taken the money and did not take the stand in his breach of trust trial.
Vander Zalm was succeeded as premier by Deputy Premier Rita Johnston, who defeated McCarthy in the race to replace him as Socred leader. Unfortunately for the Socreds, Johnston had little time to recover from the damage caused by the scandal, as she faced a statutory general election in October. It did not help that Johnston had been a longtime political ally of Vander Zalm and was associated by her closeness with the unpopular Vander Zalm. The party was defeated and finished a distant third with the NDP returning to government and the Liberals becoming official opposition. The Social Credit Party were completely shut out of the legislature in the subsequent 1996 election and never again won seats.
Later career
Leadership of British Columbia Reform Party
Vander Zalm returned to politics in November 1999 when he was acclaimed as leader of the Reform Party of British Columbia.
Shortly after, he ran for office by running in a December 1999 by-election in Delta South, but finished second, with 32.91% of the vote behind BC Liberal Party candidate Val Roddick, who received 59.63%, with the governing NDP finishing in a distant fourth place with just 2.44%, their worst showing ever.
He attempted to orchestrate a merger of the Reform Party with other right-wing parties, but ran into stiff opposition. Vander Zalm and supporters within the party would later merge with several other small right-wing parties to form the British Columbia Unity Party. The Reform Party was de-registered as a BC political party in 2001 and Vander Zalm retired from politics. He now lives in Ladner.
Successful campaign against HST
Vander Zalm returned to the political spotlight in 2009, alongside Bill Tieleman, as a recurring critic of the provincial government's conversion of the Provincial Sales Tax to the Harmonized Sales Tax (HST). A series of populist rallies led to him becoming the official proponent, in accordance with the Recall and Initiative Act, of a petition seeking a referendum to cancel the HST. Vander Zalm established a website, FightHST, to promote the initiative. The provincial Liberal government countered Vander Zalm's campaign and devoted a section of their website to the positive aspects of the HST.
For the petition to be certified, there was a requirement to secure the signatures of a minimum of 10% of all registered voters on the provincial voters list in each riding in the province, no later than June 30, 2010.
On June 30, 2010, Vander Zalm delivered 85 boxes containing 705,643 signatures from voters in every riding across the province. Those signatures represented some 45% of votes cast in the 2009 provincial election.
On August 11, 2010, Elections BC verified the official anti-HST petition submitted by the province's Fight HST campaign.
Vander Zalm said he was pleased with the result, but "very disappointed" to learn the province's chief electoral officer would not act on the petition until all court proceedings involving the tax were complete. The anti-HST campaign turned its attention to a recall campaign for Liberal MLAs. Vander Zalm told reporters. "We will recall every Liberal MLA in the province, if that's what it takes." However, the initial attempts at recalls were unsuccessful.
On August 20, 2010, Chief Justice Robert J. Bauman ruled that the petition was valid. Bauman said Elections BC was correct when it approved the petition on August 11.
On September 14, 2010, it was announced a referendum would be held September 24, 2011 on repealing the HST. Premier Gordon Campbell stated a simple majority (50%+1) of those eligible and casting ballots would be sufficient for the government to cancel the HST if the referendum went against the government.
Elections BC conducted the referendum via mail-in ballot. The 2011 British Columbia sales tax referendum was conducted throughout June and July 2011.
The Question on the ballot was: Are you in favour of extinguishing the HST (Harmonized Sales Tax) and reinstating the PST (Provincial Sales Tax) in conjunction with the GST (Goods and Services Tax)? Yes or No
On August 26, 2011, Elections BC revealed the results of the referendum: 55% of 1.6 million voters in favour of abolishing the HST. The BC Liberals revealed a plan to re-instate the GST/PST system within 18 months, with a target date of March 31, 2013.
2012 defamation suit
In 2012, a BC Supreme Court judge and jury heard a defamation lawsuit lodged against Vander Zalm by retired conflict-of-interest commissioner Ted Hughes. The former judge and Officer of the Order of Canada alleged that he had been defamed in Vander Zalm's 2008 self-published autobiography, For The People. The book suggested that Hughes, then in an interim appointment, may have conducted an unfair inquiry of Vander Zalm in 1991 by the prospect of achieving a permanent employment.
Vander Zalm defended the statements about Hughes, saying they had been fair comments, not facts, and that they had been made as a matter of public interest.
On February 9, 2012, Vander Zalm was found guilty of defaming Hughes and was ordered to pay him $60,000 in damages. The amount could be higher once the court determines how much of Hughes's legal cost the former premier will have to pay.
Conspiracy theories
In 2013, Vander Zalm filed a freedom of information request for government disclosure on chemtrails. The former premier further appeared in an online video by Press for Truth elaborating on his belief in the conspiracy theory, stating "we don't know who's doing it, we don't know what it is they're putting into the sky, we think it's aluminium, barium, and strontium, but we don't know for sure. No one talks. Governments don't tell us and they have to know. They can't do that in the sky above us without the provincial and the federal government being aware." Vander Zalm has furthermore expressed concerns over smart meters, stating that he believes they are intended as a secret means for governments to spy on people.
References
Further reading
Alan Twigg (1986). Vander Zalm: From Immigrant to Premier. Harbour Publishing.
Gary Mason and Keith Baldrey (1989). Fantasyland: Inside the reign of Bill Vander Zalm. McGraw-Hill Ryerson.
Steve Osborne and Mary Schendlinger (1989). Quotations from Chairman Zalm. Arsenal Pulp Press.
Stan Persky (1989) Fantasy Government: Bill Vander Zalm and the Future of Social Credit. New Star Books.
Graham Leslie (1991). Breach of Promise: Socred Ethics Under Vander Zalm. Harbour Publishing.
Bill Vander Zalm (2008). For The People: Hindsight - Insight - Foresight: The Autobiography of British Columbia's 28th Premier. ASIN B0047I49ZS
External links
CBC Archival footage of "Vander Zalm's Kingdom" from "The Journal"
David Ingram interviews Bill Vander Zalm about his past including during World War II
1934 births
21st-century Canadian politicians
Living people
British Columbia Liberal Party candidates in British Columbia provincial elections
British Columbia Social Credit Party leaders
British Columbia Social Credit Party MLAs
Canadian Roman Catholics
Candidates in the 1968 Canadian federal election
Dutch emigrants to Canada
Liberal Party of Canada candidates for the Canadian House of Commons
Mayors of Surrey, British Columbia
Members of the Executive Council of British Columbia
People from Noordwijkerhout
People from Richmond, British Columbia
Premiers of British Columbia
Reform Party of British Columbia politicians
|
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212680
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rita%20Johnston
|
Rita Johnston
|
Rita Margaret Johnston (born April 22, 1935, née Leichert) is a Canadian politician in British Columbia. Johnston became the first female premier in Canadian history when she succeeded Bill Vander Zalm in 1991 to become the 29th premier of British Columbia, serving for seven months.
The daughter of John Leichert and Annie Chyzzy, she was educated in Vancouver. In 1951, she married George Johnston.
Much of her early life was spent running a trailer park in the city of Surrey, British Columbia.
Political career
Johnston first entered politics as a city councillor in Surrey. In 1983, she was elected as a member of the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia as part of the Social Credit Party, representing the provincial riding of Surrey.
She was reelected in 1986 in the newly-created riding of Surrey-Newton and became a cabinet minister under Premier Bill Vander Zalm, serving in various portfolios. She had previously served under Vander Zalm when she was a councilor and he was the mayor of Surrey.
Vander Zalm appointed Johnston deputy premier in 1990. When Vander Zalm resigned, on April 2, 1991, Johnston was named interim leader of the party. As such, she was appointed premier on April 2, 1991, making her Canada's first female premier.
At a Social Credit party convention in July 1991, she was formally elected leader of the BC Socreds in an upset, defeating the favoured frontrunner Grace McCarthy. However, she had little time to implement any new programs since she faced a statutory general election in October.
The party was also bitterly divided because of the leadership contest, and it had little time to repair the breach before the writs were dropped.
Johnston's long association with the scandal-plagued Vander Zalm significantly hampered her prospects of winning election in her own right, and she was soundly defeated by the New Democratic Party, led by Mike Harcourt. Moreover, many moderate Socreds switched their support to the previously moribund BC Liberals. The Socreds lost more than half of their popular vote from 1986 and were cut down to seven seats, falling to third place in the Legislative Assembly behind the NDP and Liberals.
Johnston herself lost her own seat to the NDP's Penny Priddy by over 10 points, and all but seven members of her cabinet were defeated. Harcourt later said that he preferred facing Johnston rather than McCarthy, believing McCarthy would have been a tougher opponent in a general election.
Johnston resigned as leader of the Social Credit Party on January 11, 1992 and was replaced by McCarthy. After her defeat, Johnston retired from politics and has had a low public profile.
She returned to public life in 2009 as an advisor for the British Columbia Conservative Party.
References
biography at collections canada
1935 births
British Columbia Social Credit Party leaders
British Columbia Social Credit Party MLAs
Canadian female first ministers
Deputy premiers of British Columbia
Living people
Members of the Executive Council of British Columbia
People from Melville, Saskatchewan
People from Surrey, British Columbia
Premiers of British Columbia
Surrey, British Columbia city councillors
Women government ministers of Canada
Women MLAs in British Columbia
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan%20army
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Afghan army
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The Afghan Army is the land warfare branch of the Afghan Armed Forces. The roots of an army in Afghanistan can be traced back to the early 18th century when the Hotak dynasty was established in Kandahar followed by Ahmad Shah Durrani's rise to power. It was reorganized in 1880 during Emir Abdur Rahman Khan's reign. Afghanistan remained neutral during the First and Second World Wars. From the 1960s to the early 1990s, the Afghan Army was equipped by the Soviet Union.
After the resignation of President Najibullah in 1992, the army effectively dissolved. In 1996 the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (Taliban regime) took power, creating their own army, which lasted until United States invasion of Afghanistan in October-November 2001.
By 2016, most of Afghanistan came under government control. However over the next few years the government slowly lost territory to the Taliban and eventually collapsed, with Kabul falling to the Taliban in 2021. The majority of training of the ANA was undertaken in the Kabul Military Training Centre. In 2019, the ANA had approximately 180,000 soldiers out of an authorized strength of 195,000. Despite its significant manpower on paper, in reality a significant portion of the Afghan National Army manpower were made up of ghost soldiers.
Following the withdrawal of U.S. and allied troops from Afghanistan in the Summer of 2021, in the face of a rapid Taliban offensive, the army largely disintegrated. Following the escape of President Ashraf Ghani and the fall of Kabul, remaining ANA soldiers either deserted their posts or surrendered to the Taliban. Some army remnants reportedly joined the anti-Taliban National Resistance Front of Afghanistan in the Panjshir Valley.
History
The Royal Afghan Army
Historically, Afghans have served in the army of the Ghaznavids (963–c.1187), Ghurids (1148–1215), Delhi Sultanate (1206–1527), and the Mughals (1526–1858). The Afghan National Army traces its origin to the early 18th century when the Hotak dynasty rose to power in Kandahar and defeated the Persian Safavid Empire at the Battle of Gulnabad in 1722.
When Ahmad Shah Durrani formed the Durrani Empire in 1747, the Afghan Army fought a number of battles in the Punjab region of India during the 19th century. One of the famous battles was the 1761 Battle of Panipat in which the Afghan army decisively defeated the Hindu Maratha Empire. The Afghans then fought with the Sikh Empire, until finally, the Sikh Marshal Hari Singh Nalwa died and Sikh conquests stopped. In 1839, the British successfully invaded Afghanistan and installed the exiled Shah Shujah Durrani into power. Their occupation of Afghanistan was challenged after Wazir Akbar Khan and his forces led an organized revolt against the occupying British. At the time, the Afghan Army was not an organized army, rather, Afghan tribal chiefs contributed fighting men when the Emir called upon their services. The success of the uprising led to the 1842 retreat from Kabul where the Afghan army decimated British forces, thanks to effective use of the rugged terrain and weapons such as the Jezail.
At the outbreak of the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–80), Ali Ahmad Jalali cites sources saying that the regular army was about 50,000 strong and consisted of 62 infantry and 16 cavalry regiments, with 324 guns mostly organized in horse and mountain artillery batteries. Jalali writes that '..although Amir Shir Ali Khan (1863–78) is widely credited for founding the modern Afghan Army, it was only under Abdur Rahman that it became a viable and effective institution.' The Library of Congress Country Study for Afghanistan states:
When [Abdur Rahman] came to the throne [c.1880], the army was virtually nonexistent. With the assistance of a liberal financial loan from the British, plus their aid in the form of weapons, ammunition, and other military supplies, he began a 20-year task of creating a respectable regular force by instituting measures that formed the long-term basis of the military system. These included increasing the equalization of military obligation by setting up a system known as the hasht nafari (whereby one man in every eight between the ages of 20 and 40 took his turn at military service); constructing an arsenal in Kabul to reduce dependence on foreign sources for small arms and other ordnance; introducing supervised training courses; organizing troops into divisions, brigades, and regiments, including battalions of artillery; developing pay schedules; and introducing an elementary (and harsh) disciplinary system.
Further improvements to the Army were made by King Amanullah Khan in the early 20th century just before the Third Anglo-Afghan War. King Amanullah fought against the British in 1919, resulting in Afghanistan becoming fully independent after the Treaty of Rawalpindi was signed. It appears from reports of Naib Sular Abdur Rahim's career that a Cavalry Division was in existence in the 1920s, with him being posted to the division in Herat Province in 1913 and Mazar-i-Sharif after 1927. The Afghan Army was expanded during King Zahir Shah's reign, starting in 1933.
From 1949 (or 1950) to 1961, Afghanistan-Pakistan skirmishes took place along the frontier, culminating in fighting in Bajaur Agency in September 1960. This led to a breakoff in diplomatic relations between the two countries in September 1961.
In 1953, Lieutenant General Mohammed Daoud, cousin of the King who had previously served as Minister of Defence, was transferred from command of the Central Corps in Kabul to become Prime Minister of Afghanistan. The Central Corps was headquartered at Amanullah's Darulaman Palace. On the opening day of Parliament in October 1965, a violent student demonstration among which Babrak Karmal was at the forefront forced Zahir Shah's new prime minister Yousef to resign. Two students were killed when the new corps commander, General Abdul Wali, sent in troops to restore order.
From the 1960s to the early 1990s, the Afghan Army received training and equipment mostly from the Soviet Union. In February – March 1957, the first group of Soviet military specialists (about 10, including interpreters) was sent to Kabul to train Afghan officers and non-commissioned officers. At the time, there seems to have been significant Turkish influence in the Afghan Armed Forces, which waned quickly after the Soviet advisors arrived. By the late 1950s, Azimi describes three corps, each with a number of divisions, along the eastern border with Pakistan and several independent divisions.
In the early 1970s, Soviet military assistance was increased. The number of Soviet military specialists increased from 1,500 in 1973 to 5,000 by April 1978. The senior Soviet specialist at this time (from 29.11.1972 till 11.12.1975) was a Major General I.S. Bondarets (И.С. Бондарец), and from 1975 to 1978, the senior Soviet military adviser was Major General L.N. Gorelov. Before the 1978 Saur Revolution, according to Jacobs, the army included three armored divisions; infantry divisions .. averaging 4,500 to 8,000 men each; "two mountain infantry brigades, one artillery brigade, a guards regiment (for palace protection), three artillery regiments, two commando regiments, and a parachute battalion, which was largely grounded. All the formations were under the control of three corps level headquarters. All but three infantry divisions were facing Pakistan along a line from Bagram south to Khandahar." There were 570 medium tanks plus more Soviet T-55s on order.
Socialist Afghanistan
On 27 April 1978 the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan, led by Nur Mohammad Taraki, Babrak Karmal and Amin overthrew the regime of Mohammad Daoud, who was killed the next day, along with most of his family. The uprising was known as the Saur Revolution. On 1 May, Taraki became President, Prime Minister and General Secretary of the PDPA. The country was then renamed the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA), and the PDPA regime lasted until April 1992.
The strength of the army was greatly weakened during the early stages of PDPA rule. One of the main reasons for the small size was that the Soviet military were afraid the Afghan army would defect en masse to the enemy if total personnel increased. There were several sympathisers of the mujahideen within the military. Even so, there were several elite units under the command of the Afghan army, for instance, the 26th Airborne Battalion, 444th, 37th and 38th Commando Brigades. The 26th Airborne Battalion proved politically unreliable, and in 1980 they initiated a rebellion against the PDPA government. The Commando Brigades were, in contrast, considered reliable and were used as mobile strike forces until they sustained excessive casualties. Insurgents ambushed and inflicted heavy casualties on the 38th Commando Brigade during the Second Battle of Zhawar in Paktika Province in May 1983. After sustaining heavy casualties the commando brigades were turned into battalions.
Most soldiers were recruited for a three-year term, later extended to four-year terms in 1984.
After the PDPA seizure of power, desertions swept the force, affecting the loyalty and moral values of soldiers. There were purges on patriotic junior and senior officers, and upper class Afghan aristocrats in society. On March 15, 1979, the Herat uprising broke out. The 17th Division was detailed by the regime to put down the rebellion, but this proved a mistake, as there were few Khalqi faction soldiers in the division and instead it mutinied and joined the uprising. Forces from Kabul had to be dispatched to suppress the rebellion.
Gradually the Army's three armoured divisions and now sixteen infantry divisions dropped in size to on average around 2,500 strong, quarter strength, by 1985. One of the first series of defections occurred in the 9th Division, which, Urban wrote, defected by brigades in response to the Soviet intervention. It lost its 5th Brigade at Asmar in August 1979 and its 30th Mountain Brigade in 1980. After Soviet advisors arrived in 1977, they inspired a number of adaptations and reorganisations. In April 1982, the 7th Division was moved from the capital. The division, which was commanded by Khalqi Major General Zia-Ud-Din, had its depleted combat resources spread out along the Kabul-Kandahar highway. In 1984–1985, all infantry divisions were restructured to a common design. In 1985 Army units were relieved of security duties, making more available for combat operations.
During the 1980s Soviet–Afghan War, the Army fought against the mujahideen rebel groups. Deserters or defectors became a severe problem. The Afghan Army's casualties were as high as 50–60,000 soldiers and another 50,000 soldiers deserted the Army. The Afghan Army's defection rate was about 10,000 soldiers per year between 1980 and 1989; the average deserters left the Afghan Army after the first five months.
Local militias were also important to the Najibullah regime's security efforts. From 1988 several new divisions were formed from former Regional Forces/militias' formations: the 53rd Infantry Division, 55th, 80th, 93rd, 94th, 95th, and 96th, plus, possibly, a division in Lashkar Gah.
As compensation for the withdrawal of Soviet troops in 1989, the USSR agreed to deliver sophisticated weapons to the regime, among which were large quantities of Scud surface-to-surface missiles. The first 500 were transferred during the early months of 1989, and soon proved to be a critical strategic asset. During the mujahideen attack against Jalalabad, between March and June 1989, three firing batteries manned by Afghan crews advised by Soviets fired approximately 438 missiles. Soon Scuds were in use in all the heavily contested areas of Afghanistan. After January 1992, the Soviet advisors were withdrawn, reducing the Afghan Army's ability to use their ballistic missiles. On April 24, 1992, the mujahideen forces of Ahmad Shah Massoud captured the main Scud stockpile at Afshur. As the communist government collapsed, the few remaining Scuds and their TELs were divided among the rival factions fighting for power. However, the lack of trained personnel prevented a sustained use of such weapons, and, between April 1992 and 1996, only 44 Scuds were fired in Afghanistan.
1992 and after
In spring 1992, the Afghan Army consisted of five corps – 1st Corps at Jalalabad, 2nd at Khandahar, 3rd Corps at Gardez, 4th Corps at Herat, and 6th Corps at Kunduz – as well as five smaller operations groups, including one at Charikar, which had been 5th Corps until it was reduced in status. 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Corps, and the operations groups at Sarobi and Khost, nearly completely disintegrated in 1992. Formations in and around Kabul joined different mujahideen militias while forces in the north and west remained intact for a longer period. Forces in the north and west were taken over by three major commanders: Ismael Khan, Ahmed Shah Masoud, and Abdul Rashid Dostam.
On 18 April 1992, the PDPA garrison at Kunduz surrendered to local mujahideen commanders. The 54th Division base at Kunduz was handed over to the overall military leader of Ittehad in the area, Amir Chughay. Dostum and commanders loyal to him formed Junbesh I-Melli, the National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan. It grouped the former regime's 18th, 20th, 53rd, 54th, and 80th Divisions, plus several brigades. By mid-1994 there were two parallel 6th Corps operating in the north. Dostum's 6th Corps was based at Pul-i-Khumri and had three divisions. The Defence Ministry of the Kabul government's 6th Corps was based at Kunduz and also had three divisions, two sharing numbers with formations in Dostum's corps. By 1995 Masoud controlled three corps commands: the Central Corps at Kabul, the best organised with a strength of 15–20,000, the 5th Corps at Herat covering the west, and the 6th Corps at Kunduz covering the northeast.
By 1996 the Taliban Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan seized the country, aiming to control it by Islamic Sharia law. The Taliban's army and commanders placed emphasis on simplicity; some were secretly trained by the Pakistan Inter-Services Intelligence and Pakistani Armed Forces around the Durand Line.
After the removal of the Taliban government through the United States invasion of Afghanistan in late 2001, private armies loyal to warlords gained more and more influence. In mid-2001, Ali Ahmed Jalali wrote:
The army (as a state institution, organized, armed, and commanded by the state) does not exist in Afghanistan today. Neither the Taliban-led "Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan" nor the "Islamic State of Afghanistan" headed by the ousted President Rabbani has the political legitimacy or administrative efficiency of a state. The militia formations they command are composed of odd assortments of armed groups with varying level of loyalties, political commitment, professional skills, and organizational integrity. Many of them feel free to switch sides, shift loyalties, and join or leave the group spontaneously. The country suffers from the absence of a top political layer capable of controlling individual and group violence. ... Although both sides identify their units with military formations of the old regime, there is hardly any organizational or professional continuity from the past. But these units really exist in name only ... [i]n fact only their military bases still exist, accommodating and supporting an assortment of militia groups.
Formations in existence by the end of 2002 included the 1st Army Corps (Nangarhar), 2nd Army Corps (Kandahar, dominated by Gul Agha Sherzai), 3rd Army Corps (Paktia, where the US allegedly attempted to impose Atiqullah Ludin as commander), 4th Army Corps (Herat, dominated by Ismail Khan), 6th Army Corps at Kunduz, 7th Army Corps (under Atta Muhammad Nur at Balkh), 8th Army Corps (at Jowzjan, dominated by Dostum's National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan) and the Central Army Corps around Kabul. In addition, there were divisions with strong links to the centre in Kabul. These included the 1st in Kabul, 27th in Qalat, 31st in Kabul, 34th in Bamiyan (4th Corps), 36th in Logar, 41st in Ghor, 42nd in Wardak, 71st in Farah, and 100th in Laghman.
The International Crisis Group wrote:
New divisions and even army corps were created to recognise factional realities or undermine the power base of individual commanders, often without regard to the troop levels normally associated with such units. For example, the ministry in July 2002 recognised a 25th Division in Khost province, formed by the Karzai-appointed governor, Hakim Taniwal, to unseat a local warlord, Padshah Khan Zadran, who was then occupying the governor's residence. At its inception, however, the division had only 700 men – the size of a battalion.
Even by December 2004 Human Rights Watch was still saying in an open letter to Karzai that: "Abdul Rabb al-Rasul Sayyaf, the head of the Ittihad-i Islami faction and the Daw'at-e Islami party [should be curbed]. Sayyaf has no government post but has used his power over the Supreme Court and other courts across the country to curtail the rights of journalists, civic society activists, and even political candidates. He also controls militias, including forces recognized as the 10th Division of the Afghan army, which intimidate and abuse Afghans even inside Kabul. We ask that you express public opposition to Sayyaf's activities, explicitly state your opposition to such misuse of unofficial authority, and move expeditiously to disarm and demobilize armed forces associated with Ittihad-i Islami and other unofficial forces."
Afghan National Army 2002-2021
During the Bonn Conference on Afghanistan in early December 2001, President Hamid Karzai issued a decree reestablishing a unified army, the Afghan National Army. The decree set a size target of 70,000 (by 2009) and laid out the planned army structure. There had been significant disagreement over the size of the army that was needed. A Ministry of Defense-issued paper said that at least 200,000 active troops were needed. The Afghan Ministry of Defence loudly objected to the smaller, volunteer, nature of the new army, a change from the previous usage of conscripts. The US also blocked the new government from using the army to pressure Pakistan.
The first new Afghan kandak (battalion) was trained by British Army personnel of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), becoming 1st Battalion, Afghan National Guard. Yet while the British troops provided high quality training, they were few in number. After some consideration, it was decided that the United States might be able to provide the training. Thus follow-on kandaks were recruited and trained by 1st Battalion, 3rd Special Forces Group. 3rd SFG built the training facilities and ranges for early use, using a Soviet built facility on the eastern side of Kabul, near the then ISAF headquarters.
Recruiting and training began in May 2002, with a difficult but successful recruitment process of bringing hundreds of new recruits in from all parts of Afghanistan. Training was initially done in Pashto and Dari (Persian dialect) and some Arabic due to the very diverse ethnicities. The original US target in April 2002 was that of 12,000 men trained by April 2003, but it was quickly realised that this was too ambitious, and the requirement reduced to only 9,000, to be ready by November 2003. The first female Afghan parachutist Khatol Mohammadzai, trained during the 1980s, became the first female general in the Afghan National Army in August 2002.
The National Military Academy of Afghanistan, a West Point analogue and part of the Marshal Fahim National Defense University based in Qargha Garrison, was also established to produce officers. The NMAA administered a four-year military and civil training programme with the aim of preparing the prospective officer for the long-term. The NMAA taught four major foreign languages, vital to developing the relationship between the ANA and foreign armies.
US Army major objectives for ANA reconstruction in October 2002 were:
Ensure activation of Central Corps headquarters and its three Brigades by 1 October 2003
Develop and begin implementation of Afghan MoD/General Staff reform plan
Establish ANA institutional support systems including officer and NCO schools, ANA training and doctrine directorate, and garrison support elements
Design and build OMC-A structure consisting of US/Coalition military, contractor, and Afghan civilian and military personnel capable of managing the ANA building program as it increases in scope and complexity
Increase international and Afghan domestic support for and confidence in ANA through the maintenance of quality within the force and the conduct of effective information operations.
The first deployment outside Kabul was made by 3rd Kandak, ANA to Paktika Province, including Orgun, in January 2003. By January 2003 just over 1,700 soldiers in five Kandaks (battalions) had completed the 10-week training course, and by mid-2003 a total of 4,000 troops had been trained. Approximately 1,000 ANA soldiers were deployed in the US-led Operation Warrior Sweep, marking the first major combat operation for Afghan troops. Initial recruiting problems lay in the lack of cooperation from regional warlords and inconsistent international support. The problem of desertion dogged the force in its early days: in the summer of 2003, the desertion rate was estimated to be 10% and in mid-March 2004, an estimate suggested that 3,000 soldiers had deserted. Some recruits were under 18 years of age and many could not read or write. Recruits who only spoke the Pashto language experienced difficulty because instruction was usually given through interpreters who spoke Dari.
The Afghan New Beginnings Programme (ANBP) was launched on 6 April 2003 and begin disarmament of former Army personnel in October 2003. In March 2004, fighting between two local militias took place in the western Afghan city of Herat. It was reported that Mirwais Sadiq (son of warlord Ismail Khan) was assassinated in unclear circumstances. Thereafter a bigger conflict began that resulted in the death of up to 100 people. The battle was between troops of Ismail Khan and Abdul Zahir Nayebzada, a senior local military commander blamed for the death of Sadiq. Nayebzada commanded the 17th Herat Division of the Afghan Militia Forces' 4th Corps. In response to the fighting, about 1,500 newly trained ANA soldiers were sent to Herat in order to bring the situation under control.
In addition to the fighting units, establishment of regional structures began when four of the five planned corps commanders and some of their staff were appointed on 1 September 2004. The first regional command was established in Kandahar on September 19; the second at Gardez on September 22, with commands at Mazar-i-Sharif and Herat planned. The Gardez command, also referred to in the AFPS story as the 203 Corps, was to have an initial force of 200 soldiers. Kandahar's command was the first activated, followed by Gardez and Mazar-e-Sharif. The Herat command was seemingly activated on 28 September. The next year, the ANA's numbers grew to around 20,000 soldiers, most of which were trained by the United States Army. In the meantime, the United States Army Corps of Engineers started building new military camps for the fast-growing army.
In 2003, the United States issued guidelines to ensure the army's ethnic balance. By late 2012, the ANA was composed of 43% Pashtuns, 32% Tajiks, 12% Hazaras, 8% Uzbeks, and the rest were smaller ethnic groups of Afghanistan. However, the army did not track the actual ethnic composition of the officer corps, so it's difficult to know if the quotas were really fulfilled. There were no quotas for the enlisted soldiers.
By March 2011, a National Military Command Center had been established in Kabul, which was being mentored by personnel from the Virginia Army National Guard.
Costs and salaries
Under the US–Afghanistan Strategic Partnership Agreement, the United States designated Afghanistan as a major non-NATO ally and agreed to fund the ANA until at least 2024. This included soldiers' salaries, providing training and weapons, and all other military costs.
Soldiers in the Army initially received $30 a month during training and $50 a month upon graduation, though the basic pay for trained soldiers later rose to $165. This starting salary increased to $230 a month in an area with moderate security issues and to $240 in those provinces where there was heavy fighting. About 95% of the men and women who served in the military were paid by electronic funds transfer. Special biometrics were used during the registration of each soldier.
Training and International Partnerships
In 2002 U.S. and allied forces initially supplied training through Task Force Phoenix. This program was formalized in April 2003, based near the Kabul Military Training Center. Coalition efforts were initially overseen by OMC-A, then Office of Security Cooperation-Afghanistan, then from 2006-09, by the Combined Security Transition Command - Afghanistan (CSTC-A), a three-star level multi-national command headquartered in downtown Kabul. On the Afghan side, by 2011 all training and education in the Army was run by Afghan National Army Training Command, a two-star command which reported directly to the Chief of the General Staff. All training centers and military schools were under this command.
Individual basic training was conducted primarily by Afghan National Army instructors and staff at ANATC's Kabul Military Training Center, situated on the eastern edge of Kabul. The United States Department of Defense assisted in basic and advanced training of enlisted recruits, and also ran the Drill Instructor School which ran basic training courses for training NCOs. Basic training had been expanded to include required literacy courses for illiterate recruits. A French Army advisory team oversaw the training of officers for staff and platoon or toli (company) command in a combined commissioning/infantry officer training unit called the Officer Training Brigade (OTB). OTB candidates in the platoon and company command courses were usually former militia and mujaheddin leaders with various levels of military experience. The United Kingdom also conducted initial infantry officer training and commissioning at the Officer Candidate School (OCS). OCS candidates were young men with little or no military experience. The British Army also conducted initial and advanced Non-Commissioned Officer training as well in a separate NCO Training Brigade.
The Canadian Forces supervised the Combined Training Exercise portion of initial military training, where trainee soldiers, NCOs, and officers were brought together in field training exercises at the platoon, toli (company) and kandak (battalion) levels to certify them ready for field operations. In the Regional Corps, Coalition Embedded Training Teams continued to mentor the kandak's leadership, and advised them in the areas of intelligence, communications, fire support, logistics and infantry tactics.
During the ISAF era, advisers in the US Embedded Training Teams and NATO Operational Mentor and Liaison Teams acted as liaisons between the Afghan Army and coalition forces. The teams coordinated planning and ensured that ANA units received U.S./Coalition support.
Formal education and professional development was conducted at two main ANATC schools, both in Kabul. The National Military Academy of Afghanistan, located near the Kabul International Airport, was a four-year military university which produced degree second lieutenants in a variety of military professions. NMAA's first cadet class entered its second academic year in spring 2006. A contingent of US and Turkish instructors jointly mentored the NMAA faculty and staff. The Command and General Staff College, located in southern Kabul, prepared mid-level ANA officers to serve on brigade and corps staffs. France established the CGSC in early 2004, and a cadre of French Army instructors continued to oversee operations at the school.
Sizable numbers of Afghan National Army Officers were sent to be trained in India either at the Indian Military Academy in Dehradun, the National Defence Academy near Pune or the Officers Training Academy in Chennai. The Indian Military Academy which had been in existence since 1932, provided a four-year degree to ANA army officers, while the National Defence Academy provided a 3-year degree after which officers underwent a one-year specialization in their respective service colleges. The Officers Training Academy provided a 49-week course to Graduate officer candidates. In 2014 the number of Afghan officers in training in India was nearly 1100.
In October 2007, ANA international partners said they had seen progress and were pleased with Afghan performance in recent exercises. Colonel Thomas McGrath estimated that the ANA would be capable of carrying out independent brigade-size operations by the spring of 2008. Despite high hopes, four years after McGrath's estimated date for independent brigade-sized operations, not a single one of the ANA's 180 kandaks could carry out independent operations, much less an entire brigade. On July 30, 2013, US Acting Assistant Secretary of Defense Peter Lavoy told reporters in Washington, D.C., according to Jane's Defence Weekly, that '... a residual [US] force would be needed to help the ANSF complete more mundane tasks such as logistics, ensuring soldiers get their paychecks, procuring food, awarding fuel contracts, and more.' Lavoy noted that the Afghans were still developing those skills and it would be "well beyond the 2014 date" before they were expected to be capable.
An increasing number of female soldiers joined. By early 2013, reports stated that there were 200,000 ANA troops. However, the Special Inspector General for Afghanistan Reconstruction said in January 2013 that "Determining ANSF strength is fraught with challenges. US and coalition forces rely on the Afghan forces to report their own personnel strength numbers. ..[T]he Combined Security Transition Command-Afghanistan.. noted that.. there is "no viable method of validating [the ANA's] personnel numbers." It was reported in 2016 that the Afghan National Army had close to 1,000 officers with the rank of general, more than the number of generals in the United States Army.
Ineffectiveness
The Afghan National Army (ANA) were plagued by significant issues of poor cohesion, illiteracy, corruption and abuse. A quarter of ANA troops were reported to have deserted in 2009 with many troops hiding in the heat of battle rather than engaging the enemy. It was reported that approximately 90% of ANA troops were illiterate and there were widespread instances of corruption with the ANA manpower consisting a high percentage of ghost battalions. Another significant problem for the ANA was a high level of drug abuse amongst its soldiers. The Special Investigator General for Afghan Reconstruction reported the number of ANA soldiers using drugs was "at least 50 percent" and may be as high as 75 percent of all Afghan soldiers, according to some reports.
Many officers held loyalties with particular political factions. The endemic corruption of those officers eroded the army's morale.
Theft and a lack of discipline plagued many elements of the ANA. US trainers reported missing vehicles, weapons and other military equipment, and outright theft of fuel provided by the US to the ANA. Death threats had been leveled against some US officers who tried to stop Afghan soldiers from stealing. Some Afghan soldiers often found improvised explosive devices and snipped the command wires instead of marking them and waiting for US forces to come to detonate them. The practice allowed insurgents to return and reconnect them. US trainers frequently had to remove the cell phones from Afghan soldiers hours before a mission for fear that the operation would be compromised by bragging, gossip and reciprocal warnings.
At times ANA troops attacked their own troops and foreign troops of ISAF. Fragging had worsened enough to the point where two decrees were issued by the Department of Defense in the summer of 2012 stating that all American personnel serving in Afghanistan were told to carry a magazine with their weapon at all times, and that when a group of American troops were present and on duty with ANA forces, one American serviceman had to stand apart on guard with a loaded weapon ready. In addition to fragging, a report by a US inspector general revealed 5,753 cases of "gross human rights abuses by Afghan forces", including "routine enslavement and rape of underage boys by Afghan commanders". The ineffectiveness of the ANA became most apparent during the 2021 Taliban offensive; thousands of ANA troops surrendered to the Taliban en masse, with many cities falling to the Taliban unopposed.
Collapse in 2021
Following the withdrawal of NATO troops from Afghanistan in the Summer of 2021, in addition to a rapid offensive conducted by the Taliban, the Afghan National Army largely disintegrated, due to devastatingly low morale and massive corruption, with large numbers of ANA soldiers abandoning their posts or surrendering en masse to the Taliban, allowing the Taliban to capture large quantities of US-provided military equipment, vehicles and aircraft. Soon, all the regional forces of the ANA had dissolved, with the exception of the 201st Corps and the 111th Capital Division, both of which were headquartered in Kabul, which was now surrounded by the Taliban. On 15 August 2021, the Taliban entered the outskirts of Kabul from multiple directions, beginning the fall of Kabul. On the same day, President Ashraf Ghani fled the country to Dubai. It was reported that ANA soldiers were fleeing to neighbouring countries in droves, some on foot and others onboard Afghan Air Force aircraft. At 8:55 pm local time, Taliban forces seized the Arg and raised their flag, soon afterwards declaring the restoration of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.
Following the fall of Kabul, the remaining forces of the ANA either deserted their posts or surrendered to the Taliban. Some remnants of the ANA regrouped in the Panjshir Valley, where they joined the anti-Taliban National Resistance Front of Afghanistan. Around 500–600 remaining Afghan troops, made up mostly of Afghan Commandos, were reported to have refused to surrender to the Taliban in Kabul, and instead joined up with US forces in at Kabul International Airport, helping them secure the outer perimeter of the airport during the evacuation in August 2021. According to Pentagon spokesman John Kirby, the US will evacuate these remaining Afghan troops to safety if they wish to leave Afghanistan when the evacuation operation ends.
Since the Taliban took control, there has been more than 100 former Afghan security forces who either disappeared, or were extrajudicially executed. These figures only cover four provinces, meaning the real number of former Afghan security forces disappearing or being executed may be much higher. Taliban soldiers have hunted down former Afghan security forces in the aftermath of the withdrawal.
the Islamic Emirate Army is subdivided into eight corps, mostly superseding the previous corps of the Afghan National Army. They are listed below. In November 2021 Mohammad Yaqub Mujahid, Acting Minister of Defense, announced the new names and of the corps.
Conflicts
From its inception in 1722, Afghanistan's Army fought the:
Safavid Empire - 1722, 1729; Maratha Empire - 1757, 1758, 1761; Sikh Empire - 1813; see in text above
Qajar Empire - 1837–1838
British Empire - 1839–1842, 1878–1880, 1919
Soviet Union - 1925–1926
In addition to external threats, the army fought multiple uprisings and civil wars:
Civil Wars
1928–1929, 1989–1992, 1992–1996, 1996–2001, 2001–2021
Uprisings
1856–1857, 1888–1893, 1912, 1923, 1924-1925, 1925-1926, 1930, 1944-1947, 1945, 1978
Army size
A table of the size of the Afghan army over time is listed below.
Structure (2002–2021)
A January 2011 NATO Training Mission-Afghanistan information paper described the ANA as being led by the Chief of General Staff, supervising the Vice Chief of the General Staff, the Vice Chief of the Armed Forces (an Air Force officer), the Director of the General Staff, himself supervising the General Staff itself, and seven major commands. The ANA Ground Force Command, under a lieutenant general, directed the regional ground forces corps and the 111th Capital Division. Amongst support facilities was the Chimtallah National Ammunition Depot.
Corps and other major commands
At its largest the Afghan National Army had seven corps; each corps was responsible for an area of the country. Establishment of the corps started when four regional commands were established with some staff in September 2004. For a period the Afghan National Army Air Corps was also among the corps, before being split off as a separate air force. Each corps had three to four subordinate brigades, and each brigade had four infantry kandaks (battalions) as basic fighting units. Each infantry kandak was assigned a specific area for which it is responsible for; the kandak's mission was to secure its area from internal and external threats.
Originally, the four outlying corps were assigned one or two brigades, with the majority of the manpower of the Army based in Kabul's 201st Corps. This was superseded by a buildup in which each corps added extra brigades. Originally, the 2008 Combined Security Transition Command – Afghanistan size target was for a total of 14 brigades: 13 infantry, one mechanized, and one commando.
In 2019-2021 the regionally focused corps were as follows:
201st Corps (Kabul) – 1st Brigade was based at the Presidential Palace. 3rd Brigade, at Pol-e-Chakri, was to be a mechanised formation including M-113s and Soviet-built main battle tanks (T-62s). In early 2008 LongWarJournal.org placed most of the 3rd Brigade at Jalalabad, 2nd Brigade at Pol-e-Charkhi, and only a single kandak of 1st Brigade at the Presidential Palace. The corps area of responsibility included Eastern Afghanistan, including Kabul, Logar, Kapisa, Konar, and Laghman provinces. This included Kabul as well as vital routes running north and south, and valleys leading from the Pakistani border into Afghanistan.
203rd Corps (Gardez) The original Gardez Regional Command was established on 23 September 2004. As of 2009, First Brigade, Khost, Second Brigade, Forward Operating Base Rushmore, Sharana, Paktika Province, Third Brigade, Ghazni. On 19 Oct 2006, as part of Operation Mountain Fury, two ETTs (Embedded Training Teams) mentored and advised a D30 artillery section from Fourth Kandak, Second Brigade, 203rd Corps, to conduct the first artillery missions during combat operations with harassment and indirect fires. Three days later, they successfully conducted counterfire (with assistance from a US Q-36 radar) that resulted in ten enemy casualties, the highest casualties inflicted from artillery fire in ANA history. The corps is supported by the Gardez Regional Support Squadron of the AAF, equipped with 8 helicopters: 4 transport to support the corps' commando kandak, two attack, and two medical transport.
205th Corps (Kandahar) – oversaw the provinces of Kandahar, Zabul, and 4th Brigade Urozgan under Brigadier General Zafar Khan's control. It consisted of four brigades, a commando kandak and three garrisons. The corps had integrated artillery and airlift capacity, supplied by a growing Kandahar Wing of the Afghan Air Force.
207th Corps (Herat) – 1st Brigade at Herat, 2nd Brigade at Farah, and elements at Shindand (including commandos). The corps was supported by the Herat Regional Support Squadron of the AAF, equipped with eight helicopters: four transport to support the corps' commando kandak, two attack, and two medical transport aircraft.
209th Corps (Mazar-i-Sharif) – Worked closely with the German-led Regional Command North, and had 1st Brigade at Mazar-i-Sharif and, it appears, a Second Brigade forming at Kunduz. An Army Corps of Engineers solicitation for Kunduz headquarters facilities for the Second Brigade was issued in March 2008. The corps was supported by the Mazar-i-Sharif Regional Support Squadron of the AAF, equipped with eight helicopters: four transport to support the Corps' commando kandak, two attack, and two medical transport helicopters. In October 2015, as a response to the fall of Kunduz, reports came that a new division would be formed in the area.
215th Corps (Lashkar Gah) – In 2010, the Afghan government approved a sixth corps of the Afghan National Army – Corps 215 Maiwand – to be based in the Helmand capital of Lashkar Gah. The 215th was developed specifically to partner with the Marine Expeditionary Brigade in Helmand. On 28 January 2010, Xinhua reported that General Sayed Mallok would command the new corps. The corps will cover all parts of Helmand, half of Farah and most parts of southwestern Nimroz province. The corps was formally established on 1 April 2010. 1st Bde, 215th Corps, is at Garmsir, partnered with a USMC Regimental Combat Team. Elements of 2nd Brigade, 215th Corps, had been reported at Forward Operating Base Delaram, Farah Province. 3rd Bde, 215th Corps, partnered with the UK Task Force Helmand is at Camp Shorabak.
217th Corps (Headquarters Kunduz) – The Afghan army established a new corps in 2019. The 20th Division, which was formerly part of the 209th Corps, became the 217th Corps. The corps was given responsibility for Kunduz Province, Takhar, Baghlan, and Badakhshan provinces. In August 2021, the Taliban seized control of the corps headquarters and Kunduz as part of the 2021 Taliban offensive.
111th Capital Division - in late 2008 it was announced that the 201st Corps' former area of responsibility would be divided, with a Capital Division being formed in Kabul and the corps concentrating its effort further forward along the border. The new division, designated the 111th Capital Division, became operational in April 2009. It had a First Brigade and Second Brigade (both forming) as well as a Headquarters Special Security Brigade.
Most of the corps were retained, with their existing numerical designations, but renamed, in November 2021, after the Taliban seized power.
Other commands included:
ANA Special Operations Command - from mid-2011, the ANA began establishing a Special Operations Command to control the Commando Brigade and the ANA Special Forces. Its headquarters was established at Camp Moorehead in Wardak Province, south of Kabul. In July 2007 the ANA graduated its first commandos. The commandos underwent a grueling three-month course being trained by American special forces. They were fully equipped with US equipment and had received specialized light infantry training with the capability to conduct raids, direct action, and reconnaissance in support of counterinsurgency operations; they also provided a strategic response capability for the Afghan government.
Army Support Command, the ANA Recruiting Command, the Headquarters Security and Support Brigade (HSSB), and the Detainee Guard Force (as of 2011).
The ANA Ground Force Command was active circa 2009-2015. Under a lieutenant general it directed the regional ground forces corps and the 111th Capital Division. The Inspector General of the Department of Defense expressed concerns with the ANA Ground Force Command in these terms in March 2013, as the U.S. and allies: "began developing the Ground Forces Command in April 2009 and it is scheduled to achieve full operational capability for command and control of ANA forces by October 2012. However, it may take longer for the Ministry of Defense, General Staff, and some Corps Commanders to embrace this new organization. Several ANSF stakeholders expressed their belief that GFC was an unnecessary, intermediate layer of bureaucracy. A number of Afghan security officials conveyed doubts about the long-term existence of the GFC HQ after 2014." .."General Staff reluctance to identify and divest authorities and responsibilities to the GFC inhibited the timely development of the Ground Forces Command. Afghan and Coalition officers also reported widespread, lukewarm support among senior level Ministry of Defense and General Staff officers for the establishment of the GFC. Operationally, some Afghan Corps commanders and staff members considered the GFC unnecessary and a redundant headquarters." The command was eventually disbanded in 2015; it was seen "by many as a redundant and unnecessary bureaucratic layer" between the General Staff and the regional corps.
Kandaks (battalions)
The basic unit in the Afghan National Army was the kandak (battalion), consisting of 600 troops. Kandaks were made up of four companies (toli). Although the vast majority of kandaks were infantry, at least one mechanized and one tank kandak had been formed. Every ANA Corps was assigned commando kandaks.
Seven Quick Reaction Forces (QRF) kandaks were created in 2012–13, one kandak for each of the ANA's corps and divisions. They were created by converting existing infantry kandaks into QRF kandaks at the NMAA Armour Branch School. The QRF kandaks were trained and fielded in 2012 and 2013. The QRF kandaks were the first major ANA users of armoured vehicles.
As the ANA grew, the focus changed to further developing the force so that it could become self-sustaining. Development of Combat Support Kandaks [Battalions] (CSK) was vital to any self-sustainability. The CSK role includes motor fleet maintenance, specialized communications, scouting, engineering, and long range artillery units. While most ANA brigades had a CSK, they were underdeveloped and did not fit the requirements of a growing army. Eventually one fully developed CSK was planned to be assigned to each of the 24 army combat brigades. Each CSK included an Intelligence toli (company) called a Cashf Tolai. Each company was responsible for collecting information about the surrounding area and Taliban activities. The members of the unit interacted closely with the local residents in an effort to deny the enemy control over the surrounding area.
Combat service support was also vital. In order to enable the ANA to be self-sufficient, brigades were to form a Corps Logistics Kandaks (CLK) which was responsible for providing equipment to the 90 infantry kandaks. The CLK was responsible for the maintenance of the new heavier equipment including APCs. In the 215th Corps area, the US Marine Combat Logistics Battalion 1 announced in January 2010 that the training of the ANA 5th Kandak, 1st Brigade, 215th ANA Corps Logistics Kandak has gone very well and that the unit was capable of undertaking the majority of day-to-day activities on their own. The ANA never achieved self-sufficiency and after losing logistical and air support from the U.S, the ANA fell apart during the 2021 Taliban offensive, making a series of negotiated surrenders.
Afghan Border Force
The Afghan Border Force (ABF) was responsible for the security of Afghanistan's border area with neighboring countries extending up to into the interior. In December 2017, most of the Afghan Border Police (ABP) personnel of the Afghan National Police were transferred to the Afghan National Army to form the ABF. The Afghan National Police retained 4,000 ABP personnel for customs operations at border crossings and international airports. The ABF consisted of seven brigades.
Afghan National Civil Order Force
The Afghan National Civil Order Force (ANCOF) was responsible for civil order and counterinsurgency. In March 2018, most of the Afghan National Civil Order Police (ANCOP) personnel of the Afghan National Police were transferred to the Afghan National Army to form the ANCOF with their role remaining the same. The remaining 2,550 ANCOP personnel in the Afghan National Police formed the Public Security Police (PSP). The ANCOF consisted of eight brigades. In June 2020, the ANA began disbanding the ANCOF brigades with personnel to be integrated into ANA Corps.
Ranks
Commissioned officer ranks
The rank insignia of commissioned officers.
Other ranks
The rank insignia of non-commissioned officers and enlisted personnel.
Equipment
The Afghan Army was equipped with the Soviet AK-47 as its main service rifle from the 1970s. As a major non-NATO ally of the United States, Afghanistan continued to receive billions of dollars in military assistance and the American M16 rifle joined the AK-47 as the service rifle. In addition, various U.S. rifles, bulletproof vests, night vision goggles, trucks and Mine Resistant Ambush-Protected vehicles entered service. The ANA previously had a contract with International Trucks that would provide a fleet of 2,781 trucks which could be used for transporting personnel, water, petroleum and as a recovery vehicle.
Besides NATO, Afghanistan had increasingly turned to its regional allies, India and Russia for military aid and supplies. Both countries supported the Northern Alliance, with funding, training, supplies and medical treatment of wounded fighters, against the Taliban for years prior to the US-led intervention in 2001.
After the removal of the Taliban government in late 2001, India invested several billion dollars in infrastructure development projects in Afghanistan, besides the training of Afghan officers in India. But India was unwilling to provide military aid unless under an UN-authorised peacekeeping mission. In 2014, India signed an agreement with Russia and Afghanistan where it would pay Russia for all the heavy equipment requested by Afghanistan instead of directly supplying them. The deal also includes the refurbishment of heavy weapons left behind since the Soviet war. Following the end of the 2021 Taliban offensive, much of the Afghan National Armies arsenal including much of its U.S military hardware ended up in the hands of the Taliban.
Quick Reaction Force vehicles
The Quick Reaction Force (QRF) kandaks were being organized as motorized infantry equipped with 352 Mobile Strike Force Vehicles (MSFV). Shipments of the vehicles began in November 2011, and the ANA took possession of the first 58 in March 2012.
There was some confusion over the exact amount and type of vehicles in the QRF with various sources giving different figures. While some sources reporting on the formation of the QRF state that 440–490 M1117s had been ordered, it is unclear whether all of these were assigned to the QRF. The first 18 M1117s were sent to Afghanistan in November 2011. In March 2012 the ANA took delivery of the first 58 of 352 MSFVs which included some or all of the M1117s. Other sources reported that 352 MSFV (which include M1117s) would be supplied to the ANA.
It is likely that 281 of the 352 MSFV would be M1117 Armored Security Vehicle while the other 71 would be other vehicle types including the Navistar 7000 series Medium Tactical Vehicles (MTV), the 4x4 chassis of which is used for the MRAP. The US had ordered 9900 of the International MaxxPro MRAP configuration alone for the Afghan National Army and the Iraqi Army. Additional support vehicles will also be required to maintain a force such as this in the field.
In order to use the MSFV, the members of the quick reaction forces had to be trained in their upkeep and maintenance. This began by training Afghan instructors who helped to pass on the knowledge to the Quick Reaction Forces members with increasing levels of responsibility. Most of the training was being undertaken by American and French instructors.
The United States Army reported that the Quick Reaction Forces would be equipped with 352 Mobile Strike Force Vehicles or MSFVs. The MSFV is an updated version of a vehicle supplied by Textron Marine & Land Systems who also produce the M1117. The MSFV utilizes off the shelf parts where possible, significantly reducing costs. The standard MSFV APC can be supplied in three options: Gunner Protection Kit, with turret and as an armored ambulance. By November 14, 2011, 18 had been delivered. It is currently not clear whether the 281 MSFVs are in addition to the 490 M117s or part of the order.
In March 2012 Textron Marine & Land Systems who have produced all of the existing MSFVs were awarded a contract for an additional 64 MSFV to be sent to Afghanistan. These will again be based on the M117. Three variants of MSFV are with Turret, MSFV with Objective Gunner Protection Kit; and MSFV Ambulance. In April 2012 it was announced that a second option to supply a further 65 MSFV in all three variants has been awarded to Textron Marine & Land Systems. This brings the total number of MSFVs to 369. By 7 March 2013 the Textron had received orders for 634 MSFVs. They report that 300 of these have already been fielded.
See also
Ethnic groups in Afghanistan
Notes
References
Self published English version of originally "Persian" work; see translator's note.
288 pp.; £35.00. Due to its 'simplicity, which matched low technology and basic organization found among the human resources available' the Taliban's army from 1996 to 2001 was perhaps the most successful national army for Afghanistan (p. 121).
Further reading
Kenneth Conboy, 'Elite Forces of India and Pakistan,' – also covers Afghanistan, including post 1978 coup creation of 26th Parachute Regiment from two previous commando units.
Yuri V. Gankovskii, Istoriia Vooruzhennykh Sil Afganistana: 1747–1977, Moscow: Nauka (also reported as Institut Vostokovedeniya), 1985.
Antonio Giustozzi, 'Shadow Ownership and SSR in Afghanistan,' Chap. 11 in Tim Donnais (ed.) 'Local Ownership and Security Sector Reform,' DCAF/Lit Verlag, Zurich/Berlin, 2008 'Local Ownership.' Portrays a varying level of vested interest/warlord subversion of reform among the various security agencies; little local ownership at the MOD/ANA despite several attempts to seize more local control and subvert the foreign process by not proving enough personnel, imposing different officers, and wanting a conscript force. The army is financially unsustainable even at 70,000 strong and not being trained for combat in small units.
Antonio Giustozzi, War, politics and society in Afghanistan, 1978–1992
James Hardy, 'British MP urges changes to Afghan forces,' Jane's Defence Weekly, v.48, no.35, August 31, 2011, p. 15 ().
Lieutenant Colonel Gavin Keating, 'Living in the Twilight Zone: Advising the Afghan National Army at the Corps Level' , Australian Army Journal, Vol. VIII, No. 3, Summer 2011.
Maloney, Sean M. (2005), Enduring the Freedom: A Rogue Historian in Afghanistan, Washington, DC: Potomac Books,
U.S. Army Area Handbook: Afghanistan, 1969, revised 1973
'US seeks to halve ANSF funds by 2014,' Jane's Defence Weekly, 5 October 2011. Reporting comments by Lt Gen Caldwell, Commander NATO Training Mission-Afghanistan (NTM-A), 26 September 2011.
External links
US Department of Defense, June 2018 'Enhancing Security and Stability in Afghanistan' report
Army of Afghanistan
Armies by country
Military of Afghanistan
Military units and formations established in the 1970s
Soviet foreign aid
Military units and formations of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecumenical%20Patriarchate%20of%20Constantinople
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Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople
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The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (, ; ; , "Roman Orthodox Patriarchate, Ecumenical Patriarchate") is one of the fourteen to sixteen autocephalous churches (or "jurisdictions") that together compose the Eastern Orthodox Church. It is headed by the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, currently Bartholomew I, Archbishop of Constantinople.
Because of its historical location as the capital of the former Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire and its role as the mother church of most modern Orthodox churches, Constantinople holds a special place of honor within Orthodoxy and serves as the seat for the Ecumenical Patriarch, who enjoys the status of primus inter pares (first among equals) among the world's Eastern Orthodox prelates and is regarded as the representative and spiritual leader of Eastern Orthodox Christians.
The Ecumenical Patriarchate promotes the expansion of the Christian faith and Eastern Orthodox doctrine, and the Ecumenical Patriarchs are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue, charitable work, and the defense of Orthodox Christian traditions. Prominent issues for the Ecumenical Patriarchate's policy in the 21st century include the safety of the believers in the Middle East, reconciliation of the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic churches, and the reopening of the Theological School of Halki, which was closed down by the Turkish authorities in 1971.
History
The Great Church of Christ
Christianity in the Greek city of Byzantium was brought by Apostle Andrew himself who visited Byzantium, founded the See of Byzantium in 38 AD and appointed the bishop Stachys the Apostle who remained until 54 AD. Therefore, the Greek Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople claims its legitimate appointment from Apostle Andrew from whom the subsequent ordination of ministries claim legitimate inheritance through the sacrament of Holy Orders.
In the year 330 the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great moved his residence to the town renaming it Nova Roma (), or "New Rome." Thenceforth, the importance of the church there grew, along with the influence of its bishop.
Prior to the moving of the imperial capital, the bishop of Byzantium had been under the authority of the metropolitan of Heraclea, but from the 4th century on, he grew to become independent in his own right and even to exercise authority throughout what is now Greece, Asia Minor, Pontus, and Thrace. With the development of the hierarchical structure of the Church, the bishop of Constantinople came to be styled as exarch (a position superior to metropolitan). Constantinople was recognized as the fourth patriarchate at the First Council of Constantinople in 381, after Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome. The patriarch was usually appointed by Antioch.
Because of the importance of the position of Constantinople's church at the center of the Roman Empire, affairs involving the various churches outside Constantinople's direct authority came to be discussed in the capital, particularly where the intervention of the emperor was desired. The patriarch naturally became a liaison between the emperor and bishops traveling to the capital, thus establishing the position of the patriarch as one involving the unity of the whole Church, particularly in the East.
In turn, the affairs of the Constantinopolitan church were overseen not just by the patriarch, but also by synods held including visiting bishops. This pan-Orthodox synod came to be referred to as the (, "resident synod"). The resident synod not only governed the business of the patriarchate but also examined questions pertinent to the whole Church as well as the eastern half of the old empire.
The patriarch thus came to have the title of Ecumenical, which referenced not a universal episcopacy over other bishops but rather the position of the patriarch as at the center of the , the "household" of the empire.
As the Roman Empire stabilized and grew, so did the influence of the patriarchate at its capital. This influence came to be enshrined in Orthodox canon law, to such an extent that it was elevated even beyond more ancient patriarchates: Canon 3 of the First Council of Constantinople (381) stated that the bishop of that city "shall have primacy of honor after the Bishop of Rome because Constantinople is the New Rome."
In its disputed 28th Canon, the Council of Chalcedon in 451 recognized an expansion of the boundaries of the Patriarchate of Constantinople and of its authority over bishops of dioceses "among the barbarians", which has been variously interpreted as referring either to areas outside the Byzantine Empire or to non-Greeks. The council resulted in a schism with the Patriarchate of Alexandria.
In any case, for almost a thousand years the Patriarch of Constantinople presided over the church in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire and its missionary activity that brought the Christian faith in its Byzantine form to many peoples north of the imperial borders. The cathedral church of Constantinople, Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom), was the center of religious life in the eastern Christian world.
The Ecumenical Patriarchate came to be called the "Great Church of Christ" and it was the touchstone and reference point for ecclesiastical affairs in the East, whether in terms of church government, relations with the state, or liturgical matters.
Prerogatives of the Ecumenical Patriarchate
In history and in canonical literature (i.e. the Church's canons and traditional commentaries on them), the Ecumenical Patriarchate has been granted certain prerogatives () that other autocephalous Orthodox churches do not have. Not all of these prerogatives are today universally acknowledged, though all do have precedents in history and canonical references. The following is a (non-exhaustive) list of these prerogatives and their reference points:
Equal prerogatives to Old Rome (Canon 28 of the Fourth Ecumenical Council, Canon 36 of the Quinisext Council);
The right to hear appeals, if invited, regarding disputes between clergy (Canons 9 and 17 of the Fourth Ecumenical Council);
The right to ordain bishops for areas outside defined canonical boundaries (Canon 28 of the Fourth Ecumenical Council);
The right to establish stavropegial monasteries even in the territories of other patriarchates (the Epanagoge, commentaries of Matthew Blastares and Theodore Balsamon)
Iconoclast controversy
In the eighth and ninth centuries the iconoclast movement caused serious political unrest throughout the Empire. The emperor Leo III issued a decree in 726 against images and ordered the destruction of an image of Christ over one of the doors of the Chalke, an act which was fiercely resisted by the citizens. Constantine V convoked a church council in 754, which condemned the worship of images, after which many treasures were broken, burned, or painted over with depictions of trees, birds or animals: one source refers to the church of the Holy Virgin at Blachernae as having been transformed into a "fruit store and aviary". Following the death of his son Leo IV in 780, the empress Irene restored the veneration of images through the agency of the Second Council of Nicaea in 787.
The iconoclast controversy returned in the early 9th century, only to be resolved once more in 843 during the regency of Empress Theodora, who restored the icons.
Great Schism of 1054
The relations between the papacy and the Byzantine court were good in the years leading up to 1054. The emperor Constantine IX and the Pope Leo IX were allied through the mediation of the Lombard catepan of Italy, Argyrus, who had spent years in Constantinople, originally as a political prisoner.
Patriarch Michael I Cerularius ordered a letter to be written to the Bishop of Trani in which he attacked the "Judaistic" practices of the West, namely the use of unleavened bread. The letter was to be sent by John to all the bishops of the West, including the Pope. John promptly complied and the letter was passed to Humbert of Mourmoutiers, the cardinal-bishop of Silva Candida, who translated the letter into Latin and brought it to the Pope, who ordered a reply to be made to each charge and a defence of papal supremacy to be laid out in a response.
Although he was hot-headed, Michael was convinced to cool the debate and thus attempt to prevent the impending breach. However, Humbert and the pope made no concessions and the former was sent with legatine powers to the imperial capital to solve the questions raised once and for all. Humbert, Frederick of Lorraine, and Peter, Archbishop of Amalfi, arrived in April 1054 and were met with a hostile reception; they stormed out of the palace, leaving the papal response with Michael, who in turn was even more angered by their actions. The patriarch refused to recognise their authority or, practically, their existence. When Pope Leo died on April 19, 1054, the legates' authority legally ceased, but they effectively ignored this technicality.
In response to Michael's refusal to address the issues at hand, the legatine mission took the extreme measure of entering the church of the Hagia Sophia during the Divine Liturgy and placing a bull of excommunication on the altar.
The events of the East-West Schism are generally dated from the acts of 1054. However, these events only triggered the beginning of the schism. The full schism was not actually consummated by the seemingly mutual excommunications. The New Catholic Encyclopedia reports that the legates had been careful not to intimate that the bull of excommunication implied a general excommunication of the Byzantine Church. The bull excommunicated only Cerularius, Leo of Achrida, and their adherents. Thus, the New Catholic Encyclopedia argues that the dispute need not have produced a permanent schism any more than excommunication of any "contumacious bishop". The schism began to develop when all the other Eastern patriarchs supported Cerularius. According to the New Catholic Encyclopedia, it was the support of Emperor Michael VI Stratiotikos that impelled them to support Cerularius. Some have questioned the validity of the bull on the grounds that Pope Leo IX had died at that time and so the authority of the legates to issue such a bull is unclear.
The legates left for Rome two days after issuing the bull of excommunication, leaving behind a city near riot. The patriarch had the immense support of the people against the emperor, who had supported the legates to his own detriment. To assuage popular anger, the bull was burnt, and the legates were anathematised. Only the legates were anathematised and, in this case too, there was no explicit indication that the entire Western church was being anathematised.
In the bull of excommunication issued against Patriarch Michael I Cerularius by the papal legates, one of the reasons cited was the alleged deletion by the Eastern Church of the "Filioque" from the original Nicene Creed. In fact, it was precisely the opposite: the Eastern Church had not deleted anything; it was the Western Church that had added this phrase to the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed.
As Bishop Kallistos Ware writes, "Even after 1054 friendly relations between East and West continued. The two parts of Christendom were not yet conscious of a great gulf of separation between them. […] The dispute remained something of which ordinary Christians in East and West were largely unaware". In fact, efforts were made in subsequent centuries by Popes and Patriarchs to heal the rift between the churches. However, a number of factors and historical events worked to widen the separation over time.
Fall of Constantinople in 1204 and the exile in Nicaea
The Fourth Crusade in exchange for promised funds attempted to help the deposed emperor Alexius IV regain his throne. After taking Constantinople, returning Alexius IV to the throne, the revolt against and murder of Alexius IV left the Crusaders without payment. On 12 April 1204, the crusaders inflicted a severe sacking on Constantinople for three days, during which many ancient and medieval Roman and Greek works were either stolen or destroyed. Despite their oaths and the threat of excommunication, the Crusaders ruthlessly and systematically violated the city's holy sanctuaries, destroying, defiling, or stealing all they could lay hands on; nothing was spared. It was said that the total amount looted from Constantinople was about 900,000 silver marks. The Venetians received 150,000 silver marks that was their due, while the Crusaders received 50,000 silver marks. A further 100,000 silver marks were divided evenly up between the Crusaders and Venetians. The remaining 500,000 silver marks were secretly kept back by many Crusader knights.
Nicetas Choniates gives a vivid account of the sack of Constantinople by the Frankish and Venetian Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade:
The Latin soldiery subjected the greatest city in Europe to an indescribable sack. For three days they murdered, raped, looted and destroyed on a scale which even the ancient Vandals and Goths would have found unbelievable. Constantinople had become a veritable museum of ancient and Byzantine art, an emporium of such incredible wealth that the Latins were astounded at the riches they found. Though the Venetians had an appreciation for the art which they discovered (they were themselves semi-Byzantines) and saved much of it, the French and others destroyed indiscriminately, halting to refresh themselves with wine, violation of nuns, and murder of Orthodox clerics. The Crusaders vented their hatred for the Greeks most spectacularly in the desecration of the greatest Church in Christendom. They smashed the silver iconostasis, the icons and the holy books of Hagia Sophia, and seated upon the patriarchal throne a whore who sang coarse songs as they drank wine from the Church's holy vessels. The estrangement of East and West, which had proceeded over the centuries, culminated in the horrible massacre that accompanied the conquest of Constantinople. The Greeks were convinced that even the Turks, had they taken the city, would not have been as cruel as the Latin Christians. The defeat of Byzantium, already in a state of decline, accelerated political degeneration so that the Byzantines eventually became an easy prey to the Turks. The Crusading movement thus resulted, ultimately, in the victory of Islam, a result which was of course the exact opposite of its original intention.
Meanwhile, the Latin Empire of Constantinople was established, and Byzantine refugees founded their own successor states, the most notable of these being the Empire of Nicaea under Theodore Lascaris (a relative of Alexius III), the Empire of Trebizond, and the Despotate of Epirus.
The new seat of the Patriarchate was established in the city of Nicaea until in 1261, when Constantinople was reconquered by the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos.
Fall of Constantinople in 1453 and Ottoman period
In accordance with the traditional custom at the time, Sultan Mehmed II allowed his troops and his entourage three full days of unbridled pillage and looting in the city shortly after it was captured. Once the three days passed, he would then claim its remaining contents for himself. However, by the end of the first day, he proclaimed that the looting should cease as he felt profound sadness when he toured the looted and enslaved city. Hagia Sophia was not exempted from the pillage and looting and specifically became its focal point as the invaders believed it to contain the greatest treasures and valuables of the city. Shortly after the defence of the Walls of Constantinople collapsed and the Ottoman troops entered the city victoriously, the pillagers and looters made their way to the Hagia Sophia and battered down its doors before storming in.
Throughout the period of the siege of Constantinople, the trapped worshippers of the city participated in the Divine Liturgy and the Prayer of the Hours at the Hagia Sophia and the church formed a safe-haven and a refuge for many of those who were unable to contribute to the city's defence, which comprised women, children, elderly, the sick and the wounded. Being trapped in the church, the many congregants and yet more refugees inside became spoils-of-war to be divided amongst the triumphant invaders. The building was desecrated and looted, with the helpless occupants who sought shelter within the church being enslaved. While most of the elderly and the infirm/wounded and sick were killed, and the remainder (mainly teenage males and young boys) were chained up and sold into slavery.
The women of Constantinople also suffered from rape at the hands of Ottoman forces. According to Barbaro, "all through the day the Turks made a great slaughter of Christians through the city". According to historian Philip Mansel, widespread persecution of the city's civilian inhabitants took place, resulting in thousands of murders and rapes, and 30,000 civilians being enslaved or forcibly deported. George Sphrantzes says that people of both genders were raped inside Hagia Sophia.
After Constantinople was overrun by the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the Patriarchate came to care more directly for all the Orthodox living in the Ottoman Empire. Mehmed II appointed Gennadios II Scholarios as the Patriarch in 1454 and designated him as the spiritual leader as well as the ethnarch or, in Turkish, milletbashi of all the Orthodox Christians in the Empire, regardless of ethnic origin; not only Greeks, but also Bulgarians, Serbs, Albanians, Wallachians, Moldavians, Croatis, Syrians, orthodox Arabs, Georgians and Lazs came under the spiritual, administrative, fiscal, cultural and legal jurisdiction of the Patriarchate. Some of the other patriarchs came at various points to live permanently in Constantinople and function as part of the local church government. This situation, according to some of the Orientalists and historians, shows the Pax Ottomana (or Pax Ottomanica, literally "the Ottoman Peace").
The Russian Orthodox Church, which for centuries had been a diocese of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, declared its independence in 1448 shortly before Constantinople fell owing to its protest over the Council of Florence, in which representatives of the patriarchate had signed onto union with Rome, trading doctrinal concessions for military aid against the encroaching Ottomans. The military aid never came and those concessions were subsequently repudiated by the patriarchate but, from 1448, the Russian church came to function independently. Within decades after the Fall of Constantinople to Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire on 29 May 1453, some were nominating Moscow as the "Third Rome", or the "New Rome". In 1589, 141 years later, Constantinople came to recognize Russia's independence and led the Eastern Orthodox Church in declaring Russia also to be a patriarchate, numbering Moscow's bishop as fifth in rank behind the ancient patriarchates. The Russian Orthodox Church became the largest of the Eastern Orthodox churches in the world.
As Ottoman rule weakened, various parts of the Orthodox Church that had been under the direct influence of the Ecumenical Patriarchate came to be independent. These churches at first usually declared their independence without universal approval, which came after Constantinople gave its blessing. The rate at which these new autocephalous ("self-headed") churches came into being increased in the 19th century, particularly with the independence of Greece.
In 1833, the Church of Greece declared its autocephaly, which was subsequently recognized by the patriarchate in 1850. In 1865, the Romanian Orthodox Church, against the protests of Constantinople, declared its independence, which was acknowledged in 1885. A year before Greece's autocephaly was self-proclaimed, the Serbian Orthodox Church was named autocephalous by the local secular government but Constantinople refused recognition until 1879. In 1860 the Bulgarians seceded from the Great Church; in 1870 the Bulgarian church was politically recognized as autonomous under the name Bulgarian Exarchate by the Sultan's firman, but it was not until 1945 that it was recognized by the Ecumenical Patriarchate. In 1922, the Albanian Orthodox Church declared its autocephaly, being granted recognition of it in 1937.
In addition to these churches, whose territory had been agreed upon by all as within Constantinople's jurisdiction, several other disputed areas' Orthodox churches have had recognition by the Ecumenical Patriarchate as either autocephalous or autonomous, including the Finnish Orthodox Church and Estonian Orthodox Church in 1923, the Polish Orthodox Church in 1924, and the Czech and Slovak Orthodox Church in 1998. The majority of these disputes are a result of the expansion of the Russian Empire, which often included a subjugation of the Orthodox churches in conquered lands to the Moscow Patriarchate. Due to this, the Moscow Patriarchate often disputes the Ecumenical Patriarch's role as prime representative and spiritual leader of the world's Orthodox Christians, citing that it represents the numerically largest Orthodox community.
Ecclesiastical buildings in Ottoman cities
As a ruling institution, the Ottoman Empire brought regulations on how the cities would be built (quality reassurances) and how the architecture (structural integrity, social needs, etc.) should be shaped. Special restrictions were imposed concerning the construction, renovation, size and usage of bells in churches. For example, in a town a church should not be larger in size than the largest mosque. Some churches were destroyed (e.g. the Church of the Holy Apostles), many were converted into mosques (among them the Hagia Sophia and Chora Church in Constantinople, and the Rotunda and Hagios Demetrios in Thessaloniki) or served for other uses (e.g. Hagia Irene in Constantinople, which became an armory for the Janissaries, and the Gül Mosque [Hagia Theodosia or Christ Euergetes], also in Constantinople, which after the Conquest served for a while as a naval dockyard). Such rules, however, although very strict in the beginning, with time and the increasing importance in the Ottoman Empire of the Rûm Millet were more and more disregarded, so that in the 19th century in Istanbul there was a veritable building boom of Orthodox churches, many among them having high bell towers and brick domes, both of which had previously been strictly prohibited.
Patriarchate under the secular Republic of Turkey
Since 1586 the Ecumenical Patriarchate has had its headquarters in the relatively modest Church of St George in the Fener (Phanar) district of Istanbul. The current territory of the Patriarchate is significantly reduced from what it was at its height. Its canonical territory currently includes most of modern Turkey, northern Greece and Mount Athos, the Dodecanese and Crete. By its interpretation of Canon 28 of Chalcedon, Constantinople also claims jurisdiction over all areas outside the canonically defined territories of other Orthodox churches, which includes the entire Western hemisphere, Oceania, the United Kingdom, Western Europe, Northeast Asia, Southeast Asia. This claim is disputed by other autocephalous churches with dioceses in those areas, as well as the Turkish government.
The Orthodox presence in Turkey itself is small; however the majority of Orthodox in North America (about two-thirds) are under the Ecumenical Patriarchate, primarily in the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America. The Patriarchate also enjoys an even greater majority in the United Kingdom. Furthermore, the Albanian, Rusyn and Ukrainian jurisdictions in America are also part of the Patriarchate.
Most of the Patriarchate's funding does not come directly from its member churches but rather from the government of Greece, due to an arrangement whereby the Patriarchate had transferred property it had owned to Greece. In exchange, the employees, including the clergy, of the Patriarchate are remunerated by the Greek government. The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America provides substantial support through an annual contribution, known as the logia, and its institutions, including the American-based Greek Orthodox Ladies Philoptochos Society and the Archons of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, usually important laymen who make large donations for the upkeep of the Patriarchate. In turn, they are granted honorary titles which once belonged to members of the Patriarchal staff in centuries past.
The Patriarchate acts in the capacity of being an intermediary and facilitator between the Orthodox churches and also in relations with other Christians and religions. This role sometimes brings the Patriarchate into conflict with other Orthodox churches, as its role in the church is debated. The question centers around whether the Ecumenical Patriarchate is simply the most honored among the Orthodox churches or whether it has any real authority or prerogatives () that differ from the other autocephalous churches. This dispute is often between Constantinople and Moscow, the largest Orthodox church in terms of population, especially as expressed in the Third Rome theory which places Moscow in the place of Constantinople as the center of world Orthodoxy. Such disputes sometimes result in temporary breaks in full communion, though usually not for very long.
The relationship between Constantinople and the Ottoman Empire was frequently bitter, due in no small part to the privilege given to Islam. In the secular Republic of Turkey, tensions are still constant. Turkey requires by law that the Patriarch be a Turkish citizen by birth, which all Patriarchs have been since 1923—all ethnic Greeks from the minuscule and steadily decreasing Greek minority of Turkey, which is causing a shortage of priests and consequently potential candidates for the post of Ecumenical Patriarch. The state's expropriation of church property and the closing of the Orthodox Theological School of Halki are also difficulties faced by the Patriarchate.
Administration and structure
Holy Synod
The affairs of the patriarchate are conducted by the Holy Synod, presided over by the Ecumenical Patriarch. The synod has existed since some time prior to the fourth century and assists the patriarch in determining the affairs of the possessions under his jurisdiction. The synod first developed from what was referred to as the resident synod, composed of the patriarch, local bishops, and any Orthodox bishops who were visiting in the imperial capital of Constantinople. After the fall of Constantinople, the synod's membership became limited to bishops of the patriarchate.
The Holy and Sacred Synod, presided over by His All-Holiness Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I, is composed of twelve hierarchs, each serving a year-long term, with half of the synod's members changing every six months in March and September.
The current members of the Holy and Sacred Synod serving from March 1, 2021 – August 31, 2021, are as follows:
Emmanuel of Chalcedon
Dimitrios of Metres and Athyra
Ambrosios of Karpathos and Kasos
Apostolos of Miletus
Alexios of Atlanta
Joseph of Prokonnesos
Meliton of Philadelphia
Joseph of Buenos Aires
Cleopas of Sweden and all Scandinavia
Maximos of Silyvria
Makarios of Australia
Cyril of Imbros and Tenedos
Notable hierarchs of the Ecumenical Patriarchate are the popular writer Kallistos (Timothy) Ware, an assistant-bishop in the Archdiocese of Thyateira and author of The Orthodox Church, the best-known introduction to the Orthodox Church in English, and John Zizioulas, Metropolitan of Pergamon, a well-known professor of Systematic Theology.
The right of non-Turkish members of the synod (from Northern Greece, the Dodecanese, America and Western Europe) to convene appears to be threatened by a recent declaration from the Istanbul Governor reported in the Freiburg archdiocesan magazine.
Structure
Head of the Patriarchate of Constantinople and of the Holy Synod is the Archbishop of Constantinople, New Rome and Ecumenical Patriarch and who since 1991 has been Bartholomew I (). The local churches of the Ecumenical Patriarchate consist of six archdioceses, 66 metropolises, 2 dioceses and one exarchate, each of which reports directly to the Patriarch of Constantinople with no intervening authority.
Archdioceses and Archbishops
Archdiocese of Constantinople and New Rome (Patriarchal archdiocese):
Metropolis of Chalcedon: Emmanuel Adamakis (2021–)
Metropolis of Derkoi: Apostolos Daniilidis (2011–)
Metropolis of Imbros and Tenedos: Cyril Dragounis (2002–2020), Cyril Sykis (2020–)
Metropolis of the Prince's Islands: Dimitrios Kommatas (2018-)
Metropolis of Pisidia: Sotirios Trambas (2008–)
Metropolis of Prusa: Ioakeim Billis (2021-)
Metropolis of Smyrna: Bartholomew Samaras (2016–)
Metropolis of Adrianopolis: Amfilochios of Adrianoupolis
Metropolis of Karpathos and Kasos: Ambrosios Panagiotidis (1983–)
Metropolis of Kos and Nisyros: Nathaniel II (Philippos) Diakopanagiotis (2009–)
Metropolis of Leros, Kalymnos and Astypalaia and Exarchate of the Southern Sporades: Païsios (Panagiotis) Aravantinos (2005–)
Metropolis of Rhodes: Cyril II (Konstantinos) Kogerakis (2004–)
Metropolis of Syme: Chrysostomos (Ioannis) Dimitriadis (2004–)
Exarchate of Patmos: Archimandrite Cyril Pentes
Spiritually assigned to the Ecumenical Patriarchate by the Patriarchal and Synodic Act of 4 September 1928:
Metropolis of Alexandroupolis Anthimos Koukouridis (2004–)
Metropolis of Chios, Psara and Inousses: Markos Basilakis (2011–)
Metropolis of Didymoteichon and Orestias: Damaskinos (Minas) Karpathakis (1995–)
Metropolis of Drama: Paulos (Alexandros) Apostolidis (2005–)
Metropolis of Dryinoupolis, Pogoniani and Konitsa: Andreas Trempelas (1995–)
Metropolis of Edessa, Pella and Almopia: Joel (Panagiotis) Phrankakos (2002–)
Metropolis of Elassona: Baselios Kolokas (1995–)
Metropolis of Eleftheroupolis: Chrysostomos Abagianos (2004–)
Metropolis of Florina, Prespes and Eordaia: Theoklitos (Thomas) Passalis (2000–)
Metropolis of Goumenissa, Axioupoli and Polykastro: Dimitrios Bekiaris (1989–)
Metropolis of Grevena: Sergios Sigalas (1976–)
Metropolis of Ierissos, Mount Athos and Ardameri: Theoklitos Athanasopoulos (2012–)
Metropolis of Ioannina: Theoklitos Setakis (1975–)
Metropolis of Kassandria: Nikodemos (Konstatinos) Korakis (2001–)
Metropolis of Kastoria: Seraphim (Ioannis) Papakostas (1996–)
Metropolis of Kitros, Katerini and Platamonas: Agathonikos (Georgios) Nikolaou (1985–)
Metropolis of Langadas, Liti and Rentina: Ioannis Tassias (2010–2020)
Metropolis of Lemnos and Agios Efstratios: Hierotheos Garyphallos (1988–)
Metropolis of Maronia and Komotini: Damaskinos Roumeliotis (1974–)
Metropolis of Mithymna: Chrysostomos Kalamatianos (1984–)
Metropolis of Mytilini, Eresos and Plomari: Iakobos Kleombrotos (1988–)
Metropolis of Neapolis and Stavroupolis: Barnabas Tyris (2004–)
Metropolis of Nea Krini and Kalamaria: Prokopios Georgantopoulos (1974–)
Metropolis of Nea Zichni and Nevrokopion: Hierotheos (Dimitrios) Tsoliakos (2003–)
Metropolis of Nikopolis and Preveza: Meletios Kalamaras (1980–)
Metropolis of Paramythia, Filiates, Giromeri and Parga: Titos (Sotirios) Papanakos (1974–)
Metropolis of Philippi, Neapolis and Thasos: Prokopios Tsakoumakas (1974–)
Metropolis of Polyani and Kilkis: Emmanuel Sigalas (2009–)
Metropolis of Samos and Ikaria: Eusebios (Evangelos) Pistolis (1995–)
Metropolis of Serres and Nigrita: Theologos (Ioannis) Apostolidis (2001–)
Metropolis of Servia and Kozani: Paulos Papalexiou (2004–)
Metropolis of Siderokastron: Makarios (Sotirios) Philotheou (2001–)
Metropolis of Sisanion and Siatista: Paulos (2006–)
Metropolis of Thessaloniki: Anthimos (Dionysios) Roussas (1974–)
Metropolis of Veria and Naousa: Panteleimon (Ioannis) Kalpakidis (1994–)
Metropolis of Xanthi and Peritheorion: Panteleimon (Mikhael) Kalaphatis (1995–)
Archdiocese of Crete (Heraklion): Eirinaios Athanasiadis (2006–)
Metropolis of Gortyna and Arkadia and Exarchate of Middle Crete: Makarios Douloufakis (2005–)
Metropolis of Rethymnon and Avlopotamos and Exarchate of Upper Crete: Evgenios (Evangelos) Antonopoulos (2010); former bishop of the Diocese of Knossos
Metropolis of Kydonia and Apokoronos: Damaskinos Papagiannakis (2006–)
Metropolis of Lampi, Syvritos, and Sfakia: Eirinaios (Nikolaos) Mesarchakis (1990–)
Metropolis of Ierapytna and Siteia and Exarchate of Eastern Crete: Evgenios (Michael) Politis (1994–)
Metropolis of Petra and Cherronisos: Nektarios Papadakis (1990–2015), Gerasimos (2015–)
Metropolis of Kissamos and Selino: Amphilochios Andronikakis (2005–)
Metropolis of Arkalochorion, Kastelion and Viannos: Andreas Nanakis (2001–)
Archdiocese of Canada and Exarch of the Arctic (Toronto): Sotirios Athanasoulas (1979–)
Archdiocese of Italy and Melite and Exarchate of Southern Europe (Venice): Polycarpos Stavropoulos (2021-)
Archdiocese of Thyateira and Great Britain (London, includes the UK, Ireland and the Crown dependencies): Nikitas Loulias (2019–)
Archdiocese of Australia and Exarchate of Papua New Guinea: Makarios Griniezakis (2019–)
Archdiocesan District of Adelaide, South Australia and the Northern Territory
Archdiocesan District of Brisbane, Queensland and Papua New Guinea
Archdiocesan District of Canberra, southern New South Wales and Tasmania
Archdiocesan District of Melbourne and Victoria
Archdiocesan District of Northcote
Archdiocesan District of Perth and Western Australia
Archdiocesan District of Sydney and New South Wales
Archdiocese of America and Exarchate of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (headquartered in New York City): Elpidoforos Lampriniadis (2019–)
Metropolis of Chicago: Nathanael Symeonides (2018–)
Metropolis of New Jersey: Vacant (Adminiatrator: Bishop Apostolos Koufalakis of Medea)
Metropolis of Atlanta: Alexios Panagiotopoulos (1999–)
Metropolis of Denver: Isaiah Chronopoulos (1992–)
Metropolis of Pittsburgh: Savas Zembillas (2012–)
Metropolis of Boston: Methodios (Georgios) Tournas (1984–)
Metropolis of Detroit: Nicholas Pissaris (1999–)
Metropolis of San Francisco: Gerasimos Michaleas (2005–)
Metropolises and Metropolitans
Metropolis of Austria and Exarchate of Hungary and Middle Europe (Vienna): Arsenios Kardamakis (2011–)
Metropolis of Belgium, Orthodox Archdiocese of Belgium and exarchate of the Netherlands and Luxembourg (Brussels): Athenagoras (Yves) Peckstadt (2013–)
Metropolis of France (Paris): Dimitrios Ploumes (2021-)
Metropolis of Germany (Bonn): Augustinos Labardakis (1980–)
Metropolis of Sweden and all Scandinavia and Exarchate of the Northern Countries (Stockholm): Cleopas Strongylis (2014–)
Metropolis of Spain and Portugal (Madrid): Visarion Comzias (2021-)
Metropolis of Switzerland (Chambésy, Geneva): Maximos Pothos (2018-)
Metropolis of Buenos Aires and Exarchate of All South America: Joseph Bosch (2019-)
Metropolis of Mexico and Exarchate of All Central America and the Caribbean: Athenagoras (Georgios) Anastasiadis (1996–)
Metropolis of Hong Kong and Southeast Asia and Exarchate of the Philippines: Nektarios (Tsilis) (2008–)
Metropolis of Korea and Exarchate of All the Upper East (Seoul): Ambrosios (Aristotelis) Zografos (2008–)
Metropolis of New Zealand and Exarchate of All Oceania (Wellington): Myron Ktistakis (2018–)
Metropolis of Singapore and South Asia: Konstantinos Tsilis (2011–)
Metropolis of Central Canada (Ukrainian Orthodox Church of Canada): Yurij (Kalistchuk) (2010–)
Diocese of Eastern Canada: Vacant (Administrator: Bishop Andrew (Peshko) of Krateia elected bishop of Toronto)
Diocese of Western Canada: Hilarion (Rudnyk) (2008–)
Metropolis of Western Europe (Ukrainian Orthodox Church): John Derevianka (1991–)
Diocese of London: Andrea (Theodosios) Pesko (2005–)
Metropolis of Eastern Eparchy (Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the USA): Antonios Scharba (1995–)
Diocese of Western Eparchy (Chicago): Pamphylos Daniel Zelinsky (2009–)
Dioceses and Bishops
Diocese of America (Albanian Orthodox church): Philomelion Elias Katre (2002–)
Diocese of North America (American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox church): Nyssa Gregory (Tatsis) (2012–)
Titular archdioceses
Archdiocese of Komana and All Cappadocia: Michael Anisenko(2020-)
Archdiocese of Hierapolis: Antonios Sarba (1995–present)
Archdiocese of Thyatira: Nikitas Loulias (2019–present)
Titular metropolises
Metropolis of Caesarea: Vacant
Metropolis of Ephesus: Vacant
Metropolis of Heraclea and Exarchate of Thrace: Vacant
Metropolis of Cyzicus: Vacant
Metropolis of Nicomedia: Joachim (Elias) Nerantzoulis (2008–); former metropolitan of Chalcedon
Metropolis of Nicaea and Exarchate of Bithynia: John V Rinne (2001–2010; former archbishop of Karelia and all Finland); Constantinos Charisiadis (2011–2021)
Metropolis of Aenos: Vacant
Metropolis of Amasya and Exarchate of All Euxinous Pontus: Vacant
Metropolis of Hadrianopolis: Damaskinos Papandreou (2003-2014); former metropolitan of Switzerland; Amphilochios Stergiou (2014–)
Metropolis of Anea: Makarios Pavlidis (2018-)
Metropolis of Ankyra and Exarchate of All Galatia: Ieremias Kalligiorgis (2018-)
Metropolis of Augustopolis: Vacant
Metropolis of Chaldia, Cheriana and Kerasous and Exarchate of Helenopontus: Vacant
Metropolis of Crine and Exarchate of Ionia: Kyrillos Katerelos(2021-)
Metropolis of Cydonies: Athenagoras Hrysanes(2012-)
Metropolis of the Dardanelles and Exarchate of All Hellespontus:Vacant
Metropolis of Eucarpia: Bishop Ierotheos Zaharis (2017-)
Metropolis of Euchaita: Vacant
Metropolis of Eudoxias: Bishop Amvrosios Horozides (2019-)
Metropolis of Ganos and Chora and All the Thracian Coast: Amphilochios Tsoukos (2018– )
Metropolis of Helioupolis and Theira and Exarchate of All Caria: Chrysostomos Mavroyiannopoulos (2019 –)
Metropolis of Helenopolis: Vacant
Metropolis of Kolonia: Athanasios Theoharous (2021-)
Metropolis of Iconium and Exarchate of Lycaonia: Theoleptos (Jacob) Fenerlis (2000–)
Metropolis of Kallipolis and Madytos: Stephanos Ntinidis (2011–)
Metropolis of Laodicea and Exarchate of Phrygia: Theodoritos Polyzoyopoulos(2018-)
Metropolis of Lititsa: Vacant
Metropolis of Lystra: Vacant
Metropolis of Metres and Athyra: Dimitrios Grollios (2020-)
Metropolis of Melitene:Bishop Maximos Pafilis (2018-)
Metropolis of Miletus: Apostolos Voulgaris (1990–)
Metropolis of Moschonisia and Exarchate of Aeolis: Cyril Dragounis (2020-)
Metropolis of Myra: Chrysostomos Kalaitzis (1995–)
Metropolis of Myriophyton and Peristasis: Irinaios Ioannidis (2000–)
Metropolis of Neocaesaria and Exarchate of Pontus Polemoniacus: Vacant
Metropolis of Pergamon and Adramyttion: John II Zizioulas (1986–)
Metropolis of Perge and Exarchate of Pamphylia: Vacant
Metropolis of Philadelphia and Exarchate of Lydia: Meliton (Dimitrios) Karras (1990–)
Metropolis of Pisidia and Exarchate of Side, Myra and Attalia: Sotirios Trambas (2008–); former metropolitan of Korea and Japan
Metropolis of Prokonnesos and Exarchate of All Propontis: Joseph (Emmanuel) Charkiolakis (2008–); former metropolitan of New Zealand
Metropolis of Prousa:Ioakeim Billis (2021-)
Metropolis of Rhodopolis: Tarasios Antonopoulos (2019-)
Metropolis of Saranta Ecclesies: Andreas Sofianopoulos(2021-)
Metropolis of Sardis: Evangelos Courounis (2021-)
Metropolis of Sasima and Cappadocia Secunda: Gennadios Lymouris (1997–)
Metropolis of Sebasteia and Exarchate of All Paphlagonia: Serafeim Ginis (2019-)
Metropolis of Seleucia and Pamphylia: Vacant
Metropolis of Silyvria: Maximos Vgenopoulos (2014–)
Metropolis of Smyrna and Exarchate of All Asia Minor: Bartholomeos Samaras (2016–)
Metropolis of Traianopolis: Germanos Chaviaropoulos (1987–)
Metropolis of Trapezous and Exarchate of Lazica: Vacant
Metropolis of Troas:Bishop Petros Bozinis (2015-)
Metropolis of Tyana: Vacant
Metropolis of Tyroloi and Serention: Vacant
Metropolis of Bizye and Medea: Vacant
Metropolis of Vryoula and Erythrae: Panteleimon Sklavos (2018-)
Titular dioceses
Diocese of Abydos: Vacant
Diocese of Amorion: Nikiforos Psihloudis (2014-)
Diocese of Andidon:Vacant
Diocese of Apamea: Païsios Larentzakis (2018-)
Diocese of Arianzos: Vartholomeos (Ioannis) Kessidis (2004–)
Diocese of Ariste: Vasileios Tsiopanas (1976–)
Diocese of Aspendos: Jeremy Ferens (1995–)
Diocese of Claudiopolis: Iakovos Savva (2021-)
Diocese of Christoupolis: Emmanuel Sfiatkos (2020-)
Diocese of Cyneae: Elpidios Karelis (2020-0)
Diocese of Dervis: Ezekiel Kefalas (1977–)
Diocese of Dioclea: Kallistos Ware (1982–)
Diocese of Dorylaeum: Damaskenos Lionakis (2019-)
Diocese of Eumeneia: Maximos (Ioannis) Mastihis (1977–2015), Irinaeos Verykakis (2019-)
Diocese of Halicarnassus: Adrianos Sergakis (2015-)
Diocese of Irenopolis: Nikandros Palyvos (2019-)
Diocese of Kratea: Vacant
Diocese of Lampsacus: Vacant
Diocese of Lefki: Eumenios Tamiolakis (1994–)
Diocese of Meloa: Aimilianos (2019–)
Diocese of Mokissus: Dimitrios Katzavelos (2006–)
Diocese of Olympos: Anthimos Drakonakis (1992)
Diocese of Pamphylos: Daniel Zelinsky (2008–)
Diocese of Parnassus: John Derevianka (1995–)
Diocese of Phasiane: Antonios Paropoulos (2002–)
Diocese of Philomelion: Elias Katre (2002–)
Diocese of Sinope: Silouan Fotineas (2020–)
Diocese of Synnada: Dionysios (Charalampos) Sakatis (1996–2021)
Diocese of Telmessos: Ilarion (Roman) Rudnyk (2008–)
Diocese of Theoupolis: Vacant
Diocese of Troas: Savvas Zembilas (2002-2012)
Diocese of Tropaeon: Vacant
Diocese of Zelon: Sevastianos (2012–)
Historical Archdioceses
Archdiocese of Syracuse
Archdiocese of Russian Orthodox churches in Western Europe—Exarchate for Orthodox Parishes of Russian Tradition in Western Europe (Paris) (disestablished 2018)
Historical Metropolises
Metropolis of Anchialos
Metropolis of Balgrad, one of founding archdioceses of Romanian Orthodox Church
Metropolis of Calabria
Metropolis of Devròn and Velissus, under jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate from 1767 to 1920
Metropolis of Gothia and Caffa (liquidated by the Russian Orthodox Church in 1779, see Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire)
Metropolis of Kamianets (Podolia Eyalet)
Metropolis of Kolonia
Metropolis of Kyiv (988–2019)
Metropolis of Halych (1303–1347), succeeded and reintegrated back into Metropolis of Kyiv
Metropolis of Lithuania (1317–1435), succeeded and reintegrated back into Metropolis of Kyiv
Metropolis of Miletopolis: Iakobos Kogarah (2011–)
Metropolis of Melenikon
Metropolis of Moldo-Wallachia (Metropolis of Moldavia and Bukovina), one of founding archdioceses of Romanian Orthodox Church
Metropolis of Monastirion and Pelagonia, under jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate from 1767 to 1920
Metropolis of Nevrokopion
Metropolis of Philippopolis
Metropolis of Prèspes and Achrida, under jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate from 1767 to 1920
(Ottoman Ukraine)
Metropolis of Raskopresrèna, under jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate from 1766 to 1920
Metropolis of Riga and All Latvia
Metropolis of Skopia, under jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate from 1766 to 1920
Metropolis of Sozopolis (and later Sozoagathopolis)
Metropolis of Stromnitsa, under jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate from 1767 to 1920
Metropolis of Ugro-Wallachia (Metropolis of Muntenia and Dobrudja), one of founding archdioceses of Romanian Orthodox Church
Metropolis of Vanialuka, under jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate from 1900 to 1920
Metropolis of Varna
Metropolis of Vellègradon, under jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate from 1766 to 1879
Metropolis of Nissa, under jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate from 1766 to 1879
Metropolis of Vosna, under jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate from 1766 to 1920
Metropolis of Svornikion, under jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate from 1766 to 1920
Historical Dioceses
Diocese of Agia and Sykourion
Diocese of Agrafa and Litza
Diocese of Amphipolis
Diocese of Amylcae
Diocese of Christianoupolis
Diocese of Angon
Diocese of Argyropolis
Diocese of Agathopolis
Diocese of Agathonicea
Diocese of Katania
Diocese of Konstantia
Diocese of Daphnusia
Diocese of Dodona
Diocese of Elaea
Diocese of Kampania
Diocese of Meloe
Diocese of Messene
Diocese of Myrina
Diocese of Nyssa
Diocese of Petra
Diocese of Platamon and Lykostomion
Diocese of Ravenna
Diocese of Skopelos
Diocese of Talantion
Diocese of Thermia and Kea
Diocese of Trachaea
Diocese of Vilna
Stauropegions
Stauropegion of St. Andrew's Church in Kyiv: Bishop Michael (Anischenko) (2019–)
Kyiv Pechersk Lavra (1589–1686)
Lviv Dormition Brotherhood (1589–1709)
Kyiv Epiphany Brotherhood (1620–1686)
Manyava Skete (1620–1785)
Exaltation of the Cross Lutsk Brotherhood (1623–????)
