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213241 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor%20of%20Switzerland | Chancellor of Switzerland | The Federal Chancellor is the head of the Federal Chancellery of Switzerland, the oldest Swiss federal institution, established at the initiative of Napoleon in 1803. The officeholder acts as the general staff of the seven-member Federal Council. The Chancellor is not a member of the government and the office is not at all comparable to that of the Chancellor of Germany or the Chancellor of Austria.
The current Chancellor, Walter Thurnherr, a member of The Centre from Aargau, was elected on 9 December 2015. He began his term on 1 January 2016. Thurnherr was reelected on 11 December 2019.
Election
The Federal Chancellor is elected for a four-year term by both chambers of the Federal Assembly, assembled together, at the same time (and by the same process) as it elects the Federal Council. The election is conducted by secret ballot using an exhaustive ballot in which each member of the Assembly can vote for any eligible person in the first two rounds, but only remaining candidates in subsequent rounds. If no candidate receives an absolute majority, the candidate(s) with the fewest votes is eliminated.
Vice-Chancellors
One or two Vice-Chancellors are also appointed. In contrast to the Chancellor, they are appointed directly by the Federal Council. Prior to 1852, the position was called the State Secretary of the Confederation. The two current Vice-Chancellors are André Simonazzi from Valais (Independent) since 2009 (also spokesman of the Federal Council) and Viktor Rossi from Bern (GLP/PVL) since 2019.
Role
The position is a political appointment and has only a technocratic role.
The Chancellor attends meetings of the Federal Council but does not have a vote. The Chancellor also prepares the Federal Council's reports to the Federal Assembly on its policy and activities. Still, the Chancellor's position is often referred to as that of an 'eighth Federal Councillor'. The chancellery is also responsible for the publication of all federal laws.
List of Federal Chancellors
See also
Politics of Switzerland
List of presidents of the Swiss Confederation
List of members of the Swiss Federal Council
Lists of office-holders
Sources
Hans-Urs Willi. "The Chancellor: a few historical highlights on the development of their person and the office from ancient times to the Middle Ages and the Zenden Republic of Valais". In Klaus, Michel (editor): Quelle chance pour nos institutions? Mélanges offerts à Monsieur François Couchepin, chancelier de la Confédération à l'occasion de son 60e anniversaire / Festschrift für Bundeskanzler François Couchepin zum 60. Geburtstag. Schlieren 1995. Translated by Paul Suffrin and Elsbeth Hagan.
References
Notes
External links
Official website
A Walk through the History of the Federal Chancellery, in German, French and Italian, on the web site of the Federal Chancellery
01
.
Federal Chancellors
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213242 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-Atlas%208 | Mercury-Atlas 8 | Mercury-Atlas 8 (MA-8) was the fifth United States crewed space mission, part of NASA's Mercury program. Astronaut Walter M. Schirra Jr., orbited the Earth six times in the Sigma 7 spacecraft on October 3, 1962, in a nine-hour flight focused mainly on technical evaluation rather than on scientific experimentation. This was the longest U.S. crewed orbital flight yet achieved in the Space Race, though well behind the several-day record set by the Soviet Vostok 3 earlier in the year. It confirmed the Mercury spacecraft's durability ahead of the one-day Mercury-Atlas 9 mission that followed in 1963.
Planning began for the third U.S. orbital mission in February 1962, aiming for a six-or-seven-orbit flight to build on the previous three-orbit missions. NASA officially announced the mission on June 27, and the flight plan was finalized in late July. The mission focused on engineering tests rather than on scientific experimentation. The mission finally launched on the morning of October 3, having been delayed two weeks because of problems with the Atlas booster. A series of minor booster problems during launch and a faulty temperature controller in Schirra's pressure suit were the only technical problems noted during the flight. The spacecraft orbited in both automated and passive flight modes for prolonged periods while the pilot monitored it and carried out some minor scientific experiments. After six orbits, the capsule landed in the Pacific Ocean half a mile from the recovery carrier, and was hoisted aboard for Schirra to disembark.
The scientific results of the mission were mixed. The astronaut returned healthy after nine hours of confinement in a low-gravity environment. Observation of the Earth's surface proved unproductive, however, because of heavy cloud cover and bad photographic exposures. The public and political reaction was muted compared with that of earlier missions, as the Cuban Missile Crisis soon eclipsed the Space Race in the news. The mission was a technical success: all the engineering objectives were completed without significant malfunctions, and the spacecraft used even less fuel than expected. This confirmed the capabilities of the Mercury spacecraft and allowed NASA to plan with confidence for a day-long flight, MA-9, which had been an early goal of the Mercury program.
Crew
Backup crew
Mission parameters
Mass:
Perigee: 156 km
Apogee: 285 km
Inclination: 32.5°
Period: 88.91 min
Background
By 1962, both the United States and the Soviet Union had flown two solo spaceflights in the Space Race. There was a widespread perception, however, that the United States was falling behind; its two missions had been suborbital and had lasted only a few minutes. The Soviet missions had both orbited the Earth, and the second, Vostok 2, had remained in orbit for a full day. Using the new high-powered Atlas booster, the coming orbital Mercury missions were expected to reduce the gap between the two countries.
NASA announced the first two orbital missions at the end of November 1961, shortly after the Mercury-Atlas 5 (MA-5) test flight, which had carried a chimpanzee and twice orbited the Earth. MA-6 was planned as the first orbital flight, with John Glenn as the primary crew and Scott Carpenter as his backup. The follow-up mission, MA-7, was to be crewed by Deke Slayton, with Wally Schirra as his backup. In February 1962, the first draft planning began for MA-8, the third orbital mission, with a goal of "six or seven" orbits, as an intermediate step towards a day-long 18-orbit flight. The decision to move to six orbits rather than seven was driven by the mission rules on contingency recovery operations; a seventh orbit would have required significant additional recovery forces to be able to reach the capsule anywhere on its trajectory within eighteen hours. The six-orbit profile had other effects on the recovery plans; the optimum recovery point was moved to the Pacific Ocean, rather than the Atlantic.
On March 15, 1962, NASA announced that Slayton was medically unfit and would be replaced by Scott Carpenter as the prime crew for the MA-7 mission. The decision to replace him with Carpenter, rather than his official backup Schirra, was justified by the large amount of training Carpenter had managed while preparing for the long-delayed MA-6 mission. After the success of the MA-6 and MA-7 missions, both of three orbits, pressure began to mount to fly an extended mission. On June 27, 1962, NASA first announced its plan for the upcoming MA-8 mission, which would last for "as many as six" orbits. Schirra was named as the prime crew for MA-8, with Gordon Cooper as his backup, repeating the backup-one fly-one pattern set by the previous two missions. The pattern would be repeated for MA-9, flown by Cooper, and the planned but cancelled MA-10, which would have been flown by Cooper's backup, Alan Shepard.
The Soviet Union had not flown any further flights by the time MA-7 landed, putting both sides of the Space Race even at two orbital flights each. While the Soviets had flown for longer, the Mercury program was gaining momentum, with a six-orbit mission currently planned and press speculation about a one-day mission. However, in mid-August, the Soviet Union launched two orbital missions, Vostok 3 and Vostok 4, within a day of each other. The two craft were in intersecting orbits, but despite much speculation did not attempt to rendezvous; they completed missions of 64 and 48 orbits respectively, just under four and three days, landing within a few minutes of each other on August 15. This was far ahead of anything currently planned for Mercury, and NASA quickly considered the prospect of modifying a capsule to have an active manoeuvring and rendezvous capability, using technology being developed for the Gemini program. However, after examining the time and safety implications of this proposal, it was decided to abandon the idea and continue with the planned six-orbit mission.
Mission objectives
The original MA-8 flight plan was issued on July 27; although it was revised slightly in August and September, it remained broadly unchanged until launch. This was an improvement on the situation with MA-7, which had had frequent and extensive alterations, making it difficult for the pilot to train efficiently. The aim was for the flight to be an engineering-oriented mission, focusing on the operation of the spacecraft rather than on scientific experimentation, to help pave the way for a future long-duration mission. Schirra chose the name Sigma 7 for the capsule in reflection of this focus. using the mathematical symbol for summation as appropriate for an "engineering evaluation", and the "7" to refer to the seven Mercury astronauts.
The mission objectives involved evaluating the performance of the spacecraft over six orbits, as well as the effect of prolonged microgravity on the pilot. The specific spacecraft systems would also be evaluated and tested, and the worldwide tracking and communications network would be tested to see how well it would stand up in an extended mission. The flight control experiments included manually turning the spacecraft around, yaw and pitch manoeuvres to determine how easy it was to control the spacecraft attitude, realignment of the onboard gyroscopes in flight, and leaving the spacecraft to drift on-orbit.
Four non-engineering scientific experiments were planned, two requiring the active involvement of the astronaut and two completely passive. The first involved the astronaut watching for four high-powered flares while passing over Woomera, Australia, and for a xenon arc lamp while passing over Durban, South Africa. The second involved two sets of photographs to be taken using a 70mm Hasselblad camera as well as conventional color photographs of the Earth from orbit. Focusing on geological features and cloud patterns, photographs were to be taken through a set of colored filters provided by the U. S. Weather Bureau. The latter were intended to help calibrate the spectral reflectivity of clouds and surface features, which in turn would help improve the cameras on future weather satellites. The passive experimentation packages were two sets of radiation-sensitive photographic films, from the Goddard Space Flight Center and the U. S. Navy School of Aviation Medicine, and a set of eight different experimental ablative materials attached to the outside of the spacecraft to test their performance during re-entry.
Spacecraft modifications
The spacecraft and booster were almost identical to those used on the two preceding Mercury orbital flights. The spacecraft had heating blankets removed from the retrorocket motors, to save weight, and a SOFAR bomb was added. This would be ejected at the time the main parachute was deployed, and would help recovery crews find the spacecraft after it landed. A number of modifications were made to the reaction control system, and the communications equipment was upgraded.
The Atlas booster (Vehicle 113D) had been modified since the previous flight, and now included baffled fuel injectors and a new hypergolic fuel igniter instead of the original pyrotechnic igniter. This would eliminate problems with combustion instability and allow the booster to be released immediately upon attaining full thrust instead of being held on the pad for a few moments. There were considerable delays getting the vehicle ready for flight. It was supposed to be shipped to Cape Canaveral in July, but after failing the factory composite test at Convair, the planned delivery of the Atlas was delayed a month.
Mission preparation
The capsule built for the mission, Mercury Spacecraft No. 16, had been delivered to Cape Canaveral on January 16, 1962. The Atlas LV-3B booster assigned to the mission, No. 113-D, was accepted by NASA at the Convair plant on July 27 and delivered on August 8. After the delayed arrival of the booster at the Cape, the Air Force then revealed that two recent static firings of MA-3 engines had suffered turbopump failures, and that the explosion of Atlas 11F one second after liftoff in April had been traced to a malfunction of the sustainer turbopump. All of these failures had occurred while the sustainer HS valve was moving to the open position and while running untested hardware modifications. The Air Force recommended that NASA conduct a static firing test of 113D just to be on the safe side. On September 6, the tests were scheduled to continue until September 24, which allowed for a probable launch on October 3. A static firing test on the pad would expose the sustainer turbopump to the failure mode in question. In the meantime, a fuel leak caused by a faulty weld in a piece of plumbing caused further delays. The static firing test was carried out on September 8 and the booster reported as ready for assembly on September 18.
Concerns had been raised that the radiation belt produced in orbit by the recent Operation Dominic nuclear tests would be dangerous to crewed space missions, but an extensive study announced in early September declared that it was safe to fly. While the outside of the capsule was expected to receive a dosage of around 500 röntgens, the study concluded that shielding and the effect of the spacecraft structure would reduce this to around 8 röntgens experienced by the astronaut, well within established tolerance limits.
Schirra began training for the mission in early July, logging 29 hours in simulators as well as 31 hours in the spacecraft itself. This included multiple systems tests and three simulated flights, culminating in a six-and-a-half-hour simulated flight on September 29, with the spacecraft and booster fully stacked on the pad. Highlights of the training period included a visit from President John F. Kennedy on September 11.
The mission was reported as ready to go—"except for the weather"—on October 1. The major concern with the weather was a major tropical storm in the Atlantic, though there were also worries over a series of typhoons in the Pacific which could pose a problem for recovery operations. On the evening of October 2, the decision was taken to launch the next morning.
Launch
Schirra was awakened at 1:40 am ET on the morning of October 3, and after a hearty breakfast—including a bluefish he had speared the day before—and a brief physical he left for the launchpad at around 4 am. He entered the spacecraft at 4:41 am ET, where he found a steak sandwich left for him in the 'glove compartment', and began the pre-launch checks. The launch countdown proceeded as planned until 6:15, when there was a 15-minute hold to allow the Canary Islands tracking station to repair a radar set. The countdown resumed at 6:30 and proceeded to booster ignition with no further delays. Liftoff proceeded smoothly, but there was a momentary clockwise roll transient at liftoff, which reached 7.83° per second and approached 80% of the required threshold to trigger the ASIS abort system. This was later identified as being due to a slight misalignment of the main engines and was kept under control by the booster's vernier thrusters. Sustainer engine thrust during the launch was slightly below normal and fuel consumption higher than normal due to a suspected leak in the sustainer fuel system.
Around three and a half minutes into the flight, Deke Slayton, the capsule communicator, cut in to ask Schirra "Are you a turtle today?" Schirra, unfazed, announced that he was switching to the on-board voice recorder (rather than the broadcast radio circuit) to leave his answer; the mission communications transcript noted this as "[correct answer recorded]". The "turtle club" was a recurrent joke among the astronaut corps; on being challenged with this question, the correct response was "you bet your sweet ass I am", with a failure to give the password being punishable by buying a round of drinks. Schirra noted later that he "wasn't ready for all the world to hear it", and chose to use the on-board recorder to avoid saying the answer over the air.
Because the Atlas was flying on a slightly lofted trajectory, the booster engines cut off 2 seconds earlier than planned, but the sustainer engine burned for about 10 seconds longer than intended, giving an extra of velocity and putting the spacecraft in a slightly higher orbit than planned. Initial analysis of the trajectory confirmed that the capsule could remain in a stable orbit for at least seven orbits, ensuring there would be no need for an early de-orbit.
Orbital activities
After separating from the Atlas booster, Schirra stabilized the spacecraft and slowly cartwheeled into the correct attitude; he deliberately kept the motion slow to conserve fuel, and was able to position the capsule using half a percent of his fuel reserves. He briefly tracked the spent booster, which was rotating slowly past, but made no attempt to move towards it. As the spacecraft moved across the Atlantic, he turned his attention to testing manual control of the spacecraft, which he found sloppy compared to the fly-by-wire system.
Crossing over the eastern coast of Africa, he began to feel overheated; this problem was also apparent to the ground controllers, who were having a debate with the flight surgeon over whether it was safe to continue or if the mission should be ended after the first orbit. The flight director, Christopher Kraft, followed the surgeon's advice to see if the problem would settle, and gave the go for a second orbit. Schirra eventually stabilized the problem over time, slowly dialing the suit's control knob to a high cooling setting; he compared the heat to that of "mowing a lawn in Texas".
Over Australia, Schirra watched for a flare launched from the ground, but it was occluded by clouds; he was, however, able to see lightning and the lit outline of Brisbane. Through the night pass over the Pacific, he tested the capsule's on-board periscope, though he found it difficult to use and quickly covered it up as soon as the sun rose. Crossing over Mexico, he reported that he was in "chimp configuration", with the capsule running entirely on automatic without any input from the pilot, and as he began his second orbit began testing a yaw maneuver using the Earth through the main window as a reference, rather than via the much-maligned periscope.
On the second orbit, he confirmed the existence of Glenn's "fireflies", the shower of small bright particles first reported on MA-6, and during the night section practiced yaw manoeuvres using first the Moon and then known stars as reference points. The second proved difficult to work with, as the small windows of the Mercury capsule gave a very limited field of view, making it hard to identify constellations. Travelling across the Pacific, he again fell back into automatic flight, chatting with Gus Grissom at the Hawaiian tracking station about the qualities of the manual control system.
As he began the third orbit, Schirra disconnected the spacecraft's gyroscopes, turned off part of the electrical power system, and let the capsule drift. He took advantage of this quiet period to test his spatial awareness and motor control, which he found was broadly unaffected by weightlessness, and to eat a light meal. He powered the spacecraft back up over the Indian Ocean, and continued over the Pacific. At Hawaii, he was given clearance for a full six-orbit mission, and as he crossed over towards California shut down the electrical power for a second period of drifting flight, during which he occupied himself taking photographs with the onboard camera.
On the fourth orbit, drifting in an inverted spacecraft with the Earth 'above' him, Schirra continued his photography and attempted—unsuccessfully—to spot the Echo 1 satellite while passing over East Africa. As he approached California, he spoke briefly to John Glenn in a two-minute conversation broadcast live across the United States on radio and television. Problems began to recur with the pressure suit, with water condensing on the faceplate; Schirra, concerned about the internal temperature, avoided opening the visor to clean it for fear that the suit temperature would misbehave again.
By the fifth orbit, Schirra had begun to relax, commenting that it was the first rest he had had since December 1961. He used a small bungee cord exercise device for "a little bit of stretching", before dropping into manual attitude control, where he reported a sudden burst of oversteering and high fuel use. Over the Atlantic he returned to observation and photography; he failed to spot the planned high-power light near Durban, in South Africa, due to cloud cover, but did make out the brightly lit city of Port Elizabeth. Over the Philippines, he reported on his fuel status; after four and a half of the planned six orbits, he still had eighty percent remaining in both manual and automatic fuel tanks. Passing over Quito, Ecuador, towards the end of his fifth orbit, Schirra was asked by the tracking station if he had any message to pass on "in Spanish to the fellows down here", and he made some comments on how beautiful the country appeared from orbit, ending with a cheery "Buenos Dias, y'all!" Schirra later noted that he was "furious" at this point—he was preparing for re-entry and didn't want to be distracted with making public statements.<ref>Schirra's Space, p. 88</ref>
The sixth orbit was dominated by preparations for re-entry, though Schirra was able to take a last set of photographs of South America and try another set of spatial-orientation tests. He armed the retrorockets passing over the western Pacific, and fired the first one at 8:52 mission elapsed time. The automatic control system held the capsule "steady as a rock" during this period, though after the retrorockets had stopped firing Schirra noted that the system had burned almost a quarter of its fuel in the process.
Reentry and recovery
As the spacecraft continued towards re-entry after the de-orbit burn, Schirra used the high-power thrusters to put the capsule in the correct orientation, noting that the attitude control felt "sloppy". He then enabled the rate stabilization control system, an automatic control method which used up fuel at a very high rate, to maintain control during re-entry; this was a specific engineering request, and it dismayed Schirra to see the fuel he had husbanded for six orbits be used so quickly.
The local recovery group in the prime target area, in the central Pacific, consisted of an aircraft carrier, , in the center of the landing area, with three destroyers strung out along the orbital path. Four search aircraft were also assigned to the area, and three recovery helicopters were based aboard Kearsarge.Kearsarge picked up the capsule on radar while still from landing; further up the landing path, the destroyer reported a sonic boom as it passed overhead. At , Schirra deployed the drogue parachute, and then the main parachute at . The landing was surprisingly precise, from the target point and from Kearsarge, and Schirra joked that he was on course for the recovery carrier's "number three elevator". The capsule hit the water, submerged, and bobbed to the surface again, righting itself after about 30 seconds. Three pararescue swimmers were dropped by one of the helicopters to help him climb out, but Schirra radioed that he would prefer to be towed to the carrier, and a whaleboat from Kearsarge was sent with a line.
Forty minutes after landing, Sigma 7 was hoisted aboard Kearsarge; five minutes later, Schirra blew the explosive hatch and climbed out to a waiting crowd. After doing this, examinations showed clear bruising on his hand from operating the heavy ejector switch, which he felt provided an important vindication for fellow pilot Gus Grissom's hatch expulsion accident during the Liberty Bell 7 mission. Grissom had maintained that the hatch blew without his input; the fact that he had no bruising was seen as evidence that he had not blown the hatch early and sunk his capsule, but that it was a mechanical malfunction.
Schirra remained aboard for three days of medical tests and debriefing before disembarking, while the spacecraft was offloaded at Midway Island and transferred to an aircraft for further transport. It was returned to Cape Canaveral for analysis, with the long-term intention of putting it on permanent display.
The spent Atlas booster re-entered the atmosphere on October 4, the day after the launch, and burned up.
Post-flight
The post-flight analysis reported no major malfunctions—the only troublesome anomaly being the suit temperature controls— and all the engineering objectives of the mission were deemed successfully completed. The fuel-conservation measures were found to have worked particularly well, with even less fuel than anticipated being consumed; despite the technical changes, the official report gave full credit for this to the pilot. The medical analysis found no significant physiological effects from nine hours of weightlessness, and noted that Schirra had received no significant radiation exposure. Analysis of the radiation-sensitive plates confirmed that there had been a very low radioactive flux inside the spacecraft, and the six ablative materials tested were all deemed broadly satisfactory despite some difficulty comparing them to each other.
Scientifically, the light-observation experiments were unsuccessful, as both target locations were covered by thick cloud cover. However, Schirra was able to view lightning near Woomera, and noted the lights of a city a few hundred miles from Durban. The filtered photography for the Weather Bureau worked as planned, with 15 photographs taken; the conventional color photography was less successful, with several of the 14 photographs unusable due to overexposure or excess cloud cover. In the end, the conventional photographs were not used for scientific examination due to these problems. Schirra noted that the sheer amount of cloud coverage, worldwide, could provide problems for future activity of this kind; however, Africa, and the south-western United States, were perfectly clear. Postflight medical examination of Schirra disclosed nothing significant other than a degree of orthostatic hypotension caused by sitting inside the cramped capsule for hours.
Schirra's post-flight report noted the "fireflies" seen on the previous two missions, and emphasized the remarkable visual effect of the thick band of the atmosphere visible around the horizon. However, he was unimpressed with the view of Earth from space; the amount of detail he could make out compared well with that from high-flying aircraft, and he told debriefers that it was "nothing new" compared to flight at . Overall, he concluded that Sigma 7 was on "the top of the list" of aircraft he had flown, displacing the F8F Bearcat, a naval piston-engined fighter, while the mission itself had been "textbook".
Schirra gave a public lecture at Rice University after returning to Houston, where he received a motorcade through the city. However, the Cuban Missile Crisis had been steadily escalating through September, and helped drive discussion of Schirra's successful flight down the news schedules; public concern about the relative effectiveness of Soviet and American space launchers was displaced by a more pressing concern over Soviet military rockets. He visited Washington, D.C., to receive the NASA Distinguished Service Medal from President Kennedy on October 16, the same day Kennedy had first seen U-2 photographs of missile sites in Cuba; the meeting was friendly and informal despite the circumstances. Robert F. Kennedy, Schirra later noted, took him aside and sounded him out about a potential political career, the same way he had sounded out John Glenn a year earlier. Unlike Glenn, however, Schirra politely turned the suggestion down, and chose to remain with NASA. His later career saw him commanding the backup crew for the first Gemini mission, then the prime crew for the 1965 Gemini 6A mission, where he flew the first active rendezvous between two spacecraft - earlier plans for it to conduct the first on-orbit docking had been cancelled - and finally commanding the first Apollo mission, Apollo 7, in 1968. He retired from NASA in the summer of 1969, the only astronaut to fly on Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo.
The success of MA-8 made the preparation for MA-9 "considerably easier", though it did cause some observers to suggest the program should be ended abruptly in order to conclude on a clear note of success, rather than risking another—potentially catastrophic—flight. However, this was not a view shared by the NASA planners, who had been pressing for a one-day Mercury mission since mid-1961, when it first began to seem technically feasible. To prepare the spacecraft for a long-duration mission involved trimming as much on-board weight as possible to offset the additional consumables required. The changes made to the capsule hardware on MA-8 were now used to justify the removal of of control equipment and of radio equipment, as well as the periscope which Schirra had found so unhelpful. In total, there were 183 alterations listed between the capsules for the MA-8 and MA-9 missions. The spacecraft was to be equipped with several cameras, building on Schirra's photographic work, though weight and power limitations did restrict the amount of scientific experiments that could be scheduled.
Spacecraft location
After display at the U.S. Space & Rocket Center and Johnson Space Center, the capsule was moved to the United States Astronaut Hall of Fame near Titusville, Florida. Since the recent relocation of the Astronaut Hall of Fame to the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, Sigma 7'' has most recently been placed on display at the complex's new Heroes and Legends Hall.
Notes
References
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External links
Spacecraft launched in 1962
Human spaceflights
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Spacecraft which reentered in 1962
Spacecraft launched by Atlas rockets
Wally Schirra | [
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|
213243 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-Atlas%209 | Mercury-Atlas 9 | Mercury-Atlas 9 was the final crewed space mission of the U.S. Mercury program, launched on May 15, 1963, from Launch Complex 14 at Cape Canaveral, Florida. The spacecraft, named Faith 7, completed 22 Earth orbits before splashing down in the Pacific Ocean, piloted by astronaut Gordon Cooper, then a United States Air Force major. The Atlas rocket was No. 130-D, and the Mercury spacecraft was No. 20. , this mission marks the last time an American was launched alone to conduct an entirely solo orbital mission.
Crew
Backup crew
Flight directors
Chris Kraft—Red team
John Hodge—Blue team
Mission parameters
Mass:
Perigee: 161 km
Apogee: 267 km
Inclination: 32.5°
Period: 88.5 min
Mission background
Debate over Mercury project continuation
The Mercury-Atlas 8 flight of Walter Schirra on October 3, 1962, had been so nearly perfect that some at NASA thought that the United States should quit while it was ahead and make MA-8 the last Mercury mission rather than risk a future disaster. The argument that MA-8 should be the last Mercury mission held that NASA had pushed the first-generation Mercury hardware far enough, and taking more chances on another longer mission was not warranted; instead, NASA should move on to the Gemini program.