Mezhyhirya Monastery (1609–1703)
Present-day autocephalous churches previously under the Ecumenical Patriarchate
Bulgarian Orthodox Church; autocephaly granted in 870; autocephaly re-recognised in 1235 and 1945.
Russian Orthodox Church; autocephaly recognized in 1589.
Church of Greece (Archdiocese of Athens and All Greece); autocephaly recognised in 1850.
Serbian Orthodox Church; autocephaly granted in 1219; abolished in 1463 and 1766, re-recognized in 1557 and 1879.
Romanian Orthodox Church; autocephaly recognized in 1885.
Polish Autocephalous Orthodox Church; autocephaly recognised in 1924 by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople and in 1948 by the Russian Orthodox Church.
Orthodox Autocephalous Church of Albania (Archdiocese of Tirana, Durrës and All Albania); autocephaly recognised in 1937.
Orthodox Church of the Czech Lands and Slovakia (Metropolis of Prague, Czech Lands and Slovakia); autocephaly recognised in 1951 by the Russian Orthodox Church and in 1998 by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.
Orthodox Church of Ukraine; intention to grant autocephaly announced in 2018. Rejected by the Russian Orthodox Church, the Polish Orthodox Church, and the Serbian Orthodox Church. The Ecumenical Patriarchate granted autocephaly to the Orthodox Church of Ukraine on 5 January 2019.
References
Citations
Sources
This article incorporates text from several articles on OrthodoxWiki:
OrthodoxWiki:Byzantine response to OCA autocephaly
OrthodoxWiki:Church of Constantinople
OrthodoxWiki:Mount Athos
OrthodoxWiki:Prerogatives of the Ecumenical Patriarchate
Literature
External links
Official website
Patriarchs of Constantinople
Article on the Ecumenical Patriarchate by Ronald Roberson on the website of CNEWA, a papal agency for humanitarian and pastoral support
Dioceses established in the 1st century
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph%20Klein
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Ralph Klein
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Ralph Philip Klein, (November 1, 1942 – March 29, 2013) was a Canadian politician and journalist who served as the 12th premier of Alberta and leader of the Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta from 1992 until his retirement in 2006. Klein also served as the 32nd mayor of Calgary from 1980 to 1989.
Ralph was born and mostly grew up in Calgary, Alberta. After dropping out of High School in the 11th grade, Klein joined the Royal Canadian Air Force reserves for one year and then attended the Calgary Business College. Klein later worked as a teacher and principal at the Calgary Business College, and later public relations with non-profits. After that, Klein became a prominent local journalist in Calgary where he reported on the challenges of the working class, social outcasts and First Nations, endearing himself to those groups. In 1980, Klein turned his attention to politics and as an underdog was elected Mayor of Calgary, where he oversaw the boom and bust of the oil industry in the 1980s, expansion of the CTrain, and the 1988 Winter Olympic Games. Klein resigned as Mayor in 1989 and turned his attention to provincial politics where he served as Environment Minister in the Cabinet of Don Getty for four years.
In 1992, Klein was elected as leader of the Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta and went on to lead the party to a majority government in the 1993 Alberta election, starting his 14 year term as Premier of Alberta. Klein's tenure as premier ended when the Alberta Progressive Conservatives' new leader, Ed Stelmach, assumed office December 14, 2006, exactly fourteen years after Klein first became Premier. As Premier, Klein continued the Progressive Conservative dynasty, winning four consecutive majority governments. Klein's informal style endeared him to Albertans early in his term, and his political longevity and centralized management style earned him the nickname "King Ralph". During Klein's time as Premier, he oversaw a short period of drastic cuts to the public service and privatization of government services, this fiscal strategy ended in the late 1990s as rising oil and gas prices increased provincial tax revenues resulting in spending increases and paying down of the provincial government debt.
Early years
Klein was born in Calgary, to Philip Andrew Klein (1917–2014) and Florence Jeanette Harper (1924–2004). His paternal grandparents were immigrants, from Germany and England, respectively. His father, Phil, was born in Rocky Mountain House, Alberta, grew up poor and rode the rails during the Great Depression in search of work. In the early 1940s he married Florence Harper, a waitress, and lived in her parents' basement in Calgary while trying to make ends meet working in construction. Ralph Klein's parents separated when he was five or six years old and he spent time living with his maternal grandparents in the Calgary's north end, and Rocky Mountain House with his mother. After separating from his mother, Klein's father worked as a professional wrestler in the Alberta circuit for most of the 1950s using the name Phil "The Killer" Klein and later became a businessman.
Ralph Klein grew up in a working-class part of Calgary and dropped out of high school in grade 11, joined the Royal Canadian Air Force reserves, then completed high school later in life. Klein's time in the Air Force was limited, returning home a year later shortly after his 18th birthday. Klein attended Calgary Business College studying accounting and business administration, and later served as a teacher and principal of the College. He later studied at Athabasca University. Following his role at the Calgary Business College, Klein took a position as a public relations official at the Southern Alberta district of the Red Cross and United Way's offices in Calgary from 1963 to 1969.
Klein married Hilda May Hepner on April 29, 1961. They met at Portage-la-Prairie while Klein was training with the Air Force. As two strong willed individuals there were many difficulties in maintaining their relationship, and after several separations in the late-1960s and early-1970s, Klein and Hilda formally divorced on March 29, 1972 with adultery cited as the grounds for divorce. Hilda received custody of their two children. Klein remarried three months after his divorce to the Victoria-born Colleen Evelyn Hamilton, a single-mother with two children working as an accounting clerk with Imperial Oil and as a bartender by night. They were married in Colleen's mother's basement by Reverend Robert A. Simpson, and together Ralph and Colleen had one child.
Journalism career
Klein rose to public prominence in Calgary as a radio and television personality between 1969 and 1980. He was the Senior Civic Affairs reporter with CFCN-TV and CFCN radio. Klein built a reputation for thorough reporting and gritty, street-wise "down and dirty" reporter who could see through rhetoric. Klein's reporting style left him ostracized from the journalist community and provoked jealousy amongst the CFCN news group. Klein routinely skipped morning assignment meetings, rarely checked in, yet still would still appear in the afternoon with a new story. During his early career Klein became a staple patron of the St. Louis Hotel bar in Calgary's East Village, an area of synonymous with urban decay in the City.
Klein's early civic affairs beat revolved around following newly elected anti-establishment Mayor Rod Sykes. The relationship between the Mayor Sykes and Klein could be described as fickle, Klein alerted the Mayor to a Calgary Police Service's cannabis bust involving the Mayor's 13-year old son which Klein believed would involve planting the drugs on the minor. Klein also alerted Sykes about a Canadian Broadcasting Corporation story on a proposed convention centre benefiting from city sources, which Sykes was able to temporarily delay, although Klein's reasons were somewhat selfish as the CBC story would have been released before Klein's story on the topic. Klein's story The Marriage later resulted in invasion of privacy charges pressed against Klein and CFCN over the leak of a meeting recordings, the charges were subsequently thrown out of court.
The 1973 oil crisis created an economic boom in Calgary, and Klein reported on stories which emphasized the lower-class, outcasts and challenges faced by those who did not benefit from urban renewal. Among those challenges was the challenges faced by Chinese-Canadians and overcoming the negative public perceptions stemming from publicized drug sales, prostitution, and other anti-social behaviour taking place in Calgary's Chinatown, through his work, Klein built strong relationships with the community and helped show a more accurate and generous view of the Chinese-Canadian community. Klein produced compelling and vivid stories about biker gangs which were both open and critical about the organizations, all the while building strong relationships by both living and partying with the gangs.
In 1977, CFCN news director Thompson MacDonald commissioned Klein to complete an investigative report on the Blackfoot people and their feelings about the 100th anniversary of Treaty Seven. Klein and a camera man left for Gleichen, Alberta and did not contact MacDonald for a long period of time, which while normal behaviour for Klein, was worrying for the news director. Klein finally made contact from jail after he was arrested by RCMP officers after a bar fight with a government official. Klein continued to work with members of the Blackfoot, who introduced him to the indigenous religion, and provided him with a spiritual advisor. The outcome of Klein's reporting was a moving documentary highlighting the "gap between white intentions and aboriginal realities...on reservations". Klein's documentary focused on the poverty and difficulty of life, and interviewed grocery store owners who sold huge stockpiles of vanilla extract to desperate alcoholics at inflated prices. Although Klein valued his time living with the Blackfoot people, he rarely brought the experience up publicly, instead only sharing the elements outside the documentary with close friends and family. For his effort the Siksika christened Klein "White Writer" and called him a friend.
Mayor of Calgary
Klein grew dissatisfied with the direction of Calgary City Council, urban sprawl and Mayor Ross Alger's proposed civic centre. The enormous proposed city centre required City Council to purchase properties in a five block radius, purchasing historic and small buildings one-by-one. Klein voiced his dissatisfaction through a monthly column in Calgary Magazine, his topics included his displeasure with the city's heavy-handed "block busting" and expropriation tactics, the polluted state of the Bow River, transportation planning and the Ctrain, weakness of open government and freedom of information, but always ended his columns with a note of optimism and a challenge to his readers to think of how to improve the city. Through his articles, Klein was able to grab the attention of Calgary voters highlighting the issues they faced. Finally Klein was alerted by former Mayor Rod Sykes to a film crew and actor portraying a "bum" digging through garbage in a downtown alleyway, Klein rushed over and filmed the event. The film crew belonged to an advertising agency which admitted to producing an election television advertisement for incumbent Mayor Alger. Alger had previously noted his new "civic centre" would remove undesirable populations, and the CFCN report on the advertisement showed Alger as cynical and manipulative, eroding his support. Klein's final documentary Dreams, Schemes and Sandstone Dust brought the human element to the civic centre debate, interviewing the bar regulars, hotel tenants and small business owners who were set to be bulldozed, creating a narrative that the areas historic but rundown buildings were worth preserving.
On August 20, shortly after the film crew incident and documentary, Klein uncharacteristically appeared at the morning CFCN news meeting and announced he would run for Mayor against Alger. Klein's campaign started on rocky footing, he had little funds and limited knowledge of how to run a campaign or organize volunteers. He hired his friend Webster MacDonald, a lawyer, and labour organizer Ted Takacs to run co-manage his campaign, but neither was particularly adept. Finally he convened a group of 20 of his friends to discuss moving to the Alderman ticket, and after convincing Klein to continue to run for Mayor, they formed what became known as the "Klein Gang" a group of diehard supports which remained with him throughout his political career. Shortly afterwards he opened his campaign office in a small space donated by local businessman Jack Singer and his campaign began to take off. It was in this office he first met Rod Love, a recent University of Calgary political science dropout. Love had initially offered to work for Alger's campaign, but was not offered a position he was interested in. The Klein campaign continued to grow, although remained strained financially, with Klein only raising a total of $22,000. In the week before the election Klein's public position improved as many estimated he was neck and neck with Alger, and ahead of the third candidate, Alderman Peter Petrasuk. Alger the incumbent had accumulated $150,000 for the election, had strong support in the Chamber of Commerce, and a clean name. His other opponent, Petrasuk was a prominent lawyer with a large ethnic voter base and significant fundraising capabilities. Klein sought an endorsement from former Mayor Sykes who still held considerable sway amongst voters, Sykes declined as he had previously promised the other candidates he would not endorse any candidate, but agreed to an interview which he would say that Klein stood a chance in the election. The final mayoral debate took place 36 hours before the polls opened, with Alger and Petrasuk battling over rising budgets while Klein ignored the topics and spoke of accountability, open government and making Calgarians proud of the city.
Klein's victory on October 15, 1980 came as a shock to many in the city including his own father who refused to believe the news, and shortly afterwards Klein was installed as the 32nd Mayor of Calgary, and the second Mayor of Calgary to be born in the city. A day after the election the Calgary Herald declared Klein "The People's Mayor" in describing his "stunning victory". Klein was subsequently re-elected twice, first in 1983 and again in 1986.
Saddledome construction
Klein began his term as mayor with a significant infrastructure project. The newly relocated Calgary Flames were moved to the city just as the city prepared a bid for the 1988 Winter Olympics. A stadium was necessary for both purposes and City Council debated the merits of several locations for the city's new Olympic Coliseum, and narrowed their choices down to two areas in the Victoria Park neighbourhood on the east end of downtown. Two other sites, one on the west end of downtown, and a late bid by several businessmen pushing to build the arena in the northern suburb of Airdrie were also considered.
The Victoria Park Community Association fought the bid to build the arena in their neighborhood, threatening to oppose the city's Olympic bid if necessary. City Council voted on March 3, 1981 to build the proposed 20,000 seat arena on the Stampede grounds, immediately east of the Corral and south of Victoria Park. The community continued to fight the city over rezoning the land to allow for the new arena amidst fears of traffic congestion in their neighbourhood which resulted in numerous costly delays to the start of construction. In a bid to end the battle, Mayor Ralph Klein asked the provincial government in July 1981 to take over the land designated for the arena to bypass the appeals process and force approval. The province supported the city amidst protests by community associations and invoked rarely used powers to overrule planning regulations, allowing construction to begin. The following day, on July 29, 1981, builders began construction of the arena. The International Olympic Committee was impressed that the project was underway, as noted in the XV Olympic Winter Games official report which stated "The fact that this facility was already being built added credibility to (Calgary's) bid and proved to be a positive factor in demonstrating Calgary's commitment to hosting the Games".
1988 Calgary Winter Olympics
During his tenure he presided over the 1988 Winter Olympics, the first Canadian city to host the winter games. The 1988 Calgary bid proposed by the Canadian Olympic Association (COA), would spend nearly three times what the rival Vancouver group proposed. Ralph Klein and other civic leaders crisscrossed the world attempting to woo International Olympic Committee (IOC) delegates as the city competed against rival bids by Falun, Sweden and Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy.
While the games were viewed as a success for Klein and the city of Calgary, it was not without its issues. Residents had been promised that only 10 percent of tickets would go to "Olympic insiders", IOC officials and sponsors, but OCO'88 was later forced to admit that up to 50 percent of seats to top events had gone to insiders. The organizing committee, which was subsequently chastised by mayor Klein for running a "closed shop", admitted that it had failed to properly communicate the obligations it had to supply IOC officials and sponsors with priority tickets. These events were preceded by OCO'88's ticketing manager being charged with theft and fraud after he sent modified ticket request forms to Americans that asked them to pay in United States funds rather than Canadian and to return them to his company's post office box rather than that of the organizing committee.
During the 1988 Olympics, Klein mistook the King of Norway Olav V for his driver, and asked that he fetch the car. Olav, who was startled, explained who he was as he pulled out his silver cigarette case, after which Klein bummed a cigarette from him.
Light rail transit
Klein oversaw the development of the Calgary's light rail transit system (known as the Ctrain) which began operation on May 25, 1981 shortly after Klein's first term began, and expanded as the city has increased in population. The system is operated by Calgary Transit, as part of the Calgary municipal government's transportation department. The South Line was planned to extend to the northwest, political pressures led to the commission of the "Northeast Line", running from Whitehorn station (at 36 Street NE and 39 Avenue NE) to the downtown core, with a new downtown terminal station for both lines at 10 Street SW, which opened on April 27, 1985. The "Northwest Line", the extension of the South Line to the city's northwest, was opened on September 17, 1987, in time for the 1988 Winter Olympics.
National Energy Program
The federal government under Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau introduced the National Energy Program (NEP) which "effectively imposed revenue-sharing burdens on oil and gas revenues in Alberta, in the October 1980 budget shortly after Klein took office as mayor of Calgary.
While he was mayor, the city enjoyed an economic boom. This was contrary to the 1980s global recession around the world. Calgary attracted many unskilled labourers from all over the country.
Klein gained unfavourable national attention by blaming eastern "creeps and bums" for straining the city's social services and police.
Prior to entering provincial politics, Klein considered himself a Liberal Party supporter. He supported the federal Progressive Conservative Party of Brian Mulroney in the 1988 federal election.
Entry into provincial politics
In 1988, Premier Don Getty approached Klein to run as a member of the Progressive Conservative Party. Getty's popularity waned as Alberta's financial position deteriorated with dropping oil and gas prices, and he saw the popular Calgary Mayor as a valuable candidate. Klein demanded a Cabinet position in the Getty government, which Getty agreed to. Klein also received an offer from Prime Minister Brian Mulroney to join the federal Progressive Conservatives which included a cabinet appointment, but Klein's wife Colleen was not receptive to the move.
Klein made the transition from municipal to provincial politics, and was elected as the Member of the Legislative Assembly for the riding of Calgary-Elbow in the 1989 general election. Klein won the election, defeating Liberal candidate and lawyer Gilbert Clark and two others with 49.6 per cent of the vote. He was subsequently named the Minister of Environment in Don Getty's government, while the Premier lost the election in his home seat of Edmonton-Whitemud, had to wait two months to be elected to the "safe" Progressive Conservative district of Stettler.
As Minister of the Environment Klein's accomplishments included the consolidation of environmental statutes, and the creation of the National Resources Conservation Board. In this role Klein earned a positive reputation amongst industry and some environmentalists. Klein also dealt with several high profile controversial issues including the Oldman River Dam, Alberta Pacific pulp mill and Swan Hills Waste Treatment Plant.
Progressive Conservative leadership bid
Premier Don Getty knew that the Tories faced a general election in 1993, and Albertans support of the Progressive Conservatives was dropping. Getty inherited a government with no provincial debt, and ran average deficits of $2.6-billion per year, resulting in an $11-billion debt in 1993. With polls showing the Liberals far ahead, Getty support hovered around 30 per cent, and he decided to retire from politics in 1992. Under former Edmonton mayor Laurence Decore, the Liberals had made major gains by criticizing the Progressive Conservatives' fiscal responsibility, the province's rapidly rising debt, and the government's involvement in the private sector which had seen some companies defaulting on government loans.
The Progressive Conservative Association leadership selection rules changed prior to the 1992 convention, moving away from the caucus system to the one member, one vote system which required one candidate to get a plurality of votes. Party membership could be purchased and provide voting rights up to the close of the polls. Klein faced strong competition from Edmonton MLA and Minister of Health Nancy Betkowski, and seven other candidates. Klein campaigned for Progressive Conservative leadership in part by making arguments similar to Liberal leader Decore's. He favoured a near-immediate balancing of the provincial budget and rapid debt repayment thereafter, and declared his government "out of the business of business". Klein was criticized throughout the leadership campaign by reporters, politicians and other candidates for his hand's off approach to governance and notability for partying. Leadership hopeful and Minister of Culture Doug Main was especially critical charging "We can't win this province back - we can't be the government - with a smoking, drinking, paving, glad-handing premier".
Klein came second in the first ballot on November 28, 1992 with 16,392 votes, one behind Betkowski. The second ballot occurred on December 5 with three candidates, Klein received an overwhelming majority with 46,245 votes (60 per cent) compared to Betkowski's 31,722, and was elected leader of the Progressive Conservatives, and one week later was sworn in as the Premier of Alberta on December 14, 1992. Klein's success at the leadership convention was a surprise to political observers, and occurred despite numerous endorsements from the Progressive Conservative caucus for Betkowski. Klein's victory has been attributed to populist support from rural Albertans who purchased memberships between the first and second ballot.
Premier
Ralph Klein was appointed the 12th Premier of Alberta on December 14, 1992 following his surprising victory. The new government seeking a mandate three years into the 22nd Alberta Legislature began preparing for an election which was called seven months after Klein's appointment as Premier on June 15, 1993. Many of Klein's opponents in the Progressive Conservative leadership did not contest the 1993 election including Nancy Betkowski, John Oldring, Doug Main, and Rick Orman.
During the 1993 campaign Klein distanced himself from the Getty administration and highlighted the changes he had implemented during his short time as Premier. Decore, facing a Premier with whom he agreed on many issues, argued that the Progressive Conservative party had no moral authority left on the issues on which Klein was campaigning. The 1993 election was a success for Klein even with his party losing eight seats, dropping from 59 to 51. The Progressive Conservatives retained a majority government gaining 0.2 per cent of the popular vote from 1989, capturing all but two seats in Calgary, while being shut out of Edmonton entirely. Decore's Liberals formed opposition with 32 seats and 40 per cent of the popular vote, while Ray Martin's New Democrats lost all 16 seats and were shut out of the Legislature.
The 1993 election would end up being Klein's least successful provincial election, with the 32 Liberals forming the largest opposition during Klein's 12 years as Premier. Klein's 1997 election proved more successful, reaching a plurality of voters with 51 per cent of the popular vote and 63 seats in the Legislature, including two in Edmonton. Klein achieved his strongest government in 2001 election, winning 62 per cent of the popular vote and 74 of the 83 seats, the largest majority government since the Peter Lougheed era. The 2001 election victory came against the new Liberal leader and former Progressive Conservative leadership challenger Nancy MacBeth (formerly Betkowski). Klein's final election as Premier in 2004 saw the Progressive Conservative's support drop, winning 62 seats with 47 per cent of the popular vote against Kevin Taft's Liberal Party and Brian Mason's NDP.
The Alberta Advantage: Klein's austerity campaign
By the mid-1980s there was a worldwide oil glut, a serious surplus of crude oil, with the world price of oil dropping from over US$35 per barrel to below $10. The glut began in the early 1980s as a result of slowed economic activity in industrial countries (due to the crises of the 1970s, especially in 1973 and 1979) and the energy conservation spurred by high fuel prices. Time Magazine stated, "the world temporarily floats in a glut of oil." By 1993, when Klein took office, Alberta's debt had reached C$23 billion. Despite lower oil prices, Alberta was largely shielded from the early 1990s recession.
Klein's premiership faced its first financial challenge with the MLA Pension Plan, with public outrage growing with the generous payments and "double-dipping" where former cabinet ministers were able to draw immediate pension payments while sitting as backbenchers. Klein attempted to defuse the issue by amending the plan, but when that didn't satisfy the public, he eliminated the pension plan entirely, with MLAs moving to the same general public service pension plan, the bold action was unexpected and added to his credibility.
Balanced budgets and repayment of the provincial debt were significant long-term goals of Klein's premiership. In 1993 Klein followed up on the 1991 government economic strategy paper Toward 2000 Together which was the basis of his 1993 provincial election with the Financial Review Committee whose 1993 report promised to balance the provincial budget by 1997 without raising taxes. The backbone of the economic plan was austerity, often called the "Klein Revolution", or the "Alberta Advantage", as Klein called it. The first priority was reduction of the provincial payroll, which led to the abolishment of more than 4,000 public service positions through amalgamation or elimination of government agencies. Another 1,800 government jobs were eliminated by the privatization of liquor retailers, and motor vehicle and property registration services. The 1994 budget required all departments to cut 20 per cent from their operating budgets and all public servants including Members of the Legislative Assembly, civil servants, teachers, nurses and university staff saw a 5 per cent pay cut and a two year salary freeze. The Klein government initiated the sale of the provincial Crown Corporations and investments, including the public telephone company, AGT, alcohol sales, Alberta Energy Corporation, and provincial ownership stakes in other business entities. By 1995 owing to rising non-renewable resource revenue, corporate tax revenue and gambling taxes the Klein government had balanced the budget and eliminated the province's deficit two years ahead of schedule, the cost was public spending dropping by $1.9-billion and more than 4,500 public service jobs had been abolished.
In the years following 1995 oil and natural gas prices continued to rise generating significant royalty revenue for the province. Klein's new challenge was convincing the public to "reinvest" in recently cut public services while maintaining the his fiscally conservative reputation. Government spending increased dramatically, rising 60 per cent between 1997 and 2001 which garnered rebuke from former administration allies such as the Canadian Taxpayers Federation and other conservative thinktanks. Klein sought to reinvent government in Alberta as a streamlined and efficient operation which heavily relied on privatization and contracting. Progressive Conservatives brought in Ted Gaebler the co-author of Reinventing Government and controversial former New Zealand Labour government Treasurer Roger Douglas to advise on the sweeping reforms.
At the 2004 Calgary Stampede, Klein announced that the province had set aside the necessary funds to repay its public debt in 2005.
From the mid-1980s to September 2003, the inflation adjusted price of a barrel of crude oil on NYMEX was generally under $25/barrel. A rebound in the price of oil worldwide led to big provincial surpluses in Alberta since the mid-1990. During 2004, the price of oil rose above $40, and then $50. A series of events led the price to exceed $60 by August 11, 2005, leading to a record-speed hike that reached $75 by the middle of 2006.
Political analyst David Taras of Mount Royal University argued that although Klein was popular, he failed at public policy. His focus on paying down Alberta's fiscal debt during an oil boom - a time when interest rates on debt were low - was done "at the expense of hospitals, roads, light rail transit lines, and investing in better health-care services or education."
Rich Vivone, who was involved in Alberta politics from 1980 to 2005, claimed Klein "had the trust and popularity to do almost anything he wanted and survive" and his "fiscal achievements early in his career were significant, but he "utterly failed at health reform and economic diversification" and he did "little for culture, recreation or the arts."
Prosperity Bonus
In 2003, as the global price of oil increased Klein first contemplated government oil royalty payments to Albertans. The official announcement for the program came in September 2005, with each Albertan who filed a tax return received a "Prosperity Bonus", known locally as "Ralph Bucks". The program entailed a one-time $400 payment from the Government of Alberta in the form of a mailed cheque to each Alberta resident not in prison, at a cost of $1.4-billion. The Prosperity Bonus program was met with controversy, with critics claiming the funds would be better spent on infrastructure, health or education. Klein responded to the criticism saying if an Albertan did not want the cheque, they could "send it back or donate it to charity", and defended the payment "to some people it means a lot." ATB Financial's Todd Hirsch observed, "I think we missed some great opportunities to invest in our post-secondary education systems; instead, we frittered away our money. People got a couple of dinners and put some gas in their Hummer, and that was about it."
Health Care
Health care and funding were another significant policy objective for the Klein government. In 1994, the Klein government introduced the Regional Health Authorities Act to the 23rd Legislature which amalgamated the 204 hospital boards into 17 regional health authorities. The hospital boards were given significant autonomy to decide which hospitals would be closed or downgraded to the status of community clinics. This resulted in the closure of several urban hospitals including Calgary's General Hospital demolished via implosion in 1998, and the closure of one other hospital in Calgary, and one in Edmonton. The number of acute care beds were halved in a period of three years and coverage of many medical services was reduced or eliminated.
In 2000, the Klein government introduced the Health Care Protection Act (Bill 11) to the 24th Alberta Legislature concerning partial privatization of healthcare evoked large protests at the Legislature. The bill allowed private for-profit clinics to perform minor surgeries and keep patients overnight, which had previously only been performed in hospitals. Klein blamed the two sitting NDP MLAs for fighting the reform, inciting the protests and forcing him to back away from the reform that he still supported. Federal Health Minister Allan Rock expressed his grave reservations over the legislation, but did not deem the Health Care Protection Act to violate the Canada Health Act.
The Klein government continued to search for efficiencies in health care, and in early 2002 the Premier's Advisory Council on Health led by Don Mazankowski released its framework for reform report often referred to as the Mazankowski Report. The report included 43 recommendations the government fully accepted, including more choice, more private involvement, more competition and accountability, less comprehensiveness and increased user medicare co-payments for Alberta's health care system. The direction of the Mazankowski Report towards privatization was expected, however, observers expected a much more radical report. The 2002 budget introduced a few months later raised medicare premiums, tobacco and liquor taxes, eliminated dental and optical subsidies for senior citizens, and also cut the corporate tax rate.
In July 2005 Klein delivered a speech on the "third way" of health care which would lie between the American system and the Canadian system. He proposed a series of provincial health care reforms that would potentially violate the Canada Health Act. Klein's reforms for Alberta would have permitted for-profit care and made it possible to jump queues, to "allow patients to pay cash for some surgery and let doctors practice in both the public and private health systems." Public outcry forced the government to listen to Albertans and the third way was not legislated.
Klein responded by exclaiming, "I don't need this crap" and throwing the Liberal health care policy book at a seventeen-year-old page who had delivered the book during question period in the Alberta legislature. The same booklet later sold on eBay for a reported $1,400, signed by Alberta's Liberal Leader Kevin Taft, with the caption, "Policy on the fly". Earlier in the question period he also had to apologize for calling Liberal leader Kevin Taft a liar on the floor of the legislature, which is considered unparliamentary language. His apology consisted of saying, "Sorry, Mr. Speaker. I won't use the word 'fib.' I'll say that he doesn't tell the whole truth all the time - most of the time."
Reacting to comments made in March 2006 by Ontario Premier Dalton McGuinty opposing any two-tiered health care system in Ontario that Klein has proposed in Alberta which would allow quicker access to surgery for those who pay, Klein stated "I'm no doctor, but I think that Mr. McGuinty's got a case of premature speculation".
Ralph Klein and the oil sands
Calgary's economy was so closely tied to the oil industry that the city's boom peaked with the average annual price of oil in 1981. As the price of oil rose Alberta's budget surplus stood at $4 billion in 2004. The province used this surplus to eliminate its $3-billion debt.
The subsequent drops in oil prices were cited by industry as reasons for a collapse in the oil industry and consequently the overall Calgary economy. Low oil prices prevented a full recovery until the 1990s.
Major investment incentives for oil sands companies were introduced by both the federal government under Prime Minister Jean Chrétien and the provincial government under Klein. The Liberal federal government "reformed and streamlined the tax write-offs it allowed for oil sands firms." Klein "scrapped a welter of one-off royalty deals to create a generic royalty – one that demanded only token payments in the first years of the megaprojects." This facilitated oil sands development.
According to the Calgary Herald,
Klein changed Alberta's royalty system so that oil companies paid only one per cent of their profits to Alberta until they recovered the cost of the project. The royalty rose to 25 per cent once the recovery cost was reached. Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP) claimed there was almost $4 billion coming from oil sands royalties in 2006.
In late June 2003, Klein and U.S. Vice President Dick Cheney met to discuss the route of an Alaskan oil pipeline, which Klein argued had to be integrated with the extensive Alberta pipeline system. This was popular with Cheney and other advocates of North American energy independence in the oil industry.
At the end of Klein's term one of the most common concerns "was that Albertans were not getting enough money for their resources."
Agriculture and forestry policy
The Alberta agriculture industry faced significant challenges following the discovery of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) (also known as mad cow disease) in May 2003. The cow was inspected, found to be substandard and removed so that it would not be fed to animals or humans. The carcass was processed into oils and the head sent to the United Kingdom where the case of mad cow was confirmed. An investigation by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency resulted in the slaughter of 2,700 head of cattle. Exports of Canadian beef were halted by numerous countries immediately, most notably including the United States and Japan. Trade relations with the United States further deteriorated in December 2003 when a case of BSE was discovered in a cow imported from Canada to a farm near Yakima, Washington.
Klein's response to BSE was highly criticized when he made a public statement "I guess any self-respecting rancher would have shot, shovelled and shut up, but he didn't do that," referring to the farmer in northern Alberta whose animal was found to have the disease when it was taken to a slaughterhouse. Exports of Canadian beef cattle had already been stopped at the U.S. border, with other countries already following suit. Japan had been a key stumbling block to getting the U.S. border reopened because it made clear it might rethink taking U.S. beef if it had Canadian beef mixed in with it. The United States eventually lifted restrictions on Canadian beef imports in stages, starting with cattle under 30 months of age in late-2003, then meat products in 2004, and later greater trade reductions in July 2005. Japan was slower to reopen trade with Canada, with the final BSE related restrictions on Canada beef lifted in 2019.
As part of economic diversification initiatives as Minister of Environment, Klein approved in December 1990 the construction of North America's largest pulp mill by Alberta-Pacific Forest Industries Inc. The pulp mill was touted as the first in a new generation constructed to meet higher environmental standards put in place in the late 1980s. Alberta-Pacific received a loan of $264 million from the Alberta government through the Alberta Heritage Savings Trust Fund in what Klein called a "sweetheart deal". Against the advice of the Auditor General and the Provincial Treasurer on March 31, 1997 Klein wrote off all interest of the loan, totaling $140 million to the Alberta-Pacific Joint Venture when prices were low for pulp. Klein made national headlines during the announcement when he flipped off an environmental activist who was protesting the government's the approval. Klein defended his actions by noting that it was the protester who made the offensive gesture first.
Same-sex marriage
In June 2003, the Court of Appeal for Ontario decision in Halpern v Canada (AG) which found the common law definition of marriage, which defined marriage as between one man and one woman, violated section 15 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Klein repeated a promise to use the Notwithstanding Clause in the Charter of Rights and Freedoms to veto any requirement that the province register same-sex marriages, however the government recanted as legal scholars questioned whether the action have been constitutional. Contrary to many media reports which annoyed Klein, this was a position of the Alberta Legislature which passed the Marriage Amendment Act in March 2000 defining marriage exclusively as an opposite-sex union and attempted to insulate the decision by invoking the Notwithstanding Clause. In December 2004, Klein called for a national referendum on the issue of same-sex marriage. This plan was quickly rejected by the government of Paul Martin and by federal Conservative Party leader Stephen Harper.
Following the Parliament of Canada's approval of same-sex marriage in 2005 via Civil Marriage Act (Bill C-38), Klein announced initially that his government would fight the distribution of same-sex marriage licences. However, he later recanted, stating publicly that there was no legal route to oppose the federal act (neither via the notwithstanding clause nor the province's power over civil marriage), and the government reluctantly acknowledged the marriages officially on June 20, 2005.
Law Enforcement
It was under Klein's government that the Alberta Sheriffs Branch, was re-organized into its current state. The Klein government increasingly utilized CAPS, the precursor to the Sheriffs Branch, for special provincial law enforcement duties instead of the RCMP. In 2006, CAPS was renamed and the newly christened Sheriffs Branch was expanded rapidly to take on assignments that previously were the purview of the RCMP, the provincial policing authority.
It was at this time that the Alberta Law Enforcement Response Teams were created as well.
Environment
Klein's social and environmental views were seen by opponents as uncaring. Supporters argued in response that Klein was merely choosing appropriate priorities for limited government funding.
Klein was opposed to the Kyoto Accord, since Alberta was a major producer of oil and natural gas, and he felt that environmental measures would hurt the economy. The successive government initiated a massive carbon-capture project.
At a 2002 fund-raiser Klein joked,
Leadership review and retirement
Prior to the 2004 election, Klein stated his intention to serve only one more term in office. Pressure mounted on Klein to set a firm date and, following such a request from party executive director Peter Elzinga, Klein announced on March 14, 2006, that he would be tendering his resignation on October 31, 2007. He later proposed that his resignation would take effect in early 2008 after a successor is chosen at the party's leadership election.
Klein announced this timetable days before party delegates were to vote in a review of his leadership on March 31, 2006. The drawn-out schedule for his retirement, along with his announcement that any cabinet minister who wished to run for leader must resign by June 2006, generated a large degree of controversy, including criticism from cabinet minister Lyle Oberg who was subsequently fired from cabinet and suspended from caucus.
When the leadership review ballot was held on March 31, 2006, only 55 per cent of the delegates supported Klein. This was down from the 90 per cent level of support he had won at previous reviews and far lower than the 75 per cent Klein said he felt he needed in order to continue. The result was described as a "crushing blow" to Klein's leadership.
Prior to the vote, Klein had said he would resign immediately if he did not win the leadership review by a "substantial" margin. In the hours following the vote, Klein released a statement thanking delegates for their support and saying he would take several days to consider his future.
At a press conference on April 4, 2006, Klein announced that as a result of the lukewarm vote for his continued leadership he would submit a letter in September to Alberta's Progressive Conservative Party urging it to convene a leadership contest. Klein said he would resign as party leader and premier after a successor was named, and would assist the new leader in their transition to premier.
Klein officially handed in his resignation as party leader on September 20, 2006, officially kicking off the Alberta Progressive Conservative Party leadership race. However, Klein remained premier until the new PC Leader, Ed Stelmach, assumed office on December 14, 2006.
Klein resigned his seat in the legislature on January 15, 2007.
Later life
On January 18, 2007, the law firm Borden Ladner Gervais announced that Klein, who is not a lawyer, would join their firm as a senior business adviser who would bring "valuable insights to our clients as they look to do business in Alberta, in Canada, and in North America".
In a July 9, 2007, interview on Business News Network, Klein criticized Conservative PM Stephen Harper and Federal Finance Minister Jim Flaherty for their mishandling of the Income Trust issue and for not keeping their word on Income Trust taxation. According to the Canadian Association of Income Trust Investors, the change in tax rules cost investors $35 billion in market value. Stephen Harper specifically promised "not to raid seniors' nest eggs" during the 2006 federal election.
On March 27, 2008, Klein was created an Officer of the Order of the Legion of Honour by the Government of France. The creation had been approved by the Government of Canada on November 24, 2007.
On March 20, 2010, Klein appeared on his own television game show called On the Clock on the Crossroads Television System network. Klein, shown perched on a golden throne, evaluates the responses and awards "Ralph Bucks" to the contestants whose answers he found the best. The person who has the most Ralph Bucks at the end of the game is declared the winner.
Illness and death
On December 15, 2010, it was reported that Klein, a lifetime smoker, was suffering from COPD, a lung disease. His long-time friend Hal Walker commented that Klein was "not well."
On April 8, 2011, it was reported that Klein was suffering from Pick's disease, a form of progressive dementia.
Klein was hospitalized in September 2011 due to complications from COPD and dementia. He died in Calgary on March 29, 2013.
Honours
In September 2005 during the 22nd meeting of the American region of the Assemblée parlementaire de la Francophonie in Alberta, Premier Ralph Klein and Speaker Kenneth Kowalski received the Order of La Pléiade, for individuals who have contributed to the promotion of the French language and culture in their respective jurisdictions. Klein would also be made an Officer of the Legion of Honour by France in 2008.
He received the Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal in 2002, the Alberta Centennial Medal in 2005, The Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal in 2012 and was appointed to the Alberta Order of Excellence in 2010.
Honorary Doctor of Laws Degree from University of Calgary in 2011. and a member of the Order of Canada in late 2012.
In 1980, shortly after he was elected Mayor of Calgary, Klein was made an honorary Blackfoot Chief under the name "Oots-squi-peeks" meaning "Blue Bird", one of only two to be honoured as such. Klein found the spiritualism inspiring and prepared mentally for provincial elections in sweat lodges, carried an eagle feather in his briefcase and hung sweetgrass braids in his office.
Ralph Klein Park in Calgary is the first park to be named for a former mayor during his lifetime. The 30.35 hectare (75 acre) site contains an Environmental Education Centre and man-made wetland to improve stormwater quality before it enters the Bow River system.
Controversies
Ralph Klein was widely known for public mishaps and the inability for controversy or scandal to significantly weaken his public perceptions. Klein's exploits while under the influence of alcohol were well known and publicized amongst Albertans and Canadians. Prior to his successful campaign for leadership of the Progressive Conservative Association, Klein was pressed by reporters and politicians on his drinking, leading Edmonton Journal reporter Don Martin to quip "Let's face it. Klein's liver has a busy reputation.", Klein responded to questions stating "I like to party, yes. I've shared that with some of my colleagues that I enjoy a drink or two. But I can change. That's not to say I'm going to totally quit.".
Klein was commonly spotted at casinos, with a preference for private card rooms, video lottery terminals and horse racing. Klein publicly admitted to having a "borderline gambling addiction" wagering hundreds on nights in the casino, having lost up to $7,000 in a single night.
In the late 1980s Klein was photographed in a Calgary bar drinking with two members of the Grim Reapers Motorcycle Club, later to be patched over to the Hells Angels. Years later, this photo was used against him by the Hells Angels when he objected to them patching over two motorcycle clubs in Alberta and promised greater funding to police in 1997.
Klein had numerous run-ins with protesters throughout his political career, including a December 1990 incident where Klein was photographed giving the finger to a protester at a news conference called to announce the approval of the controversial $1.6-billion Alberta Pacific pulp mill project in Athabasca, and the July 2003 incident where Klein was the recipient of a pieing at the annual Premier's Stampede Breakfast in Calgary.
In April 1994, Klein commented on the that a youth court judge who had suggested he would not sit in order to protest proposed reductions to provincial court justice salaries should be "very, very quickly fired" was brought before the Supreme Court of Canada in the Provincial Judges Reference (1997) for raising concerns about judicial independence. The court merely said the comment was "unfortunate."
Public opinion regarding Klein's alcohol consumption reached a boiling point in December 2001 when he visited the Herb Jamieson Centre, a 249-bed homeless shelter in Edmonton while intoxicated. An argument ensued between Klein and homeless men sleeping in the hallway who were denied a bed because they had been drinking. During the argument Klein told the men to get a job, which was rebuked by some of the men who stated they had jobs but could still not afford housing. An argumentative Klein was shuffled out of the centre while he tossed money at a homeless man on the way out. According to biographer Don Martin, Klein continued with his normal schedule in the following days, and when rumors of the event began to pop-up amongst the media, Klein was unable to remember the event. After the event Klein called a press conference and emotionally acknowledged he had an alcohol problem and pledged to curb or stop his drinking. He called alcohol "the devil" and an "awful beast", but did not go as far as acknowledging he suffered from alcoholism. Klein admitted to being intoxicated at many moments in his life, visibly during his 2001 general election party, a month earlier when he introduced former US President Bill Clinton, and at the public memorial for Calgary sportscasting legend Ed Whalen.
In February 2006, the Western Standard magazine came under fire for printing comments about Klein's wife Colleen Klein, who is Métis. A column by Ric Dolphin, arguing that Colleen Klein has too much influence over her husband, quoted an unnamed source who said "Once she stops being the premier's wife, she goes back to being just another Indian."
During a charity roast on November 9, 2006 Klein made a lewd joke at the expense of former Conservative Member of Parliament Belinda Stronach: "Belinda roasted me as a Conservative, but of course now she's a Liberal.. and I wasn't surprised that she crossed over; I don't think she ever did have a Conservative bone in her body.. well, except for one." (Referring to Peter MacKay, her former boyfriend, who is a member of the Conservative Party of Canada.) Klein refused to apologize for the remark stating that "a roast is a roast is a roast is a roast", while his spokesman pointed out that "Ms. Stronach roasted the premier two years ago and made remarks about his weight, his clothing and even his flatulence".
See also
List of Alberta premiers
References
Bibliography
External links
1942 births
2013 deaths
Athabasca University alumni
Canadian people of English descent
Canadian people of German descent
Deaths from dementia
Deaths from lung disease
Leaders of the Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta
Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta MLAs
Premiers of Alberta
Mayors of Calgary
Members of the Alberta Order of Excellence
Neurological disease deaths in Alberta
Officiers of the Légion d'honneur
Officers of the Order of Canada
Recipients of the Olympic Order
20th-century Canadian politicians
21st-century Canadian politicians
Journalists from Alberta
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnetha%20F%C3%A4ltskog
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Agnetha Fältskog
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Agneta Åse Fältskog (born 5 April 1950), known as Agnetha Fältskog (), is a Swedish singer, songwriter, musician and actress. She first achieved success in Sweden with the release of her 1968 self-titled debut album, and later achieved international stardom in the 1970s as a member of the pop group ABBA. The group has sold over 180 million albums and singles worldwide, making it one of the best-selling music acts in history.
After the unofficial break-up of ABBA in December 1982, Fältskog found renewed success later in the decade as a solo artist with three albums and a leading role in a movie. She became reclusive in the 1990s, avoiding outside publicity and residing on the Stockholm County island of Ekerö.
Fältskog stopped recording music for 16 years until she released a new album, My Colouring Book, in 2004. She returned again in 2013 with A, her highest UK charting solo album to date. ABBA since has reformed, and Fältskog has resumed her previous role with the group.
Life and career
Early life
Agneta Åse Fältskog was born in Jönköping, Sweden on 5 April 1950. She was the first of two daughters of department store manager Knut Ingvar Fältskog (1922–1995) and his wife Birgit Margareta Johansson (1923–1994). Ingvar showed much interest in music and show business, and Birgit devoted herself to her children and household. Fältskog's younger sister, Mona, was born in 1955.
Fältskog wrote her first song at the age of six, entitled "Två små troll" ("Two Small Trolls"). In 1958, she began taking piano lessons, and also sang in a local church choir. In early 1960, Fältskog formed a musical trio, the Cambers, with her friends Lena Johansson and Elisabeth Strub. They performed locally in minor venues and soon dissolved due to a lack of engagements. At age 15, Fältskog decided to leave school and pursue a career.
Fältskog cites Connie Francis, Marianne Faithfull, Aretha Franklin and Lesley Gore as her strongest musical influences.
Career development in Sweden (1966–1971)
Fältskog worked as a telephonist for a car firm while performing with a local dance band, headed by Bernt Enghardt. The band soon became so popular that she had to make a choice between her job and her musical career. She continued singing with the Bernt Enghardt band for two years. During that time, Fältskog broke up with her boyfriend Björn Lilja; this event inspired her to write a song, "Jag var så kär" ("I Was So in Love"), that soon brought her to media prominence. At that time, Karl Gerhard Lundkvist, a relative of one of the band's members, retired from his successful rock and roll career and began working as a record producer at Cupol Records. Enghardt sent him a demo recording of the band, but Lundkvist only showed interest in Fältskog and her song. She was worried because he was not interested in the band and they were not to be included on the record. However, she decided to accept the offer, and signed a recording contract with Cupol Records.
Her self-penned début single "Jag var så kär" was recorded on 16 October 1967 and released through Cupol Records the following month. It topped the Swedish Chart on 28 January 1968 and sold more than 80,000 copies. She also submitted the song "Försonade" ("Reconciled") to Melodifestivalen, the Swedish preliminary for the Eurovision Song Contest, but it was not selected for the final. Fältskog developed a career as one of Sweden's most popular pop music artists, participating in a television special about Swedish composer Jules Sylvain in 1969. The same year, she released the single "Zigenarvän" ("Gypsy Friend") about a young girl attending a Gypsy wedding and falling in love with the bride's brother. Its release coincided with a heated debate about Gypsies in the Swedish media, and Fältskog was accused of deliberately trying to make money out of the situation by writing the song.
Fältskog's success continued throughout the late 1960s. She met German songwriter/producer Dieter Zimmermann, to whom she became engaged. Her albums thus reached the German charts, and Zimmermann promised her she would achieve great success in Germany. However, when she went there and met with record producers, the venture was not productive; Fältskog refused to meet the demands of the producers, describing their chosen material as "horrible". She soon ended her engagement to Zimmermann and returned to Sweden.
In 1970, she released "Om tårar vore guld" ("If Tears Were Gold"). The Danish composer Per Hviid claimed that she used 22 bars from his composition "Tema" ("Theme"), even though it was written in the 1950s and had never been recorded. The case dragged on until 1977, when a settlement was reached and Fältskog paid the Danish musician SEK 5,000.
In 1972, Fältskog portrayed Mary Magdalene in the Swedish production of the international hit musical Jesus Christ Superstar.
First marriage and years with ABBA (1971–1982)
Fältskog met Björn Ulvaeus, a member of the Hootenanny Singers, for the first time in 1968, and then again in 1969. Her relationship with Ulvaeus, as well as her friendship with Anni-Frid Lyngstad and Benny Andersson, with whom Ulvaeus had already written songs, eventually led to the formation of ABBA. Fältskog and Ulvaeus married on 6 July 1971 in the village of Verum, with Andersson playing the organ at their wedding. Their first child, Linda Elin Ulvaeus, was born on 23 February 1973, and their son Peter Christian Ulvaeus on 4 December 1977. After seven years of marriage, the couple decided to separate in late 1978, and filed for divorce in January 1979. The divorce was finalised in July 1980. Both Fältskog and Ulvaeus agreed not to let their failed marriage interfere with their responsibilities with ABBA. The failure of their marriage inspired Ulvaeus to write the lyrics of "The Winner Takes It All".
As a member of ABBA, Fältskog was also known as Anna in some countries. In 1975, during the same period as her bandmate Anni-Frid Lyngstad recorded her Swedish number one album Frida ensam, Fältskog recorded and produced her solo album Elva kvinnor i ett hus. These albums were both recorded between sessions and promotion for the ABBA albums Waterloo and ABBA. Fältskog's album spent 53 weeks on the Swedish album chart (longer than any of ABBA's albums), but failed to reach the Top 10, peaking at No.11. It contained three further Svensktoppen entries for Fältskog: her Swedish-language version of ABBA's "SOS" (also No. 4 on the single sales chart); "Tack För En Underbar Vanlig Dag"; and "Doktorn!". With the exception of "SOS", all the songs had lyrics by Bosse Carlgren and music by Fältskog herself. The creation of the album had been underway since 1972, when Fältskog started writing the songs, but it was delayed because of the work with ABBA and her pregnancy. In 1974, Fältskog and Carlgren had agreed on a concept for the album; it should consist of 12 songs, each sung by 12 different female characters living in the same apartment building. However, in the end only 11 songs were featured on the album, and the concept wasn't fully developed. Fältskog possesses a coloratura soprano voice. She is noted for her operatic abilities, and her range expands from D3 to Eb6.
Between the years 1968 and 1980, Fältskog had a total of 18 entries on the Svensktoppen radio chart, starting with the debut single "Jag Var Så Kär" in January 1968 (peak position No. 1) and ending with "När Du Tar Mig I Din Famn" ("When You Take Me in Your Arms") from the compilation Tio år med Agnetha in January 1980 (peak position No. 1). These 18 entries, most of which were composed or co-written by Fältskog herself, spent a total of 139 weeks on the chart during this time, with the biggest hit being 1970's "Om tårar vore guld" (No. 1, 15 weeks). Fältskog also recorded the Swedish Christmas album Nu tändas tusen juleljus with daughter Linda Ulvaeus which peaked at No. 6 on the Swedish album chart in December 1981.
Fältskog participated in Melodifestivalen again, albeit only as a composer. In 1981, she wrote the ballad "Men Natten Är Vår" ("But the Night Is Ours") with lyrics by Ingela Forsman, but instead of performing the song in the contest herself, she chose new talent Kicki Moberg. The song placed 9th out of 10. The single, which Fältskog produced in the Polar Studios with the same musicians as on contemporary ABBA recordings, was backed with the Swedish version of "I'm Still Alive", entitled "Här Är Mitt Liv" ("Here Is My Life"), a song which she herself had performed in its English version (lyrics by ex-husband Björn Ulvaeus) during ABBA's 1979 world tour. Moberg's recording of the song remains the only version to have been officially released to date.
Fältskog sang solo parts in the following ABBA songs: "Disillusion" (the only ABBA song to have been written by her, lyrics by Björn), "I Am Just A Girl", "Hasta Mañana", "Dance (While the Music Still Goes On)", "SOS", "I've Been Waiting For You", "When I Kissed The Teacher", "My Love, My Life", "Take A Chance On Me", "The Name Of The Game", "Move On", "Thank You For The Music", "Get On The Carousel", "Chiquitita", "Lovelight", "Don't Shut Me Down", "As Good As New", "Kisses Of Fire", "Dream World", "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)", "The Way Old Friends Do", "The Winner Takes It All", "Happy New Year", "Lay All Your Love On Me", "Head Over Heels", "One Of Us", "Soldiers", "Slipping Through My Fingers", "Just Like That" (never officially released in its entirety by the group), "I Am The City", "Under Attack" and "The Day Before You Came".
Solo career development (1982–1988)
Although no official announcement was made, ABBA effectively disbanded in late 1982 to early 1983. At the end of 1982 Fältskog duetted with Swedish singer (and former ABBA backing vocalist) Tomas Ledin on a song called "Never Again", which became a Top Five hit in Sweden, Norway, Belgium, and South America. The song was also released in a Spanish-language version, entitled "Ya Nunca Más". In the summer of the same year, Fältskog had a leading role in the Swedish movie Raskenstam.
In May 1983, Fältskog released her first post-ABBA solo album, Wrap Your Arms Around Me, produced by Mike Chapman. The album became a moderate hit in North America and Australia, but reached the higher regions of the charts across Europe, including No. 1 in Sweden, Norway, Finland, Belgium, and Denmark (where it became the biggest-selling album of the year), top 5 in Germany, The Netherlands and France and No. 18 in the UK. The album achieved sales of 1.5 million copies in the first year. Two singles from the album became hits in continental Europe: "The Heat Is On" became a No. 1 hit in Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, and Belgium and No. 2 in The Netherlands and Germany. The song peaked at No. 35 in the UK (and was Fältskog's highest charting and only UK Top 40 hit until 2004). The album's title track reached No. 1 in Belgium and peaked at No. 4 in the Netherlands. In North America, the album track "Can't Shake Loose" was released as the lead-off single, reaching No. 29 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, and No. 23 on the RPM Top 50 singles chart in Canada.
Fältskog's next studio album, Eyes Of A Woman, produced by Eric Stewart of 10cc, was released in March 1985. "She is quite content to grace the works of various other lesser mortals with her immaculate, sugar-sweet voice," wrote Barry McIlheney in Melody Maker. The album sold well in parts of Europe, peaking at No. 2 in Sweden and reaching the Top 20 in Norway and Belgium, but scraped into the UK Top 40 just for one week. The album sold up to 800,000 copies. The self-penned lead single "I Won't Let You Go" achieved moderate success in Europe, reaching No. 6 in Sweden, No. 18 in the Netherlands and No. 24 in West Germany.
In 1986, Fältskog recorded another duet, "The Way You Are", with Swedish singer Ola Håkansson, which became another No. 1 hit in Sweden and Norway.
In early 1987, Fältskog recorded the album Kom följ med i vår karusell ('Come Join Us On Our Carousel') with her son Christian. The album contained songs for children and was sung in Swedish. For the album Agnetha recorded duets with her son and a children's choir. In 1988, it was nominated for Swedish music prize Grammis in a category 'Barn' (For Children).
In the summer of 1987, Fältskog travelled to Malibu, California, to record her fourth post-ABBA solo album, I Stand Alone, produced by Peter Cetera (formerly of the band Chicago) and Bruce Gaitsch, who had collaborated on Madonna's La Isla Bonita. Released in November of that year, I Stand Alone was a minor hit in Europe, except in Sweden where it spent eight weeks at No. 1 and became the best-selling album of 1988. More than 300,000 copies were sold throughout Scandinavia. According to Hans Englund, the Swedish head of WEA, more than 800,000 copies were sold globally. However, chart-wise outside of Scandinavia, the results were less impressive.
The single "I Wasn't The One (Who Said Goodbye)", on which Fältskog duetted with Peter Cetera, was released primarily in North America, and became her second solo single to chart on the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at No. 93. It was also a Top 20 Billboard Adult Contemporary hit. The track (along with "The Last Time" as "La Última Vez") was also recorded in Spanish for the Latin American market as "Yo No Fui Quién Dijo Adiós". Fältskog refused to promote the album in major TV shows in West Germany, but she made a promotional visit to London in February 1988, appearing on the Terry Wogan Show.
Hiatus from recording (1988–2004)
Following the release of I Stand Alone, Fältskog had a 17-year hiatus from the music industry, during which she made few public appearances and devoted much of her time to astrology, yoga and horse riding at her isolated country house in Ekerö.
In 1990, Fältskog married Swedish surgeon Tomas Sonnenfeld, but the couple divorced in 1993.
In 1994, Fältskog's mother died by suicide by jumping from her Jönköping apartment balcony. Fältskog's resulting depression worsened a year later when her father died.
In 1997, Fältskog started a relationship with a Dutch forklift driver, Gert van der Graaf. After Fältskog decided to terminate the relationship in 1999, he stalked her further at her mansion, resulting in a court issuing Van der Graaf with a restraining order and deporting him to the Netherlands in 2000. Returning close to her home in 2003, he was arrested and then banned from entering Sweden. In 2005, the ban order from Sweden ran out, and within months Van der Graaf was again sighted near Fältskog's estate in Ekerö.
In 1996, her autobiography Som jag är was published in Swedish (and in English the following year titled As I Am), followed by several compilation CDs of her Swedish and English recordings, including one called My Love, My Life for which Fältskog picked out the music herself. Fans welcomed the autobiography. The book was updated in 1998 and released worldwide via Virgin Publishing, selling over 50,000 copies.
Return to music and selected public appearances (2004–present)
In April 2004, Fältskog released a new single, "If I Thought You'd Ever Change Your Mind" (a cover of the song originally recorded by Cilla Black). It peaked at No. 2 in Sweden and became Fältskog's highest charting UK single to date, reaching No.11. One week later, the album My Colouring Book, a collection of Fältskog's covers of 1960s classic oldies, was released, topping the chart in Sweden, hitting the Top Five in Finland and Denmark, and peaking at No. 6 and No. 12 in Germany and the UK respectively. The title track, "My Colouring Book", is a cover of the song originally recorded by Barbra Streisand. The Observer suggested that "time hasn't diminished her perfect voice." Reviewing the release in The Guardian, Caroline Sullivan wrote: "Agnetha Fältskog has a vulnerability that gets under the skin of a song. She may be cheating a trifle by including no original material on this collection of 1960s covers, but if anyone can do justice to the likes of "Sealed with a Kiss", it's her. The soaring sentimentality evokes Cilla Black and Sandie Shaw in their mini-skirted pomp, and I don't say that lightly." The release attracted media attention across Europe, but Fältskog staunchly refused to be involved in any extensive promotion of the album.
A second single release from the album, "When You Walk in the Room", peaked at No.11 in Sweden and entered the UK Top 40 at No. 34 (which was still higher than any of her UK singles in the 1980s). "Sometimes When I'm Dreaming", originally recorded by Art Garfunkel, failed to be released as the third single.
Shortly after this release, for the 2004 semi-final of the Eurovision Song Contest, staged in Istanbul 30 years after ABBA had won the contest in Brighton, Fältskog appeared briefly in a special comedy video made for the interval act, entitled "Our Last Video." All four members of the group appeared briefly in cameo roles, as did the singer and actress Cher and comedian Rik Mayall.
In 2004, Fältskog was nominated for Best Nordic Artist at the Nordic Music Awards, and at Christmas of that year she gave an extensive interview (her first for many years) which was filmed by Swedish TV. Around the same time, Sony Music released a lavishly produced 6-CD boxed set comprising Fältskog's Swedish solo career (mostly before ABBA), with five original solo albums: 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, and her 1975 album recorded and released during her time with ABBA – plus an additional compilation disc with bonus tracks.
In 2005, Fältskog appeared with her former bandmates at the opening of the Mamma Mia! musical in Stockholm, and together with ex-husband Björn, also attended the final show in January 2007.
In October 2008, a new compilation album, My Very Best, was released in Sweden. The double CD contains both Swedish (CD 1) and English-language hits (CD 2) from her whole solo career, from 1967 to 2004. It reached No. 4 on the Swedish album chart and was certified gold within its first week of release.
On 4 July 2008, Fältskog joined her former bandmates at the Swedish premiere of the film version of Mamma Mia!, held at the Rival Theatre (owned by Andersson) in Mariatorget, Stockholm. Fältskog arrived with Lyngstad and movie star Meryl Streep, the three dancing in front of thousands of fans before joining the film's other stars and Andersson and Ulvaeus on the hotel balcony for the first photograph of all four ABBA members together in 22 years.
In January 2009, Fältskog appeared onstage with Lyngstad at the Swedish Rockbjörnen Awards to receive a lifetime honorary award for ABBA.
In February 2010, ABBA World, an extensive multimillion-Pound (in monetary value) exhibition, debuted at London's Earls Court and included an extensive interview with Fältskog filmed in Sweden the previous summer. For the exhibition's Melbourne launch, she recorded a light-hearted opening film together with former ABBA colleague Benny Andersson, shot in Stockholm in June 2010.
In October 2010, Fältskog attended the opening of the Mamma Mia! musical in Denmark, with former husband, Björn Ulvaeus.
In May 2013, Fältskog released a new album called A, produced by Jörgen Elofsson and Peter Nordahl. In the UK, the first single, "When You Really Loved Someone", had previously been released for download on 11 March, with the accompanying video also released on the same day. In Germany, the first single was "The One Who Loves You Now", and it was also released for download on 11 March 2013. The album includes a duet with Gary Barlow of Take That, called "I Should've Followed You Home".
In June 2013, officials from Universal Records in the Netherlands said that 600,000 copies of A were sold in the first two months after its release. The album managed Top 5 placings in many territories, including Sweden, Norway, Germany, Denmark, Switzerland, The Netherlands, Belgium, Austria, New Zealand and Australia. It charted at No. 6 in the United Kingdom (her highest ever placing in that territory), and a few weeks after its release a TV special made by the BBC helped the album reach the No. 6 position in the UK album chart for a second time. The first single from the album to be released in the US, "Dance Your Pain Away", was released on 28 May 2013. The digital single included two new mixes by Smash Mode. "Dance Your Pain Away" was released internationally as a single on 15 July 2013.
On 17 May 2013, Fältskog was awarded the SKAP 2013 Kai Gullmar Memorial Award at the Stockholm release party for A.
On 12 November 2013, Fältskog sang live on stage for the first time in 25 years at the BBC Children in Need Rocks 2013 concert in London; she sang a duet with Gary Barlow, the organiser of the event, performing the single "I Should've Followed You Home" from Agnetha's album 'A'.
On 18 November 2013, in order to promote the song, a video for "I Should've Followed You Home" was shot the same day as the release of the single itself. Although the single was released in most countries in November 2013, its release in the United Kingdom was held over. She also won Best Female Album – 6th Annual Scandipop 2014, and was nominated for the German 2014 ECHO award in the Artist Rock/Pop International category.
In April 2016, a new biography of Fältskog, by Daniel Ward, Agnetha Fältskog – The Girl With The Golden Hair, was published in the UK.
Fältskog reunited with ABBA in 2018.
Personal life
Fältskog had a fear of flying, which worsened during ABBA's 1979 American tour, when the band's plane, heading to Boston, Massachusetts, was short of fuel, hit a tornado and performed an emergency landing. Fältskog said in 2013 that she still needed therapy to deal with the fear. During her solo career years, Fältskog would always travel by bus, and experienced a bus accident on a Swedish motorway in 1983.
Fältskog has reportedly suffered from stage fright, fear of crowds and open spaces, and fear of heights, among others.
Fältskog's split from Ulvaeus in 1979 greatly affected her and she needed therapy afterwards. Her second marriage in 1990 to Tomas Sonnenfeld was held privately, and only became public knowledge when they divorced three years later. Her mother's suicide in 1994 and her father's death the following year were also kept private.
Fältskog currently lives in Ekerö, Stockholm County. Her daughter, Linda, also lives in Ekerö with her family. Fältskog has four grandchildren.
Discography
Swedish-language studio albums
Agnetha Fältskog (1968)
Agnetha Fältskog Vol. 2 (1969)
Som jag är (1970)
När en vacker tanke blir en sång (1971)
Jesus Christ Superstar (1972)
Elva kvinnor i ett hus (1975)
Nu tändas tusen juleljus (1981)
Kom följ med i vår karusell (1987)
English-language studio albums
Wrap Your Arms Around Me (1983)
Eyes of a Woman (1985)
I Stand Alone (1987)
My Colouring Book (2004)
A (2013)
German language compilation albums
Geh' Mit Gott (1994)
Filmography
Bibliography
1997 – As I Am: ABBA Before & Beyond ()
See also
List of Swedes in music
References
Further reading
Wille Wendt: Topplistan – The Official Swedish Single & Album Charts, Premium Förlag,
1998 – Guinness Book of British Hit Singles 7th Edition
2016 – Agnetha Fältskog – The Girl With The Golden Hair, Fonthill Media,
External links
of ABBA
1950 births
ABBA members
Living people
People from Jönköping
Swedish pop singers
Swedish songwriters
Swedish sopranos
Swedish autobiographers
English-language singers from Sweden
Women autobiographers
20th-century Swedish women singers
21st-century Swedish women singers
|
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] |
212690
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pwd
|
Pwd
|
In Unix-like and some other operating systems, the pwd command (print working directory) writes the full pathname of the current working directory to the standard output.
Implementations
Multics had a pwd command (which was a short name of the print_wdir command) from which the Unix pwd command originated. The command is a shell builtin in most Unix shells such as Bourne shell, ash, bash, ksh, and zsh. It can be implemented easily with the POSIX C functions getcwd() or getwd().
It is also available in the operating systems SpartaDOS X, PANOS, and KolibriOS. The equivalent on DOS (COMMAND.COM) and Microsoft Windows (cmd.exe) is the cd command with no arguments. Windows PowerShell provides the equivalent Get-Location cmdlet with the standard aliases gl and pwd.
On Windows CE 5.0, the cmd.exe Command Processor Shell includes the pwd command.
as found on Unix systems is part of the X/Open Portability Guide since issue 2 of 1987. It was inherited into the first version of POSIX.1 and the Single Unix Specification. It appeared in Version 5 Unix. The version of pwd bundled in GNU coreutils was written by Jim Meyering.
The numerical computing environments MATLAB and GNU Octave include a pwd
function with similar functionality. The OpenVMS equivalent is show default.
*nix examples
Note: POSIX requires that the default behavior be as if the -L switch were provided.
Working directory shell variables
POSIX shells set the following environment variables while using the cd command:
OLDPWD The previous working directory (as set by the cd command).
PWD The current working directory (as set by the cd command).
See also
Breadcrumb (navigation), an alternative way of displaying the work directory
List of GNU Core Utilities commands
List of Unix commands
pushd and popd
References
Further reading
External links
Multics commands
Unix SUS2008 utilities
Plan 9 commands
Inferno (operating system) commands
File system directories
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quackery
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Quackery
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Quackery, often synonymous with health fraud, is the promotion of fraudulent or ignorant medical practices. A quack is a "fraudulent or ignorant pretender to medical skill" or "a person who pretends, professionally or publicly, to have skill, knowledge, qualification or credentials they do not possess; a charlatan or snake oil salesman". The term quack is a clipped form of the archaic term , from a "hawker of salve". In the Middle Ages the term quack meant "shouting". The quacksalvers sold their wares on the market shouting in a loud voice.
Common elements of general quackery include questionable diagnoses using questionable diagnostic tests, as well as untested or refuted treatments, especially for serious diseases such as cancer. Quackery is often described as "health fraud" with the salient characteristic of aggressive promotion.
Definition
Stephen Barrett of Quackwatch defines quackery "as the promotion of unsubstantiated methods that lack a scientifically plausible rationale" and more broadly as:
In addition to the ethical problems of promising benefits that can not reasonably be expected to occur, quackery also includes the risk that patients may choose to forego treatments that are more likely to help them, in favor of ineffective treatments given by the "quack".
Paul Offit has proposed four ways in which alternative medicine "becomes quackery":
"by recommending against conventional therapies that are helpful."
"by promoting potentially harmful therapies without adequate warning."
"by draining patients' bank accounts ..."
"by promoting magical thinking ..."
Since it is difficult to distinguish between those who knowingly promote unproven medical therapies and those who are mistaken as to their effectiveness, United States courts have ruled in defamation cases that accusing someone of quackery or calling a practitioner a quack is not equivalent to accusing that person of committing medical fraud. To be both quackery and fraud, the quack must know they are misrepresenting the benefits and risks of the medical services offered (instead of, for example, promoting an ineffective product they honestly believe is effective).
Quacksalver
Unproven, usually ineffective, and sometimes dangerous medicines and treatments have been peddled throughout human history. Theatrical performances were sometimes given to enhance the credibility of purported medicines. Grandiose claims were made for what could be humble materials indeed: for example, in the mid-19th century revalenta arabica was advertised as having extraordinary restorative virtues as an empirical diet for invalids; despite its impressive name and many glowing testimonials it was in truth only ordinary lentil flour, sold to the gullible at many times the true cost.
Even where no fraud was intended, quack remedies often contained no effective ingredients whatsoever. Some remedies contained substances such as opium, alcohol and honey, which would have given symptomatic relief but had no curative properties. Some would have addictive qualities to entice the buyer to return. The few effective remedies sold by quacks included emetics, laxatives and diuretics. Some ingredients did have medicinal effects: mercury, silver and arsenic compounds may have helped some infections and infestations; willow bark contains salicylic acid, chemically closely related to aspirin; and the quinine contained in Jesuit's bark was an effective treatment for malaria and other fevers. However, knowledge of appropriate uses and dosages was limited.
Criticism of quackery in academia
The evidence-based medicine community has criticized the infiltration of alternative medicine into mainstream academic medicine, education, and publications, accusing institutions of "diverting research time, money, and other resources from more fruitful lines of investigation in order to pursue a theory that has no basis in biology." R.W. Donnell coined the phrase "quackademic medicine" to describe this attention given to alternative medicine by academia. Referring to the Flexner Report, he said that medical education "needs a good Flexnerian housecleaning."
For example, David Gorski criticized Brian M. Berman, founder of the University of Maryland Center for Integrative Medicine, for writing that "There [is] evidence that both real acupuncture and sham acupuncture [are] more effective than no treatment and that acupuncture can be a useful supplement to other forms of conventional therapy for low back pain." He also castigated editors and peer reviewers at the New England Journal of Medicine for allowing it to be published, since it effectively recommended deliberately misleading patients in order to achieve a known placebo effect.
History in Europe and the United States
With little understanding of the causes and mechanisms of illnesses, widely marketed "cures" (as opposed to locally produced and locally used remedies), often referred to as patent medicines, first came to prominence during the 17th and 18th centuries in Britain and the British colonies, including those in North America. Daffy's Elixir and Turlington's Balsam were among the first products that used branding (e.g. using highly distinctive containers) and mass marketing to create and maintain markets. A similar process occurred in other countries of Europe around the same time, for example with the marketing of Eau de Cologne as a cure-all medicine by Johann Maria Farina and his imitators. Patent medicines often contained alcohol or opium, which, while presumably not curing the diseases for which they were sold as a remedy, did make the imbibers feel better and confusedly appreciative of the product.
The number of internationally marketed quack medicines increased in the later 18th century; the majority of them originated in Britain and were exported throughout the British Empire. By 1830, British parliamentary records list over 1,300 different "proprietary medicines", the majority of which were "quack" cures by modern standards.
A Dutch organisation that opposes quackery, (VtdK), was founded in 1881, making it the oldest organisation of this kind in the world. It has published its magazine (Dutch Magazine against Quackery) ever since. In these early years the played a part in the professionalisation of medicine. Its efforts in the public debate helped to make the Netherlands one of the first countries with governmental drug regulation.
In 1909, in an attempt to stop the sale of quack medicines, the British Medical Association published Secret Remedies, What They Cost And What They Contain. This publication was originally a series of articles published in the British Medical Journal between 1904 and 1909. The publication was composed of 20 chapters, organising the work by sections according to the ailments the medicines claimed to treat. Each remedy was tested thoroughly, the preface stated: "Of the accuracy of the analytical data there can be no question; the investigation has been carried out with great care by a skilled analytical chemist." The book did lead to the end of some of the quack cures, but some survived the book by several decades. For example, Beecham's Pills, which according to the British Medical Association contained in 1909 only aloes, ginger and soap, but claimed to cure 31 medical conditions, were sold until 1998. The failure of the medical establishment to stop quackery was rooted in the difficulty of defining what precisely distinguished real medicine, and in the appeals that quackery held out to consumers. These were reflected in the legal approach to quackery in this period.
British patent medicines lost their dominance in the United States when they were denied access to the Thirteen Colonies markets during the American Revolution, and lost further ground for the same reason during the War of 1812. From the early 19th century "home-grown" American brands started to fill the gap, reaching their peak in the years after the American Civil War. British medicines never regained their previous dominance in North America, and the subsequent era of mass marketing of American patent medicines is usually considered to have been a "golden age" of quackery in the United States. This was mirrored by similar growth in marketing of quack medicines elsewhere in the world.
In the United States, false medicines in this era were often denoted by the slang term snake oil, a reference to sales pitches for the false medicines that claimed exotic ingredients provided the supposed benefits. Those who sold them were called "snake oil salesmen", and usually sold their medicines with a fervent pitch similar to a fire and brimstone religious sermon. They often accompanied other theatrical and entertainment productions that traveled as a road show from town to town, leaving quickly before the falseness of their medicine was discovered. Not all quacks were restricted to such small-time businesses however, and a number, especially in the United States, became enormously wealthy through national and international sales of their products.
In 1875, the Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal complained:
One among many examples is William Radam, a German immigrant to the US, who, in the 1880s, started to sell his "Microbe Killer" throughout the United States and, soon afterwards, in Britain and throughout the British colonies. His concoction was widely advertised as being able to "cure all diseases", and this phrase was even embossed on the glass bottles the medicine was sold in. In fact, Radam's medicine was a therapeutically useless (and in large quantities actively poisonous) dilute solution of sulfuric acid, coloured with a little red wine. Radam's publicity material, particularly his books, provide an insight into the role that pseudoscience played in the development and marketing of "quack" medicines towards the end of the 19th century.
Similar advertising claims to those of Radam can be found throughout the 18th, 19th, 20th and 21st centuries. "Dr." Sibley, an English patent medicine seller of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, even went so far as to claim that his Reanimating Solar Tincture would, as the name implies, "restore life in the event of sudden death". Another English quack, "Dr. Solomon" claimed that his Cordial Balm of Gilead cured almost anything, but was particularly effective against all venereal complaints, from gonorrhea to onanism. Although it was basically just brandy flavoured with herbs, the price of a bottle was a half guinea (£sd system) in 1800, equivalent to over £ ($) in 2014.
Not all patent medicines were without merit. Turlingtons Balsam of Life, first marketed in the mid-18th century, did have genuinely beneficial properties. This medicine continued to be sold under the original name into the early 20th century, and can still be found in the British and American pharmacopoeias as "Compound tincture of benzoin". In these cases, the treatments likely lacked empirical support when they were introduced to the market, and their benefits were simply a convenient coincidence discovered after the fact.
The end of the road for the quack medicines now considered grossly fraudulent in the nations of North America and Europe came in the early 20th century. 21 February 1906 saw the passage into law of the Pure Food and Drug Act in the United States. This was the result of decades of campaigning by both government departments and the medical establishment, supported by a number of publishers and journalists (one of the most effective was Samuel Hopkins Adams, who wrote "The Great American Fraud" series in Collier's in 1905). This American Act was followed three years later by similar legislation in Britain and in other European nations. Between them, these laws began to remove the more outrageously dangerous contents from patent and proprietary medicines, and to force quack medicine proprietors to stop making some of their more blatantly dishonest claims. The Act, however, left advertising and claims of effectiveness unregulated as the Supreme Court interpreted it to mean only that ingredients on labels had to be accurate. Language in the 1912 Sherley Amendment, meant to close this loophole, was limited to regulating claims that were false and fraudulent, creating the need to show intent. Throughout the early 20th century, the American Medical Association collected material on medical quackery, and one of their members and medical editors in particular, Arthur J. Cramp, devoted his career to criticizing such products. The AMA's Department of Investigation closed in 1975, but their only archive open to non-members remains, the American Medical Association Health Fraud and Alternative Medicine Collection.
"Medical quackery and promotion of nostrums and worthless drugs were among the most prominent abuses that led to formal self-regulation in business and, in turn, to the creation of the" Better Business Bureau.
Contemporary culture
"Quackery is the promotion of false and unproven health schemes for a profit. It is rooted in the traditions of the marketplace", with "commercialism overwhelming professionalism in the marketing of alternative medicine". Quackery is most often used to denote the peddling of the "cure-alls" described above. Quackery continues even today; it can be found in any culture and in every medical tradition. Unlike other advertising mediums, rapid advancements in communication through the Internet have opened doors for an unregulated market of quack cures and marketing campaigns rivaling the early 20th century. Most people with an e-mail account have experienced the marketing tactics of spamming – in which modern forms of quackery are touted as miraculous remedies for "weight loss" and "sexual enhancement", as well as outlets for medicines of unknown quality.
India
Hindustan Times reported in 2008 that there were more than 40,000 quacks practicing in Delhi. Many of them engaged in the trading of human organs including kidneys. The president of the Indian Medical Association (IMA) in 2008 stated "The central government does not appear serious about the problem of quackery. The state governments too are not framing any laws against them."
In 2017, IMA again asked for an antiquackery law with stringent action against those practicing without a license. As of 2021 the government of India is yet to pass an anti-quackery law.
Ministry of Ayush
In 2014, the Government of India formed a Ministry of AYUSH that includes the seven traditional systems of healthcare.
The Ministry of Ayush (expanded form Ayurveda, Yoga, Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha, Sowa-Rigpa and Homoeopathy), is purposed with developing education, research and propagation of indigenous alternative medicine systems in India. The ministry has faced significant criticism for funding systems that lack biological plausibility and are either untested or conclusively proven as ineffective. Quality of research has been poor, and drugs have been launched without any rigorous pharmacological studies and meaningful clinical trials on Ayurveda or other alternative healthcare systems.
There is no credible efficacy or scientific basis of any of these forms of treatment. A strong consensus prevails among the scientific community that homeopathy is a pseudo-scientific, unethical and implausible line of treatment. Ayurveda is deemed to be pseudoscientific. Much of the research on postural yoga has taken the form of preliminary studies or clinical trials of low methodological quality; there is no conclusive therapeutic effect except in back pain. Naturopathy is considered to be a form of pseudo-scientific quackery, ineffective and possibly harmful, with a plethora of ethical concerns about the very practice.
Unani lacks biological plausibility and is considered to be pseudo-scientific quackery, as well.
United States
While quackery is often aimed at the aged or chronically ill, it can be aimed at all age groups, including teens, and the FDA has mentioned some areas where potential quackery may be a problem: breast developers, weight loss, steroids and growth hormones, tanning and tanning pills, hair removal and growth, and look-alike drugs.
In 1992, the president of The National Council Against Health Fraud, William T. Jarvis, wrote in Clinical Chemistry that:
For those in the practice of any medicine, to allege quackery is to level a serious objection to a particular form of practice. Most developed countries have a governmental agency, such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the US, whose purpose is to monitor and regulate the safety of medications as well as the claims made by the manufacturers of new and existing products, including drugs and nutritional supplements or vitamins. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) participates in some of these efforts. To better address less regulated products, in 2000, US President Clinton signed Executive Order 13147 that created the White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine. In 2002, the commission's final report made several suggestions regarding education, research, implementation, and reimbursement as ways to evaluate the risks and benefits of each. As a direct result, more public dollars have been allocated for research into some of these methods.
Individuals and non-governmental agencies are active in attempts to expose quackery. According to John C. Norcross et al. less is consensus about ineffective "compared to effective procedures" but identifying both "pseudoscientific, unvalidated, or 'quack' psychotherapies" and "assessment measures of questionable validity on psycho-metric grounds" was pursued by various authors. The evidence-based practice (EBP) movement in mental health emphasizes the consensus in psychology that psychological practice should rely on empirical research. There are also "anti-quackery" websites, such as Quackwatch, that help consumers evaluate claims. Quackwatch's information is relevant to both consumers and medical professionals.
China
Zhang Wuben, a quack who posed as skilled in traditional Chinese medicine in the People's Republic of China, based his operation on representations that raw eggplant and mung beans were a general cure-all. Zhang, who has escaped legal liability as he portrayed himself as a nutritionist, not a doctor, appeared on television in China and authored a best-selling book, Eat Away the Diseases You Get from Eating. Zhang, who charged the equivalent of $450 for a 10-minute examination, had a two-year waiting list when he was exposed. Investigations launched after a run on mung beans revealed that contrary to his representations, he did not come from a family of accomplished traditional practitioners (中医世家) and never had the medical degree from Beijing Medical University he claimed to have. His only education was a brief correspondence or night school course, completed after he was laid off from a textile factory. Zhang, despite negative publicity on the national level, continues to practice but has committed himself to finding a cheaper cure-all than mung beans. His clinic, Wuben Hall, adjacent to Beijing National Stadium, was torn down as an illegal structure. Much of Zhang Wuben's success was due to the efforts of Chinese entrepreneurs, including one government-owned company, who promoted him.
Hu Wanlin, who did hold himself out as a doctor, was exposed in 2000 and sentenced to 15 years in prison. He adulterated his concoctions with sodium sulfate, Glauber's salt, a poison in large doses. That case resulted in creating a system of licensing medical doctors in China.
In 1992, Li Hongzhi, a former grain clerk from Jilin, introduced a new version of Falun Gong exercises which soon turned into a cult with a mass following. One of its controversial tenets was its quack belief that its followers need not take any medicines for any diseases and illnesses. As a number of followers began to refuse medical treatment, fall ill and die, the government began to pay more attention to it. Falun Gong was banned in China, but Li escaped to the United States, with his followers. Falun Gong continued to thrive in the United States as an alternative therapy.
Presence and acceptance
There have been several suggested reasons why quackery is accepted by patients in spite of its lack of effectiveness:
Ignorance: Those who perpetuate quackery may do so to take advantage of ignorance about conventional medical treatments versus alternative treatments, or may themselves be ignorant regarding their own claims. Mainstream medicine has produced many remarkable advances, so people may tend to also believe groundless claims.
Placebo effect: Medicines or treatments known to have no pharmacological effect on a disease can still affect a person's perception of their illness, and this belief in its turn does indeed sometimes have a therapeutic effect, causing the patient's condition to improve. This is not to say that no real cure of biological illness is effected – "though we might describe a placebo effect as being 'all in the mind', we now know that there is a genuine neurobiological basis to this phenomenon." People report reduced pain, increased well-being, improvement, or even total alleviation of symptoms. For some, the presence of a caring practitioner and the dispensation of medicine is curative in itself.
Regression fallacy: Lack of understanding that health conditions change with no treatment and attributing changes in ailments to a given therapy.
Confirmation bias: The tendency to search for, interpret, or prioritize information in a way that confirms one's beliefs or hypotheses. It is a type of cognitive bias and a systematic error of inductive reasoning.
Distrust of conventional medicine: Many people, for various reasons, have a distrust of conventional medicine, or of the regulating organizations such as the FDA, or the major drug corporations. For example, "CAM may represent a response to disenfranchisement [discrimination] in conventional medical settings and resulting distrust".
Conspiracy theories: Anti-quackery activists ("quackbusters") are often falsely accused of being part of a huge "conspiracy" to suppress "unconventional" and/or "natural" therapies, as well as those who promote them. It is alleged that this conspiracy is backed and funded by the pharmaceutical industry and the established medical care system – represented by the AMA, FDA, ADA, CDC, WHO, etc. – for the purpose of preserving their power and increasing their profits. This idea is often held by people with antiscience views.
Fear of side effects: A great variety of pharmaceutical medications can have very distressing side effects, and many people fear surgery and its consequences, so they may opt to shy away from these mainstream treatments.
Cost: There are some people who simply cannot afford conventional treatment, and seek out a cheaper alternative. Nonconventional practitioners can often dispense treatment at a much lower cost. This is compounded by reduced access to healthcare.
Desperation: People with a serious or terminal disease, or who have been told by their practitioner that their condition is "untreatable", may react by seeking out treatment, disregarding the lack of scientific proof for its effectiveness, or even the existence of evidence that the method is ineffective or even dangerous. Despair may be exacerbated by the lack of palliative non-curative end-of-life care. Between 2012 and 2018 appeals on UK crowdfunding sites for cancer treatment with an alternative health element have raised £8 million. This is described as "a new and lucrative revenue stream for cranks, charlatans, and conmen who prey on the vulnerable."
Pride: Once people have endorsed or defended a cure, or invested time and money in it, they may be reluctant or embarrassed to admit its ineffectiveness and therefore recommend a treatment that does not work.
Fraud: Some practitioners, fully aware of the ineffectiveness of their medicine, may intentionally produce fraudulent scientific studies and medical test results, thereby confusing any potential consumers as to the effectiveness of the medical treatment.
Persons accused of quackery
Deceased
Thomas Allinson (1858–1918), founder of naturopathy. His views often brought him into conflict with the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh and the General Medical Council, particularly his opposition to doctors' frequent use of drugs, his opposition to vaccination and his self-promotion in the press. His views and publication of them led to him being labeled a quack and being struck off by the General Medical Council for infamous conduct in a professional respect.
Lovisa Åhrberg (1801–1881), the first Swedish female doctor. Åhrberg was met with strong resistance from male doctors and was accused of quackery. During the formal examination she was acquitted of all charges and allowed to practice medicine in Stockholm even though it was forbidden for women in the 1820s. She later received a medal for her work.
Johanna Brandt (1876–1964), a South African naturopath who advocated the "Grape Cure" as a cure for cancer.
John R. Brinkley (1885–1942), a nonphysician and xenotransplant specialist in Kansas, US, who claimed to have discovered a method of effectively transplanting the testicles of goats into aging men. After state authorities took steps to shut down his practice, he retaliated by entering politics in 1930 and unsuccessfully running for the office of Governor of Kansas.
Hulda Regehr Clark (1928–2009), was a controversial naturopath, author, and practitioner of alternative medicine who claimed to be able to cure all diseases and advocated methods that have no scientific validity.
Max Gerson (1881–1959), was a German-born American physician who developed a dietary-based alternative cancer treatment that he claimed could cure cancer and most chronic, degenerative diseases. His treatment was called The Gerson Therapy. Most notably, Gerson Therapy was used, unsuccessfully, to treat Jessica Ainscough and Garry Winogrand. According to Quackwatch, Gerson Institute claims of cure are based not on actual documentation of survival, but on "a combination of the doctor's estimate that the departing patient has a 'reasonable chance of surviving', plus feelings that the Institute staff have about the status of people who call in". The American Cancer Society reports that "[t]here is no reliable scientific evidence that Gerson therapy is effective ..."
Samuel Hahnemann (1755–1843), founder of homeopathy. Hahnemann believed that all diseases were caused by "miasms", which he defined as irregularities in the patient's vital force. He also said that illnesses could be treated by substances that in a healthy person produced similar symptoms to the illness, in extremely low concentrations, with the therapeutic effect increasing with dilution and repeated shaking.
Lawrence B. Hamlin (in 1916), was fined under the 1906 US Pure Food and Drug Act for advertising that his Wizard Oil could kill cancer.
L. Ron Hubbard (1911–1986), was the founder of the Church of Scientology. He was an American science fiction writer, former US Navy officer, and creator of Dianetics. He has been commonly called a quack and a con man by both critics of Scientology and by many psychiatric organizations in part for his often extreme anti-psychiatric beliefs and false claims about technologies such as the E-meter.
Linda Hazzard, (1867–1938), was a self-declared doctor and fasting specialist, which she advertised as a panacea for every medical ailment. Up to 40 patients may have died of starvation in her "sanitarium" in Olalla, Washington, US. Imprisoned for one death in 1912, Hazzard was paroled in 1915 and continued to practice medicine without a license in New Zealand (1915–1920) and Washington, US (1920–1935). Died in 1938 while attempting a fasting to cure herself.
William Donald Kelley, (1925–2005), was an orthodontist and a follower of Max Gerson who developed his own alternative cancer treatment called Nonspecific Metabolic Therapy. This treatment is based on the unsubstantiated belief that "wrong foods [cause] malignancy to grow, while proper foods [allow] natural body defenses to work". It involves, specifically, treatment with pancreatic enzymes, 50 daily vitamins and minerals (including laetrile), frequent body shampoos, coffee enemas, and a specific diet. According to Quackwatch, "not only is his therapy ineffective, but people with cancer who take it die more quickly and have a worse quality of life than those having standard treatment, and can suffer serious or fatal side-effects. Kelley's most famous patient was actor Steve McQueen.
John Harvey Kellogg (1852–1943), was a medical doctor in Battle Creek, Michigan, US, who ran a sanitarium using holistic methods, with a particular focus on nutrition, enemas and exercise. Kellogg was an advocate of vegetarianism and invented the corn flake breakfast cereal with his brother, Will Keith Kellogg.
John St. John Long (1798–1834) was an Irish artist who claimed to be able to cure tuberculosis by causing a sore or wound on the back of the patient, out of which the disease would exit. He was tried twice for manslaughter of his patients who died under this treatment.
Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1815), was a German physician and astrologist, who invented what he called magnétisme animal.
Theodor Morell (1886–1948), a German physician best known as Adolf Hitler's personal doctor. Morell administered approximately 74 substances, in 28 different mixtures to Hitler, including heroin, cocaine, Doktor Koster's Antigaspills, potassium bromide, papaverine, testosterone, vitamins and animal enzymes. Despite Hitler's dependence on Morell, and his recommendations of him to other Nazi leaders, Hermann Göring, Heinrich Himmler, Albert Speer and others quietly dismissed Morell as a quack.
Daniel David Palmer (1845–1913), was a grocery store owner that claimed to have healed a janitor of deafness after adjusting the alignment of his back. He founded the field of chiropractic based on the principle that all disease and ailments could be fixed by adjusting the alignment of someone's back. His hypothesis was disregarded by medical professionals at the time and despite a considerable following has yet to be scientifically proven. Palmer established a magnetic healing facility in Davenport, Iowa, styling himself 'doctor'. Not everyone was convinced, as a local paper in 1894 wrote about him: "A crank on magnetism has a crazy notion that he can cure the sick and crippled with his magnetic hands. His victims are the weak-minded, ignorant and superstitious, those foolish people who have been sick for years and have become tired of the regular physician and want health by the short-cut method … he has certainly profited by the ignorance of his victims … His increase in business shows what can be done in Davenport, even by a quack."
Louis Pasteur (1822–1895), was a French chemist best known for his remarkable breakthroughs in microbiology. His experiments confirmed the germ theory of disease, also reducing mortality from puerperal fever (childbed), and he created the first vaccine for rabies. He is best known to the general public for showing how to stop milk and wine from going sourthis process came to be called pasteurization. His hypotheses initially met with much hostility, and he was accused of quackery on multiple occasions. However, he is now regarded as one of the three main founders of microbiology, together with Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch.
Linus Pauling (1901–1994), a Nobel Prize winner in chemistry, Pauling spent much of his later career arguing for the treatment of somatic and psychological diseases with orthomolecular medicine. Among his claims were that the common cold could be cured with massive doses of vitamin C. Together with Ewan Cameron he wrote the 1979 book Cancer and Vitamin C, which was again more popular with the public than the medical profession, which continued to regard claims about the effectiveness of vitamin C in treating or preventing cancer as quackery. A biographer has discussed how controversial his views on megadoses of Vitamin C have been and that he was "still being called a 'fraud' and a 'quack' by opponents of his 'orthomolecular medicine'".
Doctor John Henry Pinkard (1866–1934) was a Roanoke, Virginia businessman and "Yarb Doctor" or "Herb Doctor" who concocted quack medicines that he sold and distributed in violation of the Food and Drugs Act and the earlier Pure Food and Drug Act. He was also known as a "clairvoyant, herb doctor and spiritualist." Some of Pinkard's Sanguinaria Compound, made from bloodroot or bloodwort, was seized by federal officials in 1931. "Analysis by this department of a sample of the article showed that it consisted essentially of extracts of plant drugs including sanguinaria, sugar, alcohol, and water. It was alleged in the information that the article was misbranded in that certain statements, designs, and devices regarding the therapeutic and curative effects of the article, appearing on the bottle label, falsely and fraudulently represented that it would be effective as a treatment, remedy, and cure for pneumonia, coughs, weak lungs, asthma, kidney, liver, bladder, or any stomach troubles, and effective as a great blood and nerve tonic." He pleaded guilty and was fined.
Wilhelm Reich (1897–1957), Austrian-American Psychoanalyst. Claimed that he had discovered a primordial cosmic energy called Orgone. He developed several devices, including the Cloudbuster and the Orgone Accumulator, that he believed could use orgone to manipulate the weather, battle space aliens and cure diseases, including cancer. After an investigation, the US Food and Drug Administration concluded that they were dealing with a "fraud of the first magnitude". On 10 February 1954, the US Attorney for Maine filed a complaint seeking a permanent injunction under Sections 301 and 302 of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, to prevent interstate shipment of orgone accumulators and to ban some of Reich's writing promoting and advertising the devices. Reich refused to appear in court, arguing that no court was in a position to evaluate his work. Reich was arrested for contempt of court, and convicted to two years in jail, a US$10,000 fine, and his Orgone Accumulators and work on Orgone were ordered to be destroyed. On 23 August 1956, six tons of his books, journals, and papers were burned in the 25th Street public incinerator in New York. On 12 March 1957 he was sent to Danbury Federal Prison, where Richard C. Hubbard, a psychiatrist who admired Reich, examined him, recording paranoia manifested by delusions of grandiosity, persecution, and ideas of reference. On 18 November 1957 Reich died of a heart attack nine months later while he was in the federal penitentiary in Lewisburg, Pennsylvania.
William Herbert Sheldon (1898–1977), who created the theory of somatotypes corresponding to intelligence.
Information Age quackery
A form of quackery common in the 21st Century is laypeople using online sites, such as WebMD to find diagnoses. The best way to avoid falling victim to this is to make an appointment with a certified physician at a local hospital. Writing in The New York Times Magazine, Virginia Heffernan criticized WebMD for biasing readers toward drugs that are sold by the site's pharmaceutical sponsors, even when they are unnecessary. She wrote that WebMD "has become permeated with pseudomedicine and subtle misinformation."
See also
Association for Science in Autism Treatment
Confidence trick
Consumer protection
Crystal healing
Detoxification foot baths
Health care fraud
List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
Medical ethics
Medical error
Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency
Osteopathy
Psychic
Quackdown
Notes
References
Works cited
Carroll, 2003. "The Skeptics Dictionary". New York: Wiley.
Della Sala, 1999. Mind Myths: Exploring Popular Assumptions about the Mind and Brain. New York: Wiley.
Eisner, 2000. The Death of Psychotherapy; From Freud to Alien Abductions. Westport, CT: Praegner.
Lilienfeld, SO., Lynn, SJ., Lohr, JM. 2003. Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology. New York: Guildford
External links
Quackwatch
Medline Plus – entry on Health Fraud
'Miracle' Health Claims: Add a Dose of Skepticism Article at the Federal Trade Commission
Pejorative terms
Health fraud
Alternative medicine
Unnecessary health care
Health care quality
Social problems in medicine
Ignorance
Deception
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] |
212701
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Butler
|
James Butler
|
James, Jim, or Jimmy Butler may refer to:
Irish noblemen
James Butler, 1st Earl of Ormond (c. 1305–1338)
James Butler, 2nd Earl of Ormond (1331–1382)
James Butler, 3rd Earl of Ormond (c. 1359–1405)
James Butler, 4th Earl of Ormond (1392–1452)
James Butler, 5th Earl of Ormond (1420–1461)
Sir James Butler of Polestown (died 1487), warlord in Yorkist Ireland
James Butler, 9th Earl of Ormond (1496–1546)
James Butler of Duiske (fl. 1540–1576)
James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde (1610–1688), Anglo-Irish statesman and soldier
James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde (1665–1745), Irish statesman and soldier
James Butler (military adventurer) (fl. 1631–1634), Irish military adventurer
James Butler, 1st Marquess of Ormonde (1777–1838)
James Butler, 3rd Marquess of Ormonde (1844–1919), Irish nobleman
James Butler, 4th Marquess of Ormonde (1849–1943)
James Butler, 5th Marquess of Ormonde (1890–1949)
James Butler, 6th Marquess of Ormonde (1893–1971), British peer
James Butler, 7th Marquess of Ormonde (1899–1997)
Sports
James Butler (American football) (born 1982), American football safety
Jim Butler (American football) (born 1943), former American football player
Jim Butler (table tennis) (born 1971), American table tennis player
Jimmy Butler (born 1989), American basketball player
James Butler (boxer) (born 1972), American light heavyweight, nicknamed "The Harlem Hammer"
James Butler (sprinter) (born 1960), American track sprinter
James Caron Butler (born 1980), American professional basketball player
Others
James G. Butler (1920–2005), American trial lawyer
James Butler (1651–1696), Member of Parliament for Arundel
James Butler (1680–1741), Member of Parliament for Arundel and Sussex
James Joseph Butler (1862–1917), U.S. Representative from Missouri
Sir James Ramsay Montagu Butler (1889–1975), British politician and academic
James Butler (Bible scholar), Australian founder of Adelaide Bible Institute
James Butler (artist) (born 1931), British sculptor
James Butler (grocer) (1855–1934), American businessman
Jimmy Butler (actor) (1921–1945), American actor
James Butler Hare (1918–1966), American politician
James Butler (Irish Brigade officer) (died 1770), officer in the Irish Brigade in France
Jim Butler (Ohio politician) (born 1969), member of the Ohio House of Representatives
Jim Butler (West Virginia politician), member of the West Virginia House of Delegates
James "Gallda" Butler (died 1434)
Jim Butler (game designer), American role-playing game designer
James Butler (British Army officer) (died 1836)
James Bayley Butler (1884–1964), Irish biologist and academic
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality%20of%20Schaumburg-Lippe
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Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe
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Schaumburg-Lippe, also Lippe-Schaumburg, was created as a county in 1647, became a principality in 1807, a free state in 1918, and was until 1946 a small state in Germany, located in the present day state of Lower Saxony, with its capital at Bückeburg.
History
Schaumburg-Lippe was formed as a county in 1647 through the division of the County of Schaumburg by treaties between the Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel and the Count of Lippe. The division occurred because Count Otto V of Holstein-Schaumburg had died in 1640 leaving no male heir. Initially Schaumburg-Lippe's position was somewhat precarious: it had to share a wide variety of institutions and facilities with the County of Schaumburg (which belonged to Hesse-Kassel), including the representative assembly and the highly productive Bückeberg mines, and the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel retained some feudal rights over it. It was further threatened by the headstrong policies of ruling Count Friedrich Christian. To counter these threats, Friedrich's grandson Count Wilhelm (who reigned 1748–1777) retained a standing army of up to 1000 troops - quite a lot for such a small territory.
With Wilhelm's death in 1777 the junior Schaumburg-Lippe-Alverdissen inherited the County thereby reuniting Schaumburg-Lippe with Lippe-Alverdissen.
Schaumburg-Lippe was a county until 1807 when it became a principality; from 1871 it was a state within the German Empire. In 1913, it was the smallest state in the German Empire in terms of population. The capital was Bückeburg, and Stadthagen was the only other town. Under the constitution of 1868, there was a legislative diet of 15 members, 10 elected by the towns and rural districts and 1 each by the nobility, clergy and educated classes, the remaining 2 nominated by the prince. Schaumburg-Lippe sent one member to the Bundesrat (federal council) and one deputy to the Reichstag. It lasted until the end of the German monarchies in 1918, when it became a free state as the Free State of Schaumburg-Lippe. In November 1918, Prince Adolf was the second last reigning German monarch to abdicate.
Rulers of Schaumburg-Lippe
Counts of Schaumburg-Lippe (1640–1807)
Philip I (1601-1681) Count of Lippe-Alverdissen 1613–1640, of Schaumburg-Lippe 1640–1681
Frederick Christian (1655–1728) Count of Schaumburg-Lippe 1681–1728
Albert Wolfgang (1699–1748) Count of Schaumburg-Lippe 1728–1748
William (1724–77) Count of Schaumburg-Lippe 1748-1777
Philipp Ernest, Count of Lippe-Alverdissen (1659–1753)
Friedrich Ernst, Count of Lippe-Alverdissen (1694–1777)
Philip II Ernest (1723–1787), Count of Schaumburg-Lippe 1777–1787
George William (1784–1860), Count of Schaumburg-Lippe 1787–1807, raised to Prince
Princes of Schaumburg-Lippe (1807–1918)
George William (1784–1860), 1st Prince 1807–1860
Adolf I (1817–1893), 2nd Prince 1860–1893
George (1846–1911), 3rd Prince 1893–1911
Adolf II (1883–1936), 4th Prince 1911–1936, resigned throne 1918
Prince William of Schaumburg-Lippe (1834–1906)
Prince Frederick of Schaumburg-Lippe (1868–1945)
Prince Christian of Schaumburg-Lippe (1898–1974)
See also
List of consorts of Lippe
References
States and territories disestablished in 1918
States and territories established in 1643
States of the Confederation of the Rhine
States of the German Confederation
States of the North German Confederation
States of the German Empire
Former states and territories of Lower Saxony
1643 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
Principalities of the Holy Roman Empire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality%20of%20Waldeck%20and%20Pyrmont
|
Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont
|
The County of Waldeck (later the Principality of Waldeck and Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont) was a state of the Holy Roman Empire and its successors from the late 12th century until 1929. In 1349 the county gained Imperial immediacy and in 1712 was raised to the rank of Principality. After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 it was a constituent state of its successors: the Confederation of the Rhine, the German Confederation, the North German Confederation, the German Empire and, until 1929, the Weimar Republic. It comprised territories in present-day Hesse and Lower Saxony (Germany).
History
Waldeck was a county within the Holy Roman Empire from about 1200. The ruling counts were a branch of the Counts of Schwalenberg (at Schwalenberg Castle). Waldeck Castle, overlooking the Eder river and first mentioned in 1120, was inherited by count Widekind I of Schwalenberg and his son Volkwin, from the counts of Itter and the counts of Ziegenhain, when they married wives of these families. Waldeck remained the main residence of the county until 1655.
Its counts included Adolf II of Waldeck from 1270 to 1276. In 1655, the residence was shifted from Waldeck to Arolsen. In 1625, the small county of Pyrmont became part of the county through inheritance, as it had also been ruled by a branch of the counts of Schwalenberg.
In January 1712, the count of Waldeck and Pyrmont was elevated to prince by Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor. For a brief period, 1805 to 1812, Pyrmont was a separate principality as a result of inheritance and partition after the death of the previous prince, but the two parts were united again in 1812. The independence of the principality was confirmed in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, and Waldeck and Pyrmont became a member of the German Confederation. From 1868 onward, the principality was administered by Prussia, but retained its legislative sovereignty. Prussian administration served to reduce administrative costs for the small state and was based on a ten-year contract that was repeatedly renewed for the duration of its existence. In 1871, the principality became a constituent state of the new German Empire. At the end of World War I, during the German Revolution that resulted in the fall of all the German monarchies, the prince abdicated and the principality became the Free State of Waldeck-Pyrmont within the Weimar Republic.
The princely house of Waldeck and Pyrmont is closely related to the royal family of the Netherlands. The last ruling prince, Frederick, was the brother of Queen Consort Emma of the Netherlands.
In 1905, Waldeck and Pyrmont had an area of 1121 km2 and a population of 59,000.
Gallery of castles
Rulers
1712–1728: Friedrich Anton Ulrich (1676-1728); elevated 1712 to hereditary prince by Emperor Charles VI
1728–1763: Karl August (1704-1763)
1763–1812: Friedrich Karl August (1743-1812)
1812–1813: George I (1747-1813)
1813–1845: George II (1789-1845)
1845–1893: George Victor (1831-1893)
1893–1918: Friedrich (1865-1946); abdicated 1918, brother of Queen Emma of the Netherlands
Military
Waldeck had raised a battalion of infantry in 1681 but for much of the subsequent history leading up to the Napoleonic Wars, Waldeckers generally served as what is commonly described as 'mercenaries', but was actually 'auxiliaries' hired out by the rulers of Waldeck for foreign service. Such was the demand that the single battalion became two in 1740 (the 1st Regiment), three battalions in 1744, four in 1767 (forming a 2nd Regiment). Most notably the foreign service was with the Dutch (the 1st and 2nd Regiments) and English (after an agreement was signed with the English in 1776 to supply troops for the American War of Independence, the 3rd Waldeck Regiment, of a single battalion, was raised). The 3rd Waldeck Regiment thus served in America, where they were known under the 'umbrella term' used during that conflict for all Germans—'Hessians'. The regiment, which was made up of 4 'Battalion companies', a 'Grenadier' company, staff and a detachment of artillery, was captured by French and Spanish troops supporting the Americans and only a small number returned to Germany, where some formed part of a newly raised 5th Battalion (1784).
By the time of Napoleon's conquest of Germany, the Waldeck Regiments in Dutch service had been dissolved when, as the Batavian Republic, Holland was made into a kingdom ruled by Napoleon's brother Louis. Reduced to battalion strength, they now formed the 3rd battalions of the 1st and 2nd Infantry Regiments of the Kingdom of Holland. The 5th Battalion was disbanded, and Waldeck was now also obliged to provide two companies to the II Battalion, 6th German Confederation (i.e., Confederation of the Rhine) Regiment (along with two companies from Reuß) in the service of the French Empire. As with all French infantry, they were referred to as 'Fusiliers'. They served mainly in the Peninsula War against the Duke of Wellington. In 1812, the 6th Confederation Regiment was re-formed, with three companies from Waldeck and one from Reuß again forming the II Battalion. By the time of the downfall of the French Empire in 1814 the battalions in Dutch service had disappeared, but Waldeck now supplied three Infantry and one Jäger Companies to the newly formed German Confederation.
By 1866, the Waldeck contingent was styled Fürstlisches Waldecksches Füselier-Bataillon, and in the Austro-Prussian War of that year Waldeck (already in a military convention with Prussia from 1862) allied with the Prussians; however the Battalion saw no action. Joining the North German Confederation after 1867, under Prussian leadership, the Waldeck Fusilier Battalion became the III (Fusilier) Battalion of the Prussian Infantry Regiment von Wittich (3rd Electoral Hessian) No. 83, and as such it remained until 1918. The position of regimental 'Chef' (an honorary title) was held by the Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont.
Unlike Hesse-Darmstadt, Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel) retained no distinctions to differentiate them from the Prussian. The Waldeckers however, were permitted the distinction of carrying the Cockade of Waldeck on the Pickelhaube. The Waldeck battalion was garrisoned, at various times, at Arolsen/Mengeringhausen/Helsen, Bad Wildungen, Bad Pyrmont and Warburg.
The regiment saw action in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 (where it acquired the nickname Das Eiserne Regiment), and during the First World War—as part of the 22nd Division—fought mainly on the Eastern Front.
See also
Arolsen Castle
References
External links
Principality of Waldeck
Canon law of the regnancy Waldeck, 1556
Decorations of the Principality of Waldeck
National anthem and flags
States and territories disestablished in 1918
States and territories established in 1180
Former states and territories of Lower Saxony
States of the German Empire
States of the German Confederation
States of the North German Confederation
States of the Confederation of the Rhine
Principalities of the Holy Roman Empire
1180s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
1180 establishments in Europe
1918 disestablishments in Germany
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212711
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yad%20Mordechai
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Yad Mordechai
|
Yad Mordechai (, lit. Memorial of Mordechai) is a kibbutz in southern Israel. Located 10 km south of Ashkelon, it falls under the jurisdiction of Hof Ashkelon Regional Council. In it had a population of .
History
The community was founded in 1936 by Hashomer Hatzair members from Poland and initially organized themselves in a kibbutz called Mitzpe Yam close to Netanya, which was also founded in 1936. However, the 14 dunams allocated to the kibbutz were insufficient to develop the kibbutz. As part of settlement in the Negev, the community moved to its site near Ashkelon in December 1943. The kibbutz was renamed in memorial to Mordechai Anielewicz, who was the first commander of the Jewish Fighting Organization in the Warsaw Ghetto uprising. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the kibbutz was attacked by Egypt in the Battle of Yad Mordechai.
Among the many Holocaust memorials in Israel, the "From Holocaust to Revival Museum" especially commemorates Jewish resistance against the Nazis as well as the 1948 Battle of Yad Mordechai. The statue of Anielewicz by Nathan Rapoport clutching a grenade, next to the water tower which was destroyed by the Egyptians in May 1948, is a noted symbol of the kibbutz.
After 1948, Yad Mordechai expanded on the land of the Palestinian village of Hiribya, which the Israelis depopulated during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.
Economy
The Yad Mordechai honey, jam and olive oil brands have been partnered with the Strauss food group.
Notable people
Motty Perry
References
Further reading
Larkin, Margaret (1968) The Hand of Mordechai New York/South Brunswick; originally published as "The Six Days of Yad Mordechai" by the Yad Mordechai Museum in Hebrew in 1963, and in English in 1965.
External links
Official website
“From Holocaust to Revival Museum in Kibbutz Yad Mordechai" website
Yad Mordechai Travelnet
Kibbutzim
Kibbutz Movement
Populated places established in 1936
1936 establishments in Mandatory Palestine
Populated places established in 1943
1943 establishments in Mandatory Palestine
Jewish villages depopulated during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War
Gaza envelope
Populated places in Southern District (Israel)
Polish-Jewish culture in Israel
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] |
212720
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milvinae
|
Milvinae
|
The Milvinae kites are found in the family Accipitridae. Many taxonomic authorities have the subfamily under revision.
References
Bird subfamilies
|
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212724
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-romanticism
|
Neo-romanticism
|
The term neo-romanticism is used to cover a variety of movements in philosophy, literature, music, painting, and architecture, as well as social movements, that exist after and incorporate elements from the era of Romanticism.
It has been used with reference to late-19th-century composers such as Richard Wagner particularly by Carl Dahlhaus who describes his music as "a late flowering of romanticism in a positivist age". He regards it as synonymous with "the age of Wagner", from about 1850 until 1890—the start of the era of modernism, whose leading early representatives were Richard Strauss and Gustav Mahler . It has been applied to writers, painters, and composers who rejected, abandoned, or opposed realism, naturalism, or avant-garde modernism at various points in time from about 1840 down to the present.
Late 19th century and early 20th century
Neo-romanticism as well as Romanticism is considered in opposition to naturalism—indeed, so far as music is concerned, naturalism is regarded as alien and even hostile . In the period following German unification in 1871, naturalism rejected Romantic literature as a misleading, idealistic distortion of reality. Naturalism in turn came to be regarded as incapable of filling the "void" of modern existence. Critics such as Hermann Bahr, Heinrich Mann, and Eugen Diederichs came to oppose naturalism and materialism under the banner of "neo-romanticism", demanding a cultural reorientation responding to "the soul’s longing for a meaning and content in life" that might replace the fragmentations of modern knowledge with a holistic world view .
Late 20th century
"Neo-romanticism" was proposed as an alternative label for the group of German composers identified with the short-lived Neue Einfachheit movement in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Along with other phrases such as "new tonality", this term has been criticised for lack of precision because of the diversity among these composers, whose leading member is Wolfgang Rihm .
Britain
1880–1910
See:
Lewis Carroll
John Ruskin
Edward Elgar
Gerard Manley Hopkins
Ralph Vaughan Williams
The Aesthetic movement and the Arts & Crafts Movement
Symbolism (arts)
Rudyard Kipling
A. E. Housman
Neo-gothic architecture
Some modes of pictorialism in photography.
1930–1955
In British art history, the term "neo-romanticism" is applied to a loosely affiliated school of landscape painting that emerged around 1930 and continued until the early 1950s. It was first labeled in March 1942 by the critic Raymond Mortimer in the New Statesman. These painters looked back to 19th-century artists such as William Blake and Samuel Palmer, but were also influenced by French cubist and post-cubist artists such as Pablo Picasso, André Masson, and Pavel Tchelitchew (; ). This movement was motivated in part as a response to the threat of invasion during World War II. Artists particularly associated with the initiation of this movement included Paul Nash, John Piper, Henry Moore, Ivon Hitchens, and especially Graham Sutherland. A younger generation included John Minton, Michael Ayrton, John Craxton, Keith Vaughan, Robert Colquhoun, and Robert MacBryde .
Western Europe
The aesthetic philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer and Friedrich Nietzsche has contributed greatly to neo-romantic thinking.
Knut Hamsun (Norway)
Sigurdur Nordal (Iceland)
Anton Bruckner (Austria)
Wandervogel (Germany)
W.B. Yeats (Ireland)
Eastern Europe
Alexander Kazbegi (Georgia)
Uladzimir Karatkevich (Belarus)
Johannes Semper (Estonia)
Marie Under (Estonia)
Odysseus Elytis (Greece)
Young Poland Movement (Poland)
Antoni Lange (Poland)
Stanisław Przybyszewski (Poland/Germany)
Tadeusz Miciński (Poland)
Karol Szymanowski (Poland)
Eugene Berman (Russia)
Pavel Tchelitchew (Russia)
Dragotin Kette (Slovenia)
India
The Chhayavaad movement in Indian literature
United States
Justine Kurland's photography
Edgar Allan Poe, a writer, poet, editor, and literary critic.
Donna Tartt, in particular her popular debut novel The Secret History
Japan
Beginning in the mid-1930s and continuing through World War II, a Japanese neo-romantic literary movement was led by the writer Yasuda Yojūrō .
In popular culture
See also
Romantic music
Guild socialism
Utopian socialism
Wandervogel
Robert Baden-Powell
Metamodernism
Modern manifestations
Fantasy art
Goth subculture
Regionalism (art)
Neopagan
Neofolk
Neoromanticism (music)
Neotribalism
New Romantic
References
Further reading
British:
Indian
.
External links
EBNR: An Encyclopedia of British Neoromanticism
Art movements
Literary movements
Modern art
|
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212741
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth%20Secretariat
|
Commonwealth Secretariat
|
The Commonwealth Secretariat is the main intergovernmental agency and central institution of the Commonwealth of Nations. It is responsible for facilitating co-operation between members; organising meetings, including the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings (CHOGM); assisting and advising on policy development; and providing assistance to countries in implementing the decisions and policies of the Commonwealth.
The Secretariat has observer status in the United Nations General Assembly. It is located at Marlborough House in London, the United Kingdom, a former royal residence that was given by Queen Elizabeth II, Head of the Commonwealth.
History
The Secretariat was established by Heads of Government in 1965, taking over many of the functions of the United Kingdom Government's Commonwealth Relations Office, as part of a major shake-up of the organisation of the Commonwealth. At the same time, the United Kingdom succeeded in advocating the creation of the Secretariat's sister organisation, the Commonwealth Foundation was founded to foster non-governmental relations and the promotion of the Commonwealth Family network of civil societies. Other attempts by members to create similar central bodies, such as a medical conference (proposed by New Zealand), a development bank (Jamaica), and an institution for satellite communications (Canada) failed.
The creation of the Secretariat itself was a contentious issue. The United Kingdom and other long-established countries had hoped to slow the tide of expansion of Commonwealth membership to prevent the dilution of their traditional power within the Commonwealth (particularly after the admission of Cyprus). This may have involved a dual-tiered Commonwealth, requiring the continuation of the organisation of Commonwealth co-operation by meetings, rather than a central administration. However, the new African members were keener to create an independent inter-governmental 'central clearing house' (as Ghana's Kwame Nkrumah described it) to remove power from the older dominions. Milton Obote of Uganda was the first to propose a specifically titled 'secretariat', which was then formally proposed by Eric Williams of Trinidad and Tobago, who wished to see it based upon the secretariats of the OAS, EEC, and OAU.
Earlier attempts at the formation of a central secretariat had been made and failed. Australia had proposed the establishment four times (in 1907, 1924, 1932, and 1944), whilst New Zealand had also made proposals in 1909 and 1956.
Staff
The chief executive of the Secretariat, and of the Commonwealth as a whole, is the Commonwealth Secretary-General. All Secretariat staff report to the secretary-general, who is also responsible for spending the Secretariat's budget, which is granted by the Heads of Government. It is the secretary-general, and not the ceremonial Head of the Commonwealth, that represents the Commonwealth publicly. The secretary-general is elected by the Heads of Government at the Commonwealth Heads of Government meetings for terms of four years; previously, until 2000, a term was five years. The current Secretary-General is Dominica's Patricia Scotland, who replaced Kamalesh Sharma as Secretary-General on 1 April 2016.
The secretary-general is assisted by three deputy secretaries-general: one responsible for economic affairs (currently Deodat Maharaj), one for political affairs (Josephine Ojiambo), and one for corporate affairs (Gary Dunn). The secretary-general may appoint junior staff at his own discretion, provided the Secretariat can afford it, whilst the more senior staff may be appointed only from a shortlist of nominations from the Heads of Government. In practice, the secretary-general has more power than this; member governments consult the secretary-general on nominations, and the secretary-general has also at times submitted nominations of his own.
All members of staff are exempt from income tax, under the International Organisations Act 2005, which redefined the legal status of the Secretariat.
Headquarters
The Secretariat is headquartered at Marlborough House, in London, the United Kingdom. Marlborough House is located on Pall Mall, Westminster, next to St. James's Palace, which is formally the location of the British Royal Court. Marlborough House was previously a royal residence in its own right, but was given by Queen Elizabeth II, the Head of the Commonwealth, to the British government in September 1959 for use for Commonwealth purposes. This was first realised three years later. Another three years later, in 1965, the building passed to the Secretariat upon its foundation. The building itself was designed by Sir Christopher Wren and served as the London residence of the dukes of Marlborough until it was given to Princess Charlotte in 1817.
The Commonwealth Secretariat Act 1966, which applied retroactively from the establishment of the Secretariat in 1965, first granted the organisation full diplomatic immunity. This has been subjected to a number of lawsuits challenging this, including Mohsin v Commonwealth Secretariat, and in 2005, Sumukan Limited v Commonwealth Secretariat. The 1966 Act had been interpreted by English courts as allowing the courts to exercise supervisory jurisdiction under the Arbitration Act 1996 over the Commonwealth's arbitration tribunal, which had been envisaged as the sole organ to arbitrate on matters related to the Secretariat's operations in the United Kingdom. In light of this interpretation, the Commonwealth Secretariat Act was amended by the International Organisations Act 2005, which gave the Commonwealth Secretariat Arbitral Tribunal the same legal immunity as the Secretariat itself, guaranteeing independence of the English courts.
See also
Commonwealth Foundation
Commonwealth Youth Programme
Footnotes
External links
Commonwealth Secretariat official website
1965 establishments in the United Kingdom
Secretariat
International organisations based in London
Organizations established in 1965
Commonwealth
United Nations General Assembly observers
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marlborough%20House
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Marlborough House
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Marlborough House, a Grade I listed mansion in St James's, City of Westminster, London, is the headquarters of the Commonwealth of Nations and the seat of the Commonwealth Secretariat. It was built for Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough, the favourite and confidante of Queen Anne. For over a century it served as the London residence of the dukes of Marlborough. It became a royal residence through the 19th century and first half of the 20th. It was leased by Queen Elizabeth II to the Commonwealth Secretariat beginning in 1965.
Construction
In 1708, the Duke of Marlborough was granted a 50-year lease of the site from the Crown Estate at a low rent from Queen Anne, which beforehand had been partly occupied by the pheasantry adjoining St. James's Palace, and partly by the gardens of Henry Boyle, Queen Anne's Secretary of State. The Duke left his wife entirely in charge of the design and building of Marlborough House; she wanted her new home to be "strong, plain and convenient and good". The architect Christopher Wren and his son of the same name designed a two-story brick building with rusticated stone quoins (cornerstones) that was completed in 1711. The stonework and ornamentation were built by Edward Strong the Younger a friend of Christopher Wren the Younger. The Duke purchased the bricks cheaply in Holland while on campaign, and had them transported to England as ballast in the empty troop ships on their return journeys from depositing British troops. Throughout the building process, the Duchess kept a close watch on even the smallest details and quarreled with the Wrens over the contractors they had hired. This led John Vanbrugh to joke that the Duchess had "the direction in chief to herself, with Sir Christopher Wren as her Deputy Surveyor." Eventually she dismissed the Wrens and took control of the design herself.
In 1727, Sarah's political rival Sir Robert Walpole purchased the lot between Marlborough House and Pall Mall through his protégé Thomas Ripley, reputedly to deny the Duchess a direct entrance onto Pall Mall. Wren had designed and built a gateway arch and screen in the front courtyard with this entrance in mind, which survives as a grotto. Still intent on an entrance from Pall Mall, in 1729 the Duchess leased four houses to the west and had them demolished to create a "poky" diagonal entrance.
In the 1770s, the 4th Duke of Marlborough hired the architect Sir William Chambers to add a third storey to the house and architectural details like new ceilings and chimneypieces.
Royal residence
After the fourth duke's death in 1817 ownership was taken up by the Crown to be used as the residence of Princess Charlotte of Wales and her husband Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, the location of the house (north of The Mall and east of St James's Palace) making it convenient as a royal residence. The Princess died before the purchase was completed, and so her widower lived there alone for some time and was offered the Belgian throne in the house on 22 April 1831. In the 1820s plans were drawn up to demolish Marlborough House and replace it with a terrace of similar dimensions to the two in neighbouring Carlton House Terrace, and this idea even featured on some contemporary maps, including Christopher and John Greenwood's large-scale London map of 1830, but the proposal was not implemented.
After Leopold became king of Belgium and left Britain, Marlborough House continued to be primarily used by members of the royal family, Queen Adelaide being given the use of Marlborough House from 1831 until her death in 1849. Following Queen Adelaide's death, Queen Victoria asked Parliament to allow the Prince of Wales to live there when he turned nineteen. From May to September 1852, the Museum of Manufactures, a predecessor of the Victoria & Albert Museum, housed its collections in Marlborough House. From 1853 to 1861 Prince Albert arranged for the building to be used by the "National Art Training School", later the Royal College of Art.
From 1861 to 1863, Sir James Pennethorne substantially enlarged the structure by adding a range of rooms on the north side and a deep porch for the Prince and Princess of Wales, later King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra, who made their home the social centre of London. Their second son, the future King George V, was born at Marlborough House in 1865, and the family lived there until Queen Victoria died in 1901, when Edward acceded the throne and they moved to nearby Buckingham Palace. From the 1880s the term ‘Marlborough House Set’ came into usage to denote the Prince of Wales's fast living social circle, which included gamblers, bankers, and other "raffish" individuals.
After his father moved to Buckingham Palace in 1901, the future King George V, now Prince of Wales, took up residence with his wife Mary of Teck and their children. Mary extensively redecorated to make the home more comfortable, and was reluctant to move to Buckingham Palace after her husband became George V in 1910. In turn, Queen Alexandra again made Marlborough House her London home until her death in 1925. A late Art Nouveau-Gothic memorial fountain by Alfred Gilbert (1926–32) in the Marlborough Road wall of the house commemorates her.
In 1936, Marlborough House became the London residence of King George V's widow, Queen Mary, who survived George by 17 years. In the grounds of the house remains her pet cemetery. A thatch-roofed rotating summer house built for her is still in place. A plaque to commemorate Queen Mary was unveiled by the Queen in 1967 in the exterior wall closest to the corner with the Mall.
Commonwealth Secretariat
After Queen Mary's death in 1953, Marlborough House continued to be used by various members of the royal family as a London residence before Queen Elizabeth II leased it to the Commonwealth Secretariat in 1965, an arrangement which continues today.
Features
The nearly cubical saloon retains wall-paintings by Louis Laguerre of the Battle of Blenheim (at which the 1st Duke of Marlborough was overall commander for Britain and her allies; seat of the dukes of Marlborough is Blenheim Palace, one of England's largest houses). A cupola inserted in the ceiling is surrounded by paintings by Orazio Gentileschi and Artemisia Gentileschi for the Queen's House, Greenwich, 1636. There are paired staircases flanking the saloon, with further battle pieces by Laguerre. Most of the interiors have been altered.
Public opening times
Marlborough House is usually open to the public for Open House Weekend each September. The house is also open for group tours by prior arrangement.
See also
Noble Households – book with Marlborough House inventory of 1740
References
Bibliography
Cornforth, John (2004). Early Georgian Interiors. New Haven, Conn.; London: Yale University Press for the Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art, pp. 134, 275
Murdoch, Tessa (ed.) (2006). Noble Households: Eighteenth-Century Inventories of Great English Houses. A Tribute to John Cornforth. Cambridge: John Adamson, pp. 284–7
External links
Visiting Information at The Commonwealth Secretariat
Virtual tour
Flickr images tagged Marlborough House
Commonwealth Secretariat
Christopher Wren buildings in London
Houses in the City of Westminster
Royal buildings in London
Royal residences in the City of Westminster
St James's
Houses completed in 1711
Grade I listed buildings in the City of Westminster
Grade I listed houses in London
1711 establishments in England
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese%20Crested%20Dog
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Chinese Crested Dog
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The Chinese Crested Dog is a hairless breed of dog. Like most hairless dog breeds, the Chinese Crested Dog comes in three varieties, with hair, without hair and a combination of the two, which can be born in the same litter: the Powderpuff , the Hairless and the Hairy-Hairless.
Description
This breed is considered small; .
At first look, the Hairless and Powderpuff varieties of Chinese Crested Dogs appear to be two different breeds, but hairlessness is an incomplete dominant trait within a single breed. The Hairless has soft, humanlike skin, as well as tufts of hair on its paws ("socks") and tail ("plume") and long, flowing hair on its head ("crest"). In addition to being an incomplete dominant gene, the "hairless" gene has a prenatal lethal effect when homozygous. Zygotes affected with double hairless genes never develop into puppies, and are reabsorbed in the womb. All Hairless Chinese Crested Dogs are therefore heterozygous.
The Hairless variety can vary in amount of body hair. Hair on the muzzle, known as a beard, is not uncommon. A true Hairless often does not have as much furnishings (hair on the head, tail, and paws). The difference between a very hairy Hairless and a Powderpuff is that the Hairless has a single coat with hairless parts on the body, while the Powderpuff has a thick double coat. The skin of the Hairless comes in a variety of colors, ranging from a pale flesh to black. Hairless Chinese Crested Dogs often lack a full set of premolar teeth, but this is not considered a fault.
A Powderpuff has a long, soft coat. Both Hairless and Powderpuff varieties can appear in the same litter. The look of the Powderpuff varies according to how it is groomed. When its hair is completely grown out on its face, it strongly resembles a terrier; however, the Powderpuff is usually shaved around the snout as a standard cut. The Powderpuff Chinese Crested Dog is an elegant and graceful dog who makes a loving companion, playful and entertaining. The Powderpuff's coat is long and silky soft. Ears are large and erect.
The amount of body hair on the Hairless variety varies quite extensively, from the true hairless which has very little or no body hair and furnishings, to what is called a "hairy Hairless" dog, which, if left ungroomed, often grows a near-full coat of hair. These hairy Hairless dogs are not a mix between Powderpuffs and Hairless Chinese Crested Dogs, but are merely a result of a weaker expression of the variable Hairless gene. The mutation responsible for the hairless trait was identified in 2008.
Care
Both varieties require certain amounts of grooming. The Powderpuff is entirely covered with a double, very soft, straight coat. Although a Powderpuff's coat does not continuously grow, it can grow to be quite long at full length. A weekly bath and frequent brushing will help prevent matting. For an optimal coat, never brush when dry or dirty. A light spray of water or grooming spray to their coat is recommended before brushing. Many choose to shave their Powderpuff in a "Pony Cut" leaving long hair on the bottom of legs, tail, head and crest for an easy care coat. Powderpuffs are very clean and have no odor. This breed has "little to no shedding". (see Moult).
Maintenance of the Hairless variety's skin is similar to maintaining human skin and as such it can be susceptible to acne, dryness, and sunburn. Hypoallergenic or oil-free moisturizing cream can keep the skin from becoming too dry when applied every other day or after bathing. Burning can occur in regions that are subject to strong UV radiation, especially in lighter-skinned dogs. Many owners apply baby sunscreen to their pets before spending time in strong sun. Some Chinese Crested Dogs have skin allergies to lanolin, so be cautious when using any products that contain it.
Unless the dog is a "true" Hairless (one with virtually no hair growth on non-extremities), trimming and/or shaving is often performed to remove excess hair growth.
The Chinese Crested Dog is further distinguished by its hare foot (having more elongated toes), as opposed to the cat foot common to most other dogs. Because of this the quicks of Cresteds run deeper into their nails, so care must be taken not to trim the nails too short to avoid pain and bleeding.
Powderpuffs enjoy getting outdoors for daily exercise, although they are not a high energy breed. They are great for apartment or city living, but being very versatile, also love country living and long hikes.
Being a very intelligent breed, this dog does well in obedience type sports. Consistency is a must, however this breed can be relatively sensitive and should have a gentle trainer. The Powderpuff is great at learning and performing tricks.
Health
The Powderpuff is not affected by many of the congenital diseases found in other toy breeds. They are, however, prone to some of these conditions listed. Eye problems such as lens luxation, glaucoma, and PRA (Progressive Retinal Atrophy), luxating patellas, and Legg-Perthes disease. The Powderpuff should have full dentition, not missing or crooked teeth, as is accepted in their sibling the Hairless variety.
Chinese Crested Dogs have what is called a "primitive mouth". This means that most of their teeth are pointy, like their canines. Hairless varieties of the Cresteds can be prone to poor dentition. Poor dentition may include missing or crowded teeth and teeth prone to decay when not properly cared for. Most dogs of the Powderpuff variety have few, if any, dental defects.
Eyes are a concern within the breed, with many suffering from a painful and blinding inherited eye disease called Primary Lens Luxation (PLL). The Chinese Crested Dog can also have at least two forms of progressive retinal atrophy (PRA) which can eventually lead to blindness as well. For PLL and also one of the forms of PRA, there exists a genetic test, to determine if a dog is a "carrier, clear, or affected." prcd-PRA. Since the test for prcd-PRA can only reveal the existence of affected or carrier status of this one form of PRA, breeders and owners of the breed should still have regular eye exams by veterinary ophthalmologists. The breed also suffers from another eye disease called Keratoconjunctivitis sicca or dry eye syndrome (DES).
Along with Kerry Blue Terriers, Chinese Crested Dogs can develop canine multiple system degeneration (CMSD) also called progressive neuronal abiotrophy (PNA) in Kerry Blue Terriers. This is a progressive movement disorder that begins with cerebellar ataxia between 10 and 14 weeks of age. After 6 months of age, affected dogs develop difficulty initiating movements and fall frequently. The gene responsible has been mapped to canine chromosome 1.
As with all other toy breeds, the Chinese Crested Dog can be prone to patellar luxation. This inheritable condition is caused by shallow knee joints (stifles) and results in kneecaps that pop out of place. Its onset is often at a young age, and can cause temporary to permanent lameness based on the severity. Breeders should have their stock certified free of patellar luxation. Many countries' kennel clubs maintain a centralised registry for health results.
Allergy and autoimmune diseases have been observed in the breed. Some food allergies can also cause skin breakouts, like excess blackheads, pimples and dryness. It has been observed that this breed has an allergy to chicken and many owners opt for a chicken free diet or a homemade one. The severity of these ailments, which can lead to the premature death of the dog, means this is something breeders need to take seriously in order to avoid it becoming a problem for the breed.
Healthy dogs have the following statistics:
Lifespan: 12–14 years, although many have been known to live much longer
Weight: 7–12 lbs/4–5 kg
Height: 10–13 inches/30 cm
Color: Any color or combination of colors
History
Although hairless dogs have been found in many places in the world, it is unlikely that the origins of the modern Chinese Crested Dog are in China. The same genetic mutation shared with the Xoloitzcuintli leads to the theory that they have a shared origin.
It is thought the origins of the modern Chinese Creasted dog are either Africa or from Mexico
Spanish explorers found Chinese Crested dogs in Mexico and other parts of Central and South America as early as the 1500s. British, French, and Portuguese explorers likewise found the breed in various parts of Africa and Asia during the 1700s and 1800s
In the 1950s, Debora Wood created the "Crest Haven" kennel and began to purposefully breed and record the lineages of her Chinese Crested Dogs. The famous burlesque dancer Gypsy Rose Lee also bred Chinese Crested Dogs, and upon her death her dogs were incorporated into Crest Haven. These two lines are the true foundation of every Chinese Crested Dog alive today. Ms. Wood also founded the American Hairless Dog Club in 1959, which was eventually incorporated into the American Chinese Crested Club (ACCC) in 1978. The ACCC became the US parent club for the breed when the Chinese Crested Dog was recognized by the American Kennel Club 13 years later, in 1991.
The Chinese Crested Dog was officially recognised by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale in 1987 and by the American Kennel Club in 1991.
Breeding
The Hairless allele (the wild type) is a dominant (and homozygous prenatal lethal) trait, while the Powderpuff allele acts as a simple recessive trait in its presence. Zygotes that receive two copies of the Hairless allele will never develop into puppies. Thus, all Chinese Crested Dogs carry at least one copy of the Powderpuff allele.
The Powderpuff trait cannot be bred out because it is carried by all Chinese Crested Dogs (even the hairless ones). All Hairless Chinese Crested Dogs have the ability to produce Powderpuff puppies, even when they are bred to another Hairless. On the other hand, a Powderpuff bred to another Powderpuff can never produce hairless puppies, since they do not carry the Hairless gene.
In popular culture
One famous Chinese Crested Dog was the Hairless purebred named Sam. He was the winner of the World's Ugliest Dog Contest from 2003 to 2005; he died before he could compete in 2006. Other Chinese Crested Dogs, either purebreds or mixes, have finished high in the event as well.
Some Chinese Crested Dogs have also appeared as characters in movies and TV shows such as,
Peek from Cats & Dogs and Cats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore
Fluffy from 102 Dalmatians
Romeo from Hotel for Dogs
Halston from Ugly Betty
Reinaldo from New York Minute
Krull the Warrior King from How to Lose a Guy in 10 Days
Otis from Lady and the Tramp II: Scamp's Adventure
Lackey from Good Boy!
Bobby from The Young and the Restless
Zelda from Spooky Buddies
Dr. Kozak from The Shaggy Dog
Zel or zeli from Top dog (2019 film) and Top dog 3 (2020 film)
See also
Companion dog
Dogs portal
Lap dog
List of dog breeds
Toy Group
References
External links
FCI breeds
Companion dogs
Toy dogs
Hairless dogs
Dog breeds originating in China
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212763
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaica%2C%20Land%20We%20Love
|
Jamaica, Land We Love
|
"Jamaica, Land We Love" is the national anthem of Jamaica, officially adopted in July 1962. It was chosen after a competition from September 1961 to 31 March 1962, in which the lyrics of the national anthem were selected by Jamaica's Houses of Parliament. When Jamaica was granted independence on 6 August 1962, "Jamaica, Land We Love" continued to be officially used as the national anthem.
History
Prior to the declaration of the independence of Jamaica, Jamaica was made a West Indies Federation province of the British West Indies, still under the rule of the United Kingdom. The nation entered the federation under the rule of Premier Norman Manley, who also made various constitutional amendments to allow the process of decolonisation to rapidly take place. These amendments also allowed the country to have more self-governing powers and permitted the formation of a cabinet led by a premier. Premier Norman Manley's participation in the West Indies Federation was unpopular and led to the independence of the country on 6 August 1962, and the national anthem selected in July 1962 was officially used from that date.
In September 1961, the leading People's National Party announced a competition to write the lyrics of Jamaica's future national anthem, which would be judged by selected members of Jamaica's Houses of Parliament. The competition received almost 100 script entries, and the competition closed on 31 March 1962, after this ending date was decided on 17 March. The Houses of Parliament were given two options of anthems to vote for on 19 July 1962, and a script was chosen with an overwhelming majority. The winning script was written by Reverend Hon. Hugh Sherlock, the music was composed by Hon. Robert Lightbourne, and the anthem was arranged by Mapletoft Poulle and Christine Alison Poulle.
Lyrics
References
External links
Jamaican National Anthem on Jamaican government site
Richie Stephens performs Jamaica's National Anthem on SoundCloud
Jamaican songs
North American anthems
National symbols of Jamaica
National anthems
Songs about Jamaica
National anthem compositions in C major
1962 songs
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superluminous%20supernova
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Superluminous supernova
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A super-luminous supernova (SLSN, plural super luminous supernovae or SLSNe) is a type of stellar explosion with a luminosity 10 or more times higher than that of standard supernovae. Like supernovae, SLSNe seem to be produced by several mechanisms, which is readily revealed by their light-curves and spectra. There are multiple models for what conditions may produce an SLSN, including core collapse in particularly massive stars, millisecond magnetars, interaction with circumstellar material (CSM model), or pair-instability supernovae.
The first confirmed superluminous supernova connected to a gamma ray burst was not found until 2003, when GRB 030329 illuminated the Leo constellation. SN 2003dh represented the death of a star 25 times more massive than the sun, with material being blasted out at over a tenth the speed of light.
In June 2018, AT2018cow was detected and found to be a very powerful astronomical explosion, 10 – 100 times brighter than a normal supernova.
Today, it is believed that stars with produce superluminous supernovae.
Classification
Discoveries of many SLSNe in the 21st century showed that not only were they more luminous by an order of magnitude than most supernovae, their remnants were also unlikely to be powered by the typical radioactive decay that is responsible for the observed energies of conventional supernovae.
SLSNe events use a separate classification scheme to distinguish them from the conventional type Ia, type Ib/Ic, and type II supernovae, roughly distinguishing between the spectral signature of hydrogen-rich and hydrogen-poor events.
Hydrogen-rich SLSNe are classified as Type SLSN-II, with observed radiation passing through the changing opacity of a thick expanding hydrogen envelope. Most hydrogen-poor events are classified as Type SLSN-I, with its visible radiation produced from a large expanding envelope of material powered by an unknown mechanism. A third less common group of SLSNe is also hydrogen-poor and abnormally luminous, but clearly powered by radioactivity from 56Ni.
Increasing number of discoveries find that some SLSNe do not fit cleanly into these three classes, so further sub-classes or unique events have been described. Many or all SLSN-I show spectra without hydrogen or helium but have lightcurves comparable to conventional type Ic supernovae, and are now classed as SLSN-Ic. PS1-10afx is an unusually red hydrogen-free SLSN with an extremely rapid rise to a near-record peak luminosity and an unusually rapid decline. PS1-11ap is similar to a type Ic SLSN but has an unusually slow rise and decline.
Astrophysical models
A wide variety of causes have been proposed to explain events that are an order of magnitude or more greater than standard supernovae. The collapsar and CSM (circumstellar material) models are generally accepted and a number of events are well-observed. Other models are still only tentatively accepted or remain entirely theoretical.
Collapsar model
The collapsar model is a type of superluminous supernova that produces a gravitationally collapsed object, or black hole. The word "collapsar", short for "collapsed star", was formerly used to refer to the end product of stellar gravitational collapse, a stellar-mass black hole. The word is now sometimes used to refer to a specific model for the collapse of a fast-rotating star. When core collapse occurs in a star with a core at least around fifteen times the sun's mass ()—though chemical composition and rotational rate are also significant—the explosion energy is insufficient to expel the outer layers of the star, and it will collapse into a black hole without producing a visible supernova outburst.
A star with a core mass slightly below this level—in the range of —will undergo a supernova explosion, but so much of the ejected mass falls back onto the core remnant that it still collapses into a black hole. If such a star is rotating slowly, then it will produce a faint supernova, but if the star is rotating quickly enough, then the fallback to the black hole will produce relativistic jets. The energy that these jets transfer into the ejected shell renders the visible outburst substantially more luminous than a standard supernova. The jets also beam high energy particles and gamma rays directly outward and thereby produce x-ray or gamma-ray bursts; the jets can last for several seconds or longer and correspond to long-duration gamma-ray bursts, but they do not appear to explain short-duration gamma-ray bursts.
Stars with cores have an approximate total mass of , assuming the star has not undergone significant mass loss. Such a star will still have a hydrogen envelope and will explode as a Type II supernova. Faint Type II supernovae have been observed, but no definite candidates for a Type II SLSN (except type IIn, which are not thought to be jet supernovae). Only the very lowest metallicity population III stars will reach this stage of their life with little mass loss. Other stars, including most of those visible to us, will have had most of their outer layers blown away by their high luminosity and become Wolf-Rayet stars. Some theories propose these will produce either Type Ib or Type Ic supernovae, but none of these events so far has been observed in nature. Many observed SLSNe are likely Type Ic. Those associated with gamma-ray bursts are almost always Type Ic, being very good candidates for having relativistic jets produced by fallback to a black hole. However, not all Type Ic SLSNe correspond to observed gamma-ray bursts but the events would only be visible if one of the jets were aimed towards us.
In recent years, much observational data on long-duration gamma-ray bursts have significantly increased our understanding of these events and made clear that the collapsar model produces explosions that differ only in detail from more or less ordinary supernovae and have energy ranges from approximately normal to around 100 times larger.
A good example of a collapsar SLSN is SN 1998bw, which was associated with the gamma-ray burst GRB 980425. It is classified as a type Ic supernova due to its distinctive spectral properties in the radio spectrum, indicating the presence of relativistic matter.
Circumstellar material model
Almost all observed SLSNe have had spectra similar to either a type Ic or type IIn supernova. The type Ic SLSNe are thought to be produced by jets from fallback to a black hole, but type IIn SLSNe have significantly different light curves and are not associated with gamma-ray bursts. Type IIn supernovae are all embedded in a dense nebula probably expelled from the progenitor star itself, and this circumstellar material (CSM) is thought to be the cause of the extra luminosity. When material expelled in an initial normal supernova explosion meets dense nebular material or dust close to the star, the shockwave converts kinetic energy efficiently into visible radiation. This effect greatly enhances these extended duration and extremely luminous supernovae, even though the initial explosive energy was the same as that of normal supernovae.
Although any supernova type could potentially produce Type IIn SLSNe, theoretical constraints on the surrounding CSM sizes and densities do suggest that it will almost always be produced from the central progenitor star itself immediately prior to the observed supernova event. Such stars are likely candidates of hypergiants or LBVs that appear to be undergoing substantial mass loss, due to Eddington instability, for example, SN2005gl.
Pair-instability supernova
Another type of suspected SLSN is a pair-instability supernova, of which SN 2006gy may possibly be the first observed example. This supernova event was observed in a galaxy about 238 million light years (73 megaparsecs) from Earth.
The theoretical basis for pair-instability collapse has been known for many decades and was suggested as a dominant source of higher mass elements in the early universe as super-massive population III stars exploded. In a pair-instability supernova, the pair production effect causes a sudden pressure drop in the star's core, leading to a rapid partial collapse. Gravitational potential energy from the collapse causes runaway fusion of the core which entirely disrupts the star, leaving no remnant.
Models show that this phenomenon only happens in stars with extremely low metallicity and masses between about 130 and 260 times the Sun, making them extremely unlikely in the local universe. Although originally expected to produce SLSN explosions hundreds of times greater than a supernova, current models predict that they actually produce luminosities ranging from about the same as a normal core collapse supernova to perhaps 50 times brighter, although remaining bright for much longer.
Magnetar energy release
Models of the creation and subsequent spin down of a magnetar yield much higher luminosities than regular supernova events and match the observed properties of at least some SLSNe. In cases where pair-instability supernova may not be a good fit for explaining a SLSN, a magnetar explanation is more plausible.
Other models
There are still models for SLSN explosions produced from binary systems, white dwarf or neutron stars in unusual arrangements or undergoing mergers, and some of these are proposed to account for some observed gamma-ray bursts.
See also
References
Further reading
External links
List of all superluminous supernovae at The Open Supernova Catalog.
Stellar phenomena
Hypergiants
Astronomical events
+
Wolf–Rayet stars
Stellar evolution
Star types
Novae
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] |
212765
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trochozoa
|
Trochozoa
|
The Trochozoa are a proposed Lophotrochozoa clade that is sister of Polyzoa. The trochozoans clade include animals in six phyla: the Nemertea, the Annelida, the Cycliophora the Mollusca and the two Brachiozoan phyla, Brachiopoda and Phoronida.
References
Lophotrochozoa
|
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] |
212768
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus%20cavernosum
|
Corpus cavernosum
|
Corpus cavernosum may refer to:
Corpus cavernosum clitoridis
Corpus cavernosum penis
"Corpus cavernosum urethrae" was used for corpus spongiosum in older texts.
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ram%20Dass
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Ram Dass
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Ram Dass (born Richard Alpert; April 6, 1931 – December 22, 2019), also known as Baba Ram Dass, was an American spiritual teacher, guru of modern yoga, psychologist, and author. His best-selling 1971 book, Be Here Now, which has been described by multiple reviewers as "seminal", helped popularize Eastern spirituality and yoga in the West. He authored or co-authored twelve more books on spirituality over the next four decades, including Grist for the Mill (1977), How Can I Help? (1985), and Polishing the Mirror (2013).
Dass was personally and professionally associated with Timothy Leary at Harvard University in the early 1960s. Then known as Richard Alpert, he conducted research with Leary on the therapeutic effects of psychedelic drugs. In addition, Alpert assisted Harvard Divinity School graduate student Walter Pahnke in his 1962 "Good Friday Experiment" with theology students, the first controlled, double-blind study of drugs and the mystical experience. While not illegal at the time, their research was controversial and led to Leary's and Alpert's dismissal from Harvard in 1963.
In 1967, Alpert traveled to India and became a disciple of Hindu guru Neem Karoli Baba who gave him the name Ram Dass, meaning "Servant of Ram". In the coming years, he founded the charitable organizations Seva Foundation and Hanuman Foundation. He traveled extensively giving talks and retreats and holding fundraisers for charitable causes in the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. In 1997, he had a stroke which left him with paralysis and expressive aphasia. He eventually grew to interpret this event as an act of grace, learning to speak again and continuing to teach and author books. After becoming seriously ill during a trip to India in 2004, he gave up traveling and moved to Maui, Hawaii, where he hosted annual retreats with other spiritual teachers until his death in 2019.
Early life
Ram Dass was born Richard Alpert in 1931. His parents were Gertrude (Levin) and George Alpert, a lawyer in Boston. He considered himself an atheist during his early life. Speaking at Berkeley Community Theater in 1973 he said, "My Jewish trip was primarily political Judaism, I mean I was never Bar Mitzvahed, confirmed, and so on." In a 2006 article in Tufts Magazine he was quoted by Sara Davidson, describing himself as "inured to religion. I didn't have one whiff of God until I took psychedelics." He was also interviewed by Arthur J. Magida at the Omega Institute in Rhinebeck, New York, who published the interview in 2008, quoting Ram Dass as saying "What I mostly remember about my bar mitzvah was that it was an empty ritual. It was flat. Absolutely flat. There was a disappointing hollowness to the moment. There was nothing, nothing, nothing in it for my heart."
Education
Alpert attended the Williston Northampton School, graduating cum laude in 1948. He achieved a Bachelor of Arts degree in Psychology from Tufts University in 1952. His father had wanted him to go to medical school, but while at Tufts he decided to study psychology instead. After earning his master's degree in Psychology from Wesleyan University in 1954, his mentor at Wesleyan, David McClelland, recommended Alpert to Stanford University. Alpert wrote his doctoral thesis on "achievement anxiety", receiving his PhD in Psychology from Stanford in 1957. Alpert then taught at Stanford for one year, and began psychoanalysis.
Harvard professorship
McClelland moved to Cambridge, Massachusetts, to teach at Harvard University, and helped Alpert accept a tenure-track position there in 1958 as an assistant clinical psychology professor. Alpert worked with the Social Relations Department, the Psychology Department, the Graduate School of Education, and the Health Service, where he was a therapist. He specialized in human motivation and personality development, and published his first book Identification and Child Rearing.
McClelland did work with his close friend and associate Timothy Leary, a lecturer in clinical psychology at the university. Alpert and Leary had met through McClelland, who headed the Center for Research in Personality where Alpert and Leary both did research. Alpert was McClelland's deputy in the lab.
Harvard projects
After returning from a visiting professorship at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1961, Alpert devoted himself to joining Leary in experimentation with and intensive research to the potentially therapeutic effects of hallucinogenic drugs such as psilocybin, LSD-25, and other psychedelic chemicals, through their Harvard Psilocybin Project. Alpert and Leary co-founded the non-profit International Federation for Internal Freedom (IFIF) in 1962 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in order to carry out studies in the religious use of psychedelic drugs, and were both on the board of directors.
Alpert assisted Harvard Divinity School graduate student Walter Pahnke in his 1962 "Good Friday Experiment" with theology students, the first controlled, double-blind study of drugs and the mystical experience.
Dismissal from Harvard
Leary and Alpert were formally dismissed from Harvard in 1963. According to Harvard President Nathan M. Pusey, Leary was dismissed for leaving Cambridge and his classes without permission or notice, and Alpert for allegedly giving psilocybin to an undergraduate.
Millbrook and psychedelic counterculture (1963–1967)
In 1963 Alpert, Leary, and their followers moved to the Hitchcock Estate in Millbrook, New York, after IFIF's New York City branch director and Mellon fortune heiress Peggy Hitchcock arranged for her brother Billy to rent the estate to IFIF. Alpert and Leary immediately set up a communal group with former Harvard Psilocybin Project members at the estate (commonly known as "Millbrook"), and the IFIF was subsequently disbanded and renamed the Castalia Foundation (after the intellectual colony in Hermann Hesse's novel The Glass Bead Game). The core group at Millbrook, whose journal was the Psychedelic Review, sought to cultivate the divinity within each person. At Millbrook, they experimented with psychedelics and often participated in group LSD sessions, looking for a permanent route to higher consciousness. The Castalia Foundation hosted weekend retreats on the estate where people paid to undergo the psychedelic experience without drugs, through meditation, yoga, and group therapy sessions.
Alpert and Leary continued on to co-author a book entitled The Psychedelic Experience with Ralph Metzner, based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead, and it was published in 1964. Alpert co-authored LSD with Sidney Cohen and Lawrence Schiller in 1966.
In 1967 Alpert gave talks at the League for Spiritual Discovery's center in Greenwich Village.
Spiritual search and name change
In 1967, Alpert traveled to India where he met American spiritual seeker Bhagavan Das, and later met Neem Karoli Baba.
Neem Karoli Baba
In 1967, Bhagavan Das guided Alpert throughout India, eventually introducing him to Neem Karoli Baba, whom Alpert called "Maharaj-ji", who became his guru at Kainchi ashram. Neem Karoli Baba gave Alpert the name "Ram Dass", which means "servant of God", referring to the incarnation of God as Ram or Lord Rama. Alpert also corresponded with Indian spiritual teacher Meher Baba and mentioned Baba in several of his books.
Be Here Now
After Alpert returned to America as Ram Dass, he stayed at the Lama Foundation in Taos, New Mexico, as a guest. Ram Dass had helped Steve Durkee (Nooruddeen Durkee) and Barbara Durkee (Asha Greer or Asha von Briesen) co-found the countercultural, spiritual community in 1967, and it had an ashram dedicated to Ram Dass's guru. During Ram Dass's visit, he presented a manuscript he had written, entitled From Bindu to Ojas. The community's residents edited, illustrated, and laid out the text, which ultimately became a best-selling book when published under the name Be Here Now in 1971. The 416-page manual for conscious being was published by the Lama Foundation, as Ram Dass's benefit for the community. Be Here Now contained Ram Dass's account of his spiritual journey, as well as recommended spiritual techniques and quotes. It became a popular guide to New Age spirituality, selling two million copies. The proceeds helped sustain the Lama Foundation for several years, after which they donated the book's copyright and half its proceeds to the Hanuman Foundation in Taos.
Be Here Now is one of the first guides for those not born Hindu to becoming a yogi. For its influence on the hippie movement and subsequent spiritual movements it has been described as a "countercultural bible" and "seminal" to the era. In addition to introducing its title phrase into common use, Be Here Now has influenced numerous other writers and yoga practitioners, including the industrialist Steve Jobs, the self-help author Wayne Dyer, and the poet Lawrence Ferlinghetti.
The first section of the book inspired the lyrics to George Harrison's song "Be Here Now", written in 1971 and released on his 1973 album Living in the Material World.
Foundations and Living/Dying Project
During the 1970s, Ram Dass taught, wrote, and worked with foundations. He founded the Hanuman Foundation, a nonprofit educational and service organization that initiated the Prison-Ashram Project (now known as the Human Kindness Foundation), in 1974. The Hanuman Foundation strives to improve the spiritual well-being of society through education, media and community service programs. He co-founded the Seva Foundation by joining with health-care workers to treat the blind in India, Nepal, and developing countries. Co-founded in 1978 with public health leader Larry Brilliant and humanitarian activist Wavy Gravy, it has become an international health organization.
In the early 1970s, Ram Dass taught workshops on conscious aging and dying around the United States. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross was one of his students. Ram Dass helped create the Dying Project with its Executive Director Dale Borglum, whom he had met in India. At the time, Borglum was also executive director of the Hanuman Foundation. The Living/Dying Project, based in Marin, California, starting in 1986, was initially named the Dying Center and located in Santa Fe, New Mexico. The Dying Center was the first residential facility in the U.S. where people came to die "consciously".
The Love Serve Remember Foundation was organized to preserve and continue the teachings of Neem Karoli Baba and Ram Dass. Ram Dass also served on the faculty of the Metta Institute where he provided training on mindful and compassionate care of the dying.
Over the course of his life since the inception of his Hanuman Foundation, Ram Dass gave all of his book royalties and profits from teaching to his foundation and other charitable causes. The estimated amount of earnings he gave away annually ranges from $100,000 to $800,000.
Later life
At 60 years of age, Ram Dass began exploring Judaism seriously for the first time. "My belief is that I wasn't born into Judaism by accident, and so I needed to find ways to honor that", he says. "From a Hindu perspective, you are born as what you need to deal with, and if you just try and push it away, whatever it is, it's got you."
Leary and Ram Dass, who had grown apart after Ram Dass denounced Leary in a 1974 news conference, reconciled in 1983 at Harvard (at a reunion for the 20th anniversary of their controversial firing from the Harvard faculty), and reunited before Leary's death in May 1996.
In February 1997, Ram Dass had a stroke that left him with expressive aphasia, which he interpreted as an act of grace. He stated, "The stroke was giving me lessons, and I realized that was grace—fierce grace ... Death is the biggest change we'll face, so we need to practice change." He lived on Maui and did not leave the Hawaiian Islands from 2004 until his death in 2019, after he almost died from an infection during a trip to India. He continued to make public appearances and to give talks at small venues; held retreats in Maui; and continued to teach through live webcasts. When asked if he could sum up his life's message, he replied, "I help people as a way to work on myself, and I work on myself to help people ... to me, that's what the emerging game is all about." Ram Dass was awarded the Peace Abbey Courage of Conscience Award in August 1991.
In 2003, Wayne Dyer published a plea for donations for Ram Dass's support due to his declining health following the stroke, Now it is our turn ... Ram Dass's body can no longer endure the rigors of travel. He has come to Maui, where I live and write. I speak with him frequently and I am often humbled by the tears in his beautiful 73-year-old eyes as he apologizes for not having prepared for his own elderly health care—for what he now perceives as burdensome to others. He still intends to write and teach; however without the travel—we can now come to him. Maui is healing—Maui is where Ram Dass wishes to stay for now! He is currently living in a home on Maui, which he doesn't own and is currently in jeopardy of losing. I am asking all of you to help purchase this home and to set up a financial foundation to take care of this man who has raised so much money to ensure the futures of so many others. To live out what Ram Dass has practiced with his actions. Please be generous and prompt—no one is more deserving of our love and financial support.
In 2013, Ram Dass released a memoir and summary of his teaching, Polishing the Mirror: How to Live from Your Spiritual Heart. In an interview about the book, at age 82, he said that his earlier reflections about facing old age and death now seem naive to him. He said, in part: "Now, I'm in my 80s ... Now, I am aging. I am approaching death. I'm getting closer to the end. ... Now, I really am ready to face the music all around me."
He died on December 22, 2019, at the age of 88.
Personal life
In the 1990s, Ram Dass discussed his bisexuality. He stated, "I've started to talk more about being bisexual, being involved with men as well as women," and added his opinion that who gay people are "isn't gay, and it's not not-gay, and it's not anything—it's just awareness."
At 78, Ram Dass learned that he had fathered a son as a 24-year-old at Stanford during a brief relationship with history major Karen Saum, and that he was now a grandfather. The fact came to light when his son, Peter Reichard, a 53-year-old banker in North Carolina, took a DNA test after learning about his mother's doubt concerning his parentage.
Works
Books
Identification and Child Rearing (with R. Sears and L. Rau) (1962) Stanford University Press
The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual Based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead (with Timothy Leary and Ralph Metzner) (1964)
LSD (with Sidney Cohen) (1966)
Be Here Now or Remember, Be Here Now (1971)
Doing Your Own Being (1973)
The Only Dance There Is (1974)
Grist for the Mill (with Stephen Levine) (1977)
Journey of Awakening: A Meditator's Guidebook (1978)
Miracle of Love: Stories about Neem Karoli Baba (1978)
How Can I Help? Stories and Reflections on Service (with Paul Gorman) (1985)
Compassion in Action: Setting Out on the Path of Service (with Mirabai Bush) (1991)
Still Here: Embracing Aging, Changing and Dying (2000)
Paths to God: Living The Bhagavad Gita (2004)
Be Love Now (with Rameshwar Das) (2010)
Polishing the Mirror: How to Live from Your Spiritual Heart (with Rameshwar Das) (2013)
Walking Each Other Home: Conversations on Loving and Dying (with Mirabai Bush) (2018)
Being Ram Dass (with Rameshwar Das) (2021)
Recordings
The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual Based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead (with Timothy Leary & Ralph Metzner) (1966) (reissued on CD in 2003 by Folkways)
Here We All Are, a 3-LP set recorded live in Vancouver, BC in the summer of 1969.
Love Serve Remember (1973), a six-album set of teachings, data, and spiritual songs (ZBS Foundation) (released in MP3 format, 2008)
The Evolution of Consciousness (1973), a 3-LP set recorded live in NYC, March 1969 (Noumedia Co - Harbinger Records Ltd.)
Cosmix (2008), a video enhanced CD of Ram Dass messages mixed with work by Australian DJ and performer Kriece, released on Waveform Records.
RAM DASS (2019) collaborative album with musician East Forest featuring the final recorded teachings of Ram Dass.
Films
A Change of Heart, a 1994 one-hour documentary directed by Eric Taylor and hosted by Ram Dass and shown on many PBS stations. It examined taking social action as a meditative act.
Ecstatic States, a 1996 interview on VHS, by Wiseone Edutainment Pty.
Ram Dass, Fierce Grace, a 2001 biographical documentary directed by Micky Lemle.
Ram Dass – Love Serve Remember, a 2010 short film directed by V. Owen Bush, included in the Be Here Now Enhanced Edition eBook.
Dying to Know: Ram Dass & Timothy Leary, a 2014 documentary dual portrait.
Ram Dass, Going Home, a 2017 documentary portrait of Ram Dass in his later years, directed by Derek Peck.
Ram Dass, Becoming Nobody, a 2019 documentary portrait of Richard Alpert becoming Ram Dass and Ram Dass becoming nobody. The slogan of the film is: You have to be somebody to become nobody. Directed by Jamie Catto.
References
External links
Seva Foundation (Organization founded by Ram Dass)
The Living/Dying Project (an outgrowth of the Hanuman foundation, which was created by Ram Dass)
1931 births
2019 deaths
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American memoirists
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century psychologists
21st-century American male writers
21st-century American memoirists
21st-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century psychologists
American clinical psychologists
American Hindus
American people of Jewish descent
American spiritual teachers
American spiritual writers
American yoga teachers
Bisexual men
Bisexual writers
Consciousness researchers and theorists
Converts to Hinduism from Judaism
Counterculture of the 1960s
Harvard University faculty
Hindu revivalists
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LGBT Hindus
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Lysergic acid diethylamide
Modern yoga gurus
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Stanford University alumni
Students of S. N. Goenka
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Tufts University alumni
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212777
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Alpert%20%28artist%29
|
Richard Alpert (artist)
|
Richard Alpert (born April 11, 1947) is an American sculptor, abstract filmmaker, and performance artist. He is also known for his work in "Generating Art" and received a National Endowment for the Arts Fellowship Grant in Sculpture in 1979. In 1986 he was nearly killed in a fire that destroyed his studio and much of his artwork.
Career
Education
Richard Alpert was born on April 11, 1947, in New York City, New York. He graduated with an undergraduate degree in studio arts from the University of Pittsburgh in 1970, and an MFA in sculpture from the San Francisco Art Institute in 1973.
Career in the 1970s
In the 1970s Alpert's conceptual and performance art included the performance sculpture Strategy for a Dance; the video works Post Time, A Circular Route, The Opacity of Order, and Facture; the article and collection South of the Slot; the printed works Women: On Our Way and Stretch; and the performances Hand Generated Light, Probe, Finger, and Sylph. In 1976 Mir Bahadur wrote in Artweek that Hand Generated Light was created by Alpert locking himself in a closet for three hours cranking a manual electrical generator keeping a tiny light aglow on the outside of the door. The article described this work, as well as Spent Time, Spent Energy and Sylph by the term "Generating Art", whereby the subject of the work itself was the generation of the art being created. Another of his major works from this period of his career is Sound Sculpture.
In 1975 Alpert was interviewed as a part of a Museum of Conceptual Art in San Francisco (MOCA) sponsored history of art project titled 11 Video Interviews produced by Jeanette Willison, and his video work was included with another MOCA video compilation titled A Tight Thirteen Minutes that same year, showing one-minute color video works from thirteen artists. During this period his work appeared in magazines including Artweek and Arts Magazine. Alpert received a National Endowment for the Arts Fellowship Grant in Sculpture in 1979.
Career in the 1980s
Alpert's work was described by University of California, Berkeley's Pacific Film Archive in 1980 as "concerned with performance sculpture, video and concept-oriented drawing and object sculpture". That year an exhibition of his work was held at La Mamelle, Time Expands to Fit the Mold. In 1984 Alpert stated that his work was influenced not only by the performative arts but also by science. He wrote specifically that he has been inspired by Boyle's Law as well as the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
On April 4, 1986, at 3:30pm EST Alpert's collection of work up until that point was largely lost in an explosion that killed nine people and injured sixteen. During the explosion at the building that housed Alpert's studio, he was working on a new sculpture when the fire began raging on the floors below him. Alpert survived the blaze that took over 150 firefighters to contain. Alpert described the fire to a journalist that day: "There was no warning. There was a gigantic explosion. It went from daylight to pitch black. I got out because the roof collapsed around me."
Career in the 2000s
I think that all of my work ties into sculptural ideas whether video, performances, and obviously creating objects. All the art that I produce, or have produced, I feel can be interpreted as sculpture, even the work that might be seen as painting.
Since then Alpert has showed his work with a series of videos based on images recorded from a high-speed train journey in Spain, AVE (Alta Velocidad España) variations #1-10. Individual videos from this series have been screened in Europe, Cuba and India.
Alpert has also published three other books based on his photographs and videos over past ten years. He also restored a 1967 16mm film made whilst a student at the University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Alpert continues to produce object sculpture, photography and graphic (drawings) artwork.
Published works
Warm Water Cove
Warm Water Cove is a photo-book by Richard Alpert he published in 2015. His website describes this collection as "… a celebration of another San Francisco; one far off the beaten path and excluded from travel brochures and TripAdvisor. This side of San Francisco was certainly was not host to the 'summer of love' nor 'little cable cars…'".
References
External links
In 2019 he was interviewed at KPCA community radio in Petaluma, California by programmer Andy Sewell. Excerpts from the interview covering topics such as: the 2019 AVE videos, the restoration of the film Barrels and the 1986 Bayview Industrial Park, San Francisco fire and explosion. These are available on his website.
Interview with SiteWorks UK
Review with Film International (January 2021)
American sculptors
American performance artists
Living people
1947 births
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius%20Cary%2C%202nd%20Viscount%20Falkland
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Lucius Cary, 2nd Viscount Falkland
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Lucius Cary, 2nd Viscount Falkland PC (c. 1610 – 20 September 1643) was an English author and politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1640 to 1642. He fought on the Royalist side in the English Civil War and was killed in action at the First Battle of Newbury.
Early life
Cary was born at Burford in either 1609 or 1610 as the son of Sir Henry Cary, afterwards first Viscount Falkland, and his wife Elizabeth, whose father Sir Lawrence Tanfield was at that time Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer. Henry Cary, a member of an ancient Devon family, was lord deputy of Ireland from 1622 to 1629. He was made Viscount Falkland and Lord Cary in 1620. His viscountcy, Falkland, was a royal burgh in Scotland, notwithstanding that the Carys were an English family and had no connection with the burgh, though letters patent were later issued naturalising the Viscount and his successors as Scottish subjects.
In 1621 Lucius was admitted to St John's College, Cambridge but in the following year he migrated to Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated BA in 1625. In 1625 he inherited from his grandfather the manors of Great Tew and Burford in Oxfordshire, and, about the age of 21, married Lettice, daughter of Sir Richard Moryson, of Tooley Park in Leicestershire. Following a quarrel with his father, whom he failed to propitiate by offering to hand over to him his estate, he left England to take service in the Dutch army, but soon returned. In 1633, by the death of his father, he became Viscount Falkland. His mother had embraced Roman Catholicism, to which it was now sought to attract Falkland himself, but his studies and reflections led him, under the influence of William Chillingworth, to the interpretation of religious problems rather by reason than by tradition or authority.
In 1634, he sold Burford Priory to William Lenthall.
Great Tew circle
At Great Tew he enjoyed a short but happy period of study, and he assembled a cultured circle, whom the near neighbourhood of the university and his own brilliant qualities attracted to his house. He was the friend of John Hales and Chillingworth, was celebrated by Ben Jonson, John Suckling, Abraham Cowley and Edmund Waller in verse, and in prose by Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, who calls him the "incomparable" Falkland, and draws a delightful picture of his society and hospitality.
Political and military career
Falkland's intellectual pleasures, however, were soon interrupted by war and politics. He felt it his duty to take part on the side of King Charles I as a volunteer under the Earl of Essex in the Bishops' Wars of 1639 against the Scots. In 1640 he was elected Member of Parliament for Newport in the Isle of Wight to the Short Parliament. He was re-elected for Newport for the Long Parliament in November 1640, and took an active part on the side of the opposition. He spoke against the exaction of ship money on 7 December 1640, denouncing the servile conduct of Lord Keeper Finch and the judges.
He supported the prosecution of Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford, at the same time trying more than once to moderate the measures of the House of Commons in the interests of justice, and voted for the third reading of the attainder on 21 April 1641. On the question of the church he urged, in the debate of 8 February 1641, that the interference of the clergy in secular matters, the encroachments in jurisdiction of the spiritual courts, and the imposition by authority of unnecessary ceremonies, should be prohibited. On the other hand, though he denied that episcopacy existed jure divino, he was opposed to its abolition; fearing the establishment of the Presbyterian system, which in Scotland had proved equally tyrannical. Triennial parliaments would be sufficient to control the bishops, if they meditated any further attacks upon the national liberties, and he urged that "where it is not necessary to change, it is necessary not to change". (This was probably said in reply to John Hampden during the Root and Branch Bill debate that happened later.) Even John Hampden still believed that a compromise with the episcopal principle was possible, and assured Falkland that if the bill taken up to the House of Lords on 1 May 1641, excluding the bishops from the Lords and the clergy from secular offices, were passed, "there would be nothing more attempted to the prejudice of the church". Accordingly, the bill was supported by Falkland.
The times, however, were not favourable to compromise. The bill was lost in the Lords, and on 27 May the Root and Branch Bill, for the total abolition of episcopacy, was introduced in the House of Commons. This measure Falkland opposed, as well as the second bill for excluding the bishops, introduced on 21 October 1641. In the discussion on the Grand Remonstrance he took the part of the bishops and the Arminians. He was now opposed to the whole policy of the opposition, and, being reproached by John Hampden with his change of attitude, replied "that he had formerly been persuaded by that worthy gentleman to believe many things which he had since found to be untrue, and therefore he had changed his opinion in many particulars as well as to things as to persons".
On 1 January 1642, immediately before the attempted arrest of the five members, of which, however, Falkland was unaware, the King offered him the secretaryship of state, and Sir Edward Hyde (later Lord Clarendon) persuaded him to accept it. Falkland thus became involved directly in the king's policy, though evidently possessing little influence in his counsels. He was one of the peers who signed the protestation against making war, at York on 15 June 1642. On 5 September 1642 he carried Charles's overtures for peace to the parliament, when he informed the leaders of the opposition that the king consented to a thorough reformation of religion. The secret correspondence connected with the Waller plot passed through his hands.
Falkland fought for the king at the Battle of Edgehill (23 October 1642) and at the Siege of Gloucester. By this time the hopelessness of the situation had completely overwhelmed him. The aims and principles of neither party in the conflict could satisfy a man of Falkland's high ideals and intellectual vision. His royalism could not suffer the substitution, as the controlling power in the state, of a parliament for the monarchy, nor his conservatism the revolutionary changes in church and state now insisted upon by the opposite faction. The fatal character and policy of the king, the most incapable of men and yet the man upon whom all depended, must have been by now thoroughly understood by Falkland. Compromise had long been out of the question. The victory of either side could only bring misery; and the prolongation of the war was a prospect equally unhappy.
Falkland's ideals and hopes were now destroyed, and he had no definite political convictions such as inspired and strengthened Strafford and John Pym. In fact his sensitive nature shrank from contact with the practical politics of the day and prevented his rise to the place of a leader or a statesman. Lord Clarendon has recorded his final relapse into despair:
Sitting amongst his friends, often, after a deep silence and frequent sighs (he) would with a shrill and sad accent ingeminate the word "Peace, Peace," and would passionately profess that the very agony of the war, and the view of the calamities and desolation the kingdom did and must endure, took his sleep from him and would shortly break his heart.
At Gloucester he had in vain exposed himself to risks. On the morning of the First Battle of Newbury, on 20 September 1643, he declared to his friends, who would have dissuaded him from taking part in the fight, that "he was weary of the times and foresaw much misery to his own Country and did believe he should be out of it ere night." He served during the engagement as a volunteer under Sir John Byron and, riding alone at a gap in a hedge commanded by the enemy's fire, was immediately killed.
His body was stripped and left until recognised by a servant, who took his body back to Great Tew, where he was buried in an unmarked grave in the village churchyard.
Death
He died at the age of 33 and was succeeded in the title by his eldest son Lucius, 3rd Viscount Falkland. His male descent became extinct in the person of Anthony, 5th viscount in 1694, when the viscounty passed to Lucius Henry (1687–1730), a descendant of the first viscount and his direct descendants.
Works
Falkland wrote a Discourse of Infallibility, published in 1646 (Thomason Tracts, E 361), reprinted in 1650, in 1651 (E 634) edited by Triplet with replies, and in 1660 with the addition of two discourses on episcopacy by Falkland. This is a work of some importance in theological controversy, the general argument being that "to those who follow their reason in the interpretation of the Scriptures God will either give his grace for assistance to find the truth or his pardon if they miss it. And then this supposed necessity of an infallible guide (with the supposed damnation for the want of it) fall together to the ground." Also A Letter ... 30 Sept. 1642 concerning the late conflict before Worcester (1642); and Poems, in which he shows himself a follower of Ben Jonson, edited by A. B. Grosart in Miscellanies of the Fuller Worthies Library, vol. iii. (f 871).
John Aubrey attributed to Falkland the title "the first Socinian in England" but later gave that title to John Hales.
Also attributed to Falkland is the dictum, "When it is not necessary to make a decision, it is necessary not to make a decision."
Assessment
According to Clarendon, he was:
In no degree attractive or promising. His stature was low and smaller than most men; his motion not graceful ... but that little person and small stature was quickly found to contain a great heart ... all mankind could not but admire and love him.
Falkland is notable not for his writings or political career, but his intellectual position, his isolation from his contemporaries seeking reformation in the inward and spiritual life of the church and state and not in its outward and material form, and as a leader of rationalism in an age dominated by intolerance and dogmatism.
References
Bibliography
There is a Life and Times by John Arthur Ransome Marriott (1907): see also S. R. Gardiner's History of England; History of the Civil War; the same author's article in the Dictionary of National Biography.
External links
1610s births
1643 deaths
17th-century English writers
17th-century English male writers
17th-century Scottish peers
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
Arminian writers
Lucius
Cavaliers
Deaths by firearm in England
English military personnel killed in action
English MPs 1640 (April)
English MPs 1640–1648
Lords Privy Seal
People killed in the English Civil War
Members of the Privy Council of England
Secretaries of State of the Kingdom of England
Viscounts Falkland
Military personnel of the English Civil War
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel%20Velikovsky
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Immanuel Velikovsky
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Immanuel Velikovsky (; ; 17 November 1979) was a Russian, Israeli, and American scholar. He is the author of several books offering pseudohistorical interpretations of ancient history, including the U.S. bestseller Worlds in Collision published in 1950. Earlier, he had played a role in the founding of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in Israel, and was a psychiatrist and psychoanalyst. Velikovsky's work is frequently cited as a canonical example of pseudoscience and has been used as an example of the demarcation problem.
His books use comparative mythology and ancient literary sources (including the Old Testament) to argue that Earth suffered catastrophic close contacts with other planets (principally Venus and Mars) in ancient history. In positioning Velikovsky among catastrophists including Hans Bellamy, Ignatius Donnelly, and , the British astronomers Victor Clube and Bill Napier noted "... Velikovsky is not so much the first of the new catastrophists ...; he is the last in a line of traditional catastrophists going back to mediaeval times and probably earlier." Velikovsky argued that electromagnetic effects play an important role in celestial mechanics. He also proposed a revised chronology for ancient Egypt, Greece, Israel, and other cultures of the ancient Near East. The revised chronology aimed at explaining the so-called "dark age" of the eastern Mediterranean (c. 1100–750 BC) and reconciling biblical history with mainstream archaeology and Egyptian chronology.
In general, Velikovsky's theories have been ignored or vigorously rejected by the academic community. Nonetheless, his books often sold well and gained an enthusiastic support in lay circles, often fuelled by claims of unfair treatment for Velikovsky by orthodox academia. The controversy surrounding his work and its reception is often referred to as "the Velikovsky affair".
Childhood and early education
Immanuel Velikovsky was born in 1895 to a prosperous Lithuanian Jewish family in Vitebsk, Russia (now in Belarus). The son of Shimon (Simon Yehiel) Velikovsky (1859–1937) and Beila Grodensky, he learned several languages as a child and was sent away to study at the Medvednikov Gymnasium in Moscow, where he performed well in Russian and mathematics. He graduated with a gold medal in 1913. Velikovsky then traveled in Europe and visited Palestine before briefly studying medicine at Montpellier in France and taking premedical courses at the University of Edinburgh. He returned to Russia before the outbreak of World War I, enrolled in the University of Moscow, and received a medical degree in 1921.
Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Upon taking his medical degree, Velikovsky left Russia for Berlin. With the financial support of his father, Velikovsky edited and published two volumes of scientific papers translated into Hebrew. The volumes were titled Scripta Universitatis Atque Bibliothecae Hierosolymitanarum ("Writings of the Jerusalem University & Library"). He enlisted Albert Einstein to prepare the volume dealing with mathematics and physics. This project was a cornerstone in the formation of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, as the fledgling university was able to donate copies of the Scripta to the libraries of other academic institutions in exchange for complimentary copies of publications from those institutions.
In 1923, Velikovsky married Elisheva Kramer, a young violinist.
Career as a psychiatrist
Velikovsky lived in what was then the British Mandate of Palestine from 1924 to 1939, practising medicine in the fields of general practice, psychiatry, and psychoanalysis which he had studied under Sigmund Freud's pupil Wilhelm Stekel in Vienna. During this time, he had about a dozen papers published in medical and psychoanalytic journals. He was also published in Freud's Imago, including a precocious analysis of Freud's own dreams.
Emigration to the US and a career as an author
In 1939, with the prospect of war looming, Velikovsky travelled with his family to New York City, intending to spend a sabbatical year researching for his book Oedipus and Akhenaton. The book was inspired by Freud's Moses and Monotheism and explored the possibility that Pharaoh Akhenaton was the legendary Oedipus. Freud had argued that Akhenaton, the supposedly monotheistic Egyptian pharaoh, was the source of the religious principles that Moses taught to the people of Israel in the desert. Freud's claim (and that of others before him) was based in part on the resemblance of Psalm 104 in the Bible to the Great Hymn to the Aten, an Egyptian hymn discovered on the wall of the tomb of Akhenaten's courtier, Ay, in Akhenaten's city of Akhetaten. To disprove Freud's claim and to prove the Exodus as such, Velikovsky sought evidence for the Exodus in Egyptian documents. One such document was the Ipuwer Papyrus, which he felt reported events similar to several of the Biblical plagues. Since conventional Egyptology dated the Ipuwer Papyrus much earlier than either the Biblical date for the Exodus (ca. 1500—1450 BCE) or the Exodus date accepted by many of those who accepted the conventional chronology of Egypt (ca. 1250 BCE), Velikovsky had to revise the conventional chronology.
Within weeks of his arrival in the United States, World War II began. Launching on a tangent from his original book project, Velikovsky began to develop the radical catastrophist cosmology and revised chronology theories for which he would become notorious. For the remainder of the Second World War, now as a permanent resident of New York City, he continued to research and write about his ideas, searching for a means to disseminate them to academia and the public. He privately published two small Scripta Academica pamphlets summarising his theories in 1945 (Theses for the Reconstruction of Ancient History and Cosmos Without Gravitation). He mailed copies of the latter to academic libraries and scientists, including Harvard astronomer Harlow Shapley in 1947.
In 1950, after eight publishing houses rejected the Worlds in Collision manuscript, it was finally published by Macmillan, which had a large presence in the academic textbook market. Even before its appearance, the book was enveloped by furious controversy, when Harper's Magazine published a highly positive feature on it, as did Reader's Digest, with what would today be called a creationist slant. This came to the attention of Shapley, who opposed the publication of the work, having been made familiar with Velikovsky's claims through the pamphlet Velikovsky had given him. Shapley threatened to organise a textbook boycott of Macmillan for its publication of Worlds in Collision, and within two months the book was transferred to Doubleday. It was by then a bestseller in the United States. In 1952, Doubleday published the first installment in Velikovsky's revised chronology, Ages in Chaos, followed by the Earth in Upheaval (a geological volume) in 1955. In November 1952, Velikovsky moved from Manhattan to Princeton, New Jersey.