Manned Spacecraft Center officials, however, believed that the Mercury team should be given the chance to test a human in space for a full day. In addition, all of the Soviet single-seat Vostok spacecraft launched after Vostok 1 lasted for more than a day; thus the Mercury 9 flight would bring the Mercury spacecraft up to the same level as that of the Soviets.
Mission planning
In September 1962, NASA concluded negotiations with McDonnell to modify four Mercury spacecraft (#12, #15, #17 and #20) to a configuration that supported a one-day mission. Such changes to the spacecraft included the removal of the periscope, a redundant set of thrusters, and the addition of extra batteries and oxygen tanks.
In November 1962, Gordon Cooper was chosen to pilot the MA-9 mission and Alan Shepard was picked as backup.
On April 22, 1963, Atlas booster 130-D and Mercury spacecraft #20 were stacked on the launch pad at Launch Complex 14.
Because MA-9 would orbit over nearly every part of the world from 32.5 degrees north to 32.5 degrees south, a total of 28 ships, 171 aircraft, and 18,000 servicemen were assigned to support the mission.
The Atlas booster used for MA-9 sported several technical improvements, most notably an enhanced propulsion system with a hypergolic igniter that would eliminate the need for hold-down time at launch to prevent rough combustion. With seven successful Mercury launches in a row, the failures of the early days seemed like a distant memory by early 1963 and NASA officials had a high degree of confidence in the Atlas that overshadowed its still spotty launch record. At the first meeting of senior MSFC officials for the year (January 11), Walter Williams noted that the Air Force had yet to provide an explanation for two Atlas F failures during the second half of 1962. Until the investigation committees released their findings and cleared the Atlas D of guilt by association, Cooper's flight could be delayed. During the seven months between Schirra's and Cooper's flights, there were five failures of Atlas D vehicles (one of them an Atlas-Agena, the rest operational ICBM tests). NASA did not let its guard down on the Atlas, despite the recent high degree of success enjoyed by Project Mercury.
When Atlas 130D received its factory rollout on January 30, it was found to have damaged wiring and had to be sent back for repairs. At his first press conference on February 8, Gordon Cooper admitted to not knowing much about the booster problems and focused instead on the enhancements made to his Mercury capsule. The numerous added equipment and consumables for the day-long mission boosted the weight of Faith 7 considerably; it now weighed over .
On March 15, the Atlas was rolled out of the factory a second time and passed tests with flying colors; Convair engineers expressed confidence that this "was their best bird yet." The booster actuators were offset slightly to prevent a recurrence of the liftoff roll transient that occurred on Mercury-Atlas 8. Several minor modifications were made to 130D as a result of postflight findings from failed Atlas launches over the previous year. These included adding a plastic liner to the inside of the turbopumps to prevent the turbine blades from rubbing against the casing and triggering an explosion from a friction spark, improvements to the wiring of the programmer, and additional steps taken to prevent the possibility of a fire breaking out in or around the thrust section.
The upgraded MA-2 engines featured baffled injector heads and a hypergolic igniter, eliminating any concerns of rough combustion or the need for hold-down time prior to liftoff. As such, the RCC (Rough Combustion Cutoff) sensors on 130D were operated open loop and for qualitative purposes only. The propellant conserved by not performing the three second hold-down time would allow a longer booster burn. On Mercury-Atlas 8, 112 gallons of fuel were removed prior to launch and so an extended burn was not possible even with eliminating the hold-down, but on this flight there would be enough propellant to extend burn time.
Cooper's decision to name his capsule Faith 7 was based on the faith he had in the Atlas booster and Mercury capsule to carry out the mission successfully, although it was reported in The Washington Post that some NASA officials were skeptical of the idea.
Mission highlights
When Cooper boarded Faith 7 at 6:36 AM on the morning of May 14, he found a little gift that had been left for him. Alan Shepard, knowing that Cooper would have a new version of the urine containment device that Shepard did not have on his Mercury-Redstone 3 flight (forcing him to relieve himself during a long countdown hold), had left behind a toilet plunger as a joke. Instructions on the handle said, "Remove Before Launch". The gift did not make the trip. Neither did Cooper that day. Various problems with radar in Bermuda and the diesel engine that rolled back the gantry caused the launch to be cancelled until May 15.
At 8:04:13 a.m. EST, May 15, 1963, Faith 7 was launched from Launch Complex 14. At T+60 seconds, the Atlas started its pitch program. Shortly afterward, MA-9 passed through max Q. At T+2 minutes 14 seconds Cooper felt BECO (Booster Engine Cutoff) and staging. The two Atlas booster engines had been left behind. The Launch Escape Tower was then jettisoned. At T+3 minutes the cabin pressure sealed at . Cooper reported, "Faith 7 is all go."
At about T+5 minutes was SECO (Sustainer Engine Cutoff) and Faith 7 entered orbit at 17,547 mph (7,844 m/s). After the spacecraft separated and turned around to orbit attitude, Cooper watched the spent Atlas lag behind and tumble for about eight minutes. Over Zanzibar on the first orbit, he learned that the orbital parameters were good enough for at least 20 orbits. As the spacecraft passed over Guaymas, Mexico still on the first orbit, capsule communicator Gus Grissom told Cooper the ground computers said he was "go for seven orbits."
Atlas performance was overall excellent. The upgraded propulsion system worked well, with slightly above nominal booster engine thrust. Measurable propellant slosh occurred from T+55 to T+120 seconds, caused by slightly lower than nominal autopilot gains. The flight trajectory was slightly more lofted than nominal due to the DC voltage in the booster electrical system being about 0.7 volts above normal, but this was counteracted by the higher than nominal booster engine performance. BECO took place at T+127 seconds, escape tower jettison at T+141 seconds, and SECO at T+301 seconds.
At the start of the third orbit, Cooper checked his list of 11 experiments that were on his schedule. His first task was to eject a six-inch (152 mm) diameter sphere, equipped with xenon strobe lights, from the nose of the spacecraft. This experiment was designed to test his ability to spot and track a flashing beacon in orbit. At T+3 hours 25 minutes, Cooper flipped the switch and heard and felt the beacon detach from the spacecraft. He tried to see the flashing light in the approaching dusk and on the nightside pass, but failed to do so. On the fourth orbit, he did spot the beacon and saw it pulsing. Cooper reported to Scott Carpenter on Kauai, Hawaii, "I was with the little rascal all night." He also spotted the beacon on his fifth and sixth orbits.
Also on the sixth orbit, at about T+9 hours, Cooper set up cameras, adjusted the spacecraft attitude and set switches to deploy a tethered balloon from the nose of the spacecraft. It was a PET film balloon painted fluorescent orange, inflated with nitrogen and attached to a nylon line from the antenna canister. A strain gauge in the antenna canister would measure differences in atmospheric drag between the perigee and the apogee. Cooper tried several times to eject the balloon, but it failed to eject.
Cooper passed Schirra's orbital record on the seventh orbit while he was engaged in radiation experiments. After 10 hours, the Zanzibar tracking station informed Cooper the flight was a go for 17 orbits. Cooper was orbiting the Earth every 88 minutes 45 seconds at an inclination of 32.55 degrees to the equator.
His scheduled rest period was during orbits 9 through 13. He had a dinner of powdered roast beef mush and some water, took pictures of Asia and reported the spacecraft condition. Cooper was not sleepy and during orbit 9 took some of the best photos made during his flight. He took pictures of the Tibetan highlands and of the Himalayas.
During the flight Cooper reported that he could see roads, rivers, small villages, and even individual houses if the lighting and background conditions were right. This was later confirmed by the two-person Gemini crews that later flew (which included Cooper). Cooper slept intermittently the next six hours, during orbits 10 through 13. He woke from time to time and took more pictures, taped status reports, and kept adjusting his spacesuit temperature control which kept getting too hot or too cold.
On his fourteenth orbit, Cooper took an assessment of the spacecraft condition. The oxygen supply was sufficient. The peroxide fuel for attitude control was 69 percent in the automatic tank and 95 percent in the manual one. On the fifteenth orbit, he spent most of the time calibrating equipment and synchronizing clocks.
When he entered night on the sixteenth orbit, Cooper pitched the spacecraft to slowly follow the plane of the ecliptic. Through the spacecraft window he viewed the zodiacal light and night airglow layer. He took pictures of these two "dim light" phenomena from Zanzibar, across the Earth's nightside, to Canton Island. The pictures were later found to have been overexposed, but they still contained valuable data. Cooper obtained photographs of North Africa, the Arabian peninsula, and eastern India, Burma, and the Himalaya region, as well as a few images of the Pacific and Indian Ocean.
Worldwide weather conditions during the flight were extremely favorable with most of the regions of the Earth the spacecraft passed over dominated by high pressure zones--in the three previous flights, only the Western Sahara and Southwestern United States were reliably cloudless. Nonetheless, haze and air pollution impeded visibility for Cooper--despite passing over Los Angeles and Calcutta, he could see neither city due to smog.
At the start of the 17th orbit while crossing Cape Canaveral, Florida, Cooper transmitted slow scan black and white television pictures to Mercury Control. The picture showed a ghostly image of the astronaut. In the murky picture, a helmet and hoses could be seen. It was the first time an American astronaut had sent back television images from space.
On the 17th and 18th orbits, Cooper took infrared weather photos and moonset Earth-limb pictures. He also resumed Geiger counter measurements of radiation. He sang during orbits 18 and 19, and marveled at the greenery of Earth. It was nearing 30 hours since liftoff.
Technical problems on the flight
On the 19th orbit, the first sign of trouble appeared when the spacecraft 0.05 g (0.5 m/s2) light came on. However, this turned out to be a faulty indicator, and the spacecraft was not reentering. On the 20th orbit, Cooper lost all attitude readings. The 21st orbit saw a short-circuit occur in the bus bar serving the 250-volt main inverter. This left the automatic stabilization and control system without electric power.
On the 21st orbit, John Glenn on board the tracking ship Coastal Sentry Quebec near Kyūshū, Japan, helped Cooper prepare a revised checklist for retrofire. Due to the system malfunctions, many of the steps would have to be done manually. Only Hawaii and Zanzibar were in radio range on this last orbit, but communications were good. Cooper noted that the carbon dioxide level was rising in the cabin and in his spacesuit. He told Carpenter as he passed over Zanzibar, "Things are beginning to stack up a little." Throughout the problems, Cooper remained cool, calm and collected.
Cooper did not experience much of an appetite during the flight and ate only because it was scheduled. The food containers and water dispenser system proved unwieldy and he was not able to properly prepare freeze-dried food packages, so he limited his consumption to cubed food and bite-sized sandwiches. Cooper found the cubed food largely unpalatable, which contributed to his lack of eating. He had no difficulty urinating during the flight and the urine collection system worked well, although transferring urine to storage bags in the cramped capsule proved difficult. Cooper took several naps during the flight, lasting about an hour each. He experienced some discomfort from the pressure suit compressing his knees, which he alleviated by moving his feet slightly upward. An hour and 20 minutes before retrofire, Cooper took a dextroamphetamine tablet to ensure his alertness; he reported not feeling any sleepiness for the remainder of the flight.
At the end of the 21st orbit, Cooper again contacted Glenn on Coastal Sentry Quebec. He reported the spacecraft was in retro attitude and holding manually. The checklist was complete. Glenn gave a ten-second countdown to retrofire. Cooper kept the spacecraft aligned at a 34° pitchdown angle and manually fired the retrorockets on "Mark!".
Cooper had drawn lines on the window to stay aligned with constellations as he flew the craft. He later said he used his wristwatch to time the burn and his eyes to maintain attitude.
Fifteen minutes later Faith 7 landed just four miles (6 km) from the prime recovery ship, the carrier USS Kearsarge. This was the most accurate landing to date, despite the lack of automatic controls. Faith 7 landed southeast of Midway Island, in the Pacific Ocean. This would be near .
Splashdown was at 34 hours 19 minutes 49 seconds after liftoff. The spacecraft tipped over in the water momentarily, then righted itself. Helicopters dropped rescue swimmers and relayed Cooper's request of an Air Force officer for permission to be hoisted aboard the Navy's carrier. Permission was granted. Forty minutes later the explosive hatch blew open on the deck of Kearsarge. Cooper stepped out of Faith 7 to a warm greeting.
Postflight medical examination of Cooper found that he was slightly dehydrated and experienced a degree of orthostatic hypotension from being seated in the capsule an entire day, but other than that no significant effects from the flight were noted.
After the MA-9 mission, there was another debate about whether to fly one more Mercury flight, Mercury-Atlas 10 (MA-10). It was proposed as a three-day, 48-orbit mission to be flown by Alan Shepard in October 1963. In the end, NASA officials decided it was time to move on to Project Gemini and MA-10 never flew.
The Mercury program had fulfilled all of its goals.
Spacecraft location
The Faith 7 spacecraft is currently displayed at Space Center Houston, Houston, Texas.
References
This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury - NASA SP-4201
Project Mercury - Results of the Fourth Manned Orbital Flight - NASA SP-45 - 1963
Mercury-Atlas 9 Composite Air-to-Ground and Onboard Voice Tape Transcription
External links
Field Guide to American Spacecraft Pictures of Faith 7 at the Johnson Space Center, Texas museum.
Spacecraft launched in 1963
Human spaceflights
Project Mercury
Spacecraft which reentered in 1963
Spacecraft launched by Atlas rockets
Gordon Cooper | [
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|
213246 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alien%20Resurrection | Alien Resurrection | Alien Resurrection is a 1997 American science fiction horror film directed by Jean-Pierre Jeunet, written by Joss Whedon, and starring Sigourney Weaver and Winona Ryder. It is the fourth installment of the Alien franchise and was filmed at the 20th Century Fox studios in Los Angeles, California.
Set 200 years after the preceding installment Alien 3 (1992), Ellen Ripley is cloned and an Alien Queen is surgically removed from her body. The United Systems Military hopes to breed Aliens to study and research on the spaceship USM Auriga, using human hosts abducted and delivered to them by a group of mercenaries. The Aliens escape their enclosures, while Ripley and the mercenaries attempt to escape and destroy the Auriga before it reaches its destination: Earth. Additional roles are played by Ron Perlman, Dan Hedaya, J. E. Freeman, Brad Dourif, and Michael Wincott.
Alien Resurrection was released on November 26, 1997, by 20th Century Fox, and grossed $47.8 million in North America, the least successful of the Alien series on that continent. The film was well received internationally, however, with a gross of $113.6 million, bringing its total gross to $161.4 million. It was the 43rd-highest-grossing film in North America in 1997, eleven spots lower than Anastasia, another 20th Century Fox film. The film was nominated for six Saturn Awards (including Best Science Fiction Film, Best Actress for Weaver, Best Supporting Actress for Ryder, and Best Direction for Jeunet).
A sequel to Resurrection was planned as Joss Whedon had written an Earth-set script for Alien 5, though Sigourney Weaver was not interested in this setting, but has remained open to reprising her role as Ellen Ripley for a fifth installment on the condition that she likes the story. Although more sequels were planned to follow Resurrection, they were ultimately abandoned as the crossover series arrived with the 2004 film Alien vs. Predator, along with the prequel series including the 2012 film Prometheus directed by Ridley Scott, who stated that the film precedes the story of Alien, but is not directly connected to the original film's franchise, and that Prometheus explores its own mythology and ideas. The storylines of Resurrection have been continued in the comic series Aliens versus Predator versus The Terminator and books Aliens: Original Sin and Alien: Sea of Sorrows.
Plot
Two hundred years after the events of Alien 3, United Systems Military scientists on the space vessel USM Auriga create a clone of Ellen Ripley, designated Ripley 8, using DNA from blood samples taken before her death. The Xenomorph queen's DNA has been combined with Ripley's, so the clone grows up with an embryo inside it. The scientists extract the embryo, raise it, and collect its eggs while keeping Ripley 8 alive for further study. As a result of the Xenomorphs' DNA inside her, the clone has enhanced strength and reflexes, somewhat acidic blood, and a psychic link with the Xenomorphs. Additionally, the Xenomorph's genetic memory allows the clone to have some of Ripley's memories.
A group of mercenaries consisting of Elgyn, Johner, Christie, Vriess, Hillard, and Call arrives at Auriga on their ship Betty. They deliver several abducted humans in stasis. The military scientists use the humans as hosts for the aliens, raising several adult Xenomorphs for study.
The Betty crew soon encounters Ripley 8. Annalee Call recognizes her name and tries to kill her, suspecting that Ripley 8 may be used to create Xenomorphs, but the creatures have already been cloned. The now mature Xenomorphs, being aware of their blood's acidic properties from the aforementioned genetic memory, escape confinement by killing off one of their own to use its acidic blood to burn through their enclosures. They then capture Dr. Jonathan Gediman and kill a second scientist. They damage the Auriga and kill the majority of the crew who failed to evacuate, including General Perez and Elgyn. Another crew member is captured and cocooned for eggmorphing. Military scientist Dr. Wren reveals that the ship's default command in an emergency is to return to Earth. Realizing that this will unleash the Xenomorphs on Earth, Ripley 8, the mercenaries, Wren, a soldier named Distephano, and surviving Xenomorph host Purvis, decide to head for the Betty and use it to destroy the Auriga. Along the way, Ripley 8 discovers a laboratory containing the grotesque results of the previous seven failed attempts to clone Ellen Ripley. The surviving one begs Ripley 8 to euthanise her; she complies and then incinerates the lab and its contents.
As the group makes their way through the damaged ship, they swim through a flooded kitchen. They are chased by two Xenomorphs. One is killed, while the other snatches Hillard. As they escape the kitchen, the Xenomorph returns and blinds Christie, who sacrifices himself to kill the Xenomorph, so the others can escape. After Wren betrays the group, Call is revealed to be an auton, an improved version of a human created by synthetics. Using her ability to interface with the Auriga's systems, Call sets it on a collision course with Earth, hoping to destroy the Xenomorphs in the crash. She cuts off Wren's escape route and directs the Xenomorphs towards him. Ripley 8 is captured by a Xenomorph, while the others head for the Betty. Wren, who is already aboard, shoots Purvis, takes Call hostage and demands that she abort the collision. An injured Purvis attacks Wren and forces Wren's head to his chest just as the Xenomorph embryo that he is carrying bursts through his ribcage, causing it to go through Wren's head too, killing them both. The survivors shoot and kill the juvenile Xenomorph.
Ripley is taken to the Alien nest, where she finds Gediman, still alive and partially cocooned. The Alien Queen, having developed a uterus as a result of her genetic contamination with Ripley 8, gives birth to a Xenomorph with overtly human traits. Unable to bond with the Queen, the hybrid Xenomorph recognizes Ripley 8 as its mother, so it kills the Alien Queen and Gediman. Ripley 8 takes advantage of the distraction to escape and makes her way to the Betty.
The Betty crew struggle to take off, which gives Ripley 8 enough time to reach the ship and jump on. While they further struggle, the hybrid boards, unbeknownst to the crew. The Betty can't take off because the computer says the hatch is still open, Call goes to close the hatch. When she attempts to close the hatch she runs into the hybrid, who closes the hatch while she runs and hides. Distephano goes to check on her and is killed by the hybrid. Ripley 8 goes to check on them and runs into the hybrid, she saves Call by distracting the hybrid. Using her acidic blood, Ripley 8 melts a hole in a window and pushes the hybrid towards it. The decompression violently blows the creature through the hole and out into space, killing it as Ripley 8 tearfully watches on.
The countdown on the Auriga continues as the survivors escape in the Betty. The Auriga collides with Earth, causing a large explosion. As they look down at Earth, Call asks what Ripley 8 wants to do next. "I don't know. I'm a stranger here myself," she replies.
Cast
Sigourney Weaver as Ellen Ripley, reprising her role from the previous three Alien films. After having sacrificed herself to kill the Alien Queen gestating inside her in Alien 3, Ripley has been cloned using blood samples so that the military may extract the Queen embryo. As a result of the cloning process Ripley has been affected by the Alien Queen's DNA. She has enhanced strength and reflexes, acidic blood, and can sense the presence of the Aliens. Weaver also portrayed the failed seventh clone.
Nicole Fellows as Young Ripley
Winona Ryder as Annalee Call, the newest crew member of the Betty. She recognizes Ripley and has knowledge of the Aliens. Call is revealed during the course of the film to be a synthetic and helps the surviving crew interface with the Auriga.
Dominique Pinon as Dom Vriess, the Bettys mechanic. A paraplegic, he uses a motorized wheelchair. Vriess shares a close friendship with Call and an antagonistic relationship with Johner.
Ron Perlman as Ron Johner, a mercenary and member of the Bettys crew. Johner makes bad jokes, has a short temper, and teases Vriess about his handicap.
Gary Dourdan as Gary Christie, the first mate and second-in-command of the Betty.
Michael Wincott as Frank Elgyn, captain of the mercenary ship Betty. Elgyn brings the Betty to the Auriga in order to sell kidnapped humans in cryostasis to General Perez. He is romantically involved with Hillard.
Kim Flowers as Sabra Hillard, the assistant pilot of the Betty who is romantically involved with Elgyn.
Dan Hedaya as General Martin Perez. Perez is the commanding officer of the Auriga and supervises the experiments to clone Ripley and study the Aliens.
J. E. Freeman as Dr. Mason Wren. Wren is one of several scientists aboard the Auriga involved in cloning Ripley and studying the Aliens. After the Aliens escape he joins the lead characters in their attempt to flee the ship.
Brad Dourif as Dr. Jonathan Gediman, another of the scientists involved in cloning Ripley and studying the Aliens. One alien attacks him after he tries to chase them.
Raymond Cruz as Vincent Distephano. Distephano is a soldier stationed aboard the Auriga. When the Aliens break out, he joins the crew in their attempt to escape from the ship.
Leland Orser as Larry Purvis. Purvis is one of several humans who have been kidnapped by the crew of the Betty while in cryosleep and delivered to the Auriga to serve as hosts for the Aliens. Despite having an Alien growing inside him, Purvis joins the surviving crew in an attempt to escape from the Auriga.
Carolyn Campbell as Anesthesiologist
Marlene Bush as Dr. Carlyn Williamson (credited as "Scientist"), the third member of the science team responsible for cloning Ripley. She is often confused with Carolyn Campbell's character, as the two look strikingly similar.
David St. James as Dr. Dan Sprague (credited as "Surgeon"), another member of the Aurigas science team.
Tom Woodruff Jr. as the lead Alien, Alien Queen, and the Newborn. Woodruff had previously played the Alien in Alien 3, and described the Alien in Resurrection as feeling "much more like a dog. It's got dog legs, a more pointed nose, and a more vicious mouth." Weaver praised Woodruff's work, saying that "working with him is like working with Lon Chaney, only Tom's usually covered with K-Y Jelly." Woodruff also played the lead Alien in the crossover films, Alien vs. Predator and Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem.
Joan La Barbara as The Newborn (voice)
Archie Hahn as The Newborn (voice)
Steven Gilborn as Father (voice). The artificial intelligence system of the USM Auriga.
Production
Origins
Impressed with his work as a screenwriter, 20th Century Fox hired Joss Whedon to write the film's script. Whedon's initial screenplay had a third act on Earth, with a final battle for Earth itself. Whedon wrote five versions of the final act, none of which ended up in the film.
The studio initially imagined that the film would center around a clone of the character Newt from Aliens, as the Ellen Ripley character had died at the end of Alien 3. Whedon composed a thirty-page treatment surrounding this idea before being informed that the studio, though impressed with his script, now intended to base the story on a clone of Ripley, whom they saw as the anchor of the series. Whedon had to rewrite the script in a way that would bring back the Ripley character, a task he found difficult. The idea of cloning was suggested by producers David Giler and Walter Hill, who opposed the production of Alien Resurrection, as they thought it would ruin the franchise.
Sigourney Weaver, who had played Ripley throughout the series, wanted to liberate the character in Alien 3 as she did not want Ripley to become "a figure of fun" who would continuously "wake up with monsters running around". The possibility of an Alien vs. Predator film was another reason for the character's death, as she thought the concept "sounded awful". However, Weaver was impressed with Whedon's script. She thought that the error during Ripley's cloning process would allow her to further explore the character, since Ripley becoming part-human and part-Alien would create uncertainty about where her loyalties lay. This was an interesting concept to Weaver, who thought the film brought back the spirit of Alien and Aliens. Weaver received a co-producer credit and was reportedly paid $11 million.
Direction and design
Trainspotting director Danny Boyle was the producers' first choice to direct the film. Boyle and his producer met with effects supervisors to discuss the film, but he was not interested in pursuing the project and went on to make A Life Less Ordinary instead. Peter Jackson was also approached, but declined as he could not get excited about an Alien film. In 1995, after the release of The Usual Suspects, 20th Century Fox approached Bryan Singer to direct. Jean-Pierre Jeunet was asked to direct, as the film's producers believed he had a unique visual style. Jeunet had just completed the script to Amélie and was surprised he was offered the job for Alien Resurrection, as he thought the franchise had finished with Alien 3 and believed that making a sequel was a bad idea. Jeunet, however, accepted the project with a budget of $70 million. He required an interpreter as he did not speak much English when filming began.
Jeunet hired French special effects supervisor Pitof and cinematographer Darius Khondji, both of whom he had worked with on The City of Lost Children. Nigel Phelps was chosen for production designer, having made a name for himself designing Gotham City in Batman and Mega-City One in Judge Dredd. Jeunet and his crew watched the latest science fiction and Alien films as reference material, and obtained production reports from the Alien films to study the camera setups. Jeunet was given creative control, contributing several elements to the script including five different endings, although the expensive ones were dismissed. He also opted to make the film a dark comedy and was encouraged to include more violence. In June 1996, Jeunet's frequent co-director, conceptual artist Marc Caro had drawn rough sketches of characters' costumes, which were shown to veteran costume designer Bob Ringwood. Ringwood made several modifications for the final design.