For most of the 1950s and early 1960s, Velikovsky was persona non grata on college and university campuses. After this period, he began to receive more requests to speak. He lectured, frequently to record crowds, at universities across North America. In 1972, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation aired a one-hour television special featuring Velikovsky and his work, and this was followed by a thirty-minute documentary by the BBC in 1973.
During the remainder of the 1970s, Velikovsky devoted a great deal of his time and energy to rebutting his critics in academia, and he continued to tour North America and Europe to deliver lectures on his ideas. By that time, the elderly Velikovsky suffered from diabetes and intermittent depression, which his daughter said may have been exacerbated by the academic establishment's continuing rejection of his work. He died in 1979.
Posthumous administration of literary estate
For many years, Velikovsky's estate was controlled by his two daughters, Shulamit Velikovsky Kogan (b. 1925), and Ruth Ruhama Velikovsky Sharon (b. 1926), who generally resisted the publication of any further material. (Exceptions include the biography ABA — the Glory and the Torment: The Life of Dr. Immanuel Velikovsky, issued in 1995 and greeted with rather dubious reviews; and a Hebrew translation of another Ages in Chaos volume, The Dark Age of Greece, which was published in Israel.) A volume of Velikovsky's discussions and correspondence with Albert Einstein appeared in Hebrew in Israel, translated and edited by his daughter Shulamit Velikovsky Kogan. In the late 1990s, a large portion of Velikovsky's unpublished book manuscripts, essays and correspondence became available at the Velikovsky Archive website. In 2005, Velikovsky's daughter Ruth Sharon presented his entire archive to Princeton University Library.
Ideas
In 1920s and 1930s, Velikovsky published his concepts in medical and psychoanalytic journals. He is best known, however, for research performed in 1940s when living in New York City. His main ideas in this area were summarized in an affidavit of November 1942, and two privately published Scripta Academica pamphlets, Theses for the Reconstruction of Ancient History (1945) and Cosmos without Gravitation (1946).
Rather than have his ideas dismissed wholesale because of potential flaws in any one area, Velikovsky then chose to publish them as a series of book volumes, aimed at a lay audience, dealing separately with his proposals on ancient history, and with areas more relevant to the physical sciences. Velikovsky was a passionate Zionist, and this did steer the focus of his work, although its scope was considerably more far-reaching than this. The entire body of work could be said to stem from an attempt to solve the following problem: that to Velikovsky there appeared to be insufficient correlation in the written or archaeological records between Biblical history and what was known of the history of the area, in particular, Egypt.
Velikovsky searched for common mention of events within literary records, and in the Ipuwer Papyrus he believed he had found a contemporary Egyptian account of the Plagues of Egypt. Moreover, he interpreted both accounts as descriptions of a great natural catastrophe. Velikovsky attempted to investigate the physical cause of these events, and extrapolated backwards and forwards in history from this point, cross-comparing written and mythical records from cultures on every inhabited continent, using them to attempt synchronisms of the historical records, yielding what he believed to be further periodic natural catastrophes that can be global in scale.
He arrived at a body of radical inter-disciplinary ideas, which might be summarised as:
Planet Earth has suffered natural catastrophes on a global scale, both before and during humankind's recorded history.
There is evidence for these catastrophes in the geological record (here Velikovsky was advocating Catastrophist ideas as opposed to the prevailing Uniformitarian notions) and archeological record. The extinction of many species had occurred catastrophically, not by gradual Darwinian means.
The catastrophes that occurred within the memory of humankind are recorded in the myths, legends and written history of all ancient cultures and civilisations. Velikovsky pointed to alleged concordances in the accounts of many cultures, and proposed that they referred to the same real events. For instance, the memory of a flood is recorded in the Hebrew Bible, in the Greek legend of Deucalion, and in the Manu legend of India. Velikovsky put forward the psychoanalytic idea of "Cultural Amnesia" as a mechanism whereby these literal records came to be regarded as mere myths and legends.
The causes of these natural catastrophes were close encounters between the Earth and other bodies within the Solar System — not least what are now the planets Saturn, Jupiter, Venus, and Mars, these bodies having moved upon different orbits within human memory.
To explain the fact that these changes to the configuration of the Solar System violate several well-understood laws of physics, Velikovsky invented a role for electromagnetic forces in counteracting gravity and orbital mechanics.
Some of Velikovsky's specific postulated catastrophes included:
A tentative suggestion that Earth had once been a satellite of a "proto-Saturn" body, before its current solar orbit.
That the Deluge (Noah's Flood) had been caused by proto-Saturn's entering a nova state, and ejecting much of its mass into space.
A suggestion that the planet Mercury was involved in the Tower of Babel catastrophe.
Jupiter had been the prime mover in the catastrophe that saw the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah.
Periodic close contacts with a "cometary Venus" (which had been ejected from Jupiter) had caused the Exodus events (c. 1500 BCE) and Joshua's subsequent "sun standing still" (Joshua 10:12–13) incident.
Periodic close contacts with Mars had caused havoc in the 8th and 7th centuries BCE.
As noted above, Velikovsky had conceived the broad sweep of this material by the early 1940s. However, within his lifetime, whilst he continued to research, expand and lecture upon the details of his ideas, he released only selected portions of his work to the public in book form:
Worlds in Collision (1950) discussed the literary and mythical records of the "Venus" and "Mars" catastrophes
Portions of his Revised Chronology were published as Ages in Chaos (1952), Peoples of the Sea (1977) and Rameses II and His Time (1978) (The related monograph Oedipus and Akhenaten, 1960, posited the thesis that pharaoh Akhenaten was the prototype for the Greek mythic figure Oedipus.)
Earth in Upheaval (1955) dealt with geological evidence for global natural catastrophes.
Velikovsky's ideas on his earlier Saturn/Mercury/Jupiter events were never published, and the available archived manuscripts are much less developed.
Of all the strands of his work, Velikovsky published least on his belief that electromagnetism plays a role in orbital mechanics. Although he appears to have retreated from the propositions in his 1946 monograph Cosmos without Gravitation, no such retreat is apparent in Stargazers and Gravediggers. Cosmos without Gravitation, which Velikovsky placed in university libraries and sent to scientists, is a probable catalyst for the hostile response of astronomers and physicists to his later claims about astronomy. However, other Velikovskian enthusiasts such as Ralph Juergens (dec.), Earl Milton (dec.), Wal Thornhill, and Donald E. Scott have claimed that stars are powered not by internal nuclear fusion, but by galactic-scale electrical discharge currents. Such ideas do not find support in the conventional literature and are rejected as pseudoscience by the scientific community.
Revised chronology
Velikovsky argued that the conventional chronology of the Near East and classical world, based upon Egyptian Sothic dating and the king lists of Manetho, was wholly flawed. This was the reason for the apparent absence of correlation between the Biblical account and those of neighbouring cultures, and also the cause of the enigmatic "Dark Ages" in Greece and elsewhere. Velikovsky shifted several chronologies and dynasties from the Egyptian Old Kingdom to Ptolemaic times by centuries (a scheme he called the Revised Chronology), placing The Exodus contemporary with the fall of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. He proposed numerous other synchronisms stretching up to the time of Alexander the Great. He argued that these eliminate phantom "Dark Ages", and vindicate the biblical accounts of history and those recorded by Herodotus.
These ideas were first put forward briefly in his Theses for the Reconstruction of Ancient History, but Ages in Chaos was his first full-length work on the subject. This was followed by Oedipus and Akhenaton, Peoples of the Sea and Rameses II and His Time, and two further works that were unpublished at the time of his death but that are now available online at the Velikovsky Archive: The Assyrian Conquest and The Dark Ages of Greece.
Though rejected by mainstream historians, these ideas have been developed by other historians such as David Rohl and Peter James, who have also attempted their own revised chronologies.
Reception
Velikovskyism
Velikovsky inspired numerous followers during the 1960s and 1970s.
Alfred de Grazia dedicated a 1963 issue of his journal, American Behavioral Scientist, to Velikovsky, which was published in an expanded version as a book, The Velikovsky Affair — Scientism Versus Science, in 1966.
The Skeptical Inquirer, in a review of a later book by de Grazia, Cosmic Heretics (1984), suggests that de Grazia's efforts may be responsible for Velikovsky's continuing notability during the 1970s.
The Society for Interdisciplinary Studies (SIS) was "formed in 1974 in response to the growing interest in the works of modern catastrophists, notably the highly controversial Dr. Immanuel Velikovsky". The Institute for the Study of Interdisciplinary Sciences (ISIS) is a 1985 spinoff from the SIS founded under the directorship of David Rohl, who had come to reject Velikovsky's Revised Chronology in favour of his own "New Chronology".
Kronos: A Journal of Interdisciplinary Synthesis was founded in 1975 explicitly "to deal with Velikovsky's work". Ten issues of Pensée: Immanuel Velikovsky Reconsidered appeared from 1972 to 1975.
The controversy surrounding Velikovsky peaked in the mid 1970s and public interest declined in the 1980s and, by 1984, erstwhile Velikovskyist C. Leroy Ellenberger had become a vocal critic of Velikovskian catastrophism. Some Velikovskyist publications and authors such as David Talbott remain active into the 2000s.
Criticism
Velikovsky's ideas have been rejected by mainstream academia (often vociferously so) and his work is generally regarded as erroneous in all its detailed conclusions. Moreover, scholars view his unorthodox methodology (for example, using comparative mythology to derive scenarios in celestial mechanics) as an unacceptable way to arrive at conclusions. Stephen Jay Gould offered a synopsis of the mainstream response to Velikovsky, writing, "Velikovsky is neither crank nor charlatan—although, to state my opinion and to quote one of my colleagues, he is at least gloriously wrong ... Velikovsky would rebuild the science of celestial mechanics to save the literal accuracy of ancient legends."
Velikovsky's bestselling, and as a consequence most criticized, book is Worlds in Collision. Astronomer Harlow Shapley, along with others such as Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin, were highly critical of Macmillan's decision to publish the work. The fundamental criticism against this book from the astronomy community was that its celestial mechanics were physically impossible, requiring planetary orbits that do not conform with the laws of conservation of energy and conservation of angular momentum.
Velikovsky relates in his book Stargazers & Gravediggers how he tried to protect himself from criticism of his celestial mechanics by removing the original appendix on the subject from Worlds in Collision, hoping that the merit of his ideas would be evaluated on the basis of his comparative mythology and use of literary sources alone. However, this strategy did not protect him: the appendix was an expanded version of the Cosmos Without Gravitation monograph, which he had already distributed to Shapley and others in the late 1940s—and they had regarded the physics within it as absurd.
By 1974, the controversy surrounding Velikovsky's work had permeated US society to the point where the American Association for the Advancement of Science felt obliged to address the situation, as they had previously done in relation to UFOs, and devoted a scientific session to Velikovsky featuring (among others) Velikovsky himself and Professor Carl Sagan. Sagan gave a critique of Velikovsky's ideas (the book version of Sagan's critique is much longer than that presented in the talk; see below). His criticisms are available in Scientists Confront Velikovsky and as a corrected and revised version in the book Broca's Brain: Reflections on the Romance of Science.
It was not until the 1980s that a very detailed critique of Worlds in Collision was made in terms of its use of mythical and literary sources when Bob Forrest published a highly critical examination of them (see below). Earlier in 1974, James Fitton published a brief critique of Velikovsky's interpretation of myth (ignored by Velikovsky and his defenders) whose indictment began: "In at least three important ways Velikovsky's use of mythology is unsound. The first of these is his proclivity to treat all myths as having independent value; the second is the tendency to treat only such material as is consistent with his thesis; and the third is his very unsystematic method." A short analysis of the position of arguments in the late 20th century is given by Dr Velikovsky's ex-associate, and Kronos editor, C. Leroy Ellenberger, in his A Lesson from Velikovsky.
More recently, the absence of supporting material in ice-core studies (such as the Greenland Dye-3 and Vostok cores) has removed any basis for the proposition of a global catastrophe of the proposed dimension within the later Holocene period. However, tree-ring expert Mike Baillie would give credit to Velikovsky after disallowing the impossible aspects of Worlds in Collision: "However, I would not disagree with all aspects of Velikovsky's work. Velikovsky was almost certainly correct in his assertion that ancient texts hold clues to catastrophic events in the relatively recent past, within the span of human civilization, which involve the effects of comets, meteorites and cometary dust ... But fundamentally, Velikovsky did not understand anything about comets ... He did not know about the hazard posed by relatively small objects ... This failure to recognize the power of comets and asteroids means that it is reasonable to go back to Velikovsky and delete all the physically impossible text about Venus and Mars passing close to the earth ... In other words, we can get down to his main thesis, which is that the Earth experienced dramatic events from heavenly bodies particularly in the second millennium BC."
Velikovsky's revised chronology has been rejected by nearly all mainstream historians and Egyptologists. It was claimed, starting with early reviewers, that Velikovsky's usage of material for proof is often very selective. In 1965 the leading cuneiformist Abraham Sachs, in a forum at Brown University, discredited Velikovsky's use of Mesopotamian cuneiform sources. Velikovsky was never able to refute Sachs' attack. In 1978, following the much-postponed publication of further volumes in Velikovsky's Ages in Chaos series, the United Kingdom-based Society for Interdisciplinary Studies organised a conference in Glasgow specifically to debate the revised chronology. The ultimate conclusion of this work, by scholars including Peter James, John Bimson, Geoffrey Gammonn, and David Rohl, was that the Revised Chronology was untenable. The SIS has continued to publish updates of this ongoing discussion, in particular the work of historian Emmet Sweeney.
While James credits Velikovsky with "point[ing] the way to a solution by challenging Egyptian chronology", he severely criticised the contents of Velikovsky's chronology as "disastrously extreme", producing "a rash of new problems far more severe than those it hoped to solve" and claiming that "Velikovsky understood little of archaeology and nothing of stratigraphy."
Bauer accuses Velikovsky of dogmatically asserting interpretations which are at best possible, and gives several examples from Ages in Chaos.
"The Velikovsky Affair"
Such was the hostility directed against Velikovsky from some quarters (particularly the original campaign led by Harlow Shapley), that some commentators have made an analysis of the conflict itself. Among these was a study by American Behavioral Scientist magazine, eventually published in book form as The Velikovsky Affair — Scientism Versus Science. This framed the discussion in terms of how academic disciplines reacted to ideas from workers from outside their field, claiming that there was an academic aversion to permitting people to cross inter-disciplinary boundaries. More recently, James Gilbert, professor of history at the University of Maryland, challenged this traditional version with an account that focused on the intellectual rivalry between Velikovsky's ally Horace Kallen and Harlow Shapley. Earlier, Henry Bauer had challenged the view that the Velikovsky Affair illustrated the resistance of scientists to new ideas by pointing out "the nature and validity of Velikovsky's claims must be considered before one decides that the Affair can illuminate the reception of new ideas in science ..." and, on the same basis, Keith Dixon contended that the treatment of the case by sociologists was an example of a broader unhealthy tendency in sociology to explain all opinions as ideologically motivated without considering their possible rational basis.
The scientific press, in general, denied Velikovsky a forum to rebut his critics. Velikovsky claimed that this made him a "suppressed genius", and he likened himself to the 16th century heretical friar Giordano Bruno, who was burnt at the stake for his beliefs.
The controversy created by Velikovsky's publications may have helped revive the catastrophist movement in the second half of the 20th century; however, it is also held by some working in the field that progress has actually been retarded by the negative aspects of the so-called Velikovsky Affair.
Bibliography
Worlds in Collision (1950) (new edition: ) The Macmillan Company
Worlds in Collision (1950) (new edition: ) Doubleday
Ages in Chaos (1952) (new edition: ) Doubleday
Earth In Upheaval (1955) (new edition: ) Doubleday
Oedipus and Akhnaton (1960) (new edition: ) Doubleday
Peoples of the Sea (1977) (new edition: ) Doubleday
Ramses II and His Time (1978) (new edition: ) Doubleday
Mankind in Amnesia (1982) (new edition: ) Doubleday
Stargazers and Gravediggers (1983) (new edition: ) William Morrow
The Dark Age of Greece Published in Israel
In the Beginning Unpublished manuscript.
References
Citations
Sources
Abell, George O. (1981). Scientists and Velikovsky, in Paranormal Borderlands of Science, edited by Kendrick Frazier, Prometheus Books.
Allan, D.S. and J.B. Delair (1995). When The Earth Nearly Died. Gateway Books, UK. published in US as Cataclysm by Bear & Co, 1997. A précis is here. (When the Earth Nearly Died Knowledge.co.uk)
Bauer, Henry H. (1980). Passions and Purposes: A Perspective, Skeptical Inquirer, Vol 5, #1, Fall 1980, 28–31. Reprinted in Paranormal Borderlands of Science, edited by Kendrick Frazier, Prometheus Books.
Bauer, Henry H. (1984, paperback ed. 1999). Beyond Velikovsky. The History of a Public Controversy. University of Illinois, Urbana.
Bauer, Henry H. (1995). Velikovsky's place in the history of science: A lesson on the strengths and limitations of science. Skeptic 3 (4), 52–56. Homestead.com
Carroll, Robert Todd (2003). The Skeptic's Dictionary: A Collection of Strange Beliefs, Amusing Deceptions, and Dangerous Delusions, John Wiley & Sons, . Pages 396–401.
Alfred de Grazia, Ralph E. Juergens, Stecchini L.C. (Eds.) (1978). The Velikovsky Affair — Scientism versus Science. 2ed., Metron Publications, Princeton, New Jersey. Also online.
Alfred de Grazia, Cosmic Heretics 2nd edition (2013),
Dolby, R. G. A. (1975). What Can We Usefully Learn from the Velikovsky Affair. Social Studies of Science 5, 165-75; revised as On Schools of Thought, S.I.S. Review 1976; I(3), 26–30.
Forrest, Bob (1981). Velikovsky's Sources. In six volumes, with Notes and Index Volume. Privately published by the author, Manchester.
Forrest, Robert (1983). Venus and Velikovsky: The Original Sources, Skeptical Inquirer, Vol 8, #2, Winter 1983–1984, 154–164.
Forrest, Bob (1987). Guide to Velikovsky's Sources. Stonehenge Viewpoint, Santa Barbara.
Frazier, Kendrick (1980). The Distortions Continue, Skeptical Inquirer, Vol 5, #1, Fall 1980, 32–38. Reprinted in Paranormal Borderlands of Science, edited by Kendrick Frazier, Prometheus Books.
Gardner, Martin (1957). Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science, chapter 3, Dover
Goldsmith, Donald, (Ed.) (1977) Scientists Confront Velikovsky. Norton. Proceedings of a symposium at the 1974 meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
. This book is Kronos IV:2, (1978) with a different cover. (see also Scientists Confront Scientists Who Confront Velikovsky)
Marriott, David (2004) The Velikovsky Inheritance, Vanguard Press, 2006, , .
Miller, Alice (1977). Index to the Works of Immanuel Velikovsky. Glassboro State College, Glassboro.
Oberg, James (1980). Ideas in Collision, Skeptical Inquirer, Vol 5, #1, Fall 1980, 20–27. Reprinted in Paranormal Borderlands of Science, edited by Kendrick Frazier, Prometheus Books.
Payne-Gaposchkin, Cecilia (1952). Worlds in Collision, in Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol 96, Oct. 15, 1952.
Pensée. 1972–1975. Immanuel Velikovsky Reconsidered. I – X. Student Academic Freedon Forum, Portland.
Ransom, C.J. (1976) The Age of Velikovsky. Delta, New York.
Plait, Philip (2002). Bad Astronomy: Misconceptions and Misuses Revealed, from Astrology to the Moon Landing "Hoax", John Wiley & Sons, . Chapter 18.
Rohl, David (1996) A Test of Time. Arrow Books. ,
Sagan, Carl, (1979) Broca's Brain. Random House. Reissued 1986 by Ballantine Books. . Reprinted as chapter 15 of Science and the Paranormal: Probing the Existence of the Supernatural, edited by George O. Abell and Barry Singer, Scribners, 1981. Chapter 7 in Broca's Brain, "Venus and Dr. Velikovsky", is a corrected and slightly revised version of "An Analysis of Worlds in Collision," which originally appeared in Scientists Confront Velikovsky.
Schadewald, Robert (2008). Worlds of Their Own — A Brief History of Misguided Ideas: Creationism, Flat-Earthism, Energy Scams, and the Velikovsky Affair, Xlibris, , Part I.
Sharon, Ruth Velikovsky (2010): ABA - The Glory and the Torment: The Life of Dr. Immanuel Velikovsky, Paradigma (new revised edition).
Sharon, Ruth Velikovsky (2010): Immanuel Velikovsky - The Truth Behind the Torment, Paradigma (new revised edition).
Editors of Pensée. (1976) Velikovsky Reconsidered. Doubleday, New York.
External links
Velikovsky works available online
The Velikovsky Archive — an online collection of works, including unpublished manuscripts and audio recordings of lectures
Documentary, Velikovsky: The Bonds of the Past, CBC, 22 February 1972
Documentary, Worlds in Collision, BBC Horizon, 11 January 1973
Jerry Pournelle's commentaries on Sagan's arguments at the AAAS meeting
Velikovsky in Collision — Stephen Jay Gould
(Linked on-line copy has some additions by Ellenberger to the article as originally published.)
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|
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212786
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maltose
|
Maltose
|
Maltose ( or ), also known as maltobiose or malt sugar, is a disaccharide formed from two units of glucose joined with an α(1→4) bond. In the isomer isomaltose, the two glucose molecules are joined with an α(1→6) bond. Maltose is the two-unit member of the amylose homologous series, the key structural motif of starch. When alpha-amylase breaks down starch, it removes two glucose units at a time, producing maltose. An example of this reaction is found in germinating seeds, which is why it was named after malt. Unlike sucrose, it is a reducing sugar.
History
Maltose was 'discovered' by Augustin-Pierre Dubrunfaut, although this discovery was not widely accepted until it was confirmed in 1872 by Irish chemist and brewer Cornelius O'Sullivan. Its name comes from malt, combined with the suffix '-ose' which is used in names of sugars.
Structure and nomenclature
Carbohydrates are generally divided into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides depending on the number of sugar subunits. Maltose, with two sugar units, is a disaccharide, which falls under oligosaccharides. Glucose is a hexose: a monosaccharide containing six carbon atoms. The two glucose units are in the pyranose form and are joined by an O-glycosidic bond, with the first carbon (C1) of the first glucose linked to the fourth carbon (C4) of the second glucose, indicated as (1→4). The link is characterized as α because the glycosidic bond to the anomeric carbon (C1) is in the opposite plane from the substituent in the same ring (C6 of the first glucose). If the glycosidic bond to the anomeric carbon (C1) were in the same plane as the substituent, it would be classified as a β(1→4) bond, and the resulting molecule would be cellobiose. The anomeric carbon (C1) of the second glucose molecule, which is not involved in a glycosidic bond, could be either an α- or β-anomer depending on the bond direction of the attached hydroxyl group relative to the substituent of the same ring, resulting in either α-maltose or β-maltose.
An isomer of maltose is isomaltose. This is similar to maltose but instead of a bond in the α(1→4) position, it is in the α(1→6) position, the same bond that is found at the branch points of glycogen and amylopectin.
Properties
Like glucose, maltose is a reducing sugar, because the ring of one of the two glucose units can open to present a free aldehyde group; the other one cannot because of the nature of the glycosidic bond. Maltose can be broken down to glucose by the maltase enzyme, which catalyses the hydrolysis of the glycosidic bond.
Maltose in aqueous solution exhibits mutarotation, because the α and β isomers that are formed by the different conformations of the anomeric carbon have different specific rotations, and in aqueous solutions, these two forms are in equilibrium. Maltose can easily be detected by the Woehlk test or Fearon's test on methylamine.
It has a sweet taste, but is only about 30–60% as sweet as sugar, depending on the concentration. A 10% solution of maltose is 35% as sweet as sucrose.
Sources and absorption
Maltose is a malt component, a substance obtained when the grain is softened in water and germinate. It is also present in highly variable quantities in partially hydrolyzed starch products like maltodextrin, corn syrup and acid-thinned starch.
In humans, maltose is broken down by various maltase enzymes, providing two glucose molecules that can be further processed: either broken down to provide energy, or stored as glycogen. The lack of the sucrase-isomaltase enzyme in humans causes sucrose intolerance, but complete maltose intolerance is extremely rare because there are four different maltase enzymes.
References
External links
Maltose, Elmhurst College Virtual Chembook.
Disaccharides
Starch
Sugar substitutes
Malt
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannose
|
Mannose
|
Mannose is a sugar monomer of the aldohexose series of carbohydrates. It is a C-2 epimer of glucose. Mannose is important in human metabolism, especially in the glycosylation of certain proteins. Several congenital disorders of glycosylation are associated with mutations in enzymes involved in mannose metabolism.
Mannose is not an essential nutrient; it can be produced in the human body from glucose, or converted into glucose. Mannose provides 2–5 kcal/g. It is partially excreted in the urine.
Structure
Mannose commonly exists as two different-sized rings, the pyranose (six-membered) form and the furanose (five-membered) form. Each ring closure can have either an alpha or beta configuration at the anomeric position. The chemical rapidly undergoes isomerization among these four forms.
Metabolism
While much of the mannose used in glycosylation is believed to be derived from glucose, in cultured hepatoma cells (cancerous cells from the liver), most of the mannose for glycoprotein biosynthesis comes from extracellular mannose, not glucose. Many of the glycoproteins produced in the liver are secreted into the bloodstream, so dietary mannose is distributed throughout the body.
Mannose is present in numerous glycoconjugates including N-linked glycosylation of proteins. C-Mannosylation is also abundant and can be found in collagen-like regions.
The digestion of many polysaccharides and glycoproteins yields mannose, which is phosphorylated by hexokinase to generate mannose-6-phosphate. Mannose-6-phosphate is converted to fructose-6-phosphate, by the enzyme phosphomannose isomerase, and then enters the glycolytic pathway or is converted to glucose-6-phosphate by the gluconeogenic pathway of hepatocytes.
Mannose is a dominant monosaccharide in N-linked glycosylation, which is a post-translational modification of proteins. It is initiated by the en bloc transfer on Glc3Man9GlcNAc2 to nascent glycoproteins in the endoplasmic reticulum in a co-translational manner as the protein entered through the transport system. Glucose is hydrolyzed on fully folded protein and the mannose moieties are hydrolyzed by ER and Golgi-resident mannosidases. Typically, mature human glycoproteins only contain three mannose residues buried under sequential modification by GlcNAc, galactose, and sialic acid. This is important, as the innate immune system in mammals is geared to recognise exposed mannose residues. This activity is due to the prevalence of mannose residues, in the form of mannans, on the surfaces of yeasts. The human immunodeficiency virus displays considerable amount of mannose residues due to the tight clustering of glycans in its viral spike. These mannose residues are the target for broadly neutralizing antibodies.
Biotechnology
Recombinant proteins produced in yeast may be subject to mannose addition in patterns different from those used by mammalian cells. This difference in recombinant proteins from those normally produced in mammalian organisms may influence the effectiveness of vaccines.
Formation
Mannose can be formed by the oxidation of mannitol.
It can also be formed from glucose in the Lobry-de Bruyn-van Ekenstein transformation.
Etymology
The root of both "mannose" and "mannitol" is manna, which the Bible describes as the food supplied to the Israelites during their journey in the region of Sinai. Several trees and shrubs can produce a substance called manna, such as the "manna tree" (Fraxinus ornus) from whose secretions mannitol was originally isolated.
Uses
Mannose (D-mannose) is used as a nutritional supplement, packaged as "d-mannose", to prevent recurrent urinary tract infections.
Configuration
Mannose differs from glucose by inversion of the C-2 chiral center. Mannose displays a pucker in the solution ring form. This simple change leads to the drastically different biochemistry of the two hexoses. This change has the same effect on the other aldohexoses, as well.
Mannose PTS permease
The PEP-dependent sugar transporting phosphotransferase system transports and simultaneously phosphorylates its sugar substrates. Mannose XYZ permease is a member of the family, with this distinct method being used by bacteria for sugar uptake particularly exogenous hexoses in the case of mannose XYZ to release the phosphate esters into the cell cytoplasm in preparation for metabolism primarily through the route of glycolysis. The MANXYZ transporter complex is also involved in infection of E. coli by bacteriophage lambda, with subunit ManY and ManZ being sufficient for proper lambda phage infection.
MANXYZ possesses four domains in three polypeptide chains; ManX, ManY, and ManZ. The ManX subunit forms a homodimer that is localized to the cytoplasmic side of the membrane. ManX contains two domains IIA and IIB linked by a hinge peptide with each domain containing a phosphorylation site and phosphoryl transfer occurs between both subunits. ManX can be membrane bound or not. The ManY and ManNZ subunits are hydrophobic integral membrane proteins with six and one transmembrane alpha helical spanner(s). The phosphoryl group of PEP is transferred to the imported sugar via Enzyme 1, histidine protein phosphate carrier, and then to the ManX, ManY, and ManZ subunits of the ManXYZ transportation complex, which phosphorylates the entering hexose sugar, creating a hexose-6-phosphate.
See also
α-Mannosidase
Mannose receptor
Mannan oligosaccharide-based nutritional supplements
Rhamnose, 6-deoxy-L-mannose
References
Aldohexoses
Articles containing video clips
Pyranoses
Glycerols
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Domingue
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Saint-Domingue
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Saint-Domingue () was a French colony from 1659 to 1804 on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola; the island that now hosts two countries, the Dominican Republic and Haiti. The name was also used, at times, for the island of Hispaniola as a whole, all of it, nominally, being at times a French colony. The Spanish form of the name, Santo Domingo, also was used at times for the island as a whole. The border between the French-speaking Haiti and the Spanish-speaking Dominican Republic was not established until after the Dominican Republic's declaration of independence in 1844.
The French had established themselves on the western portion of the islands of Hispaniola and Tortuga by 1659. In the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, Spain formally recognized French control of Tortuga Island and the western third of the island of Hispaniola.
In 1791, enslaved Africans and some free people of color of Saint-Domingue took part in the Vodou ceremony, Bois Caïman, and planned the rebellion against French authority. The rebels became reconciled to French rule following the abolition of slavery in the colony in 1793, although this alienated the island's dominant slave-owning class. France controlled the entirety of Hispaniola from 1795 to 1802, when a renewed rebellion began. The last French troops withdrew from the western portion of the island in late 1803, and the colony later declared its independence as Haiti, its indigenous name, the following year.
Overview
Spain controlled the entire island of Hispaniola from the 1490s until the 17th century, when French pirates began establishing bases on the western side of the island. The official name was La Española, meaning "The Spanish (Island)". It was also called Santo Domingo, after Saint Dominic.
The western part of Hispaniola was neglected by the Spanish authorities, and French buccaneers began to settle first on the island of Tortuga, then on the northwest of Hispaniola. Spain later ceded the entire western coast of the island to France, retaining the rest of the island, including the Guava Valley, today known as the Central Plateau.
The French called their portion of Hispaniola Saint-Domingue, the French equivalent of Santo Domingo. The Spanish colony on Hispaniola remained separate, and eventually became the Dominican Republic, the capital of which is still named Santo Domingo.
Establishment
When Christopher Columbus took possession of the island in 1492, he named it Insula Hispana, meaning "the Spanish island" in Latin. As Spain conquered new regions on the mainland of the Americas (Spanish Main), its interest in Hispaniola waned, and the colony's population grew slowly. By the early 17th century, the island and its smaller neighbors, notably Tortuga, had become regular stopping points for Caribbean pirates. In 1606, the king of Spain ordered all inhabitants of Hispaniola to move close to Santo Domingo, to avoid interaction with pirates. Rather than secure the island, however, this resulted in French, English and Dutch pirates establishing bases on the now-abandoned north and west coasts of the island.
French buccaneers established a settlement on the island of Tortuga in 1625 before going to Grande Terre (mainland). At first they survived by pirating ships, eating wild cattle and hogs, and selling hides to traders of all nations. Although the Spanish destroyed the buccaneers' settlements several times, on each occasion they returned due to an abundance of natural resources: hardwood trees, wild hogs and cattle, and fresh water. The settlement on Tortuga was officially established in 1659 under the commission of King Louis XIV.
In 1665, French colonization of the islands Hispaniola and Tortuga entailed slavery-based plantation agricultural activity such as growing coffee and cattle farming.
It was officially recognized by King Louis XIV. Spain tacitly recognized the French presence in the western third of the island in the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick; the Spanish deliberately omitted direct reference to the island from the treaty, but they were never able to reclaim this territory from the French.
The economy of Saint-Domingue became focused on slave-based agricultural plantations. Saint-Domingue's Black population quickly increased. They followed the example of neighboring Caribbean colonies in coercive treatment of the enslaved population. More cattle and slave agricultural holdings, coffee plantations and spice plantations were implemented, as well as fishing, cultivation of cocoa, coconuts, and snuff. Saint-Domingue quickly came to overshadow the previous colony in both wealth and population. Nicknamed the "Pearl of the Antilles," Saint-Domingue became the richest and most prosperous French colony in the West Indies, cementing its status as an important port in the Americas for goods and products flowing to and from France and Europe. Thus, the income and the taxes from slave-based sugar production became a major source of the French budget.
Among the first buccaneers was (16131676), who played a big part in the settlement of Saint-Domingue. He encouraged the planting of tobacco, which turned a population of buccaneers and freebooters, who had not acquiesced to royal authority until 1660, into a sedentary population. D'Ogeron also attracted many colonists from Martinique and Guadeloupe, including Jean Roy, Jean Hebert and his family, and Guillaume Barre and his family, who were driven out by the land pressure which was generated by the extension of the sugar plantations in those colonies. But in 1670, shortly after Cap-Français (later Cap-Haïtien) had been established, the crisis of tobacco intervened and a great number of places were abandoned. The rows of freebooting grew bigger; plundering raids, like those of Vera Cruz in 1683 or of Campêche in 1686, became increasingly numerous, and Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Marquis de Seignelay, elder son of Jean Baptist Colbert and at the time Minister of the Navy, brought back some order by taking a great number of measures, including the creation of plantations of indigo and of cane sugar. The first sugar windmill was built in 1685.
On 22 July 1795, Spain ceded to France the remaining Spanish part of the island of Hispaniola, Santo Domingo (now the Dominican Republic),
in the second Treaty of Basel, ending the War of the Pyrenees. The people of the eastern part of Saint-Domingue (French Santo Domingo) were opposed to the arrangements and hostile toward the French. The islanders revolted against their new masters and a state of anarchy ensued, leading to more French troops being brought in.
An early death among Europeans was very common due to diseases and conflicts; the French soldiers that Napoleon sent in 1802 to quell the revolt in Saint-Domingue were attacked by yellow fever during the Haitian Revolution, and more than half of the French army died of disease.
Profitable colony
Prior to the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), the economy of Saint-Domingue gradually expanded, with sugar and, later, coffee becoming important export crops. After the war, which disrupted maritime commerce, the colony underwent rapid expansion. In 1767, it exported 72 million pounds of raw sugar and 51 million pounds of refined sugar, one million pounds of indigo, and two million pounds of cotton. Saint-Domingue became known as the "Pearl of the Antilles" – one of the richest colonies in the world in the 18th-century French empire. It was the greatest jewel in imperial France's mercantile crown. By the 1780s, Saint-Domingue produced about 40 percent of all the sugar and 60 percent of all the coffee consumed in Europe. By 1789, Saint Domingue was made up of about 8,000 plantations ..., producing one-half of all the sugar and coffee that was consumed in Europe and the Americas. This single colony, roughly the size of Hawaii or Belgium, produced more sugar and coffee than all of the British West Indies colonies combined, generating enormous revenue for the French government and enhancing its power.
Between 1681 and 1791 the labor for these plantations was provided by an estimated 790,000 or 860,000 African slaves, accounting in 1783–1791 for a third of the entire Atlantic slave trade. In addition, some Native Americans were enslaved in Louisiana and sent to Saint-Domingue, particularly in the wake of the Natchez revolt. Between 1764 and 1771, the average annual importation of African slaves varied between 10,000 and 15,000; by 1786 it was about 28,000, and from 1787 onward, the colony received more than 30,000 slaves a year. The slave population around 1789 totalled to 406,000 (according to Jacques Pierre Brissot) or 465,000, ruled over by a white population that numbered 28,000 or 31,000. However, the inability to maintain slave numbers without constant resupply from Africa meant that at all times, a majority of slaves in the colony were African-born, as the brutal conditions of slavery and tropical diseases such as yellow fever prevented the population from experiencing growth through natural increase. African culture thus remained strong among slaves to the end of French rule. The folk religion of Vodou commingled Catholic liturgy and ritual with the beliefs and practices of the Vodun religion of Guinea, Congo and Dahomey. Slave traders scoured the Atlantic coast of Africa, and the slaves who arrived came from hundreds of different tribes, their languages often mutually incomprehensible. While French colonists were hesitant to consider Vodou an authentic religion, perceiving of it instead as superstition, they also promulgated laws against Vodou practices, effectively forcing it underground.
To regularize slavery, in 1685 Louis XIV had enacted the code noir, which accorded certain human rights to slaves and responsibilities to the master, who was obliged to feed, clothe and provide for the general well-being of his slaves. The code noir sanctioned corporal punishment but had provisions intended to regulate the administration of punishments. In any event, such protections were often ignored by white colonists. A passage from Henri Christophe's personal secretary, who lived more than half his life as a slave, describes the punishments the slaves of Saint-Domingue received for disobedience by the French colonists:
Thousands of slaves found freedom by fleeing into the mountains, forming communities of maroons and raiding isolated plantations. The most famous was Mackandal, a one-armed slave, originally from the Guinea region of Africa, who escaped in 1751. A Vodou Houngan (priest), he united many of the different maroon bands. For the next six years, he staged successful raids while evading capture by the French. He and his followers reputedly killed more than 6,000 people. He preached a radical vision of destroying white colonization in Saint-Domingue. In 1758, after a failed plot to poison the drinking water of the planters, he was captured and burned alive at the public square in Cap-Français.
Until the mid-18th century, there were efforts made by the French Crown to found a stable French-European population in the colony, a difficult task because there were few European women there. From the 17th century to the mid-18th century, the Crown attempted to remedy this by sending women from France to Saint-Domingue and Martinique to marry the settlers. However, these women where rumoured to be former prostitutes from La Salpêtrière and the settlers complained about the system in 1713, stating that the women sent were not suitable, a complaint that was repeated in 1743. The system was consequently abandoned, and with it the plans for colonisation. In the later half of the 18th century, it was common and accepted that a Frenchman during his stay of a few years would enjoy the sexual services of a black local, and would live with her.
Saint-Domingue had the largest and wealthiest free population of color in the Caribbean; they were known as the gens de couleur. The royal census of 1789 counted roughly 65,000 mestizo. While many free population of color were former slaves, most members of this class were mulattoes, of mixed French/European and African ancestry. Typically, they were the descendants of the enslaved women and French colonists. As in New Orleans, a system of plaçage developed, in which white men had a kind of common-law marriage with slave or free mistresses, and provided for them with a dowry, sometimes freedom, and often education or apprenticeships for their mixed-race children. Some such descendants of planters inherited considerable property. As their numbers grew, they were made subject to discriminatory colonial legislation. Statutes forbade gens de couleur from taking up certain professions, marrying whites, wearing European clothing, carrying swords or firearms in public, or attending social functions where whites were present.
The regulations did not restrict their purchase of land, and many accumulated substantial holdings and became slaveowners. By 1789, they owned one-third of the plantation property and one-quarter of the slaves of Saint-Domingue. Central to the rise of the gens de couleur planter class was the growing importance of coffee, which thrived on the marginal hillside plots to which they were often relegated. The largest concentration of gens de couleur was in the southern peninsula. This was the last region of the colony to be settled, owing to its distance from Atlantic shipping lanes and its formidable terrain, with the highest mountain range in the Caribbean. In the parish of Jérémie, the free population of color formed the majority of the population. Many lived in Port-au-Prince as well, which became an economic center in the South of the island.
End of colonial rule
In 1758 white homeowners on Saint Domingue (Haiti) began to restrict rights and create laws to exclude mulattoes and Blacks, establishing a rigid class system. There were ten Black people for every white one.
In France, the majority of the Estates General, an advisory body to the King, constituted itself as the National Assembly, made radical changes in French laws, and on 26 August 1789, published the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, declaring all men free and equal. The French Revolution shaped the course of the conflict in Saint-Domingue and was at first widely welcomed on the island. At first, wealthy whites saw it as an opportunity to gain independence from France. The elite planters intended to take control of the island and create trade regulations to further their own wealth and power.
Between 1791 and 1804, the leaders François Dominique Toussaint Louverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines led the revolution against the slave system established on the island. The crops harvested by enslaved people in Saint-Domingue and other Caribbean colonies of the French colonial empire were at that time the third-largest source of income to France. Louverture and Dessalines were inspired by the houngans (sorcerers or priests of Haitian Vodou) Dutty Boukman and François Mackandal.
Léger-Félicité Sonthonax from September 1792 to 1795 was the de facto ruler of Saint-Domingue. He was a French Girondist and abolitionist during the French Revolution who controlled 7,000 French troops in Saint-Domingue during part of the Haitian Revolution. His official title was Civil Commissioner. Within a year of his appointment, his powers were considerably expanded by the Committee of Public Safety. Sonthonax believed that Saint-Domingue's whites, most of whom were of Spanish descent, were royalist or separatist conservatives attached to independence or Spain as a way to preserve the slave plantations. He attacked the military power of the white settlers, and by doing so, he alienated the colonists from the French government. Many gens de couleur, mixed-race residents of the colony, asserted that they could form the military backbone of Saint-Domingue if they were given rights, but Sonthonax rejected this view as outdated in the wake of the August 1791 slave uprising. He believed that Saint-Domingue would need ex-slave soldiers among the ranks of the colonial army if it was to survive. Although he did not originally intend to free the enslaved, by October 1793 he ended slavery in order to maintain his own power.
In 1799, the Black military leader Toussaint L'Ouverture brought under French rule a law which abolished slavery and embarked on a program of modernization. He had become master of the whole island.
In November 1799, during the continuing war in Saint-Domingue, Napoleon Bonaparte gained power in France. He passed a new constitution declaring that the colonies would be subject to special laws. Although the colonies suspected this meant the re-introduction of slavery, Napoleon began by confirming Toussaint's position and promising to maintain the abolition. He forbade Toussaint to control the formerly Spanish settlement on the east side of Hispaniola, as that would have given the leader a more powerful defensive position. In January 1801, Toussaint and Hyacinthe Moïse invaded the Spanish settlements, taking possession from the Governor, Don Garcia, with few difficulties.
Toussaint promulgated the Constitution of 1801 on 7 July, officially establishing his authority as governor general "for life" over the entire island of Hispaniola and confirming most of his existing policies. Article 3 of the constitution states: "There cannot exist slaves [in Saint-Domingue], servitude is therein forever abolished. All men are born, live and die free and French."
During this time, Bonaparte met with refugee planters; they urged the restoration of slavery in Saint-Domingue, saying it was integral to the colony's profits. He sent an expedition of more than 20,000 men to Saint-Domingue in 1802 to restore French authority.
The French Civil Code of Napoleon affirmed the political and legal equality of all adult men; it established a merit-based society in which individuals advanced in education and employment because of talent rather than birth or social standing. The Civil Code confirmed many of the moderate revolutionary policies of the National Assembly but retracted measures passed by the more radical Convention. The situation of the enslaved and people of mixed race was not improved.
The Haitian Revolution culminated in the elimination of slavery in Saint-Domingue and the founding of the Haitian republic in the whole of Hispaniola. France was weakened by a British naval blockade, and by the unwillingness of Napoleon to send massive reinforcements. Having sold the Louisiana Territory to the United States in April 1803, Napoleon began to lose interest in his failing ventures in the Western Hemisphere.
A minority of state officials and civil servants were exempt from manual labor, including some freed colored Haitians. Many slaves had to work hard to survive, and they became increasingly motivated by their hunger. Consisting mostly of slaves, the population was uneducated and largely unskilled. They had lived under authoritarian control as rural laborers. White residents felt the sting most sharply. While Toussaint, a former privileged slave of a tolerant white master, had felt a certain magnanimity toward whites, Dessalines, a former field slave, despised them. A firm hand was used in resistance to slavery.
Napoleon's troops, under the command of his brother-in-law, General Charles Emmanuel Leclerc, planned to seize control of the island by diplomatic means. They proclaimed peaceful intentions, and kept secret his orders to deport all Black officers. Meanwhile, Toussaint was preparing for defense and insuring discipline. This may have contributed to a rebellion against forced labor led by his nephew and top general, Moïse, in October 1801. It was violently repressed, with the result that when the French ships arrived, not all of Saint-Domingue was automatically on Toussaint's side.
For a few months, the island was quiet under Napoleonic rule. But when it became apparent that the French intended to re-establish slavery, because they had done so on Guadeloupe, Dessalines and Pétion switched sides again, in October 1802, and fought against the French.
In late January 1802, while Leclerc sought permission to land at Cap-Français and Christophe held him off, the Vicomte de Rochambeau suddenly attacked Fort-Liberté, effectively quashing the diplomatic option. In November Leclerc died of yellow fever, like much of his army.
His successor, the Vicomte de Rochambeau, fought a brutal campaign. His atrocities helped rally many former French loyalists to the rebel cause. Like other Black slaves captured by the French army, Mackandal was burned alive at the stake. The people of Saint-Domingue, mostly Black, were hostile toward abuse by the French. The slave population had severe food shortages and brutal forced rural labor. The islanders revolted against their new masters and a state of anarchy ensued, bringing more French troops. The people began a series of attacks on the owners of sugar and coffee plantations. French soldiers from Napoleon were sent in 1802 to quell the revolt in Saint-Domingue. They suffered from seasonal epidemics of Yellow fever and more than half of the French army died of disease. The British naval blockade to France persisted.
Dessalines led the rebellion until its completion, when the French forces were finally defeated in 1803. Whites were slaughtered and massacred wholesale under the rule of Dessalines. The brutality toward whites shocked foreign governments.
The last battle of the Haitian Revolution, the Battle of Vertières, occurred on 18 November 1803, near Cap-Haïtien. When the French withdrew, they had only 7,000 troops left to ship to France.
Haiti did not try to support or aid other slave rebellions because they feared that the great powers would take renewed action against them, as happened a few years later with Spain. After the defeat of the French army, wealthy white owners saw the opportunity to preserve their political power and plantations. They attacked the town halls that had representatives of the defeated French authority. Elite planters took control of the former Spanish side of the island, asking Spain for a Spanish government and protection by the Spanish army. Later these planters created trade regulations that would further preserve their own wealth and power.
Between 1791 and 1810, more than 25,000 people — planters, poorer whites ("petite blancs"), and free people of color, as well as enslaved people brought with them — fled Saint-Domingue primarily for the United States in 1793, Jamaica in 1798, and Cuba in 1803. Many of them found their way to Louisiana, with the largest wave of refugees, more than 10,000 people — nearly equally divided among whites, free people of color, and enslaved Blacks — arriving in New Orleans between May 1809 and January 1810 after being expelled from Cuba, nearly doubling the population of the city. These refugees had a significant impact on the culture of Louisiana, including developing its sugar industry and cultural institutions.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, American and British authors often referred to Saint-Domingue period as "Santo Domingo" or "San Domingo.":2 This led to confusion with the earlier Spanish colony, and later the contemporary Spanish colony established at Santo Domingo during the colonial period; in particular, in political debates on slavery previous to the American Civil War, "San Domingo" was used to express fears of Southern whites of a slave rebellion breaking out in their own region. Today, the former Spanish possession contemporary with the early period of the French colony corresponds mostly with the Dominican Republic, whose capital is Santo Domingo. The name of Saint-Domingue was changed to Hayti (Haïti) when Jean-Jacques Dessalines declared the independence of all Hispaniola from the French in 1804. Like the name Haiti itself, Saint-Domingue may refer to all of Hispaniola, or the western part in the French colonial period, while the Spanish version Hispaniola or Santo Domingo is often used to refer to the Spanish colonial period or the Dominican nation.
See also
French colonization of the Americas
History of Haiti
List of colonial governors of Saint-Domingue
Spanish Colony of Santo Domingo
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
The Louverture Project: Saint-Domingue – Saint-Domingue page on Haitian history Wiki.
The Louverture Project: Slavery in Saint-Domingue
Saint-Domingue
Saint-Domingue
Colonial government in the West Indies
Saint-Domingue
Saint-Domingue
Former colonies in North America
Saint-Domingue
Saint-Domingue
Saint-Domingue
Saint-Domingue
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1800s in Haiti
1620s establishments in the Caribbean
1625 establishments in North America
1804 disestablishments in North America
1625 establishments in the French colonial empire
1804 disestablishments in the French colonial empire
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] |
212801
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tour%20puzzle
|
Tour puzzle
|
A tour puzzle is a puzzle in which the player travels around a board (usually but not necessarily two-dimensional) using a token which represents a character. Maze puzzles are often of this type.
Sometimes the player has more than one token with which to travel. Sometimes certain objects have to be found or retrieved on the way. In the case of large hedge mazes, the player makes the trip themselves instead of a token.
Often there is a given start and finish position for the player's token. Some tour puzzles demand that certain points on the board have to be visited on the way.
Examples of tour puzzles
knight's tour
mazes and labyrinths
mizmazes
logic mazes
Hiroimono
References
Puzzles
|
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212806
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t%20even%20think%20about%20it%21
|
Don't even think about it!
|
"Don't even think about it!" is an emphatic prohibition popularized by a 1993 Pepsi commercial featuring Shaquille O'Neal, a famous basketball player.
History
The catchphrase as used by the Pepsi ad was based upon a similar phrase, "Don't even THINK of parking here", which came into use on no parking signs in major cities such as New York City and Chicago. The signs first appeared in New York in 1982 during Ed Koch's mayoral administration.
Popularization
The 1993 commercial featuring O'Neal begins with him playing hoops at a street basketball court. A little kid notices him, and exclaims O'Neal's nickname, "Shaq". O'Neal, noticing that the kid has a Pepsi in his hand, walks over and says "Hey, can I have it?" He bends over, supposing that his admirer will give him the soda, but the kid refuses, saying: "Don't even think about it!" Suddenly, a sound simulating that of a scratched record is heard, and the commercial ends with the Pepsi logo and slogan.
The commercial is actually a parody of another famous one from the 1970s produced by Pepsi's rival, Coca-Cola, in which a young boy meets football player "Mean" Joe Greene as he is leaving the field after a game. The boy gives his hero a bottle of Coke and, in exchange for the drink, the football player throws his jersey to the boy, who excitedly catches the souvenir.
The sign is mentioned in an episode of Arthur in the backdoor pilot for Postcards From Buster.
See also
Parking violation
Thought crime
References
Further reading
English phrases
American television commercials
1990s television commercials
1993 neologisms
American advertising slogans
|
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212808
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricky%20Schroder
|
Ricky Schroder
|
Richard Bartlett Schroder (born April 13, 1970) is an American actor and filmmaker. As a child actor billed as Ricky Schroder he debuted in the film The Champ (1979), for which he became the youngest Golden Globe award recipient, and went on to become a child star on the sitcom Silver Spoons. He has continued acting as an adult, usually billed as Rick Schroder, notably as "Newt" on the Western miniseries Lonesome Dove (1989) and in the crime-drama series NYPD Blue. He made his directorial debut with the film Black Cloud (2004) and has produced several films and television series including the anthology film Locker 13 and the war documentary The Fighting Season.
Early life
Schroder was born in Brooklyn, New York City and raised on Staten Island, the son of Diane Katherine Bartlett and Richard John Schroder, both former employees of AT&T. His paternal grandparents were German immigrants. Schroder's mother quit her job to raise him and his sister Dawn. As a child, Schroder appeared in many catalogs, and by age six, he had appeared in 60 advertisements.
Career
As a child actor
Schroder made his film debut as the son of Jon Voight's character in The Champ, a 1979 remake of the 1931 film of the same title. He was nominated for, and subsequently won, a Golden Globe award in 1980 for Best New Male Star of the Year in a Motion Picture, becoming at age 9 the youngest Golden Globe winner in history. Following his role in The Champ, Schroder was removed from school by his parents in the third grade to focus on his career. He moved to Los Angeles with his mother, but his father remained in New York City and kept his job with AT&T. The following year, Schroder appeared in the Disney feature film The Last Flight of Noah's Ark with Elliott Gould. He also starred as the title character in Little Lord Fauntleroy, alongside Alec Guinness.
Schroder then became well known as the star of the television series Silver Spoons. He played a starring role as Ricky Stratton, the son of a wealthy and eccentric millionaire, Edward Stratton. His performance earned him two Young Artist Awards. He struggled with his identity as an actor when Silver Spoons ended. Prospective roles were rare, and he was mainly designated to play boyish-looking teenagers or blond-haired heartthrobs. Schroder avoided the vices of other child actors and attempted to establish himself as a more mature actor, dropping the "y" from his first name. His mother enrolled him in Calabasas High School, but Schroder had trouble adjusting to the new environment.
In 1988, the year after Silver Spoons ended, Schroder starred in a prime time CBS TV movie based on a true story, the drama Too Young the Hero, as 12-year-old Calvin Graham who passes for 17 to enlist in World War II. He also appeared as the guest timekeeper in Wrestlemania 2 for a match between Hulk Hogan and King Kong Bundy.
Later career
After graduating from high school, Schroder enrolled himself in Mesa State College in Grand Junction, Colorado. His co-starring role in the Western miniseries Lonesome Dove and its sequel, Return to Lonesome Dove, helped him to be recognized in more mature roles. His roles as Danny Sorenson on three seasons of NYPD Blue, nurse Paul Flowers in Scrubs, Dr. Dylan West on Strong Medicine, and Mike Doyle on the 2007 season of 24 worked to cement that perception with the viewing audience. In the fall of 2002 he hosted The New American Sportsman on ESPN2, a remake of the 1965–1986 outdoor TV series The American Sportsman.
Schroder made his directorial debut in 2004 with the feature film Black Cloud, a drama also written by him about a Navajo boxer. Black Cloud received positive receptions at film festivals, including two awards at the Phoenix Film Festival and Best Director award for Schroder at the San Diego Film Festival. He also directed and starred in the music video for "Whiskey Lullaby", a song by Brad Paisley and Alison Krauss. The video garnered Schroder an award for Best Music Video at the 2005 Nashville Film Festival, while at the 2005 CMT Music Awards, the video won an award for Collaborative Video of the Year, and Schroder won for Director of the Year.
In 2009, he directed the adventure horror film Hellhounds. He guest-starred in a January 2011 episode of ABC's No Ordinary Family.
With his production company, Ricky Schroder Productions, he produced Starting Strong, a series of recruiting commercials for the U.S. Army shot as reality series in 2013. His production company has well as other documentaries The Fighting Season, My Fighting Season, and The Volunteers. Schroder spent 110 days in Afghanistan with the US military in 2014 to capture footage. In 2013 he directed, produced, and starred in the TV film Our Wild Hearts for the Hallmark Channel, and the following year co-produced and starred in the anthology film Locker 13. He portrayed the father of Dolly Parton in the 2015 TV film Dolly Parton's Coat of Many Colors and its sequel, Dolly Parton's Christmas of Many Colors: Circle of Love.
Personal life
Schroder was married to Andrea Bernard on September 26, 1992, with whom he has four children: Holden, Luke, Cambrie, and Faith. They all appeared in Schroder's Our Wild Hearts (2013). He and his wife separated in 2016, and she filed for divorce later in the year. Schroder converted to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the church that his ex-wife belongs to, in 2000. He is not very vocal about his religious beliefs, and said in a 2015 interview: "I don't consider myself an extremely religious person, but at the same time I do believe there is higher power." He is an avid hunter and fisher, having learned to shoot at the age of 10 from actor William Holden on the set of The Earthling. For 16 years he owned a 15,000-acre ranch near Grand Junction, Colorado, adjacent to Grand Mesa National Forest.
A 2004 news article called Schroder "one of the few out-of-the-closet conservatives" in the entertainment industry. Schroder has long identified as a Republican, and he spoke at the 2000 Republican National Convention, although he said in 2010 that he did not align with either major political party.
In 2019, Schroder was arrested twice within a month for suspicion of domestic violence; no charges were filed. In November 2020, Schroder contributed hundreds of thousands of dollars towards the $2million bail fund for Kyle Rittenhouse, a 17-year old found Not Guilty in the shooting deaths of two people during the August 2020 unrest in Kenosha, Wisconsin.
In May 2021, Schroder created controversy when he uploaded a video to social media that showed him harassing a Costco employee regarding the company's policy and California mandate requiring face masks or coverings to be worn inside stores during the COVID-19 pandemic. Shortly after the incident, Schroder began receiving backlash, causing him to upload a second video apologizing to the employee, stating that while he stood by his beliefs on the mask mandate, he was sorry if he hurt the employee's feelings.
Filmography
Film
Television
Director
2004: Black Cloud
2009: Hellhounds
2013: Our Wild Hearts
Awards and nominations
References
Bibliography
Holmstrom, John (1996). The Moving Picture Boy: An International Encyclopaedia from 1895 to 1995. Norwich: Michael Russell. pp. 379–380.
External links
Rick Schroder's Television Schedule
1970 births
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American male child actors
American male film actors
American male television actors
American people of German descent
American people of Norwegian descent
American people of Scandinavian descent
Converts to Mormonism
Film directors from California
Film directors from New York City
Living people
Male actors from New York City
New Star of the Year (Actor) Golden Globe winners
People from Brooklyn
People from Staten Island
People from Topanga, California
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cog%20%28advertisement%29
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Cog (advertisement)
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"Cog" is a British television and cinema advertisement launched by Honda in 2003 to promote the seventh-generation Accord line of cars. It follows the convention of a Rube Goldberg machine, utilizing a chain of colliding parts taken from a disassembled Accord. Wieden+Kennedy developed a £6 million marketing campaign around "Cog" and its partner pieces, "Sense" and "Everyday", broadcast later in the year. The piece itself was produced on a budget of £1 million by Partizan Midi-Minuit. Antoine Bardou-Jacquet directed the seven-month production, contracting The Mill to handle post-production. The 120-second final cut of "Cog" was broadcast on British television on 6 April 2003, during a commercial break in ITV's coverage of the 2003 Brazilian Grand Prix.
The campaign was very successful both critically and financially. Honda's UK domain saw more web traffic in the 24 hours after "Cog"'s television début than all but one UK automotive brand received during that entire month. The branded content attached to "Cog" through interactive television was accessed by more than 250,000 people, and 10,000 people followed up with a request for a brochure for the Honda Accord or a DVD copy of the advertisement. The media reaction to the advertisement was equally effusive; The Independent'''s Peter York described it as creating "the water-cooler ad conversation of the year", while Quentin Letts of The Daily Telegraph believed it was "certain to become an advertising legend".
The high cost of 120-second slots in televised commercial breaks meant that the full version of "Cog" was broadcast only a handful of times, and only in the United Kingdom, Australia, and Sweden. Despite its limited run, it is regarded as one of the most groundbreakingSweney, Mark; "Guinness ad topples record", The Guardian, 8 November 2007. Retrieved 29 March 2011. and influential commercials of the 2000s, and received more awards from the television and advertising industries than any commercial in history. Its success was blighted, however, by persistent accusations of plagiarism by Peter Fischli and David Weiss, the creators of The Way Things Go (1987).
Sequence
"Cog" opens with a close-up on a transmission bearing rolling down a board into a synchro hub. The hub in turn rolls into a gear wheel cog, which falls off the board and into a camshaft and pulley wheel. The camera tracks slowly from left to right, following the domino chain of reactions across an otherwise empty gallery space. The complexity of the interactions increases as the commercial progresses, growing from simple collisions to ziplines made from a bonnet release cable, scales and see-saws constructed from multiple carefully balanced parts, and a swinging mobile of suspended glass windows. Later sequences begin to make use of the Accord's electronic systems; the automated water sensors attached to the windscreen are used to make wiper blades start crawling across the floor, and a side door with a door-mirror indicator lowers the automated window to let a part pass through.
The majority of "Cog" takes place in complete silence, the only sounds coming from the collisions of the pieces themselves. This is broken with the activation of the CD player from the Accord, which begins playing The Sugarhill Gang's 1979 single "Rapper's Delight". The sequence ends when the button of an electronic key fob is pressed, closing the hatchback of a fully assembled Honda Accord Wagon on a carefully balanced trailer. The car rolls off the trailer, and stops in front of a tonneau cover bearing the "Accord" marque, while narrator Garrison Keillor asks "Isn't it nice when things just work?". The screen fades to white and the piece closes on the Honda logo and the brand's motto, "The Power of Dreams".
Production
Background
Sales of Honda products within Europe had been in decline since 1998, and the company's position as the number two Japanese automotive company, behind Toyota, had been taken by Nissan. European consumers perceived the brand as staid and uninspiring; and the cars to be of lesser quality than those produced by European manufacturers.Manning, Jeff; "Mechanical Marvel", The Oregonian, 29 April 2003. In one survey, one quarter of respondents "wouldn't dream of buying a Honda as their next car". It was in this climate in 2001 that advertising agency Wieden+Kennedy proposed to Honda a new advertising strategy based on the company's Japanese motto, "Yume No Chikara" ("Power of Dreams"). The stated goal of the campaign was to increase Honda's share of the UK market to five percent within three years and to change the public image of the brand from "dull but functional" to "warm and consumer-friendly", all on a lower marketing budget than its predecessor agency had demanded.
The first series of promotions in the United Kingdom adopted the strapline "What if...?", and explored various "dream-like" scenarios. The first television campaign explicitly introduced the premise of the campaign by asking what would happen if the world's favourite word (Okay) was replaced with "What if?". The next few pieces of the campaign, "Pecking Order", "Seats", and "Bus Lane" for television and "Doodle", "Big Grin", and "Oblonger" for radio, became progressively more surreal, and featured oddities ranging from a traffic cone draped in leopard fur to trees growing traffic lights from their branches. In 2002, W+K Creative Directors Tony Davidson and Kim Papworth and creative team Matt Gooden and Ben Walker, proposed a new television and cinema advertisement to promote the seventh-generation Honda Accord line that had recently been rolled out in Europe and Japan. The advertisement, based on a complex chain reaction of moving parts from the Accord itself, was approved and given the working title "Cog".
Pre-production
Gooden and Walker had been working together since 1988. By 2002, their portfolio included a Guinness World Record-holding one-second advertisement produced for Leo Burnett Worldwide, and a depression-awareness booklet for the Charlie Waller Memorial Trust. Wieden+Kennnedy approached Honda with a rough, low-budget 30-second trial film, inspired by the children's board game Mouse Trap, Caractacus Potts' breakfast-making machine in the film Chitty Chitty Bang Bang, and a 1987 Swiss art film by Peter Fischli and David Weiss, Der Lauf der Dinge (The Way Things Go).
The Honda executives were intrigued, but demanded a cut using actual automotive parts before giving permission to go ahead with the full-scale project. "Cog" was approved with a budget of £1 million, and Gooden & Walker recruited a London-based team to go through the logistics of the shoot in detail. The team, which comprised engineers, special effects technicians, car designers and even a sculptor, spent a month working with parts from a disassembled Honda Accord before the design for the advertisement's set was even finalised."The new Honda Accord – isn't it nice when things just... work?", The Guardian, 9 May 2003. Retrieved 2 September 2009. Approval for the script took another month. Honda insisted that several specific Accord features, such as a door with a wing-mirror indicator and a rain-sensitive windscreen, appear in the final cut. The company planned to highlight these features in sales brochures. Antoine Bardou-Jacquet was hired to direct the piece. Bardou-Jacquet was mostly known for directing several award-winning music videos, including Alex Gopher's "The Child", Playgroup's "Number One", and Air's "How Does It Make You Feel"."Awards: Antoine Bardou-Jacquet", Partizan. Retrieved 2 August 2009.
Filming
Bardou-Jacquet wanted to compose the advertisement with as little computer-generated imagery as possible, believing that the final product would be that much more appealing to its audience. To this end, he set two months aside for the creation of hundreds of conceptual drawings detailing various possible interactions between the parts, and a further four months for practical testing and development. For the testing phase, the script was broken into small segments, each comprising only one or two interactions. Ideas deemed unworkable by the testing crew, such as airbag explosions and collisions between front and rear sections of the car, were abandoned, and the remaining segments were slowly brought together until the full and final sequence was developed.
The final cut of "Cog" consists of two continuous sixty-second dolly shots taken from a technocrane, stitched together later in post-production. (The stitching appears during the moment when the exhaust [muffler] rolls across the floor.) Four days of filming were required to get these two shots, two days for each minute-long section. Filming sessions lasted seven hours and the work was exacting, as some parts needed to be positioned with an accuracy of a . Despite the detailed instructions derived from the testing period, small variations in ambient temperature, humidity and settling dust continually threw off the movement of the parts enough to end the sequence early. It took 90 minutes on the first day just to get the initial transmission bearing to roll correctly into the second. Between testing and filming, it took approximately 100 takes to film the commercial. (Rumors about 606 takes were later debunked.) The team commandeered two of Honda's six hand-assembled Accords—one to roll off the trailer at the end of the advertisement, the other to be stripped for parts. While several sections of the early scripts had to be abandoned due to the total unavailability of certain Accord components, by the time production finished the accumulated spare parts filled two articulated lorries.
Post-production
"Cog" needed only limited post-production work, as the decision had been made early on to eschew computer-generated imagery wherever possible. To further reduce the work required, "Barnsley", a specialist in the Flame editing tool (real name, Andrew Wood), from The Mill, spent a lot of time on set during filming, where he advised the film crew on whether particular sections could be accomplished more easily by re-filming or by manipulating the image afterwards. Even so, the constant movement of the components on-camera made it difficult to achieve a seamless transition between the two 60-second shots. Several sections also required minor video editing, such as re-centering the frame to stay closer to the action, removal of wires, highlighting a spray of water, and adjusting the pace for dramatic purposes.
Release and reception
Schedule
"Cog" was first aired on British television on Sunday 6 April 2003. It filled an entire commercial break in ITV's coverage of the Brazilian Grand Prix. The release was widely remarked upon by the media, with articles appearing in both broadsheets such as The Daily Telegraph, The Independent and The Guardian; and tabloid papers such as The Sun and The Daily Mirror. The day after "Cog"'s debut, the Honda website received more hits than at any time in its history, and overnight became the second most-popular automotive website in the UK.
The full 120-second version of the advertisement aired only 10 times in all, and only in the 10 days after the initial screening. The slots were chosen for maximum impact, mostly in high-profile sporting events such as the UEFA Champion's League football match between Manchester United and Real Madrid. The full version was then put aside in favour of a 60-second and five 30-second variations, which continued to air for a further six weeks. These shortened versions made use of newly introduced interactive options on the Sky Digital television network. Viewers were encouraged to press a button on their remote control, bringing up a menu that allowed the viewer to see the full 120-second version of the advertisement. Other menu options included placing an order for a free documentary DVD and a brochure for the Honda Accord. The DVD, which was also included as an insert in 1.2 million newspapers in the first week of the commercial's rollout, contained a "making-of" documentary featuring interviews and behind-the-scenes footage of the production process, a virtual tour of the Accord, the original music video to "Rapper's Delight" by the Sugarhill Gang, and an illustrated guide to all the parts shown in "Cog". The interactive 30-second versions of "Cog" proved hugely successful. More than 250,000 people used the menu option, spending an average of two-and-a-half minutes in the dedicated advertising area. A significant number watched the looped 120-second version for up to ten minutes. Of those who opened the menu, 10,000 requested either a DVD or a brochure, and Honda used the data collected from the interactive option to arrange a number of test drives.
Expansion of the "Cog" campaign to a worldwide market was fraught with a number of logistical difficulties. The cost of airing a 120-second commercial proved prohibitive in most markets. This combined with Honda's use of different advertising agencies in different regions and the relative autonomy of its various business units in marketing decisions, meant that "Cog" screened in only a few selected markets: the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Australia; and in cinemas in only a handful of other countries. For most markets, including the United States, the only way for audiences to see the piece was via the Internet, or in one of a handful of unsolicited and unpaid broadcasts on news channel review programmes."The story of Honda "Cog".", Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival (2003). Traffic to Honda websites quadrupled; in the first few weeks, "Cog" was downloaded by over a million people. By mid-May, the number was twice that. It has been estimated that more people in the United States voluntarily chose to watch "Cog" than any other Honda commercial.
In financial terms, "Cog" was an unprecedented success for Honda. The £32,000 spent on placements on the BSkyB network alone achieved a greater response than a previous £1 million direct mailing campaign. Sales of Honda vehicles in the United Kingdom jumped by 28 percent, despite lower marketing and public relations spending by the company and an increase in prices relative to competitors' vehicles. Visits to Honda dealerships rose from an average of 3,500 to 3,700 per month, with 22 percent of these resulting in the purchase of a Honda, compared to 19 percent before the campaign. In all, "Cog" has been credited with increasing Honda's revenue by nearly £400m.
Plagiarism accusations
Shortly after Cog appeared on television, Wieden+Kennedy received a letter from Peter Fischli and David Weiss, creators of the 1987 art film Der Lauf der Dinge. The film was well known in the advertising industry and its creators had been approached several times with offers for the right to use the concept, but had always declined. The letter pointed out several similarities between their work and "Cog", and warned the agency that they were considering legal action on the basis of the "commercialisation and simplification of the film's content and the false impression that [they] might have endorsed the use". When interviewed by Creative Review magazine, the pair made clear that they wished they had been consulted on the advertisement, and that they would not have given permission if asked. Media publications quickly picked up the story, and asserted that Fischli and Weiss were already in the process of litigation against the car manufacturer.Cozens, Claire; "Spanner in the Works", The Guardian, 28 May 2003. Retrieved 3 September 2009.
Comparisons were made between the case and that of Mehdi Norowzian, a British director who complained about Diageo's, the drinks conglomerate, for allegedly plagiarising his work in its 1994 Anticipation campaign for Guinness-brand stout."Mills, Dominic; Art for ad's sake is a copyright fight", The Daily Telegraph, 3 June 2003. Retrieved 3 September 2009. The matter was complicated by the fact that Wieden+Kennedy acknowledged that the film had served as an "inspiration" for "Cog", and had distributed copies of the work to its script-writers. Ultimately, Fischli and Weiss did not file a lawsuit against either Wieden+Kennedy or Honda UK.
Awards
Despite the lingering shadow of these accusations, "Cog" drew an unprecedented amount of critical acclaim. It received more awards than any commercial in history; so many that it was both the most-awarded commercial of 2004 and the 33rd-most-awarded commercial of 2003.Gunn, Donald; Wilkie, Emma; The Gunn Report and Showreel of the Year (5th edition), (Holbrook: FlaxmanWilkie, 2004). The jury for the British Television Advertising Awards gave the piece the highest score of any commercial ever recorded; the jury's chairman Charles Inge commented: "My own opinion is that this is the best commercial that I have seen for at least ten years." After awarding "Cog" with several Silver awards, the president-elect of the D&AD Awards, Dick Powell, said of the piece: "It delights and entrances, [...] it communicates engineering quality and quality of thinking, and leaves you with a smile."
Having swept the majority of award ceremonies within the advertising community to date, "Cog" was widely believed to be the favourite for the industry's top award, the Grand Prix at the Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival.Fera, Rae Ann; "Boards Cannes Predictions , Boards, 1 June 2003. Retrieved 6 September 2009.Cozens, Claire; "Cog slips into third place as Jonze ad triumphs at Cannes", The Guardian, 23 June 2003. Retrieved 6 September 2009. Its chief competition was thought to be "Sheet Metal" for Saturn automobiles. "Cog" held a disadvantage in that the chairman of the Cannes voting jury, Dan Wieden, was one of the founders of Wieden+Kennedy, the firm responsible for creating "Cog"; tradition holds that it is bad form for the chairman of the jury to vote for a piece by his or her own agency.
The result at Cannes was a surprise; after the longest judging period in the festival's history, the Grand Prix went to neither of the two event favourites. Instead, the jury awarded the prize to "Lamp", a U.S. advertisement directed by Spike Jonze for the IKEA chain of furniture stores. Voted second was a British ad, "Ear Tennis" for the Xbox video game console. Chief among speculated reasons for the outcome was the plagiarism debate surrounding "Cog". Ben Walker told Adweek "A couple of people on the jury told me the reason it didn't win is 'cause they didn't want to be seen to be awarding something which people in some corners had said we copied."
Legacy
In advertising
The popularity and recognition received by "Cog" led a number of other companies to create pieces in a similar vein—either as homages, in parody, or simply to further explore the design space. The first of these was Just Works, a deliberate parody advertisement for the 118 118 directory assistance service in the summer of 2003, in which the Honda parts are replaced with such oddities as a tractor wheel, a flamingo and a space hopper, with impetus provided by two moustachioed runners. Just Works was created by advertising agency WCRS. It was written by Anson Harris and directed by JJ Keith, whose previous work included spots for BT Cellnet, Heinz, and Guinness, and the Oscar-nominated short film Holiday Romance. Honda refused to give WCRS permission to copy its advert, which, under Broadcast Advertising Clearance Centre guidelines, prevented either the 60- or 90-second Just Works spots from appearing on British television. Instead, the ad was shown online and promoted virally. Just Works went on to win a number of awards in its own right, including Golds in several categories at the British Television Advertising Awards and the Creative Circle Awards, a Silver Lion from the Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival, and a Bronze award from The One Club.
In 2004, BBC Radio Manchester asked for and received permission from Wieden+Kennedy to produce a television advertisement in the style of "Cog" to advertise coverage of football events by local radio stations. The ad, which was directed by Reg Sanders and produced by Tracy Williams, shows pieces of sports equipment such as footballs and team shirts knocking into each other in sequence. In all, 65 versions were broadcast, each tailored to advertise the local BBC Radio station. Wieden+Kennedy were pleased to gain the extra publicity and Neil Christie, managing director of Wieden+Kennedy London, commented: "We are very happy that every time the BBC runs one of their adverts, the person who watches it thinks of Honda."
Campaign magazine listed "Cog", along with Balls for the Sony BRAVIA line of high-definition televisions, as one of the most-imitated commercials in recent times. Among the pieces believed to draw inspiration from "Cog" are a 2003 piece for breakfast cereal Sugar Puffs, Nearness for the Oslo School of Architecture and Design, a 30-second animated advertisement for Heinz Tomato Ketchup, an advertisement for BBC Radio Merseyside football coverage, and the 2007 Tipping Point, advertising Guinness stout.Lucas, Gavin; "Tipping Point: The Most Expensive Guinness Ad Ever ", Creative Review, 8 November 2007. Retrieved 9 September 2009. When asked about the similarities between "Cog" and "Tipping Point", Paul Brazier, executive creative director at the advertising agency behind Tipping Point, replied: "I knew the ad was similar in places, but as an executive creative director, you have to look at things like that and make a decision. The fact the TV ad was only part of a huge internet campaign meant that I thought it wasn’t that near "Cog"."
Outside advertising
"Cog" has also inspired a number of other creative endeavours outside of the advertising industry, including an elaborate domino-toppling world record attempt by Robin Weijers, and a three-minute introductory trailer to the BBC show Bang Goes the Theory. In 2004, the United States Coast Guard Training Centre in California requested permission to use the ad in its training regime as a demonstration of the importance of attention to detail. Discussion of "Cog" as an example of the confluence of art and advertising, and as an example of inspiration versus plagiarism, has been ongoing. Mark Leckey included "Cog" as part of his video art installation "Cinema in the Round", in the Tate Britain gallery, London, in 2008. It was also the focus of a panel discussion at the Tate Modern during a retrospective of Fischli & Weiss' work there in 2006.
The next piece created by Wieden+Kennedy for Honda, Sense, advertised the company's "Integrated Motor System" hybrid car technology. Deliberate steps were taken to distance the spot from "Cog", using metaphor to make the promotion, rather than focusing on the technology itself. In 2005, Honda was once again in contention for the Grand Prix at the Cannes Lions International Film Festival, with the animated 60-second spot Grrr. This time, it returned home triumphant, defeating Singing in the rain for the Volkswagen Golf and Stella Artois' Pilot to bring home the top prize. Antoine Bardou-Jacquet went on to direct two further Honda advertisements for Wieden+Kennedy. Choir, created with the help of fellow "Cog" team-members Ben Walker and Matt Gooden, was released in 2006, and Problem Playground in 2008.
References
External links
Video Director
Cog
"Cog" – via W+K website
Derivatives
BBC Radio homage – via YouTube
Making of the BBC Radio homage – via YouTube
Tipping Point – via Boards'' website
2003 in British television
2003 works
Honda
2000s television commercials
Viral marketing
Wieden+Kennedy
British television commercials
Works involved in plagiarism controversies
|
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] |
212812
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Jersey
|
The Jersey
|
The Jersey is an American comedy television series based on the Monday Night Football Club books by Gordon Korman. The series aired on Disney Channel from January 30, 1999, to March 23, 2004.
Premise
Nick Lighter, Morgan Hudson, Coleman Galloway, and Elliot Riffkin are four teenagers who discover the magic of "the jersey", a mystical football jersey that transports them into the bodies of professional athletes. This is done in a way similar to the way that the "Sam", the main character in Quantum Leap, travels from body to body, and there is a different athlete featured in every episode. The show had several athletes as guest actors, including Dan Lyle, Michael Andretti, Terrell Davis, David Robinson, Malik Rose, Tony Gonzalez, Shannon Sharpe, Donovan McNabb, Byron Dafoe, Michael Strahan, Kurt Warner, Stephon Marbury, Sergei Fedorov, Kordell Stewart, Jerome Bettis, Junior Seau, Scott Steiner, Booker T, Eddie George, Sabrina Bryan, Randy Johnson, Tony Hawk, Laila Ali, Peyton Manning, and Danny Farmer.
Cast
Michael Galeota as Nick Lighter
Courtnee Draper as Morgan Hudson
Jermaine Williams as Coleman Galloway
Brianne Prather as Hilary Lighter
Cheselka Leigh as Willa Conklin
Theo Greenly as Elliot Rifkin
Michael Bofshever as Mr. Lighter
McNally Sagal as Mrs. Lighter
Meagan Good as Tamika
Vance Yudell as Phill Parker
Production
While production on the show wrapped in April 2001, new episodes were shown until March 2004. The last few episodes aired early Saturday mornings on Disney Channel and after all 64 episodes were shown, The Jersey was completely taken off the air in June 2004.
Episodes
References
External links
1999 American television series debuts
2004 American television series endings
1990s American comedy television series
2000s American comedy television series
American sports television series
Disney Channel original programming
English-language television shows
Television series about teenagers
Television series by Disney
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984%20%28advertisement%29
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1984 (advertisement)
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"1984" is an American television commercial that introduced the Apple Macintosh personal computer. It was conceived by Steve Hayden, Brent Thomas and Lee Clow at Chiat/Day, produced by New York production company Fairbanks Films, and directed by Ridley Scott. English athlete Anya Major performed as the unnamed heroine and David Graham as Big Brother. In the US, it first aired in 10 local outlets, including Twin Falls, Idaho, where Chiat/Day ran the ad on December 31, 1983, at the last possible break before midnight on KMVT, so that the advertisement qualified for the 1984 Clio Awards. Its second televised airing, and only US national airing, was on January 22, 1984, during a break in the third quarter of the telecast of Super Bowl XVIII by CBS.
In one interpretation of the commercial, "1984" used the unnamed heroine to represent the coming of the Macintosh (indicated by her white tank top with a stylized line drawing of Apple’s Macintosh computer on it) as a means of saving humanity from "conformity" (Big Brother). These images were an allusion to George Orwell's noted 1984 novel, Nineteen Eighty-Four, which described a dystopian future ruled by a televised "Big Brother". The estate of George Orwell and the television rightsholder to the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four considered the commercial to be a copyright infringement and sent a cease-and-desist letter to Apple and Chiat/Day in April 1984.
Originally a subject of contention within Apple, it has subsequently been called a watershed event and a masterpiece in advertising. In 1995, The Clio Awards added it to its Hall of Fame, and Advertising Age placed it on the top of its list of 50 greatest commercials.
In January 1984, Apple also launched the inventé advertisement for Macintosh in France.
Plot
The commercial opens with a dystopian, industrial setting in blue and grayish tones, showing a line of people (of ambiguous gender) marching in unison through a long tunnel monitored by a string of telescreens. This is in sharp contrast to the full-color shots of the nameless runner (Anya Major). She looks like a competitive track and field athlete, wearing an athletic "uniform" (red athletic shorts, running shoes, a white tank top with a cubist picture of Apple's Macintosh computer, a white sweat band on her left wrist, and a red one on her right), and is carrying a large brass-headed sledgehammer. Rows of marching minions evoke the opening scenes of Metropolis.
As she is chased by four police officers (presumably agents of the Thought Police) wearing black uniforms, protected by riot gear, helmets with visors covering their faces, and armed with large night sticks, she races towards a large screen with the image of a Big Brother-like figure (David Graham, also seen on the telescreens earlier) giving a speech:
The runner, now close to the screen, hurls the hammer towards it, right at the moment Big Brother announces, “we shall prevail!” In a flurry of light and smoke, the screen is destroyed, leaving the audience in shock.
The commercial concludes with a portentous voiceover, accompanied by scrolling black text (in Apple's early signature "Garamond" typeface); the hazy, whitish-blue aftermath of the cataclysmic event serves as the background. It reads:
The screen fades to black as the voiceover ends, and the rainbow Apple logo appears.
Production
Development
The commercial was created by the advertising agency Chiat/Day, of Venice, California, with copy by Steve Hayden, art direction by Brent Thomas, and creative direction by Lee Clow. The commercial "grew out of an abandoned print campaign" with a specific theme:
Ridley Scott (whose dystopian sci-fi film Blade Runner had been released one and a half years prior) was hired by agency producer Richard O'Neill to direct it. Less than two months after the Super Bowl airing, The New York Times reported that Scott "filmed it in England for about $370,000"; In 2005 writer Ted Friedman said the commercial had a then-"unheard-of production budget of $900,000."
The actors who appeared in the commercial were paid $25 per day. Scott later admitted that he accepted brutal budget constraints because he believed in the ad's concept, outlining how the total cost was less than $250,000 and that he used local skinheads to portray the broken, pale "drones" in the commercial.
Steve Jobs and John Sculley were so enthusiastic about the final product that they "...purchased one and a half minutes of ad time for the Super Bowl, annually the most-watched television program in America. In December 1983 they screened the commercial for the Apple Board of Directors. To Jobs' and Sculley's surprise, the entire board hated the commercial." However, Sculley himself got "cold feet" and asked Chiat/Day to sell off the two commercial spots.
Despite the board's dislike of the film, Steve Wozniak and others at Apple showed copies to friends, and he offered to pay for half of the spot personally if Jobs paid the other half. This turned out to be unnecessary. Of the original ninety seconds booked, Chiat/Day resold thirty seconds to another advertiser, then claimed they could not sell the other 60 seconds, when in fact they did not even try.
Intended message
In his 1983 Apple keynote address, Steve Jobs read the following story before showcasing a preview of the commercial:
In March 1984 Michael Tyler, a communications expert quoted by The New York Times, said "The Apple ad expresses a potential of small computers. This potential may not automatically flow from the company's product. But if enough people held a shared intent, grass-roots electronic bulletin boards (through which computer users share messages) might result in better balancing of political power."
In 2004, Adelia Cellini writing for Macworld, summarized the message:
Reception and legacy
Art director Brent Thomas said Apple "had wanted something to 'stop America in its tracks, to make people think about computers, to make them think about Macintosh.' With about $3.5 million worth of Macintoshes sold just after the advertisement ran, Thomas judged the effort 'absolutely successful.' 'We also set out to smash the old canard that the computer will enslave us,' he said. 'We did not say the computer will set us free—I have no idea how it will work out. This was strictly a marketing position.'"
Awards
1984: Clio Awards
1984: 31st Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival—Grand Prix
1995: Clio Awards—Hall of Fame
1995: Advertising Age—Greatest Commercial
1999: TV Guide—Number One Greatest Commercial of All Time
2003: WFA—Hall of Fame Award (Jubilee Golden Award)
2007: Best Super Bowl Spot (in the game's 40-year history)
It ranked at number 38 in Channel 4's 2000 list of the "100 Greatest TV Ads".
Social impact
Ted Friedman, in his 2005 text, Electric Dreams: Computers in American Culture, notes the impact of the commercial:
Super Bowl viewers were overwhelmed by the startling ad. The ad garnered millions of dollars worth of free publicity, as news programs rebroadcast it that night. It was quickly hailed by many in the advertising industry as a masterwork. Advertising Age named it the 1980s Commercial of the Decade, and it continues to rank high on lists of the most influential commercials of all time [...] '1984' was never broadcast again, adding to its mystique.
The "1984" ad became a signature representation of Apple computers. It was scripted as a thematic element in the 1999 docudrama, Pirates of Silicon Valley, which explores the rise of Apple and Microsoft (the film opens and closes with references to the commercial, including a re-enactment of the heroine running towards the screen of Big Brother and clips of the original commercial).
The commercial was also prominent in the 20th anniversary celebration of the Macintosh in 2004, as Apple reposted a new version of the ad on its website and showed it during Jobs's Keynote Address at Macworld Expo in San Francisco, California. In this updated version, an iPod, complete with signature white earbuds, was digitally added to the heroine. Keynote Attendees were given a poster showing the heroine with an iPod as a commemorative gift. And the ad has also been cited as the turning point for Super Bowl commercials, which had been important and popular before (especially with the Coca-Cola ad featuring Joe Greene from years earlier) but after "1984" those ads became the most expensive, creative and influential advertising set for all television coverage.
Revisiting the commercial in Harper's Magazine thirty years after it aired, social critic Rebecca Solnit suggested that "1984" did not so much herald a new era of liberation as a new era of oppression. In the December 2014 issue of the magazine, she wrote:
African-American archivist (and early Apple supporter) Marion Stokes recorded said Super Bowl featuring the legendary ad, which was also featured in the 2019 documentary film Recorder: The Marion Stokes Project.
Parodies
In March 2007, the advertisement attracted attention again when Hillary 1984, a video mashup of the original commercial with footage of Hillary Clinton used in place of Big Brother, went viral in the early stages of the campaign for the 2008 Democratic presidential nomination. The video was produced in support of Barack Obama by Phil de Vellis, an employee of Blue State Digital, but was made without the knowledge of either Obama's campaign or his own employer. De Vellis stated that he made the video in one afternoon at home using a Mac and some software. Political commentators including Carla Marinucci and Arianna Huffington, as well as de Vellis himself, suggested that the video demonstrated the way technology had created new opportunities for individuals to make an impact on politics.
On May 2010, Valve released a short video announcing the release of Half-Life 2 on OS X featuring a recreation of the original commercial, with the people replaced with City 17's citizens, Big Brother with a speech from Wallace Breen and Major's character with Alyx Vance throwing a crowbar at the screen.
On August 13, 2020, Apple removed Fortnite from the App Store after Epic Games introduced a direct payment option that circumvented Apple's 30% revenue cut policy, violating terms of service policies. In response, Epic filed a lawsuit against Apple, and created a parody of the "1984" ad called "Nineteen Eighty-Fortnite". In the ad, Big Brother is replaced by a personification of the Apple logo (Tart Tycoon) addressing an audience of Fortnites default outfits, with the character Brite Bomber acting as the heroine.
See also
Think Different, an Apple advertising slogan
Get a Mac, television advertising campaign
List of Super Bowl commercials
References
Further reading
External links
Super Bowl commercials
American television commercials
1980s television commercials
Apple Inc. advertising
Films based on Nineteen Eighty-Four
Films directed by Ridley Scott
History of computing hardware
1983 television films
1983 films
1983 short films
1984 in American television
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eating
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Eating
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Eating (also known as consuming) is the ingestion of food, typically to provide a heterotrophic organism with energy and to allow for growth. Animals and other heterotrophs must eat in order to survive — carnivores eat other animals, herbivores eat plants, omnivores consume a mixture of both plant and animal matter, and detritivores eat detritus. Fungi digest organic matter outside their bodies as opposed to animals that digest their food inside their bodies. For humans, eating is an activity of daily living. Some individuals may limit their amount of nutritional intake. This may be a result of a lifestyle choice, due to hunger or famine, as part of a diet or as religious fasting.
Eating practices among humans
Many homes have a large kitchen area devoted to preparation of meals and food, and may have a dining room, dining hall, or another designated area for eating.
Most societies also have restaurants, food courts, and food vendors so that people may eat when away from home, when lacking time to prepare food, or as a social occasion. At their highest level of sophistication, these places become "theatrical spectacles of global cosmopolitanism and myth." At picnics, potlucks, and food festivals, eating is in fact the primary purpose of a social gathering. At many social events, food and beverages are made available to attendees.
People usually have two or three meals a day. Snacks of smaller amounts may be consumed between meals. Doctors in the UK recommend three meals a day (with between 400–600 kcal per meal), with four to six hours between. Having three well-balanced meals (described as: half of the plate with vegetables, 1/4 protein food as meat, [...] and 1/4 carbohydrates as pasta, rice) will then amount to some 1800–2000 kcal, which is the average requirement for a regular person.
In jurisdictions under Sharia law, it may be proscribed for Muslim adults during the daylight hours of Ramadan.
Development in humans
Newborn babies do not eat adult foods. They survive solely on breast milk or formula. Small amounts of pureed food are sometimes fed to young infants as young as two or three months old, but most infants do not eat adult food until they are between six and eight months old. Young babies eat pureed baby foods because they have few teeth and immature digestive systems. Between 8 and 12 months of age, the digestive system improves, and many babies begin eating finger foods. Their diet is still limited, however, because most babies lack molars or canines at this age, and often have a limited number of incisors. By 18 months, babies often have enough teeth and a sufficiently mature digestive system to eat the same foods as adults. Learning to eat is a messy process for children, and children often do not master neatness or eating etiquette until they are five or six years old.
Eating positions
Eating positions vary according to the different regions of the world, as culture influences the way people eat their meals.
For example, most of the Middle Eastern countries, eating while sitting on the floor is most common, and it is believed to be healthier than eating while sitting to a table.
Eating in a reclining position was favored by the Ancient Greeks at a celebration they called a symposium, and this custom was adopted by the Ancient Romans. Ancient Hebrews also adopted this posture for traditional celebrations of Passover.
Compulsive overeating
Compulsive overeating, or emotional eating, is "the tendency to eat in response to negative emotions". Empirical studies have indicated that anxiety leads to decreased food consumption in people with normal weight and increased food consumption in the obese.
Many laboratory studies showed that overweight individuals are more emotionally reactive and are more likely to overeat when distressed than people of normal weight. Furthermore, it was consistently found that obese individuals experience negative emotions more frequently and more intensively than do normal weight persons.
The naturalistic study by Lowe and Fisher compared the emotional reactivity and emotional eating of normal and overweight female college students. The study confirmed the tendency of obese individuals to overeat, but these findings applied only to snacks, not to meals. That means that obese individuals did not tend to eat more while having meals; rather, the amount of snacks they ate between meals was greater. One possible explanation that Lowe and Fisher suggest is obese individuals often eat their meals with others and do not eat more than average due to the reduction of distress because of the presence of other people. Another possible explanation would be that obese individuals do not eat more than the others while having meals due to social desirability. Conversely, snacks are usually eaten alone.
Hunger and satiety
There are many physiological mechanisms that control starting and stopping a meal. The control of food intake is a physiologically complex, motivated behavioral system. Hormones such as cholecystokinin, bombesin, neurotensin, anorectin, calcitonin, enterostatin, leptin and corticotropin-releasing hormone have all been shown to suppress food intake.
Initiation
There are numerous signals given off that initiate hunger. There are environmental signals, signals from the gastrointestinal system, and metabolic signals that trigger hunger. The environmental signals come from the body's senses. The feeling of hunger could be triggered by the smell and thought of food, the sight of a plate, or hearing someone talk about food. The signals from the stomach are initiated by the release of the peptide hormone ghrelin. Ghrelin is a hormone that increases appetite by signaling to the brain that a person is hungry.
Environmental signals and ghrelin are not the only signals that initiate hunger, there are other metabolic signals as well. As time passes between meals, the body starts to take nutrients from long-term reservoirs. When the glucose levels of cells drop (glucoprivation), the body starts to produce the feeling of hunger. The body also stimulates eating by detecting a drop in cellular lipid levels (lipoprivation). Both the brain and the liver monitor the levels of metabolic fuels. The brain checks for glucoprivation on its side of the blood–brain barrier (since glucose is its fuel), while the liver monitors the rest of the body for both lipoprivation and glucoprivation.
Termination
There are short-term signals of satiety that arise from the head, the stomach, the intestines, and the liver. The long-term signals of satiety come from adipose tissue. The taste and odor of food can contribute to short-term satiety, allowing the body to learn when to stop eating. The stomach contains receptors to allow us to know when we are full. The intestines also contain receptors that send satiety signals to the brain. The hormone cholecystokinin is secreted by the duodenum, and it controls the rate at which the stomach is emptied. This hormone is thought to be a satiety signal to the brain. Peptide YY 3-36 is a hormone released by the small intestine and it is also used as a satiety signal to the brain. Insulin also serves as a satiety signal to the brain. The brain detects insulin in the blood, which indicates that nutrients are being absorbed by cells and a person is getting full. Long-term satiety comes from the fat stored in adipose tissue. Adipose tissue secretes the hormone leptin, and leptin suppresses appetite. Long-term satiety signals from adipose tissue regulates short-term satiety signals.
Role of the brain
The brain stem can control food intake, because it contains neural circuits that detect hunger and satiety signals from other parts of the body. The brain stem's involvement of food intake has been researched using rats. Rats that have had the motor neurons in the brain stem disconnected from the neural circuits of the cerebral hemispheres (decerebration), are unable to approach and eat food. Instead they have to obtain their food in a liquid form. This research shows that the brain stem does in fact play a role in eating.
There are two peptides in the hypothalamus that produce hunger, melanin concentrating hormone (MCH) and orexin. MCH plays a bigger role in producing hunger. In mice, MCH stimulates feeding and a mutation causing the overproduction of MCH led to overeating and obesity. Orexin plays a greater role in controlling the relationship between eating and sleeping. Other peptides in the hypothalamus that induce eating are neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related protein (AGRP).
Satiety in the hypothalamus is stimulated by leptin. Leptin targets the receptors on the arcuate nucleus and suppresses the secretion of MCH and orexin. The arcuate nucleus also contains two more peptides that suppress hunger. The first one is cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART), the second is α-MSH (α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone).
Disorders
Physiologically, eating is generally triggered by hunger, but there are numerous physical and psychological conditions that can affect appetite and disrupt normal eating patterns. These include depression, food allergies, ingestion of certain chemicals, bulimia, anorexia nervosa, pituitary gland malfunction and other endocrine problems, and numerous other illnesses and eating disorders.
A chronic lack of nutritious food can cause various illnesses, and will eventually lead to starvation. When this happens in a locality on a massive scale, it is considered a famine.
If eating and drinking is not possible, as is often the case when recovering from surgery, alternatives are enteral nutrition and parenteral nutrition.
Other animals
Mammals
Birds
See also
Aphagia
Chewing
Competitive eating
Crop
Dietary supplement
Dieting
Dining in, formal military ceremony
Drinking
Eat Me (disambiguation)
Eat This, Not That
Energy crop
Foodways
Forced feeding
Muk-bang
Swallowing
References
External links
Health-EU Portal - Nutrition
Physiology
Food and drink
Nutrition
Human positions
Dining
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baiotomeus
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Baiotomeus
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Baiotomeus is a genus of mammals from the extinct order of Multituberculata. It is known from the Paleocene of North America.
The genus Baiotomeus was formally named by Krause in 1987 (Krause, 1987), and has also been known as Mimetodon (partly), Neoplagiaulax (partly), and Ptilodus (partly).
Species
B. douglassi
Baiotomeus douglassi is a fairly substantial multituberculate weighing almost 200 g. Remains have been found in the Fort Union Formation of Montana and Porcupine Hills Formation of Alberta, Canada. The holotype specimen hails from Wyoming in the United States, in strata of the Gidley Quarry dated to the Torrejonian stage of the Paleocene.
The species was originally named Ptilodus douglassi by Simpson in 1935 (Simpson, 1935), but it has been reclassified several times:
Mimetodon douglassi in 1940, by Jepsen
Neoplagiaulax douglassi in 1974, by Schiebout
It was finally assigned to Baiotomeus by Hartman in 1986 — which is before Krause formally established the genus in 1987.
B. lamberti
Remains of Baiotomeus lamberti have been discovered in Montana in the United States, in the Medicine Rocks of the Tongue River Formation, which have been dated to the Paleocene.
Several specimens, including the holotype, are at the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale. Collected in 1958 and 1965, these were originally described as belonging to Mimetodon. It was given its current name in 1987 by Krause (Krause, 1987). B. lamberti has also been confused with Ptilodus montanus.
B. russelli
Baiotomeus russelli has been discovered in Alberta, Canada, in Cochrane 2 of the Paskapoo Formation, which has been dated to the lower Tiffanian stage of the Paleocene.
Remains consist of nine upper premolars, (P4), which average nearly 2.5 mm in length. This is smaller than the teeth of other genus members; from front to back, approximately 45% less than B. douglassi and 40% less than B. lamberti. The rows of cusps also display a strong curvature and the cuspate anterolabial lobe is better developed. There is more variation in the height of the cusps among the middle row. These particular premolars — P4s — have three rows of cusps, of which there seem to be about 15 or so in all. In addition, "the enamel is weakly wrinkled on all specimens". (Scott et al., 2002)
According to the same authors:
At present, P4s are the only specimens from Cochrane 2 that we can identify as pertaining to B. russelli. Although knowledge of this species is limited, we consider its naming to be justified based on the diagnostic morphology of ultimate fourth premolars in ptilodontids generally (Krause 1982, 1987) and the unique structure of these teeth.
The species name honours L. S. Russell "for his pioneering research on the mammals from Cochrane 2". All presently identified remains are part of the collection of the University of Alberta.
Cochrane 2 has also been interpreted as correlating to the Porcupine Hills Formation, but recent studies suggest that it is part of the Paskapoo, as originally concluded by Russell in 1929.
References
Bibliography
Z. Kielan-Jaworowska and J. H. Hurum. (2001) "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals." Paleontology 44, pg. 389–429.
D. W. Krause. (1987) "Baiotomeus, a new ptilodontid multituberculate (Mammalia) from the Middle Paleocene of western North America." Journal of Paleontology 61, pg. 595–603.
Craig S. Scott, Richard C. Fox, and Gordon P. Youzwyshyn. (2002) New earliest Tiffanian (late Paleocene) mammals from Cochrane 2, southwestern Alberta, Canada (Warning: 353 KB PDF). Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 47(4), pg. 691–704.
G. G. Simpson (1935). "New Paleocene mammals from the Fort Union of Montana." Proceedings of the United States National Museum 83, pg. 221–244.
This information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS; Ptilodontoidea, an Internet directory.
Ptilodontoids
Paleocene mammals
Paleocene genus extinctions
Paleogene mammals of North America
Fossil taxa described in 1987
Prehistoric mammal genera
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Leclerc%20%28general%2C%20born%201772%29
|
Charles Leclerc (general, born 1772)
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Charles Victoire Emmanuel Leclerc (17 March 1772 – 2 November 1802) was a French Army general who served under Napoleon Bonaparte during the French Revolution. He was husband to Pauline Bonaparte, sister to Napoleon. In 1801, he was sent to Saint-Domingue (Haiti), where an expeditionary force under his command captured and deported the Haitian leader Toussaint L'Ouverture, as part of an unsuccessful attempt to reassert imperial control over the Saint-Domingue government. Leclerc died of yellow fever during the failed expedition.
Biography
To 1801
Leclerc started his military career in 1791 during the French Revolution as one of the army volunteers of Seine-et-Oise and passed through the ranks of sous-lieutenant in the 12th Cavalry, then aide-de-camp to general Lapoype. He was made a captain and divisional chief of staff during the siege of Toulon, at which he first allied himself to Napoleon Bonaparte. Following the revolutionary success there, he campaigned along the Rhine. He began serving under Napoleon Bonaparte in the Alpine and Italian campaigns, fighting at Castiglione della Pescaia and Rivoli and rising to général de brigade in 1797. He was then charged with announcing to the French Directory the signature of the peace preliminaries at Leoben. Pauline Bonaparte was at this time receiving a large number of suitors, thus pressing her brother Napoleon Bonaparte to have her married off. On Leclerc's return, he accepted Bonaparte's offer of Pauline's hand in marriage and they married in 1797, having one child, Dermide, and occupying the Château de Montgobert.
He became chef d'état-major to generals Berthier and Brune and served in the second unsuccessful French Army military expedition to Ireland led by Jean Joseph Amable Humbert in 1798. On Bonaparte's return from the Egyptian expedition in 1798, he made Leclerc a général de division and sent him to the armée du Rhin under Moreau. At this rank Leclerc was able to participate in the coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire (in November 1799) that made his brother-in-law Napoleon First Consul of France – supported by Murat, he ordered the grenadiers to march into the room of the Council of Five Hundred. He was next noted for his participation in the Rhine campaign and the battle of Hohenlinden, receiving the supreme command of the 17th, 18th and 19th military divisions. He then passed from that post to being commander-in-chief of an army corps that Napoleon meant to send to Portugal to force it to renounce its alliance with England, though that expedition never took place.
Saint-Domingue
In 1791, black slaves in the Caribbean colony of Saint-Domingue had risen up against their French owners in the Haitian Revolution, which was contemporaneous with the French Revolution. In August 1793, the French Republican commissioner Léger-Félicité Sonthonax officially abolished slavery on Saint-Domingue, as part of an effort to recruit rebel slaves to the side of the new French Republic. The prominent rebel leader Toussaint L'Ouverture, himself a former slave, joined the French Republican side shortly afterwards. By 1801, L'Ouverture had consolidated his rule over the entire island of Hispaniola, including the colony of Saint-Domingue. In July 1801, L'Ouverture promulgated a new constitution for the colony that appointed himself governor for life, while simultaneously reaffirming the colony's position as "part of the French empire."
Upon receiving the news in October 1801, Napoleon interpreted L'Ouverture's new constitution as an unacceptable offense to French imperial authority, and subsequently appointed Leclerc commander of a military expedition to reconquer Saint-Domingue. In his initial instructions, Bonaparte directed Leclerc to disarm L'Ouverture's black-controlled government and deport his military officers to France, while publicly maintaining the abolition of slavery in Saint-Domingue. Bonaparte announced intentions to reinstate slavery in neighboring Spanish Santo Domingo, which L'Ouverture had recently occupied. It was Napoleon's intention to reinstate slavery in Saint-Domingue once L'Ouverture had been arrested.
Leclerc set off from Brest in December 1801 and landed at Cap-Français in February 1802, with other warships and a total of 40,000 troops (including reinforcements, upwards to 80,000 troops were sent to Saint-Domingue during Leclerc's campaign), publicly repeating Bonaparte's promise that "all of the people of Saint-Domingue are French" and forever free. L'Ouverture's harsh discipline had made him numerous enemies and Leclerc played off the ambitions of L'Ouverture's younger key officers and competitors against each other, promising that they would maintain their ranks in the French Army and thus bringing them to abandon L'Ouverture. The French won several victories and regained control in three months after severe fighting, with L'Ouverture forced to negotiate an honorable surrender and to retire to tend his plantations under house arrest. However, Napoleon had given secret instructions to Leclerc to arrest L'Ouverture, and so Leclerc seized L'Ouverture – during a meeting – for deportation to France, where he died while imprisoned at Fort-de-Joux in the Jura mountains in 1803.
Despite his superiors' warnings, Leclerc did not consolidate his victory by disarming L'Ouverture's old officers. After a brief period in which he incorporated many of L'Ouverture's officers into his own forces, Leclerc began suffering mass defections of troops over the latter half of 1802. Those troops, along with the black and Creole population of the colony, rose up in response to news that slavery had been reestablished on Guadeloupe. The prospect of a similar restoration on Saint-Domingue swung the tide inexorably against French hopes for reimposing control, as Leclerc began executing suspected conspirators en masse.
By October 1802, Leclerc wrote to Bonaparte advocating for a war of extermination, declaring that "We must destroy all the blacks of the mountains – men and women – and spare only children under 12 years of age. We must destroy half of those in the plains and must not leave a single colored person in the colony who has worn an epaulette." In that letter to Bonaparte, Leclerc also lamented his assignment, declaring "My soul is withered, and no joyful thought can ever make forget these hideous scenes." In the meantime, more black and mulatto army officers had defected, including Jean Jacques Dessalines, Alexandre Pétion and Henri Christophe. After Christophe massacred several hundred Polish soldiers at Port-de-Paix following his defection, Leclerc ordered the arrest of all remaining black colonial troops in Le Cap, and executed 1,000 of them by tying sacks of flour to their neck and pushing them off the side of ships.
Death
In November 1802, Leclerc died of yellow fever, which had already decimated his invasion force. His wife Pauline returned to Europe, where she later married the Italian nobleman Camillo Borghese. Leclerc was succeeded in command by General Rochambeau, whose brutal racial warfare drove more leaders back to the rebel armies. On 18 November 1803, François Capois defeated Rochambeau's forces in the Battle of Vertières. Dessalines proclaimed the independence of Haïti and its new name on 1 January 1804. In the meantime Leclerc's body had been transported to France by his widow and buried on one of his estates.
Memorials
A statue at Pontoise shows him in Napoleonic uniform, his scabbard touching the earth. It was put up by marshal Davout and his second wife Louise-Aimée-Julie (Leclerc's sister) at the top of a staircase built in 1869 by François Lemot. Around 3m high, the statue is on a square stone pedestal inscribed with information on him in gold majuscule letters. It adjoins the south side of city's cathedral. There is also a statue of him by Jean Guillaume Moitte in the Pantheon de Paris.
References
Bibliography
Girard, Philippe R. "Liberte, Egalite, Esclavage : French Revolutionary Ideals and the Failure of the Leclerc Expedition to Saint-Domingue," French Colonial History, Volume 6, 2005, pp. 55–77
External links
Bob Corbett's Haiti Page – Online collection of resources on the revolution in Haiti. See especially links to the Haiti Mailing List and Corbett's essays on the revolutionary period.
French generals
Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe
1772 births
1802 deaths
French Republican military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars
People of the Haitian Revolution
People from Pontoise
Deaths from yellow fever
Infectious disease deaths in Haiti
Governors of Saint-Domingue
1800s in Guadeloupe
18th-century French military personnel
Genocide perpetrators
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] |
212824
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimbetohia
|
Kimbetohia
|
Kimbetohia is a genus of mammal belonging to the extinct order Multituberculata. It lived from the Upper Cretaceous to the Paleocene in the United States.
Taxonomy
Two species are known. The type species, Kimbetohia campi, has been found in New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming, in the Nacimiento Formation of the San Juan Basin. The deposits date from the Maastrichtian stage of the Upper Cretaceous to the Puercan stage of the Paleocene. Some material associated with this species was referred to as Clemensodon megaloba, by D. W. Krause in 1992. The second species, K. mzaie, is known from deposits of the Denver Formation, in Colorado, which has been dated to the Puercan stage of the Lower Paleocene.
References
Z. Kielan-Jaworowska Z and J. H. Hurum. (2001) Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals. Paleontology 44, pg. 389–429.
Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS; Ptilodontoidea, an internet directory.
Ptilodontoids
Cretaceous mammals
Paleocene mammals
Paleocene genus extinctions
Extinct animals of the United States
Prehistoric mammal genera
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] |
212827
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form%20factor
|
Form factor
|
Form factor or form-factor may refer to:
Manufacturing
Form factor (design), an aspect of design which defines and prescribes the size, shape, and other physical specifications of hardware components, particularly in electronics and electronic packaging
Form factor (mobile phones)
Computer form factor, the specifications of computer motherboards
Hard disk drive form factor
Scattering theory
Form factor (quantum field theory), a semi-empirical formula used in effective quantum field theories
Atomic form factor, or atomic scattering factor, a measure of the amplitude of a wave scattered from an isolated atom
Electric form factor, the Fourier transform of electric charge distribution in space
Magnetic form factor, the Fourier transform of an electric current distribution in space
Other sciences
Form factor (electronics), characterizing the functional form of oscillating signals
Form factor (radiative transfer) or view factor, the proportion of energy transmitted by that object which can be transferred to another object
Form factor in timber metrics, referring to tree shape
See also
Structure factor
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seka%20%28actress%29
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Seka (actress)
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Seka (born Dorothiea Ivonniea Hundley, April 15, 1954) also known as Dorothea Hundley Patton, is a retired American pornographic actress who began her career in the industry at age 23 and appeared in pornographic films from 1977 to 1993. She was known as the Platinum Princess of Porn. In 2013, she released her autobiography about her life and career, titled Inside Seka.
Early life
Dorothiea Hundley was born and raised in Radford, Virginia, having, she recalled, "a plain, normal childhood" with two siblings, a brother and sister. She describes her ancestry as Cherokee and Irish. Nicknamed "Dottie," she won a high-school beauty pageant, being named Ms. Hopewell High School or Miss Hopewell High School (accounts vary) and became Miss Southside Virginia.
Hundley married Francis "Frank" Patton on April 21, 1972, a week after her 18th birthday. She and Patton divorced before she began her pornographic career in 1977. She worked for Reynolds Metals Company, maker of Reynolds Wrap household aluminum, and later became a clerk at an adult bookstore, where she began dating the married owner.
Career
She described her entry into pornographic films, following her move from the East Coast to Las Vegas and then to Los Angeles,
Seka's early pornographic pseudonyms included Linda Grasser. She eventually adopted the screen name Seka, after a female blackjack dealer she knew in Las Vegas. (She married actor-turned-director Kenneth M. Yontz the year after her porn debut; they divorced in 1980.) She went on to star in more than 200 adult videos with a "break" in 1982, when she stopped shooting sex movies, claiming "they wouldn't pay her what she wanted," and turned to stripping and nude modeling while also running her own fan club. Subsequently, she admitted that the HIV epidemic in the mid-1980s contributed to her decision to avoid the hardcore sex scene, saying, "That's why I don't make movies any more . . . I like to live." By the early 1990s she had returned to the porn industry to perform in a few final movies, her last being American Garter.
Jamie Gillis performed with Seka numerous times and considered her to be "a bit above porn," describing her as a "white trash queen." Among her fellow performers, she listed her favorite male screen partners as Gillis, John Holmes, Mike Ranger and Paul Thomas. In terms of female screen partners, she rated her favorites as Veronica Hart, Aunt Peg, Kay Parker and Candida Royalle
Other ventures
In 1997 she hosted a radio talk show in Chicago called Let's Talk About Sex on Saturday nights from 10:00 pm to 2:00 am on 97.9FM, The Loop; she hosted it for approximately three years.
In 2005 she moved from Chicago to Kansas City, operating her fan club through her
own website. In February 2007 she stated she had just shot her first hardcore scene in nearly 15 years, available as online pay-per-view.
In 2015 she published her autobiography, Inside Seka, whose text Kerry Zukus transcribed from her dictations. Jim Norton wrote the foreword and Bobby Slayton wrote the afterword.
Appearances
She has appeared on various talk shows such as those hosted by Alan Thicke, Montel Williams, Oprah Winfrey, Larry King, Phil Donahue, and Morton Downey Jr., as well as an appearance on Saturday Night Live. Seka appeared in the 2012 documentary After Porn Ends, about life after being a porn actor.
Personal life
Aside from her marriages to Frank Patton (1972 to no later than 1977), Patrick Connelly (1987) and Kenneth M. Yontz (1978–80), Seka dated comedian Sam Kinison in the mid-'80s. She credited him for arranging an appearance with him on Saturday Night Live.
In the DVD commentary for his film, director Paul Thomas Anderson stated that she was the main inspiration for his character of Amber Waves in Boogie Nights, due to her appearance and involvement with John Holmes in the documentary Exhausted: John C. Holmes, The Real Story.
Awards and recognition
Seka is a member of the AVN Hall of Fame, and the X-Rated Critics Organization Hall of Fame.
In the 2000 film Charlie's Angels, Drew Barrymore's character, Dylan Sanders, wears a disguise while at a racetrack, that made her resemble Seka.
Electronic musician Aphex Twin sampled Seka for the track "Come on You Slags!" from his album ...I Care Because You Do.
Partial filmography
Teenage Desires (1978) (footage from 1974)
Dracula Sucks (1978)
Heavenly Desire (1979) (film debut)
Rockin' with Seka (1980)
The Seduction of Cindy (1980)
Prisoner of Paradise (1980)
Exhausted: John C. Holmes, the Real Story (1981)
Blond Heat (1985) (opposite John Leslie)
Careful, He May Be Watching (1987)
American Garter (1993)
Desperately Seeking Seka (2002)
Bibliography
References
External links
XXX Hall of Famer and 70s/80s icon SEKA gets down with Legendary Rock Interviews
1954 births
American pornographic film actresses
American female adult models
American people of Cherokee descent
American people of Irish descent
Living people
People from Radford, Virginia
Pornographic film actors from Virginia
21st-century American actresses
|
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] |
212830
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Ford%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Henry Ford (disambiguation)
|
Henry Ford (1863–1947) was an American industrialist, the founder of the Ford Motor Company.
Henry Ford may also refer to:
People
Politicians
Henry Ford (Michigan legislator) (1825–1894), Michigan state senator
Henry Ford (MP for Weymouth) (1386–1397), Member of Parliament for Weymouth
Henry P. Ford (1837–1905), mayor of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, from 1896 to 1899
Henry Ford (Tiverton MP) (1617–1684), English politician
Henry Harrison Ford (1844–1887), member of the Texas House
Illustrators
Henry Justice Ford (1860–1941), British illustrator
Henry Ford (illustrator) (1828–1894), American illustrator
Others
Henry Ford II (1917–1987), American business executive, grandson of Henry Ford
E. B. Ford (1901–1988), also known as Henry Ford, British ecological geneticist
Henry Ford (defensive lineman) (born 1971), American football defensive lineman
Henry Ford (defensive back) (born 1931), American football defensive back
Henry Jones Ford (1851–1925), political scientist
Henry Ford (professor) (1753–1813), professor of Arabic and principal of Magdalen Hall, University of Oxford
Other uses
The Henry Ford, museum and historical Greenfield Village
Henry Ford Hospital, hospital founded with money from Henry Ford
Henry Ford College, college in Dearborn Michigan
Henry Ford Health System, Metro Detroit
Henry Ford II High School, Sterling Heights, Michigan
Henry Ford Bridge, Los Angeles County, Southern California
See also
Harry Ford (disambiguation)
Henri Ford, Haitian-American pediatric surgeon
Henry (disambiguation)
Ford (disambiguation)
Ford, Henry
|
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] |
212831
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prochetodon
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Prochetodon
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Prochetodon is a genus of mammals from the extinct order Multituberculata. It lived during the Upper Paleocene and the Lower Eocene in North America. The genus was formally named by G. L. Jepsen in 1940. (Jepsen, 1940)
P. cavus
The species Prochetodon cavus weighed about 135 g. Remains have been discovered in Wyoming, in the United States. They were found in the Princeton Quarry, and the deposits were dated from the Upper Paleocene to the Lower Eocene. Material is in the collection of the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale. The species was named by G. L. Jepsen in 1940. (Jepsen, 1940)
P. foxi
The species Prochetodon foxi weighed about 200 g. Remains have been discovered in Wyoming and Montana in the United States, in the Long Draw Quarry, and in the Swan Hills of Alberta, Canada. The strata are dated to the Upper Paleocene. The species was named by David. W. Krause in 1987. (Krause, 1987)
P. taxus
The species Prochetodon taxus weighed about 190 g. Remains have been discovered in Wyoming, in the United States, in the deposits of Clark's Fork Basin, which have been dated to the Upper Paleocene. David Krause first tentatively referred to the species P. cf. cavus in 1980, and then gave it its current classification in 1987. (Krause, 1987)
References
G. L. Jepsen (1940). "Paleocene faunas of the Polecat Bench formation, Park County, Wyoming". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 83, pg. 217–340.
Z. Kielan-Jaworowska & J. H. Hurum (2001). "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, pg. 389–429.
David W. Krause (1987). Systematic revision of the genus Prochetodon (Ptilodontidae, Multituberculata) from the late Paleocene and early Eocene of western North America. Contributions from the Museum of Paleont, University of Michigan 27(8), pg. 221–236.
Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS: Ptilodontoidea, an Internet directory.
Ptilodontoids
Paleocene mammals
Eocene mammals
Eocene genus extinctions
Fossils of the United States
Prehistoric mammal genera
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pied%20crow
|
Pied crow
|
The pied crow (Corvus albus) is a widely distributed African bird species in the crow genus.
Structurally, the pied crow is better thought of as a small crow-sized raven, especially as it can hybridise with the Somali crow (dwarf raven) where their ranges meet in the Horn of Africa. Its behaviour, though, is more typical of the Eurasian carrion crows, and it may be a modern link (along with the Somali crow) between the Eurasian crows and the common raven.
Description
It is approximately the size of the European carrion crow or a little larger (46–50 cm in length) but has a proportionately larger bill, slightly longer tail and wings, and longer legs. As its name suggests, its glossy black head and neck are interrupted by a large area of white feathering from the shoulders down to the lower breast. The tail, bill and wings are black too. The eyes are dark brown. The white plumage of immature birds is often mixed with black. It resembles the white-necked and thick-billed ravens but has a much smaller bill.
Measurements
Length 46 – 52 cm
Wing 328 to 388 mm (17 unsexed birds)
Weight 520g
Identification
In southern Africa the range overlaps with the white-necked raven.
The pied crow is slightly smaller and has a white chest and belly with a black, more delicate beak compared to the black chest and belly of the larger white-necked raven which also has a white tipped and weightier beak.
It is larger than the black crow.
Voice
The voice is often described as a harsh "ar-ar-ar-ar" or "karh-karh-karh".
Taxonomy
The pied crow was first described in 1776 by Statius Muller. Its specific name is the Latin adjective albus, meaning "white".
The Maasai people call it Ol-korrok from the sound of its call. It is considered annoying but not a bird of ill-omen.
Distribution and habitat
This species, Africa's most widespread member of the genus Corvus, occurs from Sub-Saharan Africa, specifically Nigeria, Ghana, Senegal, Sudan, Somalia Eritrea, Zambia and Zimbabwe down to the Cape of Good Hope and on the large island of Madagascar, the Comoros islands, Aldabra, Assumption Island, Cosmoledo, Astove Island, Zanzibar, Pemba and Fernando Po. It inhabits mainly open country with villages and towns nearby. It does not occur in the equatorial rainforest region. It is rarely seen very far from human habitation, though it is not as tied to the urban way of life as the house crow (Corvus splendens) of Asia, and may be encountered far from human habitation in Eritrea.
Behaviour
Pied crows are generally encountered in pairs or small groups, although an abundant source of food may bring large numbers of birds. The species behaves in a similar manner to the hooded and carrion crows. In Dakar, birds have been observed mobbing passing ospreys and snake eagles but avoiding black kites.
Diet
All of its food is obtained from the ground, trees, etc. including injured wildlife such as insects and other small invertebrates, small reptiles, small mammals, young birds and eggs, grain, peanuts, carrion and any scraps of human food and fruit. It has been recorded killing and eating roosting Fruit Bats and is frequently seen (sometimes in huge numbers) scavenging around slaughterhouses.
Reproduction
The nest is usually built in tall, isolated trees, though sometimes smaller specimens are used, depending on availability. The cross supports of telephone poles are also frequently used, and both sexes build the nest. A clutch of 3–6 eggs is laid from September to November (depending on latitude) and are pale green spotted with various shades of brown. The eggs are normally covered when the incubating female leaves the nest. Incubation is 18–19 days and the young are usually fledged by around 45 days. Both sexes rear the young.
See also
Cape crow also known as the black crow
White-necked raven
Corvidae
References
Cited text
External links
Pied Crow - Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds.
Pied Crow videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
Corvus
Birds of Africa
Birds described in 1776
Taxa named by Philipp Ludwig Statius Müller
|
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212834
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ji%C5%99%C3%AD%20Mucha
|
Jiří Mucha
|
Jiří Mucha (12 March 1915 in Prague – 5 April 1991 in Prague) was a Czech journalist, writer, screenwriter, author of autobiographical novels and studies of the works of his father, the Art Nouveau painter Alphonse Mucha.
Life
Born in Prague, he was working in Paris as a correspondent for Lidové noviny when Germany occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia on 15 March 1939. It was at this time he wrote the Czech libretto for Martinů's Field Mass. He returned to Prague briefly for his father's funeral in July of the same year but was able to return to Paris and later joined the newly formed 1st Czechoslovak Division in France in Agde. Following the fall of France, Mucha made his way to the United Kingdom, where he joined the Royal Air Force before becoming a war correspondent for the BBC. He returned to Prague in 1945. In 1951 he was arrested by the country's Communist government for alleged espionage, and following the demands of the state prosecutor for the death penalty, he was ultimately sentenced to hard labor in the Jáchymov uranium mines. He was released from prison in 1955, allegedly due to the efforts of his wife Geraldine, but according to other records, it was due to his agreement to work for the State Security Police (StB). In 1989, following the Velvet Revolution, which brought down the communist regime, he became chairman of the Czech PEN club. He died of cancer in 1991.
Family
His first wife was Czech composer Vítězslava Kaprálová (1915–40). His second wife was Geraldine Thomson-Mucha (1917–2012), a Scottish born composer who lived in Prague until her death on 12 October 2012. Mucha had two children: a son, John, now President of the Mucha Foundation, with his wife Geraldine, and a daughter, Jarmila Plockova, with Vlasta Plockova.
Painter Jaroslava Muchová was his sister.
Work
Za mořem (1932)
Ugle a cesta na konec světa (1941)
Most (1943)
Problémy nadporučíka Knapa (1945) (first published in English)
Oheň proti ohni (1947)
Spálená setba (1948)
Skleněná stěna (1949)
Válka pokračuje (1949)
Čím zraje čas (1958)
Pravděpodobná tvář (1963)
Černý a bílý New York (1965)
Alfons Mucha (1965) first published as Kankán se svatozáří (published in English in 1966)
Studené slunce (1967) (first published in English)
Marieta v noci (1969)
Llydova hlava (1987)
.
Věčná zahrada (1994)
Some of Mucha's novels are autobiographical, e.g. , – reflecting his experience of a life in Stalinist prison – and – his recollections of his relationship with Czech composer Vítězslava Kaprálová and the life of a Czech émigré community in Paris at the dawn of the World War II.
Notes
Bibliography
Sarvas, Rostislav. "Hedvabny kanibal." Reflex 4 (1992): 30–34.
Sleevenotes to Lloydova hlava. Prague: Mata, 1999.
"Ustavni soud naridil znovu projednat Muchovo dedictvi." Mlada fronta Dnes, 9 November 2005.
"Valecny denik Jiriho Muchy." Reflex 23 (2004).
.
.
External links
. A rare film document featuring Jiri Mucha.
.
.
, a version of IMDb database.
.
.
.
1915 births
1991 deaths
Writers from Prague
People from the Kingdom of Bohemia
Czech male writers
Czechoslovak expatriates in France
Czechoslovak expatriates in the United Kingdom
StB
Burials at Vyšehrad Cemetery
|
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] |
212836
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimolodontidae
|
Cimolodontidae
|
Cimolodontidae is a family of fossil mammals within the extinct order Multituberculata. Representatives are known from the Upper Cretaceous and Paleocene of North America. The family Cimolodontidae was named by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1889 and is part of the suborder Cimolodonta within the superfamily Ptilodontoidea.
References
Marsh (1889), "Discovery of Cretaceous Mammalia. Part II." Am. J. Sci., 3, 38, p. 81-92.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals." Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Ptilodontoids
Cretaceous mammals of North America
Paleocene mammals
Paleocene extinctions
Late Cretaceous first appearances
Prehistoric mammal families
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir%20George%20Stokes%2C%201st%20Baronet
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Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet
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Sir George Gabriel Stokes, 1st Baronet, (; 13 August 1819 – 1 February 1903) was an Irish English physicist and mathematician. Born in County Sligo, Ireland, Stokes spent all of his career at the University of Cambridge, where he was the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics from 1849 until his death in 1903. As a physicist, Stokes made seminal contributions to fluid mechanics, including the Navier–Stokes equations and to physical optics, with notable works on polarization and fluorescence. As a mathematician, he popularised "Stokes' theorem" in vector calculus and contributed to the theory of asymptotic expansions. Stokes, along with Felix Hoppe-Seyler, first demonstrated the oxygen transport function of hemoglobin and showed color changes produced by aeration of hemoglobin solutions.
Stokes was made a baronet (hereditary knight) by the British monarch in 1889. In 1893 he received the Royal Society's Copley Medal, then the most prestigious scientific prize in the world, "for his researches and discoveries in physical science". He represented Cambridge University in the British House of Commons from 1887 to 1892, sitting as a Conservative. Stokes also served as president of the Royal Society from 1885 to 1890 and was briefly the Master of Pembroke College, Cambridge.
Biography
George Stokes was the youngest son of the Reverend Gabriel Stokes (died 1834), a clergyman in the Church of Ireland who served as rector of Skreen, in County Sligo and his wife Elizabeth Haughton, daughter of the Reverend John Haughton. Stokes home life was strongly influenced by his father's evangelical Protestantism: three of his brothers entered the Church, of whom the most eminent was John Whitley Stokes, Archdeacon of Armagh. John and George were always close,
and George lived with John while attending school in Dublin. Of all his family he was closest to his sister Elizabeth. Their mother was remembered in the family as "beautiful but
very stern". After attending schools in Skreen, Dublin, and Bristol, in 1837 Stokes matriculated at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Four years later he graduated as senior wrangler and first Smith's prizeman, achievements that earned him election of a fellow of the college. In accordance with the college statutes, Stokes had to resign the fellowship when he married in 1857. Twelve years later, under new statutes, he was re-elected to the fellowship and he retained that place until 1902, when on the day before his 83rd birthday, he was elected as the college's Master. Stokes did not hold that position for long, for he died at Cambridge on 1 February the following year, and was buried in the Mill Road cemetery. There is also a memorial to him in the north aisle at Westminster Abbey.
Career
In 1849, Stokes was appointed to the Lucasian professorship of mathematics at Cambridge, a position he held until his death in 1903. On 1 June 1899, the jubilee of this appointment was celebrated there in a ceremony, which was attended by numerous delegates from European and American universities. A commemorative gold medal was presented to Stokes by the chancellor of the university and marble busts of Stokes by Hamo Thornycroft were formally offered to Pembroke College and to the university by Lord Kelvin. Stokes, who was made a baronet in 1889, further served his university by representing it in parliament from 1887 to 1892 as one of the two members for the Cambridge University constituency. During a portion of this period (1885–1890) he also was president of the Royal Society, of which he had been one of the secretaries since 1854. Since he was also Lucasian Professor at this time, Stokes was the first person to hold all three positions simultaneously; Newton held the same three, although not at the same time.
Stokes was the oldest of the trio of natural philosophers, James Clerk Maxwell and Lord Kelvin being the other two, who especially contributed to the fame of the Cambridge school of mathematical physics in the middle of the 19th century. Stokes's original work began about 1840, and from that date onwards the great extent of his output was less remarkable only than the brilliance of its quality. The Royal Society's catalogue of scientific papers gives the titles of over a hundred memoirs by him published down to 1883. Some of these are only brief notes, others are short controversial or corrective statements, but many are long and elaborate treatises.
Contributions to science
In scope, his work covered a wide range of physical inquiry but, as Marie Alfred Cornu remarked in his Rede Lecture of 1899, the greater part of it was concerned with waves and the transformations imposed on them during their passage through various media.
Fluid dynamics
His first published papers, which appeared in 1842 and 1843, were on the steady motion of incompressible fluids and some cases of fluid motion. These were followed in 1845 by one on the friction of fluids in motion and the equilibrium and motion of elastic solids, and in 1850 by another on the effects of the internal friction of fluids on the motion of pendulums. To the theory of sound he made several contributions, including a discussion of the effect of wind on the intensity of sound and an explanation of how the intensity is influenced by the nature of the gas in which the sound is produced. These inquiries together put the science of fluid dynamics on a new footing, and provided a key not only to the explanation of many natural phenomena, such as the suspension of clouds in air, and the subsidence of ripples and waves in water, but also to the solution of practical problems, such as the flow of water in rivers and channels, and the skin resistance of ships.
Creeping flow
His work on fluid motion and viscosity led to his calculating the terminal velocity for a sphere falling in a viscous medium. This became known as Stokes' law. He derived an expression for the frictional force (also called drag force) exerted on spherical objects with very small Reynolds numbers.
His work is the basis of the falling sphere viscometer, in which the fluid is stationary in a vertical glass tube. A sphere of known size and density is allowed to descend through the liquid. If correctly selected, it reaches terminal velocity, which can be measured by the time it takes to pass two marks on the tube. Electronic sensing can be used for opaque fluids. Knowing the terminal velocity, the size and density of the sphere, and the density of the liquid, Stokes's law can be used to calculate the viscosity of the fluid. A series of steel ball bearings of different diameter is normally used in the classic experiment to improve the accuracy of the calculation. The school experiment uses glycerine as the fluid, and the technique is used industrially to check the viscosity of fluids used in processes.
The same theory explains why small water droplets (or ice crystals) can remain suspended in air (as clouds) until they grow to a critical size and start falling as rain (or snow and hail). Similar use of the equation can be made in the settlement of fine particles in water or other fluids.
The CGS unit of kinematic viscosity was named "stokes" in recognition of his work.
Light
Perhaps his best-known researches are those which deal with the wave theory of light. His optical work began at an early period in his scientific career. His first papers on the aberration of light appeared in 1845 and 1846, and were followed in 1848 by one on the theory of certain bands seen in the spectrum.
In 1849 he published a long paper on the dynamical theory of diffraction, in which he showed that the plane of polarisation must be perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Two years later he discussed the colours of thick plates.
Stokes also investigated George Airy's mathematical description of rainbows. Airy's findings involved an integral that was awkward to evaluate. Stokes expressed the integral as a divergent series, which were little understood. However, by cleverly truncating the series (i.e., ignoring all except the first few terms of the series), Stokes obtained an accurate approximation to the integral that was far easier to evaluate than the integral itself. Stokes's research on asymptotic series led to fundamental insights about such series.
Fluorescence
In 1852, in his famous paper on the change of wavelength of light, he described the phenomenon of fluorescence, as exhibited by fluorspar and uranium glass, materials which he viewed as having the power to convert invisible ultra-violet radiation into radiation of longer wavelengths that are visible. The Stokes shift, which describes this conversion, is named in Stokes's honour. A mechanical model, illustrating the dynamical principle of Stokes's explanation was shown. The offshoot of this, Stokes line, is the basis of Raman scattering. In 1883, during a lecture at the Royal Institution, Lord Kelvin said he had heard an account of it from Stokes many years before, and had repeatedly but vainly begged him to publish it.
Polarization
In the same year, 1852, there appeared the paper on the composition and resolution of streams of polarised light from different sources, and in 1853 an investigation of the metallic reflection exhibited by certain non-metallic substances. The research was to highlight the phenomenon of light polarisation. About 1860 he was engaged in an inquiry on the intensity of light reflected from, or transmitted through, a pile of plates; and in 1862 he prepared for the British Association a valuable report on double refraction, a phenomenon where certain crystals show different refractive indices along different axes. Perhaps the best known crystal is Iceland spar, transparent calcite crystals.
A paper on the long spectrum of the electric light bears the same date, and was followed by an inquiry into the absorption spectrum of blood.
Chemical analysis
The chemical identification of organic bodies by their optical properties was treated in 1864; and later, in conjunction with the Rev. William Vernon Harcourt, he investigated the relation between the chemical composition and the optical properties of various glasses, with reference to the conditions of transparency and the improvement of achromatic telescopes. A still later paper connected with the construction of optical instruments discussed the theoretical limits to the aperture of microscope objectives.
Other work
In other departments of physics may be mentioned his paper on the conduction of heat in crystals (1851) and his inquiries in connection with Crookes radiometer; his explanation of the light border frequently noticed in photographs just outside the outline of a dark body seen against the sky (1882); and, still later, his theory of the x-rays, which he suggested might be transverse waves travelling as innumerable solitary waves, not in regular trains. Two long papers published in 1849 – one on attractions and Clairaut's theorem, and the other on the variation of gravity at the surface of the earth (1849) – Stokes' gravity formula—also demand notice, as do his mathematical memoirs on the critical values of sums of periodic series (1847) and on the numerical calculation of a class of definite integrals and infinite series (1850) and his discussion of a differential equation relating to the breaking of railway bridges (1849), research related to his evidence given to the Royal Commission on the Use of Iron in Railway structures after the Dee Bridge disaster of 1847.
Unpublished research
Many of Stokes' discoveries were not published, or were only touched upon in the course of his oral lectures. One such example is his work in the theory of spectroscopy.
In his presidential address to the British Association in 1871, Lord Kelvin stated his belief that the application of the prismatic analysis of light to solar and stellar chemistry had never been suggested directly or indirectly by anyone else when Stokes taught it to him at Cambridge University some time prior to the summer of 1852, and he set forth the conclusions, theoretical and practical, which he learnt from Stokes at that time, and which he afterwards gave regularly in his public lectures at Glasgow. These statements, containing as they do the physical basis on which spectroscopy rests, and the way in which it is applicable to the identification of substances existing in the sun and stars, make it appear that Stokes anticipated Kirchhoff by at least seven or eight years. Stokes, however, in a letter published some years after the delivery of this address, stated that he had failed to take one essential step in the argument—not perceiving that emission of light of definite wavelength not merely permitted, but necessitated, absorption of light of the same wavelength. He modestly disclaimed "any part of Kirchhoff's admirable discovery," adding that he felt some of his friends had been over-zealous in his cause. It must be said, however, that English men of science have not accepted this disclaimer in all its fullness, and still attribute to Stokes the credit of having first enunciated the fundamental principles of spectroscopy.
In another way, too, Stokes did much for the progress of mathematical physics. Soon after he was elected to the Lucasian chair he announced that he regarded it as part of his professional duties to help any member of the university in difficulties he might encounter in his mathematical studies, and the assistance rendered was so real that pupils were glad to consult him, even after they had become colleagues, on mathematical and physical problems in which they found themselves at a loss. Then during the thirty years he acted as secretary of the Royal Society he exercised an enormous if inconspicuous influence on the advancement of mathematical and physical science, not only directly by his own investigations, but indirectly by suggesting problems for inquiry and inciting men to attack them, and by his readiness to give encouragement and help.
Contributions to engineering
Stokes was involved in several investigations into railway accidents, especially the Dee Bridge disaster in May 1847, and he served as a member of the subsequent Royal Commission into the use of cast iron in railway structures. He contributed to the calculation of the forces exerted by moving engines on bridges. The bridge failed because a cast iron beam was used to support the loads of passing trains. Cast iron is brittle in tension or bending, and many other similar bridges had to be demolished or reinforced.
He appeared as an expert witness at the Tay Bridge disaster, where he gave evidence about the effects of wind loads on the bridge. The centre section of the bridge (known as the High Girders) was completely destroyed during a storm on 28 December 1879, while an express train was in the section, and everyone aboard died (more than 75 victims). The Board of Inquiry listened to many expert witnesses, and concluded that the bridge was "badly designed, badly built and badly maintained".
As a result of his evidence, he was appointed a member of the subsequent Royal Commission into the effect of wind pressure on structures. The effects of high winds on large structures had been neglected at that time, and the commission conducted a series of measurements across Britain to gain an appreciation of wind speeds during storms, and the pressures they exerted on exposed surfaces.
Work on religion
Stokes generally held conservative religious values and beliefs. In 1886, he became president of the Victoria Institute, which had been founded to defend evangelical Christian principles against challenges from the new sciences, especially the Darwinian theory of biological evolution. He gave the 1891 Gifford lecture on natural theology. He was also the vice-president of the British and Foreign Bible Society and was actively involved in doctrinal debates concerning missionary work. However, although his religious views were mostly orthodox, he was unusual among Victorian evangelicals in rejecting eternal punishment in hell, and instead was a proponent of Conditionalism.
As President of the Victoria Institute, Stokes wrote: "We all admit that the book of Nature and the book of Revelation come alike from God, and that consequently there can be no real discrepancy between the two if rightly interpreted. The provisions of Science and Revelation are, for the most part, so distinct that there is little chance of collision. But if an apparent discrepancy should arise, we have no right on principle, to exclude either in favour of the other. For however firmly convinced we may be of the truth of revelation, we must admit our liability to err as to the extent or interpretation of what is revealed; and however strong the scientific evidence in favour of a theory may be, we must remember that we are dealing with evidence which, in its nature, is probable only, and it is conceivable that wider scientific knowledge might lead us to alter our opinion".
Personal life
He married, on 4 July 1857 at St Patrick's Cathedral, Armagh, Mary Susanna Robinson, daughter of the astronomer Rev Thomas Romney Robinson. They had five children: Arthur Romney, who inherited the baronetcy; Susanna Elizabeth, who died in infancy; Isabella Lucy (Mrs Laurence Humphry) who contributed the personal memoir of her father in "Memoir and Scientific Correspondence of the Late George Gabriel Stokes, Bart"; Dr William George Gabriel, physician, a troubled man who committed suicide aged 30 whilst temporarily insane; and Dora Susanna, who died in infancy. His male line and hence his baronetcy is extinct but through the female line he is survived by one great great grandson, one great great granddaughter, and three great great great grandchildren.
Legacy and honours
Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge University
From the Royal Society, of which he became a fellow in 1851, he received the Rumford Medal in 1852 in recognition of his inquiries into the wavelength of light, and later, in 1893, the Copley Medal.
In 1869 he presided over the Exeter meeting of the British Association.
From 1883 to 1885 he was Burnett lecturer at Aberdeen, his lectures on light, which were published in 1884–1887, dealing with its nature, its use as a means of investigation, and its beneficial effects.
On 18 April 1888 he was admitted as a Freeman of the City of London.
On 6 July 1889 Queen Victoria made him a Baronet as Sir George Gabriel Stokes of Lensfield Cottage in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom; the title became extinct in 1916.
In 1891, as Gifford lecturer, he published a volume on Natural Theology.
Member of the Prussian Order Pour le Mérite
His academic distinctions included honorary degrees from many universities, including
Doctor mathematicae (honoris causa) from the Royal Frederick University on 6 September 1902, when they celebrated the centennial of the birth of mathematician Niels Henrik Abel.
The stokes, a unit of kinematic viscosity, is named after him.
In July 2017, Dublin City University named a building after Stokes in recognition of his contributions to physics and mathematics.
Publications
Stokes's mathematical and physical papers (see external links) were published in a collected form in five volumes; the first three (Cambridge, 1880, 1883, and 1901) under his own editorship, and the two last (Cambridge, 1904 and 1905) under that of Sir Joseph Larmor, who also selected and arranged the Memoir and Scientific Correspondence of Stokes published at Cambridge in 1907.
See also
Stokes flow
References
Further reading
Wilson, David B., Kelvin and Stokes A Comparative Study in Victorian Physics, (1987)
Peter R Lewis, Beautiful Railway Bridge of the Silvery Tay: Reinvestigating the Tay Bridge Disaster of 1879, Tempus (2004).
PR Lewis, Disaster on the Dee: Robert Stephenson's Nemesis of 1847, Tempus Publishing (2007)
George Gabriel Stokes: Life, Science and Faith Edited by Mark McCartney, Andrew Whitaker, and Alastair Wood, Oxford University Press, 2019.
External links
Biography on Dublin City University Web site
(1907), ed. by J. Larmor
Mathematical and physical papers volume 1 and volume 2 from the Internet Archive
Mathematical and physical papers, volumes 1 to 5 from the University of Michigan Digital Collection.
Life and work of Stokes
Natural Theology (1891), Adam and Charles Black. (1891–93 Gifford Lectures)
1819 births
1903 deaths
People from County Sligo
19th-century Anglo-Irish people
Alumni of Pembroke College, Cambridge
Fellows of Pembroke College, Cambridge
Masters of Pembroke College, Cambridge
Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom
Irish mathematicians
Irish physicists
British physicists
Optical physicists
19th-century British mathematicians
Fluid dynamicists
Irish Anglicans
Lucasian Professors of Mathematics
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for the University of Cambridge
Fellows of the Royal Society
Presidents of the Royal Society
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
UK MPs 1886–1892
Viscosity
Recipients of the Copley Medal
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Senior Wranglers
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] |
212844
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimolodon
|
Cimolodon
|
Cimolodon is a genus of the extinct mammal order of Multituberculata within the suborder Cimolodonta and the family Cimolodontidae. Specimens are known from the Late Cretaceous of North America.
Systematics
The genus Cimolodon was named by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1889. Kielan-Jaworowska & Hurum (2001) noted that Cimolodon seems to be more closely related to members of their "Paracimexomys group than to other ptilodontoideans.
Species
Cimolodon electus (Fox R.C. 1971) is known from the Upper Cretaceous of the Upper Milk River Formation in Alberta, Canada. Possible finds have been reported from New Mexico.
Cimolodon nitidus (Marsh O.C. 1889) is known from Late Cretaceous strata of the Lance Formation of Wyoming, Utah, Montana and South Dakota (United States and Canada). Synonyms include Allacodon lentus (Marsh 1889); Allacodon rarus (Marsh 1892); Cimolomys bellus (Marsh 1889); Cimolomys digona (Marsh 1899); Cimolomys nitidus; Halodon serratus (Marsh 1889); Nanomyops minitus (Marsh 1892); Nanomys minitus (Marsh 1889); and Ptilodus serratus (Gidley 1909). Cimolodon pervus (Marsh O.C. 1892) is also known from the Upper Cretaceous Lance Formation of Wyoming.
Cimolodon similis (Fox R.C. 1971) is known from the Late Cretaceous (Santonian-early Campanian) of Alberta and Utah. C. wardi is known from the Wahweap Formation of Utah.
Cimolodon akersteni is known from the Cenomanian-age Wayan Formation of Idaho.
References
Simpson (1929), "American Mesozoic Mammalia." Mem. Peabody Mus. Nat. Hist. iii (i), p. 1-235.
Ptilodontoids
Cretaceous mammals of North America
Prehistoric mammals of North America
Milk River Formation
Prehistoric mammal genera
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignaz%20von%20D%C3%B6llinger
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Ignaz von Döllinger
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Johann Joseph Ignaz von Döllinger (; 28 February 179914 January 1890), also Doellinger in English, was a German theologian, Catholic priest and church historian who rejected the dogma of papal infallibility. Among his writings which proved controversial, his criticism of the papacy antagonized ultramontanes, yet his reverence for tradition annoyed the liberals.
He is considered an important contributor to the doctrine, growth and development of the Old Catholic Church, though he himself never joined that denomination.
Early life
Born at Bamberg, Bavaria, Döllinger came from an intellectual family, his grandfather and father having both been eminent physicians and professors of medical science; his mother's family were equally accomplished. Young Döllinger was first educated in the gymnasium at Würzburg, where he acquired a knowledge of Italian. A Benedictine monk taught him English privately. He began to study natural philosophy at the University of Würzburg, where his father now held a professorship. In 1817 he began the study of mental philosophy and philology, and in 1818 turned to the study of theology, which he believed to lie beneath every other science. He also learned Spanish at the university. He particularly devoted himself to an independent study of ecclesiastical history, a subject very indifferently taught in Roman Catholic Germany at that time. In 1820 he became acquainted with Victor Aimé Huber (1800–1869), who influenced him greatly.
Career
After studying at the ecclesiastical seminary in Bamberg, on 5 April 1822 he was ordained a Roman Catholic priest for the Diocese of Bamberg, and in November, was appointed chaplain at Markscheinfeldt in Middle Franconia. In 1823 he became professor of ecclesiastical history and canon law in the lyceum at Aschaffenburg. He then took his doctoral degree, and in 1826 became professor of theology at the University of Munich, where he spent the rest of his life. About this time he brought upon himself the criticism of Heinrich Heine, who was then editor of a Munich paper. The unsparing satirist described the professor's face as the "gloomiest" in the whole procession of ecclesiastics which took place on Good Friday.
In 1836 Döllinger made his first visit to England, and met a number of leading English intellectuals, including John Henry Newman and William Gladstone, with whom he maintained lifelong contact. For many years, a number of young Englishmen boarded with him in Munich and received direction in their studies; among them Lord Acton. Acton had been denied entry to the University of Cambridge because he was a Catholic, and subsequently went to Munich where he studied at the University and resided Döllinger's house. They became lifelong friends. Döllinger inspired in him a deep love of historical research and a profound conception of its functions as a critical instrument in the study of sociopolitical liberty.
In 1837 he was made member extraordinary of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences, in 1843 a regular member, and from 1860 was secretary of its historical section.
In 1845, Döllinger was made representative of his university in the second chamber of the Bavarian legislature. In 1839 the king had given him a canonry in the royal chapel (Hofkollegiatstift) of St. Cajetan at Munich; and on 1 January 1847, he was made mitred provost or head of that body of canons. However, that same year he was dismissed from his chair, in punishment of his protest as representative of the university on the Bavarian Landtag, to which he had been appointed in 1844, against the dismissal of several university professors. In 1849 he was invited to occupy the chair of ecclesiastical history. In 1848, when nearly every throne in Europe was shaken by the spread of revolutionary sentiments, he was elected delegate to the national German assembly at Frankfurt. He spoke boldly in favour of freedom for the Church to manage her affairs without the interference of the state.
In 1857 Döllinger and Acton traveled to Rome, where they were both disenchanted with the direction of the papacy under Pius IX. Döllinger was also troubled that the Pope was the head of state of the Papal States. In some speeches at Munich in 1861 he outspokenly declared his view that the maintenance of the Roman Catholic Church did not depend on the temporal sovereignty of the pope. His book on The Church and the Churches (Munich, 1861) dealt to a certain extent with the same question.
In 1863 he invited 100 theologians to meet at Mechelen and discuss the question which the liberals Lamennais and Lacordaire had raised in France, namely, the attitude that should be assumed by the Roman Catholic Church towards modern ideas. In his address, “On the Past and Future of Catholic Theology”, Döllinger advocated for greater academic freedom.
Views
Protestantism
On the other hand, Döllinger published a treatise in 1838 against mixed marriages, and in 1843 wrote strongly in favour of requiring Protestant soldiers to kneel at the consecration of the Host when compelled officially to be present at Mass. Moreover, in his works on The Reformation (3 vols. Regensburg, 1846–1848) and on Luther (1851, Eng, tr., 1853) he is very severe on the Protestant leaders, and he also accepts, in his earlier works, the Ultramontane view then current on the practical condition of the Church of England, a view he later changed. Meanwhile, he had been well received in England; and he afterwards travelled in the Netherlands, Belgium and France, acquainting himself with the condition and prospects of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1842 he entered into correspondence with the leaders of the Tractarian movement in England, and some interesting letters have been preserved which were exchanged between him and Edward Pusey, William Ewart Gladstone and James Hope-Scott. When the last-named joined the Church of Rome he was warmly congratulated by Döllinger on the step he had taken.
Judaism
"The Jewish people moved in a circle of religious ideas only part of which were expressed in its sacred literature," wrote Döllinger. "Far from being a dead letter in the hands of a people living in spiritual stagnation, [the Jews] were instinctually endowed with the power and the impulse to develop organically and steadily. Tradition, on the one hand, and the religious condition of the whole nation, its whole history, on the other hand, acted and re-acted vigorously upon each other." This favorable reference to the vigorous 'spirit' of Judaism runs counter to more common critiques of the religion expressed by 19th century theologians and counter-enlightenment thinkers.
Liberalism
It has been stated that in his earlier years Döllinger was a pronounced Ultramontane. This does not appear to have been altogether the case; for, very early in his professorial career at Munich, the Jesuits attacked his teaching of ecclesiastical history. The celebrated Adam Möhler pronounced in Döllinger's favour, after which they became friends. Döllinger also entered into relations with the well-known French Liberal Catholic Lamennais, whose views on the reconciliation of the Roman Catholic Church with the principles of modern society (liberalism) and the French Revolution had aroused much suspicion in Ultramontane, mainly Jesuit-dominated, circles. In 1832 Lammenais and his friends Lacordaire and Montalembert, visited Germany, obtaining considerable sympathy in their attempts to bring about a modification of the Roman Catholic attitude to modern problems and liberal political principles.
Döllinger also seems to have regarded favourably the removal, by the Bavarian government, in 1841, of Professor Kaiser from his chair, because he had taught the infallibility of the pope.
Papal authority
It has been said that Döllinger's change of attitude to the Papacy dated from the Italian war in 1859. It is more probable that, like Robert Grosseteste, he had been attached to the Papacy as the only centre of authority, and the only guarantee for public order in the Church, but that his experience of the actual working of the papal system (and especially a visit to Rome in 1857) had to a certain extent convinced him how his ideal diverged from the reality. Whatever his reasons, he ultimately became the leader of those who were energetically opposed to any addition to, or more stringent definition of, the powers of the Papacy.
The addresses delivered in the Catholic congress at Mechelen were a declaration in the direction of a Liberal solution of the problem of the relations of Church and State. Pius IX seemed to hesitate, but after four days' debate the assembly was ordered closed. On 8 December 1864 Pius IX issued the famous Syllabus Errorum, in which he declared war against liberalism and unbridled scientism. It was in connection with this question that Döllinger published his Past and Present of Catholic Theology (1863) and his Universities Past and Present (Munich, 1867).
Vatican Council and the Munich conference
It was about this time that some of the leading theologians of the Roman Catholic Church, wishing to define more clearly, the authority of the pope, advised Pius IX to declare Papal infallibity a dogma of the universal Church. There was not, however, a universal consensus on the subject; and some bishops, although not opposed, considered its promulgation to be inopportune. The headquarters of the opposition was Germany, and its leader was Döllinger. Among his supporters were his close friends Johann Friedrich and J. N. Huber, in Bavaria.
In the rest of Germany, Döllinger was supported by professors in the Catholic faculty of theology at Bonn, including the canonist Johann Friedrich von Schulte, Franz Heinrich Reusch, Joseph Langen, Joseph Hubert Reinkens, and other distinguished scholars. In Switzerland, Professor Eduard Herzog and other learned men supported the movement.
Early in 1869 the Letters of Janus (which were at once translated into English; 2nd ed. Das Papsttum, 1891) began to appear. They were written by Döllinger in conjunction with Huber and Friedrich. In these they disparaged the Syllabus and its incompatibility with modern thought. They argued that the concept of papal infallibility was intellectually indefensible, although their interpretation differed from what was proposed.
During the council, which convened on 8 December 1869, Augustin Theiner, the librarian at the Vatican, then in disgrace with the pope for his outspoken Liberalism, kept his German friends informed of the course of the discussions. The Letters of Quirinus, written by Döllinger and Huber concerning the proceedings appeared in the German newspapers, and an English translation was published by Charles Rivington. The proceedings of the council were frequently stormy, and the opponents of the dogma of infallibility complained that they were interrupted, and that endeavours were made to put them down by clamour. The dogma was at length carried by an overwhelming majority, and the dissentient bishops, who – with the exception of two – had left the council before the final division, one by one submitted.
Döllinger headed a protest by forty-four professors in the University of Munich, and gathered together a congress at Munich, which met in August 1870 and issued a declaration adverse to the Vatican decrees. In Bavaria, where Döllinger's influence was greatest, a strong determination to resist the resolutions of the council prevailed.
But the authority of the council was held by the archbishop of Munich to be paramount, and he called upon Döllinger to submit. Instead of submitting, Döllinger, on 28 March 1871, addressed a memorable letter to the archbishop, refusing to subscribe the decrees. They were, he said, opposed to scripture, to the traditions of the Church for the first 1000 years, to historical evidence, to the decrees of the general councils, and to the existing relations of the Roman Catholic Church to the state in every country in the world. "As a Christian, as a theologian, as an historian, and as a citizen," he added, "I cannot accept this doctrine."
Excommunication
On 18 April 1871 Gregor von Scherr, Archbishop of Munich and Freising excommunicated Döllinger.
On 29 February 1871, Döllinger was elected rector-magnificus of the University of Munich by a vote of 54 to six. Several other universities conferred an honorary degree on him: Doctor of Civil Law, University of Oxford, 1871; Doctor of Laws, University of Edinburgh, 1872; Doctor of Law, University of Marburg; Doctor of Philosophy, University of Vienna.
The dissident Bavarian clergy invited Bishop Loos of the Old Catholic Church of the Netherlands, which for more than 150 years had existed independent of the Papacy, to administer the sacrament of Confirmation in Bavaria. The offer was accepted, and the bishop was received with triumphal arches and other demonstrations of joy by a part of the Bavarian Catholics. The three Dutch Old Catholic bishops declared themselves ready to consecrate a "non-infallibilist" bishop for Bavaria, if it were desired. The question was discussed at a meeting of the opponents of the Vatican Council's doctrine, and it was resolved to elect a bishop and ask the Dutch Old-Order bishops to consecrate him. Döllinger, however, voted against the proposition, and withdrew from any further steps towards the promotion of this movement.
The Old Catholic Church
Döllinger's refusal lost Bavaria to the movement; and the number of Bavarian sympathizers was still further reduced when the seceders, in 1878, allowed their priests to marry, a decision which Döllinger, as was known, sincerely regretted. The Old Catholic Communion, however, was formally constituted, with Joseph Hubert Reinkens at its head as bishop, and it still continues to exist in Germany as a whole and, more marginally, in Bavaria.
Döllinger's attitude to the new community was not very clearly defined. "I do not wish to join a schismatic society; I am isolated,". Döllinger's regularly insisted, his church remained the ancient Catholic Church, “the one holy catholic and apostolic church.”
Reunion conferences
His addresses on the reunion of the churches, delivered at the Bonn Conference of 1872, show that he was by no means hostile towards the newly formed Old Catholic communion, in whose interests these conferences were held. In 1874 and again in 1875, he presided over the reunion conferences held at Bonn and attended by leading ecclesiastics from the British Isles and from the Oriental non-Roman churches, among whom were Bishop Christopher Wordsworth of Lincoln; Bishop Harold Browne of Ely; Lord Plunket, Archbishop of Dublin; Lycurgus, Greek Orthodox Archbishop of Syros and Tenos; Canon Liddon; and the Russian Orthodox professor Ossmnine of St. Petersburg. At the latter of these two conferences, when Döllinger was 76 years of age, he delivered a series of addresses in German and English in which he discussed the state of theology on the continent, the reunion question and the religious condition of the various countries of Europe in which the Roman Catholic Church held sway. Not the least of his achievements on this occasion was the successful attempt, made with extraordinary tact, ability, knowledge and perseverance, to induce the Orientals, Anglicans and Old Catholics present to accept a formula of concord drawn from the writings of the leading theologians of the Greek Church on the long-vexed question of the procession of the Holy Spirit.
Scholarship in retirement
This result having been attained, he passed the rest of his days in retirement, emerging sometimes from his retreat to give addresses on theological questions, and also writing, in conjunction with his friend Reusch, his last book, Geschichte der Moralstreitigkeiten in der römisch-katholischen Kirche seit dem sechszehnten Jahrhundert mit Beiträgen zur Geschichte und Charakteristik des Jesuitenordens (Nördlingen, 1889), in which he deals with the moral theology of Alphonsus Liguori. He died in Munich at the age of ninety-one. Even in articulo mortis he refused to receive the sacraments from the parish priest at the cost of submission, but the last offices were performed by his friend Professor Friedrich. He is buried in the Alter Südfriedhof in Munich.
Works
The Eucharist in the First Three Centuries (Mainz, 1826)
A Church History (1836, Eng. trans. 1840)
Hippolytus and Callistus (1854, Eng. trans., 1876)
First Age of Christianity (1860)
Lectures on the Reunion of the Churches
The Vatican Decrees
Studies in European History (tr. M. Warre, 1890)
Miscellaneous Addresses (tr. M. Warre, 1894)
Bibliography
Georg Denzler / Ernst Ludwig Grasmück (Eds.): Geschichtlichkeit und Glaube. Zum 100. Todestag Johann Joseph Ignaz von Döllingers (1799–1890). Munich Erich Wewel Verlag, 1990,
Stefan Leonhardt: "Zwei schlechthin unausgleichbare Auffassungen des Mittelpunktes der christliche Religion". Ignaz Döllingers Auseinandersetzung mit der Reformation, ihrer Lehre und deren Folgen in seiner ersten Schaffensperiode. Goettingen Edition Ruprecht, 2nd edition 2008,
Life by Johann Friedrich (3 vols. 1899–1901)
Obituary notice in The Times, 11 January 1890
L. von Kobell, Conversations of Dr Döllinger (tr. by K Gould, 1892)
Notes
References
Döllinger, Johann Joseph Ignaz von Heidenthum und Judentum, Vorhalle zur Geschichte des Christenthums, page 819 [editor's translation, for a similar but slightly more archaic translation, see the Jewish Publication Society of America's 1900 translation of the same passage as quoted in Moritz Lazarus's Foundations of Jewish Ethics]
Librett, Jeffrey S. Orientalism and the Figure of the Jew (Fordham University Press, 2014)
Further reading
Dalberg-Acton, John (1861). "Döllinger's 'History of Christianity'," The Rambler, Vol. IV, pp. 145–175.
Dalberg-Acton, John (1861). "Döllinger on the Temporal Power," The Rambler, Vol. VI, pp. 1–62.
Dalberg-Acton, John (1867). "Döllinger on Universities," The Chronicle, Vol. XIII, pp. 57–59.
Howard, Thomas Albert (2017). The Pope and the Professor: Pius IX, Ignaz von Dollinger, and the Quandary of the Modern Age. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Marshall, Arthur F. (1890). "Dr. Döllinger and the 'Old Catholics'," The American Catholic Quarterly Review, Vol. XV, pp. 267–283.
Strauss, Gerald (1975). "Success and Failure in the German Reformation," Past & Present, No. 67, pp. 30–63.
Tonsor, S.J. (1959). "Ignaz von Döllinger: Lord Acton's Mentor," Anglican Theological Review, Vol. XLI, No. 2, pp. 211–215.
Tonsor, S.J. (1959). "Lord Acton on Döllinger's Historical Theology," Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. XX, pp. 329–352.
External links
The Gentile and the Jew in the Courts of the Temple of Christ by Johann Joseph Ignaz von Döllinger
Die Papst-Fabeln des Mittelalters by Johann Joseph Ignaz von Döllinger
1799 births
1890 deaths
People from Bamberg
19th-century Roman Catholic priests
German untitled nobility
People excommunicated by the Catholic Church
German Old Catholic theologians
19th-century German theologians
Members of the Frankfurt Parliament
Members of the Bavarian Reichsrat
Members of the Bavarian Chamber of Deputies
University of Würzburg alumni
Liberal Catholicism
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich faculty
19th-century German writers
Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences
19th-century German male writers
German male non-fiction writers
Burials at the Alter Südfriedhof
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212846
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orangutang%20%28band%29
|
Orangutang (band)
|
Orangutang was a rock band from Boston, Massachusetts, United States.
The members were Christian Dyas on vocals and guitar, Joe Klompus on bass, David Steele on guitar, and Todd Perlmutter on drums. They put out an EP, The Rewards of Cruelty, in 1993 and a full-length album, Dead Sailor Acid Blues, in 1994, both on Imago Records.
Christian Dyas and Joe Klompus were both from Baltimore and relocated to Boston after the break-up of Fiction Bridge, formerly Hour House (no known recorded output under this name) and Clever Lines. Fiction Bridge self-released a self-titled four song EP and Clever Lines released a single track on the Frantic Records compilation 8 Essential Attitudes which also featured exhibit A, a band featuring SONiA of Disappear Fear. Additional members of Fiction Bridge include vocalist Ed Neenan, who now performs under the name e.joseph, keyboardist Paul Hond, now a novelist and drummer Dave Buckner.
Discography
The Rewards of Cruelty
The Rewards of Cruelty, released on April 27, 1993, was the first EP from Orangutang and was produced for Imago Records. The Boston band recorded it at Inner Ear Studios in Arlington, Va close to the original hometown of Christian Dyas and Joe Klompus. The band wrote all the material for the EP which was produced and engineered by Don Zientara. Paul Q. Kolderie and Sean Slade mixed the EP at Fort Apache Studios in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Track listing
"Mr. Cimbalista"
"Leo Tolstoy"
"Untitled No. 1"
"S.N.A.F.U."
"Gearhead"
"Sweet Lemon Maureen"
Dead Sailor Acid Blues
Dead Sailor Acid Blues, released May 24, 1994, was the first and only album from Orangutang. Released by Imago records in 1994 and featuring the minor hits "Shiny Like Gold" and "Bigger Chunk" the record was released on vinyl, cassette and CD. Produced, engineered and mixed by Sean Slade and Paul Q. Kolderie at their Fort Apache Studios.
Track listing
"Slahday & Camus" – 0:39
"Bigger Chunk" – 4:15
"They All Write Her Songs" – 3:54
"The Day Before I Died" – 3:10
"Sea of Glass" – 6:36
"Shiny Like Gold" – 4:20
"Sweet Lemon Maureen" – 4:16
"Pontchartrain" – 1:26
"Lucky Jad" – 4:39
"Daddy Raw" – 4:17
"Surf Continental" – 5:20
"Surf Epilogue" – 2:03
"A.M." – 2:13
Personnel
Christian Dyas – Vocals, guitar
Joe Klompus – Bass
David Steele – Guitar
Todd Perlmutter – Drums
Darren Crawforth – Design
B.C. Kagan – Photography
Paul Q. Kolderie – Producer, Engineer, Mixing
Gail Marowitz – Art Direction
Charlie Pizzarello – Photography
Sean Slade – Producer, Engineer, Mixing
David Steele – Art Direction
Howie Weinberg – Mastering
References
Indie rock musical groups from Massachusetts
Musical groups from Boston
|
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] |
212847
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Hope-Scott
|
James Hope-Scott
|
James Robert Hope-Scott (15 July 1812 – 29 April 1873) was a British barrister and Tractarian.
Early life and conversion
Born at Great Marlow, in the county of Buckinghamshire, and christened James Robert, Hope was the third son of General Sir Alexander Hope and his wife Georgina Alicia (d. 1855), third and youngest daughter of George Brown of Ellerton, Roxburghshire. He was a grandson of John Hope, 2nd Earl of Hopetoun. After a childhood spent at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, of which his father was Governor, he was educated at Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford, where he was a contemporary and friend of William Ewart Gladstone and John Henry Newman. In 1838 Hope was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn. Between 1840 and 1843 he helped to found Trinity College, Glenalmond, now renamed Glenalmond College. In 1840–1841 he spent some eight months in Italy, Rome included, in company with his close friend Edward Badeley.
On his return he became, with Newman, one of the foremost promoters of the Tractarian movement at Oxford and was entirely in Newman's confidence. In 1841, he published an attack on the Anglican-German Bishopric in Jerusalem, and further defended the "value of the science of canon law, in a pamphlet. Edward Bouverie Pusey also valued Hope's advice and canvassed him in 1842 before publishing the Letter to the Archbishop of Canterbury on some Circumstances connected with the Present Crisis in the Church. Hope supported publication.
Along with other Anglo-Catholics, Hope was disturbed by the Gorham judgment, and on 12 March 1850 a meeting was held at his house in Curzon Street, London, which was attended by fourteen leading Tractarians, including Badeley, Henry Edward Manning, and Archdeacon Robert Isaac Wilberforce. They eventually published a series of resolutions which started the process of distancing Hope, Badeley, Manning and Wilberforce from the Anglican Church.
In 1851 Hope was received with Manning into the Roman Catholic Church.
Legal practice
On 15 June 1841, Hope wrote to Gladstone:
Ormsby believed that Hope found some distraction from his frustration with the Anglican Church through his secular work.
By 1839, Hope was becoming involved in parliamentary work. He was retained as counsel for the British government on the Foreign Marriages Bill and in 1843, the report on the Consular Jurisdiction Bill. His brother's appointment as Under Secretary of State for the Colonies in Sir Robert Peel's administration may have opened some doors. In 1843-44 he was engaged again by the government in the matter of the aftermath of the Pastry War, whose settlement Britain had arbitrated, to prepare a report on some points in dispute between France and Mexico.
As an established ecclesiastical lawyer, he was much involved in the Ecclesiastical Courts Bill in 1843 and the same year he took the DCL degree at Oxford. In 1844 an English Criminal Code was under serious consideration and Bishop of London Charles James Blomfield recommended Hope to the Lord Chancellor John Copley, 1st Baron Lyndhurst as a commissioner to consider offences
against religion and the Church. By the end of 1845 he stood at the head of the parliamentary bar but his objections to taking the Oath of Supremacy deterred him from accepting the professional honour of Queen's Counsel. In 1849, he therefore asked Lord Chancellor Charles Pepys, 1st Earl of Cottenham for, and was granted, a patent of precedence conferring equal status.
In 1852 he gave Newman the disastrously misleading legal advice that he was unlikely to be sued for libel by Giacinto Achilli, advice which ultimately led to Newman's criminal conviction for defamatory libel. Thereafter, Newman relied on Badeley for legal advice, though in 1855 Hope-Scott conducted the negotiations which ended in Newman's accepting the rectorship of the Catholic University of Ireland.
Personal and family life
In 1847 Hope married Charlotte Harriet Jane Lockhart, daughter of John Gibson Lockhart and granddaughter of Sir Walter Scott. Six years after their marriage Charlotte came into possession of Scott's Abbotsford House estate, and Hope then assumed the surname of Hope-Scott. His wife died on 26 October 1858, and in 1861 he married as his second wife Lady Victoria Fitzalan-Howard, a daughter of the 14th Duke of Norfolk. Hope-Scott retired from the bar in 1870 and spent the rest of his life in charitable and literary work, in particular in making an abridgment of his father-in-law's seven-volume biography of Scott, with a preface dedicated to Gladstone. Hope-Scott maintained a lifelong correspondence with Badeley.
Both his wives died in childbirth. He left an only daughter by his first marriage, Mary Monica (born 2 October 1852), later wife of Joseph Constable Maxwell, third son of William, Lord Herries. Two other children of this marriage died in infancy. By his second marriage he left a son, James Fitzalan Hope (1870–1949), who was created Baron Rankeillour, and three daughters. Two other children of the second marriage also died young.
References
Bibliography
Obituaries:
The Scotsman, 8 May 1873
Edinburgh Courant, 8 May 1873
The Tablet, 10 May 1873
Law Times, 10 May 1873
The Month, 19 (1873), 274–91
1812 births
1873 deaths
James
People from Marlow, Buckinghamshire
English barristers
Members of Lincoln's Inn
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Anglicanism
English Roman Catholics
People educated at Eton College
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
Founders of Scottish schools and colleges
Tractarians
English Anglo-Catholics
Scott family of Abbotsford
19th-century philanthropists
19th-century English lawyers
|
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] |
212849
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher%20Wordsworth
|
Christopher Wordsworth
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Christopher Wordsworth (30 October 180720 March 1885) was an English bishop in the Anglican Church and man of letters.
Life
Wordsworth was born in London, the youngest son of Christopher Wordsworth, Master of Trinity, who was the youngest brother of the poet William Wordsworth. Thus, Wordsworth was a nephew of the celebrated poet.
Wordsworth was the younger brother of the classical scholar John Wordsworth and Charles Wordsworth, Bishop of Saint Andrews, Dunkeld and Dunblane. He was educated at Winchester and Trinity, Cambridge. Like his brother Charles, he was distinguished as an athlete as well as for scholarship. He won the Chancellor's Gold Medal for poetry in 1827 and 1828.
He became senior classic, and was elected a fellow and tutor of Trinity in 1830; shortly afterwards he took holy orders. He went for a tour in Greece in 1832–1833, and published various works on its topography and archaeology, the most famous of which is "Wordsworth's" Greece (1839). In 1836 he became Public Orator at Cambridge, and in the same year was appointed Headmaster of Harrow, a post he resigned in 1844. In 1844 Sir Robert Peel appointed him as a Canon of Westminster (1844–1869). He was Vicar of Stanford in the Vale, Berkshire (1850–1869) and Archdeacon of Westminster (1864–1869). In 1869 Benjamin Disraeli appointed him Bishop of Lincoln which he retained until his death in 1885. His election to the See of Lincoln was confirmed at St Mary-le-Bow on 22 February 1869 (whereby he legally became Bishop of Lincoln) and he was ordained and consecrated a bishop at Westminster Abbey on 24 February by Archibald Campbell Tait, Archbishop of Canterbury; George Selwyn, Bishop of New Zealand; and six other prelates.
According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, he was a man of fine character, with a high ideal of ecclesiastical duty, and he spent his money generously on church objects.
He is buried near the Shrine of St Hugh in Lincoln Cathedral.
Works
As a scholar he is best known for his edition of the Greek New Testament (1856–1860), and the Old Testament (1864–1870), with commentaries; but his writings were many in number, and included a volume of devotional verse, The Holy Year (1862), Church History up to A.D. 451 (1881–1883), and Memoirs of his uncle, William Wordsworth (1851), to whom he was literary executor. His Inscriptiones Pompeianae (1837) was an important contribution to epigraphy. He also wrote several hymns (Hymns Ancient and Modern New Standard contains seven) of which perhaps the best known is the Easter hymn 'Alleluia, Alleluia, hearts to heaven and voices raise'.
With William Cooke, a Canon of Chester, Wordsworth edited for the Henry Bradshaw Society the early 15th century Ordinale Sarum of Clement Maydeston, but the work did not appear in print until 1901, several years after the death of both editors.
Books
Athens and Attica, 1836
Ancient Writings Copied from the Walls of Pompeii, 1837
Greece, Pictorial, Descriptive, and Historical, 1839
Theophilus Anglicanus, 1843
On the Canon of the Scriptures, 1848
Lectures on the Apocalypse, 1849
Memoirs of William Wordsworth, 1851
Commentary on the Whole Bible, 1856–70
The Holy Year; or Hymns for Sundays and Holydays Throughout the Year, and for Other Occasions, 1863
Church History, 1881–83
The New Testament ... in the Original Greek: With Notes by C. Wordsworth. [With] an Index to the Introductions and Notes, by John Twycross, 2 volumes
Ordinale Sarum, sive Directorium Sacerdotum (Liber quem Pica Sarum vulgo vocitat clerus) (Henry Bradshaw Society, 1901), ed., with William Cooke
Hymns
Alleluia! Alleluia! Hearts to Heaven and Voices Raise
Arm These Thy Soldiers, Mighty Lord
Father of All, from Land and Sea
Gracious Spirit, Holy Ghost
Hallelujah! Christ Is Risen
Hark! the Sound of Holy Voices
Heav’nly Father, Send Thy Blessing
Holy, Holy, Holy Lord
Lord, Be Thy Word My Rule
O Day of Rest and Gladness
O Lord of Heaven and Earth and Sea
O Lord, Our Strength in Weakness
See, the Conqueror Mounts in Triumph (set by Hubert Parry as "Rustington" in 1897)
Sing, O Sing, This Blessed Morn
Songs of Thankfulness and Praise
The Day Is Gently Sinking to a Close
The Grave Itself a Garden Is
Thine for ever! Thine for ever!
Family
In 1838 Wordsworth married Susanna Hartley Frere (d. 1884) and they had seven children. The elder son, John (1843–1911), was Bishop of Salisbury, founder of Bishop Wordsworth's School, Salisbury, and author of Fragments of Early Latin (1874); the eldest daughter, Elizabeth (1840–1932), was the first principal (in 1879) of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford and the founder (in 1886) of St Hugh's College. His daughter Dora married Edward Tucker Leeke, Canon and sub-dean of Lincoln Cathedral. His younger son Christopher (1848–1938) was a noted liturgical scholar.
His Life, by J. H. Overton and Elizabeth Wordsworth, was published in 1888.
References
Attribution
External links
Christopher Wordsworth
Overton, John Henry and Elizabeth Wordsworth. Christopher Wordsworth: Bishop of Lincoln, 1807-1885. London: Rivingtons, 1888. At Internet Archive.
1807 births
1885 deaths
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Cambridge University Orators
Bishops of Lincoln
Archdeacons of Westminster
Canons of Westminster
Head Masters of Harrow School
People educated at Winchester College
Anglican clergy from London
Christopher
19th-century Anglican theologians
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212851
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Hubert%20Reinkens
|
Joseph Hubert Reinkens
|
Joseph Hubert Reinkens (March 1, 1821 – January 4, 1896) was the first German Old Catholic bishop.
Biography
He was born at Burtscheid (now part of Aachen) in the Rhine Province, the son of a gardener. In 1836, on the death of his mother, he took to manual work in order to support his numerous brothers and sisters, but in 1840 he was able to go to the gymnasium at Aachen, and he afterwards studied theology at the universities of Bonn and Munich. He was ordained priest in 1848, and in 1849 graduated as doctor in theology. He was soon appointed professor of ecclesiastical history at Breslau, and in 1865 he was made rector of the university. During this period he wrote, among other treatises, monographs on Clement of Alexandria, Hilary of Poitiers and Martin of Tours.
In consequence of an essay on art, especially in tragedy, after Aristotle, he was made a doctor of philosophy in the university of Leipzig. When, in 1870, the question of papal infallibility was raised, Reinkens attached himself to the party opposed to the proclamation of the dogma. He wrote several pamphlets on church tradition relative to infallibility and on the procedure of the Council. When the dogma of infallibility was proclaimed, Reinkens joined the band of influential theologians, headed by Ignaz von Döllinger, who resolved to organize resistance to the decree. He was one of those who signed the Declaration of Nuremberg in 1871, and at the Bonn conferences with Orientals and Anglicans in 1874 and 1875 he was conspicuous.
The Old Catholics having decided to separate themselves from the Church of Rome, Reinkens was chosen their bishop in Germany at an enthusiastic meeting at Cologne in 1873. In August of that year he was consecrated by Dr Heykamp, bishop of Deventer. Reinkens devoted himself zealously to his office, and it was due to his efforts that the Old Catholic movement crystallized into an organized church, with a definite status in the various German states. He wrote a number of theological works after his consecration, but none of them so important as his treatise on Cyprian and the Unity of the Church (1873).
The chief act of his episcopal career was his consecration in 1876 of Dr Eduard Herzog to preside as bishop over the Old Catholic Church in Switzerland. In 1881 Reinkens visited England, and received Holy Communion more than once with bishops, clergy and laity of the Church of England, and in 1894 he defended the validity of Anglican orders against his co-religionists, the Old Catholics of the Netherlands who later recognised the orders. He died at Bonn on 4 January 1896.
Notes
References
1821 births
1896 deaths
People from Aachen
German Old Catholics
German Old Catholic bishops
People from the Rhine Province
University of Bonn alumni
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni
University of Breslau faculty
|
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212852
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Friedrich%20%28theologian%29
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Johann Friedrich (theologian)
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Johann Friedrich (5 May 1836 – 19 August 1917) was a German theologian. He was prominent as a leader of the Old Catholics.
Biography
He was born at Poxdorf in Upper Franconia, and was educated at Bamberg and at the University of Munich. He was ordained a Catholic priest in 1859. In 1865, he was appointed extraordinary professor of theology. In 1867, he was appointed to the Academy of Sciences. He was a pupil of Ignaz von Döllinger.
In 1869 he went to the Vatican Council as secretary to Cardinal Hohenlohe, and took an active part in opposing the dogma of papal infallibility, notably by supplying the opposition bishops with historical and theological material. He left Rome before the council closed.
"No German ecclesiastic of his age appears to have won for himself so unusual a repute as a theologian and to have held so important a position, as the trusted counsellor of the leading German cardinal at the Vatican Council. The path was fairly open before him to the highest advancement in the Church of Rome, yet he deliberately sacrificed all such hopes and placed himself in the van of a hard and doubtful struggle" (The Guardian, 1872, p. 1004).
A sentence of excommunication was passed on Friedrich in April 1871, but he refused to acknowledge it and was upheld by the Bavarian government. He continued to perform ecclesiastical functions and maintained his academic position, becoming an ordinary professor in 1872. In 1874, he inaugurated the Old Catholic theological faculty at the University of Bern and lectured there for a year. In Bavaria, in 1882, the Minister of Public Worship, yielding to ultramontane pressure, transferred him from his chair in theology to the philosophical faculty as professor of history. By this time he had to some extent withdrawn from the advanced position which he at first occupied in organizing the Old Catholic Church, for he was not in agreement with its abolition of enforced celibacy. He died in Munich.
Works
Friedrich was a prolific writer; among his chief works are:
Johann Wessel: Ein Bild aus der Kirchengeschichte des XV. Jahrhunderts (1862) – Wessel Gansfort; a portrait of church history in the 15th century.
Die Lehre des Johann Hus (1862) – The teachings of John Hus.
Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands (2 volumes, 1867–69) – German church history. Download
Tagebuch während des Vaticanischen Concils geführt (1871) – Journal of the Vatican Council. Download
Documenta ad Illustrandum Concilium Vaticanum; (1871).
Beiträge zur Kirchengeschichte des 18. Jahrhunderts (1876) – Contribution to church history of the 18th century.
Der Mechanismus der vatikanischen Religion (1876) – The mechanism of the Vatican religion.
Geschichte des Vatikanischen Konzils (2 volumes, 1877–86) – History of the Vatican Council.
Das Papsttum (1892) – The papacy.
Johann Adam Möhler, der Symboliker (1894) – On Johann Adam Möhler.
Ignaz von Döllinger: Sein Leben auf Grund seines schriftlichen Nachlasses (3 volumes, 1899–1901) – Ignaz von Dollinger; his life on the basis of his literary estate.
Notes
References
1836 births
1917 deaths
People excommunicated by the Catholic Church
People from Forchheim (district)
German Old Catholics
German Old Catholic theologians
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich faculty
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni
19th-century German theologians
19th-century German male writers
19th-century German writers
20th-century German theologians
20th-century German writers
German male non-fiction writers
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20card
|
Memory card
|
A memory card is an electronic data storage device used for storing digital information, typically using flash memory. These are commonly used in portable electronic devices, such as digital cameras, mobile phones, laptop computers, tablets, PDAs, portable media players, video game consoles, synthesizers, electronic keyboards and digital pianos, and allow adding memory to such devices without compromising ergonomy, as the card is usually contained within the device rather than protruding like USB flash drives.
History
The basis for memory card technology is flash memory. It was invented by Fujio Masuoka at Toshiba in 1980 and commercialized by Toshiba in 1987.
PC Cards (PCMCIA) were the first commercial memory card formats (type I cards) to come out, but are now mainly used in industrial applications and to connect I/O devices such as modems. Since 1994, a number of memory card formats smaller than the PC Card arrived. The first one was CompactFlash and later SmartMedia and Miniature Card. The desire for smaller cards for cell-phones, PDAs, and compact digital cameras drove a trend that left the previous generation of "compact" cards looking big. In 2001, SM alone captured 50% of the digital camera market and CF had captured the professional digital camera market. By 2005 however, SD/MMC had nearly taken over SmartMedia's spot, though not to the same level and with stiff competition coming from Memory Stick variants, as well as CompactFlash. In industrial and embedded fields, even the venerable PC card (PCMCIA) memory cards still manage to maintain a niche, while in mobile phones and PDAs, the memory card has become smaller.
Initially memory cards were expensive, costing US$3 per megabyte of capacity in 2001; this led to the development of the Microdrive, PocketZip and Dataplay. All three concepts became obsolete once flash memory prices became lower and capacities became higher.
Since 2010, new products of Sony (previously only using Memory Stick) and Olympus (previously only using XD-Card) have been offered with an additional SD-Card slot. Effectively the format war has turned in SD-Card's favor.
Data table of selected memory card formats
Overview of all memory card types
PCMCIA ATA Type I Card (PC Card ATA Type I)
PCMCIA Type II, Type III cards
CompactFlash Card (Type I), CompactFlash High-Speed
CompactFlash Type II, CF+(CF2.0), CF3.0
Microdrive
CFexpress
MiniCard (Miniature Card) (max 64 MB / 64 MiB)
SmartMedia Card (SSFDC) (max 128 MB) (3.3 V,5 V)
xD-Picture Card, xD-Picture Card Type M
Memory Stick, MagicGate Memory Stick (max 128 MB); Memory Stick Select, MagicGate Memory Stick Select ("Select" means: 2x128 MB with A/B switch)
SecureMMC
Secure Digital (SD Card), Secure Digital High-Speed, Secure Digital Plus/Xtra/etc (SD with USB connector)
miniSD card
microSD card (aka Transflash, T-Flash, TF)
SDHC
WiFi SD Cards (SD Card With WiFi Card Built in) Powered by Device. (Eye-Fi, WiFi SD, Flash Air)
Nano Memory (NM) card
MU-Flash (Mu-Card) (Mu-Card Alliance of OMIA)
C-Flash
SIM card (Subscriber Identity Module)
Smart card (ISO/IEC 7810, ISO/IEC 7816 card standards, etc.)
UFC (USB FlashCard) (uses USB)
FISH Universal Transportable Memory Card Standard (uses USB)
Intelligent Stick (iStick, a USB-based flash memory card with MMS)
SxS (S-by-S) memory card, a new memory card specification developed by Sandisk and Sony. SxS complies to the ExpressCard industry standard.
Nexflash Winbond Serial Flash Module (SFM) cards, size range 1 MB, 2 MB and 4 MB.
Comparison
Video game consoles
Many older video game consoles used memory cards to hold saved game data. Cartridge-based systems primarily used battery-backed volatile RAM within each individual cartridge to hold saves for that game. Cartridges without this RAM may have used a password system, or wouldn't save progress at all. The Neo Geo AES, released in 1990 by SNK, was the first video game console able to use a memory card. AES memory cards were also compatible with Neo Geo MVS arcade cabinets, allowing players to migrate saves between home and arcade systems and vice versa. Memory cards became commonplace when home consoles moved to read-only optical discs for storing the game program, beginning with systems such as the TurboGrafx-CD and Sega-CD.
Until the sixth generation of video game consoles, memory cards were based on proprietary formats; later systems have used established industry formats for memory cards, such as FAT32.
Home consoles now commonly use hard disk drive storage for saved games and allow the use of generic USB flash drives or other card formats via a memory card reader to transport game saves and other game information, along with cloud storage saving, though most portable gaming systems still rely on custom memory cartridges to store program data, due to their low power consumption, smaller physical size and reduced mechanical complexity.