Creatures
Special effects company Amalgamated Dynamics Incorporated (ADI) was hired for the film, having previously worked on Alien 3. ADI founders Tom Woodruff Jr. and Alec Gillis also had experience working with Stan Winston on Aliens. ADI based their designs and modifications of the Alien creatures on the film's script, which included the creatures having pointed tails for swimming, making their head domes and chins more pointed, and establishing them to appear more vicious using techniques of camera angles and shot duration. After receiving the director's approval, ADI began to create small sculptures, sketches, paintings, and life-size models. Referring to the use of animatronics in the film, Twentieth Century Fox executive Tom Rothman stated, "Most movies would be tempted to do the Newborn digitally ... [but] it looks so much more real when you [use] animatronics".
Jeunet asked ADI to lean towards making the human/Alien hybrid creature more human than Alien. An early concept was to replicate Sigourney Weaver's features, although the crew felt this design would be too similar to the design of the creature Sil from the 1995 film Species. Eyes and a nose were added to the hybrid to allow it to have more expressions and communicate more emotion than the xenomorphs, so that it would have more depth as a character rather than being "just a killing machine". Jeunet was adamant about the hybrid having genitalia which resembled a mix of male and female sexes. 20th Century Fox was uncomfortable with this, however, and Jeunet eventually changed his mind, feeling that "even for a Frenchman, it's too much". The genitalia were removed during post-production using digital effects techniques. The animatronic hybrid required nine puppeteers and was the most complex animatronic in the film.
Filming
Alien Resurrection was filmed at Fox studios in Los Angeles, California, from October 1996 to February 1997. Jeunet had difficulty securing studio space, as the filming of Hollywood blockbusters such as Titanic, Starship Troopers, and The Lost World: Jurassic Park were taking place at the same time. Alien Resurrection was the first installment in the Alien series to be filmed outside England, a decision made by Weaver, who believed that the previous films' travel schedules exhausted the crew.
The underwater scene was the first to be shot, and for its filming Stage 16 at Fox Studios was reconstructed into a 36-by-45-meter tank, 4.5 meters deep, containing 548,000 gallons of water. The decision was made to convert the stage rather than film the scene elsewhere, since moving the film crew to the nearest adequate facility in San Diego would have been too costly for a single scene, and by converting Stage 16 20th Century Fox would be able to use the tank for future films. Because of the aquatic filming, the ability to swim was a prerequisite for cast and crew when signing onto the film. The cast trained in swimming pools in Los Angeles with professional divers to learn how to use the equipment. An additional two-and-a-half weeks of training took place at the studio with stunt coordinator Ernie Orsatti and underwater cinematographer Peter Romano. Weaver, however, was unable to participate in most of the training due to commitments on Broadway. Winona Ryder faced a challenge with the scene, as she had nearly drowned at age 12 and had not been in the water since. She suggested using a body double, but knew that it would be too obvious to audiences due to the difference in hair length. She filmed the scene, but suffered from anxiety on the first day of filming.
Director Jeunet wanted to display Ripley's new powers, including a scene in which Ripley throws a basketball through a hoop while facing the opposite direction. Weaver trained for ten days and averaged one out of six baskets, although the distance required for filming was farther than she had practiced. Jeunet was concerned about the time being spent on the shot and wanted to either use a machine to throw the ball or to insert it later using computer-generated imagery (CGI). Weaver, however, was determined to make the shot authentic, and insisted on doing it herself. The shot required many dozens of takes, during which none of the balls went in. The crew were going to give up, but gave Weaver one last shot, and in this take, she got the ball in perfectly (the idea that she did it in one take is a myth). The ball was out of frame for a moment during the shot, and Pitof offered to edit it so that the ball was on-screen for the entire scene, but Weaver refused. Ron Perlman broke character when she made the basket, and turned to the camera to say "Oh my god!" There was enough of a pause between Weaver's basket and Perlman's statement for the film's editors to cut the scene accordingly during post-production.
Visual effects and miniatures
The film's script was laid out similar to a comic book, with pictures on the left and dialog and descriptions on the right. Jeunet planned every shot, which made it easier for visual effects artists to do their work. Blue Sky Studios was hired to create the first CGI Aliens to appear on film. Impressed with the company's work on Joe's Apartment creating CGI cockroaches, Jeunet and Pitof opted to hire the company to create 30 to 40 shots of CGI Aliens. The decision was made to use CGI Aliens rather than puppets or suited actors whenever the creatures' legs were in frame, as Jeunet felt that a man in a suit is easy to distinguish when the full body is seen.
All of the spaceships in the film were miniatures, as visual effects supervisors believed CGI was not effective enough to create realistic spaceships. The USM Auriga was originally designed by artist Nigel Phelps and resembled a medical instrument. This design proved to be too vertical for the film's opening shot, in which the camera pans out to show the ship, and did not appear satisfactory in the film's 2.35:1 aspect ratio. Three days before the design had to be finalized, Jeunet rejected it. Phelps, production illustrator Jim Martin, and concept artist Sylvain Despretz were tasked to redesign the ship. Jeunet felt Martin's design was too much like a space station, while he accepted Despretz's design due to its streamlined and horizontal appearance.
Music
Composer John Frizzell was encouraged by a friend to audition to compose Alien Resurrection'''s film score. Frizzell sent in four cassettes and received a call from 20th Century Fox about the fourth, which contained music from The Empty Mirror. Impressed with his work, Fox representative Robert Kraft had a short meeting with Frizzell and hired him. Frizzell spent seven months writing and recording the score, which Jeunet requested to be very different and unique from the previous films in the series. This included themes of romance and eroticism, incorporating sound effects such as a gong and rub rod. The cue "They Swim" took one month to complete as Jeunet was not pleased with Frizzell's original version, although the final result was a mix between the first and third versions he had composed. "I'm Popeye the Sailor Man", Popeye's theme song, written by Sammy Lerner, is whistled by Dom Vriess and is credited in the credits.
Release
Home mediaAlien Resurrection was first released onto home-video in the VHS, LaserDisc and DVD formats on June 2, 1998. The film received its first Blu-ray release as part of the Alien Anthology box set released in 2010 including all four films and their alternate versions. The film was re-released on Blu-ray on May 10, 2011, in a stand-alone feature.
Special editions
In 2003, Jeunet included an alternate version of the film on the Alien Quadrilogy DVD box set with different opening and closing scenes, which were originally cut due to budget restrictions. The deleted scenes included references to the character Newt from Aliens, Vriess making a joke to Call, Ripley's clone waking up in the middle of her operation, an extended conversation in the mess hall that reveals the eventual fate of Ripley's former employers, Weyland–Yutani, an extended dialogue between Call and Ripley's clone in the chapel and scenes of the Betty landing on Earth and the planet's landscape during the final dialogue between Ripley and Call, as they view the ruins of Paris. The special edition restores 13 minutes and 5 seconds' worth of footage (including the new opening and ending), and is 7 minutes longer than the theatrical version. Jeunet has stated that the special edition is not a director's cut as his preferred version is the theatrical cut. Alien Quadrilogy contains a documentary called One Step Beyond: The Making of Alien Resurrection, featuring over two hours of footage relating to pre-production, production, post-production, screen tests, concept art, and audio commentary by the cast and crew. Alien Resurrection – Collector's Edition, which also includes One Step Beyond: The Making of Alien Resurrection, was released on January 6, 2004.
Reception
Box office
A pre-screening of Alien Resurrection was held in Camarillo, California, and the film was released in North America on November 26, 1997. Debuting at number two at the box office behind Flubber, Alien Resurrection grossed $25 million in its first five days—$16 million over the weekend, for an average of $6,821 per 2,415 theaters. The film grossed $47.8 million in North America, the least successful of the Alien series on that continent. It was well received internationally, however, with a gross of $113.6 million, bringing its total gross to $161.4 million. It was the 43rd-highest-grossing film in North America in 1997.
Critical response
As of September 2020, 54% of the 81 reviews compiled by Rotten Tomatoes are positive, and have an average rating of 5.73 out of 10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Alien Resurrection marks a slight improvement over its predecessor, but still lacks the emotional stakes that helped make the franchise's first two entries sci-fi/horror classics". Metacritic assigned the film a score of 63 out of 100, based on 21 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B−" on an A+ to F scale.
Lisa Schwarzbaum from Entertainment Weekly gave the film "B+" and stated "By rocketing ahead 200 years from the previous film and jiggering the story cleverly [...] to create a Ripley reconstructed through a mix of human and alien DNA, Alien Resurrection power-kicks the whole definition of the Horrifying Other into a fresh, deep, exhilaratingly thoughtful, millennium-sensitive direction". Radio Times's Alan Jones described the film as "tense, mordantly funny, very graphic, and bloody", and praised Weaver in a four out of five stars review. Houston Chronicle editor Louis B. Parks said "The film is a marvel, a well-photographed feast of visual imagery", while Richard Schickel of Time wrote that it was "Less frightening, but as much fun as ever". The Washington Post contributor Desson Thomson felt it "satisfactorily recycles the great surprises that made the first movie so powerful. And most significantly, it makes a big hoot of the whole business". Andrew Johnston commented in Time-out New York that "If Ripley, Call, and the pirates had been developed further, the film might have been as involving as James Cameron's Aliens, the gold-standard of the series. The film's Techno-Gothic look is gorgeously immersive, however, and Jeunet turns in a number of original (and grotesque) effects sequences that are worth the price of admission". Salon′s Laura Miller noted "Weaver obviously relishes playing this feral, sarcastic new Ripley, and her pleasure is infectious". Rolling Stone critic Peter Travers's review was mostly positive, writing that the film "is sometimes glib and repetitive, but it stays worthy of its predecessors by staying close to its two battered heroines".TV Guide magazine's Maitland McDonagh wrote in her mixed review: "The plot is more of the same old running and screaming, but Weaver is worth the price of admission all by herself, which is just as well in light of the less-than-fleshed-out characters by whom she's surrounded." James Berardinelli also gave a mixed review at ReelViews by writing "If you consider Alien and Aliens to be the main course, then Alien Resurrection is leftovers". Jeffery Overstreet of Looking closer rated the film "C+" and commented "What began as the most menacing movie monster of all has evolved into a whining oaf that looks like it's been dipped in a vat of Cream of Wheat". Janet Maslin from The New York Times reported "The filmmaker's ghoulishly fecund imagination makes this tale murky that even the screen's toughest woman-warrior remains largely stuck in the mud". Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film a negative review, stating "There is not a single shot in the movie to fill one with wonder", later naming it one of the worst films of 1997.
Screenwriter Joss Whedon was unhappy with the final product. When asked in 2005 how the film differed from the script he had written, Whedon responded:
It wasn't a question of doing everything differently, although they changed the ending; it was mostly a matter of doing everything wrong. They said the lines [...] mostly [...] but they said them all wrong. And they cast it wrong. And they designed it wrong. And they scored it wrong. They did everything wrong that they could possibly do. There's actually a fascinating lesson in filmmaking, because everything that they did reflects back to the script or looks like something from the script, and people assume that, if I hated it, then they'd changed the script [...] but it wasn't so much that they'd changed the script; it's that they just executed it in such a ghastly fashion as to render it almost unwatchable.
Conversely, H. R. Giger, designer of the original Alien, was pleased with Resurrection, describing it as an "excellent film", but was disappointed about not being credited.
Accolades
Other media
To coincide with the release of the film, a book titled Making of Alien Resurrection was released on November 28, 1997, in addition to a novelization of the film released on December 1, 1997. Dark Horse Comics also published a two-issue comic book adaptation. A video game for the PlayStation was released in 2000.
Future
Joss Whedon had written an Earth-set script for Alien 5, but Sigourney Weaver was not interested in this setting and sought to return the story to the planetoid from the first film. Weaver has remained open to a role in a fifth installment on the condition that she likes the story. Before 20th Century Fox greenlit Alien vs. Predator, James Cameron had been collaborating on the plot for a fifth Alien film with another writer. Learning of Fox's plans for a crossover, he ceased work on his concept. Before he saw the film, Cameron had stated that it would "kill the validity of the franchise", and that "it was Frankenstein Meets Werewolf"—like "Universal just taking their assets and starting to play them off against each other". Although he later admitted to liking Alien vs. Predator, Cameron ruled out any future involvement with the series.
In a 2002 interview, Ridley Scott stated that a new Alien project "would be a lot of fun", but that "the most important thing was to get the story right". Scott's concept for the plot was "to go back to where the alien creatures were first found and explain how they were created". In late 2008, Weaver hinted in an interview with MTV that she and Scott were working on an Alien spinoff film, which would focus on the chronicles of Ellen Ripley rather than on the Aliens, but the continuation of Ripley's story has not materialized. Instead, Prometheus was released on June 8, 2012. A sequel to Prometheus, titled Alien: Covenant, was released on May 19, 2017.
At the 2014 Hero Complex Film Festival, Sigourney Weaver hinted that she'd be interested in returning to the role of Ripley, saying: "Had we done a fifth one, I don't doubt that her humanity would have prevailed. I do feel like there is more story to tell. I feel a longing from fans for the story to be finished. I could imagine a situation where we finish telling the story." She was quoted: "I don't think Alien belongs on Earth popping out of a haystack, which is where I was afraid it was going to go. I feel it should take place in the far reaches of the universe where no one in their right mind would go. There are very few filmmakers that I can think of that I would want to entrust this to."
In 2017, 20th Century Fox was rumored to be reassessing the state of the franchise after the lukewarm reception to Covenant, although they have not released an official statement to that effect. According to Collider.com, there will be only one additional prequel film before a soft-reboot is made to the Alien universe consisting of a new series of Alien films with brand-new, original characters as well as a new setting. At the 2019 CinemaCon, following The Walt Disney Company's acquisition of 21st Century Fox, it was officially confirmed that future Alien films are currently in development.
See also
List of films featuring extraterrestrials
List of monster movies
References
One Step Beyond: The Making of Alien Resurrection, Alien Quadrilogy – Disc 8, 2003, 20th Century Fox
Gallardo C., Ximena; and C. Jason Smith (2004). Alien Woman: The Making of Lt. Ellen Ripley''. Continuum.
Notes
External links
1997 films
1997 horror films
1997 action films
1990s monster movies
1990s science fiction horror films
1990s pregnancy films
Alien (franchise) films
American films
American monster movies
American science fiction horror films
American space adventure films
American sequel films
Android (robot) films
Films set in the future
Military science fiction films
1990s English-language films
Films about cloning
Films directed by Jean-Pierre Jeunet
Films set in the 24th century
Films shot in Los Angeles
20th Century Fox films
Films with screenplays by Joss Whedon
Films scored by John Frizzell (composer)
Films produced by Gordon Carroll
Films produced by Walter Hill
Brandywine Productions films
Films about extraterrestrial life
Resurrection in film
American pregnancy films | [
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|
213251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alien%203 | Alien 3 | Alien 3 (stylized as ALIEN³) is a 1992 American science fiction horror film directed by David Fincher and written by David Giler, Walter Hill and Larry Ferguson, from a story by Vincent Ward. It stars Sigourney Weaver, reprising her role as Ellen Ripley. It is the third installment of the Alien franchise and led to a sequel, Alien Resurrection (1997).
Set right after the events of Aliens (1986), Ripley and an Alien organism are the only survivors of the Colonial Marine spaceship Sulaco following an escape pod's crash on a planet housing a penal colony populated by violent male inmates. Additional roles are played by Charles Dance, Brian Glover, Charles S. Dutton, Ralph Brown, Paul McGann, Danny Webb, Lance Henriksen, Holt McCallany, Pete Postlethwaite, and Danielle Edmond.
The film faced problems during production, including shooting without a script, and various screenwriters and directors were attached. Fincher, in his feature directorial debut, was brought in to direct after a proposed version with Vincent Ward as director was cancelled during pre-production.
Alien 3 was released on May 22, 1992. While it underperformed at the American box office, it earned over $100 million outside North America. The film received mixed reviews and was regarded as inferior to previous installments. Fincher has since disowned the film, blaming studio interference and deadlines. It was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects, seven Saturn Awards (Best Science Fiction Film, Best Actress for Weaver, Best Supporting Actor for Dutton, Best Direction for Fincher, and Best Writing for Giler, Hill, and Ferguson), a Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, and an MTV Movie Award for Best Action Sequence. In 2003, a revised version of the film known as the Assembly Cut was released without Fincher's involvement, and received a warmer reception.
Plot
Following the events of Aliens, an egg hatches aboard the Colonial Marine spaceship Sulaco, releasing a facehugger. A fire starts and the ship's computer launches an escape pod containing Ellen Ripley, the young girl Newt, Hicks, and the damaged android Bishop; all four are in cryonic stasis. Scans of the crew's cryotubes show a facehugger attached to one member. The pod crash-lands on Fiorina "Fury" 161, a foundry and maximum-security, male work correctional facility inhabited by male inmates with a genetic mutation which gives the afflicted individual a predisposition for antisocial behavior. The inmates recover the crashed pod and its passengers. The same facehugger is seen approaching inmate Thomas Murphy's dog, Spike.
Ripley is awakened by Clemens, the prison doctor, who informs her that she is the sole survivor. She is warned by the prison warden, Harold Andrews, that her presence may have disruptive effects. Ripley insists that Clemens perform an autopsy on Newt and that her and Hicks's bodies be subsequently burned, secretly fearing that Newt may be carrying an Alien embryo. Despite protests from the warden and his assistant Aaron, the autopsy is conducted and no embryo is found. The funeral proceeds in the foundry, attended by the prisoners and presided over by Andrews, with spiritual leader Dillon delivering a speech for the deceased as their bodies are dropped into the furnace. Elsewhere in the prison, a quadrupedal alien bursts from Spike.
Ripley finds the damaged Bishop in the prison's garbage dump. Just as she is leaving the area, she is cornered by four inmates and almost gang-raped. After being saved by Dillon, Ripley returns to the infirmary and re-activates Bishop, who, before asking to be permanently shut down, confirms through scanning ship records that a Facehugger was onboard and came with them to Fiorina in the escape pod. Growing to full size, the alien kills three inmates, Murphy, Boggs, and Rains, and returns outcast prisoner Golic to his previously psychopathic state — Golic dubs the creature "the Dragon". Ripley informs Andrews of her previous encounter with the Xenomorphs and suggests everyone work together to hunt down and kill it. The highly skeptical Andrews does not believe her story, and explains that even if she were telling the truth, the facility is without weapons; their only hope is the rescue ship being sent for Ripley by the Weyland-Yutani Corporation.
The Alien ambushes Ripley and Clemens in the prison infirmary, killing him, and corners Ripley, but then mysteriously spares her and retreats. Ripley then rushes to the cafeteria to warn the others. Andrews insists she is delusional and orders Aaron to take her back to the infirmary, but the warden himself is dragged into the vents and killed by the monster. Ripley assumes command, rallying the inmates and proposes they pour flammable toxic waste into the ventilation system and ignite it to flush out the extraterrestrial. However, its intervention causes a premature explosion and several inmates are killed. With Aaron's help, Ripley scans herself using the escape pod's medical equipment and discovers the embryo of an Alien Queen growing inside her. She also discovers that Weyland-Yutani hopes to turn the aliens into biological weapons.
Deducing that the Alien will not kill her because of the embryo she carries, Ripley begs Dillon to kill her; he agrees only if she helps the inmates kill the Alien first. They form a plan to lure the Alien into the foundry's molding facility, trap it via a series of closing doors, and drown it in molten lead. The bait-and-chase plan results in the deaths of all the remaining prisoners except Dillon and Morse. Dillon sacrifices himself to position the Alien towards the mold as Morse pours the molten lead onto them. Although the Alien is covered in molten metal, it escapes the mold. Ripley activates the fire sprinklers, causing its molten metal exoskeleton to cool rapidly and shatter, blowing it apart.
The Weyland–Yutani team arrives, including scientists, heavily armed commandos and a man who looks identical to Bishop, who explains that he is Bishop's creator. He tries to persuade Ripley to undergo surgery to remove the Alien Queen embryo, which he claims will be destroyed. Highly skeptical, Ripley refuses and steps back onto a mobile platform, which Morse positions over the furnace. The Weyland–Yutani team shoot Morse in the leg in an attempt to stop him; Aaron, believing the Bishop look-alike is an android, strikes the man with a wrench and is shot by the commandos, killing him. Ignoring Bishop's pleas to give them the embryo, Ripley throws herself into the furnace, killing herself, just as the infant queen erupts from her. The facilities are closed down. Morse, the sole survivor, is led away as Ripley's final logbook recording from the Nostromo plays in the EEV.
Cast
Sigourney Weaver as Ellen Ripley, reprising her role from the previous two Alien films. Ripley crash-lands on Fiorina 161 and is once again burdened with the task of destroying another of the alien creatures. Sigourney approved of David Twohy's work and signed on, but demanded a larger salary of $4–5 million, plus co-producing credit. She also requested that the action was not to rely on guns.
Charles S. Dutton as Leonard Dillon, one of Fiorina's inmates who functions as the spiritual and de facto leader amongst the prisoners and attempts to keep the peace in the facility.
Charles Dance as Jonathan Clemens, a former inmate who now serves as the facility's doctor. He treats Ripley after her escape pod crashes at the start of the film and forms a special bond with her. Before he is killed by the Alien, Clemens laments to Ripley why he was originally sent to Fiorina, describing it as "more than a little melodramatic." Fincher initially offered the role to Richard E. Grant, hoping to reunite him with Withnail and I co-stars Ralph Brown and Paul McGann.
Brian Glover as Harold Andrews, the prison warden. He believes Ripley's presence will cause disruption amongst the inmates and attempts to control the rumors surrounding her and the creature. He rejects her claims about the existence of such a creature, only to be killed by it.
Ralph Brown as Francis Aaron, the assistant of Superintendent Andrews. The prisoners refer to him by the nickname "85", after his IQ score, which annoys him. He opposes Ripley's insistence that the prisoners must try to fight the Alien, and repudiates her claim that Weyland–Yutani will collect the alien instead of them.
Paul McGann as Walter Golic. A mass-murderer and outcast amongst the prison population, Golic becomes very disturbed after being assaulted by the Alien in the prison's underground network of tunnels, gradually becoming more and more obsessed with the Alien. In the Assembly Cut of the film, his obsession with and defense of the creature lead to murder and his own demise, and his actions jeopardize the entire plan.
Danny Webb as Robert Morse, an acerbic, self-centered, and cynical prisoner. Although he is wounded by the Weyland–Yutani team, Morse is the only survivor of the entire incident.
Lance Henriksen as the voice of the damaged Bishop android, as well as playing a character credited as Bishop II, who appears in the film's final scenes, claiming to be the human designer of the android, who wants the Alien Queen that was growing inside Ripley for use in Weyland-Yutani's bioweapons division. The character is identified as "Michael Bishop Weyland" in tie-in materials to Alien.
Tom Woodruff Jr. as the Alien known as "Dragon". This Alien is different from the ones in previous installments due to its host being quadrupedal (a dog in the theatrical cut, an ox in the assembly cut). Initially a visual effects supervisor, Woodruff decided to take the role of the creature after his company, Amalgamated Dynamics, was hired by Fox. Woodruff said that, following Sigourney Weaver's advice, he approaches the role as an actor instead of a stuntman, trying to make his performance more than "just a guy in a suit." He considered the acting process "as much physical as it is mental."
Pete Postlethwaite as David Postlethwaite, an inmate smarter than most who is killed by the Alien in the bait-and-chase sequence.
Holt McCallany as Junior, the leader of the group of inmates who attempt to rape Ripley. He has a tattoo of a tear drop underneath his right eye. In the Assembly Cut, he sacrifices himself to trap the Alien as redemption.
Peter Guinness as Peter Gregor, one of the inmates who attempts to rape Ripley, he is bitten in the neck and killed by the Alien during the bait-and-chase sequence.
Danielle Edmond as Rebecca "Newt" Jorden, the child Ripley forms a maternal bond with in the previous film who briefly returns as a corpse being autopsied. Carrie Henn was unable to reprise her role as Newt as she was too old for the part so Danielle Edmond took over the role in this installment for the brief autopsy scene with Newt's corpse.
Christopher Fairbank as Thomas Murphy
Phil Davis as Kevin Dodd
Vincenzo Nicoli as Alan Jude
Leon Herbert as Edward Boggs
Christopher John Fields as Daniel Rains
Niall Buggy as Eric Buggy
Hi Ching as Company Man
Carl Chase as Frank Ellis
Clive Mantle as Clive William
DeObia Oparei as Arthur Walkingstick
Paul Brennen as Yoshi Troy
Michael Biehn as Corporal Dwayne Hicks (archive picture only)
Development
With the success of Aliens, 20th Century Fox approached Brandywine Productions on further sequels. But Brandywine was less than enthused with an Alien 3 project, with producer David Giler later explaining he and partners Walter Hill and Gordon Carroll wanted to take new directions as "we wouldn't do a repeat of one and two". The trio opted to explore the duplicity of the Weyland-Yutani Corporation, and why they were so intent in using the Aliens as biological weapons. Various concepts were discussed, eventually settling on a two-part story, with the treatment for the third film featuring "the underhanded Weyland–Yutani Corporation facing off with a militarily aggressive culture of humans whose rigid socialist ideology has caused them to separate from Earth's society." Michael Biehn's Corporal Hicks would be promoted to protagonist in the third film, with Sigourney Weaver's character of Ellen Ripley reduced to a cameo appearance before returning in the fourth installment, "an epic battle with alien warriors mass-produced by the expatriated Earthlings." Weaver liked the Cold War metaphor, and agreed to a smaller role, particularly due to a dissatisfaction with Fox, who removed scenes from Aliens crucial to Ripley's backstory.