See also
Comparison of memory cards
Hot swapping
References
1990s in computing
Computer-related introductions in the 1990s
Memory card
Video game storage media
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macaulay%20Culkin
|
Macaulay Culkin
|
Macaulay Macaulay Culkin Culkin (born Macaulay Carson Culkin; ) is an American actor and musician. Often regarded as one of the most successful child actors of the 1990s, he was placed 2nd on VH1's list of the "100 Greatest Kid-Stars". Culkin rose to prominence as a child actor starring as Kevin McCallister in the first two films of the Home Alone film series (1990 and 1992), for which he was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy. He also starred in the films My Girl (1991), The Good Son (1993), The Nutcracker (1993), Getting Even with Dad (1994), The Pagemaster (1994), and Richie Rich (1994).
Culkin took a break from acting in 1994. He returned in 2003 with a guest appearance on the television show Will & Grace and a role in the film Party Monster. He wrote an autobiography, Junior, which was published in 2006. In 2021, he starred in American Horror Story: Double Feature, the tenth season of the anthology series American Horror Story.
In 2013, Culkin co-founded the New York comedy rock band the Pizza Underground, of which he was the vocalist; in 2016, Culkin stated that the Pizza Underground was splitting up and their next album would be their last. He is currently the publisher and CEO of Bunny Ears, a satirical pop culture website and podcast.
He has also received an MTV Movie Award from three nominations, and a Young Artist Award.
Early life
Macaulay Carson Culkin was born on August 26, 1980, in New York City to Christopher Cornelius "Kit" Culkin, a former stage actor, and Patricia Brentrup, a native of North Dakota who met Kit in 1974 while working as a road traffic controller in Sundance, Wyoming. The couple soon relocated to Kit's native New York City, and gave birth to a total of seven children: Culkin's siblings include Shane ( 1976), Dakota (1979–2008), Kieran ( 1982), Quinn ( 1984), Christian ( 1987), and Rory ( 1989). He also had a paternal half-sister, Jennifer (born 1970), who died in 2000. His paternal aunt is actress Bonnie Bedelia. Culkin is of part-Irish descent.
During Culkin's early childhood, the family lived together in a small apartment in the Yorkville neighborhood of Manhattan, and struggled financially. His mother worked as a telephone operator and his father was a sacristan at a local Catholic church. Culkin was raised Roman Catholic and attended St. Joseph's School of Yorkville for five years before transferring to the Professional Children's School.
Career
1980s
Culkin began acting at age four. His early roles included a stage production of Bach Babies at the New York Philharmonic. He continued appearing in roles on stage, television and films throughout the 1980s. He made an appearance in the TV movie The Midnight Hour (1985). In 1988, he appeared in an episode of the popular action television series The Equalizer, in which he played a kidnapping victim, Paul Gephardt.
Culkin made his film debut as Cy Blue Black in the drama Rocket Gibraltar (1988). He played the role of Billy Livingstone in the romantic comedy film See You in the Morning (1989), starring Jeff Bridges, Alice Krige, Farrah Fawcett and Drew Barrymore. He starred as Miles Russell alongside actor John Candy in the comedy film Uncle Buck (1989).
1990s
Culkin rose to fame with his lead role of Kevin McCallister in the blockbuster comedy film Home Alone (1990). The film reunited him with Uncle Buck writer and director John Hughes and Uncle Buck co-star John Candy, who played the role of Polka band member Gus Polinski. For his performance, Culkin was nominated for a Golden Globe Award and won an American Comedy Award and a Young Artist Award.
In 1991, Culkin starred in an animated Saturday morning cartoon television series titled Wish Kid, hosted Saturday Night Live and starred in Michael Jackson's "Black or White" music video. He starred as Thomas J. Sennett in the film My Girl (1991), for which he was nominated for Best On-Screen Duo, and won Best Kiss at the MTV Movie Awards, with Anna Chlumsky.
Culkin was paid $4.5 million (compared to $110,000 for the original) for Home Alone 2: Lost in New York (1992). He played the role of Henry in the drama thriller film The Good Son (1993), which only did reasonably well, although he was nominated for an MTV Movie Award in the category for Best Villain for his performance. He was also a student at the School of American Ballet and appeared in a filmed version of The Nutcracker as the title role in 1993, which was staged by Peter Martins from the 1954 George Balanchine New York City Ballet version of the work. He was also in the films Getting Even with Dad (1994), The Pagemaster (1994) and Richie Rich (1994), which all performed poorly at the box office.
Culkin grew tired of acting and retired after Richie Rich. Wanting a "normal life", he went to a private high school in Manhattan. In 1998, he appeared in the music video for the song "Sunday" by the rock band Sonic Youth.
2000s
In 2000, Culkin returned to acting with a role in the play Madame Melville, which was staged in London's West End. In early 2003, he made a guest appearance on the NBC sitcom Will & Grace. His role as Karen Walker's deceptively immature divorce lawyer won him favorable reviews. Culkin headed back into motion pictures in 2003 with Party Monster, in which he played a role very different from those he was known for, that of party promoter Michael Alig, a drug user and murderer. He quickly followed that with a supporting part in Saved!, as a cynical wheelchair-using, non-Christian student in a conservative Christian high school. Though Saved! only had modest success at the box office, Culkin received positive reviews for his role in the film and its implications for a career as an adult actor. Culkin began doing voice-over work, with appearances in Seth Green's Robot Chicken. In 2006, he published an experimental, semi-autobiographical novel titled Junior, which talked about Culkin's stardom and his shaky relationship with his father.
Culkin starred in Sex and Breakfast, a dark comedy written and directed by Miles Brandman. Alexis Dziena, Kuno Becker and Eliza Dushku also star in this story of a couple whose therapist recommends they engage in group sex. Shooting for the film, Culkin's first since Saved!, took place in September 2006. The film opened in Los Angeles on November 30, 2007, and was released on DVD on January 22, 2008, by First Look Pictures. Culkin's next project was a role in the thirteen-episode NBC television series Kings as Andrew Cross.
In 2009, Culkin appeared in a UK-based commercial for Aviva Insurance (formerly Norwich Union) to help promote their company's rebranding. Culkin stared into the camera stating, "Remember me." On August 17, 2009, Culkin made a brief cameo appearance on WWE Raw at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis, Missouri, following a "falls count anywhere" match between Hornswoggle and Chavo Guerrero Jr., in which Guerrero was defeated by the classic Home Alone gag of rigging a swinging paint can to hit him upon opening a door. Culkin appeared in the doorway and said, "That's not funny." In February 2010, Culkin appeared in an episode of Poppy de Villeneuve's online series for The New York Times, The Park. On March 7 of the same year, he appeared alongside actors Matthew Broderick, Molly Ringwald, Judd Nelson, Ally Sheedy, Anthony Michael Hall, and Jon Cryer in a tribute to the late John Hughes at the Oscars.
2010s
In April 2011, Culkin was featured in musician Adam Green's experimental film The Wrong Ferarri, which was entirely shot on an iPhone. In the same month, he also appeared in the music video for "Stamp Your Name on It" performed by Green's former bandmate Jack Dishel/Only Son. In September 2012, he appeared in a video on YouTube explaining how he turned his apartment in New York into a painting workshop.
In December 2013, a viral video that Culkin co-produced and directed himself eating a cheese pizza was uploaded to YouTube, co-starring Phoebe Kreutz. He was parodying Andy Warhol consuming a Burger King Whopper in Jørgen Leth's documentary 66 Scenes from America. Culkin was promoting the debut of his New York-based, pizza-themed comedy rock band The Pizza Underground. Their tour began in Brooklyn on January 24, 2014. In late May 2014, Culkin stormed off stage at Rock City during his kazoo solo after fans began booing and throwing pints of beer at the band. They subsequently cancelled the remaining UK shows, though they claimed the cancellation had nothing to do with the Rock City performance. On July 10, 2016, Culkin announced that The Pizza Underground was splitting up and their next album would be the last.
In July 2016, Culkin appeared in a television advertisement for Compare the Market. In January 2018, Culkin launched a comedy website and podcast called Bunny Ears that parodied other celebrity-owned websites such as Gwyneth Paltrow's Goop. Since 2018, Culkin has been a frequent guest of RedLetterMedia, appearing in multiple episodes of their Best of the Worst, re:View, and Half in the Bag webseries, as well as Angry Video Game Nerd, where he appears as either himself, a character, or a parody of himself. In an advertisement for Google Assistant published on December 19, 2018, Culkin reprised his Home Alone role as Kevin McCallister after 28 years. It recreated scenes from the movie where McCallister shaved his face, jumped on the bed, and decorated the Christmas tree, all while asking Google Assistant to set reminders for him. The advertisement quickly went viral. In 2019, he had a role in Seth Green's movie Changeland with Brenda Song, which was released on June 7, 2019.
2020s
Since 2021 Culkin is part of the starring cast of the series' tenth season, American Horror Story: Double Feature. His role in the season was critically praised.
Personal life
Culkin said his father, Kit Culkin, was cruel and violent in his childhood. He said he felt his father was jealous, because "everything he tried to do in his life I excelled at before I was 10 years old". Culkin's parents were never married; they split when Culkin was in his teens, and his mother filed for custody. Culkin took his parents to court to block them from controlling his trust fund, reportedly worth between $15 and 20 million. The media reported that Culkin had divorced or emancipated himself from his parents. In 2018, Culkin denied this, saying he had instead removed his parents' name from his trust fund and found an executor. He has been estranged from his father since.
On May 10, 2000, Culkin's half-sister, Jennifer Adamson, died of a drug overdose. On December 10, 2008, his older sister, Dakota, died after being hit by a car.
On September 17, 2004, Culkin was arrested in Oklahoma City for the possession of of marijuana and two controlled substances, of Alprazolam (Xanax) and of Clonazepam (Klonopin), for which he was briefly jailed and then released on $4,000 bail. After being arraigned in court for misdemeanor drug offenses, he pleaded not guilty at the trial (October 15, 2004 to June 9, 2005), but later reversed the plea to guilty. He received three one-year suspended prison sentences and was ordered to pay $540 in fees.
In December 2018, Culkin announced that he would legally change his name to "Macaulay Macaulay Culkin Culkin" after holding a vote through his website to choose a new middle name, with "Macaulay Culkin" winning the vote over four other candidates.
In August 2020, on his 40th birthday, Culkin tweeted, "Hey guys, wanna feel old? I'm 40. You're welcome." The tweet became the ninth most-liked tweet of all time.
Romantic relationships
Culkin stated in a May 27, 2004 interview on Larry King Live that he tends to refrain from disclosing aspects of his personal life, though he discussed his life as a child actor, the conflict in his family life, including his estrangement from his father, and how he retired from acting at age 14. Culkin married actress Rachel Miner in 1998 when they were both 18, but they separated in 2000 and divorced in 2002.
Culkin began dating actress Mila Kunis in May 2002. By 2006, he was living in New York, while Kunis was living in Los Angeles. On January 3, 2011, Kunis's publicist confirmed reports that Culkin and Kunis had ended their relationship several months previously, saying, "The split was amicable, and they remain close friends." Since 2013, Culkin has lived in Paris.
As of October 2017, Culkin has been in a relationship with his Changeland co-star Brenda Song. On April 5, 2021, Song gave birth to the couple's son, named Dakota Song Culkin after Culkin's deceased sister. Shortly after his son's birth, comments Culkin made on a 2018 episode of The Joe Rogan Experience about his relationship with Song resurfaced, which were criticized for stereotyping Asians. In the interview, Culkin joked about the shape of Song's eyes, their interracial relationship, and the appearance of their potential future children. He argued that he was entitled to make Asian jokes because of his relationship with Song, and because of his future fatherhood to multiracial children, stating that he would "understand the struggle".
Friendship with Michael Jackson
Around the time of the first Home Alone movie, Culkin became friends with pop singer Michael Jackson and appeared in Jackson's 1991 "Black or White" music video. In 2005, at Jackson's trial for sexual child abuse, Culkin testified that he had slept in bed with Jackson but that he was never molested. Culkin dismissed the allegations against Jackson as "absolutely ridiculous". Culkin attended Jackson's burial on September 3, 2009. Culkin is also the godfather of Jackson's children Paris Jackson, Prince and Michael Jr. Culkin has consistently defended Jackson against allegations of child molestation, saying in a 2020 interview with Esquire magazine: "I never saw anything; he never did anything".
Awards and nominations
Notes
References
Bibliography
Holmstrom, John. The Moving Picture Boy: An International Encyclopaedia from 1895 to 1995, Norwich, Michael Russell, 1996, p. 398.
External links
1980 births
Living people
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
21st-century American male musicians
American male ballet dancers
American male child actors
American male film actors
American male stage actors
American male television actors
American male voice actors
American male web series actors
American men podcasters
American podcasters
American people of Irish descent
Catholics from New York (state)
Male actors from New York (state)
Male actors from New York City
Musicians from New York City
Theatre World Award winners
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software%20company
|
Software company
|
A software company is a company whose primary products are various forms of software, software technology, distribution, and software product development. They make up the software industry.
Types
There are a number of different types of software companies:
There are companies selling available to use commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) products, such as Microsoft's Outlook, Word and Excel, Adobe Systems's Acrobat, Illustrator and other designing tools, or Google apps like Chrome.
Many companies provide Software Development services, and have a structure to develop custom software for other companies and businesses.
Companies producing specialized commercial off-the-shelf software, such as Panorama, Hyperion, and Siebel Systems
Companies providing Software as a Service (SaaS), such as Google's email service Gmail, Voice and Maps, and companies like Salesforce and Zendesk.
Technology that mobilizes social media such as Facebook, LinkedIn, Instagram, Twitter and Parler.
There are also other types of SaaS products, of companies providing IT infrastructure services and Cloud Computing services, such as Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure Cloud Services, and GoDaddy hosting services.
API as a Service, that allows third party developers to interact with a companies software, such as Google Geo Location API, Google Calendar API, etc.
Companies producing software components, such as Syncfusion, DevExpress, Telerik UI, Kendo UI and Dundas
Application Service Provider such as Salesforce
Companies producing bespoke software for vertical industries or particular geographical regions
Independent software vendors (ISVs) that build, develop and sell consumer or enterprise software that is consumed by end users
All of these may be categorized in one or many of the following:
contractual - when the software company is contracted to deliver some particular software from outside (software outsourcing)
product development - when it produces ready to use, packaged software; Commercial off-the-shelf
Common roles in a software company
Organizing a software company is a very specialized type of management skill, where experienced persons can turn the organizational problem into a unique benefit. For example, having sub-teams spread in different time zones may allow a 24-hour company working day, if the teams, systems, and procedures are well established. A good example is the test team in a time zone 8 hours ahead or behind the development team, who fix software bugs found by the testers.
A professional software company normally consists of at least three dedicated sub-teams :
Business analysts who define the business needs of the market
Software developers who create the technical specification and write the software
Software testers who are responsible for the whole process of quality management
In bigger software companies, greater specialization is employed, and quite often there are also:
Technical writers who write all the documentation such as user guides
Release specialists who are responsible for building the whole product and software versioning
User experience designers, who are creating the design architecture based on business requirements, user research and expertise in usability
Graphic designers who are normally responsible for the design of the graphical user interface.
Maintenance engineers who are behind two, three or more lines of support
Consultants are responsible for making the solution operational, especially if some specialist knowledge is necessary. Examples of this include: building multidimensional cubes in business intelligence software, integrating with existing solutions, and implementing business scenarios in Business Process Management software.
Structure
The manager of a software company is usually called the Head Of Development (HOD), and reports to the stakeholders. He or she leads the sub-teams directly or via the managers/leaders depending on the size of the organization. Usually teams of up to 10 person are the most operational. In bigger organizations, there are in general two models of the hierarchy:
All the teams are fully independent and they work separately on the different projects. The structure is quite simple and all the employees reports to one person, what make the situation quite clear however it is not a good solution in terms of knowledge exchange and optimal usage of human resources.
In this model there are dedicated managers/leaders for each main specialization, "renting" their people for particular projects led by product/project managers, who formally or informally buy the people and pay for their time. This leads to each private employee having two bosses – the product/project manager and the specialized "resource" manager. On one hand it optimizes the usage of human resources, on the other hand it may give rise to conflicts about which one manager has priority in the structure.
There are also a number of variants of these structures, and a number of organizations have this structure spread and split within various departments and units.
Methodologies
Software companies may use a number of various methodologies to produce the code. These can include:
the waterfall model, including project management methodologies like PRINCE2 or PMBoK
agile software development, such as Extreme Programming and SCRUM
There are also some methodologies which combine both, such as the spiral model, Rational Unified Process (RUP) or MSF.
Product life cycle
Regardless of the methodology used, the product life cycle always consists of at least three stages:
Design – including both the business and technical specification
Coding – the development itself
Testing – the quality management
Each stage ideally takes 30% of the total time, with the remaining 10% in reserve.
The UML sequence diagram of interaction between these groups may look like:
At each stage a different group plays a key role, however each type of role must be involved throughout the whole development process:
Analysts, after completing the business specification, manage the changing business situation to minimize the possibility of change over time. They also support both programmers and testers during the whole development process to ensure that the final product fulfills the business needs specified at the start. The process ideally puts business analysts as the key players during final delivery of the solution to the customer, as they are best placed to provide the best business layer.
Programmers do the technical specification during the design phase, which is why they are called programmers/designers, and during testing time they fix bugs.
Testers complete the test scenarios during the design phase, and evaluate them during the coding phase
Systems and procedures
software companies possess various systems and procedures implemented and working internally across all the sub-teams. These include:
Business analysts
Modeling tools like Sparx Systems Enterprise Architect or IBM Rational Rose
Programmers
Version Control Systems and software versioning procedures
Code analysis tools and coding standards, validated manually or automatically
Deployment mechanisms
Testers
Bug tracking systems
Test automation tools
Performance and stress test tools
Project/product managers
Enterprise Project Management (EPM) systems and procedures
Product portfolio management (PPM)
Change management systems and procedures
There are also Application Lifecycle Management (ALM), which embed some of these functionalities in one package and are used across the groups. They are delivered from various vendors like Borland, ECM or Compuware.
Efficiency audits
Well-established software companies typically have some way of measuring their own efficiency. This is usually done by defining the set of key performance indicators (KPI), such as
The average number of bugs done by the developer per unit of time or source lines of code
The number of bugs found by tester per test cycle
The average number of test cycles until Zero Bug Bounce (ZBB)
The average time of test cycle
Estimated time of task comparing to the real time of the task (exactitude of planning)
Number of corrections to the baseline
A number of organizations are focused on reaching the optimum level of the Capability Maturity Model (CMM), where "optimum" does not necessarily mean the highest. There are also other systems such as Carnegie-Mellon University's SEMA, or particular ISO standards. Small software companies will sometimes use less formalized approaches. Each organization works out its own style, which lies somewhere between total technocracy (where all is defined by numbers) and total anarchy (where there are no numbers at all). Whichever way the organization goes, they consider the pyramid describing the cost and risk of introducing change to already-begun development processes:
See also
List of the largest software companies
References
Software development
|
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212863
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz%20Heinrich%20Reusch
|
Franz Heinrich Reusch
|
Franz Heinrich Reusch (4 December 1825 – 3 March 1900) was an Old Catholic theologian.
He was born at Brilon, in Westphalia, studied general literature at Paderborn, and theology at Bonn, Tübingen and Munich. The friend and pupil of Döllinger, he took his degree of Doctor in Theology at Munich. He was ordained a priest in 1849, and was immediately made chaplain at Cologne. In 1854 he became Privatdozent in the exegesis of the Old Testament in the Catholic Theological Faculty at Bonn; in 1858 he was made extraordinary, and in 1861 ordinary, professor of theology in the same university. From 1866 to 1877 he was editor of the Bonner Theologisches Literaturblatt.
In the controversies on the infallibility of the Pope, Reusch belonged to Döllinger's party, and he and his colleagues Bernhard Josef Hilgers, Franz Peter Knoodt and Joseph Langen were interdicted by the Archbishop of Cologne in 1871 from pursuing their courses of lectures. In 1872 Reusch was excommunicated. For many years after this he held the post of Old Catholic curé of Bonn, as well as the position of vicar-general to the Old Catholic Bishop Reinkens, but resigned both in 1878, when, with Döllinger, he disapproved of the permission to marry granted by the Old Catholic Church in Germany to its clergy.
He retired into lay communion, but continued to give lectures as usual in the Old Catholic Faculty of Theology in the University of Bonn, and to write on theological subjects. He was made rector of that university in 1873. In 1874 and 1875 he was the official reporter of the memorable Reunion Conferences held at Bonn in those years and attended by many distinguished theologians of the Oriental and Anglican communions. Reusch was a profound scholar and an untiring worker. Among his many works were contributions to the Revue internationale de theologie, a review started at Bern at the instance of the Old Catholic Congress at Lucerne. He wrote also works on the Old Testament; a pamphlet on Die Deutschen Bischöfe und der Aberglaube; and another on the falsifications to be found in the treatise of Aquinas against the Greeks; as well as essays on the history of the Society of Jesus, and a book of prayers.
His fame mainly rests on the works which he and Döllinger published jointly. These consisted of a work on the Autobiography of Cardinal Bellarmine, the Geschichte der Moralstreitigkeiten in der Römisch-Katholischen Kirche seit dem XVI. Jahrhundert, and the Erörterungen über Leben und Schriften des hl. Liguori. During the last few years of his life he was stricken with paralysis. He died in Bonn leaving behind him in manuscript a collection of letters to Bunsen about Roman cardinals and prelates, which has since been published.
References
1825 births
1900 deaths
People from Brilon
People excommunicated by the Catholic Church
University of Bonn alumni
University of Bonn faculty
German Old Catholics
German Old Catholic theologians
19th-century German male writers
19th-century German theologians
19th-century German writers
German male non-fiction writers
|
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] |
212864
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Langen
|
Joseph Langen
|
Joseph Langen (3 June 1837 – 13 July 1901) was a German theologian and priest, who was instrumental for the German Old Catholic movement.
Langen was born at Cologne, studied at Bonn, and was ordained priest for the Roman Catholic Church in 1859. He was nominated professor extraordinary at the University of Bonn in 1864, and a professor in ordinary of the exegesis of the New Testament in 1867—an office which he held till his death. He was one of the band of professors who in 1870 supported Döllinger in his resistance to the Vatican decrees, and was excommunicated along with Döllinger, Johann Nepomuk Huber, Johann Friedrich, Franz Heinrich Reusch, Joseph Hubert Reinkens and others, for refusing to accept them. In 1878, in consequence of the permission given to priests to marry, Langen ceased to identify himself with the Old Catholic movement, but was not reconciled with the Roman Catholic Church. His first work was an inquiry into the authorship of the Commentary on St Paul's Epistles and the Treatise on Biblical Questions, ascribed to Saint Ambrose and Augustine of Hippo respectively. In 1868 he published an Introduction to the New Testament.
He also published works on the Last Days of the Life of Jesus, on Judaism in the Time of Christ, on John of Damascus (1879) and an Examination of the Vatican Dogma in the Light of Patristic Exegesis of the New Testament. But he is chiefly famous for his Geschichte der Römischen Kirche (History of the Church of Rome to the Pontificate of Innocent III) (4 vols, 1881–1893), a work of sound scholarship, based directly upon the authorities, the most important sources being woven carefully into the text. He also contributed largely to the internationale theologische Zeitschrift, a review started in 1893 by the Old Catholics to promote the union of several National Churches on the basis of the councils of the Undivided Church, and admitting articles in German, French and English.
Among other subjects, he wrote on the School of Hierotheus, on Romish falsifications of the Greek Fathers, on Pope Leo XIII, on Liberal Ultramontanism, on the Papal Teaching in regard to Morals, on Vincent of Lerins and he carried on a controversy with Professor Willibald Beyschlag, of the German Evangelical Church, on the respective merits of Protestantism and Old Catholicism regarded as a basis for teaching the Christian faith. An attack of apoplexy put an end to his teaching career and hastened his death. He died in Bonn.
References
1837 births
1901 deaths
Clergy from Cologne
German Old Catholic theologians
19th-century German theologians
People excommunicated by the Catholic Church
University of Bonn alumni
University of Bonn faculty
German male non-fiction writers
19th-century German writers
19th-century German male writers
20th-century German theologians
20th-century German writers
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agraphia
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Agraphia
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Agraphia is an acquired neurological disorder causing a loss in the ability to communicate through writing, either due to some form of motor dysfunction or an inability to spell. The loss of writing ability may present with other language or neurological disorders; disorders appearing commonly with agraphia are alexia, aphasia, dysarthria, agnosia, acalculia and apraxia. The study of individuals with agraphia may provide more information about the pathways involved in writing, both language related and motoric. Agraphia cannot be directly treated, but individuals can learn techniques to help regain and rehabilitate some of their previous writing abilities. These techniques differ depending on the type of agraphia.
Agraphia can be broadly divided into central and peripheral categories. Central agraphias typically involve language areas of the brain, causing difficulty spelling or with spontaneous communication, and are often accompanied by other language disorders. Peripheral agraphias usually target motor and visuospatial skills in addition to language and tend to involve motoric areas of the brain, causing difficulty in the movements associated with writing. Central agraphia may also be called aphasic agraphia as it involves areas of the brain whose major functions are connected to language and writing; peripheral agraphia may also be called nonaphasic agraphia as it involves areas of the brain whose functions are not directly connected to language and writing (typically motor areas).
The history of agraphia dates to the mid-fourteenth century, but it was not until the second half of the nineteenth century that it sparked significant clinical interest. Research in the twentieth century focused primary on aphasiology in patients with lesions from strokes.
Characteristics
Agraphia or impairment in producing written language can occur in many ways and many forms because writing involves many cognitive processes (language processing, spelling, visual perception, visuospatial orientation for graphic symbols, motor planning, and motor control of handwriting).
Agraphia has two main subgroupings: central ("aphasic") agraphia and peripheral ("nonaphasic") agraphia. Central agraphias include lexical, phonological, deep, and semantic agraphia. Peripheral agraphias include allographic, apraxic, motor execution, hemianoptic and afferent agraphia.
Central
Central agraphia occurs when there are both impairments in spoken language and impairments to the various motor and visualization skills involved in writing. Individuals who have agraphia with fluent aphasia write a normal quantity of well-formed letters, but lack the ability to write meaningful words. Receptive aphasia is an example of fluent aphasia. Those who have agraphia with nonfluent aphasia can write brief sentences but their writing is difficult to read. Their writing requires great physical effort but lacks proper syntax and often has poor spelling. Expressive aphasia is an example of nonfluent aphasia. Individuals who have Alexia with agraphia have difficulty with both the production and comprehension of written language. This form of agraphia does not impair spoken language.
Deep agraphia affects an individuals' phonological ability and orthographic memory. Deep agraphia is often the result of a lesion involving the left parietal region (supramarginal gyrus or insula). Individuals can neither remember how words look when spelled correctly, nor sound them out to determine spelling. Individuals typically rely on their damaged orthographic memory to spell; this results in frequent errors, usually semantic in nature. Individuals have more difficulty with abstract concepts and uncommon words. Reading and spoken language are often impaired as well.
Gerstmann syndrome agraphia is the impairment of written language production associated with the following structural symptoms: difficulty discriminating between one's own fingers, difficulty distinguishing left from right, and difficulty performing calculations. All four of these symptoms result from pathway lesions. Gerstmann's syndrome may additionally be present with alexia and mild aphasia.
Global agraphia also impairs an individuals' orthographic memory although to a greater extent than deep agraphia. In global apraxia, spelling knowledge is lost to such a degree that the individual can only write very few meaningful words, or cannot write any words at all. Reading and spoken language are also markedly impaired.
Lexical and structural agraphia are caused by damage to the orthographic memory; these individuals cannot visualize the spelling of a word, though they do retain the ability to sound them out. This impaired spelling memory can imply the loss or degradation of the knowledge or just an inability to efficiently access it. There is a regularity effect associated with lexical agraphia in that individuals are less likely to correctly spell words without regular, predictable spellings. Additionally, spelling ability tends to be less impaired for common words. Individuals also have difficulty with homophones. Language competence in terms of grammar and sentence writing tends to be preserved.
Phonological agraphia is the opposite of lexical agraphia in that the ability to sound out words is impaired, but the orthographical memory of words may be intact. It is associated with a lexicality effect by a difference in the ability to spell words versus nonwords; individuals with this form of agraphia are depending on their orthographic memory. Additionally, it is often harder for these individuals to access more abstract words without strong semantic representations (i.e., it is more difficult for them to spell prepositions than concrete nouns).
Pure agraphia is the impairment in written language production without any other language or cognitive disorder.
Agraphia can occur separately or co-occur and can be caused by damage to the angular gyrus
Peripheral
Peripheral agraphias occurs when there is damage to the various motor and visualization skills involved in writing.
Apraxic agraphia is the impairment in written language production associated with disruption of the motor system. It results in distorted, slow, effortful, incomplete, and/or imprecise letter formation. Though written letters are often so poorly formed that they are almost illegible, the ability to spell aloud is often retained. This form of agraphia is caused specifically by a loss of specialized motor plans for the formation of letters and not by any dysfunction affecting the writing hand. Apraxic agraphia may present with or without ideomotor apraxia. Paralysis, chorea, Parkinson's disease (micrographia), and dystonia (writer's cramp) are motor disorders commonly associated with agraphia.
Hysterical agraphia is the impairment in written language production caused by a conversion disorder.
Reiterative agraphia is found in individuals who repeat letters, words, or phrases in written language production an abnormal number of times. Perseveration, paragraphia, and echographia are examples of reiterative agraphia.
Visuospatial agraphia is the impairment in written language production defined by a tendency to neglect one portion (often an entire side) of the writing page, slanting lines upward or downward, and abnormal spacing between letters, syllables, and words. The orientation and correct sequencing of the writing will also be impaired. Visuospatial agraphia is frequently associated with left hemispatial neglect, difficulty in building or assembling objects, and other spatial difficulties.
Causes
Agraphia has a multitude of causes ranging from strokes, lesions, traumatic brain injury, and dementia. Twelve regions of the brain are associated with handwriting. The four distinct functional areas are the left superior frontal area composed of the middle frontal gyrus and the superior frontal sulcus, the left superior parietal area composed of the inferior parietal lobule, the superior parietal lobule and the intraparietal sulcus and lastly the primary motor cortex and the somatosensory cortex. The eight other areas are considered associative areas and are the right anterior cerebellum, the left posterior nucleus of the thalamus, the left inferior frontal gyrus, the right posterior cerebellum, the right superior frontal cortex, the right inferior parietal lobule, the left fusiform gyrus and the left putamen. The specific type of agraphia resulting from brain damage will depend on which area of the brain was damaged.
Phonological agraphia is linked to damage in areas of the brain involved in phonological processing skills (sounding out words), specifically the language areas around the sylvian fissure, such as Broca's area, Wernicke's area, and the supramarginal gyrus.
Lexical agraphia is associated with damage to the left angular gyrus and/or posterior temporal cortex. The damage is typically posterior and inferior to the perisylvian language areas.
Deep agraphia involves damage to the same areas of the brain as lexical agraphia plus some damage to the perisylvian language areas as well. More extensive left hemisphere damage can lead to global agraphia.
Gerstmann's syndrome is caused by a lesion of the dominant (usually the left) parietal lobe, usually an angular gyrus lesion.
Apraxic agraphia with ideomotor apraxia is typically caused by damage to the superior parietal lobe (where graphomotor plans are stored) or the premotor cortex (where the plans are converted into motor commands). Additionally, some individuals with cerebellar lesions (more typically associated with non-apraxic motor dysfunction) develop apraxic agraphia. Apraxic agraphia without ideomotor apraxia may be caused by damage to either of the parietal lobes, the dominant frontal lobe, or to the dominant thalamus.
Visuospatial agraphia typically has a right hemisphere pathology. Damage to the right frontal area of the brain may cause more motor defects, whereas damage to the posterior part of the right hemisphere leads predominantly to spatial defects in writing.
Alzheimer's disease
Agraphia is often seen in association with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Writing disorders can be an early manifestation of AD. In individuals with AD, the first sign pertaining to writing skills is the selective syntactic simplification of their writing. Individuals will write with less description, detail and complexity, and other markers, such as grammatical errors, may emerge. Different agraphias may develop as AD progresses. In the beginning stages of AD, individuals show signs of allographic agraphia and apraxic agraphia. Allographic agraphia is represented in AD individuals by the mixing of lower and upper case letters in words; apraxic agraphia is represented in AD patients through poorly constructed or illegible letters and omission or over repetition of letter strokes. As their AD progresses, so does the severity of their agraphia; they may begin to form spatial agraphia, which is the inability to write in a straight horizontal line, and there are often unnecessary gaps between letters and words.
A connection between AD and agraphia is the role of memory in normal writing ability. Normal spellers have access to a lexical spelling system that uses a whole-word; when functioning properly, it allows for recall of the spelling of a complete word, not as individual letters or sounds. This system further uses an internal memory store where the spellings of hundreds of words are kept. This is called the graphemic output lexicon and is aptly named in relation to the graphemic buffer, which is the short term memory loop for many of the functions involved in handwriting. When the spelling system cannot be used, such as with unfamiliar words, non-words or words that we do not recognize the spelling for, some people are able to use the phonological process called the sub-lexical spelling system. This system is used to sound out a word and spell it. In AD individuals, memory stores that are used for everyday handwriting are lost as the disease progresses.
Management
Agraphia cannot be directly treated, but individuals can be rehabilitated to regain some of their previous writing abilities.
For the management of phonological agraphia, individuals are trained to memorize key words, such as a familiar name or object, that can then help them form the grapheme for that phoneme. Management of allographic agraphia can be as simple as having alphabet cards so the individual can write legibly by copying the correct letter shapes. There are few rehabilitation methods for apraxic agraphia; if the individual has considerably better hand control and movement with typing than they do with handwriting, then they can use technological devices. Texting and typing do not require the same technical movements that handwriting does; for these technological methods, only spatial location of the fingers to type is required. If copying skills are preserved in an individual with apraxic agraphia, repeated copying may help shift from the highly intentional and monitored hand movements indicative of apraxic agraphia to a more automated control.
Micrographia is a condition that can occur with the development of other disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, and is when handwriting becomes illegible because of small writing. For some individuals, a simple command to write bigger eliminates the issue.
Anagram and Copy Treatment (ACT) uses the arrangement of component letters of target words and then repeated copying of the target word. This is similar to the CART; the main difference is that the target words for ACT are specific to the individual. Target words that are important in the life of the individual are emphasized because people with deep or global agraphias do not typically have the same memory for the words as other people with agraphia may. Writing can be even more important to these people as it can cue spoken language. ACT helps in this by facilitating the relearning of a set of personally relevant written words for use in communication.
Copy and Recall Treatment (CART) method helps to reestablish the ability to spell specific words that are learned through repeated copying and recall of target words. CART is more likely to be successful in treating lexical agraphia when a few words are trained to mastery than when a large group of unrelated words is trained. Words chosen can be individualized to the patient, which makes treatment more personalized.
Graphemic buffer uses the training of specific words to improve spelling. Cueing hierarchies and copy and recall method of specific words are used, to work the words into the short-term memory loop, or graphemic buffer. The segmentation of longer words into shorter syllables helps bring words into short-term memory.
Problem solving approach is used as a self-correcting method for phonological errors. The individual sounds out the word and attempts to spell it, typically using an electronic dictionary-type device that indicates correct spelling. This method takes advantage of the preserved sound-to-letter correspondences when they are intact. This approach may improve access to spelling memory, strengthen orthographic representations, or both.
History
In 1553 Thomas Wilson's book Arte of Rhetorique held the earliest known description of what would now be called acquired agraphia. In the second half of the nineteenth century, the loss of the ability to produce written language received clinical attention, when ideas about localization in the brain influenced studies about dissociation between written and spoken language as well as reading and writing. Paul Broca's work on aphasia during this time inspired researchers across Europe and North America to begin conducting studies on the correlation between lesions and loss of function in various cortical areas.
During the 1850s, clinicians such as Armand Trousseau and John Hughlings Jackson held the prevailing view that the same linguistic deficiency occurred in writing as well as speech and reading impairments. In 1856, Louis-Victor Marcé argued that written and spoken language were independent of each other; he discovered that in many patients with languages disorders, both speech and writing was impaired. The recovery of written and spoken language was not always parallel suggesting that these two modes of expression were independent. He believed the ability to write not only involved motor control, but also the memory of the signs and their meaning.
In 1867, William Ogle, who coined the term agraphia, made several key observations about the patterns of dissociation found in written and spoken language. He demonstrated that some patients with writing impairments were able to copy written letters but struggled arranging the letters to form words. Ogle knew that aphasia and agraphia often occurred together, but he confirmed that the impairment of two different types of language (spoken and written) can vary in type and severity. Although Ogle's review helped make important advancements toward understanding writing disorders, a documented case of pure agraphia was missing.
In 1884, over two decades after the research of acquired language disorders began, Albert Pitres made an important contribution when he published a clinical report of pure agraphia. According to Pitres, Marcé and Ogle were the first to emphasize the dissociation between speech and writing. His work was also strongly influenced by Théodule-Armand Ribot's modular approach to memory. Pitres's clinical case study in 1884 argues for the localization of writing in the brain.
Pitres's reading and writing models consisted of three main components: visual (the memory for letters and how letters are put together to form syllables and word), auditory (the memory for the sounds of each letter), and motor (motor-graphic memory of the letters). He proposed the following classifications of agraphia:
Agraphia by word blindness: inability to copy a model, but the individual can write spontaneously and in response to dictation.
Agraphia by word deafness: inability to write to dictation, but the individual can copy a model and write spontaneously.
Motor agraphia: no ability to write, but the individual can spell.
Pitres said in aphasia, the intellect is not systematically impaired.
Research in the twentieth century focused primarily on aphasiology in patients with lesions from cerebrovascular accidents. From these studies, researches gained significant insight into the complex cognitive process of producing written language.
See also
Alexia without agraphia
Dysgraphia
Lists of language disorders
References
Aphasias
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Adam%20M%C3%B6hler
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Johann Adam Möhler
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Johann Adam Möhler (6 May 1796 – 12 April 1838) was a German Roman Catholic theologian.
He was born at Igersheim in the Bailiwick of Franconia of the Teutonic Order (from 1809 on part of Württemberg), and after studying philosophy and theology in the lyceum at Ellwangen, entered the University of Tübingen in 1817. Ordained to the priesthood in 1819, he was appointed to a curacy. He returned to Tübingen where he became privatdozent in 1825, an associate professor of theology in 1826 and a full professor in 1828.
His lectures drew large audiences that included many Protestants. The controversy aroused by his Symbolik (1832) was such that in 1835 he left for the University of Munich, because of polemics with the Protestant Tübingen theologian Ferdinand Christian Baur. In 1838 he was appointed to the deanery of Würzburg, but died shortly afterwards.
He died young but was very influential for other theologians, such as Henri de Lubac, Yves Congar, and others.
As a church historian, he has a more confessional and conservative orientation and organic thinking.
Works
Möhler wrote:
Die Einheit in der Kirche oder das Princip des Katholicismus, dargestellt im Geiste der Kirchenväter der drei ersten Jahrhunderte (Tübingen, 1825). English translation (1995): Unity in the Church or the Principle of Catholicism: Presented in the Spirit of the Church Fathers of the First Three Centuries, Peter C. Erb, trans., Catholic University of America Press, Washington, D.C.,
Athanasius der Grosse und die Kirche seiner Zeit, besonders im Kampfe mit dem Arianismus. In six books (2 volumes, Mainz, 1827).
Symbolik oder Darstellung der dogmatischen Gegensätze der Katholiken und Protestanten nach ihren Öffentlichen Bekenntnisschriften (Mainz, 1832; 8th edition, 1871–72; English translation by S. B. Robertson, 1843) This is a study of doctrinal differences between various Christian confessions. Central in this work is the anthropology and soteriology and the unity of the Church.
Neue Untersuchungen der Lehrgegensätze zwischen den Katholiken und Protestanten (1834) – New studies of the doctrinal differences between Catholics and Protestants.
Gesammelte Schriften u. Aufsätze, edited by Döllinger (1839)
Patrologie, with Franz Xaver Reithmayr (1839).
A Biographie by Balthasar Wörner was published at Regensburg in 1866.
The Symbolik is his most famous work; the interest excited by it in Protestant circles is shown by the fact that within two years of its appearance it had elicited three replies of considerable importance, those namely of FC Baur, PK Marheineke and KI Nitzsch.
References
External links
Catholic Encyclopedia: Johann Adam Möhler
Johann Adam Möhler: Vom Geist der Theologie. Gesammelte Aufsätze (German). Hrsg. von Dieter Hattrup. Band 1. Paderborn, 2011.
Johann Adam Möhler: Vom Geist der Theologie. Gesammelte Aufsätze (German). Hrsg. von Dieter Hattrup. Band 2. Paderborn, 2011.
1796 births
1838 deaths
People from Igersheim
19th-century German Catholic theologians
German male non-fiction writers
19th-century German male writers
University of Tübingen alumni
University of Tübingen faculty
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich faculty
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212874
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip%20Marheineke
|
Philip Marheineke
|
Philip Konrad Marheineke (May 1, 1780, Hildesheim – May 31, 1846, Berlin), was a German Protestant church leader within the Evangelical Church in Prussia.
Life
He was born at Hildesheim, Bishopric of Hildesheim, and studied at the University of Göttingen. In 1805 he was appointed professor extraordinarius of philosophy at Erlangen; in 1807 he moved to Heidelberg. In 1811 he became professor ordinarius at Frederick William University, Berlin, where from 1820 he was also preacher at Trinity Church and worked with Schleiermacher. When he died he was a member of the supreme consistorial council.
Works
At first influenced by Schelling, Marheineke found a new master in G. W. F. Hegel, and came to be regarded as the leader of the Hegelian Right. He sought to defend and explain all the orthodox doctrines of the Church in an orthodox way in the terms of Hegel's philosophy.
Marheineke's developed views on dogmatics are given in the third edition (1847) of his Die Grundlehren der christlichen Dogmatik als Wissenschaft. When he published the first edition (1819) he was still under the influence of Schelling; the second edition (1827) marked his change of view. His works on symbolics show profound scholarship, keen critical insight, and rare impartiality. The Christliche Symbolik (1810-1814) has been pronounced his masterpiece.
His other works include Institutiones symbolicae (1812; 3rd ed., 1830), Geschichte der deutschen Reformation (1816; 2nd ed., 18311834); Die Reformation, ihre Entstehung und Verbreitung in Deutschland (1846; 2nd ed., 1858), and the posthumous Theol. Vorlesungen (1847-1849).
He co-edited Hegel's posthumous Werke series (1832-1845) and an 1840 edition of Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion.
References
This work in turn cites:
Frédéric Auguste Lichtenberger, History of German theology in the nineteenth century (1889).
Émile-Alfred Weber, Le système dogmatique de Philippe Conrad Marheineke (1857).
Otto Pfleiderer, The development of theology in Germany since Kant; and its progress in Great Britain since 1825 (1890).
1780 births
1846 deaths
19th-century German Protestant theologians
Hegelian philosophers
Presidents of the Humboldt University of Berlin
University of Göttingen alumni
Heidelberg University faculty
|
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212876
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Forbes%20Ren%C3%A9%20de%20Montalembert
|
Charles Forbes René de Montalembert
|
Charles Forbes René de Montalembert (, 15 April 1810 in London13 March 1870 in Paris) was a French publicist, historian and Count of Montalembert, Deux-Sèvres, and a prominent representative of Liberal Catholicism.
Family
Charles Forbes René de Montalembert who was born on 15 April 1810, was of French and Scots ancestry. His father, Marc René, belonged to the family of Angoumois, which could trace its descent back to the 13th century, while charters show the history of the house even two centuries earlier. For several generations the family had been distinguished, both in the army and in the field of science. Montalembert senior had fought under Condé, and subsequently served in the British army. He married Eliza Rose Forbes, whose father, James Forbes, belonged to a very old Scottish Protestant family. Charles, their eldest son, was born in London. At the French Restoration of 1814, Marc René returned to France, was raised to the peerage in 1820, and became ambassador to Sweden, where Charles completed his education in 1826.
Career
Montalembert's early years were spent in England, where he was largely raised by his grandfather, who, although a Protestant, encouraged him to follow the religion of his father. In 1819 he attended the Lycée Bourbon and at the Collège Sainte-Barbe in Paris. In 1829 he was a contributor to the review Le Correspondant. In September and October 1830, he travelled in Ireland, where he met Daniel O'Connell; he was thinking of assisting the cause for which O'Connell was struggling by writing a history of Ireland, when he learned that the House of Commons had passed the Irish Emancipation Act.
Charles de Montalembert was under twenty-five at his father's death in 1831 and therefore too young to take his seat as a peer, but he retained other rights. Combined with his literary and intellectual activity, this made him a person of some importance. He was a Liberal, in the English sense, and disagreed with the new regime on only the religious question. He would have approved of the policy of the golden mean represented by Louis Philippe. He wished to see the Church free from state control and attacked the monopoly of public instruction by which the monarchy fortified its position. This latter scheme first brought Montalembert to public attention when he was formally charged with unlicensed teaching. He claimed the right of trial by his peers and made a notable defence with a deliberate intention of protest in 1832.
On the other hand, he thought that the Church should not obstinately oppose new ideas. He had eagerly entered into the plans of his friends, Lamennais and Lacordaire, and he collaborated with them in the newspaper, L'Avenir ("The Future"). He especially distinguished himself in "L'Avenir" by his campaigns in favour of freedom for Ireland and Poland, and for these he received the congratulations of Victor Hugo and Alfred de Vigny. In 1831 he thought of going to Poland and joining the insurgents there. He was instrumental in setting up the Polish Library in Paris and its associated literary society for the Great Emigration into France.
The Ultramontane party was roused by the boldness of Montalembert and his two friends who then left for Rome. They failed to win any mitigation of the measures which the Roman curia took against L'Avenir. Its doctrines were condemned in two encyclicals, Mirari vos in 1832 and Singulari Nos in 1834, and Montalembert submitted. In 1835 he took his seat in the Chamber of Peers, and his competence soon made him famous. He clung to his early liberalism, and in 1848 saw the end of a government towards which he had always been hostile. In 1848 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies. He was at first inclined to support Napoleon III, but was soon alienated by his policy. Montalembert remained in the Chamber until 1857, when he was obliged to retire to private life. He was still recognised as a formidable opponent of the Empire. Meanwhile, his Liberal ideas had made him some irreconcilable enemies among the Ultramontanists. Louis Veuillot, in his paper, L'Univers religieux, opposed him. In 1855 Montalembert answered them by reviving a review which had for some time ceased publication, Le Correspondant. This he used to fight the party of Veuillot and the far-left Liberals of the Revue des deux mondes.
At a noted Catholic congress in Malines, Belgium in 1863, Montalembert gave two long addresses on Catholic Liberalism. He was also a staunch supporter of the independence of education from the state:
I do not want to be constrained by the state to believe what it believes to be true, because the State is not the judge of truth. However the State is bound to protect me in the practice of the truth that I choose, that is to say, the exercise of the religion that I profess This is what constitutes religious freedom in the modern state, which the free state is bound to respect and guarantee, not only for each citizen in particular, but for groups of citizens joined together to profess and propagate their belief, that is to say, for corporation, for associations, and for churches."
He took great interest in the débuts of the Liberal empire. He severed his connection with Père Hyacinthe Loyson as he had with Lamennais and made the submission expected of him to the Council. It was his last fall. Montalembert became increasingly isolated, politically, for his support of religious freedom in education; and by the Church for his liberal views.
Charles de Montalembert died in 1871.
Marriage
Montalembert married Mlle de Merode, daughter of Félix de Mérode. His daughter married the vicomte de Meaux, a Roman Catholic statesman and distinguished writer. He was thus the brother-in-law of Belgian prelate and papal statesman Xavier de Mérode.
Montalembert was a close friend of Edwin Wyndham-Quin, 3rd Earl of Dunraven and Mount-Earl with whom he toured Scotland in 1862, staying at Dunraven Castle on his return journey. The viscount travelled with Montalembert to Switzerland the following year and stayed at Maîche, Doubs (Montalembert's country property) on his return.
Writing
In addition to being an eloquent orator, Montalembert wrote in a style at once picturesque, fiery and polished. He was an ardent student of the Middle Ages, but his medieval enthusiasm was strongly tinctured with religious sentiments. His first historical work, La Vie de Ste Elisabeth de Hongrie (1836), is not so much a history as a religious manifesto, which did much to restore the position of hagiography. It met with great success, but Montalembert was not elected a member of the Académie française until 1851, after the fall of the July monarchy.
From this time he gave much of his attention to a great work on monasticism in the West. He was at first attracted by the figure of St. Bernard and devoted one volume to him. He later withdrew it on the advice of his friend Dupanloup, and the entire printing was destroyed. He then enlarged his original plan and published the first volumes of his Moines d'occident (1860), an eloquent work which was received with much admiration in those circles where language was more appreciated than learning. The work, unfinished at the time of the author's death, was completed later from some long fragments found among his papers. Volumes VI and VII appeared in 1877.
Like Chateaubriand he kept a close (now published) record of acquaintances, invitations, necrology.
Works (selection)
Défense de l'école libre devant la Chambre des Pairs (1831)
Histoire de sainte Élisabeth, reine de Hongrie (1836)
Monuments de l'histoire de sainte Élisabeth (1838)
Du vandalisme et du catholicisme dans l'art (1839)
The Obligation of Catholics in the Matter of Freedom of Teaching (1843)
Catholic Interests in the Nineteenth Century (1852)
Political Future of England (1855)
Illustrations of West American oaks. From drawings by Albert Kellog ; the text by Edward L. Greene. Published from funds provided by James M. McDonald (1856)
Pius IX and France in 1849 and 1859 (1860)
Memoir of the Abbe Lacordaire. Authorized translation. (London, Richard Bentley,1863)
Les moines d'Occident depuis saint Benoît jusqu'à saint Bernard ("The Monks of the West from St. Benedict to St. Bernard," Paris: J. Lecoffre Fils et Cie., 1877)
Saint Columban, English ed., with introduction, notes and critical studies by Rev. E.J. McCarthy, S.S.C (1927)
Emmanuel Mounier, ed., Montalembert (Paris, 1945), an anthology of his writing
References
Sources
Thomas Bokenkotter, Church and Revolution: Catholics and the Struggle for Democracy and Social Justice (New York: Doubleday, 1998)
E.E.Y. Hales, Pio Nono: A Study of European Politics and Religion in the Nineteenth Century (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1954)
R.P. Lecanuet, Montalembert d'après son journal et sa correspondence, 3 vols. (Paris, 1895)
Jean Maurain, La politique ecclésiastique du Second Empire de 1852 à 1869 (Paris, 1930)
George Weill, Histoire du Catholicisme libéral en France (1828–1908) (Paris, 1909)
Roger L. Williams, Gaslight and Shadow: The World of Napoleon III (New York: Macmillan, 1957), Ch. 3: "Montalembert and Liberal Catholicism"
Charles de Montalembert, Journal intime inedit, vii volumes, Texte établi, présenté et annoté par Louis Le Guillou et Nicole Roger Taillade, Honoré de Champion Paris, ...-2008[Bibliothèque des correspondances,mémoires et journaux, ...-39]
External links
1810 births
1870 deaths
People from London
Counts of France
French historians
French Roman Catholics
Members of the Académie Française
Peers of France
French male non-fiction writers
19th-century historians
French people of Scottish descent
19th-century French male writers
Liberal Catholicism
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20Veuillot
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Louis Veuillot
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Louis Veuillot (11 October 1813 – 7 March 1883) was a French journalist and author who helped to popularize ultramontanism (a philosophy favoring Papal supremacy).
Career overview
Veuillot was born of humble parents in Boynes (Loiret). When he was five years of age, his parents relocated to Paris. With little education, he gained employment in a lawyer's office, and was sent in 1830 to serve with a newspaper of Rouen, and afterwards to Périgueux. He returned to Paris in 1837, and a year later visited Rome during Holy Week. There he embraced ultramontane sentiments, and became an ardent champion of Catholicism. The results of his conversion were published in Pélerinages en Suisse (1839), Rome et Lorette (1841) and other publications.
In 1840, Veuillot joined the staff of the newspaper Univers Religieux, a journal created in 1833 by Abbé Migne, and soon helped make it the leading organ of ultramontane propaganda as L'Univers. His methods of journalism, which made great use of irony and ad hominem criticism, had already provoked more than one duel, and he was imprisoned for a brief time for his polemics against the University of Paris. In 1848, he became editor of the newspaper, which was suppressed in 1860, but revived in 1867, when Veuillot resumed his ultramontane propaganda, causing a second suppression of his journal in 1874. Veuillot then occupied himself by writing polemical pamphlets against liberal Catholics, the Second French Empire and the Italian government.
His services to the papal see were recognized by Pope Pius IX, on whom he wrote (1878) a monograph.
Matthew Arnold said of him:
M. Louis Veuillot is a polemic worthy of the golden age of polemics. He is singly devoted to ultramontanism; he lives on a small fixed salary from the proprietors of the Univers; he is a man of the purest and simplest domestic life; he is poor, and has a large family, but he has refused all offers of place and salary from the government, and maintains his entire independence.
And Orestes Brownson wrote:
[Veuillot] manifests the temper and breeding of a fanatic, and seems to act on the principle that whoever differs on any important point in history, politics, or philosophy, from himself, must needs be a bad Catholic, or no Catholic at all. We question not his sincerity, we question not his personal piety; but we do question his qualification to be a Catholic leader. His mind is too narrow and one-sided for that, and his leadership, with the best intentions on his part, is fitted only to bring about the very results he most deprecates. Notwithstanding his hostility to those who regret the loss of parliamentary freedom, and his devotion to Imperialism, he has not been able to save his journal from an avertissement; and it would seem that, after having aided in erecting an Absolute government for his country, and in breaking down all the safeguards established by constitutionalism to freedom of thought, freedom of speech, and public discussion, the police have had the cruelty to take him at his word, and give him a taste of the despotism he has been willing to fasten upon others.
Some of his papers were collected in Mélanges Religieux, Historiques et Littéraires (12 vols., 1857–1875), and his (7 vols., 1883–85) has great political interest. His younger brother, Eugène Veuillot, published (1901–1904) a comprehensive and valuable life, Louis Veuillot.
Anti-Semitism
Veuillot was a virulent anti-Semite. As early as the 1840s, he wrote articles in L'Univers defaming Jews, portraying them as alien vagabonds, accusing them of blood libel, and asserting that the Talmud commanded Jews to hate all Christians. He contemptuously dismissed Jews who criticized him as "the deicide people", claiming they were a foreign element which plotted to control all of French society. Veuillot's hatred intensified during the Mortara case to the point where it put him at odds with Napoleon III whom he had previously supported, causing the latter to temporarily suppress the journal. Veuillot's two-pronged assault on the Jews and liberalism would influence the anti-Semitism of Édouard Drumont, who worked for L'Univers in his youth.
Works
Correspondance, Tome II, Tome III, Tome IV, Tome V, Tome VII, Société Générale de Librairie Catholique, 1885.
Rome et Lorette, J. Casterman, 1841.
De l'Action des Laiques dans la Question Religieuse, Au Bureau de L'Univers, 1843.
Vie de Notre-Seigneur Jésus-Christ, Librairie Catholique de Périsse Frérés, 1864 [1st Pub. 1846].
Les Libres-Penseurs, Jacques Lecoffre et Cie., 1850.
La Légalité: Dialogue Philosophique, Plon Frères, 1852.
Les Droits du Seigneur au Moyen Âge, L. Vivés, 1854.
Le Parti Catholique, L. Vivés, 1856.
Le Pape et la Diplomatie, Gaume Frères et J. Duprey, 1861.
Waterloo, Gaume Frères et J. Duprey, 1861.
Satires, Gaume Frérés et J. Duprey, 1863.
Le Guêpier Italien, Victor Palmé, 1865.
A Propos de la Guerre, Palmé, 1866.
L'Illusion Libérale, Palmé, 1866.
Les Odeurs de Paris, Palmé, 1867.
Les Couleuvres, Victor Palmé, 1869.
Corbin et d'Aubecourt, Victor Palmé, 1869.
La Liberté du Concile, Victor Palmé, 1870.
Paris Pendant les Deux Sièges, Victor Palmé, 1871.
Le Parfum de Rome, Victor Palmé, 1871.
Mélanges Religieux, Historiques et Littéraires, Tome II, Tome III, Tome IV, Tome V, Tome VI, L. Vivés, 1857–1875.
Molière et Bourdaloue, Société Générale de Librairie Catholique, 1877.
La Guerre et l'Homme de Guerre, Victor Palmé, 1878.
Çá et Lá, Société Générale de Librairie Catholique, 1883.
Historietes et Fantaisies, Société Générale de Librairie Catholique, 1883.
Études sur Victor Hugo, Société Générale de Librairie Catholique, 1886.
Works in English translation
In The Irish Monthly, Vol. 5, 1877.
"The Graves of a Breton Household," pp. 417–418.
"The Legend of the Red Lillies," pp. 756–757.
The Life of Our Lord Jesus Christ. New York: Peter F. Collier, 1878.
Stephanie. Dublin: M.H. Gill and Son, 1883.
"The Essence of Giboyer (A Retort to 'Giboyer's Son')." In: The Universal Anthology, Vol. XXVII. London: The Clarke Company, Ltd., 1899.
In Béla Menczer (Ed.), Catholic Political Thought, 1789-1848, University of Notre Dame Press, 1962.
"The True Freedom of Thought," pp. 196–205.
The Liberal Illusion. Kansas City, Mo.: Angelus Press, 2005.
Biography
Louis Veuillot, French Ultramontane Catholic Journalist and Layman, 1813-1883, Marvin Luther Brown, Moore Publishing Co., 1977.
Gallery
See also
Charles Forbes René de Montalembert
Henri, Count of Chambord
Our Lady of La Salette
Notes
References
Further reading
Ages, Arnold (1974). "Veuillot and the Talmud," Jewish Quarterly Review 64, pp. 229–260.
Allison, John M.S. (1916). Church and State in the Reign of Louis Philippe. Princeton University Press.
Boureau, Alain (1998). "God's Party in the Great Combat." In: The Lord's First Night: The Myth of the Droit de Cuissage. University of Chicago Press.
Brown, Marvin L. (1977). Louis Veuillot: French Ultramontane, Catholic Journalist and Layman. Durham, N.C.: Moore Publishing Company.
Cornut, Etienne (1891). Louis Veuillot. Paris: Victor Retaux et Fils.
Corrigan, Raymond (1938). The Church in the Nineteenth Century. Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing Company.
Christophe, Lucien (1967). Louis Veuillot. Paris: Wesmael-Charlier.
Dimier, Louis (1917). Les Maîtres de la Contre-Révolution au 19e Siècle. Paris: Nouvelle Librairie Nationale.
Fernessole, Pierre (1923). Les Origines Littéraires de Louis Veuillot, 1813-1843. Paris: J. de Gigord.
Foucart, Claude (1978). L'Aspect Méconnu d'un Grand Lutteur. Atelier National de Reproduction des Thèses, Université de Lille III.
Gough, Austin (1996). Paris et Rome. Les Catholiques Français et le Pape au XIXe Siècle. Paris: Éditions de l'Atelier.
Gurian, Waldemar (1951). "Louis Veuillot," Catholic Historical Review 36, pp. 385–414.
Isser, Natalie (1979). "The Mortara Affair and Louis Veuillot," Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Western Society for French History 7, pp. 69–78.
Laurioz, Pierre-Yves (2005). Louis Veuillot: Soldat de Dieu. Éd. de Paris, 2005.
Le Roux, Benoît (1984). Louis Veuillot: Un Homme, un Combat. Paris: Téqui, 1984.
MacCaffrey, James (1905). "Louis Veuillot," The Irish Ecclesiastical Record 16, pp. 430–441; Part II, Part III, The Irish Ecclesiastical Record 17, pp. 323–334, 541–555.
MacCaffrey, James (1910). "The Church in France." In: History of the Catholic Church in the Nineteenth Century. M.H. Gill & Son, pp. 233–251.
Menczer, Béla (1962). "Louis Veuillot." In: Catholic Political Thought, 1789-1848. University of Notre Dame Press, pp. 192–196.
Mirecourt, Eugène de (1856). Louis Veuillot. Paris: Gustave Havard.
Murray, Eustace Clare Grenville (1873). "M. Louis Veuillot." In: Men of the Third Republic. London: Strahan & Co., pp. 188–201.
Myers, Rev. E. (1903). "Louis Veuillot," The Catholic World 77, pp. 597–610.
Neill, Thomas Patrick (1951). "Louis Veuillot." In: They Lived the Faith; Great Lay Leaders of Modern Times. Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing Company, pp. 299–324.
Nielsen, Fredrik Kristian (1906). The History of the Papacy in the XIXth Century, Vol. 2. London: John Murray.
O'Connor, R.F. (1879). "Louis Veuillot," Part II, The Monitor 1, pp. 333–346, 413–428.
O'Connor, R.F. (1913). "Louis Veuillot," The American Catholic Quarterly Review 38, pp. 612–627.
Parsons, Reuben (1901). "Louis Veuillot." In: Studies in Church History. New York: F.R. Pustet & Co., pp. 427–440.
Pierrard, Pierre (1998). Louis Veuillot. Paris: Éditions Beauchesne.
Preuss, Arthur (1914). "The Veuillot Centenary," The Fortnightly Review 21, pp. 3–4.
Preuss, Arthur (1902). "A Fighting Editor," Part II, Part III, Part IV, Part V, Part VI, The Review 9, pp. 535–537, 546–548, 564–567, 582–585, 598–601, 616–618.
Sainte-Beuve, C.A. (1885). "Veuillot as Journalist." In: Causeries du lundi. Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 86–90.
Soltau, Roger Henry (1959). "Veuillot and L'Univers." In: French Political Thought in the 19th Century. New York: Russell & Russell, pp. 176–188.
Sparrow-Simpson, W.J. (1918). "Louis Veuillot." In: French Catholics in the Nineteenth Century. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, pp. 107–121.
Spencer, Philip (1954). Politics of Belief in Nineteenth-Century France: Lacordaire, Michon, Veuillot. London: Faber and Faber.
Tavernier, Eugène (1913). Louis Veuillot; l'Homme, le Lutteur, l'Écrivain. Paris: Plon.
Teeling, T.T. (1905). "Louis Veuillot and L'Univers," Part II, The Dolphin 8, pp. 546–558, 693–706.
Veuillot, Eugène (1904). Louis Veuillot, Tome II, Tome III. Paris: Victor Retaux.
External links
Catholic Encyclopedia: Louis Veuillot
Encyclopædia Britannica: Louis Veuillot
Dr. John C. Rao: Louis Veuillot – Icon and Iconoclast
1813 births
1883 deaths
People from Loiret
French newspaper editors
French Roman Catholics
Roman Catholic conspiracy theorists
Our Lady of La Salette
Burials at Montparnasse Cemetery
19th-century French journalists
French male journalists
French male writers
Antisemitism in France
Late modern Christian antisemitism
French conspiracy theorists
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212879
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dying
|
Dying
|
Dying is the final stage of life that lead to death.
Signs of dying
The National Cancer Institute in the United States (US) advises that the presence of some of the following signs may indicate that death is approaching:
Drowsiness, increased sleep, and/or unresponsiveness (caused by changes in the patient's metabolism).
Confusion about time, place, and/or identity of loved ones; restlessness; visions of people and places that are not present; pulling at bed linens or clothing (caused in part by changes in the patient's metabolism).
Decreased socialization and withdrawal (caused by decreased oxygen to the brain, decreased blood flow, and mental preparation for dying).
Decreased need for food and fluids, and loss of appetite (caused by the body's need to conserve energy and its decreasing ability to use food and fluids properly).
Loss of bladder or bowel control (caused by the relaxing of muscles in the pelvic area).
Darkened urine or decreased amount of urine (caused by slowing of kidney function and/or decreased fluid intake).
Skin becoming cool to the touch, particularly the hands and feet; skin may become bluish in color, especially on the underside of the body (caused by decreased circulation to the extremities).
Rattling or gurgling sounds while breathing, which may be loud (death rattle); breathing that is irregular and shallow; decreased number of breaths per minute; breathing that alternates between rapid and slow (caused by congestion from decreased fluid consumption, a buildup of waste products in the body, and/or a decrease in circulation to the organs).
Turning of the head toward a light source (caused by decreasing vision).
Increased difficulty controlling pain (caused by progression of the disease).
Involuntary movements (called myoclonus), increased heart rate, hypertension followed by hypotension, and loss of reflexes in the legs and arms are additional signs that the end of life is near.
Culture
In the late Middle Ages, documents known as Ars moriendi were circulated in Western Europe to help people cope with dying. The documents describe the process of dying as involving Devils intervention, however the God would let the dying person experience heaven and be promised to get accepted into heaven. Many related manuals also described that caretakers for those dying shouldn't gave them false hope of possible recovery, but rather help them to be able to accept death as much as possible.
In Chinese Buddhism, it is said that dying patients will experience phases between the state of torment and the state of exultation, and that the duty of caretaker in this stage is to help the dying patient stay in the state of Buddhist exultation, through Buddhist prayers known as Nianfo.
See also
Assisted dying (disambiguation)
End-of-life care
Last rites
Near-death experience
Terminal illness
References
Human life stages
Death
Biology
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Edward%20Manning
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Henry Edward Manning
|
Henry Edward Manning (15 July 1808 – 14 January 1892) was an English prelate of the Roman Catholic church, and the second Archbishop of Westminster from 1865 until his death in 1892.
Early life
Manning was born on 15 July 1808 at his grandfather's home, Copped Hall, Totteridge, Hertfordshire. He was the third and youngest son of William Manning, a West India merchant and prominent slave owner, who served as a director and (1812–1813) as a governor of the Bank of England and also sat in Parliament for 30 years, representing in the Tory interest Plympton Earle, Lymington, Evesham and Penryn consecutively. Manning's mother, Mary (died 1847), daughter of Henry Leroy Hunter, of Beech Hill, and sister of Sir Claudius Stephen Hunter, 1st Baronet, came of a family said to be of French extraction.
Manning spent his boyhood mainly at Coombe Bank, Sundridge, Kent, where he had for companions Charles Wordsworth and Christopher Wordsworth, later bishops of St Andrews and Lincoln respectively. He attended Harrow School (1822–1827) during the headmastership of George Butler, but obtained no distinction beyond playing for two years in the cricket eleven. However, this proved to be no impediment to his academic career.
Manning matriculated at Balliol College, Oxford, in 1827, studying Classics, and soon made his mark as a debater at the Oxford Union, where William Ewart Gladstone succeeded him as president in 1830. At this date he had ambitions of a political career, but his father had sustained severe losses in business and, in these circumstances, having graduated with first-class honours in 1830, he obtained the year following, through Frederick John Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich, a post as a supernumerary clerk in the Colonial Office. Manning resigned from this position in 1832, his thoughts having turned towards a clerical career under Evangelical influences, including his friendship with Favell Lee Mortimer, which affected him deeply throughout life.
Anglican cleric
Returning to Oxford in 1832, he gained election as a fellow of Merton College and received ordination as a deacon in the Church of England. In January 1833 he became curate to John Sargent, Rector of Lavington-with-Graffham, West Sussex. In May 1833, following Sargent's death, he succeeded him as rector due to the patronage of Sargent's mother.
Manning married Caroline, John Sargent's daughter, on 7 November 1833, in a ceremony performed by the bride's brother-in-law, the Revd Samuel Wilberforce, later Bishop of Oxford and Winchester. Manning's marriage did not last long: his young and beautiful wife came of a consumptive family and died childless on 24 July 1837. When Manning died many years later, for decades a celibate Roman Catholic cleric, a locket containing his wife's picture was found on a chain around his neck.
Though he never became an acknowledged disciple of John Henry Newman (later Cardinal Newman), the latter's influence meant that from this date Manning's theology assumed an increasingly High Church character and his printed sermon on the "Rule of Faith" publicly signalled his alliance with the Tractarians.
In 1838 he took a leading part in the church education movement, by which diocesan boards were established throughout the country; and he wrote an open letter to his bishop in criticism of the recent appointment of the ecclesiastical commission. In December of that year he paid his first visit to Rome and called on Nicholas Wiseman in company with Gladstone.
In January 1841 Philip Shuttleworth, Bishop of Chichester, appointed Manning as the Archdeacon of Chichester, whereupon he began a personal visitation of each parish within his district, completing the task in 1843. In 1842 he published a treatise on The Unity of the Church and his reputation as an eloquent and earnest preacher being by this time considerable, he was in the same year appointed select preacher by his university, thus being called upon to fill from time to time the pulpit which Newman, as vicar of St Mary's, was just ceasing to occupy.
Four volumes of Manning's sermons appeared between the years 1842 and 1850 and these had reached the 7th, 4th, 3rd and 2nd editions respectively in 1850, but were not afterwards reprinted. In 1844 his portrait was painted by George Richmond, and the same year he published a volume of university sermons, omitting the one on the Gunpowder Plot. This sermon had annoyed Newman and his more advanced disciples, but it was a proof that at that date Manning was loyal to the Church of England.
Newman's secession in 1845 placed Manning in a position of greater responsibility, as one of the High Church leaders, along with Edward Bouverie Pusey, John Keble and Marriott; but it was with Gladstone and James Robert Hope-Scott that he was at this time most closely associated.
Conversion to Catholicism
Manning's belief in Anglicanism was shattered in 1850 when, in the so-called Gorham judgement, the Privy Council ordered the Church of England to institute an evangelical cleric who denied that the sacrament of baptism had an objective effect of baptismal regeneration. The denial of the objective effect of the sacraments was to Manning and many others a grave heresy, contradicting the clear tradition of the Christian Church from the Fathers of the Church on. That a civil and secular court had the power to force the Church of England to accept someone with such an unorthodox opinion proved to him that, far from being a divinely created institution, that church was merely a man-made creation of the English Parliament.
The following year, on 6 April 1851, Manning was received into the Catholic Church and then studied at the academia in Rome where he took his doctorate, and on 14 June 1851 was ordained a Catholic priest at the Jesuit Church of the Immaculate Conception, Farm Street. Given his great abilities and prior fame, he quickly rose to a position of influence. He served as provost of the cathedral chapter under Cardinal Wiseman.
In 1857, he established at Wiseman's direction the mission of St Mary of the Angels, Bayswater, to serve labourers building Paddington Station. There he founded, at Wiseman's request, the Congregation of the Oblates of St. Charles. This new community of secular priests was the joint work of Cardinal Wiseman and Manning, for both had independently conceived of the idea of a community of this kind, and Manning had studied the life and work of Charles Borromeo in his Anglican days at Lavington and had, moreover, visited the Oblates at Milan, in 1856, to satisfy himself that their rule could be adapted to the needs of Westminster. Manning became superior of the congregation.
Archbishop
In 1865 he was appointed Archbishop of Westminster.
Among his accomplishments as head of the Catholic Church in England were the acquisition of the site for Westminster Cathedral, but his focus was on a greatly expanded system of Roman Catholic education, including the establishment of the short-lived Catholic University College in Kensington.
In 1875 Manning was created Cardinal-Priest of Ss Andrea e Gregorio al Monte Celio. Manning participated in the conclave that elected Pope Leo XIII in 1878.
Manning approved the founding of the Catholic Association Pilgrimage.
Influence on social justice teaching
Manning was very influential in setting the direction of the modern Catholic Church. His warm relations with Pope Pius IX and his ultramontane views gained him the trust of the Vatican, though "it was ordained that he should pass the evening of his days in England, and that he should outlive his intimacy at the Vatican and his influence on the general policy of the Church of Rome."
Manning used this goodwill to promote a modern Roman Catholic view of social justice. These views are reflected in the papal encyclical Rerum novarum issued by Leo XIII which marks the beginning of modern Roman Catholic social justice teaching.
For a portion of 1870, he was in Rome attending the First Vatican Council. Manning was among the strongest supporters of the doctrine of papal infallibility, unlike Cardinal Newman who believed the doctrine but thought it might not be prudent to define it formally at the time. (For a comparison of Manning and Newman, see the section entitled "Relationships with other converts" in the article on Cardinal Newman.)
In 1888 Manning was interviewed by social activist and journalist Virginia Crawford for The Pall Mall Gazette, and was instrumental in settling the London dock strike of 1889 at the behest of Margaret Harkness. He played a significant role in the conversion of other notable figures including Elizabeth Belloc, mother of famous British author Hilaire Belloc, upon whose thinking Manning had a profound influence. Manning did not however support enfranchising women. In 1871, at St. Mary Moorfield, he said he hoped English womanhood would ‘resist by a stern moral refusal, the immodesty which would thrust women from their private life of dignity and supremacy into the public conflicts of men.'
View of the priesthood
In 1883, Manning published The Eternal Priesthood, his most influential work. In the book, Manning defended an elevated idea of the priesthood as, "in and of itself, an outstanding way to perfection, and even a 'state of perfection'". In comparison to his polemical writings, The Eternal Priesthood is "austere" and "glacial", arguing for a rigorous conception of the moral duties of the office. Manning additionally stressed the social function of the priest, who must be more to his community than a dispenser of the sacraments.
Death and burial
Manning died on 4 January 1892, at which time his estate was probated at £3,527. He received a formal burial at St Mary's Roman Catholic Cemetery in Kensal Green. Some years later, in 1907, his remains were transferred to the newly completed Westminster Cathedral.
Works
Rule of Faith (1839)
Unity of the Church (1842)
A charge delivered at the ordinary visitation of the archdeaconry of Chichester in July (1843)
Sermons 4 vols. (1842–1850)
The Present Crisis of the Holy See (1861)
Rome and the Revolution (1867)
Christ and Antichrist (1867)
Petri Privilegium (1871)
The Glories of the Sacred Heart (1876)
The True Story of the Vatican Council (1877)
The Eternal Priesthood (1883)
See also
Catholic Church in England and Wales
Oblates of St. Charles
Notes
References
Further reading
McClelland, Vincent Alan. Cardinal Manning: the Public Life and Influences, 1865–1892. London: Oxford University Press, 1962. xii, 256 p.
Player, Robert. Lets Talk of Graves, of Worms, of Epitaphs, a fictionalised version of Manning's life, largely based on the polemic of Lytton Strachey in his Eminent Victorians.
External links
Henry Edward Cardinal Manning www.catholic-hierarchy.org
Henry Edward Manning collection, 1826-1901(letters, sermons, and transcriptions) at Pitts Theological Library, Candler School of Theology
Individual works
The rule of faith: a sermon, preached in the cathedral church of Chichester, June 13, 1838; at the primary visitation of the right Reverend William, Lord Bishop of Chichester (1839)
Sermons on ecclesiastical subjects: with an introduction on the relations of England to Christianity (1869)
The fourfold sovereignty of God (1872)
Lytton Strachey's essay on Manning from Eminent Victorians is available at http://www.bartleby.com/189/100.html
"Cardinal Manning" poem by Dunstan Thompson
1808 births
1892 deaths
Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy alumni
People from Totteridge
Presidents of the Oxford Union
People educated at Harrow School
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
Fellows of Merton College, Oxford
Archdeacons of Chichester
History of Catholicism in the United Kingdom
Anglican priest converts to Roman Catholicism
19th-century English Anglican priests
19th-century British cardinals
19th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in the United Kingdom
Roman Catholic archbishops of Westminster
Cardinals created by Pope Pius IX
Burials at St Mary's Catholic Cemetery, Kensal Green
Burials at Westminster Cathedral
English people of French descent
British Roman Catholic archbishops
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas%20Wiseman
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Nicholas Wiseman
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Nicholas Patrick Stephen Wiseman (3 August 1802 – 15 February 1865) was a Cardinal of the Catholic Church who became the first Archbishop of Westminster upon the re-establishment of the Catholic hierarchy in England and Wales in 1850.
Born in Seville of Irish parents, Wiseman was educated at a school in Waterford before attending St. Cuthbert's College at Ushaw. From there he went to the English College in Rome, where he subsequently became Rector. While in Rome, he was assigned to preach to the English Catholics there. As Rector, he was the representative of the English bishops. During a visit to England in 1836, he helped initiate the periodical Dublin Review. In 1840, he was appointed president of Oscott College.
Early life
Wiseman was born in Seville on 2 February 1802, the younger son of James and Xaviera Strange Wiseman, of Waterford, Ireland, who had settled in Spain for business. On his father's death in 1805, he was brought to his parents' home in Waterford. In 1810, he was sent to Ushaw College, near Durham, where he was educated until the age of sixteen. Wiseman would later recall that John Lingard, Vice-President of the college at the time, showed the quiet, retiring boy much kindness. In 1818, Wiseman proceeded to the English College in Rome, which had reopened in 1818 after being closed by the Napoleonic Wars for twenty years. He graduated with a doctorate of theology with distinction in July 1824, and was ordained to the priesthood 10 March 1825.
He was appointed vice-rector of the English College in 1827, and rector in 1828, although he was not yet twenty-six years of age. He had this office until 1840. From the first a devoted student and scholar of antiquity, he devoted much time to the examination of Oriental manuscripts in the Vatican library, and a first volume, entitled Horae Syriacae, published during 1827, showed that he had promise as a good scholar.
Pope Leo XII (1823..1829) appointed him curator of the Arabic manuscripts in the Vatican, and professor of Oriental languages in the Roman University. His academic life was, however, interruption by the pope's command to preach to English residents of Rome. A course of his lectures, On the Connexion between Science and Revealed Religion, attracted much attention. His general thesis was that whereas scientific teaching had repeatedly been thought to disprove Christian doctrine, further investigation has shown that a reconciliation is possible. It is much to Wiseman's credit that his lectures on the relationship between religion and science was approved by a critic as stern as Andrew Dickson White. In his extremely influential A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom, the primary contention of which was the conflict thesis, White wrote that "it is a duty and a pleasure to state here that one great Christian scholar did honour to religion and to himself by quietly accepting the claims of science and making the best of them.... That man was Nicholas Wiseman, better known afterward as Cardinal Wiseman. The conduct of this pillar of the Roman Church contrasts admirably with that of timid Protestants, who were filling England with shrieks and denunciations."
England
Wiseman visited England during 1835–1836, and delivered lectures on the principles and main doctrines of Roman Catholicism in the Sardinian Chapel, Lincoln's Inn Fields, and in the church in Moorfields. The effect of his lectures was considerable. At Edward Bouverie Pusey's request, John Henry Newman reviewed them in the periodical British Critic during December 1836, treating them for the most part with sympathy as a triumph over popular Protestantism. To another critic, who had claimed a resemblance between Roman Catholic and pagan ceremonies, Wiseman replied admitting the likeness, and saying that it could be shown equally well to exist between Christian and non-Christian doctrines.
During 1836, Wiseman initiated the periodical Dublin Review, partly to give English Roman Catholics greater ideals for their religion and enthusiasm for the papacy, and partly to deal with the Oxford Movement. In 1916 the name was changed to the Wiseman Review. At this date he was already distinguished as a scholar and critic, fluent in many languages, and informed on questions of scientific, artistic or historical interest.
An article by Wiseman on the Donatist schism, appearing in the Dublin Review in July 1839, made an impression in Oxford, Newman and others seeing the analogy between Donatists and Anglicans. Wiseman, preaching at the opening of St Mary's Church, Derby, in the same year, anticipated Newman's argument on religious development, published six years later. In 1840, he was consecrated bishop, and was sent to England as coadjutor to Bishop Thomas Walsh, vicar-apostolic of the Central district, and was also appointed president of Oscott College near Birmingham.
Oscott, during his presidency, became a centre for English Roman Catholics. The Oxford converts (1845 and later) added to Wiseman's responsibilities, as many of them found themselves wholly without means, while the old Roman Catholic body looked on the newcomers with distrust. It was by his advice that Newman and his companions spent some time in Rome before undertaking clerical work in England. Soon after the accession of Pope Pius IX, Bishop Walsh was assigned to be vicar-apostolic of the London district with Wiseman still as his coadjutor. For Wiseman, the appointment became permanent on Walsh's death in February 1849.
On his arrival from Rome in 1847, Wiseman acted as an informal diplomatic envoy from the pope, to ascertain from the government what assistance England was likely to give in implementing the liberal policy with which Pius inaugurated his reign. In response, Lord Minto was sent to Rome as "an authentic organ of the British Government", but the policy in question proved abortive. Residing in London in Golden Square, Wiseman threw himself into his new duties with many-sided activities, working especially for the reclamation of Roman Catholic criminals and for the restoration of the lapsed poor to the practice of their religion. He was zealous for the establishment of religious communities, both of men and women, and for performing retreats and missions. He preached on 4 July 1848 at the opening of St George's, Southwark, an occasion unique in England since the Reformation, 14 bishops and 240 priests being present, and six religious orders of men being represented.
Cardinal
The progress of Roman Catholicism was undeniable, but Wiseman found himself opposed by a minority among his own clergy, who disliked his ultramontane ideas of his "Romanizing and innovating zeal", especially in regard to the introduction of sacred images into the churches and the use of devotions to the Blessed Virgin and the Blessed Sacrament, lately forgotten among English Roman Catholics. In July 1850, Wiseman heard of the pope's intention to create him a cardinal, and took this to mean that he was to be permanently recalled to Rome. But on his arrival, he ascertained that a part of the pope's plan for restoring a diocesan hierarchy in England was that he himself should return to England as cardinal and archbishop of Westminster. The papal brief establishing the hierarchy, Universalis Ecclesiae, was dated 29 September 1850, and Wiseman wrote a pastoral, dated "Given out of the Flaminian Gate of Rome, this seventh day of October, in the year of our Lord MDCCCL", a form diplomatically correct, but of bombastic tone for Protestant ears, in which he said enthusiastically, if also a little pompously, "Catholic England has been restored to its orbit in the ecclesiastical firmament, from which its light had long vanished".
Wiseman travelled slowly to England, via Vienna. When he reached London on 11 November, the whole country was ablaze with indignation at the "papal aggression," which was interpreted to imply a new and unjustifiable claim to territorial rule. Some indeed feared that his life was endangered by the violence of popular feeling. Wiseman displayed calmness and courage, and immediately penned a pamphlet of over 30 pages titled Appeal to the English People, in which he explained the nature of the pope's action. He argued that the admitted principle of toleration included leave to establish a diocesan hierarchy. In his concluding paragraphs, he effectively contrasted that dominion over Westminster, which he was taunted with claiming, with his duties towards the poor Roman Catholics resident there, with which alone he was really concerned. A course of lectures at St George's, Southwark, further moderated the storm. In July 1852, he presided at St Mary's College, Oscott over the first provincial synod of Westminster, at which Newman preached his sermon on the "Second Spring"; and at this date, Wiseman's dream of the rapid conversion of England to the ancient faith seemed capable of realisation. But many difficulties with his own people shortly beset his path, due largely to the suspicions aroused by his evident preference for the ardent Roman zeal of the converts, and especially of Manning, to the dull and cautious formalism of the old Roman Catholics.
During the autumn of 1853, Wiseman went to Rome, where Pius IX gave full approval to his ecclesiastical policy. It was during this visit to Rome that Wiseman projected, and began to write, the most popular book that he ever wrote, the historical romance, Fabiola, a tale of the Church of the Catacombs. The book was published at the end of 1854, and its success was immediate and phenomenal. Translations of it were published in almost every European language. Wiseman wrote Fabiola in part as an answer to the vigorously anti-Catholic book Hypatia (1853) by Charles Kingsley. The novel was mainly intended the aid the embattled Catholic minority in England.
The year 1854 was also marked by Wiseman's presence in Rome at the definition of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin on 8 December.
In 1855, Wiseman applied for a coadjutor bishop. George Errington, who was then Bishop of Plymouth and his friend since boyhood, was appointed Coadjutor Archbishop of Westminster and Titular Archbishop of Trapezus. Two years later, Manning was appointed Provost of Westminster. During Wiseman's later years Errington was hostiley to Manning, and to himself insofar as he was supposed to be influenced by Manning. The story of the estrangement, which was largely a matter of temperament, is told by Ward's biography. During July 1860 Errington was deprived by the Pope of his coadjutorship with right of succession. He retired to Prior Park, near Bath, where he died in 1886.
Wiseman's speeches, sermons and lectures, delivered during his tour, were printed in a volume of 400 pages, showing an extraordinary power of speaking with sympathy and tact. He was able to use considerable influence with English politicians, partly because in his time English Roman Catholics were wavering in their historical allegiance to the Liberal party. He was in a position to secure concessions that bettered the condition of Roman Catholics in regard to poor schools, reformatories and workhouses, and in the status of their army chaplains. In 1863, addressing the Catholic Congress in Mechelen, he stated that since 1830 the number of priests in England had increased from 434 to 1242, and of convents of women from 16 to 162, while there were no religious houses of men in 1830 and 55 in 1863. The last two years of his life were troubled by illness and by controversies in which he found himself, by Manning's influence, compelled to adopt a policy less liberal than that which had been his during earlier years.
Wiseman had to condemn the Association for the Promotion of the Unity of Christendom, with which he had shown some sympathy at its inception during 1857, and to forbid Roman Catholic parents to send their sons to Oxford or Cambridge, though at an earlier date he had hoped (with Newman) that at Oxford at least a college or hall might be assigned to them. In other respects, however, his last years were cheered by marks of general regard and admiration, in which non-Roman Catholics joined. After his death on 16 February 1865, there was an extraordinary demonstration of popular respect as his body was taken from St Mary's, Moorfields, to St Mary's Roman Catholic Cemetery in Kensal Green, where it was intended that it should rest only until a more appropriate place could be found in a Roman Catholic cathedral church of Westminster. On 30 January 1907, the body was removed with great ceremony from Kensal Green and was reburied in the crypt of the new cathedral, where it lies beneath a Gothic altar tomb, with a recumbent effigy of the archbishop in full pontificals.
Wiseman's birthplace on Calle Fabiola in Barrio Santa Cruz, the old Jewish part of Seville, features a commemorative plaque, as does Etloe House in Leyton, London E10, where he lived from 1858 to 1864.
Quotes
"The doctrine and practice of the Church must not be allowed to be impugned by those who have no claim at all to Scripture, and who can prove neither the canon, its inspiration, nor its primary doctrines, except through that very authority which they are questioning, and through treacherous inconsistency with the principles on which they are interrogating it. When many years ago this ground was boldly adopted, it was charged with being an attempt to throw Protestants into infidelity, and sap the foundations of the Bible. Years of experience, and observation not superficial, have only strengthened our conviction, that this course must be fearlessly pursued. We must deny to Protestantism any right to use the Bible, much more to interpret it. Cruel and unfeeling it may be pronounced by those who understand the strength of our position, and the cogency of the argument; but it is much more charitable than to leave them to the repeated sin of blaspheming God's Spouse, and trying to undermine the faith of our poor Catholics. The cry of 'The Bible! [T]he Bible! [N]othing but the Bible!' is as perilous to man's salvation as the Jews' senseless cry, 'The Temple of the Lord! [T]he Temple of the Lord! [T]he Temple of the Lord it is!' ()"
Artistic recognition
Wiseman was sculpted by Christopher Moore during 1853.
Schools
Several schools have been named after Wiseman, including:
The Cardinal Wiseman Catholic School, Greenford, a high school located in Greenford, West London. It was opened in 1959 as a special agreement school catering for 456 boys and girls aged 11–15 years. Since then the school has been reorganised several times.
Cardinal Wiseman Catholic School, Birmingham, a Catholic secondary school, in Birmingham, England.
Cardinal Wiseman Catholic School, Coventry, a Catholic secondary school in Coventry, England.
Notes
Works
Daily Meditations by Cardinal Wiseman
The Real Presence of the Body and Blood of Our Lord Jesus Christ in the Blessed Eucharist, Proved from Scripture. In Eight Lectures, Delivered in the English College, Rome
Twelve Lectures on the Connection between Science and Revealed Religion. Delivered in Rome
Lectures on the Principal Doctrines and Practices of the Catholic Church. Delivered at St. Mary's, Moorfields, during the Lent of 1836
The Catholic Doctrine on the Use of the Bible. Being a Review of His Grace Archbishop Dixon's "Catholic Introduction to Scripture" (1852)
Fabiola or The Church of the Catacombs (1854)
Essays on Various Subjects in Six Volumes. Vol 1
Essays on Various Subjects in Six Volumes. Vol 2
Sermons on Our Lord Jesus Christ and on His Blessed Mother
Sermons on Moral Subjects
Footnotes
Sources
Further reading
External links
Nicholas Patrick Wiseman Collection at Pitts Theology Library, Candler School of Theology
1802 births
1865 deaths
English College, Rome alumni
Roman Catholic archbishops of Westminster
19th-century British cardinals
English sermon writers
People from Seville
Cardinals created by Pope Pius IX
19th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in the United Kingdom
Rectors of the English College, Rome
Apostolic vicars of England and Wales
Burials at St Mary's Catholic Cemetery, Kensal Green
Burials at Westminster Cathedral
19th-century British Roman Catholic theologians
Alumni of Ushaw College
People from Waterford (city)
Spanish Roman Catholic archbishops
19th-century English novelists
English historical novelists
Writers of historical fiction set in antiquity
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsingin%20Sanomat
|
Helsingin Sanomat
|
Helsingin Sanomat (approx.: Helsinki Dispatch), abbreviated HS and colloquially known as , is the largest subscription newspaper in Finland and the Nordic countries, owned by Sanoma. Except after certain holidays, it is published daily. Its name derives from that of the Finnish capital, Helsinki, where it is published. It is considered a newspaper of record for Finland.
History and profile
The paper was founded in 1889 as Päivälehti, when Finland was a Grand Duchy under the Tsar of Russia.
Political censorship by the Russian authorities, prompted by the paper's strong advocacy of greater Finnish freedoms and even outright independence, forced Päivälehti to often temporarily suspend publication, and finally to close permanently in 1904. Its proprietors re-opened the paper under its current name in 1905.
Founded as the organ of the Young Finnish Party, the paper has been politically independent and non-aligned since the 1932. During the Cold War period Helsingin Sanomat was among the Finnish newspapers which were accused by the Soviet Union of being the instrument of US propaganda, and the Soviet Embassy in Helsinki frequently protested the editors of the paper.
Helsingin Sanomat has a long history as a family business, owned by the Erkko family. It is currently owned by the Sanoma media group which also owns Ilta-Sanomat. The relationship between the owners of Helsingin Sanomat and Finland's government have sometimes been close. For instance, during the run-up to the Winter War, Eljas Erkko was at the same time the paper's publisher and Finland's foreign minister.
Helsingin Sanomat strongly advocated Finland joining the European Union in the run-up to the decision to do so in 1994. It has also openly expressed support for Finland's membership of NATO. In fact, it supports the participation of Finland in all Western institutions.
Mikael Pentikäinen was the editor-in-chief until May 2013 when he was fired from the post. Riikka Venäläinen replaced him temporarily in the post. After Riikka Venäläinen the post has been held by Kaius Niemi.
Format
Helsingin Sanomat is published daily in Finnish in compact format with the exception of the days after public holidays when the paper does not appear. Subscriptions make up 97% of the newspaper's circulation. The front page is usually devoted to advertisements.
The newspaper was published in broadsheet format until 6 January 2013.
The paper also has a monthly supplement named Kuukausiliite (Finnish for Monthly Supplement), and a weekly TV guide and entertainment-oriented supplement named Nyt (meaning Now in English). Between 1999 and 2012 there were also both Finnish and English-language online newspaper editions.
Content of Helsingin Sanomat can be accessed also through mobile devices.