Although 20th Century Fox were skeptical about the idea, they agreed to finance the development of the story, but asked that Hill and Giler attempt to get Ridley Scott, director of Alien, to make Alien 3. They also asked that the two films be shot back to back to lessen the production costs. While Scott was interested in returning to the franchise, it did not work out due to the director's busy schedule.
William Gibson script (1987)
In September 1987, Giler and Hill approached cyberpunk author William Gibson to write the script for the third film. Gibson, who told the producers his writing was influenced by Alien, accepted the task. Fearful of an impending strike by the Writers Guild of America, Brandywine asked Gibson to deliver a screenplay by December. Gibson drew heavily from Giler and Hill's treatment, having a strong interest in the "Marxist space empire" element. The following year, Finnish director Renny Harlin was approached by Fox based on his work in A Nightmare on Elm Street 4: The Dream Master. Harlin wanted to go in different directions from the first two movies, having interest in both visiting the Alien homeworld or having the Aliens invading Earth.
Gibson's script was mockingly summed up by him as "Space commies hijack alien eggs—big problem in Mallworld". The story picked up after Aliens, with the Sulaco drifting into an area of space claimed by the "Union of Progressive Peoples". The ship is boarded by people from the U.P.P., who are attacked by a facehugger hiding in the entrails of Bishop's mangled body. The soldiers blast the facehugger into space and take Bishop with them for further study. The Sulaco then arrives at a space station–shopping mall hybrid named Anchorpoint. With Ripley put in a coma, Hicks explores the station and discovers Weyland-Yutani are developing an Alien army. In the meantime, the U.P.P. are doing their own research, which led them to repair Bishop. Eventually Anchorpoint and the U.P.P. stations are overrun with the Aliens, and Hicks must team up with the survivors to destroy the parasites. The film ends with a teaser for a fourth movie, where Bishop suggests to Hicks that humans are united against a common enemy, and they must track the Aliens to their source and destroy them.
The screenplay was very action-oriented, featuring an extended cast, and is considered in some circles as superior to the final film and has a considerable following on the Internet. The producers were on the whole unsatisfied with the screenplay, which Giler described as "a perfectly executed script that wasn't all that interesting", particularly for not taking new directions with the initial pitch. They still liked certain parts, such as the subtext making the Alien a metaphor for HIV, but felt it lacking the human element present in Aliens and Gibson's trademark cyberpunk aesthetic. Following the end of the WGA strike, Gibson was asked to make rewrites with Harlin, but declined, citing various other commitments and "foot dragging on the producers' part." On July 12, 2018, it was announced that William Gibson's unmade screenplay of Alien 3 would be adapted into a comic series. As part of the Aliens 40th anniversary, on May 30, 2019, the audiobook version of William Gibson's unproduced screenplay of Alien 3 was released and made available on Audible. 2021 will see another adaptation of the screenplay, this time as a novel written by Pat Cadigan from Titan Books.
Eric Red script (1989)
Following Gibson's departure, Harlin suggested screenwriter Eric Red, writer of the cult horror films The Hitcher and Near Dark. Red worked less than two months to deliver his draft on February 1989, which led him to later describe his Alien 3 work as "the one script I completely disown because it was not 'my script'. It was the rushed product of too many story conferences and interference with no time to write, and turned out utter crap." His approach had a completely new set of characters and subplots, while also introducing new breeds of the Alien. The plot opened with a team of Special Forces marines boarding the Sulaco and finding that all survivors had fallen victim to the aliens. Afterwards, it moved into a small-town U.S. city in a type of bio-dome in space, culminating in an all-out battle with the townsfolk facing hordes of Alien warriors. Brandywine rejected Red's script for deviating too much from their story, and eventually gave up on developing two sequels simultaneously.
David Twohy script
Writer David Twohy was next to work on the project, being instructed to start with Gibson's script. Once the fall of Communism made the Cold War analogies outdated, Twohy changed his setting to a prison planet, which was being used for illegal experiments on the aliens for a Biological Warfare division. Harlin felt this approach was too similar to the previous movies, and, tired of the development hell, walked out on the project, which led Fox to offer Harlin The Adventures of Ford Fairlane.
Twohy's script was delivered to Fox president Joe Roth, who did not like the idea of Ripley being removed, declaring that "Sigourney Weaver is the centerpiece of the series" and Ripley was "really the only female warrior we have in our movie mythology." Weaver was then called, with a reported $5 million salary, plus a share of the box office receipts. She also requested the story to be suitably impressive, original and non-dependent on guns. Twohy duly set about writing Ripley into his screenplay.
Start-up with Vincent Ward
Once Hill attended a screening of The Navigator: A Medieval Odyssey, he decided to invite its director, Vincent Ward. Ward, who was in London developing Map of the Human Heart, accepted the project only on the third call, as he at first was uninterested in doing a sequel. Ward thought little of the Twohy script, and instead worked up another idea, involving Ripley's escape pod crash landing on a monastery-like satellite. Having developed this pitch on his flight to Los Angeles, once Ward got with the studio executives he saw his idea approved by the studio. Ward was hired to direct Alien 3, and writer John Fasano was hired to expand his story into a screenplay. Once Twohy discovered through a journalist friend that another script was being written concurrently with his, he went after Fox and eventually left the project.
Ward envisioned a planet whose interior was both wooden and archaic in design, where Luddite-like monks would take refuge. The story begins with a monk who sees a "star in the East" (Ripley's escape pod) and at first believes this to be a good omen. Upon arrival of Ripley, and with increasing suggestions of the Alien presence, the monk inhabitants believe it to be some sort of religious trial for their misdemeanors, punishable by the creature that haunts them. By having a woman in their monastery, they wonder if their trial is partially caused by sexual temptation, as Ripley is the only woman to be amongst the all-male community in ten years. To avoid this belief and (hopefully) the much grimmer reality of what she has brought with her, the Monks of the "wooden satellite" lock Ripley into a dungeon-like sewer and ignore her advice on the true nature of the beast. The monks believe that the Alien is in fact the Devil. Primarily though, this story was about Ripley's own soul-searching complicated by the seeding of the Alien within her and further hampered by her largely solo attempts to defeat it. Eventually Ripley decides to sacrifice herself to kill the Alien. Fox asked for an alternative ending in which Ripley survived, but Weaver would agree to the film only if Ripley died.
Empire magazine described Ward's 'Wooden Planet' concept as 'undeniably attractive—it would have been visually arresting and at the very least, could have made for some astonishing action sequences.' In the same article, Norman Reynolds—Production Designer originally hired by Ward—remembers an early design idea for "a wooden library shaft. You looked at the books on this wooden platform that went up and down". 'Imagine the kind of vertical jeopardy sequence that could have been staged here—the Alien clambering up these impossibly high bookshelves as desperate monks work the platform'. Sigourney Weaver described Ward's overall concept as "very original and arresting." Former Times journalist David Hughes included Ward's version of Alien 3 amongst "The Greatest Sci-Fi Movies Never Made" in his book of this title.
However, the concept was divisive among the production crew. The producers at Brandywine discussed the logical problems of creating and maintaining a wooden planet in space, while Fox executive Jon Landau considered Ward's vision to be "more bent on the artsy-fartsy side than the big commercial one" that Ridley Scott and James Cameron employed. Ward managed to dissuade the producers of their idea of turning the planet into an ore refinery and the monks into prisoners, but eventually Fox asked a meeting with the director imposing a list of changes to be made. Refusing to do so, Ward was fired. The main plot of the finished film still follows Ward's basic structure.
Walter Hill and David Giler's script
Hill and Giler did a first draft trying to enhance the story structure on the Fasano script, and feeling creatively drained hired Larry Ferguson as a script doctor. Ferguson's work was not well received in the production, particularly by Sigourney Weaver, who felt Ferguson made Ripley sound like "a pissed-off gym teacher". Short on time before filming was due to commence, producers Walter Hill and David Giler took control of the screenplay themselves, melding aspects of the Ward/Fasano script with Twohy's earlier prison planet screenplay to create the basis of the final film. Sigourney Weaver had also had a clause written into her contract stating the final draft should be written by Hill and Giler, believing that they were the only writers (besides James Cameron) to write the character of Ripley effectively. Fox approached music video director David Fincher to replace Ward. Fincher did further work on the screenplay with author Rex Pickett, and despite Pickett being fired and Hill and Giler writing the final draft of the screenplay, he revised most of the work done by the previous authors. Fincher wanted Gary Oldman to star in the film, but the pair "couldn't work it out".
Filming
Filming began on January 14, 1991, at Pinewood Studios without a finished script and with $7 million already having been spent. While a majority of the film was shot at Pinewood, some scenes were shot at Blyth Power Station and the beach near Dawdon (known locally as "the Blast" or "Blast Beach") in the UK. The purpose of these shots was to show the exterior of the planet. Cinematographer Jordan Cronenweth worked only for two weeks before he started suffering from Parkinson's disease, and was forced out of the film by a line producer who had lost his father to the disease several years previously, and knew that if anything, the demanding schedule would likely take a fatal toll on Cronenweth's health. He was replaced by Alex Thomson. Actor Charles Dance said that an alternative ending had been filmed due to fears that the original ending was too similar to the ending of Terminator 2: Judgment Day, released the previous year, but was not used.
Visual effects
Stan Winston, responsible for creature effects in Aliens, was approached but was not available. Winston instead recommended Tom Woodruff Jr. and Alec Gillis, two former workers of his studio who had just started their own company, Amalgamated Dynamics. Even before principal photography had begun, the practical effects crew was developing models of the Alien and the corpses of the Sulaco victims. Richard Edlund's Boss Film Studios was hired for compositing and other post-production effects. A small number of shots contain computer-generated imagery, most notably the cracking alien head once the sprinklers cause thermal shock. Other CGI elements include shadows cast by the rod puppet alien, and airborne debris in outdoor scenes.
David Fincher wanted the alien to be, "more of a puma, or a beast" as opposed to the upright, humanoid posture of the previous films, so the designer of the original alien, H. R. Giger, was contacted to generate new sketch ideas. His revisions included longer, thinner legs, the removal of "pipes" around the spine, and an idea for a sharp alien "tongue" in place of the secondary jaws. Working from his studio in Zurich, Giger produced these new sketches which he faxed to Cornelius de Fries who then created their model counterparts out of plasticine. The only one of Giger's designs that wound up in the final project was a "Bambi Burster" Alien that had long legs and walked on all fours. ADI also built a full-scale Bunraku-style puppet of this design which was operated on-set as an in-camera effect. Scenes using this approach were cut from the final release due to the limitations of chemical compositing techniques, making it exceedingly difficult to remove the puppeteers from the background plate, but can be seen in the "Assembly Cut" of the film.
The Alien is portrayed by both Woodruff Jr. in a suit and a rod puppet filmed against bluescreen and optically composited into the live-action footage, with the rods removed by rotoscoping. A mechanical alien head was also used for close-ups. The suit adapted the design used in Aliens so Woodruff could walk on all fours. Woodruff's head was contained in the neck of the suit, because the head was filled with animatronics to move the mouth of the Alien. Fincher suggested that a Whippet be dressed in an alien costume for on-set coverage of the quadrupedal alien, but the visual effects team was dissatisfied with the comical result and the idea was dropped in favor of the puppet.
The rod-puppet approach was chosen for the production rather than stop-motion animation, which did not provide the required smoothness to appear realistic. As a result, the rod-puppet allowed for a fast alien that could move across surfaces of any orientation and be shot from any angle. This was particularly effective as it was able to accomplish movements not feasible by an actor in a suit. The ⅓-scale puppet was 40 inches long and cast in foam rubber over a bicycle chain armature for flexibility. For moving camera shots, the on-set cameras were equipped with digital recorders to track, pan, tilt, and dolly values. The data output was then taken back to the studio and fed into the motion control cameras with the linear dimensions scaled down to match the puppet.
To make syncing the puppet's actions with the live-action shots easier, the effects team developed an instant compositing system using LaserDisc. This allowed takes to be quickly overlaid on the background plate so the crew could observe whether any spatial adjustments were required.
Laine Liska was hired to lead a team of puppeteers in a new process dubbed "Mo-Motion" where the rod puppet would be simultaneously manipulated and filmed with a moving motion control camera. Depending on the complexity of the shot, the puppet was operated by 4–6 people. Sparse sets were created to provide freedom of motion for the puppeteers as well as large, solid surfaces for the puppet to act within a three dimensional space.
The crew was pushed to make the movements of the Alien as quick as possible to the point where they were barely in control, and this led to, according to Edlund, "the occasional serendipitous action that made the alien have a character." The ease of this setup allowed the crew to film 60–70 takes of a single scene.
Hoping to give the destroyed Bishop a more complex look that could not be accomplished by simple make-up, the final product was done entirely through animatronics, while a playback of Lance Henriksen's voice played to guide Sigourney Weaver.
Scenes of the Emergency Escape Vehicle were shot with a 3.5-foot miniature against a blue-screen and composited onto large scale traditional matte paintings of the planet's surface. To make the clouds glow from within as the EEV entered the atmosphere, the painting's values were digitally reversed and animated frame by frame. The scene in which the EEV is moved by a crane-arm (also a miniature) was created by projecting a video of actors onto pieces of cardboard and then compositing them into the scene as silhouettes against the matte-painted background.
Music
The film's composer, Elliot Goldenthal, spent a year composing the score by working closely with Fincher to create music based primarily on the surroundings and atmosphere of the film itself. The score was recorded during the 1992 Los Angeles riots, which Goldenthal later claimed contributed to the score's disturbing nature.
Release
Home media
Alien 3 has been released in various home video formats and packages over the years. The first of these were on VHS and LaserDisc, and several subsequent VHS releases were sold both singly and as boxed sets throughout the 1990s. A VHS boxed set titled The Alien Trilogy containing Alien 3 along with Alien and Aliens was released in facehugger-shaped carrying cases, and included some of the deleted scenes from the LaserDisc editions. When Alien Resurrection premiered in theaters in 1997, another boxed set of the first three films was released titled The Alien Saga, which included a Making of Alien Resurrection tape. A few months later, this set was re-released with the Alien Resurrection film taking the place of the making-of video. In 1999, Alien 3 was released on DVD, both singly and packaged with the other three Alien films as The Alien Legacy boxed set. This set was also released in a VHS version and would be the last VHS release of the film. In 2003, Alien 3 would be included in the 9-disc Alien Quadrilogy DVD set which contained two versions of the film (see below). The first three films were also later packaged as the Alien Triple Pack DVD set (this release was identical to the 1999 Alien Legacy set but excluding Alien Resurrection).
Alien 3 was first released on Blu-ray in 2010, as part of the 6-disc Alien Anthology boxed set which included all of the features from the Alien Quadrilogy DVD set and more. The film was also released as a single Blu-ray Disc in 2011.
The bonus disc for Alien 3 in the 2003 Quadrilogy set includes a documentary of the film's production, that lacks Fincher's participation as clips where the director openly expresses anger and frustration with the studio were cut. The documentary was originally named Wreckage and Rape after one of the tracks of Goldenthal's soundtrack, but Fox renamed it simply The Making of Alien 3. These clips were restored for the 2010 Blu-ray release of the Anthology set, with the integral documentary having a slightly altered version of the intended name, Wreckage and Rage.
Assembly cut
An alternative version of Alien 3 (officially titled the "Assembly Cut") which included 37 minutes and 12 seconds of new and alternative footage was released on the 9-disc Alien Quadrilogy box set in 2003, and later in the Alien Anthology Blu-ray set in 2010. This includes alternative key plot elements, extended and previously deleted scenes, and new digital effects. Unlike the DVD release, for the Blu-ray version the additional footage went through post-production, receiving color-correction and sound-mixing to match the rest of the film, which included bringing back some cast members to re-record dialogue. The Assembly Cut is 30 minutes longer than the theatrical release, and Fincher was the only director from the franchise who declined to participate in the box-set releases, even though the Assembly Cut received his blessing.
Reception
Box office
The film was released in the United States on May 22, 1992. The film debuted at number two of the box office, behind Lethal Weapon 3, with a Memorial Day weekend gross of $23.1 million. It screened in 2,227 theaters, for an average gross of $8,733 per theater. The film was considered a disappointment in North America with a total of $55.5 million, although it grossed $104.3 million internationally for a total of $159.8 million. Based on that figure, it is the second-highest-earning Alien film, excluding the effect of inflation, and had the 28th-highest domestic gross in 1992. In October 1992, Fox claimed it was the highest-grossing of the franchise, with a worldwide gross of $175 million.
Critical response
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 45% from 60 reviews, with an average rating of 5.3/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Alien3 takes admirable risks with franchise mythology, but far too few pay off in a thinly scripted sequel whose stylish visuals aren't enough to enliven a lack of genuine thrills." Metacritic assigned a weighted average score of 59 out of 100 based on 20 critics, signifying "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C" on an A+ to F scale.
Both Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert gave the film two thumbs down on their show At The Movies, feeling it was repetitious, and they criticized the drawn out chase scenes near the end of the film as well as the lack of suspenseful action, though they both praised the look and art direction of the film in addition to Weaver's performance. In his review of Alien Resurrection, Ebert later wrote "I lost interest [in Alien 3], when I realized that the aliens could at all times outrun and outleap the humans, so all the chase scenes were contrivances." He also would later state in his review of Fight Club that he considered Alien 3 "one of the best-looking bad movies I've ever seen".
A number of cast and crew associated with the series, including actor Michael Biehn, previous director James Cameron, and novelist Alan Dean Foster, expressed their frustration and disappointment with the film's story. Cameron, in particular, regarded the decision to kill off the characters of Bishop, Newt, and Hicks as a "slap in the face" to him and to fans of the previous film. He eventually blamed 20th Century Fox for the film and not Fincher saying that the latter got handed "a big mess on a plate". Upon learning of Hicks' demise, Biehn demanded and received almost as much money for the use of his likeness in one scene as he had been paid for his role in Aliens.
David Fincher eventually disowned the film, later stating in an interview with The Guardian in 2009 that "No one hated it more than me; to this day, no one hates it more than me." He also blamed the producers for not putting the necessary trust in him.
Accolades
The film's visual effects were nominated for an Academy Award, losing to Death Becomes Her. The film was also nominated for seven Saturn Awards and an MTV Movie Award for Best Action Sequence.
Other media
Novelization
A novelization of the film was authored by Alan Dean Foster. His adaptation includes many scenes that were cut from the final film, some of which later reappeared in the "Assembly Cut". Foster wanted his adaptation to differ from the film's script, which he disliked, but Walter Hill declared he should not alter the storyline. Foster later commented: "So out went my carefully constructed motivations for all the principal prisoners, my preserving the life of Newt (her killing in the film is an obscenity), and much else. Embittered by this experience, that's why I turned down Alien Resurrection."
Comic books
Dark Horse Comics also released a three-issue mini series. Created by writer Steven Grant and artist Christopher Taylor the comic was a faithful adaption with only a few deviations. One such deviation is that Ripley and the convicts succeed in capturing the Xenomorph in the waste tank, only for a
deranged prisoner named Golic to release it afterward. Later, when they believe they have destroyed the alien, Ripley begs Dillon to kill her but he can't bring himself to do it. The Xenomorph suddenly appears and tosses Dillon into the smelting furnace.
Video games
A video game of the same name was developed by Probe Entertainment, and released for multiple formats by Acclaim, LJN and Virgin Games, including Amiga, Commodore 64, Nintendo Entertainment System, Super NES, Mega Drive/Genesis and Master System. Rather than being a faithful adaptation of the film, it took the form of a basic platform action game where the player controlled Ripley using the weapons from the film Aliens in a green-dark ambient environment. The Game Boy version, developed by Bits Studios, was different from the console game, being a top-down adventure game. Sega also developed an arcade rail shooter loosely based on the film's events, Alien 3: The Gun, which was released in 1993.
Television
A cartoon series titled Operation: Aliens was conceived by Fox to coincide with the film's release but was ultimately abandoned. Animation on the pilot episode was carried out by a Korean animation studio. Footage has never surfaced, but still images have leaked online. Some merchandising was also released.
William Gibson's Alien 3
In 2018–19, Dark Horse released William Gibson's Alien 3, a five-part comic adaptation of Gibson's unproduced version of the screenplay, illustrated and adapted by Johnnie Christmas, colored by Tamra Bonvillain.
In 2019, Audible released an audio drama of Gibson's script, adapted by Dirk Maggs and with Michael Biehn and Lance Henriksen reprising their roles. The production had music by James Hannigan.
Sequel
A sequel, Alien Resurrection, was released in 1997.
See also
List of films featuring extraterrestrials
List of monster movies
References
Further reading
Gallardo C., Ximena; and C. Jason Smith (2004). Alien Woman: The Making of Lt. Ellen Ripley. Continuum.
Murphy, Kathleen. "The Last Temptation of Sigourney Weaver." Film Comment 28. 4 (July–August 1992): 17-20.
Speed, Louise. "Alien3: A Postmodern Encounter with the Abject." Arizona Quarterly 54.1 (Spring 1998): 125-51.
Syonan-Teo, Kobayashi. "Why Sigourney is Jesus: Watching Alien3 [sic] in the Light of Se7ven." The Flyng Inkpot. 1998.
Taubin, Amy. "Invading Bodies: Aliens3 [sic] and the Trilogy." Sight and Sound (July -August 1992): 8-10. Reprinted as "The 'Alien' Trilogy: From Feminism to AIDS." Women and Film: A Sight and Sound Reader. Ed. Pam Cook and Philip Dodd. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993. 93-100.
Thomson, David. "The Bitch is Back." Esquire. December 1997: 56-7.
Vaughn, Thomas. "Voices of Sexual Distortion: Rape, Birth, and Self-Annihilation Metaphors in the Alien Trilogy." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 81. 4 (November 1995): 423-35.
Williams, Anne. "Inner and Outer Spaces: The Alien Trilogy." Art of Darkness: A Poetics of Gothic. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.
External links
1992 films
American films
1990s English-language films
1992 horror films
1990s monster movies
1990s science fiction horror films
Alien (franchise) films
American monster movies
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American space adventure films
1990s thriller films
American science fiction thriller films
American sequel films
Android (robot) films
Films about child death
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Single-gender worlds
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20th Century Fox films
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Films with screenplays by Larry Ferguson
American prison films
Films with screenplays by Walter Hill
Films produced by Gordon Carroll
Films produced by Walter Hill
Brandywine Productions films
Films adapted into comics
1992 directorial debut films | [
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|
213254 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundeskanzler | Bundeskanzler | Bundeskanzler or Bundeskanzlerin (German for "Federal Chancellor"), and the shortened form Kanzler or Kanzlerin may refer to:
Federal Chancellor of Germany, the head of the German federal government
Federal Chancellor of Austria, the head of the Austrian federal government
Federal Chancellor of Switzerland, a Swiss federal government official
The head of the government of the North German Confederation (1866–1871) | [
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|
213256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary%20Fisher | Gary Fisher | Gary Christopher Fisher (born November 5, 1950) is considered one of the inventors of the modern mountain bike.
Fisher started competing in road and track races at age 12. He was suspended in 1968 because race organizers cited a rule that his hair was too long. By 1972 this rule had been repealed and Fisher's career continued. He won the TransAlp race in Europe and a Masters XC national title.
Fisher went to work in 1974 on his 1930s Schwinn Excelsior X Bicycle. His innovations to the model included drum brakes, motorcycle brake levers and cables, and triple chain–rings, all taken from "Junkers" Fisher found at bike shops. The next year, Fisher participated in the Repack downhill race, promoted by his roommate Charlie Kelly. This used a tortuous downhill route on Pine Mountain near Fairfax, California, just north of San Francisco, in which riders used their coaster brakes so much that they had to repack the smoking hubs with grease after every run. Fisher holds the record time on the Repack course at 4:22.
Gary Fisher speaks about his role as a pioneer in the sport of mountain biking in two video documentaries: Full Cycle: A World Odyssey produced by New & Unique Videos (1994) and "Klunkerz" produced by Billy Savage (2007). Original clips of Fisher on his mountain bike appear in both documentaries.
Company
Gary Fisher coined the term mountain bike in 1979. That year, Fisher and Kelly founded MountainBikes, the first company to specialize in the manufacture of this type of bicycle. Frames were built by Tom Ritchey, who later founded his own company. The first model sold for $1,300; 160 were manufactured in the first year.
1979 saw the introduction of Shimano components and an ill-fated attempt to trademark Mountain Bike. The company dissolved in 1983; Fisher founded Gary Fisher Mountain Bikes the same year. Fisher sold his company in 1991 to Taiwan's Anlen company, staying on as President. Fisher developed the first commercially produced full suspension bicycles designed by Mert Lawwill, a former champion motorcycle racer. His bike, the Gary Fisher RS-1, was released in 1992. Its rear suspension adapted the A-arm suspension design from sports car racing, and was the first four-bar linkage in mountain biking.
In 1992, Howie Cohen, who had previously imported Nishiki, Azuki and Kuwahara bicycles, assisted Gary Fisher with his brand, 18 months later brokering the acquisition of Fisher by Trek Bicycle Corporation.
On June 16, 2010, Trek Bicycle Corporation announced "the Gary Fisher Collection, a line of Trek bikes that will replace the standalone Gary Fisher brand".
After company sale
Fisher remains involved with design and marketing, along with being scout and mentor to racers sponsored by the team. The best known was the gold-medal winner in the 1996 and 2000 Olympics women's mountain biking: Paola Pezzo.
Awards
Fisher was inducted into the Mountain Bike Hall of Fame in 1988. Outside magazine named him one of the "50 who left their mark" in the sport in 2000, and Smithsonian magazine honored him in 1994 as the "Founding Father of Mountain Bikes." In 1998, Fisher was recognized by Popular Mechanics for his innovations in sports.
See also
Joe Breeze
Klunkerz: A Film About Mountain Bikes
References
External links
Fisher Bikes website
Proceedings of MTB seminar by Gary Fisher at N.Y.intl. bicycle show 1983
Klunkerz: A Film About Mountain Bikes Gary Fisher Bio
1950 births
Living people
American male cyclists
Mountain bike innovators
Cycle designers
Cycle manufacturers of the United States
Place of birth missing (living people)
Mountain bike manufacturers
Cyclists from California | [
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213266 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Zemeckis | Robert Zemeckis | Robert Lee Zemeckis (born August 14, 1952) is an American film director, producer, and screenwriter. He first came to public attention as the director of the action-adventure romantic comedy Romancing the Stone (1984), the science-fiction comedy Back to the Future film trilogy (1985–90), and the live-action/animated comedy Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988). He subsequently directed the satirical black comedy Death Becomes Her (1992) and then diversified into more dramatic fare, including Forrest Gump (1994), for which he won the Academy Award for Best Director and the film won Best Picture. He has directed films across a wide variety of genres, for both adults and families.
Zemeckis is regarded as an innovator in visual effects. His exploration of state-of-the-art special effects includes the early use of insertion of computer graphics into live-action footage in Back to the Future Part II (1989) and Forrest Gump, the insertion of hand-drawn animation into live-action footage in Who Framed Roger Rabbit, and the pioneering performance capture techniques seen in The Polar Express (2004), Monster House (2006), Beowulf (2007), A Christmas Carol (2009), and Welcome to Marwen (2018). Though interest in Zemeckis has at times been solely limited to his work with special effects, his work has been praised by several film critics, including David Thomson, who wrote that "no other contemporary director has used special effects to more dramatic and narrative purpose."
Early life
Robert Lee Zemeckis was born on May 14, 1951, in Chicago the son of Rosa (née Nespeca) and Alphonse Zemeckis. His father was Lithuanian-American while his mother was Italian-American. Zemeckis grew up on the South Side of the city. He attended a Catholic grade school and Fenger Academy High School. Zemeckis has said "the truth was that in my family there was no art. I mean, there was no music, there were no books, there was no theater... The only thing I had that was inspirational, was television—and it actually was."
As a child, he loved television and was fascinated by his parents' 8 mm film home movie camera. Starting off by filming family events like birthdays and holidays, he gradually began producing narrative films with his friends that incorporated stop-motion work and other special effects. Along with enjoying movies, Zemeckis remained an avid TV watcher. "You hear so much about the problems with television," he said, "but I think that it saved my life." Television gave Zemeckis his first glimpse of a world outside of his blue-collar upbringing; specifically, he learned of the existence of film schools on an episode of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. After seeing Bonnie and Clyde with his father and being heavily influenced by it, Zemeckis decided that he wanted to go to film school. His parents disapproved of the idea, Zemeckis later said, "But only in the sense that they were concerned... for my family and my friends and the world that I grew up in, this was the kind of dream that really was impossible. My parents would sit there and say, 'Don't you see where you come from? You can't be a movie director.' I guess maybe some of it I felt I had to do in spite of them, too."
Career
Education and early films (1969–1979)
Zemeckis first attended Northern Illinois University in DeKalb, Illinois, and gained early experience in film as a film cutter for NBC News in Chicago during a summer break. He also edited commercials in his home state. Zemeckis applied to transfer from NIU to the University of Southern California's School of Cinematic Arts in Los Angeles, California and went into the Film School on the strength of an essay and a music video based on a Beatles song. Not having heard from the university itself, Zemeckis called and was told he had been rejected because of his average grades. He gave an "impassioned plea" to the official on the other line, promising to go to summer school and improve his studies, and eventually convinced the school to accept him. Arriving at USC that fall, Zemeckis encountered a program that was, in his words, made up of "a bunch of hippies [and] considered an embarrassment by the university". The classes were difficult, with professors constantly stressing how hard the movie business was. Zemeckis remembered not being much fazed by this, citing the "healthy cynicism" that had been bred into him from his Chicago upbringing.
At USC Zemeckis met a fellow student, writer Bob Gale. Gale later recalled, "The graduate students at USC had this veneer of intellectualism...So Bob and I gravitated toward one another because we wanted to make Hollywood movies. We weren't interested in the French New Wave. We were interested in Clint Eastwood and James Bond and Walt Disney, because that's how we grew up." Zemeckis graduated from USC in 1973, and he and Gale cowrote the unproduced screenplays Tank and Bordello of Blood, which they pitched to John Milius, the latter of which was later developed into a film which was released in 1996.
As a result of winning a Student Academy Award at USC for his film A Field of Honor, Zemeckis came to the attention of Steven Spielberg. Spielberg said, "He barged right past my secretary and sat me down and showed me this student film...and I thought it was spectacular, with police cars and a riot, all dubbed to Elmer Bernstein's score for The Great Escape." Spielberg became Zemeckis's mentor and executive produced his first two films, both of which Gale and Zemeckis co-wrote.
I Wanna Hold Your Hand (1978), starring Nancy Allen, and Used Cars (1980), starring Kurt Russell, were well received critically but were commercial failures. I Wanna Hold Your Hand was the first of several Zemeckis films to incorporate historic figures and celebrities into his movies. In the film, he used archival footage and doubles to simulate the presence of The Beatles. After the failure of his first two films, and the Spielberg-directed bomb 1941 in 1979 (for which Zemeckis and Gale had written the screenplay), the pair gained a reputation for writing "scripts that everyone thought were great [but] somehow didn't translate into movies people wanted to see."
Breakthrough and Forrest Gump (1980–1997)
As a result of his reputation within the industry, Zemeckis had trouble finding work in the early 1980s, though he and Gale kept busy. They wrote scripts for other directors, including Car Pool for Brian De Palma and Growing Up for Spielberg; neither ended up getting made. Another Zemeckis-Gale project, Back to the Future, about a teenager who accidentally travels back in time to the 1950s, was turned down by every major studio. The director was jobless until Michael Douglas hired him in 1984 to direct Romancing the Stone. A romantic adventure starring Douglas and Kathleen Turner, Romancing was expected to flop (to the point that, after viewing a rough cut of the film, the producers of the then-in-the-works Cocoon fired Zemeckis as director), but the film became a sleeper hit. While working on Romancing the Stone, Zemeckis met composer Alan Silvestri, who has scored all his subsequent pictures.
After Romancing, Zemeckis had the clout to direct his time-traveling screenplay. Starring Michael J. Fox, Lea Thompson, Crispin Glover, and Christopher Lloyd, the 1985 film was wildly successful upon its release and was followed by two sequels, released as Back to the Future Part II in 1989 and Back to the Future Part III in 1990. Before the Back to the Future sequels were released, Zemeckis collaborated with Disney and directed another film, the madcap 1940s-set mystery Who Framed Roger Rabbit, which combined traditional animation and live-action; its $70 million budget made it one of the most expensive films made up to that point. The film was both a financial and critical success and won three Academy Awards. In 1990, Zemeckis commented, when asked if he would want to make non-comedies, "I would like to be able to do everything. Just now, though, I'm too restless to do anything that's not really zany."
In 1992, Zemeckis directed the black comedy Death Becomes Her, starring Meryl Streep, Goldie Hawn and Bruce Willis. Although his next film would have some comedic elements, it was Zemeckis's first with dramatic elements and was also his biggest commercial success to date, Forrest Gump. Starring Tom Hanks in the title role, Forrest Gump tells the story of a man with a low I.Q., who unwittingly participates in some of the major events of the twentieth century, falls in love, and interacts with several major historical figures in the process. The film grossed $677 million worldwide and became the top-grossing US film of 1994; it won six Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Actor (for Hanks) and Best Director (for Zemeckis). From this point, Hanks would continue acting for Zemeckis in subsequent films and they became considered frequent collaborators. In 1997, Zemeckis directed Contact, a long-gestating project based on Carl Sagan's 1985 novel of the same name. The film centers on Eleanor Arroway, a scientist played by Jodie Foster, who believes she has made contact with extraterrestrial beings. In the early 1990s, he founded South Side Amusement Company, which later became ImageMovers.
During this same time period, Zemeckis was an executive producer of HBO's "Tales from the Crypt" (1989–1996) and directed three episodes of the series.
Later work, 1999–present
In 1999, Zemeckis donated $5 million towards the Robert Zemeckis Center for Digital Arts at USC, a center. When the Center opened in March 2001, Zemeckis spoke in a panel about the future of film, alongside friends Steven Spielberg and George Lucas. Of those (including Spielberg) who clung to celluloid and disparaged the idea of shooting digitally, Zemeckis said, "These guys are the same ones who have been saying that LPs sound better than CDs. You can argue that until you're blue in the face, but I don't know anyone who's still buying vinyl. The film, as we have traditionally thought of it, is going to be different. But the continuum is man's desire to tell stories around the campfire. The only thing that keeps changing is the campfire." The Robert Zemeckis Center currently hosts many film school classes, much of the Interactive Media Division, and Trojan Vision, USC's student television station, which has been voted the number one college television station in the country.
In 1996, Zemeckis had begun developing a project titled The Castaway with Tom Hanks and writer William Broyles Jr. The story, which was inspired by Robinson Crusoe, is about a man who becomes stranded on a desert island and undergoes a profound physical and spiritual change. While working on The Castaway, Zemeckis also became attached to a Hitchcockian thriller titled What Lies Beneath, the story of a married couple experiencing an extreme case of empty nest syndrome that was based on an idea by Steven Spielberg. Because Hanks' character needed to undergo a dramatic weight loss over the course of The Castaway (retitled Cast Away for release), Zemeckis decided that the only way to retain the same crew while Hanks lost the weight was to shoot What Lies Beneath in between. He shot the first part of Cast Away in early 1999, and shot What Lies Beneath in fall 1999, completing work on Cast Away in early 2000. Zemeckis later quipped, when asked about shooting two films back-to-back, "I wouldn't recommend it to anyone." What Lies Beneath, starring Harrison Ford and Michelle Pfeiffer, was released in July 2000 to mixed reviews, but did well at the box office, grossing over $155 million domestically. Cast Away was released that December and grossed $233 million domestically; Hanks received an Oscar nomination for Best Actor for his portrayal of Chuck Noland.
In 2004, Zemeckis reteamed with Hanks and directed The Polar Express, based on the children's book of the same name by Chris Van Allsburg. The Polar Express utilized the computer animation technique known as performance capture, whereby the movements of the actors are captured digitally and used as the basis for the animated characters. As the first major film to use performance capture, The Polar Express caused The New York Times to write that, "Whatever critics and audiences make of this movie, from a technical perspective it could mark a turning point in the gradual transition from an analog to a digital cinema."
In February 2007, Zemeckis and Walt Disney Studios chairman Dick Cook announced plans for a new performance capture film company devoted to CG-created, 3-D movies. The company, ImageMovers Digital, created films using the performance capture technology, with Zemeckis directing most of the projects which Disney distributed and marketed worldwide. Zemeckis used the performance capture technology again in his film, Beowulf, to retell the Anglo-Saxon epic poem of the same name. It featured Ray Winstone, Angelina Jolie, and Anthony Hopkins. Neil Gaiman, who co-wrote the adaptation with Roger Avary, described the film as a "cheerfully violent and strange take on the Beowulf legend." The film was released on November 16, 2007, to mostly positive reviews and grossed $196 million worldwide.
In July 2007, Variety announced that Zemeckis had written a screenplay for A Christmas Carol, based on Charles Dickens' 1843 short story of the same name, with plans to use performance capture and release it under the aegis of ImageMovers Digital. Zemeckis wrote the script with Jim Carrey in mind, and Carrey agreed to play a multitude of roles in the film, including Ebenezer Scrooge as a young, middle-aged, and old man, and the three ghosts who haunt Scrooge. The film began production in February 2008 and was released on November 6, 2009, to mixed reviews and grossed $325 million at the box office. Actor Gary Oldman also appeared in the film. Zemeckis is an avid supporter of 3-D Digital Cinema and has stated that since the 3-D presentations of Beowulf, all of his future films would be done in 3-D using digital motion capture. He has reportedly backed away from that statement and said that the decision to use 3-D will be on a film-by-film basis.
On August 19, 2009, it was reported that Zemeckis and his company were in talks with Apple Corps Ltd to remake the animated film Yellow Submarine in 3-D once again utilizing performance capture. However, on March 12, 2010, with Zemeckis' biggest Disney ally gone, former chairman Dick Cook, and amid drastic cost-cutting by the new management team, Disney announced that it was ending its relationship with ImageMovers Digital. The studio's final film, 2011's Zemeckis-produced Mars Needs Moms, was the second-worst box office failure in history, with a net loss of roughly $130 million. Zemeckis made his return to live-action filmmaking with Flight, a 2012 drama for Paramount, starring Denzel Washington.
On January 31, 2014, it was announced that a stage musical adaptation of Zemeckis' first Back to the Future film was in production. The show would be co-written by original writers Robert Zemeckis and Bob Gale. According to Gale, the musical would be "true to the spirit of the film without being a slavish remake".
In August 2008, IGN revealed in an interview with Philippe Petit that Zemeckis was working with Petit to turn Petit's memoir To Reach the Clouds into a feature film. In 2015, he directed the true story The Walk, which is about Philippe Petit (Joseph Gordon-Levitt) and his ambition to tightrope walk between the towers of the World Trade Center.
Paramount Pictures and 20th Century Fox announced in February 2015 that Zemeckis would direct Brad Pitt in Allied, a romantic thriller set during World War II. The film was released on November 23, 2016. Next, Zemeckis directed the fantasy drama Welcome to Marwen, starring Steve Carell, which was released in December 2018 to mixed reviews and flopped at the box office. Zemeckis' film The Witches, an adaptation of the Roald Dahl novel of the same name, premiered on October 22, 2020, on HBO Max.
On October 18, 2019, it was announced that Zemeckis is in talks to direct Disney's live-action adaptation of Pinocchio. Zemeckis was officially announced as the film's director and co-writer of the script in January 2020. In addition, Tom Hanks was reportedly announced as playing Mister Geppetto in the film, marking the fourth collaboration with Hanks since Forrest Gump, Cast Away, and The Polar Express.
Personal life
Zemeckis has said that, for a long time, he sacrificed his personal life in favor of a career. "I won an Academy Award when I was 44 years old," he explained, "but I paid for it with my 20s. That decade of my life from film school till 30 was nothing but work, nothing but absolute, driving work. I had no money. I had no life." In the early 1980s, Zemeckis married actress Mary Ellen Trainor, with whom he had a son, Alexander Francis. He described the marriage as difficult to balance with filmmaking, and his relationship with Trainor eventually ended in divorce. On December 4, 2001, he married actress Leslie Harter, with whom he has three children.
Zemeckis is a private pilot who has logged approximately 1,600 hours of flight time . He flies a Cirrus SR20, known for having a parachute that, under certain conditions, can lower the plane to the ground in case of an emergency.
According to campaign donation records, Zemeckis has frequently contributed to political candidates affiliated with the Democratic Party, as well as PACs that support the interests of aircraft owners and pilots, family planning interests, and a group that advocates for Hollywood women.
Filmography
Feature films
Short films
Television
Accolades
Major awards
Other awards
In 1996, Zemeckis received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement presented by Awards Council member George Lucas.
On November 5, 2004, Zemeckis received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his work in Motion Picture at 6925 Hollywood Blvd.
Accolades received by individual films
See also
Directors with two films rated A+ by CinemaScore
References
External links
1951 births
American animated film directors
American animated film producers
American Cinema Editors
American film directors of Italian descent
American male screenwriters
American people of Lithuanian descent
American science fiction writers
American writers of Italian descent
Animation screenwriters
Best Directing Academy Award winners
Best Director Golden Globe winners
Comedy film directors
Directors Guild of America Award winners
Fantasy film directors
Film directors from California
Film producers from California
Film directors from Illinois
Film producers from Illinois
Living people
Northern Illinois University alumni
People from Santa Barbara, California
Science fiction film directors
Screenwriters from California
Screenwriters from Illinois
Student Academy Award winners
USC School of Cinematic Arts alumni
Writers from Chicago | [
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213270 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Back%20to%20the%20Future%20Part%20II | Back to the Future Part II | Back to the Future Part II is a 1989 American science fiction film directed by Robert Zemeckis and written by Bob Gale. It is the sequel to the 1985 film Back to the Future and the second installment in the Back to the Future franchise. The film stars Michael J. Fox, Christopher Lloyd, Lea Thompson, Thomas F. Wilson, Elisabeth Shue (replacing Claudia Wells), and Jeffrey Weissman (replacing Crispin Glover), and follows Marty McFly (Fox) and his friend Dr. Emmett "Doc" Brown (Lloyd) as they travel from 1985 to 2015 to prevent Marty's son from sabotaging the McFly family's future. When their arch-nemesis Biff Tannen (Wilson) steals Doc's DeLorean time machine and uses it to alter history for his benefit, the duo must return to 1955 to restore the timeline.
The film was produced on a $40 million budget and was filmed back to back with its sequel Part III. Filming began in February 1989, after two years were spent building the sets and writing the scripts. Back to the Future Part II was also a ground-breaking project for visual effects studio Industrial Light & Magic (ILM). In addition to digital compositing, ILM used the VistaGlide motion control camera system, which allowed an actor to portray multiple characters simultaneously on-screen without sacrificing camera movement.
Back to the Future Part II was released by Universal Pictures on November 22, 1989. The film initially received mixed reviews from critics and grossed over $335 million worldwide in its initial run, making it the third highest-grossing film of 1989. Reception of the film has improved with time, as the performances, story, direction, cinematography, musical score and predictions have been singled out for praise. Some critics have noted it as one of Zemeckis' best films, as well as one of the best sequels of all time.
Plot
On October 26, 1985, Dr. Emmett Brown arrives in the DeLorean time machine and persuades Marty McFly and his girlfriend, , to travel to the future with him and help their future children, with Biff Tannen witnessing their departure. They arrive on October 21, 2015, where Doc electronically incapacitates Jennifer and leaves her asleep in an alley, explaining that she should not have too much knowledge of future events. He has Marty pose as his own son and lookalike Marty Jr. to refuse an offer to participate in a robbery with Biff's grandson Griff, thus saving Marty Jr. from prison.
Marty switches places with Marty Jr. and refuses Griff's offer, but Griff goads Marty into a fight, and a subsequent hoverboard chase ensues. Griff and his gang are arrested, saving Marty's future children. Before rejoining Doc, Marty purchases an almanac containing the results of major sporting events from 1950 to 2000. Doc discovers it and warns Marty about profiting from time travel. Before Doc can adequately dispose of it, they are interrupted by the police, who have found Jennifer incapacitated and are taking her to her 2015 home. They pursue, as does the elderly Biff, who has overheard their conversation and retrieved the discarded almanac.
Jennifer wakes up in her 2015 home and hides from the McFly family. She overhears that her future self's life with Marty is not what she expected, due to his involvement in an automobile accident. She witnesses Marty being goaded by his co-worker, Douglas Needles, into a shady business deal, resulting in Marty's firing. Jennifer tries to escape the house but faints after she encounters her 2015 self. While Marty and Doc attend to her, Biff steals the time machine to give the almanac to his younger self, then returns to 2015. Marty, Doc, and an unconscious Jennifer return to 1985, unaware of Biff's actions. They leave Jennifer on her own front porch.
The 1985 they return to has changed dramatically, with Biff now one of the wealthiest and most corrupt men in the country. He has turned Hill Valley into a chaotic dystopia, secretly killed Marty's father, George, in 1973, and forced Marty's mother, Lorraine, to marry him. Doc has also been committed to a mental hospital. Doc deduces that the 2015 Biff took the time machine to give his younger self the almanac, and Marty learns from the alternate 1985 Biff that he received it on November 12, 1955. Biff tries to kill Marty, but Marty flees and travels to 1955 with Doc.
Marty secretly follows the 1955 Biff and watches him receive the almanac from his 2015 self. Marty then follows him to the high school dance, being careful to avoid interrupting the events from his previous visit. After several fruitless attempts, Marty finally gets the almanac, leaving Biff to crash into a manure truck. Marty burns the almanac, nullifying the changes to the timeline that it had caused, as Doc hovers above in the time machine. Before Marty can join him, the DeLorean is struck by lightning and disappears. A Western Union courier arrives immediately after and delivers a 70-year-old letter to Marty; it is from Doc, who explains that the lightning strike transported him back to 1885. Marty races back into town to find the 1955 Doc, who had just helped Marty to return to 1985. Shocked by Marty's sudden reappearance, Doc faints.
Cast
Michael J. Fox as Marty McFly / Marty McFly Jr. / Marlene McFly
Christopher Lloyd as Emmett "Doc" Brown
Lea Thompson as Lorraine Baines-McFly
Thomas F. Wilson as Biff Tannen / Griff Tannen / Gertrude Tannen
Elisabeth Shue as Jennifer Parker
James Tolkan as Mr. Strickland
Jeffrey Weissman as George McFly
Harry Waters Jr. as Marvin Berry
Joe Flaherty as Western Union Man
Charles Fleischer as Terry
Flea as Douglas J. Needles
Development
Director Robert Zemeckis said that, initially, a sequel was not planned for the first film, but its huge box office success led to the conception of a second installment. He later agreed to do a sequel, but only if Michael J. Fox and Christopher Lloyd returned as well. With Fox and Lloyd confirmed, Zemeckis met with screenwriting partner Bob Gale to create a story for the sequel. Zemeckis and Gale would later regret that they ended the first one with Jennifer in the car with Marty and Doc Brown, because it required them to come up with a story that would fit her in, rather than a whole new adventure.
Gale wrote most of the first draft by himself as Zemeckis was busy making Who Framed Roger Rabbit. At first, the film was to take place in 1967, but Zemeckis later stated that the time paradoxes of it provided a good opportunity to go back to 1955 and see the first film's events in a different light. While most of the original cast agreed to return, a major stumbling block arose when negotiating Crispin Glover's fee for reprising the role of George McFly. When it became clear that he would not return, the role was rewritten so that George is dead when the action takes place in the alternative version of 1985.
The greatest challenge was the creation of the futuristic vision of Marty's hometown in 2015. Production designer Rick Carter wanted to create a very detailed image with a different tone from the film Blade Runner, wishing to get past the smoke and chrome. Carter and his crew spent months plotting, planning, and preparing Hill Valley's transformation into a city of the future. Visual effects art director John Bell stated they had no script to work with, only the indications that the setting would be 30 years into the future featuring "something called hoverboards".
When writing the script for Part II, Gale wanted to push the first film's ideas further for humorous effect. Zemeckis said he was somewhat concerned about portraying the future because of the risk of making wildly inaccurate predictions. According to Gale, they tried to make the future a nice place, "where what's wrong is due to who lives in the future as opposed to the technology" in contrast to the pessimistic, Orwellian future seen in most science fiction. To keep production costs low and take advantage of an extended break Fox had from Family Ties (which was ending its run when filming began), it was shot back-to-back with sequel Part III.
Production
Two years were needed to finish building the sets and writing the script before shooting could begin. During filming, the creation of the appearance of the aged characters was a well-guarded secret, involving state-of-the-art make-up techniques. Fox described the process as very time-consuming. "It took over four hours, although it could be worse". Principal photography began on February 20, 1989. For a three-week period near the end of the filming, the crew split and, while most remained dedicated to shooting Part III, a few, including Gale, focused on finishing its predecessor. Zemeckis himself slept only a few hours per day, supervising both films, having to fly between Burbank, where it was being finished, and other locations in California for Part III.
The film was considered one of the most ground-breaking projects for Industrial Light & Magic. It was one of the effects house's first forays into digital compositing, as well as the VistaGlide motion control camera system, which enabled them to shoot one of its most complex sequences, in which Fox played three separate characters (Marty Sr., Marty Jr., and Marlene), all of whom interacted with each other. Although such scenes were not new, the VistaGlide allowed, for the first time, a completely dynamic scene in which camera movement could finally be incorporated. The technique was also used in scenes where Fox, Thomas F. Wilson, Christopher Lloyd, and Elisabeth Shue's characters encounter and interact with their counterparts. It also includes a brief moment of computer-generated imagery in a holographic shark used to promote a fictional Jaws 19, which wound up unaltered from the first test done by ILM's digital department because effects supervisor Ken Ralston "liked the fact that it was all messed up."
Animation supervisor Wes Takahashi, who then was the head of ILM's animation department, worked heavily on the film's time travel sequences, as he had done in the original film and in Part III. As Part II neared release, sufficient footage of Part III had been shot to allow a trailer to be assembled. It was added to the conclusion of Part II before the closing credits, as a reassurance to moviegoers that there was more to follow.
Replacement of Crispin Glover
Crispin Glover was asked to reprise the role of George McFly. He expressed interest but could not come to an agreement with the producers regarding his salary. He stated in a 1992 interview on The Howard Stern Show that the producers' highest offer was $125,000, less than half of what the other returning cast members were offered. Gale has since asserted that Glover's demands were excessive for an actor of his professional stature at that time. In an interview on the Opie and Anthony show in 2013, Glover stated that his primary reason for not doing Part II was a philosophical disagreement on the film's message; Glover felt the story rewarded the characters with financial gain, such as Marty's truck, rather than love.
Rather than write George out of the film, Zemeckis used previously filmed footage of Glover from the first film as well as new footage of actor Jeffrey Weissman, who wore prosthetics including a false chin, nose, and cheekbones to resemble Glover. Various techniques were used to obfuscate the Weissman footage, such as placing him in the background rather than the foreground, having him wear sunglasses, and hanging him upside down. Glover filed a lawsuit against the producers of the film on the grounds that they neither owned his likeness nor had permission to use it. As a result of the suit, there are now clauses in the Screen Actors Guild collective bargaining agreements stating that producers and actors are not allowed to use such methods to reproduce the likeness of other actors. Glover's legal action, while resolved outside of the courts, has been considered as a key case in personality rights for actors with increasing use of improved special effects and digital techniques, in which actors may have agreed to appear in one part of a production but have their likenesses be used in another without their agreement.