Circulation and influence
The circulation of Helsingin Sanomat was 476,163 copies in 1993, making it the most read newspaper in Finland. In the period of 1995–96 the paper sold 470,600 copies. Its circulation was 446,380 copies in 2001, making it the largest paper in the country. In 2008 the paper sold 412,421 on weekdays (a change of −1.8% from 2007) and 468,505 copies on Sundays (−1.3%). In 2011 the daily had a circulation of 365,994 copies, making it the most read paper in the country. The same year it was also the largest paper in terms of readership.
Approximately 75% of households in the Greater Helsinki region subscribe to Helsingin Sanomat, and it functions as the region's local paper. Its total daily circulation is well over 400,000, or about 8% of Finland's total population, making it the biggest daily subscription newspaper in the Nordic countries. This reaches about 14% of all households in Finland.
The paper is a significant factor in Finnish society and in public opinion. Pertti Klemola, a Finnish journalist and scholar, once called it a state authority, an institution with its own independent social and political will.
In June 2009 the site was the sixth most popular Finnish website. In 2010 it was the seventh most visited website in Finland in 2010 and was visited by 1,236,527 people per week.
Helsingin Sanomat International Edition
The English-language section of the Helsingin Sanomat website, the Helsingin Sanomat International Edition (HSIE), ran for thirteen years.
The International Edition launched on 14 September 1999 with the aim of informing readers of news from Finland during the Finnish presidency of the European Union. It continued after the European presidency owing to the quantity of readers it was getting became one of the major English-language sources of news regarding Finland—making it popular with English-speaking immigrants to the country.
The Helsingin Sanomat International Edition closed down on 26 October 2012. English material is now published in cooperation with Helsinki Times weekly newspaper. For a while, Helsingin Sanomat also published some of its material in Russian, but the service was discontinued on 6 October 2014.
See also
List of Finnish newspapers
References
Further reading
Merrill, John C. and Harold A. Fisher. The world's great dailies: profiles of fifty newspapers (1980) pp 156–61
External links
Helsingin Sanomat
Helsingin Sanomat International Edition (English)
1905 establishments in Finland
Daily newspapers published in Finland
Finnish-language newspapers
Newspapers published in Helsinki
Publications established in 1905
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelo%20Mai
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Angelo Mai
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Angelo Mai (Latin Angelus Maius; 7 March 17828 September 1854) was an Italian Cardinal and philologist. He won a European reputation for publishing for the first time a series of previously unknown ancient texts. These he was able to discover and publish, first while in charge of the Ambrosian Library in Milan and then in the same role at the Vatican Library. The texts were often in parchment manuscripts that had been washed off and reused; he was able to read the lower text using chemicals. In particular he was able to locate a substantial portion of the much sought-after De republica of Cicero and the complete works of Virgilius Maro Grammaticus.
Biography
He was born of humble parents at Schilpario in what is now the province of Bergamo, Lombardy.
In 1799 he entered the Society of Jesus, and in 1804 he became a teacher of classics in the college of Naples. After completing his studies at the Collegium Romanum, he lived for some time at Orvieto, where he was engaged in teaching and palaeographical studies. The political events of 1808, when French troops occupied the Papal States, necessitated his withdrawal from Rome (to which he had meanwhile returned) to Milan, where in 1813 he was made custodian of the Ambrosian library.
He now threw himself with characteristic energy and zeal into the task of examining the numerous manuscripts committed to his charge, and in the course of the next six years was able to restore to the world a considerable number of long-lost works. Having withdrawn from the Society of Jesus, he was invited to Rome in 1819 as chief keeper of the Vatican Library. In 1833 he was transferred to the office of secretary of the Congregation of the Propaganda; on 12 February 1838 he was raised to the dignity of cardinal. He died at Castel Gandolfo, near Albano, on 8 September 1854.
His monumental tomb is located in the left transept of the Basilica di Sant'Anastasia al Palatino by the late neoclassical sculptor Giovanni Maria Benzoni.
Works
It is on his skill as a reader of palimpsests that Mai's fame chiefly rests. To the period of his residence at Milan belong:
fragments of Cicero's Pro Scauro, Pro Tullio, Pro Flacco, In Clodium et Curionem, De aere alieno Milonis, and De rege Alexandrino (1814)
M. Corn. Frontonis opera inedita, cum epistolis item ineditis, Antonini Pii, Marci Aurelii, Lucii Veri et Appiani (1815; new ed., 1823, with more than 100 additional letters found in the Vatican library)
portions of eight speeches of Quintus Aurelius Symmachus
fragments of Plautus
the oration of Isaeus' De hereditate Cleonymi
the last nine books of the Antiquities of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and a number of other works.
M Tullii Ciceronis de republica quae supersunt appeared at Rome in 1822
Scriptorum veterum nova collectio, e Vaticanis codicibus edita ("A new collection of ancient writings, edited from Vatican codices") in 1825-1838
Classici scriptores e Vaticanis codicibus editi ("Classical writers edited from Vatican codices") in 1828-1838
Spicilegium Romanum ("A Roman gleaning") in 1839-1844
Patrum nova bibliotheca ("A new library of [Church] fathers") in 1845-1853
His edition of the celebrated Codex Vaticanus, completed in 1838, but not published (ostensibly on the ground of inaccuracies) till four years after his death (1858), is the least satisfactory of his labours and was superseded by the edition of Vercellone and Cozza (1868), which itself leaves much to be desired.
Although Mai was not as successful in textual criticism as in the decipherment of manuscripts, he will always be remembered as a laborious and persevering pioneer, by whose efforts many ancient writings have been rescued from oblivion.
References
1782 births
1854 deaths
People from Schilpario
19th-century Italian cardinals
Cardinals created by Pope Gregory XVI
Italian philologists
19th-century Italian Jesuits
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212889
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anconodon
|
Anconodon
|
Anconodon is an extinct genus of mammal from the Paleocene of North America, and thus lived just after the "age of the dinosaurs". It was a member of the extinct order Multituberculata within the suborder Cimolodonta and possibly the family Cimolodontidae.
The genus Anconodon was named by Jepsen G.L. in 1940. It is also known as Ectopodon (Russell 1967); Ectypodus (partly); Liotomus (partly); and Ptilodus (partly).
Species
The species Anconodon cochranensis was named by Russell in 1929 and Van Valen and Sloan in 1966. It has also been known as A. russelli (Simpson 1935; Jepsen 1940); Ectopodon cochranensis (Russel 1967); Ectypodus cochranensis (Simpson 1937a); Ectypodus russelli (Simpson 1935d); Liotomus russelli; and Ptilodus cochranensis (Russell 1929). Fossil remains have been found in the Tiffanian (Middle-Upper Paleocene)-age strata of Alberta (Canada) and Montana and Wyoming (United States). It has been cited as a descendant of A. gidleyi. The holotype is in the University of Alberta collection. The body mass has been estimated to be about 55 g, the weight of two standard mice.
The species Anconodon gidleyi was named by Simpson G.G. in 1935 and Jepsen G.L. in 1940. It has also been known as A. gibleyi and Ptilodus ?gidleyi (Simpson 1935d). Fossil remains have been found in the Torrejonian (Middle-Upper Paleocene)-age strata of the Gidley Quarry in Montana and in Wyoming, New Mexico and Alberta. This species is cited as a possible descendant of Cimolodon nitidus.
The species: Anconodon lewisi was named by Sloan R.E. in 1987. Fossil remains were discovered in the Middle-Upper Paleocene-age strata of Keefer Hill in Wyoming and Douglass Quarry in Montana. The holotype is from Wyoming.
References
Simpson (1935), "New Paleocene mammals from the Fort Union of Montana". Proc. US Nation. Museum 83, p. 221-244.
Jepsen (1940), "Paleocene faunas of the Polecat Bench formation, Park County, Wyoming". Pro. Amer. Philos. Soc 83, p. 217-340, 21 figs., 5pls.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS: Ptilodontoidea, an Internet directory.
Ptilodontoids
Paleocene mammals
Paleocene genus extinctions
Extinct mammals of North America
Prehistoric mammal genera
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Burgess%20%28bishop%20of%20Salisbury%29
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Thomas Burgess (bishop of Salisbury)
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Thomas Burgess (18 November 175619 February 1837) was an English author, philosopher, Bishop of St Davids and Bishop of Salisbury, who was greatly influential in the development of the Church in Wales. He founded St David's College, Lampeter, was a founding member of the Odiham Agricultural Society, helped establish the Royal Veterinary College in London, and was the first president of the Royal Society of Literature.
Life
Thomas Burgess was born at Odiham in Hampshire, youngest son of William Burgess (1720/21-1787) and his wife Elizabeth née Harding (1729/30-1797), grocers.
He was educated at Robert May's School in Odiham, at Winchester College, and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford (Scholar 1775, B.A. 1778, M.A. 1782). He was a precocious scholar. Before graduating, he edited a reprint of John Burton's Pentalogia, and in 1781 he brought out an annotated edition of Richard Dawes' Miscellanea Critica (reprinted, Leipzig, 1800). In 1783 he became a fellow of his college, and in 1784 he was ordained deacon and priest.
In 1785 Burgess was appointed examining and domestic chaplain to Shute Barrington, bishop of Salisbury. In that capacity Burgess wrote The Salisbury Spelling Book, an introductory manual for teaching reading and writing, which became highly popular in Sunday school classes throughout the country ; the first edition (1785) was followed rapidly by further editions. From 1787 to 1803 he held the prebend of Wilsford and Woodford in Salisbury cathedral, resigning on his appointment as bishop of St Davids. In 1788 Burgess published his Considerations on the Abolition of Slavery, in which he advocated the principle of gradual emancipation.
When Barrington was appointed bishop of Durham in 1791, Burgess moved to Durham with Barrington. From 1791 until 1825 he held a prebendal stall at Durham: holding in turn the 9th (1791–92), 6th (1792–1820) and 2nd (1820–1825) stalls. At Durham he carried out evangelistic work among the poorer classes. A pen portrait of the Durham prebendaries in 1831 describes Burgess as 'silent in company, learned and intelligible in the pulpit ; addressing the understanding in sound and classical language, informing the ignorant as the sun dispels the darkness of night.'
In June 1803 his old friend Henry Addington, then prime minister, appointed Burgess bishop of St Davids, by far the largest of the Welsh sees. He held the see for over twenty years, retaining his prebendal stall in Durham. Burgess was "the first Welsh bishop for generations to devote himself to his duties... [He] was enthusiastically in favour of clergy who could preach in Welsh ... [and] equally enthusiastically in favour of giving church patronage to Welsh cultural activities." In 1804 a Welsh translation of a catechism written by Burgess was published at Carmarthen. He refused to induct clergy ignorant of Welsh into Welsh-speaking parishes. To educate Welsh clergy for the diocese, Burgess founded and endowed St David's College, Lampeter (now the Lampeter campus of the University of Wales Trinity Saint David). After nearly twenty years of preparation, the foundation stone for the college was laid in 1822; students were first admitted on St David's Day 1827. Burgess also established the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge in the diocese and was a prime mover in the creation of the Cambrian Societies, organisers of the provincial eisteddfodau. "He devoted himself with such zeal to the reformation of his diocese as to make a deep mark on the history of the Welsh church".
In 1825 Burgess was translated Bishop of Salisbury, resigning his stall in Durham. He was the last Bishop of Salisbury to be ex officio Chancellor of the Order of the Garter. Both at Salisbury and at St David's, Burgess founded a Church Union Society for the assistance of infirm and distressed clergymen. Burgess opposed both Unitarianism and Catholic Emancipation. The latter policy led to several clashes with the Government: the Duke of Wellington told him sharply that he would do far more to strengthen the Protestant faith by staying in his diocese and minding his flock than he could by bombarding the Government with political pamphlets.
Thomas Burgess was a founding member of the Odiham Agricultural Society in 1783, and played a leading role in establishing the Royal Veterinary College. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1807. In 1820 he was appointed first president of the recently founded Royal Society of Literature.
On 1 October 1799, Burgess married Margery, daughter of John Bright of Pontefract in Yorkshire, a marriage without children. He died on 19 February 1837, and was buried at Salisbury on 27 February. His widow died in 1842.
Burgess saw the creation of St David's Lampeter as his great work: he left the College at his death his personal library of some 9,000 volumes, a working collection gathered during a lifetime devoted to the study of classics, literature, history, antiquities, and theology. His library remains at Lampeter, now as a special collection of the University of Wales Trinity St Davids: his many annotations offer an insight into Burgess's scholarly and theological preoccupations.
Works
A list of his works, which are very numerous, will be found in his biography by John Scandrett Harford (2nd ed, 1841). In addition to those already referred to may be mentioned his Essay on the Study of Antiquities; First Principles of Christian Knowledge; Reflections on the Controversial Writings of Dr. Priestley; Emendationes in Suidam et Hesychium, et alios Lexicographos Graecos; The Bible, and nothing but the Bible, the Religion of the Church of England.
Notes
References
Harford, J. S. (John Scandrett). (1841). The life of Thomas Burgess. 2d ed. London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Greene and Longmans. The main biography of Burgess, written by John Scandrett Harford, Quaker banker and landowner, and donor of the land for St David's College, Lampeter. Online at HathiTrust: https://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc2.ark:/13960/t2t43v35d
Price, D T W. (1987) Yr Esgob Burgess a Choleg Llanbedr: Bishop Burgess and Lampeter College. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. ()
Yates, Nigel (ed). (2007). Bishop Burgess and his world : culture, religion and society in Britain, Europe and North America in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. Digitised 2009. () ()
1756 births
1837 deaths
Bishops of St Davids
Bishops of Salisbury
Alumni of Corpus Christi College, Oxford
People from Odiham
People educated at Winchester College
People associated with the University of Wales, Lampeter
Presidents of the Royal Society of Literature
Fellows of the Royal Society
19th-century Church of England bishops
Chancellors of the Order of the Garter
Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London
19th-century Welsh Anglican bishops
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapy%3F
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Therapy?
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Therapy? are a rock band from Northern Ireland. The band was formed in 1989 by guitarist-vocalist Andy Cairns from Ballyclare and drummer-vocalist Fyfe Ewing. Therapy? recorded their first demo with Cairns filling in on bass guitar. To complete the lineup, the band recruited Larne bassist Michael McKeegan. The band signed with major label A&M Records in 1992, for which they released four albums, most notably Troublegum in 1994 and Infernal Love in 1995. Ewing's departure in early 1996 preceded the arrivals of his replacement Graham Hopkins, and Martin McCarrick on cello and guitar. Neil Cooper replaced Hopkins on drums in 2002. Following the departure of McCarrick in 2004, the band have remained a stable three-piece since.
Therapy? are currently signed to UK independent label Marshall Records. The band has released 15 full-length studio albums and has sold over two million albums worldwide.
History
Early years (1989–1992)
While attending a charity gig at the Jordanstown Polytechnic in early 1989, Andy Cairns noticed Fyfe Ewing playing drums in a punk covers band. The two spoke afterwards and agreed to meet for rehearsal in Fyfe's house in Larne with Andy playing a small practice amp and Fyfe playing his kit with brushes. In April they recorded a four track demo tape (Thirty Seconds of Silence) with Andy playing a bass guitar borrowed from Fyfe's classmate Michael McKeegan. Deciding to play live, they recruited McKeegan and played their debut gig at the Belfast Art College supporting Decadence Within on 20 August 1989. They followed this up with another four track demo tape (Meat Abstract). Their sound was becoming highly influenced by artists of the indie rock movement such as The Jesus Lizard, Big Black, and The Membranes as well as new beat disco acts such as Belgian outfit Erotic Dissidents.
Therapy? released its first single, called Meat Abstract in July 1990. The single was limited to 1,000 copies and released on the band's own Multifuckinational Records. During the summer of that year, the band made its first tour through the United Kingdom with The Beyond, catching the attention of influential DJ John Peel along the way. The band's early years followed the familiar pattern of hard graft on the local alternative music scene, with Cairns often putting in a full day at the Michelin tyre factory (where he worked as a quality controller), then speeding across Northern Ireland in order to make it to gigs. The band also took whatever support slot they could, opening for the likes of Loop, Ride, Teenage Fanclub, Inspiral Carpets, Tad, Fugazi and Ned's Atomic Dustbin. Therapy? quickly came to the attention of local music fans with their distinctively uncompromising style. Their use of guitar feedback as a "fourth instrument" and unconventional song structures, combined with a darkly original approach to lyrics and imaginative use of samples pulled from cult movies and obscure documentaries, led them to be spotted in 1990 by London-based independent label Wiiija Records. The move was helped by Lesley Rankine of Silverfish, who passed the band's first single on to Gary Walker of Wiiija.
The band's first album, July 1991's Babyteeth, and its January 1992 follow-up, Pleasure Death, were successful enough to earn the band a major label deal with A&M Records. Both albums were underground successes, hitting number 1 in the UK Indie Charts. The attention led to support slots with both Babes In Toyland and Hole on their respective UK tours. A compilation of the two albums entitled Caucasian Psychosis was prepared for the North American market, and the band embarked on their first U.S. tour in October 1992.
Their debut A&M record, Nurse, made its way into UK's Top 40 Album Chart in November 1992, while lead single "Teethgrinder" became the band's first Top 40 single in both the UK and Ireland. The grunge revolution was in full swing, with US outfit Nirvana leading the way. Predictably, the media began to draw comparisons between the two bands. The heavy guitars and inventive drumming that was swiftly becoming Therapy?'s trademark led them more towards the grunge camp than away from it.
The success (1993–1995)
If there was one true "breakthrough" year in the band's history, it would almost certainly be 1993. The release of the Shortsharpshock EP catapulted Therapy? into the Top 40, peaking at nine, featuring the lead track Screamager. The single led to the first of several appearances on the venerable UK music show Top of the Pops. Two more UK Top 40 EPs Face the Strange and Opal Mantra followed, as the band toured heavily on the European festival circuit, made two separate jaunts to the United States in support of Kings X initially, and then both Helmet and The Jesus Lizard, and played their debut shows in Japan. Compilations of the three EP's were released in the U.S. and Japan (Hats Off to the Insane), and in Europe (Born in a Crash).
1994 saw the release of the commercially successful Troublegum album in February which earned the band appearances at a string of rock and indie festivals, including Reading (third consecutive appearance), Donington and Phoenix in the UK alone, as well as a clutch of top 40 singles. It achieved a string of nominations in end-of-year polls, including a Mercury Music Prize nomination, and success at the Kerrang! Awards.
With impatience mounting for a new album, Infernal Love was released in June 1995. This time, the press reaction was lukewarm. The band had attempted to create a "cinematic" record with Belfast DJ David Holmes employed to link each track with "insanity", but in the eyes of many, had produced a disjointed piece over-subscribed with ballads. Despite a second consecutive Donington appearance at Metallica's request, and singles Stories and Loose charting in the UK earlier in the year, it was clear that Therapy? had changed direction. Although the string laden single Diane (originally by Hüsker Dü) was a Top 10 hit in 15 European countries later in the year, much of the early momentum had gone.
Ewing quits / Four piece (1996–1998)
Fyfe Ewing left the band in January 1996. The band quickly recruited Graham Hopkins to replace Ewing as well as the permanent addition of guest cellist Martin McCarrick, and steadily toured throughout the US and Canada in 1996.
After the tour wound up in October 1996, Therapy? finally took a long break. They reconvened after a few months and spent most of 1997 writing, rehearsing and recording the follow-up to Infernal Love.
While the Church of Noise single in March 1998 failed commercially, it marked the return of the band following three years out of the spotlight. The Semi-Detached album transcended the trajectory of Troublegum and Infernal Love with their dark, broody atmosphere. However, promotion for the album was scant at best, due to problems at the A&M label, which culminated in the loss of their record deal with the company. Without label support, Cairns and McKeegan needed to finance the band's European tour in late 1998 themselves.
The turn of the millennium (1999–2003)
The band's sentiment towards newer alternative metal bands was expressed in the song Ten Year Plan from the band's uncompromising 1999 Ark21 album Suicide Pact – You First, which was packed full of vitriol, discontent and barely-repressed musical aggression. This album revealed a fuller-sound, yet was noticeably lacking in songs suitable of mainstream-radio airplay.
The following year saw the release of the So Much for the Ten Year Plan: A Retrospective 1990–2000 album which (in title at least) was a self-deprecating poke at the bands' difficulties with corporate rock in recent years. It also allowed the band to fulfill some outstanding obligations to Universal Music.
Therapy? recorded follow-up record Shameless in early 2001 in Seattle. The album, produced by the legendary Jack Endino, was released by Ark21 in September. Graham Hopkins, who was unhappy with his musical limitation within the band, quit in December 2001. Following Hopkins' departure, the band yet again found themselves without a drummer and a record deal.
The band toured Europe in 2002 with ex-3 Colours Red drummer Keith Baxter. Hopkins was permanently replaced in Therapy? by ex-The Beyond/Cable/Gorilla drummer Neil Cooper, while the band signed a new record deal with Spitfire Records.
This line-up lasted one album, the commercially inclined High Anxiety. The bands' first home video release, a DVD entitled Scopophobia was released shortly afterwards, consisting of a full concert recorded live at Belfast's Mandella Hall in June 2003, promo videos and other extras. The band completed a UK tour at the end of 2003 as a three piece, due to McCarrick leaving the tour midway through owing to a perforated eardrum.
Back to a three piece (2004–2009)
McCarrick left the band permanently in March 2004, and the band were now slimmed down to a permanent three piece again for the first time since 1995. Never Apologise Never Explain was released in September 2004 to an audience re-acquainted with the three-piece Therapy? and was reminiscent of the claustrophobic sound of their earlier material.
The following album One Cure Fits All was released in April 2006. The album, produced by Pedro Ferreira, was a return to the melodic tendencies of High Anxiety and again divided opinion among the band's fans.
On 19 September 2006, Therapy? performed an exclusive studio show of songs chosen by fans who had voted for their three favourite tracks from a lengthy list on the band's website. These votes were counted and the twelve tracks with the most votes were then performed and recorded (both as audio and video). In early 2007, these tracks became available to buy from the band's official website. The Webgig is no longer available to purchase. In addition to this release, the band received some attention from their old record company Universal Records (who own the rights to the band's material recorded on A&M Records) who released both a DVD of old promo clips (Gold) and a double-CD compilation of BBC sessions (Music Through A Cheap Transistor) in 2007. On the touring front, Therapy? focused on markets they had not usually played, including a slot at the NXNE festival in Canada, festival dates in Europe (one of which was as a late replacement for Helmet at the Nova Rock Festival) and a tour through countries such as Romania, Croatia and Serbia, even playing two gigs on Reunion Island, off the East African coast. The band ended 2007 by supporting New Model Army at their Christmas gig in Cologne.
Therapy? were a last minute replacement for Biffy Clyro on the Jägermeister Rock Liga tour of Germany which lasted five dates in February 2008. These dates were the only gigs played in 2008 as the band focused their energies exclusively on recording the new record. Therapy? began recording the new album in late July at Blast Studios in Newcastle and finished recording by late August. It was produced by Andy Gill. Video of rehearsals surfaced on Therapy?'s website offering previews of the new work, showcasing a more rythmetic jazz-influenced direction (Rehearsal), alongside a rough track typical of newer Therapy? output (Clowns Galore). The album, entitled Crooked Timber, was released on 23 March 2009 via Blast Records/Global Music. The band performed the new album in its entirety on selected live dates in May, played various European festivals throughout the summer (including a debut appearance at Oxegen in Ireland and a second outing at England's Download) and toured Europe extensively from October to December.
20th Anniversary (2010–2013)
To mark the 20th anniversary of their debut commercial recording release, Therapy? performed for three consecutive nights at London's Monto Water Rats in March which were recorded for the bands' first official live album entitled We're Here to the End, released in November. A deluxe gold edition of 2009's Crooked Timber album was released on 19 July. Therapy? also appeared at European festivals in the summer, including at Knebworth Sonisphere on 31 July when the band performed the Troublegum album in its entirety. Later in 2010, the band performed several "Troublegum & more" sets throughout Europe as part of their 20th anniversary celebrations.
In December 2010, the band began recording their thirteenth studio album, entitled A Brief Crack of Light, in Newcastle's Blast Studio. The album recording was completed in February 2011 and mixing began in March. In late May 2011, the group announced a change of plan for the new album; another recording session was planned for June in order to record new songs that had emerged. Those songs were mixed in July 2011 and included, along with songs from the first session, for the new album. The album was released in February 2012. A preceding single and video entitled Living in the Shadow of the Terrible Thing was released in January 2012.
In May 2013, Cairns embarked on his first ever solo acoustic tour of the UK, as well as some dates in Europe. To especially mark the tour, he released a CD of acoustic material for sale exclusively at the shows, comprising 12 Therapy? songs, 6 original tracks freshly written for the tour and a cover version, all recorded in late April in Newcastle's Blast Studios
The Gemil Box was released on 18 November 2013; a career-spanning box set of rare and unreleased material. Contents included remastered versions of Nurse, Troublegum, Infernal Love and Semi-Detached, three CDs of rare and unreleased tracks, a DVD of the band's 2010 Sonisphere performance of the Troublegum album, official bootlegs of London ULU '91 and London Mean Fiddler '92, a 12" vinyl of their early demo releases and a cassette of a live recording from Dublin 1990.
Deluxe Edition releases of both Troublegum and Infernal Love were released by Universal Music on 31 March 2014. The band promoted these releases with a series of retro video and audio uploads to their official YouTube channel, proceeding a short UK tour in early April. A compilation of singles from 1992 to 1998 followed on 14 April 2014 via Spectrum Records, a subsidiary of Universal Music, entitled Stories: The Singles Collection.
Disquiet and acoustic shows (2014–2017)
On 18 February 2014, the band began pre-production on studio album number 14 with producer Tom Dalgety in their now usual surroundings of Blast Studios in Newcastle. The session finished on 28 February with 18 tracks laid down in demo form. Having chosen 11 songs, the band began recording the album proper on 17 April 2014 and it was completed on 30 April 2014. The album, entitled Disquiet, was released on the bands' new record label on 23 March 2015. Pre-orders of the album were announced on 23 February 2015 and included an instant download of two album tracks and an exclusive pre-order track called We Kill People. A digital only single called Still Hurts, featuring two more non-album tracks, was released on 9 March 2015.
The band began the first leg of their Disquiet Tour in the UK in March, before taking in the Netherlands, Belgium and Germany, and returning to the UK throughout April. Their performance in Utrecht was filmed by 'Quantum VR Media' for a future 360 VR release. In early May, Therapy? recorded a session for XFM, their 4th overall following previous sessions in 2001, 2004 and 2012. Deathstimate was released as a download only single on 30 October 2015. The single Tides was released on 15 April 2016, although it was available in early March to purchase on limited edition CD at the bands' UK tour performing the Infernal Love album in its entirety. Summer festivals on the European circuit followed, including a date at the Wacken Open Air in Germany. Therapy? performed a fully acoustic "Wood & Wire" tour through Belgium, Holland, Austria, Germany and the UK from 14 November until 1 December 2016. A newly recorded 11-track acoustic album entitled Wood & Wire was available for purchase on CD at these shows. A six date Irish Wood & Wire tour took place in April 2017.
On 21 July 2017, the band announced a double live acoustic album, Communion: Live at the Union Chapel, for release on 21 August 2017. The album was recorded in London on 1 December 2016 during the "Wood & Wire" European tour.
Cleave (2018–2019)
On 15 January 2018 the band began recording their 15th studio album at Blast Recording in Newcastle with Chris Sheldon producing. Recording was completed on 6 February 2018. In March, the band completed a 22-date UK and Ireland tour supporting The Stranglers.
On 10 May 2018, the band announced via their social media that they signed a worldwide record deal with Marshall Records
"Absolutely delighted to announce we have signed to @marshallrecs for a worldwide deal! The first single, "Callow", from our 15th album "CLEAVE" will be released Fri May 25th 2018"
A second single, "Wreck It Like Beckett", was released as a digital download on 7 September 2018, preceding the release of "Cleave" on 21 September 2018, following an extensive Pledge Music pre-order campaign which featured signed CDs, coloured vinyl, black vinyl and test presses.
"Kakistocracy" was released as a digital only single along with a music video on 24 January 2019.
30th anniversary (2020–present)
On 16 January 2020, the band announced that they would be releasing a greatest hits compilation, entitled Greatest Hits (The Abbey Road Session). The album featured newly re-recorded versions of 12 Top 40 UK singles spanning the albums Nurse, Troublegum, Infernal Love, and Semi-Detached, and was recorded at the venerable Abbey Road Studios in November 2019.
The band was due to embark on a European tour in support of the album beginning in March; however, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, they postponed the tour until October 2020. In June 2020, they re-scheduled the tour again for spring 2021. Once more, in March 2021, the tour was re-scheduled to begin in January 2022. The over 18 months between the last show of 2019 and the first show of 2021 (a festival date in July which was one of only three gigs in 2021) was the longest the group has ever gone between shows in their existence.
On 2 November 2021, the band announced that their major label debut Nurse will be reissued by Caroline Records on 26 November 2021. The remastered 2CD version will contain b-sides and previously unreleased demo tracks. There will also be a vinyl release.
On 8 November 2021, the band entered Marshall Studios with producer Chris Sheldon to begin work on their 16th studio album, due for release in late 2022 once outstanding touring commitments are fulfilled.
Question mark suffix
Much has been made over the years of the unusual question mark suffix to the band's name. In early interviews the band said that the name was "really deep" and intended to raise the question "do you need therapy?", but in a 1992 interview guitarist Andy Cairns admitted that it was a chance design when he was working on the band's first record sleeve. Working with Letraset transfers, Cairns misaligned the band's name, and used the "?" icon to fill the space to the right. "And then we thought, well maybe we can bluff our way through when people start reading into it."
Collaborations and other appearances
Therapy? collaborated with the short-lived rap group Fatal (part of the Soul Assassin camp, not to be confused with the hip hop artist Fatal) on the track "Come and Die" from the soundtrack to the 1993 film Judgment Night. Cairns has contributed vocals and guitar to various recordings with different bands throughout the years – "Jonestown Mind" (1994) and "Waiting For Earthquakes" (2001) by The Almighty, "Rehab" (2000) by UK band Manchild, "Radio" (2001) by UK band Dog Toffee (although this version remains unreleased), "Gleason" (2002) by Northern Irish band Throat, "Get Your Groove On" (2003) by The Wildhearts, "F8" (2005) by This Is Menace, "The Second Triumvirate of Lavonia" (2009) by Italian band Inferno, "Crisis? What Crisis?" and "Ignite" (2014) by UK band Thirty Six Strategies and "Celebrating Sinking" (2015) by Ricky Warwick. Therapy? appear on the 2005 "Welt Turbojugend Tage" DVD, performing three songs live in Hamburg. Therapy?, along with Biohazard and Gunshot, contributed with remixes on Pitchshifter's 1995 album, The Remix War.
Some of their songs were used in movies and video games. "Auto Surgery" and "Teethgrinder" are featured on Electronic Arts' video game Road Rash for the 3DO, Saturn, and PlayStation consoles while "Nowhere" is featured on EA Sports's video game "NCAA Football 2006" for the Xbox, Nintendo Gamecube, and PlayStation 2 consoles.
"Accelerator" appears in Dominic Sena's 1993 movie Kalifornia while "He's Not That Kind Of Girl" and "God Kicks" appear in John Carney's 2001 movie On The Edge, starring Cillian Murphy."Screamager" and "Nowhere" are heard on the first series of the BBC sitcom Game On. "Speedball" appears in the movie S.F.W.
Influences
Therapy? covered Black Sabbath's "Iron Man", and other songs such The Police's "Invisible Sun", The Misfits' "Where Eagles Dare", The Smiths' "Vicar in a Tutu" and Turbonegro's "Denim Demon". Cairns cited in his other favorite bands, Siouxsie and the Banshees for the album Juju, and Captain Beefheart and his Magic Band for the album Trout Mask Replica.
Influences from bands such as Sonic Youth, The Jesus Lizard, Hüsker Dü, Big Black, Killing Joke and Helmet can also be heard in Therapy?'s music.
The band's songs and artwork often reference the work of Irish novelist and playwright Samuel Beckett.
Band members
Current members
Andy Cairns – lead vocals, lead guitar (1989–present)
Michael McKeegan – bass, backing vocals (1989–present)
Neil Cooper – drums (2002–present)
Former members
Fyfe Ewing – vocals, drums (1989–1996)
Graham Hopkins – drums, backing vocals (1996–2001)
Martin McCarrick – guitar, cello, backing vocals (1996–2004)
Touring members
Stevie Firth – guitar, backing vocals (2010–present)
Herb Magee – bass, backing vocals (2014)
Adam Sinclair – drums (2012)
Alan Lynn – drums (2012)
Keith Baxter – drums (2002, 2003) (died 2008)
Rosie Wetters – cello (1995)
Martin McCarrick – cello, backing vocals (1992, 1994, 1995)
Charlie McKeegan – drums (1990, 1999, 2003)
Jenny Nendick – cello (2016)
Timeline
Discography
Babyteeth (1991)
Pleasure Death (1992)
Nurse (1992)
Troublegum (1994)
Infernal Love (1995)
Semi-Detached (1998)
Suicide Pact – You First (1999)
Shameless (2001)
High Anxiety (2003)
Never Apologise Never Explain (2004)
One Cure Fits All (2006)
Crooked Timber (2009)
A Brief Crack of Light (2012)
Disquiet (2015)
Cleave (2018)
References
External links
Official website
Stressed Sumo Records
Interview with Michael McKeegan and Neil Cooper from Hard Rock Hell Festival 2011
British musical trios
Heavy metal musical groups from Northern Ireland
British alternative metal musical groups
Noise rock groups from Northern Ireland
Grunge musical groups
Punk rock groups from Northern Ireland
A&M Records artists
|
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] |
212900
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babyteeth%20%28Therapy%3F%20album%29
|
Babyteeth (Therapy? album)
|
Babyteeth is the first mini-album by Northern Irish rock band Therapy?, released on 15 July 1991 on Wiiija Records. Tracks 1 and 3 were recorded in January 1990, with the remaining tracks recorded later that year, all at Homestead Studio in Randalstown, Northern Ireland. The album reached number 1 in both the UK and Irish Indie Charts.
The album was originally released by Wiiija on 12" vinyl. In 1993, Southern Records re-issued the album on 12" vinyl, limited edition red 12" vinyl, CD and Cassette. "Meat Abstract" was released on the band's own Multifuckingnational label as a 7" vinyl in July 1990.
Promo videos were made for the tracks "Meat Abstract" and "Innocent X". Both were shot as part of Fyfe and some friends' media course on hi-8 film.
The album was remastered in 2010 by Harvey Birrell and has been touted for possible release since then, although nothing has been confirmed as yet.
Track listing
Personnel
Therapy?
Andy Cairns – vocals, guitar
Fyfe Ewing – vocals, drums
Michael McKeegan – bass
with:
Keith Thompson – saxophone on "Loser Cop"
Mudd Wallace and Therapy? – producer
Samples
The sample in "Meat Abstract" ("Wake up, time to die") is taken from the 1982 movie Blade Runner and is spoken by actor Brion James.
The samples in "Loser Cop" are: "All we represent to them man, is somebody who needs a haircut" is taken from the 1969 movie Easy Rider and is spoken by actor Dennis Hopper, "You little punk" taken from the 1989 movie Drugstore Cowboy and "Good morning, you fascists, you pigs, you bigots, you pinkos, you fags, you bastards, fuzz. This indoctrination of vocal harassment was compiled by our own Juvenile Division is preparation for the concert this weekend" is taken from the 1973 movie Electra Glide In Blue and is spoken by actor Joe Samsil.
A sample in "Innocent X" (at 2:25) is taken from the 1988 movie Dead Ringers and is spoken by actor Jeremy Irons, while the "My voice is nothing, my thoughts are nothing, in many respects I'm like you… nothing" sample is taken from the 1973 porn movie The Devil in Miss Jones and is spoken by actor John Clemens.
The sample in "Dancin' With Manson" ("Take a knife on up the hill, lover, and kiss the girl goodbye") is taken from the 1978 movie Magic and is spoken by actor Anthony Hopkins.
Miscellaneous information
"Meat Abstract" is named after a piece of art by British avant-garde artist Helen Chadwick.
"Innocent X" is named after a painting by Irish painter Francis Bacon.
Andy Cairns plays piano (un-credited) on "Loser Cop".
The noise at the beginning of "Meat Abstract" is Fyfe Ewing drinking a can of beer in the vocal booth.
The breathing at the beginning of "Innocent X" belongs to Michael McKeegan.
References
1991 debut albums
Wiiija albums
Therapy? albums
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste%20Henri%20Lacordaire
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Jean-Baptiste Henri Lacordaire
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Jean-Baptiste Henri-Dominique Lacordaire (12 May 1802 – 21 November 1861), often styled Henri-Dominique Lacordaire, was a French ecclesiastic, preacher, journalist, theologian and political activist. He re-established the Dominican Order in post-Revolutionary France. Lacordaire was reputed to be the greatest pulpit orator of the nineteenth century.
Early life and education
The son of a doctor in the French navy, Henri Lacordaire was born on 12 May 1802 at Recey-sur-Ource (Côte-d'Or) and raised in Dijon by his mother, Anne Dugied, the daughter of a lawyer at the Parliament of Bourgogne who was widowed at an early age, when her husband died in 1806. Henri had three brothers, one of whom was the entomologist Jean Théodore Lacordaire. Although raised a Catholic, his faith lapsed during his studies at the Dijon Lycée. He went on to study law. He distinguished himself in oratory at the Society of Studies in Dijon, a political and literary circle of the town's royalist youth. There he discovered the ultramontane theories of Bonald, de Maistre, and Félicité de Lamennais. Under their influence he slowly lost his enthusiasm for the encyclopedists and Rousseau, though he maintained an attachment to Classical Liberalism and the revolutionary ideals of 1789.
In 1822 he left for Paris to complete his legal training. Although legally too young to plead cases, he was allowed to do so and he successfully argued several in the Court of Assizes, attracting the interest of the great liberal lawyer Berryer. However, he became bored and felt isolated in Paris and in 1824 he re-embraced Catholicism and soon decided to become a priest.
Thanks to the support of Monseigneur de Quélen, the Archbishop of Paris, who granted him a scholarship, he began studying at the Seminary of Saint-Sulpice in Issy in 1824 over the objections of his mother and friends. In 1826, he continued this education in Paris, which was generally mediocre. He wrote later that: "Those who remember having observed me at the seminary know that they have several times had the temptation of calling me mad." His seminary experience inspired Sainte-Beuve's novel Volupté.
At Saint-Sulpice, he met with Cardinal Rohan-Chabot, later archbishop of Besançon, who advised him to join the Society of Jesus. Nevertheless, after long hesitations by his superiors, he succeeded in being ordained a priest of the archdiocese of Paris on 22 September 1827. He was appointed to a modest position as chaplain of a convent of nuns of the Order of the Visitation. In the following year, he was named second chaplain of the Lycée Henri-IV. This experience convinced him of the inevitable de-Christianization of French youth educated in public institutions.
Lamennais, Montalembert, L'Avenir and liberal Catholicism
Discouraged, when Bishop John Dubois of New York came to Paris to recruit missionaries for the United States, Lacordaire volunteered and was granted permission, but the revolutionary events of 1830 kept him in France. He visited Father Hugues Felicité Robert de Lamennais. Lacordaire had long resisted the views of Father Lamennais, one of the leading intellectuals concerned with French Catholic youth, but in May 1830, Lamennais converted him to his liberal version of ultramontanism, that is, the adherence to the absolute universal authority of the papacy in opposition to nationalist and secularist ideas.
He, Lamennais, Olympe-Philippe Gerbet, and the young Viscount Charles de Montalembert, who became one of his closest friends, allied themselves with the July Revolution. They demanded the integral application of the Charter of 1830 and voiced support of foreign liberal revolutions in Poland, Belgium and Italy. Together they launched the newspaper L'Ami de l'Ordre (precursor of today's L'Avenir) on 16 October 1830, whose motto was "Dieu et la Liberté!" ("God and Freedom!"). In that largely anti-clerical and revolutionary context, the journal sought to synthesize ultramontanism and liberalism to reconcile democratic aspirations and Roman Catholicism.
On 7 December 1830, the editors of "L’Avenir" articulated their demands as follows:
We firstly ask for the freedom of conscience or the freedom of full universal religion, without distinction as without privilege; and by consequence, in what touches us Catholics, for the total separation of church and state... this necessary separation, without which there would exist for Catholics no religious freedom, implies, for a part, the suppression of the ecclesiastical budget, and we have fully recognized this; for another part, the absolute independence of the clergy in the spiritual order... Just as there can be nothing religious today in politics there must be nothing political in religion.
Their other demands included freedom of the press, freedom of association, and the extension of electoral suffrage.
They further endorsed freedom of education. Lacordaire believed that state control of education compromised religious instruction, especially in colleges, and that most students lost their faith upon leaving school. He was against the government's monopoly of the universities, and opposed Montalivet, the minister of public education and faith. On 9 May 1831 Lacordaire and Montalembert opened a free school, rue des Beaux-Arts, which was shut down by the police two days later. At a trial which took place in front of the Chambre des Pairs (Chamber of Peers,) Lacordaire defended himself, but failed to prevent the permanent closure of the school.
He was especially vehement in demanding the separation of Church and State. To this end, he called on French priests to refuse the salary which was paid them by the government, advocating for the embrace of apostolic poverty by the clergy. On 15 November 1830, he expressed himself: "We are preyed upon by our enemies, by those who regard us as hypocrites or as imbeciles, and by those who are persuaded that our life depends on money... Freedom is not given, it is taken." These demands, along with numerous attacks against bishops appointed by the new government, whom he characterized as ambitious and servile, provoked a scandal in the French episcopate, which was largely Gallican (i.e., conciliarist, nationalist, royalist, asserting the authority of the local episcopacy, and opposed to papal absolutism) and conservative. The virulence of "L’Avenir," and particularly of Lamennais and Lacordaire, provoked the French Bishops to form a tribunal against the editors of the periodical. Lamennais and Lacordaire spent January 1831 before the court, and obtained a triumphal acquittal.
The editors of "L’Avenir" founded in December 1830 the General Society for the defense of religious freedom. "L’Avenir" was suspended by its founders on 15 November 1831 while Lacordaire, Lamennais and Montalembert, the "Pilgrims of Freedom," went to Rome to seek recourse to Pope Gregory XVI, to whom they hoped to present a dissertation composed by Lacordaire. At first confident, they fast became disenchanted by the reserved welcome with which they were received. On 15 August 1832, the Pope, without naming them, condemned their ideas in the encyclical Mirari Vos, most notably their demands for freedom of conscience and freedom of the press. Even before this condemnation, Lacordaire distanced himself from his companions, and returned to Paris where he took up again his functions as a chaplain at the Convent of Visitations.
On 11 September, he published a letter of submission to the Pope's judgment. He then successfully used all his force of persuasion to convince Montalembert, who at first remained recalcitrant, to imitate him in his submission. In 1834 he also challenged Lamennais, who rather than accept what he saw as Rome's reactionary absolutism, publicly renounced his priesthood and published "Les Paroles d’un Croyant" (Words of a Believer,) a vociferous republican polemic against the established social order, denouncing what he now saw as the conspiracy of kings and priests against the people. Pope Gregory responded quickly, calling Lammenais' new book "small in size, but immense in perversity." He promulgated the encyclical "Singulari Nos" (15 July 1834) condemning its contents. Most commentators see this episode as effectively squelching of the open expression of modernist ideas in Catholic circles, until at least the papacy of Leo XIII at the end of the century. Lacordaire, for his part, then further distanced himself from Lammenais, expressed his disappointment at the consequences of the Revolution of 1830, and proclaimed his continued faithfulness to the Church of Rome. He condemned the pride of Lamennais and charged him with Protestantism, accusing him of having wanted to place the authority of the human race above that of the Church.
Preaching
In January 1833 he met Madame Swetchine, who was to become a significant moderating influence upon him. She was a Russian convert to Catholicism who had a famous salon in Paris which Montalembert, the Earl of Falloux, and Lamennais also frequented. He developed a friendly filial relationship with her through an extensive correspondence.
In January 1834, at the encouragement of the young Frédéric Ozanam, the founder the Society of Saint Vincent de Paul (a charitable organization,) Father Lacordaire started a series of lectures at the Collège Stanislas. This met with great success, even beyond his students. His thematic emphasis on freedom provoked his critics, who charged him with perverting the youth. Lacordaire was reputed to be the greatest pulpit orator of the nineteenth century. Lacordaire's preaching was not so much penitential as an exercise in apologetics. He demonstrated that one could be a French citizen and a Catholic. The lectures were a great success.
Monseigneur de Quélen, the Archbishop of Paris, asked Lacordaire to preach a Lenten series in 1835 at the Cathedral of Notre-Dame in Paris, as part of the Notre-Dame Lectures specially aimed at the catechesis of Christian youth, which had been inaugurated at the behest of his friend Ozanam. Lacordaire's first lecture took place on 8 March 1835, and was met with wide acclaim. The social event of its day, 6,000 attended. Because of this immediate success, he was asked to preach again the following year. According to Thomas Bokenkotter, Lacordaire's Notre Dame Conferences, "...proved to be one of the most dramatic events of nineteenth century church history." Today the Lacordaire Notre-Dame Lectures, which mixed theology, philosophy and poetry, are still acclaimed as a sublime modern re-invigoration of traditional homiletics.
Among those who attended his Lenten sermons in 1836 was Marie-Eugénie de Jésus de Milleret. The encounter with Lacordaire marked a turning point in her life and the beginning of a spiritual journey that would eventually lead her to found the Religious of the Assumption. In a letter written to Lacordaire years later, she recalled, "Your words gave me a faith which henceforth nothing could shake."
But in 1836 after such considerable success, he was still the object of mounting attacks on his theological stance. Suddenly his mother died. Lacordaire, aware of the need to continue his theological studies, retreated to Rome to study with the Jesuits. There, he published his "Letter on the Holy See" in which he reaffirmed with vigor his ultramontane positions, insisting on the primacy of the Roman Pontiff, "the one and permanent trustee, supreme organ of the Gospel, and the sacred source of the universal communion." This text ran afoul of the Archbishop of Paris, Monseigneur Quélen, who was a sincere Gallican.
Re-establishment of the Dominican Order in France
In 1837, seeing the example of Guéranger's restoration of the Benedictines, Lacordaire decided to enter the Dominican Order despite the loss of certain personal freedoms that would entail, and to re-establish the Dominicans in France.
Pope Gregory XVI and the general master of the Dominicans, Father Ancarani, supported his plan, the latter providing the Roman convent of Santa Sabina to serve as a novitiate for French Dominicans. In September 1838, Lacordaire returned to France to identify candidates for the novitiate as well as financial and political support. He published an eloquent announcement in the journal L’Univers. He argued that religious orders were compatible with the principles of the Revolution, particularly because of the democratic structure of the Dominicans. He represented the vow of poverty as a radical application of the revolutionary ideas of égalité and fraternité.
On 9 April 1839, Lacordaire formally joined the Dominicans at the convent of Santa Maria sopra Minerva in Rome and received the name Dominic. He took final vows on 12 April 1840. In 1841, he returned to France wearing the illegal Dominican habit. On 14 February 1841, he preached in Paris at Notre-Dame. He then founded several convents, starting in Nancy in 1843. In April 1844 Lacordaire obtained permission to purchase the former Carthusians monastery of Notre-Dame de Châlais and establish a Dominican novitiate. The religious painter Hyacinthe Besson was appointed the first Master of the novices. In 1849 he established a house of studies in Paris. He also exerted an important influence on Jean-Charles Prince and Joseph-Sabin Raymond, two Canadians who took the Dominican Order to Canada.
In 1850, the Dominican Province of France was officially re-established under his direction and he was elected provincial superior, but Pope Pius IX named Alexendre Jandel, a philosophical opponent of Lacordaire, vicar general of the order. Jandel held a severe interpretation of Dominican medieval constitutions and was opposed to Lacordaire's more liberal vision. A dispute about setting the hours for prayer in the priories erupted in 1852. Lacordaire preferred lax enforcement of the timetable in deference to other functions like preaching and teaching. In 1855 the pope supported Jandel by naming him general master of the Order. Lacordaire, after a time without administrative duties, was re-elected head of the French province in 1858.
Final years
Both political controversies and disputes within the Dominican order clouded Lacordaire's later years. Long hostile to the July Monarchy, he supported the Revolution of 1848. With Frédéric Ozanam and the Abbot Maret, he launched a newspaper, L'Ère Nouvelle (The New Era), to campaign for the rights of Catholics under the new regime. Their program mixed traditional Liberal Catholicism's defense of the freedom of conscience and education with Ozanam's Social Catholicism. Lacordaire was elected to the Assemblée Nationale from the Marseille region. Favoring the Republic, he sat on the extreme left of the Assemblée, but resigned on 17 May 1848, following workers' riots and the invasion of the Assemblée Nationale by demonstrators on 15 May. He preferred to retire rather than take sides in what he expected would be a civil war between extreme partisans. When L'Ère Nouvelle endorsed ever more socialist policies, he left the paper's leadership on 2 September, while continuing to support it.
Lacordaire supported the Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states and the later French invasion of the Papal States: "We must not at all be too alarmed by the possible fall of Pius IX," he wrote to Montalembert. He found the Falloux Laws a disappointment despite their attempt to establish a degree of freedom for Catholic secondary education. Opposed to the election of Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, Lacordaire condemned his coup d’état of 2 December 1851. He retired from public life, and later explained: "My hour had come to disappear with the others. Many Catholics followed another line, and separating themselves from all they had said and done, threw themselves with ardor before absolute power. This schism that I do not want at all to call here an apostasy, has always been a great mystery to me and a great sadness."
In quasi-retirement, he dedicated himself to the education of youth as permitted by the Falloux Laws. In July 1852 he accepted the leadership of a school in Oullins, near Lyon, then a similar role at the school of Sorèze in Tarn in 1854. Finally, on 2 February 1860, he was elected to the Académie française, filling the seat of Alexis de Tocqueville, whose eulogy he had delivered. His election represented a protest by the Académie and Catholic sympathizers against Napoléon III, who had conceded to allowing the Italian states of Florence, Midena, Parma, and Bologna to withdraw from the Papal States and ally themselves with independent Piedmont. Encouraged by opponents of the Imperial Regime, supported by Montalembert and Berryer, he agreed that he would not criticize Napoléon III's intervention in Italian politics. His reception at the Académie was therefore not controversial.
About this time he uttered his famous epitaph: "J'espère mourir un religieux pénitent et un libéral impénitent." ("I wish to die a penitent religious and unrepentant liberal.")
Lacordaire only sat once at the Académie. He died at the age of 59 on 21 November 1861 in Sorèze (Tarn) and was buried there.
Modern reception
The liberal catholicism propagated by Lacordaire and others was viewed negatively by the Holy See. In Mirari vos (1832) the pope condemned the freedom of the press and the demand for the liberty of conscience for catholics: 'This shameful font of indifferentism gives rise to that absurd and erroneous proposition which claims that liberty of conscience must be maintained for everyone. It spreads ruin in sacred and civil affairs, though some repeat over and over again with the greatest impudence that some advantage accrues to religion from it.'
The later encyclyclical Singlari Nos of 1834 summoned Lamennais and his followers to renounce the radical views he developed against temporal and spiritual sovereignties. This hostility all played out around the same time that the dogma of papal infallibility was defined (1870).
The hostile view of Liberal Catholicism lessened during the Second Vatican Council. When Pope Paul VI promulgated the encyclical Dignitatis Humanae the church took back ‘the rights of truth’ doctrine and allowed for the assertion that humans have the right to have freedom of conscience and freedom of religion. Modern Catholic scholarship and literature tends to look more favorable on the l’Avenir movement and the views of liberal catholicism.
Recent scholarship on 19th century church history tends to focus more on the broad developments of liberal catholicism and the developments surrounding the Second Vatican Council. At the council the separation between church and state and the liberty of conscience was confirmed. Lacordaire and the former members of the L'avenir are now recognized as being part of a bigger intellectual current which recent scholarship has more attention for.
Quotes
"Entre le fort et le faible, entre le riche et le pauvre, entre le maître et le serviteur, c’est la liberté qui opprime et la loi qui affranchit."
(Translated: "Between the strong and the weak, between the rich and the poor, between the lord and the slave, it is freedom which oppresses and the law which sets free.")
"Ce n'est pas génie, ni gloire, ni amour qui reflète la grandeur de l'âme humaine; c'est bonté."
("It is not genius, nor glory, nor love that reflects the greatness of the human soul; it is kindness.")
"Les mots de la liberté sont grands chez un peuple qui n’en connaît pas la mesure."
(Translated: The words of freedom are large among a people who do not know its extent.)
Works
His most influential publication was a collection of his Conférences de Nôtre Dame de Paris.
"Eloges funèbres" (Antoine Drouot, Daniel O'Connell, and Mgr Forbin-Janson)
"Lettre sur le Saint-Siège"
"Considérations sur le système philosophique de M. de Lamennais"
"De la liberté d'Italie et de l'Eglise"
"Conferences" (tr. vol. I only, London, 1851)
"Dieu et l'homme" in "Conférences de Notre Dame de Paris" (tr. London, 1872)
"Jésus-Christ" (tr. London, 1869)
"Dieu" (tr. London, 1870)
Henri Perreyve, ed., Letters, 8 vols. (1862), tr. Derby, 1864, revised and enlarged ed. London, 1902
Lacordaire, Life of (Foisset, 2 vols.)
Lacordaire, Life of (d'Aussonville)
Lacordaire Orator and Monk (Beaudé)
Lacordaire: Life of St. Mary Magdalene
References
Sources
Edward McSweeny, "Lacordaire on Property," The Catholic World, Vol. 45 (1887).
Margaret Oliphant, "Henri Lacordaire," Blackwood's Magazine, Vol. 93 (1863).
Peter M. Batts, Henri-Dominique Lacordaire's Re-Establishment of the Dominican Order in Nineteenth-Century France, The Edwin Mellen Press, 2004
Peter M. Batts, "Jean-Baptiste Henri Lacordaire" in New Catholic Encyclopedia (2003)
Thomas Bokenkotter, Church and Revolution: Catholics and the Struggle for Democracy and Social Justice (NY: Doubleday, 1998)
T.B. Scannell, "Jean-Baptiste-Henri Dominique Lacordaire" in The Catholic Encyclopedia (1910)
Further reading
Old, Hughes Oliphant. The Modern Age, 1789-1889 -for a discussion of Lacordaire's preaching style
External links
1802 births
1861 deaths
People from Côte-d'Or
French Dominicans
19th-century French Roman Catholic priests
19th-century French Catholic theologians
Members of the Académie Française
Our Lady of La Salette
Liberal Catholicism
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste%20Drouet%20%28revolutionary%29
|
Jean-Baptiste Drouet (revolutionary)
|
Jean-Baptiste Drouet (8 January 1763 – 11 April 1824) was a French politician of the Revolution and the Empire, best known for his key role in the arrest of King Louis XVI and his family during the Flight to Varennes.
Background
Drouet was born at Sainte-Menehould, in the province of Champagne. He enlisted in the Condé-Dragons regiment in 1781, but left seven years later to help his father in his duties as postmaster of Sainte-Menehould.
Flight to Varennes
On 21 June 1791, at around 8.p.m, the berline carrying the disguised royal family on their flight to the frontier made a stop at Sainte-Menehould. Just one hour earlier, a valet de chambre in the Tuileries had noticed the king's disappearance and alerted the authorities. Shortly after the royal family's arrival, Drouet (by then himself the city's postmaster) recognized the king, under the identity of a valet "Mr. Durand", from his portrait printed on an assignat in his possession, but did not take action immediately. The carriage left Sainte-Menehould around ten minutes later. Just after receiving the news of the king's escape sent from Paris by Lafayette, at around 9.p.m, Drouet set out to the nearby town of Varennes-en-Argonne, along with his friend Guillaume, in the direction he believed the berline had departed to.
Riding separately, with Drouet going through Clermont and Guillaume through the Forest of Argonne in Les Islettes, they arrived with their horses in Varennes just a few minutes after the royal family, and quickly notified the local authority of their presence in town. A bridge over the river Aire on the way to the frontier was then barricaded, and the National Guard, commanded by the future General Étienne Radet, was mobilized to assist in the blockade. The fugitives were finally detained at around 11:10.p.m, and arrested some time later after being formally identified as the royal family by Jacques Destez, a judge who had resided in Versailles.
Later life and political career
National Convention
Drouet arrived at the capital on 24 June, and was invited by the Legislative Assembly to give his own account of the events in Varennes. The following month, the Legislative Assembly offered a reward of 30,000 livres for his service, which he declined, instead unsuccessfully requesting a post in the National Gendarmerie of his department of Marne, in November 1791. He was elected as a deputy from Marne to the National Convention in September 1792, where he sat with the radical Montagnards, and was later employed in the Committee of Public Safety.
In 1793 he voted for the death of Louis XVI without appeal, showed virulent opposition to the Girondins, and in July proposed the expulsion of all non-naturalized British speculators and stockjobbers residing in France. Sent as a representative on mission to the Army of the North in 1793, Drouet was captured by the Austrians during their siege of Maubeuge, and imprisoned at Spielberg Castle in Brno, Southern Moravia. In July 1794 he attempted to escape from one of the castle's windows but failed. He returned to France in December 1795, exchanged with other French revolutionaries and military officers for Marie Thérèse of France, daughter of Louis XVI.
Directory and beyond
Drouet then became a member of the Directory's Council of Five Hundred following the Thermidorian Reaction. In 1796 he was accused of involvement in Babeuf's Conspiracy of the Equals and imprisoned at the Prison de l'Abbaye, but shortly made his escape, going first to Switzerland and from there to the Canary Islands, where he took part in the successful resistance to Horatio Nelson's attack on Tenerife in 1797, and later visited India. He returned to France after being accquitted by the High Court.
In the First Empire, Drouet was appointed sub-préfet of Sainte-Menehould by Emperor Napoleon, and was made a member of the Legion of Honor on 7 August 1807. When bestowing Drouet with the order, Napoleon told him, "Mr. Drouet, you have changed the face of the world" (Monsieur Drouet, vous avez changé la face du monde). He served as deputy in the Chamber of Representatives during the Hundred Days, but with the Bourbon Restoration was exiled in January 1816, being deemed a regicide. He soon returned secretly, however, and settled in Mâcon under the name of "Merger", keeping his identity hidden until his death on 11 April 1824.
References
External links
Profile in the French National Assembly website
1763 births
1824 deaths
People from Marne (department)
Deputies to the French National Convention
People on the Committee of Public Safety
Regicides of Louis XVI
Représentants en mission
French prisoners of war in the 18th century
Members of the Council of Five Hundred
People involved in Gracchus Babeuf's Conspiracy of Equals
Recipients of the Legion of Honour
Members of the Chamber of Representatives (France)
|
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] |
212905
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liotomus
|
Liotomus
|
Liotomus is a genus of extinct mammal from the Paleocene epoch (early Cenozoic era). It lived in Europe and North America, and was a member of the extinct order Multituberculata, lying within the suborder Cimolodonta and possibly the family Cimolodontidae.
The genus Liotomus was named by E. D. Cope in 1884. This genus is sometimes placed within family Eucosmodontidae (Jepsen 1940).
Species
Liotomus marshi (Lemoine, 1882)
L. marshi remains are known from the Upper Paleocene of Cernay, France.
L. marshi has been cited as a descendant of Anconodon gidleyi.
Liotomus vanvaleni
L. vanvaleni remains are known from the San Juan Basin, New Mexico.
References
Cope (1884), "The Tertiary Marsupialia." American Naturalist, 18, p. 686-697.
Sloan (1981), "Systematics of Paleocene multituberculates from the San Juan Basin, New Mexico," pp. 127–160, in Lucas et al. (eds), "Advances in San Juan Basin paleontology." University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals." Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Ptilodontoids
Paleocene mammals
Paleocene genus extinctions
Prehistoric mammals of Europe
Prehistoric mammal genera
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212906
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurse%20%28album%29
|
Nurse (album)
|
Nurse is the first major label album released by the rock band Therapy? It was released in 1992 on A&M Records.
Background
The album was written in a farm house in County Carlow, Ireland. It was mainly recorded at Loco Studio in Caerleon, Wales, apart from "Gone" which was recorded in Annamoe, Ireland. It marked a departure from the noise punk style of the two mini-albums, being a more industrial-sounding record. The album was rated favourably by critics and reached number 38 in the UK Albums Chart.
Releases
The album was released on 12" vinyl, CD and cassette. In the US, the album was released on limited edition red 12" vinyl, CD and cassette.
A remastered CD version of the album by the original producer, Harvey Birrell, was included in The Gemil Box, released on 18 November 2013.
The original master of the album was used for a 'Music on Vinyl' audiophile re-issue, released on mixed red and gold 180g vinyl on 22 February 2016, limited to 1000 numbered copies It was also released on standard black vinyl release.
The first vinyl reissue featuring the 2013 remaster was released by Caroline Records on 12 June 2021 for Record Store Day in the UK and Ireland, on red vinyl and limited to 800 copies.
Furthermore, the album was reissued on 26 November 2021 by Caroline Records featuring the 2013 remaster on black vinyl and 2CD format. The CD version contains an extra disc of b-sides and previously unreleased demos.
Critical reception
The Encyclopedia of Popular Music wrote that the album "featured more complex arrangements and themes than the punk-descended speed burn-outs of earlier releases." Trouser Press called the album an "unforgettable bomb blast of a record [that] fine-tunes the atmosphere of the first two EPs by adding a little more crunch to the low end."
Track listing
Personnel
Therapy?
Andy Cairns – vocals, guitar
Fyfe Ewing – vocals, drums
Michael McKeegan – bass guitar
with:
David James – cello on "Gone"
Technical
Harvey Birrell – producer, live sound, samples
Nick Atkins – engineer
Andrew Catlin – photography
Jeremy Pearce – design
Simon Carrington – design
Singles
"Teethgrinder" was released on 19 October 1992 on CD and 12" with "Summer of Hate", "Human Mechanism" and "Sky High McKay(e)". A remix 12" was also released featuring "Teethgrinder" (Tee Hee Dub Mix) and "Teethgrinder" (Unsane Mix). The single reached number 30 in the UK Singles Chart and number 19 in the Irish Singles Chart.
"Nausea" was released as a radio-only single in America in 1992 with "Teethgrinder" (Tee Hee Dub Mix).
"Perversonality" was released as a radio-only single in America in 1993 with "Totally Random Man" (BBC version), "Neck Freak" (new recording) and "Bloody Blue".
Promotional videos
"Teethgrinder": directed by Jon Klein
"Nausea": directed by Jon Klein
Sampling
The sample in "Nausea" ("Here I am motherfuckers!") is taken from the 1988 film Ghosts… of the Civil Dead and is spoken by Nick Cave.
The sample in "Teethgrinder" ("He's losing his mind and he feels it going") is taken from a 1960s information film by the US Navy warning of the dangers of LSD, a section of which was later included in a BBC documentary called The Beyond Within. The sample was also used by the Canadian group Skinny Puppy near the beginning of the track "Convulsion" from Too Dark Park (1990).
Other samples in "Teethgrinder" are taken from a TV documentary entitled American Conversations.
References
1992 albums
Therapy? albums
A&M Records albums
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killswitch%20Engage
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Killswitch Engage
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Killswitch Engage is an American metalcore band from Westfield, Massachusetts, formed in 1999 after the disbanding of Overcast and Aftershock. Killswitch Engage's current lineup consists of vocalist Jesse Leach, guitarists Joel Stroetzel and Adam Dutkiewicz, bassist Mike D'Antonio, and drummer Justin Foley. The band has released eight studio albums and two live performance albums. Their eighth studio album, Atonement, was released on August 16, 2019.
Killswitch Engage rose to fame with its 2004 release The End of Heartache, which peaked at number 21 on the Billboard 200, and was certified gold by the RIAA in December 2007 for over 500,000 shipments in the United States. The title track, "The End of Heartache", was nominated for a Grammy Award in 2005 for Best Metal Performance, and a live DVD titled (Set This) World Ablaze was released in 2005. Killswitch Engage has performed at festivals such as Soundwave Festival, Wacken Open Air, Reading and Leeds Festivals, Ozzfest, Download Festival, Rock on the Range, Rock am Ring, Mayhem Festival, Monsters of Rock, Pointfest, Knotfest and Heavy MTL. The band has sold over four million records in the U.S. and has been considered notable within the New Wave of American Heavy Metal, and has also been considered one of the earliest leading forces of the metalcore genre.
History
Early years and debut album (1999–2001)
Killswitch Engage formed following the disbandment of metalcore bands Overcast and Aftershock in 1999. After Overcast broke up in 1998, bassist Mike D'Antonio collaborated with Aftershock guitarist Adam Dutkiewicz. Dutkiewicz, now playing drums, recruited guitarist Joel Stroetzel from Aftershock and vocalist Jesse Leach of the band Nothing Stays Gold (who were signed to a record label owned by Dutkiewicz's brother Tobias, who was also the vocalist in Aftershock) to form a new band, Killswitch Engage. The band's name is derived from an episode of the television series The X-Files entitled "Kill Switch", written by William Gibson, who gave the episode this title after meeting the industrial band Kill Switch...Klick.
In 1999, Killswitch Engage recorded a demo containing four tracks, including "Soilborn", the first song written by the band. The demo was first released at the band's first show, opening for melodic death metal act In Flames, in November 1999. They released their self-titled debut album the following year. Although initially the album was not a financial success and did not land on any charts, it attracted the interest of Carl Severson, who worked at Roadrunner Records at the time. Severson handed Killswitch Engage to several Roadrunner representatives. Mike Gitter, a talent agent of the company, contacted D'Antonio, attended several of the band's shows, and offered the band a recording contract with Roadrunner. Realizing that Roadrunner had the resources to promote and distribute Killswitch Engage releases, the band accepted his offer, declining several offers from smaller labels.
Line-up changes and Alive or Just Breathing (2001–2004)
For a brief time in 2000 and 2001, ex-Overcast guitarist Pete Cortese joined Killswitch Engage, but left when he became a father. Killswitch Engage began writing new material for their second album in November 2001. Mixed in January at Backstage Studios by producer Andy Sneap, the album was titled Alive or Just Breathing, after lyrics in the song "Just Barely Breathing". A music video for the single "My Last Serenade" increased the band's exposure, and the album peaked at number 37 on the Top Heatseekers chart.
Following Alive or Just Breathings release, the album having been written and recorded for two guitarists, the band decided to expand and become a fivesome; Dutkiewicz moved to guitar and former Aftershock drummer Tom Gomes filled in the vacant drummer position. After Leach was married on April 20, 2002 and began touring again he fell into a depression. Leach left the band a few days before the band was meant to play a show and sent the band members an e-mail telling them he had quit. On Leach's end, he remarked "I didn't have the mental energy to face them, or even call them on the phone rather. I was at a point in my life where I just didn't want to face any of them so I wrote them a long email explaining, like, I'm just done", while D'Antonio said in an interview that "after three years of hanging out with the dude, and considering him a brother, to just get an email was a little bit harsh."
The band immediately started to search for a replacement vocalist and found Howard Jones of Blood Has Been Shed. Jones disliked the band's sound when he first heard it. He commented, "I was like, 'Meh.' I come from hardcore and dirtier metal, and Killswitch sounded so clean. But the more I listened to it, I realized there's some really good songs here". After hearing about Leach's vocal problems, Jones contacted the band and was accepted as the replacement. Philip Labonte of All That Remains tried out for lead vocals but lost to Jones, who had to quickly memorize seven songs for his debut at the 2002 Hellfest.
The new lineup played on the Road Rage tour in Europe in 2002 with 36 Crazyfists and Five Pointe O . Touring continued through the New Year's Day, and in 2003 the first song to feature Jones, "When Darkness Falls", appeared on the soundtrack of the 2003 horror film Freddy vs. Jason. Following the 2003 Ozzfest, drummer Gomes left the band because he wished to spend more time with his wife, to pursue his band Something of a Silhouette, and because he was tired of touring. He was replaced by Justin Foley of Blood Has Been Shed, and Foley's first tour with the band was the MTV2 Headbangers Ball in 2003.
The End of Heartache (2004–2006)
The End of Heartache was released on May 11, 2004, and peaked at number 21 on the Billboard 200 with 38,000 sales in its first week, and it also peaked at number 39 on the Australian Albums Chart. The album went on to sell more than 500,000 copies in the U.S and was certified gold on December 7, 2007. The album received mostly positive reviews, with Jon Caramanica of Rolling Stone calling the album a "stunning collection, retaining much of their signature musical brutality". Eduardo Rivadavia of AllMusic commented "riffs upon riffs are piled sky-high into each number that follows, it's the unpredictable rhythmic shifts used to build and then relieve internal pressure that fuel the Killswitch Engage power source".
"The End of Heartache" became the main single for the movie Resident Evil: Apocalypse, and in 2005 the song was nominated for Best Metal Performance for the 47th Grammy Awards. In late 2004, The End of Heartache was re-released as a special edition album, with a second disc featuring various live performances, a Japanese bonus track, and a re-recorded version of "Irreversal". During the summer of 2005, the band returned for Ozzfest, and on November 1, 2005, Alive or Just Breathing was re-released as part of Roadrunner Records' 25th anniversary. On November 22, 2005, the live DVD (Set This) World Ablaze was released, which contained a live concert at the Palladium in Worcester, Massachusetts, an hour-long documentary, and all the band's music videos. The DVD was certified gold in the US on April 8, 2006.
As Daylight Dies (2006–2007)
Killswitch Engage played the Reading and Leeds Festivals in August 2006, having already played Australian dates without Dutkiewicz, who was suffering from back problems and needed corrective surgery. On May 23, 2006, the song "This Fire Burns" was released on the WWE Wreckless Intent album. The track was intended to be the new theme song for WWE wrestler Randy Orton; however, it was scrapped and later became the theme song for the WWE Judgment Day 2006 pay-per-view. "This Fire Burns" was used as the entrance theme for WWE wrestler CM Punk (along with his stables the Straight Edge Society and The New Nexus) from 2006 until 2011 and was later re-released as "This Fire" on the As Daylight Dies Special Edition.
Recorded in three months, As Daylight Dies was released on November 21, 2006 and peaked at number 32 on the Billboard 200 chart with 60,000 sales in its first week. "As Daylight Dies" proved to be one of their biggest albums yet. It also entered the Australian Albums Chart at number 29. Mixed by Dutkiewicz, the album received mostly positive reviews—Thom Jurek of Allmusic called it "a Top Five metal candidate for 2006 for sure". Decibel Magazine contributor Nick Terry said "To call As Daylight Dies addictive would be an understatement. That it outdoes its already impressive enough predecessor could almost go without saying". Cosmo Lee of Stylus Magazine commented "the album is astonishingly badly sequenced", though he praised the album as being "less emotionally heavy-handed, and a lot more fun". As of November 27, 2007, As Daylight Dies has sold more than 500,000 units in the US.
The album's first single, "My Curse", peaked at number 21 on the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart, and is featured in the video games Sleeping Dogs, Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock, Burnout Dominator and Burnout Paradise and is available as downloadable content for the Rock Band series. "The Arms of Sorrow" peaked at number 31 on the same chart. The band's cover of Dio's "Holy Diver", originally recorded for a Kerrang! compilation album titled High Voltage, peaked at number 12 on the Mainstream Rock charts. Early in 2007, the band had to cancel three of its European tour dates with The Haunted due to Dutkiewicz's back problems. He required emergency back surgery and was replaced on the tour by Soilwork guitarist Peter Wichers.
Due to Dutkiewicz's back problems in early 2007, he was replaced by Damageplan and The Mercy Clinic frontman Patrick Lachman during the No Fear Tour. Dutkiewicz recovered and was able to finish the No Fear tour, and the band began filming its video for As Daylight Diess second single, "The Arms of Sorrow". On August 6, 2007, Dutkiewicz was forced to leave the Warped Tour so he could fully recover from his back surgery and continue daily physical therapy. He was replaced by Killswitch's guitar technician Josh Mihlek for select songs, until his return on August 14, 2007.
Second self-titled album (2007–2011)
Killswitch Engage entered the studio in October 2008 to start recording their next album with Dutkiewicz and Brendan O'Brien co-producing the album. In mid-February, bassist Mike D'Antonio confirmed in an interview with Metal Hammer that "drums were finished", and that he had "finished up the last few bass fixes". He also stated that Howard [Jones] was in Atlanta finishing vocals, and that "it shouldn't be too much longer now." From March to May, Killswitch Engage was a part of Disturbed's Music as a Weapon IV festival along with Lacuna Coil, Chimaira, Suicide Silence, Bury Your Dead and more. On April 14, the band announced the name of their album as Killswitch Engage, the second time the band has self-titled an album. The album was released on June 30, 2009, debuting at No. 7 on the Billboard 200, marking the band's highest chart position for an album. In July and August, Killswitch Engage took part in Mayhem Festival with headliners Marilyn Manson, Slayer, Bullet for My Valentine and others. In February 2010, Killswitch Engage announced that vocalist Howard Jones would not be performing with Killswitch Engage during their winter tour with The Devil Wears Prada and Dark Tranquillity; during the time, All That Remains vocalist Philip Labonte was substituting for Jones until he could return. At least one source speculated that Jones' hiatus was due to back pain. On March 18, 2010, original vocalist Jesse Leach returned to the band for a series of songs. From then on, Leach and Labonte performed as substitute vocalists for the remainder of the tour.
In 2010, the band contributed the track "My Obsession" to the God of War: Blood & Metal soundtrack. The band was later added as late replacement to 2010's Download Festival in June, after original sub-headliner, Wolfmother could not attend as scheduled. Afterward, Killswitch Engage took a break from the road, and its members pursued other interests. Adam Dutkiewicz formed the band Times of Grace with Leach and released the debut album "The Hymn of a Broken Man" on January 18, 2011. Along with Dutkiewicz and Leach, Times of Grace added Joel Stroetzel to their tour lineup. Justin Foley provided the drum tracking for the band Unearth on their album "Darkness in the Light", released on July 5, 2011. Foley also traveled with the band for their 2011 summer tour. D'Antonio started the hardcore band Death Ray Vision, with Shadows Fall vocalist Brian Fair and former Killswitch Engage guitarist Pete Cortese.
Jones' departure, Leach's return and Disarm the Descent (2011–2015)
In an interview with FTC, Gun Shy Assassin, Mike D'Antonio had stated that the band was currently in the works for a sixth studio album. D'Antonio stated, "Currently, everyone is individually writing demos for the next Killswitch Engage record. There is no release date yet, but I would assume it will be out early 2012." Adam Dutkiewicz followed that up with a statement on the Killswitch Engage Facebook, saying "YO! Its Adam D! We're about to begin writing our new record. Thanks to all of our fans for waiting so friggin' patiently...now let's turn on the "riff faucet" and RAGE!" On December 1, 2011, Mike D'Antonio posted online that Killswitch Engage should be entering the studio around February/March 2012 to record their sixth album expected around summer 2012. He also stated that the band had eight demos finished for the new record.
On January 4, 2012, the band announced via the band's official website, along with their other official sources, that Howard Jones had left the band after his nine-year membership with them. In the statement, the band did not disclose the reason for this decision out of respect for Jones, but simply thanked him for his nine years with the band and wished him well, as well as thanking the fans for their support as they began the search for a new lead singer; Jones later explained he departed the band to manage his type 2 diabetes which was worsened by a hectic touring lifestyle. Soon after the announcement of Jones's departure, rumors began that Phil Labonte of All That Remains would officially take over lead vocals due to his previous history with the band, although Labonte quickly dispelled the rumor. Many vocalists were considered in the search for a new one for the band. The band's search for a new singer concluded in February with the announcement that original lead vocalist Jesse Leach would return to the band, as the band felt that Leach's energy, as well as his overall comfort and command of both the old and new material, made him the clear choice during auditions. Following Leach's return, the band continued to the process of recording their new album and touring. On April 22, 2012, the band performed Leach's first show since 2002 at the New England Metal and Hardcore Fest.
On June 20, 2012, the demo version of a new song titled "This Is Confrontation" was leaked on YouTube. Not long after the song was leaked, the videos were soon deleted. Later, the band took part in Metal Hammer's "Trespass America Festival" headlined by Five Finger Death Punch with additional support from God Forbid, Emmure, Pop Evil, Trivium and Battlecross. The band performed this song live, confirming the song's title "No End in Sight". Not long after the album was confirmed, the song was streamed publicly again. In October 2012, with Jesse back at the helm, Killswitch Engage announced they would be celebrating the ten-year anniversary of their seminal album Alive or Just Breathing with a US Tour through November/December 2012, in which the band played the album live in its entirety. Support on the tour came from fellow Massachusetts natives Shadows Fall and Acaro.
The album Disarm the Descent was released April 1, 2013 in the UK. The album debuted at #15 in the UK charts while debuting at #7 in the Billboard top 200 April 2 in the US. The first single "In Due Time" was released on February 5, 2013. The album has received critical acclaim from reviewers, and has been labeled as a "true standout" and "nothing short of amazing". It was announced in December 2013 that "In Due Time" was nominated for "Best Metal Performance" at the 2014 Grammy Awards, but lost to "God Is Dead?" by Black Sabbath. A tour in May 2013 was done to promote the new album. With Miss May I, Darkest Hour, The Word Alive and Affiance as support. As I Lay Dying was originally supposed to be on the tour but dropped due to criminal charges from frontman Tim Lambesis. The band also did a co-headliner with fellow Heavy Metal act Lamb of God in the October 2013 with Testament and Huntress as support for both bands. The band did a small headliner on the east coast for Halloween 2014, with All That Remains, Death Ray Vision and City of Homes supporting.
Incarnate (2015–2017)
In an interview with Wikimetal, Jesse Leach announced that the band will start demoing new material "in the coming months".
On February 25, 2015, the band released a 40-second snippet of a new single titled "Loyalty". The track appears on the Catch The Throne: The Mixtape Volume 2 to promote the HBO TV series Game of Thrones. The mixtape also features appearances from various other metal and rap acts such as Anthrax and Snoop Dogg.
On March 30, 2015, Mike D'Antonio stated that the band had completed demoing material for its next studio album.
Killswitch Engage took part in a summer tour in July 2015, opening up for Rise Against with support from letlive.
On December 10, 2015, the band premiered a new song entitled "Strength of the Mind" on Revolver. The band also did a small Christmas 2015 tour on the East Coast with Unearth, Act of Defiance and '68.
On December 16, 2015, it was revealed that the band's upcoming seventh album, released on March 11, 2016, would be titled Incarnate, with a tour being took part in March of that year with Memphis May Fire and 36 Crazyfists as supporters.
On September 27, 2016, Leach revealed on his Instagram page that the band would be releasing a documentary compiled of live footage since 2012.
On November 25, 2016, the band released a Blu-ray/CD called Beyond The Flames: Home Video Vol.2. The Blu-ray contains live performances that were recorded around the world from 2012 to 2016 and an hour long documentary taking place right after the band's (Set This) World Ablaze had left off, as well as music videos, personal band member profiles and more, plus a bonus live CD containing live tracks from the band's legendary 2014 Monster Mosh show. The two disc set had a one day exclusive sale in record stores everywhere on Black Friday. The set is now available for online purchase and digital download on the Killswitch Engage store.
Atonement (2017–present)
On August 30, 2017, the band announced on their Instagram page that they were in the process of demoing material for their upcoming eighth studio album.
In April 2018, it was revealed that their former singer Howard Jones will appear on their new album performing a duet with Jesse Leach during a song that was revealed to be titled "The Signal Fire".
The band cancelled their tour dates from April 26 to May 5 due to the need of vocalist Jesse Leach undergoing surgery on his vocal cords.
During an interview with the Wall of Sound: Up Against the Wall podcast in October 2018, Jesse Leach revealed more details about the song with former singer Howard Jones stating: "He does a verse, I do a verse, we sing the chorus together it's a real heavy shitkicker" and that the song was inspired by Howard's new band name Light the Torch and their friendship. On April 24, 2019, the band posted on their Instagram that the follow up to the 2016 album Incarnate would be released in the autumn.
According to Music Week, the band has signed with Metal Blade Records for the USA, Music for Nations for the UK, and an international contract with Columbia/Sony. These labels released the band's eighth studio album, Atonement, on August 16, 2019.
On August 20, 2019, the band released their music video for Atonement's third single "The Signal Fire", the song they recorded with former frontman Howard Jones (now of Light the Torch).
Musical style, influences, and lyrical themes
Killswitch Engage is considered a metalcore band. Like some 2000s metalcore bands, Killswitch Engage vocally combine singing, screaming vocals, and growls in their music. In 2009, MTV, while naming "The Greatest Metal Bands of All Time", said that Killswitch Engage have been "called one of the founders of metalcore". Jason D. Taylor of AllMusic said Alive or Just Breathing is "a pure metal album that seemingly has ignored any fashionable trend and instead relies solely on skill and expertise to sculpt some of the meatiest heavy metal since the glory days of Metallica and Slayer."
Both current vocalist Jesse Leach and former vocalist Howard Jones write lyrics that are considered positive. Jesse Leach stated on (Set This) World Ablaze, that the lyrics contain "unity, positivity, [and] love." On the lyrical themes of Killswitch Engage, Ultimate Guitar reviewer Amy Sciarretto noted:
On Killswitch Engage's 2009 self-titled album, Howard Jones states the change in lyrical themes:
Killswitch Engage's influences include Van Halen, Black Sabbath, Fear Factory, Carcass, At the Gates, Machine Head, Neurosis, Metallica, Iron Maiden, HIM, Megadeth, Suicidal Tendencies, Anthrax, Slayer, Testament, Bad Brains, Agnostic Front, Leeway, and Sick of It All. Both Leach and Jones cited Faith No More singer Mike Patton as their biggest influence.
Jesse Leach has talked about the band's label of metalcore, stating: "I never liked the term 'metalcore.' I don't think it's an accurate representation of the wide variety of bands that get lumped under that category. But I get it. People have to categorize stuff and put it into their own little category so they can describe stuff to somebody else. I like to say we're more of a metal band. It is what it is. People are going to use that term whether I like it or not."
Members
Current
Mike D'Antonio – bass (1999–present)
Adam Dutkiewicz – lead guitar (2002–present); backing vocals (1999–present); drums (1999–2002)
Joel Stroetzel – rhythm guitar, backing vocals (2002–present); lead guitar (1999–2002)
Justin Foley – drums (2003–present)
Jesse Leach – lead vocals (1999–2002, 2012–present)
Former
Pete Cortese – rhythm guitar (2000–2001)
Tom Gomes – drums (2002–2003)
Howard Jones – lead vocals (2002–2012)
Live
Patrick Lachman – lead guitar, backing vocals (2007)
Philip Labonte – lead vocals (2010)
Jordan Mancino – drums (2013)
Josh Mihlek – rhythm guitar (2019)
Timeline
Discography
Killswitch Engage (2000)
Alive or Just Breathing (2002)
The End of Heartache (2004)
As Daylight Dies (2006)
Killswitch Engage (2009)
Disarm the Descent (2013)
Incarnate (2016)
Atonement (2019)
Accolades
Grammy Award
|-
| 2005 || The End of Heartache || Best Metal Performance ||
|-
| 2014 || In Due Time || Best Metal Performance ||
|-
| 2019 || Unleashed || Best Metal Performance ||
Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards
|-
| 2004 || Killswitch Engage || Best International Act ||
|-
| 2004 || The End of Heartache || Best Album ||
|-
| 2007 || Killswitch Engage || Best International Band ||
|-
| 2014 || Killswitch Engage || Best Live Band ||
Boston Music Awards
|-
| 2007 || Killswitch Engage || Outstanding Metal/Hardcore Band of the Year ||
|-
| 2007 || Killswitch Engage || Act of the Year ||
|-
| 2007 || As Daylight Dies || Album of the Year (Major) ||
|-
| 2007 || Howard Jones || National Male Vocalist of the Year ||
Loudwire Music Awards
|-
| 2013 || Disarm the Descent || Metal Album of the Year ||
|-
| 2013 || In Due Time || Metal Song of the Year ||
|-
| 2013 || Killswitch Engage || Metal Band of the Year ||
References
External links
1998 establishments in Massachusetts
American metalcore musical groups
Heavy metal musical groups from Massachusetts
Musical groups established in 1998
Roadrunner Records artists
Musical quintets
Metal Blade Records artists
Ferret Music artists
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troublegum
|
Troublegum
|
Troublegum is the second major label album by rock band Therapy? It was released on 7 February 1994 via A&M Records.
Background
The album was recorded in 1993 at Chipping Norton Recording Studios in Oxfordshire, as well as RAK Studios and Church Studios, both in London. It has a melodically dark, metal-like sound. The album contains a cover of "Isolation" by Joy Division, which also became a single. The Therapy? version also incorporates many musical elements from "Atrocity Exhibition". Troublegum is generally considered to be Therapy? at their musical and commercial peak and has since sold over one million copies worldwide. The album reached number 5 in the UK Albums Chart and was certified gold in the UK in September 1994. It was also nominated as album of the year by the Mercury Prize of 1994.
Releases
The album was released on 12" vinyl, CD and cassette. In the UK, the album was released on limited edition green 12" vinyl. There was also a green cassette, and the original CD copies had a green tray. A remastered CD version of the album was included in The Gemil Box, released in 2013. To celebrate the 20th anniversary of its original release, a three-disc deluxe edition version of Troublegum was released by Universal on 31 March 2014.
Reception
The album was rated the top album of 1994 in the 1,000th issue of Kerrang! in 2004.
The album was number 31 in Kerrang!s 100 best British rock albums of all time.
The album was shortlisted for the 1994 Mercury Music Prize.
Track listing
The European release does not contain the "You Are My Sunshine" cover after "Brainsaw."
Personnel
Therapy?
Andy Cairns – vocals, guitar
Fyfe Ewing – drums, backing vocals
Michael McKeegan – bass, backing vocals
with:
Page Hamilton – lead guitar on "Unbeliever"
Lesley Rankine – additional vocals on "Lunacy Booth"
Martin McCarrick – cello on "Unrequited"
Eileen Rose – additional vocals on "Femtex"
Technical
Chris Sheldon – producer, engineer
Darren Allison – engineer
Nigel Rolfe – photography
Stuart Smyth – photography
Valerie Phillips – photography
Jeremy Pearce – design
Simon Carrington – design
Singles
"Screamager" - 11 March 1993, on the Shortsharpshock EP with "Auto Surgery", "Totally Random Man" and a re-recorded version of "Accelerator" from Nurse. This single reached number 9 in the UK Singles Chart, number 2 in the Irish Singles Chart and number 16 on Billboard's Modern Rock Tracks chart.
"Turn" - 31 May 1993, on the Face the Strange EP with "Speedball", "Bloody Blue" and a re-recorded version of "Neck Freak" from Nurse. This single reached number 18 in the UK Singles Chart, and number 5 in the Irish Singles Chart.
"Nowhere" - 17 January 1994, with "Pantopon Rose", "Breaking the Law" (Judas Priest), and "C. C. Rider" (Elvis Presley). A second CD was released on 24 January 1994, with two remixes of the title track, provided by the Sabres of Paradise. The single reached number 18 in the UK Singles Chart, and number 6 in the Irish Singles Chart.
"Trigger Inside" - 28 February 1994, with "Nice 'n' Sleazy" (The Stranglers), "Reuters" (Wire), and "Tatty Seaside Town" (The Membranes). A remix 12" was released with two remixes of the title track, plus the two Sabres of Paradise remixes previously released on the single "Nowhere". This single reached number 22 in the UK Singles Chart, and number 16 in the Irish Singles Chart.
"Die Laughing" - 30 May 1994, with "Stop It You're Killing Me" (live), "Trigger Inside" (live) and "Evil Elvis" (The Lost Demo). A remix 12" was released with two remixes of the title track, provided by David Holmes. This single reached number 29 in the UK Singles Chart, and number 16 in the Irish Singles Chart.
"Isolation" (Joy Division) - 1994, with "Lunacy Booth" (string version) and "Isolation" (Consolidated mix). This single was a German only release.
"Femtex" - 1994, with "Pantopon Rose". This was a coloured 7" released only in the US and limited to 500 copies.
"Knives" - 1994, with "Knives" (kiddie version), "Pantopon Rose" and "Nowhere". This single was a US only promo release.
Promo videos
"Screamager": directed by Jon Klein
"Turn": directed by Julie Hermelin
"Nowhere": directed by Nico Beyer
"Trigger Inside": directed by ?
"Die Laughing": directed by Matt Mahurin
"Isolation": directed by Michelle Spillane (version 1)
"Isolation": directed by ? (version 2)
Charts
References
1994 albums
Therapy? albums
Albums produced by Chris Sheldon
A&M Records albums
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasure%20Death
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Pleasure Death
|
Pleasure Death is the second (mini-)album by the rock band Therapy? It was released on 27 January 1992 on Wiiija Records. The album was recorded on 14 and 15 August 1991 and mixed on 16 and 17 August 1991 at Southern Studios in London. It reached number 1 in the UK Indie Charts.
The album was originally released by Wiiija on 12" vinyl. In 1993, Southern Records re-issued the album on 12" vinyl, CD and cassette.
The album was remastered in 2010 by Harvey Birrell and has been touted for possible release since then, although nothing has been confirmed as yet.
Track listing
All songs written by Therapy?
Personnel
Therapy?
Andy Cairns – vocals, guitar
Fyfe Ewing – vocals, drums
Michael McKeegan – bass
Technical
Harvey Birrell and Therapy? - producer
Harvey Birrell and John Loder – engineers
Trivia
The sample in "Skinning Pit" ("Every once in a while I'd have to take a beating. But by then, I didn't care. The way I saw it, everybody takes a beating sometime") is taken from the 1990 movie Goodfellas and is spoken by actor Ray Liotta.
The sample in "Potato Junkie" ("Don't you ever feel attracted to the girls you photograph…") is often cited as having come from the 1978 movie Pretty Baby, being spoken by actress Brooke Shields and actor Keith Carradine, but is in fact from the 1981 ozploitation film Centrespread, being spoken by actress Kylie Foster and actor Paul Trahair.
References
1992 albums
Wiiija albums
Therapy? albums
|
[
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] |
212910
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JR
|
JR
|
JR, J. R. or Jr. may refer to:
Jr. or Junior (suffix), a name suffix
Arts and entertainment
J.R. (album), an album by Jim Bob
J R, a 1975 novel written by William Gaddis
"Jr.", a song by Codeine on the album Barely Real
J. R. Ewing, a television character from Dallas
JR Chandler, aka Adam Chandler Jr, a television character from All My Children
Jornal da Record, a Brazilian news program on RecordTV
Businesses and organizations
Aero California, defunct Mexican airline by IATA code
Japan Railways Group or the JR Group, the main operators of the Japanese railway network
Jember railway station
John Radcliffe Hospital
Joy Air, Chinese airline by IATA code
People
In arts and entertainment
JR (artist) (born 1983), French artist
J.R. (musician) (born 1979), CMR singer
J. R. a pen-name of writer John Ruskin
Jr., stage name of Park Jin-young, South Korean singer
J.R. Martinez (born 1983), American actor, motivational speaker, and former U.S. Army soldier
Jim Ross (born 1952), professional wrestling commentator
JR (singer) (born 1995), stage name of Kim Jong-hyun, South Korean singer and member of NU'EST
In politics
Junius Richard Jayawardena (1906-1996), President of Sri Lanka from 1978-1989
In sport
J. R. Bremer (born 1980), American-born naturalized Bosnian basketball player
J. R. Redmond (born 1977), former NFL player for the New England Patriots
J. R. Smith (born 1985), former NBA player
Jeremy Roenick (born 1970), professional ice hockey player
See also
Junior (disambiguation)
JRJR (disambiguation)
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infernal%20Love
|
Infernal Love
|
Infernal Love is the third major label album by the rock band Therapy? It was released on 12 June 1995 on A&M Records. The album was recorded at Real World Studios in Box, Wiltshire from January to March 1995.