Replacement of Claudia Wells
Claudia Wells, who had played Marty's girlfriend Jennifer Parker in the first film, planned to reprise her role, but turned it down due to personal reasons. The producers cast Elisabeth Shue instead, which involved re-shooting the closing scenes of the first film for the beginning of Part II. The re-shot sequence is a near shot-for-shot match with the original, with only minor differences: for example, Doc noticeably hesitates before reassuring Marty that his future self is fine – something he did not do in the first film. Marty is also wearing a watch in the second film whereas he was not in the first.
Wells returned to acting with a starring role in the 2008 independent film Still Waters Burn. She is one of the few cast members not to make an appearance within the bonus material on the Back to the Future Trilogy DVD set released in 2002. However, she is interviewed for the Tales from the Future documentaries in the trilogy's 25th anniversary issue on Blu-ray Disc in 2010. In 2011, she finally had the opportunity to reprise her role from the first film, 26 years after her last appearance in the series, by providing the voice of Jennifer for Back to the Future: The Game by Telltale Games.
Hoverboard hoax
Zemeckis said on the film's behind-the-scenes featurette that the hoverboards (flying skateboards) used in it were real, yet not released to the public, due to parental complaints regarding safety. Footage of "real hoverboards" was also featured in the extras of a DVD release of the trilogy. A number of people thought Zemeckis was telling the truth and requested them at toy stores. In an interview, Wilson said one of the most frequent questions he was asked was if they are real.
Depiction of the future
Though the filmmakers did research contemporary predictions by scientists on what might occur by 2015, Zemeckis has said that the film was not meant to be a serious attempt at predicting the future, commenting, "For me, filming the future scenes of the movie were the least enjoyable of making the whole trilogy, because I don't really like films that try and predict the future. The only ones I've actually enjoyed were the ones done by Stanley Kubrick, and not even he predicted the PC when he made A Clockwork Orange. So, rather than trying to make a scientifically sound prediction that we were probably going to get wrong anyway, we figured, let's just make it funny." Similarly, Gale said, "We knew we weren't going to have flying cars by the year 2015, but God we had to have those in our movie."
However, the film did correctly predict a number of technological and sociological changes that occurred by 2015, including: the rise of ubiquitous cameras; use of unmanned flying drones for newsgathering; widescreen flat-panel television sets mounted on walls with multiple channel viewing; smart home technology; video chat systems; hands-free video games; talking animated billboards; wearable technology; tablet computers with fingerprint scanners and head-mounted displays. Payment on personal portable devices is also depicted. Although payment by thumbprint is not widely used, fingerprint scanning is in use as security at places such as airports and schools, and electronic payment with fingerprint scanning as a security feature is deployed for Apple Pay.
Other aspects of the depiction of the future had not come to pass by 2015, but efforts were made to replicate the technology advances.
The film shows Marty putting on Nike "Air Mag" tennis shoes with automatic shoelaces. Nike released a version of their Hyperdunk Supreme shoes, which appear similar to Marty's, in July 2008. Fans dubbed them the Air McFly. In April 2009, they filed the patent for self-lacing shoes, and their design bears a resemblance to those worn by Marty in the film. In 2010, a fan named Blake Bevin created shoes that tie themselves. Though Nike had made a very limited quantity of Air Mags in the same style as the movie, they stated in September 2011 that their consumer-line MAG line of shoes would not feature the self-lacing feature shown in it. Tinker Hatfield, one of the shoe's designers, indicated in 2014 that they would introduce shoes with power-lacing technology the following year, 2015. In March 2016, Nike unveiled the HyperAdapt 1.0 shoe, which is a consumer-market model of the Air Mag and features the same self-lacing technology they used for the commemorative Air Mags, and were put on sale in limited quantities in late 2016.
The producers created a futuristic flying car to depict a typical taxi cab in the future world of 2015. This taxi was based on the Citroën DS.
The concept of the hoverboard—a skateboard that can float off the ground—has been explored by various groups since the release of the film. Attempts similar to hoverboats, which blast air at the ground, have been demonstrated, with a 2021 record distance of 275 meters. A different type is the MagBoard, developed by researchers at the Paris Diderot University. It uses a large superconductor plate on the bottom cooled with liquid nitrogen as to achieve the Meissner effect and allow it to float over a special track; it was shown capable of carrying the weight of a human in its practical demonstration. However, the requirement to run the superconductor at higher, more ambient temperatures prevents this from becoming practical. In March 2014, a company named HUVr Tech purportedly demonstrated a working hoverboard along with several celebrities including Lloyd, though this shortly was revealed as a hoax created by the website Funny or Die. Self-balancing 'hoverboards' became popular in 2015 even though they do not hover above the ground.
In the 2015 scene, the film imagines the Chicago Cubs winning the 2015 World Series against the fictional Miami-based Gators, referring to the Cubs' longstanding failure to win a championship. In the actual 2015 season, the Cubs qualified for the postseason, their first postseason appearance since 2008, but lost the National League Championship Series (not the World Series) to the New York Mets on October 21, 2015, which coincidentally was the same day as "Back to the Future Day," the day Marty McFly arrived in 2015 in the film. Despite losing in 2015, one year later the Cubs did win the 2016 World Series against the Cleveland Indians; the official Twitter feed for the Back to the Future franchise tweeted out that Marty & Doc's time-traveling caused "a rift in the space-time continuum" that led to the 1994 strike (and subsequent cancellation of the 1994 World Series), thus delaying the accurate prediction by a year. In the real 2015 World Series, the Kansas City Royals defeated the Mets to win their first World Series championship since 1985, the year which Marty and Doc time traveled in the film. As for the fictional Miami team, when the film was made, Florida did not have a Major League Baseball team, but has since gained two: the Florida Marlins (now the Miami Marlins) in 1993 and Tampa Bay Devil Rays (now the Tampa Bay Rays) in 1998. Neither qualified for the postseason in 2015.
Release and reception
Box office
The film was released to theaters in North America on Wednesday, November 22, 1989, the day before Thanksgiving. It grossed a total of $27.8 million over Friday to Sunday, and $43 million across the five-day holiday opening, breaking the previous Thanksgiving record set by Rocky IV in 1985. On the following weekend, it had a drop of 56 percent, earning $12.1 million, but remained at #1. Its total gross was $118.5 million in the United States and $213 million overseas, for a total of $331 million worldwide, ranking as 1989's sixth-most successful film domestically and the third-most worldwide—behind Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade and Batman. However, this was still short of the first film's gross. Part III, which Universal released only six months later, experienced a similar drop.
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 66% based on 61 reviews, with an average rating of 6.17/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "Back to the Future II is far more uneven than its predecessor, but its madcap highs outweigh the occasionally cluttered machinations of an overstuffed plot." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 57 out of 100, based on 17 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three out of four stars. Ebert criticized it for lacking the "genuine power of the original," but praised it for its slapstick humor and the hoverboard in its chase sequence. Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that the film is "ready for bigger and better things." Maslin later said that it "manages to be giddily and merrily mind-boggling, rather than confusing." Tom Tunney of Empire magazine wrote that the film was well-directed, "high-energy escapism", and called it "solidly entertaining", though noting it as being inferior to the other two films in the franchise.
Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader gave the film a negative review, criticizing Zemeckis and Gale for turning the characters into "strident geeks" and for making the "frenetic action strictly formulaic." He believed that it contained "rampant misogyny," because the character of Jennifer Parker "is knocked unconscious early on so she won't interfere with the little-boy games." He cited, as well, Michael J. Fox dressing in drag. Variety said, "[Director Robert] Zemeckis' fascination with having characters interact at different ages of their lives hurts it visually, and strains credibility past the breaking point, by forcing him to rely on some very cheesy makeup designs."
In 2018, Bob Gale, who co-wrote the movie with Robert Zemeckis, said the movie received a mixed reception because of the dark aspect of the story: "They [the audiences] were absolutely surprised by it. The whole 1985A stuff...we went places the audience was not ready to go. That is some of my favorite stuff in the whole trilogy." Since the initial release, the movie received a strong cult following. Some critics consider it one of the best sequels of all time.
Accolades
The film won the Saturn Award for Best Special Effects (for Ken Ralston, the special effects supervisor), the BAFTA Award for Best Special Visual Effects (Ken Ralston, Michael Lantieri, John Bell and Steve Gawley), an Internet-voted 2003 AOL Movies DVD Premiere Award for the trilogy DVDs, a Golden Screen Award, a Young Artist Award, and the Blimp Awards for Favorite Movie Actor (Michael J. Fox), and Favorite Movie Actress (Lea Thompson) at the 1990 Kids' Choice Awards. It was nominated in 1990 for an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects (John Bell, Steve Gawley, Michael Lantieri and Ken Ralston).
Home media
The film was released on VHS and LaserDisc on May 22, 1990, three days before the theatrical release of Part III. It was due to be the first release under the MCA/Universal Home Video banner. Universal reissued it on VHS, LaserDisc, and compact disc in 1991, 1995, and 1998. On December 17, 2002, Universal released it on DVD in a boxed trilogy set, although widescreen framing problems led to a product recall. The trilogy was released on Blu-ray Disc in October 2010.
Universal re-released the trilogy alongside new features on DVD and Blu-ray on October 20, 2015, coinciding with Back to the Future Day the following day. The new set included a featurette called "Doc Brown Saves the World", where Lloyd, reprising his role as Doc Brown, explains the reasons for the differences between the future of 2015 as depicted in Back to the Future Part II and in real life. A new remaster as part of Back to the Future: The Ultimate Trilogy on Blu-ray and Ultra HD Blu-ray was released on October 20, 2020.
In May 2020, the trilogy was released for streaming on Netflix. A small minor edit was noticed to Part II during the scene featuring the fictional soft porn magazine called Oh La La!. Gale stated that neither he nor Zemeckis were aware of this change, and believed it originated from a foreign print of the film. Shortly after, Universal provided Netflix with the unedited, theatrical version of the film, replacing the censored cut on the streaming platform.
Music
The soundtrack was released by MCA Records on November 22, 1989. AllMusic rated it four-and-a-half stars out of five. Unlike the previous soundtrack, it contains only a musical score by composer Alan Silvestri. None of the vocal songs featured throughout the film are included. On October 12, 2015, Intrada Records released the complete score of Back to the Future Part II in a 2-disc set including early scoring sessions and alternative takes.
Notes
See also
List of 1989 box office number-one films in the United States
List of films featuring drones
References
External links
1989 films
American films
1980s English-language films
1980s science fiction comedy films
American science fiction comedy films
American science fiction adventure films
American alternate history films
American high school films
American sequel films
American teen comedy films
Alternate timeline films
Back to the Future (franchise) films
BAFTA winners (films)
Casting controversies in film
Chicago Cubs
Dystopian films
Films set in 1955
Films set in 1985
Films set in 2015
Films set in California
Films set in fictional populated places
Films set in the future
Films shot in Los Angeles
Flying cars in fiction
Films about time travel
Amblin Entertainment films
Universal Pictures films
Films directed by Robert Zemeckis
Films scored by Alan Silvestri
Films with screenplays by Robert Zemeckis
Films with screenplays by Bob Gale
1989 comedy films
Works involved in a lawsuit
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|
213274 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequentative | Frequentative | In grammar, a frequentative form (abbreviated or ) of a word is one that indicates repeated action, but is not to be confused with iterative aspect. The frequentative form can be considered a separate but not completely independent word called a frequentative. The frequentative is no longer productive in English, but still is in some language groups, such as Finno-Ugric, Balto-Slavic, Turkic, etc.
English
English has -le and -er as frequentative suffixes. Some frequentative verbs surviving in English and their parent verbs are listed below. Additionally, some frequentative verbs are formed by reduplication of a monosyllable (e.g., coo-cooing, cf. Latin murmur). Frequentative nouns are often formed by combining two different vowel grades of the same word (as in teeter-totter, pitter-patter, chitchat, etc.)
The present tense in English usually has a frequentative meaning. For example, "I walk to work." means "I walk to work most days.", and would be true even if the speaker was not on their way to work there at the time.
Finnish
In Finnish, a frequentative verb signifies a single action repeated, "around the place" both spatially and temporally. The complete translation would be "go — around aimlessly". There is a large array of different frequentatives, indicated by lexical agglutinative markers. In general, one frequentative is -:i-, and another -ele-, but it is almost always combined with something else. Some forms:
sataa — sadella — satelee "to rain — to rain occasionally — it rains occasionally"
ampua — ammuskella — ammuskelen "to shoot — go shooting around — I go shooting around"
juosta — juoksennella — juoksentelen "to run — to run around (to and fro) — I run around"
kirjoittaa — kirjoitella — kirjoittelen "to write — to write (something short) occasionally — I write "around""
järjestää — järjestellä — järjestelen "to put in order — to arrange continuously, to play around — I play around (with them) in order to put them in order"
heittää — heittelehtiä — heittelehdit "to throw — to swerve — you swerve"
loikata — loikkia — loikin "to jump once — to jump (again and again) — I jump (again and again)"
istua — istuksia — istuksit "to sit — to sit (randomly somewhere), loiter — you loiter there by sitting"
There are several frequentative morphemes, underlined above; these are affected by consonant gradation as indicated. Their meanings are slightly different; see the list, arranged infinitive~personal:
-ella~-ele-: bare frequentative.
-skella~-skele-: frequentative unergative verb, where the action is wanton (arbitrary)
-stella~-stele-: frequentative causative, where the subject causes something indicated in the root, as "order" vs. "to continuously try to put something in order".
-nnella~-ntele-: a frequentative, where an actor is required. The marker -nt- indicates a continuing effort, therefore -ntele- indicates a series of such efforts.
-elehtia~-elehdi-: movement that is random and compulsive, as in under pain, e.g. vääntelehtiä "writhe in pain", or heittelehtiä "to swerve"
-:ia-~-i-: a continuing action definitely at a point in time, where the action or effort is repeated.
-ksia~-ksi-: same as -i-, but wanton, cf. -skella
Frequentatives may be combined with momentanes, that is, to indicate the repetition of a short, sudden action. The momentane -ahta- can be prefixed with the frequentative -ele- to produce the morpheme -ahtele-, as in täristä "to shake (continuously)" → tärähtää "to shake suddenly once" → tärähdellä "to shake, such that a single, sudden shaking is repeated". For example, the contrast between these is that ground shakes (maa tärisee) continuously when a large truck goes by, the ground shakes once (maa tärähtää) when a cannon fires, and the ground shakes suddenly but repeatedly (maa tärähtelee) when a battery of cannons is firing.
Since the frequentative is a lexical, not a grammatical contrast, considerable semantic drift may have occurred.
For a list of different real and hypothetical forms, see:
Loanwords are put into the frequentative form, if the action is such. If the action can be nothing else but frequentative, the "basic form" doesn't even exist, such as with "to go shopping".
surffata — surffailla "to surf — to surf (around in the net)"
*shopata — shoppailla "*to shop once — to go shopping"
Adjectives can similarly receive frequentative markers: iso — isotella "big — to talk big", or feikkailla < English fake "to be fake, blatantly and consistently".
Greek
In Homer and Herodotus, there is a past frequentative, usually called "past iterative", with an additional -sk- suffix before the endings.
"I used to have" (imperfect ékh-on)
The same suffix is used in inchoative verbs in both Ancient Greek and Latin.
The infix may occur in the forms -σκ-, -ασκ-, and -εσκ-. Homer regularly omits the augment. The iterative occurs most often in the imperfect, but also in the aorist.
Hungarian
In Hungarian it is quite common and everyday to use frequentative.
Frequentative verbs are formed with the suffix –gat (–get after a front vowel; see vowel harmony). Also there is a so-called Template rule, which forces another vowel in between the base verb and the affix resulting in a word containing at least three syllables. Verbal prefixes (coverbs) do not count as a syllable.
Some verbs' frequentative forms have acquired an independent non-frequentative meaning. In these cases the three syllables rule is not applied as the form is not considered a frequentative. These words can be affixed with –gat again to create a frequentative meaning.
In rare cases non-verbs can be affixed by –gat to give them similar modification in meaning as to verbs. In most cases these non-verbs are obviously related to some actions, like a typical outcome or object. The resulting word basically has the same meaning as if the related verb were affixed with –gat.
The change in meaning of a frequentative compared to the base can be different depending on the base: The –gat affix can modify the occurrences or the intensity or both of an action. Occasionally it produces a specific meaning which is related but distinct from the original form's.
Examples:
Latin
In Latin, frequentative verbs show repeated or intense action. They are formed from the supine stem with -tāre/-sāre, -itāre, -titāre/-sitāre added.
ventitāre, ‘come frequently or repeatedly’ (< venio, ‘come’; see Catullus 8, l. 4)
cantāre, ‘(continue to) sing’ (< canere, ‘sing a song’)
cursāre, ‘run around’ (< currere, ‘run’)
dictāre, ‘dictate’ (< dīcere, ‘speak, say’)
āctitāre, ‘zealously agitate’ and agitāre, ‘put into motion’ (< agere, ‘do, drive’)
pulsāre, ‘push/beat around’ (< pellere, ‘push (once), beat’)
iactāre, ‘shake, disturb’ (< iacere, ‘throw, cast’)
versāre, ‘turn often, keep turning’ (< vertere, ‘turn, revolve’)
The deponent verb minārī (‘threaten’) has frequentatives of both deponent and active form: minitārī and minitāre.
Lithuanian
Lithuanian has a past frequentative (or iterative), which serves to express a single action repeated in the past. Starting from the infinitive without –ti, it is formed by adding the invariant morpheme –dav– followed by the regular past tense suffix of the first conjugation. For instance, dirb·ti ("to work", a first-conjugation verb), whose plain past tense is dirb·au ("I worked" or "I have worked"), has a past iterative of dirb·dav·au ("I used to work"). The six intersections of person and number map onto five distinct frequentative endings; there is no morphological distinction of number in the third person, nor of conjugation class in general.
The closest relative of Lithuanian, Latvian, as well as the Samogitian dialect of the language, has no separate past tense to mark iterative aspect; in its place, however, both may express it by means of periphrasis. An auxiliary verb – mēgt in Latvian and liuobėti in Samogitian – will then occupy the syntactic centre of the verb phrase (subject to conjugation), relegating the main verb to trail it as an (invariant) infinitive complement.
Consider the following three translations of the English sentence "We used to read a lot."
Lithuanian: Mes daug skaitydavome.
Samogitian: Mes liuobiam daug skaitītė.
Latvian: Mēs mēdzām daudz lasīt.
Polish
In the Polish language, certain imperfective verbs ending in -ać denote repeated or habitual action.
jeść (to eat) → jadać (to eat habitually)
iść (to walk) → chadzać.
widzieć (to see) → widywać
pisać (to write) → pisywać
czytać (to read) → czytywać
The interfix -yw- used to form many frequentative verbs has a different function for prefixed perfective verbs: it serves to create their imperfective equivalents. For instance, rozczytywać (to try to read something barely legible) is simply an imperfective equivalent of rozczytać (to succeed at reading something barely legible).
Russian
In the Russian language, the frequentative form of verbs to denote a repeated or customary action is produced by inserting suffixes -ива-/-ыва-, -ва- or -а́-, often accompanied with a change in the root of the word (vowel alternation, change of the last root consonant) and stress shift.
ви́деть (to see) → ви́дывать (to see repeatedly)
сиде́ть (to sit) → си́живать
ходи́ть (to walk) → ха́живать
носи́ть (to wear) → на́шивать
гла́дить (to stroke) → погла́живать
знать (to know) → знава́ть
есть (to eat) → еда́ть
писа́ть (to write) → попи́сывать
An interesting example is with the word брать (to take); an archaic usage recorded among hunters, normally used in the past tense, in hunter's boasting: бирал, бирывал meaning "used to take (quite a few) trophies".
Reduplication
The simplest way to produce a frequentative is reduplication, either of the entire word or of one of its phonemes. This is common in Austronesian languages such as Niuean, although reduplication also serves to pluralize and intensify nouns and adjectives.
See also
Continuous and progressive aspects
Inchoative verb
References
Sources
Grammatical aspects
Verb types
Lithuanian grammar
Finnish grammar
Turkish grammar | [
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213275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Back%20to%20the%20Future%20Part%20III | Back to the Future Part III | Back to the Future Part III is a 1990 American science fiction Western film and the third and final installment of the Back to the Future trilogy. The film was directed by Robert Zemeckis, and stars Michael J. Fox, Christopher Lloyd, Mary Steenburgen, Thomas F. Wilson and Lea Thompson. The film continues immediately following Back to the Future Part II (1989); while stranded in 1955 during his time travel adventures, Marty McFly (Fox) discovers that his friend Dr. Emmett "Doc" Brown (Lloyd), trapped in 1885, was killed by Buford "Mad Dog" Tannen (Wilson), Biff's great-grandfather. Marty travels to 1885 to rescue Doc and return once again to 1985, but matters are complicated when Doc falls in love with Clara Clayton (Steenburgen).
Back to the Future Part III was filmed in California and Arizona, and was produced on a $40 million budget back-to-back with Part II. Part III was released in the United States on May 25, 1990, six months after the previous installment, and grossed $246 million worldwide during its initial run, making it the sixth-highest-grossing film of 1990. It received a positive response from critics, who noted it as an improvement over its predecessor.
Plot
In 1955, moments after witnessing Dr. Emmett Brown disappear in his DeLorean, Marty learns that Doc was transported to 1885. Using information from Doc's 1885 letter, Marty and the 1955 Doc find and repair the DeLorean so Marty can return to 1985. However, Marty photographs a tombstone with Doc's name, with the inscription stating that Doc was shot by Biff Tannen's great-grandfather, Buford "Mad Dog" Tannen, six days after writing the letter.
Despite the letter's warnings, Marty travels back to 1885 to save Doc, arriving amidst a cavalry pursuit of Native Americans and tearing the car's fuel line in the process. Chased by a bear, he is knocked out and found by his Irish-born ancestors Seamus and Maggie McFly, who allow him to stay over the night. The next morning, he arrives in Hill Valley but runs afoul of Buford and his gang. Buford attempts to lynch Marty, but Doc rescues him. Doc agrees to leave 1885 after learning his fate, but without gasoline, the DeLorean cannot reach its required . He thus proposes using a steam locomotive to push the DeLorean to that speed.
While inspecting a rail spur, Doc saves Clara Clayton from falling into the ravine, averting her death from the original timeline. The two quickly fall in love and form a close friendship. At a town festival, Buford tries shooting Doc, but Marty thwarts him. Buford then challenges him to a showdown in two days; an angry Marty accepts, believing that he and Doc would have left by then. Doc urges Marty not to react to provocation, letting slip that Marty has a car accident in the future. Although he is reluctant to return to 1985, Doc eventually visits Clara to end their relationship and bid her goodbye. However, feeling insulted, she dismisses his story about being from the future. Despondent, he goes for a binge and passes out. In the morning, Buford arrives for Marty, who sees his tombstone appear on the photograph and refuses to duel. Doc revives but is taken hostage by Buford's gang, forcing Marty into the duel. Fooling Buford into believing he was fatally shot, Marty knocks him into a wagon of manure. Buford is arrested for an earlier robbery.
On the train for San Francisco, Clara learns how heartbroken Doc is and runs back to town. She finds the model of the time machine at Doc's shop. Realizing Doc was telling the truth, she heads back for the train. Using a stolen locomotive, Doc and Marty push the DeLorean along the spur line. Clara boards the locomotive and tries to reach the DeLorean but she falls, hanging by her dress. Marty, in the DeLorean, passes his hoverboard to Doc and he uses it to save Clara, getting away as the locomotive falls off the unfinished bridge.
Marty is transported back to 1985 and escapes from the powerless DeLorean just before an oncoming freight train destroys it. Reuniting with Jennifer, Marty declines a street race with Douglas J. Needles, thus avoiding the future accident Doc warned him about. Jennifer opens the fax message she kept from 2015 and watches as the text regarding Marty's dismissal disappears. As Marty and Jennifer examine the DeLorean wreckage, a steam locomotive suddenly appears, operated by Doc, Clara, and their children. Doc gives Marty a photo of them standing next to the town clock. When Jennifer asks Doc about the blank fax, he says it means that their future has not yet been written. Doc and his family bid farewell and depart in the locomotive, which lifts off the tracks before travelling to an unknown time.
Cast
Michael J. Fox as Marty McFly / Seamus McFly
Christopher Lloyd as Emmett "Doc" Brown
Mary Steenburgen as Clara Clayton
Thomas F. Wilson as Buford "Mad Dog" Tannen
Lea Thompson as Maggie McFly
James Tolkan as Marshal James Strickland
Matt Clark as Chester, The Bartender
Production
The origins of the western theme for Back to the Future Part III lie in the production of the original film. During filming for the original, director Zemeckis asked Michael J. Fox what time period he would like to see. Fox replied that he wanted to visit the Old West and meet cowboys. Zemeckis and writer/producer Bob Gale were intrigued by the idea, but held it off until Part III. Rather than use existing sets, the filmmakers built the 1885 Hill Valley from scratch. The western scenes were filmed on location in Oak Park, California, and Monument Valley. Some of the location shooting for the 1885 Hill Valley was done in Jamestown, California, and on a purpose-built set at the Red Hills Ranch near Sonora, California. Some of the train scenes were filmed at Railtown 1897 State Historic Park, a heritage line in Jamestown. Whereas the original film played to a more materialistic idea of success, Zemeckis considered Part III more of a "human journey" with spiritual overtones.
The shooting of the Back to the Future sequels, which were shot back-to-back throughout 1989, reunited much of the crew of the original. The films were shot over the course of 11 months, save for a three-week hiatus between filming of Parts II and III and concluded in January 1990. The most grueling part was editing Part II while filming Part III, and Zemeckis bore the brunt of the process over a three-week period. While Zemeckis was shooting most of the train sequences in Sonora, Gale was in Los Angeles supervising the final dub of Part II. Zemeckis would wrap photography and board a private plane to Burbank, where Gale and engineers would greet him on the dubbing stage with dinner. He would oversee the reels completed that day, and make changes where needed. Afterwards, he would retire to the Sheraton Universal Hotel for the night. The following morning, Zemeckis would drive to the Burbank Airport, board a flight back to the set in Northern California, and continue to shoot the film.
Although the schedule for most of the personnel involved was grueling, the actors found the remote location for Part III relaxing, compared to shooting its predecessor.
The role of Clara Clayton was written with Mary Steenburgen in mind. When she received the script, however, she was reluctant to commit to the film until her kids, who loved Part I, 'hounded' her. Lloyd shared his first on-screen kiss with Steenburgen in Part III. The Hill Valley Festival Dance scene proved to be the most dangerous for Lloyd and Steenburgen; overzealous dancing left Steenburgen with a torn ligament in her foot.
The film also starred veteran western film actors Pat Buttram, Harry Carey Jr., and Dub Taylor, as three "saloon old timers". The inclusion of these noticeable Western actors was promoted in several documentaries about the film as well as the behind-the-scenes documentary of the DVD and in the obituary of one of the actors. The musicians of the Old West–style band in the film were played by ZZ Top.
Shooting a film set in the Old West was appealing to the stuntmen, who were all experienced horse riders. "We had every great stuntman in Hollywood wanting to work on Part III," recalled Gale in 2002. Thomas F. Wilson, who played Buford Tannen, chose to perform his own stunts and spent a great deal of time learning to ride a horse and throw his lariat. Filming was halted when Fox's father died and when his son was born.
Alan Silvestri, through his longtime collaboration with Zemeckis, returned to compose the score for Back to the Future Part III. Rather than dictate how the music should sound, Zemeckis directed Silvestri as he would an actor, seeking to evoke emotion and treating every piece of music like a character.
The photography in Part III was a "dream" for cinematographer Dean Cundey, who agreed with much of the crew in his excitement to shoot a western. The filmmakers sought a bright, colorful picture for each scene, with a hint of sepia tone in certain shots. Zemeckis wished to create a spectacular climax to the film. He coordinated the actors, a live 4-6-0 ten wheeler steam locomotive, pyrotechnics, and special effects, and countless technicians all at once. As they had done with the previous two films in the trilogy, the visual effects for Part III were managed by effects company Industrial Light & Magic; the head of its animation department, Wes Takahashi, returned to once again animate the DeLorean's time travel sequences.
Home media
On November 8, 1990, MCA/Universal Home Video released Back to the Future Part III on VHS and again on December 17, 2002 on DVD. It debuted on Blu-ray in 2010 for the film's 20th anniversary, followed by a second Blu-ray remaster in 2015 for the film's 25th anniversary and a 4K Blu-ray remaster in 2020 for the film's 30th anniversary.
The soundtrack was released under Varèse Sarabande on May 29, 1990 and features most of the score by Alan Silvestri and the orchestral version of the song "Doubleback" performed at the festival in 1885 during the film. A 2-disc special edition was released on October 12, 2015 in commemoration of the film's 25th anniversary, which includes the original score (26 tracks) on disc one and an arrangement of alternate cues and source music on a second disc.
Reception
Box office
The film grossed $23 million in its first weekend of U.S. release and $87.6 million altogether in U.S. box office receipts (or about $152.4 million when adjusted for inflation as of January 2011) – $246 million worldwide.
Critical reception
The review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 80% approval rating based on 44 reviews, with an average rating of 6.72/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "Back to the Future Part III draws the trilogy to a satisfying close with a simpler, sweeter round of time-travel antics." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 55 out of 100, based on 19 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale, same as the second installment.
Kim Newman of Empire gave the film four out of five stars, saying that the film "restores heart interest of the first film and has a satisfying complete storyline". He praised Michael J. Fox for "keeping the plot on the move," and mentioned that Christopher Lloyd and Mary Steenburgen's romance was "funny". He said that the film's ending was the "neatest of all," and it "features one of the best time machines in the cinema, promising that this is indeed the very last in the series and neatly wrapping it up for everybody.
Leonard Maltin preferred this film to the first two, giving it three-and-a-half stars out of four, saying it "offers great fun, dazzling special effects, and imagination to spare. There's real movie magic at work here." Michael McWhertor of the website Polygon wrote that while the film was not better than the original entry in the series, it is nonetheless "leagues better than the second"; he praised the film's comedic and romantic elements and commended Thomas F. Wilson's performance as "Mad Dog" Tannen.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film two-and-a-half out of four stars. He said that the film's western motifs are "a sitcom version that looks exactly as if it were built on a back lot somewhere". Although Vincent Canby of The New York Times praised Christopher Lloyd's performance in the film, he also said that the film "looks as if it could be the beginning of a continuing television series". He complained that the film is "so sweet-natured and bland that it is almost instantly forgettable".
Commentators notice parallels between the films Time After Time and Back to the Future III. Mary Steenburgen has said:
Actually, I've played the same scene in that film (Time After Time) and in (BTTF) 'Part III,.. I've had a man from a different time period tell me that he's in love with me, but he has to go back to his own time. My response in both cases is, of course, disbelief, and I order them out of my life. Afterwards, I find out I was wrong and that, in fact, the man is indeed from another time, and I go after him (them) to profess my love. It's a pretty strange feeling to find yourself doing the same scene, so many years apart, for the second time in your career.
The casting of Steenburgen for Back to the Future III appears to be deliberately intended to mirror the earlier role. In Time After Time, the woman lives in the 20th century and the time traveller is from the 19th. In Back to the Future III, the woman inhabits the 19th century and the time traveller is from the 20th. In both films, the woman eventually goes back with the time traveller to live in his own time period.
Accolades
In 1990, the film won a Saturn Award for Best Music for Alan Silvestri and a Best Supporting Actor award for Thomas F. Wilson. In 2003, it received an AOL Movies DVD Premiere Award for Best Special Edition of the Year, an award based on consumer online voting.
Notes
See also
List of 1990 box office number-one films in the United States
References
External links
Back to the Future (franchise) films
1990 films
1990 comedy films
1990s science fiction comedy films
1990s Western (genre) comedy films
1990s Western (genre) science fiction films
Amblin Entertainment films
American films
American Western (genre) science fiction films
American science fiction adventure films
American science fiction comedy films
American sequel films
American teen comedy films
English-language films
Films about time travel
Films directed by Robert Zemeckis
Films scored by Alan Silvestri
Films set in 1885
Films set in 1955
Films set in 1985
Films set in California
Films set in fictional populated places
Films set on trains
Films shot in Arizona
Films shot in Los Angeles
Films shot in Utah
Films with screenplays by Bob Gale
Films with screenplays by Robert Zemeckis
Universal Pictures films | [
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|
213293 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark%27s%20grebe | Clark's grebe | Clark's grebe (Aechmophorus clarkii) is a North American waterbird species in the grebe family. Until the 1980s, it was thought to be a pale morph of the western grebe, which it resembles in size, range, and behavior. Intermediates between the two species are known.
This species nests on large inland lakes in western North America and migrates to the Pacific coast over the winter. It maintains local populations year-round in California, Nevada, and Arizona (the Lower Colorado River Valley), as well as in central Mexico.
It feeds by diving for insects, polychaete worms, crustaceans, and salamanders.
It performs the same elaborate courtship display as the western grebe.
Etymology and common names
The "Clark" of its common name—and its specific epithet clarkii—honors John Henry Clark, a 19th-century American surveyor who was also a naturalist and collector. The genus name Aechmophorus comes from the Ancient Greek words αἰχμά (transliterated "aichme"), meaning 'point of a spear', and φόρος ("phoros"), meaning 'bearing'; together translating as 'spear point bearer' and referring to the bird's long, dagger-like beak.
In Mexico it is called achichilique pico naranja (the western grebe is called the achichilique pico amarillo). A common name advocated in Spain for this bird is the calque achichilique de Clark.
Description
Clark's grebe closely resembles the western grebe and occurs in the same colonies together with it. Storer and Nuechterlein in 1992, following earlier morphological studies by Storer and others, define the species as being distinguished from the western grebe by an overall paler plumage on its back, as well as a larger portion of its face covered in white, as it extends above the eyes, rather than just below them. A distinguishing feature is its bill, which is bright yellow in the US, whereas the Western Grebe's bill is greenish-yellow in the US, which had been noted by others. Storer and Nuechterlein in 1992 claim that the bill is slightly upturned in this species whereas the western grebe has a straight bill, this was not noted in earlier studies.
The grebe has a long, slender neck and the species ranges in size from , with a wingspan of . The Clarks' grebe has a weight range of .
There are few changes between the sexes, the most notable feature that distinguishes males from females is the presence of a slight crest on the heads of males. In juveniles, the plumage is again similar to the Western Grebe, however it is also paler compared to the greyer Western species.
Its relative size compared to the western grebe is confused. Dickerman showed that grebes from the south of the range were smaller than northern examples, irrespective of which color morph, with both morphs being the same size depending on location, and Dickerman originally reinstated the name A. clarkii in 1963 for the smaller, southern populations (irrespective of which color morph). Studies by Storer, Ratti, Mayr and Short in the 1960-70s did not find any size differences between morphs. Nonetheless, some publications now state the paler-coloured grebes are slightly smaller, which might be due to confusion with the species concept advocated by Dickerman (in which Clark's grebe doesn't not occur in the USA or Canada, pale-coloured grebes in the US and Canada are western grebes, and dark-colored morphs in Mexico are Clark's grebe).
Although darker and lighter-colored morphs of grebes occur in the resident non-migratory populations occur in Mexico, it is unclear if these can be distinguished by the other morphological characteristics described above, as most studies have only looked at US populations. Lighter-colored morphs in Mexico are said to have orange-coloured bills, and the darker morphs have yellow bills. In the winter in California numerous examples of dark-colored western grebes displayed the mostly white face of Clark's grebe, although this was intermediate and thought to be possibly due to seasonal changes.
Taxonomy
Clark's grebe (Aechmophorus clarkii) is a waterbird of the family Podicipedidae in the order Podicipediformes, which are related to flamingos.
History
This taxon is extremely similar to the western grebe: it has the same behaviour, including the elaborate courtship displays, occurs sympatrically in the same range and has the same migrations, and is morphologically almost alike, with this bird most noticeably being somewhat paler in colouration. The two taxa can even successfully cross-breed, with intermediates as a result. As such it was commonly thought to be a paler-colored morph (a version with paler colours and more white), as occurs in many bird species.
In 1858 the lighter-coloured morph had first been described as a separate Mexican and Californian species, Podiceps clarkii by George N. Lawrence. Lawrence cited three specimens as representative of his new species, but did not cite a specific holotype. Of the three specimens Lawrence used, two were larger, migratory birds from California, whereas a single specimen was a smaller bird from Laguna Santa Maria in Chihuahua. Deignan designated this last specimen as the holotype in 1961.
After the presence of this taxon throughout the range of the western grebe was discovered, along with the identical behaviour, the two taxa were synonymised, and this was situation was accepted by ornithologists throughout the first half of the 20th century.
According to Robert W. Storer in 1965 besides the paler coloration there were other more subtle morphological differences between the two taxa: the bill of the western grebe is greenish-yellow, whereas this grebe has a bright yellow bill, and furthermore the black color of the crown extends less far down for this grebe, with the black extending below the eye, the lores and the thin line of bare skin extending from the eye to the corner of the bill in the case of the western grebe, whereas in this grebe the black reaches somewhat less far, leaving a thin line of paler color above the eye. Subsequent studies also showed the frequency of lighter morphs appeared more common in the south of the range than in the north, being relatively common in Mexico according to studies by Dickerman in 1973, but rare in Canada according to Nero (1962) and Storer (1965).
Dickerman in 1963 was the first to cast doubt on the taxonomic status of the taxon, believing that the synonymy was incorrect, and thus he moved Lawrence's Podiceps clarkii to Aechmophorus clarkii, and restricted the distribution of this taxon to Mexico, rejecting Lawrence's identification of the larger-sized, pale-colored birds from California and elsewhere in the US and Canada as this taxon. His studies showed that there was little overlap in size measurements between Mexican and northern populations -irrespective of coloration; as such Dickerman's 1963 view was that A. clarkii are smaller grebes restricted to Mexico, which might be found in either light or dark morphs, and A. occidentalis are larger-sized, migratory grebes from the US and Canada also found in two colour morphs.
A study in 1979 based on late 1970s observations of pairs the birds courting or nesting, however, noted that the frequency with which two different colour morphs were seen together or were found nesting together was much lower than one would expect if the pairings were random, some reproductive isolating mechanism was keeping the taxa separate. It also found that although the birds inhabited the same wetlands and the same habitats, the populations were not randomly distributed, with the taxa preferentially nesting with their own morph, and colonies being in large part of one type or the other, despite that one morph was much rarer in frequency than the other. There was also a marked difference in reproductive success in the study area, with Clark's grebe being initially quite low in frequency at around 12%, but increasing to a third of the population of both taxa in a three-year period. The study used the black coloration of the crown to distinguish the two taxa, but it was noted that some grebes in California in the winter appeared to be the dark morph, but that the black of the crown reached less far -the lores being whitish, confusing this distinguishing feature.
In 1986 Dickerman, accepting a taxonomically significant difference between the two colour morphs, described the taxa A. occidentalis ssp. ephemeralis for the smaller Western grebes of southern Mexico, and A. clarkii ssp. transitionalis for the larger migratory North American Clark's grebe subspecies sympatric with the nominate Western grebe subspecies. In this view, the nominate form of A. clarkii constituted smallish, pale-colored grebes from Mexico.
By 1992 Storer and Gary L. Nuechterlein, both having studied the grebes in the 1970s, recognised the paler-coloured morphs in the US and Canada in the book 'The Birds of North America' as A. clarkii, thus apparently rejecting Dickerman's species concept and subspecific classification, although they do not explicitly state this, and because this work does not include Mexico as part of North America, his work is not actually in their remit. Because of this, it is unclear if they consider the dark-coloured grebes of Mexico to be a morph of Clark's grebes, or to be smaller forms of western grebes.
Subspecies
Two subtaxa of grebe classified as subspecies of Aechmophorus clarkii were recognised in 1986:
A. c. ssp. clarkii, (Lawrence, 1858) - Smaller subspecies comparable to the sympatric subspecies of Western Grebe (A. occidentalis ephemeralis) from north & central Mexico. Nominate.
A. c. ssp. transitionalis, (Dickerman, 1986) - Larger than nominate clarkii, from Western North America between southeast Alaska south to north Mexico.
Habitat and distribution
Habitat
Being waterbirds, they require bodies of water that offer the necessary food and shelter that they need to thrive—usually lakes or suitable wetlands—that are also in proximity to suitable tree cover that they can use for nesting.
Distribution
Clark's grebes occur seasonally throughout the majority of Western America, with a distribution ranging as far south as Mexico, and reaching as far north as British Columbia and Saskatchewan. They avoid the cold and are only found in central USA and Canada during the summer breeding season. In the US and Canada breeding is done across a large portion of the west of these two countries, spanning from British Columbia to Texas, for which the grebes tend to favour larger bodies of water and congregate in large flocks.
Storer and Nuechterlein in 1992 dubiously claim the birds winter in Central America, as well as in Mexico and some regions of California. Out of almost 100,000 records of this taxon logged at the Global Biodiversity Information Facility there are zero records found south of northern Oaxaca, Mexico.
The range of this bird in Mexico is distributed in two streaks southward; one from the California border along the Pacific coast throughout Baja California and across the gulf along the coast to southern Sonora, the other a higher altitude, inland distribution running down from the Big Bend region behind the Texas border down the mountains of central Mexico, with the highest concentration in population in the south from Jalisco to Puebla and northern Oaxaca, where the distribution abruptly ceases. These two distributional areas representing where grebes have ever been seen only meet each other in the very north of Mexico in a strip along the USA border, to the south they do not come together and are separated by a very large distance. It is completely absent from the Atlantic coast.
Behaviour
Vocalizations
The calls of the Clark's grebe are similar to its western counterpart, however, during courtship the birds make an 'advertising call' to attract mates -this sounds like a single, extended kreeeed as opposed to the two-note kreed-kreet of the western grebe. The calls of the grebe tend to vary very little between sexes.
Diet
Thought to be a fish specialist in the early 20th century as a result of the examination of their pellets and stomach contents, it was shown by 1962 that Clark's grebe is actually an opportunist when it comes to the food it eats, and is less picky with its selection than previously imagined. This means that the species will actually consume a wide variety of things such as salamanders, crustaceans, polychaete worms and insects while diving and foraging for their preferred small fish, so long as they fit the size constraints of the bill.
Reproduction
Clark's grebes appear to have semi-monogamous behavior, staying with a single mate, but possibly only for a single season as far as known. Unpaired males far outnumber the females. Males, while they stay with their mate until at least a few weeks after the hatching of their young, will have several sexual partners in their lifetime. It is less known if pairs will eventually mate again in the future. There are two courtship ceremonies that are performed before selection and mating take place: the "rushing ceremony" and the "weed ceremony". They entail a sequence of performances and advertisements/dances with the partner, or presenting the partner with a bundle of weeds and performing a different set of dances, respectively. As there are fewer females than males, the final decision of whether or not mating occurs depends on the females. Therefore, there is a level of sexual selection within the species. These courtships take place during spring migration and shortly after arriving on the breeding grounds.
It is important to note that while there are very few cases of breeding between clark's and western grebes, there have been cases where phenotypic hybrids (birds with plumage that is similar to both species) have mated and produced fertile offspring. It is believed, however, that this becomes less likely when the individuals are from different migrations and are not hybrids, as they have a greater chance of failing during the courtships.
Gallery
References
Sources
External links
Clark's Grebe videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Clark's Grebe photo gallery VIREO
Clark's grebe
Native birds of Western Canada
Native birds of the Canadian Prairies
Native birds of the Northwestern United States
Native birds of the Western United States
Fauna of the Lower Colorado River Valley
Birds of Mexico
Clark's grebe
Clark's grebe | [
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|
213294 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep%20End%20%28band%29 | Deep End (band) | Deep End was a short-lived supergroup founded by guitarist Pete Townshend of The Who and featuring David Gilmour of Pink Floyd. The group also included drummer Simon Phillips, bassist Chucho Merchan, percussionist Jody Linscott, keyboardist John 'Rabbit' Bundrick, harmonica player Peter Hope Evans, vocalists Billy Nicholls, Cleveland Watkiss, and Chyna, and a brass ensemble called The Kick Horns.
Performance history
In 1985 the group performed two concerts for the Double O charity at London's Brixton Academy (a third was cancelled due to poor ticket sales). The concerts were later released as the albums Deep End Live! and Live: Brixton Academy '85. The band also performed a concert at the MIDEM trade fair in France and appeared on The Tube. Townshend's daughter Emma performed as a guest vocalist at the London concerts.
Many of the same musicians and vocalists also appeared with Townshend for later tours and performances and also with The Who for selected engagements.
In August 2016, it was announced that a Deep End appearance on the German television show Rockpalast from 1986 would be released on CD and DVD.
References
British rock music groups
Rock music supergroups
Pete Townshend
David Gilmour | [
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213296 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaoshan | Shaoshan | Shaoshan () is a county-level city in Hunan Province, China. It is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Xiangtan. Qingxi Town is its seat.
Located on the mid-eastern Hunan and the mid-north of Xiangtan, Shaoshan is bordered by Ningxiang County to the north, Xiangxiang City to the west and southwest, Xiangtan County to the east and southeast. It covers an area of , as of 2015, it has a census registered population of 118,236 and a permanent resident population of 97,800. It is the smallest administrative unit by size or by population in the counties and county-level cities in Hunan province.
As the birthplace of Mao Zedong, the founder of the People's Republic of China, Shaoshan was an important base during the Chinese Communist Revolution. It is also the birthplace of Mao's Family Restaurant, a restaurant chain that has spread to many other cities. Mao remains a popular figure in the area, and red tourism to Shaoshan and other places related to China's communist background has driven the local economy, while increasing people's understanding of China's revolutionary history.
History
Shaoshan enjoys a long history. As the legend goes, there was once a king named Shundi who happened to pass here during his southward inspection. He was so fascinated with the landscape here that he played the Music of Shao (), which summoned many phoenixes and other birds to accompany him. Thus was Shaoshan named for the Music of Shao. It was under the jurisdiction of the state of Chu in the ancient times.
On December 26, 1990, Shaoshan became a county-level city approved by the State Council.
Names and administrative levels of Shaoshan:
1652 (Qing Dynasty): Qidu (), Xiangtan District ()
1912 (Republic of China): The Second District (), Xi Township (), Xiangtan County
December 1932: The Ninth District, Xiangtan County
1947: Qingtian Township, Xiangtan County
January 1950 (People's Republic of China): The Third District, Xiangtan County
1951: The Fourth District, Xiangtan County
August 1, 1955: Yintian District, Xiangtan County
1956: Yintian Town, Xiangtan County
September 1, 1958: Shaoshan People's Commune, Xiangtan County
May 12, 1961: Shaoshan District, Xiangtan County
December 1968: county-controlled district status upgraded to regional district (), controlled directly by the province
December 1981: reverted to be county-controlled
December 1984: upgraded to county-class district (), controlled by Xiangtan City
December 26, 1990: Upgraded to county-class city, controlled by Xiangtan City on behalf of the province.
Administrative divisions
After an adjustment of subdistrict divisions of Shaoshan City on 16 November 2015, Shaoshan City has two towns and two townships under its jurisdiction. they are:
2 towns
Qingxi, Shaoshan (): Yongyi, Ruyi and the former Qingxi merged
Yintian, Shaoshan ()
2 townships
Shaoshan Township (): Daping and the former Shaoshan Township merged
Yanglin, Shaoshan ()
Description
Population: the city consists of 100,000 residents, of which 16,000 are non-farmers. The total land area is .
Geography: in the east-central hilly region of Hunan province, the geographical coordinates are longitude 112 ° 23'52 "-112 ° 38'13", latitude 27 ° 51'40 "-28 ° 1'53".
Shaoshan's topography is dominated by Mt. Shaofeng and the Shao and Shishi Rivers, with hills in the west giving rise to a mix of hills and plains in the east. The peak of Mount Shaofeng, 518.5 m above sea level, is the highest point whereas Liumuzhou, 48 m above sea level, is the lowest point of the whole city.
Sister cities
Vidnoye, Moscow Oblast, Russia
Geography
Climate
References
External links
Official site
Early Pictures of Mao ZeDong in Shaoshan
Cities in Hunan
Tourist attractions in Hunan
Xiangtan | [
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|
213301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bufo | Bufo | Bufo is a genus of true toads in the amphibian family Bufonidae. As traditionally defined, it was a wastebasket genus containing a large number of toads from much of the world, but following taxonomic reviews most of these have been moved to other genera, leaving only seventeen extant (living) species from Europe, northern Africa and Asia in this genus, including the well-known common toad (B. bufo). Some of the genera that contain species formerly placed in Bufo are Anaxyrus (many North American species), Bufotes (European green toad and relatives), Duttaphrynus (many Asian species, including the Asian common toad introduced elsewhere), Epidalea (natterjack toad) and Rhinella (many Latin American species, including the cane toad introduced elsewhere).
Description
True toads have in common stocky figures and short legs, which make them relatively poor jumpers. Their dry skin is thick and "warty".
Behind their eyes, Bufo species have wart-like structures, the parotoid glands. These glands distinguish the true toads from all other tailless amphibians. They secrete a fatty, white poisonous substance which acts as a deterrent to predators. Contrary to folk belief, handling toads does not cause warts, however due to the poison they secrete, and bacteria on their skins, a person should wash their hands thoroughly after handling one. The poison of most if not all toads contains bufotoxin.
Species
Formerly, the genus Bufo encompassed many species and was divided into several subgenera. Frost et al. (2006) removed most of the species of former Bufo to other genera and restricted the name Bufo to members of the Bufo bufo group of earlier authors. Now, this genus has been reduced to seventeen extant species:
Footnotes
References
amphibiaweb.org - Bufo
Blair (ed.), 1972, Evol. Genus Bufo.
Frank and Ramus, 1995, Compl. Guide Scient. Common Names Amph. Rept. World
(2004) The history of a Nearctic colonization: Molecular phylogenetics and biogeography of the Nearctic toads (Bufo). Evolution 58: 2517–2535.
(2009): Taxonomic freedom and the role of official lists of species names. Herpetologica 65: 115–128. PDF full-text
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|
213302 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%C3%A1s%20de%20Torquemada | Tomás de Torquemada | Tomás de Torquemada (14 October 1420 – 16 September 1498), also anglicized as Thomas of Torquemada, was a Castilian Dominican friar and first Grand Inquisitor in Spain's movement to homogenize religious practices with those of the Catholic Church in the late 15th century, otherwise known as the Spanish Inquisition.
Mainly because of persecution, Muslims and Jews in Spain at that time found it socially, politically, and economically expedient to convert to Catholicism (see Converso, Morisco, and Marrano). The existence of superficial converts from Judaism (i.e., Crypto-Jews) was perceived by the Spanish monarchs of that time (King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella) as a threat to the religious and social life of Spain. This led Torquemada, whose uncle had converso ancestors, to be one of the chief supporters of the Alhambra Decree that expelled the Jews from Spain in 1492.
Owing to his widespread use of torture to extract confessions, and advocacy of burning at the stake those deemed guilty, Torquemada's name has become synonymous with cruelty, religious intolerance and fanaticism.
Biography
Early life
Torquemada was born on 14 October 1420 either in Valladolid, in the Kingdom of Castile, or in the nearby village of Torquemada. The 15th Century chronicler Hernando del Pulgar, a contemporary to de Torquemada and himself a , recorded that Tomás de Torquemada's uncle, Juan de Torquemada, a celebrated theologian and cardinal, was of converso descent.