Background
The album was a major shift in direction from previous album Troublegum, moving away from punk-metal to create a broad epic cinematic soundscape with a strong melodic and rock grounding, with the songs being linked by ambient music pieces from DJ David Holmes. The album also contains a vocals-and-cellos version of "Diane" by American punk band Hüsker Dü, which also became a single. The cellist, Martin McCarrick, later joined Therapy? for several albums.
It was the final album to feature the original three-piece line-up, as drummer Fyfe Ewing departed in January 1996 following the European leg of the Infernal Love tour. The album reached number 9 in the UK Albums Chart and was certified Silver in the UK. It was also certified gold in Belgium.
Releases
The album was originally released on limited edition red 12" vinyl, CD and Cassette. The Japanese release did not feature the "insanity" links by David Holmes, but included two bonus tracks. A remastered CD version of the album by Harvey Birrell was included in The Gemil Box, released on 18 November 2013. A two-disc Deluxe Edition version of Infernal Love was released by Universal Music on 31 March 2014.
Sonisphere Festival
The band performed this album in its entirety at Sonisphere 2014.
Track listing
Personnel
Therapy?
Andy Cairns – vocals, guitar
Fyfe Ewing – drums, percussion, backing vocals
Michael McKeegan – bass, backing vocals, guitar on "Bowels of Love"
with:
Martin McCarrick – cello
Simon Clarke – saxophone
Technical
Al Clay – backing vocals, producer, engineer
David Holmes – "Insanity" (as listed in the booklet)
Anton Corbijn – photography
Lewis Mulatero – photography
Jeremy Pearce – design
Simon Carrington – design
Singles
"Stories" was released on 22 May 1995 with "Stories" (Cello Version) and "Isolation" (Consolidated Synth Mix). This single reached number 14 in the UK Singles Chart, and number 15 in the Irish Singles Chart.
"Loose" was released on 17 July 1995 with "Our Love Must Die", "Nice Guy" and "Loose" (Photek Remix). This single reached number 25 in the UK Singles Chart, and number 23 in the Irish Singles Chart. A digipack was released on 31 July 1995 with "Die Laughing" (live), "Nowhere" (live) and "Unbeliever" (live). The digipak charted at number 141 in the UK Singles Chart.
"Diane" was released on 6 November 1995 with "Misery" (Acoustic), "Die Laughing" (Acoustic), "Screamager" (Acoustic). A velvet digipack was released with "Jude the Obscene" (Acoustic), "Loose" (Acoustic), "30 Seconds" (Acoustic). This single reached number 26 in the UK Singles Chart, and number 20 in the Irish Singles Chart.
"Misery" was released as a radio single in the US on 11 November 1995 with "Evil Elvis" (The Lost Demo), "Knives" (live), "Stories" (live), "Isolation" (Consolidated mix).
"Stories" was re-released in the Netherlands in 1996 with "Loose" (live), "A Moment of Clarity" (live), "Our Love Must Die" (live). Live tracks recorded on 14 July 1995 in Arnhem, the Netherlands.
"Bad Mother" was released in Belgium in 1996 with "Disgracelands" (Acoustic Version), "Diane" (Acoustic Version), "Opal Mantra" (Acoustic Version).
Accolades
Included in Q Magazine's 50 Best Albums of 1995 (February 1996 issue).
Number 100 in Kerrang's 100 Best British Rock Albums ever!
Charts
References
1995 albums
Therapy? albums
A&M Records albums
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9licit%C3%A9%20de%20La%20Mennais
|
Félicité de La Mennais
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Félicité Robert de La Mennais (or Lamennais; 19 June 178227 February 1854) was a French Catholic priest, philosopher and political theorist. He was one of the most influential intellectuals of Restoration France. Lamennais is considered the forerunner of liberal Catholicism and social Catholicism.
His opinions on matters of religion and government changed dramatically over the course of his life. He initially held rationalistic views, but in part due to the influence of his brother, Jean-Marie, came to see religion as an antidote for the anarchy and tyranny unleashed by revolution. He derided Napoleon, in part because of the Organic Articles, in which France acting unilaterally amended the Concordat of 1801 between France and the papacy. Lamennais assailed the Gallican view of the relationship between civil authority and the Church and was for a time a staunch ultramontane.
Lamennais was ordained a priest in 1817, the same year he published Essai sur l'indifférence en matière de religion. In 1830, he founded L'Ami de l'ordre (precursor of L'Avenir) with Montalembert and Lacordaire. His social ideas embraced an enlarged suffrage, separation of church and state, universal freedom of conscience, instruction, assembly, and the press. His radicalism distanced him from a number of his friends. In 1833, he broke with the Church and the following year published Paroles d'un croyant, which Pope Gregory XVI condemned for its philosophical theories.
He served as a deputy for Paris to the Constituent Assembly; his draft for a Constitution was rejected as too radical. He died in Paris in 1854.
Family
Félicité Robert de la Mennais comes from a family from Saint-Malo, engaged in international maritime trade.
Louis-François Robert de La Mennais (1717–1804), his paternal grandfather, was the founder of the “Compagnie commerciale et maritime” in Saint-Malo. He is a trader, and he arms boats for the needs of trade, in order to provide all the equipment, provisions, sometimes even a few cannons, to choose a serious captain who knows how to recruit a crew, in order to maintain counters in foreign ports. It's a job that requires a certain daring, and temerity. Then, when his sons were old enough to take responsibility, he handed over the administration of the company to them.
Pierre Lorin (1719–1799), his maternal grandfather, is a lawyer at the Parliament of Paris, and Subdelegate of the Jurisdictions of Saint-Malo, that is to say, representative of the royal power for the district of Saint-Malo, which at the time corresponded to about thirty parishes. He worked under the orders of the Intendant of Brittany. A man of heart, he has a great social sense and works against the suffering and poverty which were great, especially in the countryside. He advocates, for example, in each parish, the establishment of a charity office. He acquired La Chésnaie in 1781, he built a bourgeois house there, it was in this place that Félicité would later found a school of theological thought.
The two sisters, Gratienne Lorin and Félicité Lorin (daughters of Pierre Lorin and Bertranne Roce) were married on the same day, September 5, 1775, in Saint-Malo, with the two sons Robert (son of Louis-François Robert): Pierre -Louis Robert de la Mennais and Denis Robert des Saudrais.
Félicité is one of the five children of Pierre-Louis Robert, sieur de La Menais and of Gatienne Lorin, who died in 1787 when he was five years old, so that 'he was brought up by one of his uncles.
Youth
Lamennais was born at Saint-Malo in the ancient Province of Brittany on 19 June 1782, the son of a wealthy merchant who had recently received a coat of arms from the king. He lost his mother at the age of five and as a result, he and his brother, Jean-Marie, were sent for education to an uncle, Robert des Saudrais at La Chênaie, an estate near Saint-Malo. Resistant to any kind of discipline, his uncle would lock him in the library where he spent long hours reading Rousseau and Pascal, among others, and acquired a vast and varied learning. Revolution was to have a profound effect on Lammennais. His family sheltered non-juring priests. Father Vielle said Mass on occasion in the dark at La Chênaie.
First publications
Of a sickly and sensitive nature, and shocked by the events of the French Revolution, Lamennais developed a morbid frame of mind. He first held rationalistic views, but partly through the influence of his brother Jean-Marie and partly as a result of his philosophical and historical studies, he came to see the power of faith and religion. He voiced his convictions in , published anonymously in Paris in 1808. The idea for this work and the materials were due to Jean-Marie, but the actual writing was done almost exclusively by Félicité. It recommended religious revival and active clerical organization and the awakening of an ultramontane spirit. Napoleon's police deemed the book dangerously ideological and tried to suppress it.
Lamennais devoted most of the following year to translating Louis de Blois's Speculum Monachorum into French, which he published in 1809 under the title Le Guide spirituel.
In 1811 Lamennais received the tonsure and became professor of mathematics in an ecclesiastical college at Saint-Malo founded by his brother, who had been ordained a Catholic priest in 1804. When the school was closed by imperial authority the following year, Félicité withdrew to La Chênaie, while his brother became vicar-general of the diocese of Saint-Brieuc.
In 1814 he published, with his brother, (1814), in which he strongly condemned Gallicanism and the interference of political authority in ecclesiastical affairs. It was provoked by Napoleon's nomination of Jean Siffrein Maury as Archbishop of Paris in accordance with the provisions of the Concordat of 1801.
Exile, return, and ordination
Lamennais hailed the Bourbon restoration of 1814, which he witnessed in Paris, because he saw Louis XVIII as a force for religious regeneration. During the Hundred Days, he escaped to London, where he worked in Kensington at an institution for the children of poor immigrants. After the final overthrow of Napoleon in 1815, he returned to Paris. Lamennais sought in religion a remedy for the anarchy and tyranny unleashed by the revolution. He undertook the study of theology and was ordained a subdeacon on 21 December. At this time he considered joining the Jesuits, however the prospect of a novitiate year led him to decide to become a secular priest. It was in Saint-Brieuc, in February 1816 that Lamennais received the diaconate. He was ordained by the Bishop of Rennes on 9 March 1817.
Essai sur l'indifférence en matière de religion
The first volume of his great work, , or Essay on Indifference in Matters of Religion, appeared in 1817 and established his reputation throughout Europe. He became, according to Lacordaire, "a humble priest with all the authority once enjoyed by Bossuet". His experience of Napoleon persuaded him that the state had no right to interfere in religion. Lamennais denounced religious indifference by the state and toleration while advocating for a restoration of the pre-Revolutionary authority of the Catholic Church. He contended that private judgment, introduced by Martin Luther into religion, by Descartes and Leibniz into philosophy and science, and by Rousseau and the Encyclopedists into politics, had resulted in practical atheism and spiritual death. He asserted that ecclesiastical authority, founded on the absolute revelation delivered to the Jewish people, but supported by the universal tradition of all nations, was the sole hope of regenerating the European communities.
Three more volumes (Paris, 1818–1824) followed and met with a mixed reception from the Gallican bishops and monarchists, but with the enthusiastic support from the younger clergy. Three Roman theologians examined his work and Pope Leo XII gave it his formal approval. Lamennais visited Rome at the pope's request. He was offered but refused membership in the College of Cardinals.
Lamennais also published works of piety, for example, a widely read French version of The Imitation of Christ with notes and reflections (1824), , , and (1828). The failure of a publishing house aimed at spreading this pious literature resulted in his own financial ruin.
Political advocacy
On his return to France he took a prominent part in political work. Together with Chateaubriand and the Comte de Villèle he was a regular contributor to Le Conservateur littéraire. However, when Villèle became the chief supporter of absolute monarchy, Lamennais withdrew his support and started two rival organs, and . He authored a pamphlet criticizing the 1825 Anti-Sacrilege Law introduced by Villèle's administration. Various other minor works, together with (1825–1826) kept his name before the public.
Ultramontane and theocratic democracy advocacy
He retired to La Chênaie and gathered a group of disciples, including Montalembert, Lacordaire and Maurice de Guérin. He espoused ultramontanism and aimed to create an organized body of opinion to campaign against Gallicanism, the control and influence of the state in church matters. , or On the Progress of the Revolution and the War against the Church, (1828) marked his complete renunciation of royalist principles and from that time on he advocated on behalf of a theocratic democracy.
J.P.T Bury suggests that Lamennais and his associates found inspiration in a Belgian Liberal Catholic movement centered in Malines and led by Archbishop de Méan's vicar-general, Engelbert Sterckx. Largely Catholic Belgium seceded from the Netherlands in 1830 and established a constitutional monarchy. Sterckx, who became archbishop in 1832 found a way not merely to tolerate the new liberal constitution, but to expand the Church under the new liberties guaranteed.
Lamennais founded L'Ami de l'ordre (precursor of L'Avenir) the first issue of which appeared on 16 October 1830, with the motto "God and Liberty." His social theories became more radical. The paper was aggressively democratic, demanding rights of local administration, an enlarged suffrage, separation of church and state, universal freedom of conscience, instruction, assembly, and the press. Styles of worship were to be criticized, improved or abolished in absolute submission to the spiritual, not to the temporal authority. His views were opposed by the bishops and supported by the younger clergy, but he lost even their support when he said priests should not be paid by the state. With the help of Montalembert, he founded the , which became a far-reaching organization with agents throughout France who monitored violations of religious freedom. As a result, the periodical's career was stormy and its circulation opposed by conservative bishops.
Although pressured by the French government and the French hierarchy, Pope Gregory XVI would have preferred not to make an official issue of the matter. However, Lamennais, Montalembert, and Lacordaire suspended their work and in November 1831 set out to Rome to obtain the Pope's approval. Archbishop Quélen of Paris had warned Lammenais that he was being unrealistic and was viewed as a demagogue in favor of revolution. As Quelen was a Gallican, Lammenais ignored him. After much opposition, they gained an audience, but only on condition that their political project should not be mentioned. Metternich, whose Austrian troops ensured the stability of the Papal States, pressed for a condemnation. A few days later they received a letter from Cardinal Pacca, advising their departure from Rome and suggesting that the Holy See, while admitting the justice of their intentions, would like the matter left open for the present.
Lacordaire and Montalembert departed immediately, but Lamennais stayed on until Gregory's letter to the Polish bishops, which denounced the Polish revolution against the Tsar, dashed his last hopes. Gregory thought the Polish revolutionaries were seeking to undermine Russian Tsar Nicholas I's efforts to support the Catholic royalist cause in France by forcing him to divert his troops to suppress the uprising in Poland. While staying in Munich, Lamennais received the 1832 encyclical Mirari vos, which condemned religious pluralism in general and certain of Lamennais's ideas advanced in L'Avenir without mentioning his name. After this, Lamennais and his two lieutenants declared that out of deference to the pope they would not resume the publication of and dissolved the Agence générale as well.
Separation from the Church, imprisonment, and further publications
Lamennais retired to La Chênaie, an estate near Saint-Malo, Brittany. He communicated his resentment and political beliefs only through correspondence. The Vatican in turn demanded his frank and full adhesion to the encyclical Mirari vos. Lamennais refused to submit without qualification and in December 1833 renounced his ecclesiastical functions and abandoned all external profession of Christianity.
In May 1834, Lamennais penned , or Words of a Believer (1834), a collection of aphorisms that denounced the established social order—what he called the conspiracy of kings and priests against the people—and declared his rupture with the Church. In the encyclical Singulari nos of 25 June 1834, Pope Gregory XVI condemned the book as "small in size, [but] enormous in wickedness" and censured Lamennais' philosophical system.
Paroles was inspired by Adam Mickiewicz's Księgi narodu polskiego i pielgrzymstwa polskiego (Books of the Polish Nation and Polish Pilgrimage). The Paroles marked Lamennais' turn to a Christian socialism that inspired a whole generation of socialists. His radical ideas reflected an overlap of Catholic and socialist discourses that can be traced back to the 1820s.
Sometime after 5 April 1836 he was imprisoned at Ste. Pelagie, a prison for debtors.
Lamennais was increasingly abandoned by his friends and in 1837 published Les Affaires de Rome, des maux de l'Église ci de la société, in which he provided his perspective on his relations with Gregory XVI.
After this, Lamennais penned several articles in the Revue des Deux Mondes, the Revue du Progrès and Le Monde, and published the pamphlets (1837), (1839), (1839), Discussions critiques (1841), (1841), (1843), in which he espoused popular sovereignty and attacked contemporary society and the public authorities. After the publication of (1840), he was censored and imprisoned for a year in 1841.
From 1841 to 1846 Lamennais published the four volumes of , a treatise on metaphysics, which detailed his departure from Christianity. The third volume, an exposition of art as a development of the aspirations and needs of worship, formed its core. Lamennais also published , a French translation of the Gospels with added notes and reflections.
In 1846 Lamennais published , written during his imprisonment.
Involvement in the Second Republic
Lamennais sympathized with the Revolution of 1848 and was elected a deputy for Paris to the Constituent Assembly. He drew up a plan for a Constitution, which was rejected as too radical. After this, he confined himself to silent participation in the sessions. He also started the newspapers and , espousing radical revolution. Both papers quickly ceased publication. He was also named president of the . He remained a deputy in the legislative assemblies until Napoleon III's 1851 coup, which depressed and isolated him once more.
Later years and death
After 1851, he occupied himself with La Divine Comédie, a translation of Dante's Divine Comedy, and refused several attempts to reconcile him to the Church. He died in Paris in 1854 and was buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery in a common grave, without funeral rites, mourned by political and literary admirers.
Works
There are two complete works in ten volumes, the first published in 1836–1837 as Œuvres complètes de La Mennais, the second published in 1844 as Œuvres complètes de Lamennais. Both are incomplete.
References
Sources
Further reading
Morrall, J. B. "Lamennais: A Liberal Catholic" History Today (Dec 1958) 8#12 pp 821–828.
Carolina Armenteros, The French Idea of History: Joseph de Maistre and his Heirs, 1794-1854 (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2011).
Thomas Bokenkotter, Church and Revolution: Catholics and the Struggle for Democracy and Social Justice (NY: Doubleday, 1998).
Jean-Rene Derré, Lamennais, ses amis et le mouvement des idées à l'époque romantique 1824-1834 (Paris: Klincksieck, 1962).
Julian Strube, Sozialismus, Katholizisimus und Okkultismus im Frankreich des 19. Jahrhunderts (Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter, 2016).
External links
"France" (obit), The New York Times, March 2, 1854
1782 births
1854 deaths
People from Saint-Malo
Breton Roman Catholic priests
Politicians from Brittany
The Mountain (1849) politicians
Members of the 1848 Constituent Assembly
Members of the National Legislative Assembly of the French Second Republic
19th-century philosophers
19th-century Roman Catholic priests
French philosophers
Catholic philosophers
French counter-revolutionaries
People of the Bourbon Restoration
Breton writers
Aphorists
Translators of Dante Alighieri
French male poets
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
Liberal Catholicism
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bihu
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Bihu
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Bihu is a set of three important Assamese festivals in the Indian state of Assam—Rongali or Bohag Bihu observed in April, Kongali or Kati Bihu observed in October, and Bhogali or Magh Bihu observed in January. The Rongali Bihu is the most important of the three, celebrating spring festival. The Bhogali Bihu or the Magh Bihu is a harvest festival, with community feasts. The Kongali Bihu or the Kati Bihu is the sombre, thrifty one reflecting a season of short supplies and is an animistic festival.
The Rongali Bihu coincides the Assamese New year and as well as with other regions of Indian subcontinent, East Asia and South-East Asia, which follow the Hindu calendar and Buddhist calendar. The other two Bihu festivals every year are unique to Assamese people. Like some other Indian festivals, Bihu is associated with agriculture, and rice in particular. Bohag Bihu is a sowing festival, Kati Bihu is associated with crop protection and worship of plants and crops and is an animistic form of the festival, while Bhogali Bihu is a harvest festival. Assamese celebrate the Rongali Bihu with feasts, music and dancing. Some hang brass, copper or silver pots on poles in front of their house, while children wear flower garlands then greet the new year as they pass through the rural streets.
The three Bihu are Assamese festivals with reverence for Krishna, cattle (Goru Bihu), elders in family, fertility and mother goddess, but the celebrations and rituals reflect influences from Southeast Asia and Sino-Tibetan cultures. In contemporary times, the Bihus are celebrated by all Assamese people irrespective of religion, caste or creed. It is also celebrated overseas by the Assamese diaspora community living worldwide.
The term Bihu is also used to imply Bihu dance otherwise called Bihu Naas and Bihu folk songs also called Bihu Geet.
History
Although the modern form of Bihu is a synthesis of varied cultural elements from diverse ethnic groups like Tibeto-Burman and Tai, it has deep roots in the indigenous culture.
Indigenous origin
The word Bihu has been derived from the Deori (a Boro-Garo language) word Bisu which means "excessive joy". The original form of Bihu continue among the Chutias, Sonowal Kacharis and Deoris. These groups, known as Sadiyal Kacharis were associated with the historical Kingdom of Sadiya. The other branches of Bodo-Kacharis which include Boros, Dimasas, Rabhas, Tiwas, etc. have also been celebrating Bihu since ancient times. The Boros call it Baisagu, while the Dimasas, Tiwa and Rabha call it Bushu or Bushu Dima,Pisu, Dumsi respectively.
In local folklore, it is said that Bordoisila (Bardai Sikhla in Bodo) (meaning north-westerly winds in Assamese) was the daughter of God Earth who married to a bridegroom of some distant land. Bordoisila visits her mother’s home once in year during spring time which indicates the beginning of Bihu and leaves after a few days which indicates the end of Bihu. Assam experience strong gale (wind) at that period which marks the beginning of Bihu and another strong gale after her departure which is devastating. The word Bordoisila is derived from the Bodo word Bordaisikhla which means "girl of storm" (Sikhla meaning girl and Bardai meaning storm). There is even a dance with the same name performed among Boro people during Baisagu which points to the origin of Bihu in the Bodo-Kachari groups.
The first reference of Bihu can be found in the copperplate inscription of the Chutia king Lakshminarayan. The inscription was found in Ghilamara region of Lakhimpur district in the year 1935 and it was issued in the year 1401 A.D. It states that the king Lakshminarayan has donated land grants to Brahmins on the auspicious occasion of Bihu. It reads,
This means that on the pious occasion of Bihu, a Brahmin named Dvija Ravidev was granted land by the king. This indicates that Bihu played an important role in the social life of people of Assam at that period.
The wooden Khol played in Majuli in early times (similar to the Mayamora Khul, Manipuri Pung) was later turned into the terracotta Mridanga (similar to the ones played in eastern India) by the Vaishnavite saint Sankardev so that it could be used in art forms like dances and dramas.
Yet another reference of Bihu can be found in the Deodhai Buranji which mentions that the capital of the Chutia kingdom, Sadiya was suddenly attacked by the Ahom forces on the first day of Bihu/Bisu in 1524 (first Wednesday of Bohag/Vaisakha), when the people were busy celebrating Bihu. The Ahom general Phrasenmung Borgohain upon the advise of a Chutia general (who sided with the enemies) played the Bihu Dhul (on Ujha Bisu day i.e. 7th Bohag/Vaisakha) to trick the Chutias which ultimately led to their defeat.
In early texts, Bohag Bihu celebrations started from the first week of Chaitra (Chot in Assamese) month. The period from the first week of Chaitra till the end was known as Raati Bihu or Chotor Bihu. During this period, young people danced at night in the grounds of the Than (temple). The last day of Chaitra or the first Tuesday of Bohag was when the Rati Bihu ended. This was known as the Uruka (derived from the Deori-Chutia Urukuwa meaning to end). The temple dancers Deodhani danced the entire night and were believed to be possessed by the goddess Kechai-khati (kolimoti), signaling that she had descended upon earth from heaven (Bihu nomai ona). This belief of the goddess arriving during the Bihu season each year can still be found in Bihu songs as, The day after Uruka,i.e. the first Wednesday was celebrated as Goru Bihu. This tradition of cattle rites is same as that followed by the Boros in Bwisagu indicating the common roots of both the festivals. During the night of Goru-bihu, people danced Bihu in separate groups in the Thans where animal sacrifice took place. After the sacrifices to the goddess, the young folk visited the households of the village, which was the start of Husori. This old tradition of starting Husori from the temple is still followed by the Deoris, some Sonowals, Chutias and Morans as well as the people of Sadiya. In other communities, the temple has been replaced by the Namghar. The festivities of Bohag Bihu continued for a week and ended with the rite by which the goddess was bid farewell. In this rite, a boat was first prepared out of banana stem and decorated with flowers and offerings. Then, it was carried to the banks of the river where a duck/chicken was put inside the boat and allowed to float as a symbol of sacrifice. After performing the rite, the people returned to their homes, singing along the way with the beats of the Dhul and the tunes of the Pepa.
Some old Assamese Bihu folklore still hint to this tradition.
The modern form of Bihu dance was derived from the Faat Bihu dance celebrated in Dhakuakhana, Lakhimpur. The performers were called by the Ahom king Rudra Singha in 1694 to dance in the royal arena Rang Ghar. The origin of Faat Bihu can be traced to Sadiya. The word Faat in Deori-Chutia language means "to migrate". After the defeat of the Sadiyal Kacharis in Sadiya, the survivors were displaced from Sadiya to different places in the kingdom. A group of these people moved from Sadiya, to Dibrugarh and finally settled down in Harhi Sapori, Dhakuakhana. These people had brought the idols of god and goddess along with them and established a temple now known as Harhi Dewaloi. It was here that the first form of modern Bihu dance was developed. Later, in the 19th century, this form of Bihu dance was adopted by the other communities as well and started being performed in Mahguli sapori, Dhakuakhana by Chutias, Sonowals, Deoris, Ahoms, Mishing, etc.
Tai-Shan contribution
It is believed that the Bihu dance was given royal patronage by the Ahom king Rudra Singha in 1694. But, this view has been refuted by many authors. According to Padmeswar Gogoi, there is not a single mention of Bihu being performed in Rangghar in the Buranjis. The Satsari Buranji states that in the first floor of the Rangghar the places of the kings were pre-defined. But, if one looks from the position of the kings chair, it is impossible to view the ground where Bihu dance was supposed to be performed. He also added that the Rangghar was mainly used for organizing buffalo and cock fights or wrestling and several positions were newly opened for these games. But, on the other hand no such post was created for Bihu. These facts prove that Bihu didn't receive much attention from the Ahom kings and remained a festival of the native people back then.
Indo-Aryan contribution
The Indo-Aryans upon their arrival in Assam helped in gradually sanskritisation of the native Bihu/Bisu to bring it to the present form. Being the pioneers of Astronomy, they further associated the term Bisu with the Visuvan day for coincidence of the Bohag Bihu with other springtime festivals observed elsewhere in India on this day and adopted the festival of the natives.
The three Bihu Festivals
Bohag Bihu
Bohag Bihu (mid-April, also called Rongali Bihu), the most popular Bihu celebrates the onset of the Assamese New Year (around 14–15 April) and the coming of Spring. This marks the first day of the Hindu solar calendar and is also observed in Bengal, Manipur, Mithila, Nepal, Orissa, Punjab, Kerala and Tamil Nadu though called by different names. It's a time of merriment and feasting and continues, in general, for seven days. The farmers prepare the fields for cultivation of paddy and there is a feeling of joy around. The women make pitha, larus (traditional food made of rice, coconut) various drinks by local tribes such as Chuje by Deoris, Nam-Lao by Tai-Ahom, Aapong by Mising tribe and Jolpan which gives the real essence of the season.
The first day of the bihu is called goru bihu or cow bihu, where the cows are washed and worshipped, which falls on the last day of the previous year, usually on 14 April. This is followed by manuh (human) bihu on 15 April, the New Year Day. This is the day of getting cleaned up, wearing new cloths and celebrating and getting ready for the new year with fresh vigor. The third day is Gosai (Gods) bihu; statues of Gods, worshiped in all households are cleaned and worshiped asking for a smooth new year.
The folk songs associated with the Bohag Bihu are called Bihugeets or Bihu songs. The form of celebration and rites vary among different demographic groups.
The Seven days
Bohag Bihu or Rongali Bihu festival continues for seven days and called as Haat Bihu. The seven days are known as Chot Bihu, Goru Bihu, Manuh Bihu, Kutum Bihu, Senehi Bihu, Mela Bihu and Chera Bihu.
Goru Bihu: The goru bihu or cattle worship rites are observed on the last day of the year. The cattle are washed, smeared with ground turmeric and other pastes, struck with sprigs of dighalati and makhiyati and endeared to be healthy and productive (lao kha, bengena kha, bosore bosore barhi ja/maar xoru, baper xoru, toi hobi bor bor goru—eat gourd, eat brinjal, grow from year to year/your mother is small, your father is small, but you be a large one). The old cattle ropes are cast away through the legs and new ropes are tied to them, and they are allowed to roam anywhere they wished for the entire day.
Manuh Bihu: The New Year day, the day after the goru bihu, is called the manuh bihu. Elders are shown respect, with gifts of bihuwan (a gamosa), a hachoti (kerchief), a cheleng etc., and their blessings are sought. Children are given new clothes, and Husori singing begins on this day, and people visit their relatives and friends.
Husori: Village elders move from household to households singing carols, also in the style of bihu geets, called husoris. It possibly derives from the Dimasa Kachari word formation ha (land) and char (move over): hachari. Villages could have more than one Husori band, and they would visit households in a village non-contiguous to itself, first singing carols at the Naamghar. The husari singers then visit individual households, by first announcing their arrival at the gate (podulimukh) with drum beats. The singers are traditionally welcomed into the courtyard where they sing the husori songs and perform a ring dance. At the end of the performance they are thanked with an offering dakshina of paan (betel leaf) tamul (areka nut) in a xorai (brass dish with stand), whereupon the singers bless the household for the coming year. If there is a bereavement in the family, or the family does not invite the husori singers due to an illness, the husori band offers blessings from podulimukh and move on. Generally the singers are all male.
Faat Bihu: This is a very old form of Bihu, characterized by spontaneity, popular in the Lakhimpur area of Assam.
Mukoli Bihu: Young unmarried men and women attired in traditional golden silk muga dance the bihu and sing bihu songs in the open fields. The songs have themes of romance and sexual love, requited or unrequited. Sometimes the songs describe tragic events too but treated very lightly. The dance celebrates female sexuality.
Jeng Bihu: This is Bihu dance and song performed and watched only by women. The name "jeng" comes from the fact that in earlier days women in the villages used to surround the place of their performance with sticks dug into the ground called jeng in Assamese. It is also called gos tolor bihu (Bihu beneath the tree).
Baisago: The Bodo-Kachari people celebrate for seven days—the first day for cattle (Magou), the second day for man (Mansoi) and ancestor worship, feasting, singing and merriment. Songs follow the same themes as the Bihu songs.
Bihutoli Bihu: The rural festival made its transition to urban life when it was first time brought to the stage in Lataxil field in Guwahati by the Guwahati Bihu Sanmilani in 1962, promoted by leading citizens like Radha Govinda Baruah and others. Bihu to a great extent has been popularized by the Bihu 'Samrat'( king ), of Assam, Khagen Mahanta. Unlike the rural version, the dancers danced on a makeshift elevated stage in an open area that came to be known as a Bihutoli. Many such Bihutolis have sprouted since then in Guwahati and other urban areas. The performances are not confined to the Bihu dance form but may incorporate all forms of theatrical performances to keep the audience enthralled well into the early hours. Performances could include standup comedy, to concerts by solo singers. The stage form of Bihu has become so popular, that organizers have begun extending the celebrations to bohagi bidai, or farewell to the Bohag month, which is similar performances held a month later.
Saat Bihu: Rongali Bihu also called saat Bihu (seven Bihus). It celebrates seven days, it's called so. On the other hand, Rangali Bihu is constitute of seven different types of Bihu -Goru Bihu (Cow Bihu), Manuh Bihu, Xat Bihu, Senehi Bihu, Maiki Bihu, Rongali Bihu, and Sera Bihu. Actually, first day to pay respect to cows and other days for social activities.
Kati Bihu
Kongali Bihu (mid-October, also called Kati-Bihu) has a different flavor as there is less merriment and the atmosphere has a sense of constraining and solemnity. During this time of the year, the paddy in the fields are in the growing stage and the granaries of the farmers are almost empty. On this day, earthen lamps (saki) are lit at the foot of the household tulsi plant, the granary, the garden (bari) and the paddy fields. In ancient times, earthen lamps were lit all around the paddy fields to attract the insects, thus acting as a natural insectide. To protect the maturing paddy, cultivators whirl a piece of bamboo and recite rowa-khowa chants and spells to ward off pests and the evil eye. During the evening, cattle are fed specially made rice items called pitha. Kati Bihu is known as Kati Gasa by the Bodo people and Gathi Sainjora by the Dimasa people. The Bodo people light lamps at the foot of the siju (Euphorbia neriifolia) tree. This Bihu is also associated with the lighting of akaxi gonga or akaxbonti, lamps at the tip of a tall bamboo pole, to show the souls of the dead the way to heaven, a practice that is common to many communities in India, as well as Asia and Europe. Kati bihu is generally celebrated on 19 october, as it is almost mid-October.
Magh Bihu
Bhogali Bihu (mid-January, also called Magh Bihu) comes from the word Bhog that is eating and enjoyment. It is a harvest festival and marks the end of harvesting season. Since the granaries are full, there is a lot of feasting and eating during this period. On the eve of the day called uruka, i.e., the last day of pausa, menfolk, more particularly young men go to the field, preferably near a river, build a makeshift cottage called Bhelaghar with the hay of the harvest fields and the bonfire or Meji, . the most important thing for the night. During the night, they prepare food and there is community feasting everywhere. There is also the exchange of sweets and greetings at this time. The entire night (called Uruka) is spent around a Meji with people singing bihu songs, beating Dhol, a typical kind of drums or playing games. Boys roam about in the dark stealing firewood and vegetables for fun. The next morning they take a bath and burn the main Meji. People gather around the Meji and throw Pithas (rice cakes) and betel nuts to it while burning it at the same time. They offer their prayers to the god of Fire and mark the end of the harvesting year. Thereafter they come back home carrying pieces of half burnt firewood for being thrown among fruit trees for favorable results. All the trees in the compound are tied to bamboo strips or paddy stems. Different types of sports like Buffalo-fight, Egg-fight, Cock-fight, Nightingale-fight etc. are held throughout the day. There are other conventional festivals observed by various ethnic-cultural groups. Me-dam-me-phi, Ali-aye-ligang, Porag, Garja, Hapsa Hatarnai, Kherai are few among them. The koch celebrates this bihu as .
Instruments used in Bihu
Dhol (Drum)
Taal
Pepa (An instrument made of buffalo horn)
Toka
Baanhi (Flute)
Xutuli
Gogona
Bihu elsewhere
Bihu is also seen to be celebrated abroad. Many Bihu associations/committees exist elsewhere where this festival is celebrated with enthusiasm. The London Bihu Committee (LBC), UK is one of them among others.
Related festivals
The Bohag Bihu (Rongali Bihu) festive day is celebrated elsewhere but called by other name. Some examples of related festivals in Asia include:
Indian subcontinent:
Vaisakhi in Punjab, India
Vishu in Kerala, India
Pohela Boishakh in West Bengal, India
Puthandu in Tamil Nadu, India
Vaishak Ek in Nepal
Sinhalese New Year in Sri Lanka.
East Asia:
Cambodian New Year in Cambodia, Thingyan in Burma, Songkran festival in Thailand and other festivals of East Asia and South-East Asia
However, this is not the universal new year for all Hindus. For some, such as those in and near Gujarat, the new year festivities coincide with the five day Diwali festival. For others, the new year falls on Ugadi and Gudi Padwa, which falls about two weeks before Bohag Bihu.
See also
Bihu Songs of Assam
Notes
References
Das, Debendra Prasad Rongali Bihu through the ages, The Assam Tribune, 14 April 2007.
Dowerah, Sawpon Rongali Bihu-the spring festival of Assam, The Assam Tribune, 14 April 2007.
Goswami, Prafulladatta (1988) Bohag Bihu of Assam and Bihu songs, Publication Board, Assam.
Web sources
External links
January observances
April observances
October observances
Symbols of Assam
Festivals in Assam
Culture of Assam
New Year in India
Tourism in Northeast India
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemini%203
|
Gemini 3
|
Gemini 3 was the first crewed mission in NASA's Project Gemini and was the first time two American astronauts flew together into space. On March 23, 1965, astronauts Gus Grissom and John Young flew three low Earth orbits in their spacecraft, which they nicknamed Molly Brown. It was the first U.S. mission in which the crew fired thrusters to change the size and shape of their orbit, a key test of spacecraft maneuverability vital for planned flights to the Moon. It was also the final crewed flight controlled from Cape Kennedy Air Force Station in Florida, before mission control functions were moved to a new control center at the newly opened Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, Texas.
Crew
Backup crew
(This was the prime crew on Gemini 6)
Original crew
The crew of Gemini 3 was changed after Shepard was grounded with an inner ear disorder in late 1963.
Support crew
Roger B. Chaffee (Houston CAPCOM)
L. Gordon Cooper Jr. (Cape CAPCOM)
Mission parameters
Mass:
Perigee:
Apogee:
Inclination: 32.6 degrees
Period: 88.3 minutes
Objectives
The mission's primary goal was to test the new, maneuverable Gemini spacecraft. In space, the crew fired thrusters to change the shape of their orbit, shift their orbital plane slightly, and drop to a lower altitude. Other firsts were achieved on Gemini 3: two people flew aboard an American spacecraft (the Soviet Union launched a three-person crew on Voskhod 1 in 1964 and a two-person crew just a few days earlier on Voskhod 2, upstaging the two-person Gemini and three-person Apollo programs), and the first crewed reentry where the spacecraft was able to produce lift to change its touchdown point.
The mission also tested a system that had originally been designed for the cancelled Mercury-Atlas 10 mission, in which water was injected into the plasma sheath surrounding the capsule during re-entry. This had the effect of improving communications with the ground.
First orbital maneuver by crewed spacecraft
On March 23, 1965 at 15:57:00 UTC, at the end of the first orbit, over Corpus Christi, Texas, a 1-minute 14 second burn of the Orbit Attitude and Maneuvering System (OAMS) engines gave a reverse delta-V of , which changed the orbit from (with a period of 88.3 minutes), to an orbit of (period of 87.8 minutes). This was the first orbital maneuver made by any crewed spacecraft.
Flight
Gus Grissom, hoping to avoid duplication of the experience with his Mercury flight Liberty Bell 7 in which the capsule sank after splashdown, named the Gemini 3 spacecraft Molly Brown, in a playful reference to the Broadway musical The Unsinkable Molly Brown. NASA management did not like this name, and asked him to change it. Grissom replied, "How about the Titanic?". The managers relented and allowed Grissom to keep Molly Brown, but this was the last Gemini flight they allowed the astronauts to name.
The only major incident during the orbital phase involved a contraband corned beef sandwich that Young had smuggled on board, hiding it in a pocket of his spacesuit (though Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton wrote in his autobiography that he gave Young permission to do so). Grissom found this to be highly amusing, saying later, "After the flight our superiors at NASA let us know in no uncertain terms that non-man-rated corned beef sandwiches were out for future space missions. But John's deadpan offer of this strictly non-regulation goodie remains one of the highlights of our flight for me."
The crewmen each took a few bites before the sandwich was restowed. The crumbs it released could have wreaked havoc with the craft's electronics, so the crewmen were reprimanded when they returned to Earth. Other crews were warned not to pull the same type of stunt.
Two small failures occurred in-flight. The first was an experiment testing the synergistic effect of zero gravity on sea urchin eggs. A lever essential to the experiment broke off when pulled. The second involved the photographic coverage objective. It was only partially successful due to an improper lens setting on the 16 mm camera.
Early in the flight, the crew noticed the craft gradually yawing left:
00 18 41 (Command Pilot) I seem to have a leak. There must be a leak in one of the thrusters, because I get a continuous yaw left.
00 18 53 (CapCom) Roger. Understand that you get a continuous yaw left.
00 18 57 (Command Pilot) Very slight. Very slow drift.
First attributed to a stuck thruster, the problem was traced to a venting water boiler.
The crewmen made their first orbit change an hour and a half into the flight. The burn lasted 75 seconds and moved them from a orbit to a nearly circular one with a drop in speed of . The second burn, changing the orbital inclination by 0.02 degrees, was made 45 minutes later. The last burn, during the third orbit, lowered the perigee to . This was made so, in case the retrorockets had failed, the spacecraft would still have reentered the atmosphere. The experience of reentry initially matched expectations, with even the color and pattern of the plasma sheath that enveloped the capsule matching those produced for ground simulations. However, it soon became clear that Molly Brown was off course and would land off target. Though wind tunnel studies had suggested the spacecraft could maneuver to make up for the discrepancy, Gemini's real lift was far less than predicted, and Grissom was unable to significantly adjust course. Molly Brown ultimately landed short of its intended splashdown point.
This was not the only unexpected event of the short descent: After its parachutes were deployed, the spacecraft shifted from a vertical to horizontal attitude. The change was so sudden that Grissom cracked his faceplate (made of acrylic) on the control panel in front of him. Later Gemini spacesuits and all Apollo and Space Shuttle (both launch-entry and EVA suits) used polycarbonate plastic.
Upon landing, the astronauts decided to stay in the capsule, not wanting to open the hatch before the arrival of the recovery ship. The crew spent an uncomfortable half-hour in a spacecraft not designed to be a boat. Due to unexpected smoke from the thrusters, the astronauts decided to deviate from the post landing checklist and to keep their helmets on with the face plates closed for some time after splashdown. recovered the craft and crew. The Gemini III mission was supported by 10,185 personnel, 126 aircraft and 27 ships from the United States Department of Defense.
Insignia
The mission insignia was not worn by the flight crew as a patch, like those from Gemini 5 onwards. The Gemini 3 The Molly Brown emblem was designed and minted on gold-plated, sterling silver, medallions. The crew carried a number of these medallions into space to give to their families and friends. The same design was printed on the cover of Grissom's book Gemini!: A Personal Account of Man's Venture Into Space. Young was seen wearing the emblem as a patch, produced post-flight, on his flightsuit as late as 1981.
Spacecraft location
The spacecraft is on display within the Grissom Memorial of Spring Mill State Park, two miles east of Grissom's hometown of Mitchell, Indiana.
See also
Space exploration
Splashdown
U.S. space exploration history on U.S. stamps
References
External links
"GEMINI 3 Launch to Staging" on YouTube
Gemini III radio transcripts on Spacelog
On The Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini
Spaceflight Mission Patches
Astronaut John W. Young tribute website
Gemini 3 at A Field Guide To American Spacecraft
NASA Gemini 3 Press Kit
slideshow by Life magazine
Spacecraft launched in 1965
1965 in the United States
Project Gemini missions
Human spaceflights
Spacecraft launched by Titan rockets
Spacecraft which reentered in 1965
March 1965 events
John Young (astronaut)
Gus Grissom
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20Secretary%20of%20Homeland%20Security
|
United States Secretary of Homeland Security
|
The United States secretary of homeland security is the head of the United States Department of Homeland Security, the federal department tasked with ensuring public safety in the United States. The secretary is a member of the Cabinet of the United States. The position was created by the Homeland Security Act following the attacks of September 11, 2001.
The new department consisted primarily of components transferred from other Cabinet departments because of their role in homeland security, such as the Coast Guard, the Federal Protective Service, U.S. Customs and Border Protection (which includes the United States Border Patrol), U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (which includes Homeland Security Investigations), the United States Secret Service and the Federal Emergency Management Agency.
It does not, however, include the Federal Bureau of Investigation or the U.S. Marshals Service. They continue to operate under U.S. Department of Justice.
The current secretary of homeland security is Alejandro Mayorkas, since February 2, 2021. He is the first Latino and immigrant to lead the Department of Homeland Security.
Inclusion in the presidential line of succession
Traditionally, the order of the presidential line of succession is determined (after the vice president, speaker of the House, and president pro tempore of the Senate) by the order of the creation of the cabinet positions, and the list as mandated under follows this tradition.
On March 7, 2006, 43rd president George W. Bush signed as , which renewed the Patriot Act of 2001 and amended the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 to include the newly created presidential Cabinet position of Secretary of Homeland Security in the line of succession after the previously authorized secretary of veterans affairs (§ 503) (which are listed and designated in the order that their departments were created). In the 109th Congress, legislation was introduced to place the secretary of homeland security into the line of succession after the attorney general but that bill expired at the end of the 109th Congress and was not re-introduced.
List of secretaries of homeland security
Prior to the establishment of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, there existed an assistant to the president for the Office of Homeland Security, which was created following the September 11 attacks in 2001.
Parties
(5)
(3)
(4)
Status
a. James Loy served as acting secretary in his capacity as Deputy Secretary of Homeland Security.
b. Rand Beers served as acting secretary in his capacity as confirmed Undersecretary of Homeland Security for National Protection and Programs and Acting Deputy Secretary of Homeland Security; Beers was the highest ranking Senate-approved presidential appointee at the Department of Homeland Security.
c. Elaine Duke served as acting secretary in her capacity as Deputy Secretary of Homeland Security.
d. Kevin McAleenan served as acting secretary in his capacity as Commissioner of Customs and Border Protection. His tenure was ruled unlawful.
e. Chad Wolf served as acting secretary in his capacity as Under Secretary of Homeland Security for Strategy, Policy, and Plans. His tenure was ruled unlawful.
f. Peter Gaynor served as acting secretary in his capacity as Federal Emergency Management Agency Administrator.
g. David Pekoske served as acting secretary in his capacity as Administrator of the Transportation Security Administration
Order of succession
While appointment of acting officials is generally governed by the Federal Vacancies Reform Act of 1998 (FVRA), the Homeland Security Act of 2002 creates exceptions to FVRA, mandating that the under secretary of homeland security for management is third in the line of succession for Secretary of Homeland Security, and establishes an alternate process by which the secretary can directly establish a line of succession outside the provisions of the FVRA.
As of November 8, 2019, the order of succession is as follows. However, the legality of this update was challenged.
Deputy Secretary of Homeland Security
Under Secretary for Management
Commissioner of the U.S. Customs and Border Protection
Under Secretary for Strategy, Policy, and Plans
Administrator and Assistant Secretary of the Transportation Security Administration
Administrator of the Federal Emergency Management Agency
Formerly, an April 10, 2019 update to the DHS Orders of Succession, made pursuant to the Homeland Security Act of 2002, provided a different order in the case of unavailability to act during a disaster or catastrophic emergency:
Deputy Secretary of Homeland Security
Under Secretary for Management
Commissioner of U.S. Customs and Border Protection
Administrator of the Federal Emergency Management Agency
Director of the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency
Under Secretary for Science and Technology
Under Secretary for Intelligence and Analysis
Administrator of the Transportation Security Administration
Director of U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement
Director of U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services
Under Secretary for Strategy, Policy, and Plans
General Counsel
Deputy Under Secretary for Management
Deputy Commissioner of U.S. Customs and Border Protection
Deputy Administrator of the Transportation Security Administration
Deputy Director of U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement
Deputy Director of U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services
Director of the Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers
As a result of Executive Order 13753 in 2016, the order of succession for the secretary of homeland security was as follows:
Deputy Secretary of Homeland Security
Under Secretary of Homeland Security for Management
Administrator of the Federal Emergency Management Agency
Under Secretary of Homeland Security for National Protection and Programs
Under Secretary of Homeland Security for Science and Technology
Under Secretary for Intelligence and Analysis
Commissioner of U.S. Customs and Border Protection
Administrator of the Transportation Security Administration
Director of U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement
Director of U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services
Assistant Secretary for Policy
General Counsel of the Department of Homeland Security
Deputy Under Secretary for Management
Deputy Commissioner of U.S. Customs and Border Protection
Deputy Administrator of the Transportation Security Administration
Deputy Director of U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement
Deputy Director of U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services
Director of the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center
Administration-cited potential nominees
Bernard Kerik
George W. Bush nominated Bernard Kerik for the position in 2004. However a week later, Kerik withdrew his nomination, explaining that he had employed an illegal immigrant as a nanny.
Raymond Kelly
By July 2013, Raymond Kelly had served as Commissioner of the New York City Police Department (NYPD) for nearly 12 straight years. Within days of Homeland Security secretary Janet Napolitano's announcement that she was resigning, Kelly was soon cited as an obvious potential successor by New York senator Charles Schumer and others.
During a July 16, 2013, interview, President Obama referred generally to the "bunch of strong candidates" for nomination to head the Department of Homeland Security, but singled out Kelly as "one of the best there is" and "very well qualified for the job".
Later in July 2013, the online internet news website/magazine Huffington Post detailed "a growing campaign to quash the potential nomination of New York City Police commissioner Raymond Kelly as the next secretary of the Department of Homeland Security" amid claims of "divisive, harmful, and ineffective policing that promotes stereotypes and profiling". Days after that article, Kelly penned a statistics-heavy Wall Street Journal opinion article defending the NYPD's programs, stating "the average number of stops we conduct is less than one per officer per week" and that this and other practices have led to "7,383 lives saved—and... they are largely the lives of young men of color."
Kelly was also featured because of his NYPD retirement and unusually long tenure there in a long segment on the CBS News program Sunday Morning in December 2013, especially raising the question of the controversial "stop and frisk" policy in New York City and the long decline and drop of various types of crimes committed.
References
External links
|-
Homeland Security
Interior ministers
Homeland Security
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20motorcycle%20manufacturers
|
List of motorcycle manufacturers
|
The following is a list of motorcycle manufacturers worldwide, sorted by extant/extinct status and by country. These are producers whose motorcycles are available to the public, including both street legal as well as racetrack-only or off-road-only motorcycles. The list of current manufacturers does not include badge engineered bikes or motorcycle customisers, but the list of defunct manufactures may include some of these if they are well remembered for their historical significance.
Manufacturers currently in production
This is a list of companies currently producing and selling motorcycles available to the public, including both street and race/off-road motorcycles. It does not include badge engineered bikes sold under a different name than their producer, nor motorcycle customisers.
Argentina
Motomel
Siambretta
Zanella
Australia
Braaap
Hunter Motorcycles
Sol Invictus Motorcycle Co.
Thumpstar
Austria
Husqvarna
KTM
Bangladesh
ACI Motors (Yamaha)
Akij Motors
Jamuna Automobiles
Niloy-Hero Motors (joint venture between Hero MotoCorp and Niloy Motors)
Runner Automobiles
Rancon Motor Bikes Ltd (Suzuki Motorcycle)
Walton Motors
Belarus
MMZ
Brazil
Dafra Motos
Canada
Bombardier/Can-Am (trikes)
China
Baotian Motorcycle Company
Chang Jiang
Dayun
Evoke Motorcycles
Jincheng Suzuki
Keeway
Lifan
Loncin
Niu Technologies
Qianjiang
Qingqi
Thumpstar
Yinxiang Motorcycle
Znen
Zongshen
Colombia
AKT
Auteco
Czech Republic
Blata
Čezeta
Jawa
France
Midual
Peugeot Scooters
Scorpa
Sherco
Solex
Voxan
Germany
BMW Motorrad
Horex
Hercules
Maico
MZ Motorrad- und Zweiradwerk
NSU
Sachs Motorcycles
ZF Sachs AG (parts and accessories only)
Zündapp
India
Bajaj Auto (including KTM)
Hero Motocorp
Mahindra Two Wheelers
Royal Enfield
TVS Motors
Ather Energy
Jawa Motors
Indonesia
Astra Honda Motor
Kawasaki Motor Indonesia
Suzuki Indomobil Motor
Yamaha Indonesia Motor
TVS Motor Company Indonesia
Viar Motor Indonesia
Italy
Aprilia
Beta Motor
Benelli
Bimota
Cagiva (innactive under MV Agusta)
Ducati
Energica
Fantic Motor
Ghezzi & Brian
Italjet
Laverda
Magni
Malaguti
Minarelli (engines only)
FB Mondial
Moto Guzzi
Moto Morini
MV Agusta
Paton
Piaggio
SWM
Terra Modena
Vespa
Vyrus
Japan
Honda
Kawasaki
Suzuki
Yamaha
Moriwaki
South Korea
Daelim
Hyosung
KR Motors
Malaysia
Boon Siew Honda
Hong Leong Yamaha
Modenas
Naza
SYM Motors
Mexico
Italika
Pakistan
DYL Motorcycles
Pak Suzuki
Ravi Motorcycles (Partner with Piaggio Group)
United Motorcycles
Philippines
Honda Motors Philippines
KTM Asia Motorcycle Manufacturing
Poland
Junak
SFM Junak
Zipp
Portugal
AJP
Casal
Russia
IMZ-Ural
IZh
Velomotors
ZiD as the Voskhod
Slovenia
Tomos
Spain
Bultaco
Derbi
Gas Gas
Montesa
Ossa
Rieju
Sanglas
Taiwan
Aeon Motor
Gogoro
Kymco
PGO
SYM
Taiwan Golden Bee
Hartford
Thailand
A.P. Honda
Turkey
Mondial (Ugur Motor Vehicles)
Ukraine
KMZ
United Kingdom
AJS
Ariel Motor Company
Brough Superior
BSA
Cheney Racing
Clews Competition Motorcycles
Hesketh
Métisse
Norton
Scomadi
Triumph
Wasp Motorcycles
United States
Alligator
Arch Motorcycle
Arlen Ness (parts and accessories only)
ATK (parts and accessories only)
Boss Hoss
Brammo
Cleveland CycleWerks
Confederate/Curtiss Motorcycles
Erik Buell Racing
Harley-Davidson
Indian Motorcycle
Janus Motorcycles
Lightning Motorcycle
MTT
Rokon
US Highland
Whizzer (parts and accessories only)
Z Electric Vehicle
Zero Motorcycles
Vietnam
VinFast
Manufacturers no longer in production
This is a list of companies that formerly produced and sold motorcycles available to the public, including both street and race/off-road motorcycles. It also includes some former motorcycle producers of noted historical significance but which would today be classified as badge engineered or customisers. It includes both companies that are defunct, those that still exist but no longer make motorcycles, and some that were acquired by other companies.
Argentina
Tehuelche
Australia
Abbotsford motorcycles (1912–1913)
Absolom motorcycles (1915–)
Aussi Also (1920–)
Bennett & Barkell Motorcycles (1910 to at least 1917)
Waratah motorcycles (1911 to around 1948)
Austria
Delta-Gnom (1923–1963)
Laurin & Klement (1899–1908)
Puch (1903–1987)
Belgium
FN (1901–1967)
Gillet Herstal
Minerva (1900–1914)
Saroléa (1901–1960)
Brazil
Agrale (1984–1987)
Brumana Pugliese (1970–1982)
Sundown
Kasinski
Bulgaria
Balkan (1958–1975)
Canada
Can-Am (1973–1987, brand reused 2006–present for ATVs and trikes)
Moto-Skeeter (mini-bikes, 1971–1972)
Czech Republic
Böhmerland (1923–1939)
CZ (1935–1997)
ESO (1949–1962)
Jawa CZ
Praga Hostivař (1929–1933)
Premier (1913–1933)
Denmark
Nimbus (1919–1959)
Estonia
Renard (1938-1944)
Finland
Helkama
Tunturi
France
AGF
Aiglon (1908–1953)
Alcyon (1904–1957)
Automoto
Dollar (1925–1939)
Dresch (1923–1939)
Gima
Gnome et Rhône (1919–1959)
Juery (1930s–1960s)
Monet-Goyon
Motobécane
New-Map
Nougier
Radior
Ratier (1959–1962)
Scorpa (1993–2009)
Terrot
Germany
Adler (1900–1957)
Ardie (1919–1957)
D-Rad (1923–1933)
DKW (1916–66)
Express (1933–1958)
Hansen & Schneider (1975-1982)
Hecker (1922–1957)
Hercules (1904–1996)
Hildebrand & Wolfmüller (1894–1897)
Hoffman (1949–1954)
Horex (1923–1960)
Killinger and Freund Motorcycle (1935)
Kreidler (1951–1982)
Maico (1926–1986)
Mars (1903–1958)
Megola (1921–1925)
Münch (1966–1980)
Neander (1924–1932)
NSU (1901–1960)
Opel (1901–1930)
Orionette (1921–1925)
Simson (1948–1963)
TWN (Triumph Nürnberg) (1903–1957)
Victoria (1899–1966)
Wanderer (1902–1929)
Windhoff
Zündapp (1921–1984)
East Germany
BMW (1945–1952)
EMW (1952–)
MZ (−2009)
Greece
Alta (1962–1972)
Lefas (1982–2005)
Maratos (1950)
MEBEA (1960–1975)
Mego (1962–1992)
YMC (2000–2011)
Hungary
Csepel (1932–1951, Pannonia 1951–1975)
India
Andhra Pradesh Scooters Ltd (Allwyn Pushpak)
API (Lamby scooters)
Escorts Group (WFM/Yamaha motorcycles)
Ideal Jawa (1960–1996)
Kinetic Engineering (Luna/Honda NH scooters)
Lambretta licensed manufacturers
LML (Vespa scooters)
Mopeds India Limited (Suvega-Motobecane mopeds)
Italy
Abra
Accossato
Aermacchi
Aeromere/Capriolo
Aetos
Agrati
AIM
Alano
Alato
Aldbert
Atala
Autozodiaco
Benelli (Sold to Qianjiang Motorcycle (China))
Bianchi (1897–1967)
Caproni
Ceccato (1947–1962)
Cimatti
CNA
Della Ferrera
Frera
Fusi
Galbusera
Garelli Motorcycles (1919–2012)
Gilera
Italjet
Innocenti (1947–1997)
Iso Rivolta (1953–1974)
Lamborghini (1986)
Lambretta
Laverda (1949–2006)
Malaguti (1930-2018)
Malanca (1956–1986)
MAS
Maserati (1947–1960)
Morbidelli
Moretti Motor Company
Moto Rumi
Motobi
Santamaria (1951–1963)
Japan
Abe-Star (1951–1958)
Aero (1925–1927)
Bridgestone (1952–1970)
Fuji
Hodaka (1964–1980)
Marusho (1948–1967)
Meguro (1937–1964)
Mitsubishi (1946–1963)
Miyata
Rikuo (1929–1958)
Shin Meiwa (1952–1964)
Tohatsu (1950–1964)
Yamaguchi (1955–1963)
Mexico
Cooper (1971–1975)
New Zealand
Britten Motorcycles
Nzeta
Wood
Norway
Tempo
Poland
CWS
SHL
SM
Sokół
WFM
WSK
Zuch
Portugal
CASAL (1953–2000)
FAMEL (1950–2002)
SIS
Russian Empire
Alexander Leutner & Co. (1899–1918?)
Slovak Republic
Babetta (1970–1997)
Spain
Alpha (1924-1957)
Avello (1940-2013)
Bultaco (1958–1983)
Cofersa (1954–1962)
Gimson (1930–1982)
Lube (1947–1967)
Montesa (1945–1985)
MotoTrans (1957–1983)
Ossa (1924–1982; 2010– )
Sanglas (1942–1981)
Sweden
Aktiv (1927–1937)
Husaberg (1988–2014)
Husqvarna
Monark
Nordstjernan
Switzerland
Motosacoche (1900–1956)
United Kingdom
Ackland Motorcycles Co (1895-1936)
Acme Motor Co (1902-1922)
AJS
AJW (1928–1977)
Allen Norton (1990-1994)
Ambassador (1946–1964)
AMC (1938–1966)
Ariel (1902–1970)
Armstrong (1980–1987)
Beardmore Precision (1921–1924)
Blackburne (1913–1921)
Brough (1908–1926)
Brough Superior³ (1919–1940)
BSA (1905–2003); see BSA Company
Calthorpe
Clyno (1908–1923)
Cotton
Coventry-Eagle
DOT
Douglas (1907–1957)
EMC (1946–1977)
Excelsior (Coventry) (1896–1962)
Francis-Barnett (1919–1966)
Greeves
Haden
Hesketh (1982–1984)
HRD
Ivy (1907–1934)
James (1987–1966)
JAP (1902–1964)
Levis (1911–1939)
Martinsyde (1908–1923)
Matchless (1899–1966)
Megelli (2004-2014)
Ner-a Car (1921–1926)
New Hudson
New Imperial (1901–1939)
Norman
Norton-Villiers (1966-1972)
Norton (1902–; reformed in 2008)
OEC (1901–1954)
OK-Supreme (1882–1940)
Panther
Quadrant (1901–1928)
Quasar (1977–1985)
Raleigh (1899–1967)
Rickman (1960–1975)
Royal Enfield (1901–1968); company was taken over by India's Eicher Motors)
Rudge (1909–1939)
Scott (1909–1978)
Singer
Sprite
Stevens (1934–1938)
Sun (1911–1961)
Sunbeam (1912–1956)
Tandon
Triumph Engineering Ltd (1902–; reformed in the 1980s and now still made)
Velocette (1904–1968)
Villiers
Vincent
Vincent HRD (1928– )
Wooler (1911–1954)
Zenith (1903–1950)
United States
Ace (1920–1927)
American IronHorse (1995–2008)
Buell (2009–2015)
Buell Motorcycle Company (1983–2009)
California Motorcycle Company (?–1999)
Crocker (1932–1941)
Curtiss (1902–1910) Reformed in 2017
Cushman (1936–1965)
Excelsior (Chicago) (1907–1931)
Excelsior-Henderson (1993 / 1998–2001)
Fischer
Flying Merkel (1911–1915)
Henderson (1911–1931)
Hodaka (1965–1978)
Indian
original Springfield company (1901–1953)
Gilroy company (1999–2003)
Stellican Limited (2006–2011)
Iver Johnson (1907–1916)
MotoCzysz
Mustang (1945–1963)
Ner-A-Car (1921–1927)
Penton (1968–1978)
Pierce-Arrow (1909–1913)
Pope Manufacturing Company (1902–1918)
Ridley
Roehr Motorcycles
Sears, Roebuck and Company (1912–1916)
Simplex (1935–1960)
Thor (1908–1920)
Titan
Victory Motorcycles (1997–2017)
Wagner Motorcycle Company (1901–1914)
Yankee
USSR
Cossack
GMZ (1941–1949)
MMZ (1941, 1946–1951)
NATI (1931–1933)
PMZ (1935–1939)
TIZ (1936–1941)
TMZ (1941–1943)
See also
List of motor scooter manufacturers and brands
References
Lists of manufacturers
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20Card
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Andrew Card
|
Andrew Hill Card Jr. (born May 10, 1947) is an American politician and academic administrator who was White House Chief of Staff under President George W. Bush from 2001 to 2006, as well as head of Bush's White House Iraq Group. Card served as United States Secretary of Transportation under President George H. W. Bush from 1992 to 1993.
Card announced his resignation as Chief of Staff on March 28, 2006, effective April 14, 2006. Card was the Acting Dean of the Bush School of Government and Public Service, at Texas A&M University from 2011 to 2013. In 2014, Card became the president of Franklin Pierce University, serving until he retired from that post in the summer of 2016.
Early life and education
Card was born on May 10, 1947, in Brockton, Massachusetts, the son of Joyce (née Whitaker) and Andrew Hill Card Sr. He was active in the Boy Scouts of America's Old Colony Council and earned the rank of Life Scout. He attended the United States Merchant Marine Academy from 1966 to 1967 before graduating from the University of South Carolina with a Bachelor of Science in civil engineering in 1971. He also attended the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University.
Career
Early career
Card got his start in politics serving in the Massachusetts House of Representatives from 1975 to 1983. He ran unsuccessfully for the Republican nomination for Governor of Massachusetts in 1982.
Private career
From 1993 to 1998, Card was President and chief executive officer of the American Automobile Manufacturers Association (AAMA), the trade association whose members were Chrysler Corporation, Ford Motor Company and General Motors Corporation. The AAMA dissolved in December 1998. From 1999 until his selection as President Bush's Chief of Staff, Card was General Motors' Vice President of Government Relations. Card directed the company's international, national, state and local government affairs activities and represented GM on matters of public policy before Congress and the Administration.2020 Joins board of Hyllion $HYLN Leading Class 8 Trucking
He serves on the board of directors of Union Pacific Railroad. The railroad announced on July 27, 2006, that Card was elected to the board, increasing the board's size to 10 members. He is also a senior counselor at public relations firm Fleishman-Hillard.
On November 7, 2019 he joined the board of directors of Draganfly, industry-leading manufacturer within the commercial Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (“UAV”) and the Unmanned Vehicle Systems (“UVS”) space.
Government career
Under Ronald Reagan
Card first served in the West Wing under President Ronald Reagan, as Special Assistant to the President for Intergovernmental Affairs and subsequently as Deputy Assistant to the President, and Director of Intergovernmental Affairs, where he was liaison to governors, statewide elected officials, state legislators, mayors and other elected officials.
Under George H. W. Bush
From 1989 to 1992, Card served in President George H. W. Bush's administration as Assistant to the President and Deputy Chief of Staff. From 1992 until 1993, Card served as the 11th U.S. Secretary of Transportation under President Bush. In August 1992, at the request of President Bush, Secretary Card coordinated the administration's disaster relief efforts in the wake of Hurricane Andrew. Later that year, Secretary Card directed President Bush's transition office during the transition from the Bush Administration to the Clinton Administration.
Under George W. Bush
In 2000, Card was asked by Texas Governor George W. Bush to run the Republican National Convention in Philadelphia.
On November 26, 2000, Card was appointed to be chief of staff for President-elect George W. Bush upon Bush's January 20, 2001 inauguration.
On September 11, 2001, Card approached Bush as he was visiting Emma E. Booker Elementary School in Sarasota, Florida, and whispered in his ear the news that a second plane had hit the World Trade Center, confirming that a terrorist attack was underway. Card later recounted his story, saying that he whispered "A second plane hit the second tower. America is under attack."
On March 28, 2006, the White House announced that Card would resign as Chief of Staff and be replaced by United States Office of Management and Budget director Joshua B. Bolten. Card's resignation was effective April 14, 2006.
Post-government career
Card received an honorary degree from the University of Massachusetts Amherst on May 25, 2007. While accepting the degree, Card was booed loudly by students and faculty who disapproved of him receiving the honor.
Card considered running in the 2010 special election to fill the United States Senate seat held by Ted Kennedy, who had died in office. State Senator Scott Brown, who considered entering the race, promised to drop out if Card decided to run. Card announced on September 11, 2009, that he would not enter the race and that he was throwing his support to Brown, who went on to win the election.
On July 5, 2011, Card was named acting dean of The Bush School of Government and Public Service at Texas A&M University.
It was announced on November 25, 2014, that Card had been selected as the fifth president of Franklin Pierce University in Rindge, New Hampshire. He began his tenure in December 2014, and resigned in summer of 2016.
Personal life
Card is married to Reverend Kathleene Card. They reside in Jaffrey, New Hampshire. They have three grown children and six grandchildren.
References
External links
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|-
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|-
|-
|-
1947 births
20th-century American politicians
Franklin Pierce University faculty
George W. Bush administration cabinet members
George H. W. Bush administration cabinet members
Harvard Kennedy School alumni
Living people
Massachusetts Republicans
Members of the Massachusetts House of Representatives
People from McLean, Virginia
People from Holbrook, Massachusetts
Politicians from Brockton, Massachusetts
Texas A&M University people
Union Pacific Railroad people
United States Merchant Marine Academy alumni
United States Secretaries of Transportation
University of South Carolina alumni
Virginia Republicans
White House Chiefs of Staff
White House Deputy Chiefs of Staff
|
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212932
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip%20Skippon
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Philip Skippon
|
Philip Skippon (c. 1600, West Lexham, Norfolk – c. 20 February 1660) supported the Parliamentary cause during the English Civil War as a senior officer in the New Model Army. Prior to the war he fought in the religious wars on the continent. During the Interregnum he was a member of Parliament, an active soldier and on occasions a government administrator.
Life
Background
Philip Skippon was the son of Luke Skippon (c. 1567–1638), the son of Bartholomew Skippon of Weasenham St Peter, Norfolk. Luke and his elder brother William (born c. 1566) went to school at Dereham and studied at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. William lived at Tawstock in north Devon where he was Secretary to Lord Bath, and died there on 1 January 1633/34. Luke (born c. 1567) had his seat at West Lexham, Norfolk, and was father of two notable sons, Philip, and Luke (died 1676), who entered Peterhouse, Cambridge in 1614 and made his career there, becoming junior Proctor in 1633–34, and being nominated for Mastership of the college in 1663 but not appointed.
To 1638
Philip entered the military profession at an early age and in July 1620 volunteered to join Sir Horace Vere's expedition to aid Frederick V of Bohemia in the Electorate of the Palatinate. He served in it until the Bohemian defeat in 1623, participating in the two sieges of Frankenthal (where he was married in 1622). He then went on to serve Maurice of Nassau in the Netherlands, receiving a commission in 1625. At the sieges of Breda in 1625 and 1637 he was wounded, and under his old commander, Lord Vere, he was present when 's-Hertogenbosch and Maastricht were attacked in 1629. By 1632 he was a sergeant major and led many of the sorties at Maastricht with distinction. He also became deeply interested in religion, writing small private religious volumes for his family.
1639–1644
A veteran of 18 years' experience, Captain Skippon returned to England in 1638. On 23 October 1639 he was recommended by Charles I of England for a command in the Honourable Artillery Company and he moved to London to take up this command. With civil war looming, on 10 January 1642 he was made major-general and commander of the City of London's Trained Bands by Parliament in defiance of the king's authority, and two days later he mustered them to welcome the five members who Charles had failed to arrest. On 13 May Charles ordered Skippon to join him at York, but Skippon replied "I desire to honour God and not to honour men", and Parliament declared Charles's order illegal. Skippon was absent at the Parliamentarian defeats at Edgehill and Brentford, but continued to train his men before marching them out of London to strengthen the forces of the Earl of Essex, Captain-General of the Parliament's forces. He then faced Royalist forces at the Battle of Turnham Green, encouraging his under-trained militiamen with the words:
Within a week of the battle Essex made Skippon his Sergeant-Major-General, a post which carried with it the command of the foot and the complicated duty of arranging the line of battle. In 1643 his religious tracts written in the Netherlands were collected and published as The Christian Centurion, one of many devotional tracts he published for his troops to read. However, his high level of experience meant that Parliament was unwilling to risk him in action early in the war, though he did serve alongside Essex at Gloucester. His first field command came on 20 September 1643, with command of the left wing and reserves at the First Battle of Newbury. He continued serving with Essex during the disastrous Lostwithiel campaign and was left in command of the Parliamentarian garrison of 6,000 there on 1 September 1644 when Essex and Lord Robartes fled to Plymouth. The following day, without hope of reinforcement, Skippon negotiated with King Charles: having gained very reasonable terms for his forces, he surrendered and marched his force out of the town. He then gathered the infantrymen from that force in October and marched them to take part in the second Battle of Newbury, occupying the centre of the high ground near Stockcross and recapturing seven of the guns they had lost at Lostwithiel.
1645
The appointment as Sergeant-Major-General of the New Model Army soon followed, as, apart from his distinguished services, there was scarcely another man in England with the knowledge of detail requisite for the post. In this capacity he supported Thomas Fairfax as loyally as he had supported Essex. He led the centre at the Battle of Naseby, where he refused to leave the field while victory was still in the balance despite being dangerously wounded. For his conduct on this decisive occasion, the two Houses of Parliament thanked him, and they sent him special physicians to cure him of his wound. It was a long time before he was fit to serve in the field again. He only reappeared at the siege of Oxford, which he directed. At the end of the war he was selected for the command of the forthcoming Irish expedition, with the rank of marshal-general. The discontent of the soldiery, however, which ended in open mutiny, put an end to a command which Skippon had only accepted under great pressure. He bore a part in all the movements which the army leaders now carried out.
Post-war
Skippon endeavoured to preserve a middle position between his own Presbyterianism and the Independents, and to secure a firm treaty with the king by any means. The army outstripped Fairfax and Skippon in action. The major-general was named as one of the king's judges, but, like Fairfax, did not take his place. After the war he was returned as MP for King's Lynn in 1654, 1656 and 1658 during the Commonwealth. He also held high military and civil offices. During the Rule of the Major-Generals he was appointed to command the London military district (with John Barkstead as his deputy, who was zealous in suppressing immorality and ungodliness in the area under Skippon's control), where his popularity was always high— but ceased to influence passing events. He said little in Parliament, though his comment on John Naylor ("If this be liberty, God deliver us from such liberty!") is well known. He was one of the members of Cromwell's House of Lords, and, in general, was universally respected and beloved. On Cromwell's death he was made head of the London Militia again by the restored Long Parliament. Age and infirmities prevented him from taking any part in the revolutions which culminated in the Restoration, and in March 1660 he died.
Family
He had first married Maria Comes of Frankenthal, Lower Palatinate, in the Netherland church there on 14 May 1622, by whom he had several children, most of whom did not survive infancy. These were Anna (Utrecht, 1623–1624), Anna (Montfoort, 1625), William (Amersfoort, 1628-1646/47), Marie (Amersfoort, 1631), Phillip (Amersfoort, 1633-1633), Susanna (West Lexham, 1635), Luke (Foulsham, 1638) and Philip (Hackney, 1641). Their son and surviving heir Philip became MP for Dunwich. The General's wife Maria Skippon died at Acton on 24 January 1655/56, and had a monument in the church there. There was a second marriage, for his widow Dame Katherine Skippon is first-named in his will written at Acton, Middlesex, which leaves lands there, and at Bletchley, Buckinghamshire, and in Norfolk and Suffolk. The will also refers to his son Philip and daughters Anne Bragge, Mary Skippon and Susan Meredith. Susan was the wife of Sir Richard Meredith, 2nd Baronet of Leeds Abbey, Kent.
References
Attribution
1600s births
1660 deaths
English army officers
English military personnel of the Eighty Years' War
Military personnel of the English Civil War
English MPs 1654–1655
English MPs 1656–1658
English MPs 1659
Honourable Artillery Company officers
London Trained Bands officers
People from Breckland District
Roundheads
People from Broadland (district)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20House%20Chief%20of%20Staff
|
White House Chief of Staff
|
The White House chief of staff position is the successor to the earlier role of the secretary to the president of the United States. The role was formalized as the assistant to the president in 1946 and acquired its current title in 1961. The current official title is assistant to the president and chief of staff.
The chief of staff is a political appointee of the president of the United States who does not require Senate confirmation, and who serves at the pleasure of the President. While not a legally required role, all presidents since Richard Nixon have appointed a chief of staff.
In the administration of Joe Biden, the current chief of staff is Ron Klain, who succeeded Mark Meadows on January 20, 2021. The chief of staff is the most senior political appointee in the White House, and holds Yankee White security clearance. This is the highest level of clearance in the United States government, allowing the chief of staff access to highly classified national security issues.
The position is widely recognized as one of great power and influence, owing to daily contact with the president of the United States and control of the Executive Office of the President of the United States.
History
The duties and responsibilities of the White House chief of staff vary from one administration to another and, in fact, there is no legal requirement that the president even fill the position. However, since at least 1979, all presidents have found the need for a chief of staff, who typically oversees the actions of the White House staff, manages the president's daily schedule, and decides who is allowed to meet with the president. Due to these core duties, the chief of staff has at various times been labeled "the president's gatekeeper".
Originally, the duties now performed by the chief of staff belonged to the president's private secretary and were fulfilled by crucial confidantes and policy advisers such as George B. Cortelyou, Joseph Tumulty, and Louis McHenry Howe to presidents Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, and Franklin Roosevelt, respectively. The private secretary served as the president's de facto chief aide, in a role that combined personal and professional assignments of highly delicate and demanding natures, requiring great skill and utmost discretion. The job of gatekeeper and overseeing the president's schedule was separately delegated to the appointments secretary, as with aide Edwin "Pa" Watson.
From 1933 to 1939, as he greatly expanded the scope of the federal government's policies and powers in response to the Great Depression, President Roosevelt relied on his famous 'Brain Trust' of top advisers. Although working directly for the president, they were often appointed to vacant positions in federal agencies and departments, whence they drew their salaries since the White House lacked statutory or budgetary authority to create staff positions. It was not until 1939, during Roosevelt's second term in office, that the foundations of the modern White House staff were created using a formal structure. Roosevelt was able to persuade Congress to approve the creation of the Executive Office of the President, which would report directly to the president. During World War II, Roosevelt created the position of "Chief of Staff to the Commander-in-Chief" for his principal military adviser, Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy.
In 1946, in response to the rapid growth of the U.S. government's executive branch, the position of "Assistant to the President of the United States" was established. Charged with the affairs of the White House, it was the immediate predecessor to the modern chief of staff. It was in 1953, under Republican President Dwight D. Eisenhower, that the president's preeminent assistant was designated the "White House Chief of Staff".
Assistant to the president became a rank generally shared by the chief of staff along with the other most senior presidential aides such as the White House counsel, the White House press secretary, and others. This new system did not catch on immediately however. Presidents Kennedy and Johnson still relied on their appointments secretaries instead, and it was not until the Nixon administration that the chief of staff took over maintenance of the President's schedule. This concentration of power in the Nixon and Ford White House (whose last chief of staff was Dick Cheney) led presidential candidate Jimmy Carter to campaign in 1976 with the promise that he would not appoint a chief of staff. And indeed, for the first two and a half years of his presidency, he appointed no one to the post.
The average tenure for a White House chief of staff is a little more than 18 months. The inaugural chief of staff, John R. Steelman, under Harry S. Truman, was the president's only chief of staff; Kenneth O'Donnell alone served in the position during John F. Kennedy's unfinished term of 34 months in office. Andrew Card and Denis McDonough each served at least one entire presidential term of office under presidents George W. Bush and Barack Obama, respectively.
Many White House chiefs of staff are former politicians, and continue their political careers after their stint in the White House. Lyndon Johnson's chief of staff W. Marvin Watson became the Postmaster General later in the term. Richard Nixon's chief of staff Alexander Haig, a U.S. Army officer with his capstone military position being CINCUSEUCOM/SACEUR, later became Secretary of State under Ronald Reagan. Cheney later became a congressman for Wyoming, Secretary of Defense under George H. W. Bush and vice president in the George W. Bush administration. Donald Rumsfeld was another chief of staff for Ford and subsequently served as secretary of defense both in the Ford administration and decades later in the George W. Bush administration. Rahm Emanuel left a senior leadership position in the House of Representatives to become Barack Obama's first chief of staff and subsequently became Mayor of Chicago. Jack Lew, President Obama's fourth chief of staff, was later appointed secretary of the treasury.
Role
Chris Whipple, author of The Gatekeepers: How the White House Chiefs of Staff Define Every Presidency, loosely describes the role of a White House chief of staff through his interview with former president Barack Obama: "During the last days of his presidency, Barack Obama observed: 'One of the things I've learned is that the big breakthroughs are typically the result of a lot of grunt work—just a whole lot of blocking and tackling.' Grunt work is what chiefs of staff do."
The responsibilities of the chief of staff are both managerial and advisory and may include the following:
Selecting senior White House staffers and supervising their offices' activities;
Managing and designing the overall structure of the White House staff system;
Control the flow of people into the Oval Office;
Manage the flow of information to and decisions from the Resolute Desk (with the White House staff secretary);
Directing, managing and overseeing all policy development
Protecting the political interests of the president;
Negotiating legislation and appropriating funds with United States Congress leaders, Cabinet secretaries, and extra-governmental political groups to implement the president's agenda; and
Advise on any and usually various issues set by the president.
These responsibilities have recently extended to firing of senior staff members. In the case of Omarosa Manigault Newman, who published a tape she alleged was made in the Situation Room of her firing by Chief of Staff John Kelly, the chief of staff said that his decision for her departure was non-negotiable and that "the staff and everyone on the staff works for me and not the president."
Richard Nixon's first chief of staff, H. R. Haldeman, garnered a reputation in Washington for the iron hand he wielded in the position—famously referring to himself as "the president's son-of-a-bitch", he was a rigid gatekeeper who would frequently meet with administration officials in place of the president, and then report himself to Nixon on the officials' talking points. Journalist Bob Woodward, in his books All the President's Men and The Secret Man, wrote that many of his sources, including Mark Felt. later revealed as "Deep Throat", displayed a genuine fear of Haldeman.
List of White House chiefs of staff
|-style="text-align:center;"
|colspan=8|VacantApril 30, 1973 – May 4, 1973 ()
|-style="text-align:center;"
|colspan=8|VacantJanuary 20, 1977 – July 18, 1979 ()
See also
White House Deputy Chief of Staff
Chief of Staff to the Vice President of the United States
Officer of the United States
Staff and line
Notes
References
United States presidential advisors
Chief Of Staff
Executive Office of the President of the United States
Cabinet of the United States
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measure%20of%20non-compactness
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Measure of non-compactness
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In functional analysis, two measures of non-compactness are commonly used; these associate numbers to sets in such a way that compact sets all get the measure 0, and other sets get measures that are bigger according to "how far" they are removed from compactness.
The underlying idea is the following: a bounded set can be covered by a single ball of some radius. Sometimes several balls of a smaller radius can also cover the set. A compact set in fact can be covered by finitely many balls of arbitrary small radius, because it is totally bounded. So one could ask: what is the smallest radius that allows to cover the set with finitely many balls?
Formally, we start with a metric space M and a subset X. The ball measure of non-compactness is defined as
α(X) = inf {r > 0 : there exist finitely many balls of radius r which cover X}
and the Kuratowski measure of non-compactness is defined as
β(X) = inf {d > 0 : there exist finitely many sets of diameter at most d which cover X}
Since a ball of radius r has diameter at most 2r, we have α(X) ≤ β(X) ≤ 2α(X).
The two measures α and β share many properties, and we will use γ in the sequel to denote either one of them. Here is a collection of facts:
X is bounded if and only if γ(X) < ∞.
γ(X) = γ(Xcl), where Xcl denotes the closure of X.
If X is compact, then γ(X) = 0. Conversely, if γ(X) = 0 and X is complete, then X is compact.
γ(X ∪ Y) = max(γ(X), γ(Y)) for any two subsets X and Y.
γ is continuous with respect to the Hausdorff distance of sets.
Measures of non-compactness are most commonly used if M is a normed vector space. In this case, we have in addition:
γ(aX) = |a| γ(X) for any scalar a
γ(X + Y) ≤ γ(X) + γ(Y)
γ(conv(X)) = γ(X), where conv(X) denotes the convex hull of X
Note that these measures of non-compactness are useless for subsets of Euclidean space Rn: by the Heine–Borel theorem, every bounded closed set is compact there, which means that γ(X) = 0 or ∞ according to whether X is bounded or not.
Measures of non-compactness are however useful in the study of infinite-dimensional Banach spaces, for example. In this context, one can prove that any ball B of radius r has α(B) = r and β(B) = 2r.
References
Józef Banaś, Kazimierz Goebel: Measures of noncompactness in Banach spaces, Institute of Mathematics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warszawa 1979
Kazimierz Kuratowski: Topologie Vol I, PWN. Warszawa 1958
R.R. Akhmerov, M.I. Kamenskii, A.S. Potapova, A.E. Rodkina and B.N. Sadovskii, Measure of Noncompactness and Condensing Operators, Birkhäuser, Basel 1992
Functional analysis
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] |
212936
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Naylor
|
John Naylor
|
John Naylor may refer to:
John Naylor (cricketer) (1930-1996), English cricketer
John Naylor (organist) (1838-1897), English organist
James Nayler (1618–1660), also known as John Naylor, English Quaker
John Naylor (astrologer), English astrologer
John D. Naylor (1893-1955), America athlete and college sports coach
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20H.%20Sununu
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John H. Sununu
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John Henry Sununu (born July 2, 1939) is an American politician who was the 75th governor of New Hampshire from 1983 to 1989 and later White House Chief of Staff under President George H. W. Bush. Born in Cuba to an American father and a Salvadoran mother, both of Arab descent, he is the first Arab-American and Hispanic American to be governor of New Hampshire and White House Chief of Staff. He is the father of John E. Sununu, the former United States Senator from New Hampshire, and Christopher Sununu, the current governor of New Hampshire. Sununu was the chairman of the New Hampshire Republican Party from 2009 to 2011.
Early life and education
Sununu was born in Havana, Cuba while his parents were visiting Cuba on a business trip. He is the son of John Saleh Sununu, an international film distributor, and Victoria Sununu (née Dada). His father's family came to the United States from Lebanon at the turn of the 20th century. His father's ancestry is from the Greek Orthodox Lebanese and Palestinian communities in Jerusalem and Beirut. John Saleh Sununu was born in Boston, Massachusetts. His mother Victoria Dada was born in El Salvador. Her family were also Greek Orthodox practitioners of Lebanese and Palestinian descent and had settled in Central America at the turn of the 20th century. Sununu visited Beirut, Lebanon as a child in the late 1940s. He grew up in New York City and graduated from the La Salle Military Academy on Long Island.
Sununu earned a Bachelor of Science degree in 1961, a Master of Science degree in 1963, and a Ph.D. in 1966 from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, all in mechanical engineering. He is a member of the Phi Sigma Kappa fraternity.
Career
From 1966 to 1982 he taught at Tufts University, where he was an associate professor of mechanical engineering. He was the associate dean of the University's College of Engineering from 1968 to 1973. As of 1988, Sununu retained his title and family tuition benefits from Tufts during an "extremely rare" unpaid six-year leave of absence that coincided with his governorship. He was on the Advisory Board of the Technology and Policy Program at MIT from 1984 until 1989.
A Republican, Sununu held a seat in the New Hampshire House of Representatives from 1973 to 1975.
Governor
Sununu became New Hampshire's 75th Governor on January 6, 1983, and was re-elected twice to hold the position for three consecutive terms. He was the first Arab-American Governor of New Hampshire. Sununu was chairman of the Coalition of Northeastern Governors, the Republican Governors Association and, in 1987, the National Governors Association.
Sununu angered some when he was the only governor of a U.S. state not to call for repeal of the UN General Assembly Resolution 3379 ("Zionism is racism"). He later reversed his position on this issue and supported the Republicans' pro-Israel 1988 platform.
White House Chief of Staff
Sununu was the first White House Chief of Staff for George H. W. Bush, holding the position from 1989 to 1991. Time magazine dubbed him "Bush's Bad Cop" on the front cover on May 21, 1990.
Sununu is considered to have engineered Bush's mid-term abandonment of his 1988 campaign promise of "no new taxes". In his report Losing Earth: The Decade We Almost Stopped Climate Change, Nathaniel Rich wrote that in November 1989 Sununu prevented the signing of a 67-nation commitment at the Noordwijk Climate Conference to freeze carbon dioxide emissions, with a reduction of 20 percent by 2005, and singled him out as a force starting coordinated efforts to bewilder the public on the topic of global warming and changing it from an urgent, nonpartisan and unimpeachable issue to a political one. Interviewed as to his involvement in preventing an agreement, he stated: "It couldn’t have happened, because, frankly, the leaders in the world at that time were at a stage where they were all looking how to seem like they were supporting the policy without having to make hard commitments that would cost their nations serious resources. Frankly, that’s about where we are today."
Sununu is responsible for recommending David Souter of New Hampshire to President George H. W. Bush for appointment to the Supreme Court of the United States, at the behest of his close friend, then-U.S. Senator and fellow New Hampshirite Warren Rudman. The Wall Street Journal described the events leading up to the appointment of the "liberal jurist" in a 2000 editorial, saying Rudman in his "Yankee Republican liberalism" took "pride in recounting how he sold Mr. Souter to gullible White House chief of staff John Sununu as a confirmable conservative. Then they both sold the judge to President Bush, who wanted above all else to avoid a confirmation battle [after Robert Bork]." Rudman wrote in his memoir that he had "suspected all along" that Souter would not "overturn activist liberal precedents." Sununu later said that he had "a lot of disappointment" about Souter's positions on the Court and would have preferred him to be more similar to Justice Antonin Scalia.
At the recommendation of George W. Bush, Sununu resigned his White House post on December 4, 1991. He remained at the White House as Counselor to the President until March 1, 1992.
Expenses controversy
As White House Chief of Staff, Sununu reportedly took personal trips, for skiing and other purposes, and classified them as official, for purposes such as conservation or promoting the Thousand Points of Light. The Washington Post wrote that Sununu's jets "took him to fat-cat Republican fund-raisers, ski lodges, golf resorts and even his dentist in Boston." Sununu had paid the government only $892 for his more than $615,000 worth of military jet travel. Sununu said that his use of the jets was necessary because he had to be near a telephone at all times for reasons of national security. Sununu became the subject of much late-night television humor over the incident. Sununu worsened the situation shortly afterwards when, after leaking rumors of financial difficulties in his family, he traveled to a rare stamp auction at Christie's auction house in New York City from Washington in a government limousine, spending $5,000 on rare stamps. Sununu then sent the car and driver back to Washington unoccupied while he returned on a corporate jet. In the course of one week, 45 newspapers ran editorials on Sununu, nearly all of them critical of his actions. Sununu resigned his White House post on December 4, 1991. Sununu repaid over $47,000 to the government for the flights on the orders of White House counsel C. Boyden Gray, with the help of the Republican Party. However, the reimbursements were at commercial rates, which are about one-tenth the cost of the actual flights; one ski trip to Vail, Colorado alone had cost taxpayers $86,330.
Other activities
Sununu co-hosted CNN's nightly Crossfire from March 1992 until February 1998.
From 1963 until 1983, he was President of JHS Engineering Company and Thermal Research Inc. In addition, he helped establish and worked as chief engineer for Astro Dynamics Inc. from 1960 until 1965.
Sununu is President of JHS Associates, Ltd. and is a partner in Trinity International Partners, a private financial firm. He is also a member of Honorary Council of Advisors for U.S.-Azerbaijan Chamber of Commerce (USACC).
Awards and honors
He was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 1990 for exceptionally significant creativity in energy systems development, in engineering education, and in integration of technological advances with public policy.
Legacy
In his report Losing Earth: The Decade We Almost Stopped Climate Change, Nathaniel Rich wrote that in November 1989 Sununu prevented the signing of a 67-nation commitment to freeze carbon dioxide emissions, with a reduction of 20 percent by 2005, and singled him out as a force starting coordinated efforts to bewilder the public on the topic of global warming and changing it from an urgent, nonpartisan and unimpeachable issue to a political issue, and an increasingly intractable one.
Personal life
Sununu is married to the former Nancy Hayes, and they have eight children, including former U.S. Senator John E. Sununu and Chris Sununu, formerly a member of the New Hampshire Executive Council and currently the Governor of New Hampshire. In recent years, he moved from Salem, New Hampshire to Hampton Falls, New Hampshire to be closer to relatives. He and his wife were subsequently elected as the town's honorary hog reeves and poundkeepers. The title is usually given to an unsuspecting newcomer each year.
Sununu's daughter Cathy is the president of the Portsmouth Museum of Art in Portsmouth, New Hampshire.
Sununu is a fluent Spanish speaker.
In popular culture
In the 1991 police comedy film The Naked Gun 2½: The Smell of Fear, Sununu is played by Peter Van Norden.
In January 1995, John Sununu made a cameo appearance on the first episode of the Delta Burke CBS sitcom, Women of the House, titled "Miss Sugarbaker Goes to Washington". In the episode, Suzanne Sugarbaker is a guest on the CNN political program, Crossfire. Michael Kinsley also appears.
In the 1996 film Mystery Science Theater 3000: The Movie, a clip (from This Island Earth) of a jet plane prompts Tom Servo to quip, "John Sununu goes for a haircut." The joke was a recurring one on the original series, as well.
Political endorsements
After the first presidential debate, on September 26, 2016, Sununu endorsed Donald Trump for President of the United States.
See also
List of U.S. state governors born outside the United States
References
External links
Profile at the Heartland Institute
Profile at SourceWatch
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
1939 births
American people of Arab descent
American people of Salvadoran descent
American politicians of Lebanese descent
American politicians of Palestinian descent
American politicians of Salvadoran descent
Chairpersons of the New Hampshire Republican State Committee
Governors of New Hampshire
Hispanic and Latino American state governors of the United States
Living people
Members of the New Hampshire House of Representatives
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
MIT School of Engineering alumni
New Hampshire Republicans
People from Havana
Republican Party state governors of the United States
Sununu family
White House Chiefs of Staff
|
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