Torquemada entered the local San Pablo Dominican monastery at a very young age. As a zealous advocate of church orthodoxy, he earned a solid reputation for learning, piety, and austerity. As a result, he was promoted to Prior of the monastery of Santa Cruz at Segovia. Around this time, he met the young Princess Isabella I, and the two immediately established religious and ideological rapport. For a number of years, Torquemada served as her regular confessor and personal advisor. He was present at Isabella's coronation in 1474, remained her closest ally and supporter, and even advised her to marry King Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469 to consolidate their kingdoms and form a power base he could draw on for his own purposes. Torquemada subdued Ferdinand's own ambitions and became his confessor also.
Establishment of the Holy Office of the Inquisition
Torquemada deeply feared the Marrano and Morisco as a menace to Spain's welfare by both their increasing religious influence and their economic domination of Spain. The Crown of Aragon had Dominican inquisitors almost continuously throughout much of the 14th and the 15th centuries. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella petitioned Pope Sixtus IV to grant their request for a Holy Office to administer an inquisition in Spain. The Pope granted their request and established the Holy Office for the Propagation of the Faith in late 1478.
The papal bull gave the sovereigns full powers to name inquisitors. Rome retained the right to formally appoint the royal nominees. Henry Charles Lea observed that the Spanish Inquisition in both Castile and Aragon remained firmly under Ferdinand's direction throughout the joint reign.
Grand Inquisitor
The Pope went on to appoint a number of inquisitors for the Spanish Kingdoms in early 1482, including Torquemada. A year later he was named Grand Inquisitor of Spain, which he remained until his death in 1498. In 1484, Torquemada relinquished his role as royal confessor to Diego Deza, a Dominican who would eventually succeed him as Grand Inquisitor. The following year, at a general assembly in Seville, Torquemada promulgated the twenty-eight articles of faith that would be used to guide the inquisitors' investigations.
In the fifteen years under his direction, the Spanish Inquisition grew from a single tribunal at Seville to a network of two dozen Holy Offices. As Grand Inquisitor, Torquemada reorganized the Spanish Inquisition (originally based in Castile in 1478), establishing tribunals in Sevilla, Jaén, Córdoba, Ciudad Real and (later) Saragossa. His quest was to rid Spain of all heresy. The Spanish chronicler Sebastián de Olmedo called him "the hammer of heretics, the light of Spain, the savior of his country, the honor of his order."
Torquemada saw that the condemned were made to wear a sanbenito, a penitential garment worn over clothing, bearing a design that specified the type of penitence, if any. Relapsed heretics, who were sentenced to burning at the stake, wore a sanbenito with designs of flames or sometimes demons, dragons and/or snakes on it. Those who were sentenced to hang wore a St. Andrew's cross.
The Treaty of Granada (1491), as negotiated at the final surrender of the Muslim state of Al-Andalus, clearly mandated protection of religious rights, but this was reversed just over 3 months later by the Alhambra Decree of March 31, 1492. Under the new decree, approximately 40,000 Jews were expelled from Spain with only their personal possessions. Approximately 50,000 other Jews received Christian baptism to remain in Spain. Many of them, derogatorily dubbed "Marranos" by the Old Christian majority, secretly kept some of their Jewish traditions. They were among the chief targets of the Inquisition, but it also pursued anyone who criticized it.
So many clemency petitions were sent to Rome that the Pope became aware of Torquemada's severity, and three times he had called the Inquisition's representatives to Rome. In addition, Isabella and Ferdinand were concerned that so much money was being diverted to the Holy Office that they too protested to the Pope. But Torquemada's power kept him in his position until at least 1494.
There are various estimates of the number of victims of the Spanish Inquisition during Torquemada's reign as Grand Inquisitor. Hernando del Pulgar, Queen Isabella's secretary, wrote that 2,000 executions took place throughout the entirety of her reign, which extended well beyond Torquemada's death.
Death
During his final years, Torquemada's failing health 'ostensibly' caused Pope Alexander VI to appoint four assistant inquisitors in June 1494 to assist Torquemada with the administration of the Inquisition. While officially, this papal appointment of assistants appeared to be due to Torquemada's 'failing health,' many historians believe that the numerous complaints reaching the Pope about Torquemada's excessive zeal and cruelty may have been the true cause for this papal appointment of 'assistant inquisitors.' With his faith in his mission undiminished, Torquemada retired to the monastery of St. Thomas Aquinas in Ávila in 1494, typically leaving his cell only to attend to the royal family, and again living the more simple life of a monk. In 1498, while still holding the office of the Grand Inquisitor, he held his last general assembly, where new rules were formulated to assure the continuation of the Inquisition in Spain. These rules attempted to curb some of the administrative abuses for which complaints had been lodged against the Inquisition. After fifteen years as Spain's Grand Inquisitor, Torquemada died in the monastery on 16 September 1498 and was interred there. His tomb was robbed in 1832, only two years before the Inquisition was finally disbanded. His bones were allegedly stolen and ritually incinerated in the same manner as an auto-da-fé.
In popular culture
Mel Brooks portrays a singing and dancing Torquemada in a pastiche of classic Hollywood musical scenes in his 1981 film History of the World, Part I.
The British actor James Faulkner portrayed Torquemada as a suitably sinister figure in the otherwise lighthearted Carry On Columbus (1992).
Torquemada is portrayed in the Assassin's Creed series as a leading member in the Spanish Rite of the Knights Templar. He serves as one of the main antagonists of the 2016 live action film Assassin's Creed, where he is portrayed by Spanish actor Javier Gutiérrez. He also features as the main antagonist in the video games Assassin's Creed II: Discovery, and Assassin's Creed Rebellion.
Torquemada appears in the British comic anthology 2000 AD.
The miniature wargame Warhammer 40,000 includes a character named Torquemada Coteaz, who holds the position of a Lord Inquisitor and shares several character traits with Thomas of Torquemada.
Notes
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Duran, Alphonsus Maria, Why Apologies for the Spanish Inquisition?, (Eric Gladkowski, Ed., 2000). .
Goldberg, Enid A. & Itzkowitz, Norman, "Tomas de Torquemada" (A Wicked History), (Scholastic Books, 2008)
Kamen, Henry, The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision, (Yale University Press, 1999). .
Lea, Henry Charles, The history of the Inquisition of Spain, (Macmillan, 1906–07) Wikisource: A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages/Volume I
Sabatini, Rafael, Torquemada and the Spanish Inquisition, (Bretano's 1913; reprinted BiblioLife, 2009). # Paperback: 304 pages, Publisher: House of Stratus; New edition (31 May 2001) # Language English # #
Walsh, William Thomas, Characters of the Inquisition, (Tan Books and Publishers, 1987). .
1420 births
1498 deaths
People from Valladolid
Grand Inquisitors of Spain
Spanish Dominicans
Genocide perpetrators
15th-century Castilian Roman Catholic priests
Spanish people of Jewish descent
University of Salamanca alumni
Persecution of Muslims by Christians
Islamophobia in Europe
Antisemitism in Spain
Spanish Inquisition
Anti-Islam sentiment in Spain
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213304 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy%20Child%20of%20La%20Guardia | Holy Child of La Guardia | The Holy Child of La Guardia () is a folk saint in Spanish Roman Catholicism and the subject of a medieval blood libel in the town of La Guardia in the central Spanish province of Toledo (Castile–La Mancha).
On November 16, 1491, an auto-da-fé was held outside of Ávila that ended in the public execution of several Jews and conversos. The suspects had confessed under torture to murdering a child. Among the executed were Benito García, the converso who initially confessed to the murder. However, no body was ever found and there is no evidence that a child disappeared or was killed; because of contradictory confessions, the court had trouble coherently depicting how events possibly took place. The child's very existence is also disputed.
Like Pedro de Arbués, the Holy Infant was quickly made into a saint by popular acclaim, and his death greatly assisted the Spanish Inquisition and its Inquisitor General, Tomás de Torquemada, in their campaign against heresy and crypto-Judaism. The cult of the Holy Infant is still celebrated in La Guardia.
The Holy Child has been called Spain's "most infamous case of blood libel". The incident took place one year before the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, and the Holy Child was possibly used as a pretext for the expulsion.
As of 2016, the Archdiocese of Madrid's official website still maintained that the alleged events actually took place. An American historian, William Thomas Walsh, defended the validity of the charge, against the research of Henry Charles Lea, who had earlier claimed it to be a fraudulent prosecution.
Background
During the Middle Ages there were frequent blood libels leveled in Spain against the Jews, and the Seven Part Code of Castile (13th century) echoed this popular belief:
And because we have heard it said that in some places Jews celebrated, and still celebrate Good Friday, which commemorates the Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ, by way of contempt: stealing children and fastening them to crosses, and making images of wax and crucifying them, when they cannot obtain children; we order that, hereafter, if in any part of our dominions anything like this is done, and can be proved, all persons who were present when the act was committed shall be seized, arrested and brought before the king; and after the king ascertains that they are guilty, he shall cause them to be put to death in a disgraceful manner, no matter how many there may be. (Alfonso X the Wise, Partidas, VII, XXIV, Law 2)
Certainly several such episodes were believed to have taken place in Spain. One of the best known was the alleged crucifixion of Little Saint Domingo of Val in Zaragoza in the 13th century, as well as the Boy of Sepúlveda in 1468. This last incident resulted not only in the execution of sixteen Jews found guilty of the crime but also resulted in a mob attack on the Jewish community (aljama) in Sepúlveda, which claimed more lives..
England, as well as other European countries, had its own blood libel stories; one was the legend of Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln.
There is no evidence that any of these murders or related crimes took place. The accusations and consequent punishments of those accused are understood today (2021) to be examples of anti-Semitism.
Accusation and trial
Until 1887 the story was known through the legend and in the trial papers deposited in the National Archives of Spain. In that year, the Spanish historian Fidel Fita published an account of the trial of Yucef Franco, one of the accused, in the Boletin de la Real Academia de la Historia, from the trial papers he had discovered in the Archive. It is one of the most complete accounts of a Spanish Inquisition trial extant.
In June 1490, a roving cloth carder, a converso named Benito García, aged 60, a native of the town of La Guardia, was stopped in Astorga in the province of León. A consecrated Host was discovered in his knapsack. He was taken for interrogation before the Vicar-general (Judicial Judge) of the Bishopric of Astorga, Pedro de Villada. The confession of Benito García, dated June 6, 1490, has survived and indicates that he was only accused of Judaizing. The defendant explained that five years earlier (1485) he had secretly returned to the Jewish faith, encouraged by another converso, Juan de Ocaña, who was also from La Guardia, and a Jew from the nearby locality of Tembleque, named Franco.
A Jewish cobbler, Yucef Franco, aged 20, from Tembleque was also mentioned by Benito García and then arrested by the Inquisition on July 1, 1490, along with his father Ça Franco, aged 80. He was in prison in Segovia on July 19, 1490, when he fell ill. He was visited by a doctor, Antonio de Ávila. Yucef asked the doctor if he could see a Rabbi. In place of a Rabbi, on his second visit the doctor was accompanied by a converso Friar, Alonso Enriquez, disguised as a Rabbi and calling himself Abrahán. When asked why he thought he had been arrested, Yucef replied that he was accused of the ritual murder of a Christian boy. The second time he was visited by the two men, Yucef made no further mention of this issue.
Yucef's subsequent statements implicated other Jews and conversos. On August 27, 1490, the Grand Inquisitor Tomás de Torquemada issued an indictment ordering the transfer of the prisoners from Segovia to Ávila to await trial. The indictment lists all the prisoners held in Segovia who were related to this case. They were conversos: Alonso Franco, Franco Lope, García Franco, Juan Franco, Juan de Ocaña, and García Benito, residents of La Guardia; and Jews: Yucef Franco of Tembleque, and Moses Abenamías of Zamora. The indictment contained charges of heresy, apostasy, as well as crimes against the Catholic faith. Curiously the indictment does not mention Ça Franco.
The inquisitors in charge of preparing the trial were Pedro de Villado (the same man who had previously interrogated Benito García in June 1490), Juan López de Cigales, Inquisitor of Valencia since 1487, and Friar Fenando de Santo Domingo. All were men who enjoyed the confidence of Torquemada. Santo Domingo had also written the foreword to a published anti-Semitic pamphlet.
The trial against Yucef Franco began on December 17, 1490, and lasted several months. He was accused of trying to attract conversos to Judaism as well as having participated in the ritual crucifixion of a Christian child on Good Friday. It seems that before the trial, Benito García and Yucef Franco, at least, had already partially confessed and given evidence against the others on the promise of obtaining their freedom, but this was a trap laid by the Inquisition.
When the indictment was read out, Yucef Franco shouted out that it was the biggest falsehood in the world. He was appointed Counsel for his defence who petitioned the court that the charges were too vague, no dates of the crime were given, there was no body, and that the victim had not even been named. As a Jew, Yucef could not be guilty of heresy or apostasy. The defense asked for complete acquittal. The petition was overruled by the court and the trial proceeded. The preserved confessions of this defendant, extracted under torture, refer at first only to conversations with Benito García in gaol and incriminate them only as Judaizers, but later start to refer to a piece of witchcraft performed about four years earlier (perhaps 1487), which involved the use of a consecrated host, stolen from a church in La Guardia, and the heart of a Christian boy. Yucef's subsequent statements give more details of this topic and are particularly incriminating of Benito García. García's statements have also been preserved, and taken "whilst he had been put to the torture" are inconsistent with those of Yucef, and above all serve mainly to incriminate the latter. The inquisitors even arranged a face to face confrontation between the two accused, on October 12, 1491, and the judicial records of this meeting state that their depositions were in agreement, which is surprising, as previously they had contradicted each other.
In October 1491, one of the inquisitors, Friar Fernando de San Esteban, travelled to the convent of San Esteban in Salamanca to consult with several legal experts and theologians, who pronounced on the guilt of the accused. In the final phase of the trial, the evidence was made public and Yucef tried unsuccessfully to refute it. The last depositions of Yucef, obtained under torture in November, added more details to the facts; many of them clearly had their origins in anti-Semitic literature.
On 16 November 1491, in the Brasero de la Dehesa (lit: "brazier in the meadow") in Ávila, all of the accused were handed over to the secular authorities and burned at the stake. Nine people were executed - three Jews: Yusef Franco, Ça Franco, and Moses Abenamías; and six conversos: Alonso, Lope, García and Juan Franco, Juan de Ocaña and Benito García. As was customary, the sentences were read out at the auto-da-fé, and those of Yucef Franco and Benito García have been preserved.
Property confiscated from the prisoners was used to finance the construction of the monastery of Santo Tomás de Ávila, which was completed on August 3, 1493.
Legend
During the sixteenth century, there arose a legend according to which the death of the Holy Child was similar to that of Jesus Christ, even emphasising similarities between the topography of the Toledan town where the events are said to have occurred (La Guardia), and of Jerusalem where Jesus died.
In 1569, the graduate Sancho Busto de Villegas, a member of the Supreme Council of the Inquisition and governor of the Archbishopric of Toledo (afterwards Bishop of Avila) wrote, based on the trial documents, which were stored in the Valladolid court archives, Relación autorizada del martirio del Santo Inocente (Authorized Account of the Martyrdom of Saint Innocent), which was deposited in the municipal archives of La Guardia town hall. In 1583, Friar Rodrigo de Yepes published La Historia de la muerte y glorioso martirio del santo inocente que llaman de Laguardia (The History of the Death and Glorious Martyrdom of the Holy Innocent said to be from La Guardia). In 1720 another hagiography appeared in Madrid, La Historia del Inocente Trinity el Santo Niño de la Guardia (The History of the Trinitarian Innocent, the Holy Child of La Guardia), the work of Diego Martinez Abad, and in 1785, the village priest of La Guardia, Martín Martínez Moreno, published his Historia del martirio del Santo Niño de la Guardia (History of the Martyrdom of the Holy Child of La Guardia).
The legend constructed on these successive contributions relates that some converts, after attending an auto-da-fé in Toledo, planned revenge on the inquisitors by arts of sorcery. For the spell, they needed a consecrated Host and the heart of an innocent child. Alonso Franco and Juan Franco kidnapped the boy next to la Puerta del Perdón (the door of Forgiveness) in Toledo Cathedral and took him to La Guardia. There on Good Friday, they held a mock trial. The boy, who in the legend is sometimes called Juan and at other times Cristóbal, is said to be the son of Alonso de Pasamonte and Juana la Guindero (even though no body was ever found). Local Christians thought he had been scourged, crowned with thorns and crucified at the mock trial, in imitation of Jesus Christ. The heart, needed for the spell, was torn out. At the exact time of the child's death, his mother, who was blind, miraculously regained her sight. After burying the body, the murderers stole a consecrated Host. Benito García set out for Zamora, carrying the Host and the heart to seek the help of other coreligionists to perform his spell, but was stopped in Ávila (a considerable distance from Astorga, which is nowhere near the Toledo/Zamora road) because of the brilliant light that issued from the consecrated Host the convert had hidden between the pages of a prayer-book. Thanks to his confession, the other participants in the crime were discovered. After the death of the Holy Child is said to have occurred, several miraculous healings were attributed to him.
The consecrated Host is kept in the Dominican monastery of St. Thomas in Ávila. The heart was said to have miraculously disappeared, like the child's body, and legends arose that like Jesus Christ he had been resurrected.
In art and literature
Yepes mentioned that there was an altarpiece, now lost, in the chapel of the Holy Child of La Guardia in the town, which Alonso de Fonseca, archbishop of Toledo, had ordered to be painted, representing the scenes of the abduction, prosecution, scourging and crucifixion of the child, as well as the apprehension and execution of his murderers. The central panel of this altarpiece showed the crucifixion and removal of the child's heart.
In the National History Archives in Madrid, there is a painting of the second half of the sixteenth century representing the same scene, which seemingly testifies to the antiquity of the cult of the Holy Child of La Guardia.
There is a mural Bayeu attributed to the representation of the crucifixion of the Holy Child of La Guardia in Toledo cathedral. It can be accessed through the door called "del Mollete". Currently, the humidity and exposure to inclement weather found in the interior of the cathedral cloister have led to the painting deteriorating.
Lope de Vega's play El niño inocente de La Guardia (The Innocent Child of La Guardia) was possibly inspired by the legend recounted by Fray Rodrigo de Yepes. This work from the Golden Age of Spanish Literature is renowned for its cruelty in the last act, portraying the crucifixion of the child. The scene was imitated by José de Cañizares, author of La viva imagen de Cristo: El Santo Niño de la Villa de la Guardia (The Living Image of Christ: The Holy Child of Villa de la Guardia).
In one of the legends of Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, called La Rosa de Pasión (The Rose of Passion), a Jew named Sara, whose boyfriend was a Christian, confronts her father, Daniel, on his hatred of Christians, and dies in a ritual very similar to the Santo Niño de la Guardia (in fact, seeing the preparations, she thinks about the history of the Holy Child).
Impact
The impact of the legend had immediate and far-reaching consequences for both the Jewish community in Spain and for the Spanish nobility:
With Torquemada's urging, it was used by Isabella I as one of the reasons for the expulsion of the Jews after the fall of Granada in 1492.
Because of the fear that heresy was hereditary, the outcome of this trial involving conversos and Jews, was used to argue for the purity of blood (limpieza de sangre) in those aspiring to join the clergy of the archdiocese of Toledo. Many members of the nobility could not prove their untainted ancestry and thus became ineligible to hold office in the main See of Spain.
See also
Dominguito del Val
Gavriil of Belostok
List of unsolved murders
Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln
Menahem Mendel Beilis
Satanic ritual abuse
Simon of Trent
References
External links
The ritual murder of La Guardia, John Edward Longhurst, chapter of the book The Age of Torquemada, Coronado Press, 1962.
15th-century births
1491 deaths
15th-century Spanish people
15th-century Christian saints
15th-century crime
Blood libel
Folk saints
Male murder victims
Murder convictions without a body
Murdered Spanish children
People whose existence is disputed
Province of Toledo
Spanish children
Spanish Inquisition
Trinitarian saints
Unidentified people
Unsolved murders in Spain | [
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|
213306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro%20de%20Arbu%C3%A9s | Pedro de Arbués | Pedro de Arbués (c. 1441 – 17 September 1485) was a Spanish Roman Catholic priest and a professed Augustinian canon. He served as an official of the Spanish Inquisition until he was assassinated in the La Seo Cathedral in Zaragoza in 1485 allegedly by Jews and conversos. The veneration of him came swiftly through popular acclaim. His death greatly assisted the Inquisitor-General Tomás de Torquemada's campaign against heretics and crypto-Jews.
His canonization was celebrated on 29 June 1867.
Life
Pedro de Arbués was born at Épila in the region of Zaragoza to the nobleman Antonio de Arbués and Sancia Ruiz.
He studied philosophy perhaps in Huesca but later travelled to Bologna on a scholarship to the Spanish College of Saint Clement which was part of the Bologna college. He obtained his doctorate in 1473 while he served as a professor of moral philosophical studies or ethics. Upon his return to Spain he became a member of the cathedral chapter of the canons regular at La Seo where he made his religious profession in 1474.
At around that time Ferdinand and Isabella had obtained from Pope Sixtus IV a papal bull to establish in their kingdom a tribunal for searching out heretics, Inquisition had been first stablished in Spain in Aragón, 14th century, to counteract the Catharism heresy. Those Jews who had received baptism were known as conversos; some might have continued to practice Judaism in secret, called 'judaizantes'. Tomás de Torquemada, a Marrano surname, was in 1483 appointed as the Grand Inquisitor for Castile. Espina, confessor of Isabella, was formerly a rabin. Torquemada then appointed Arbués and Pedro Gaspar Juglar as Inquisitors Provincial in the Kingdom of Aragon on 4 May 1484. Their work was opposed by converts and people who saw it as a threat to their freedoms.
On 14 September 1485 Pedro was attacked in the cathedral as he knelt before the altar and had been wearing armour since he knew his work posed great risks. Despite wearing a helmet and chain mail he died from his wounds on 17 September. His remains were entombed in a special chapel dedicated to him.
The Inquisition was unpopular in Aragon as it was seen as a Castilian attack on the charters, privileges and local laws. The most powerful families among the converted Jews: the Sánchez, Montesa, Abadía (AbdYah), Paterno and Santangel families seem to have been involved in funding the murder.
As a result, a popular movement against the Jews arose in which nine were executed, two killed themselves, thirteen were burnt in effigy, and four punished for complicity, from 30 June to 15 December 1486, according to the historian Jerónimo Zurita. Leonardo Sciascia in Morte dell'inquisitore (1964) writes that Arbués along with Juan Lopez Cisneros (d. 1657) are "the only two cases of inquisitors who died assassinated".
Sainthood
Pope Alexander VII beatified the late priest in Rome on 20 April 1664.
His canonization was celebrated on 29 June 1867 among protests from Jews and Christians. Pope Pius IX said in the document formalizing the canonization (Maiorem caritatem): "The divine wisdom has arranged that in these sad days, when Jews help the enemies of the church with their books and money, this decree of sanctity has been brought to fulfillment".
See also
Marrano
Konrad von Marburg
Peter of Verona
Notes and references
Further reading
Simon Whitechapel, Flesh Inferno: Atrocities of Torquemada and the Spanish Inquisition (Creation Books, 2003).
Pedro Arbues in the public domain Jewish Encyclopedia, Funk and Wagnalls, 1901 - 1906.
External links
Saints SQPN
Encyclopedia.com
1440s births
1485 deaths
15th-century Christian saints
15th-century people from the Kingdom of Aragon
15th-century Roman Catholic martyrs
15th-century Roman Catholic priests
Canonizations by Pope Pius IX
Burials at the Cathedral of the Savior of Zaragoza
Canonical Augustinian saints
Inquisitors
Martyred Roman Catholic priests
People from Zaragoza
Spanish Roman Catholic priests
Spanish Roman Catholic saints
University of Bologna alumni | [
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|
213317 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comoro | Comoro | Comoro may refer to:
Comoro (East Timor), a village in Dom Aleixo Administrative Post, Dili District, East Timor
Comoro Islands, an archipelago lying between Madagascar and the African continent
Comoro River, on the island of Timor
Comoro International Airport, the former name of Presidente Nicolau Lobato International Airport, the main airport of East Timor
Comoros, an island country in the Indian Ocean
Grande Comore, the principal island of this country
See also
Komoro (disambiguation) | [
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|
213319 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fledge | Fledge | Fledging is the stage in a flying animal's life between hatching or birth and becoming capable of flight.
This term is most frequently applied to birds, but is also used for bats. For altricial birds, those that spend more time in vulnerable condition in the nest, the nestling and fledging stage can be the same. For precocial birds, those that develop and leave the nest quickly, a short nestling stage precedes a longer fledging stage.
All birds are considered to have fledged when the feathers and wing muscles are sufficiently developed for flight. A young bird that has recently fledged but is still dependent upon parental care and feeding is called a fledgling. People often want to help fledglings, as they appear vulnerable, but it is best to leave them alone. The USA National Phenology Network defines the phenophase (or life cycle stage) of fledged young for birds as "One or more young are seen recently departed from the nest. This includes young incapable of sustained flight and young which are still dependent on adults."
In many species, parents continue to care for their fledged young, either by leading them to food sources, or feeding them. Birds are vulnerable after they have left the nest, but before they can fly, though once fledged their chances of survival increase dramatically.
One species, the ancient murrelet, fledges two days after hatching, running from its burrow to the ocean and its calling parents. Once it reaches the ocean, its parents care for it for several weeks. Other species, such as guillemots and terns, leave the nesting site while they are still unable to fly. The fledging behavior of the guillemot is spectacular; the adult leads the chick to the edge of the cliff, where the colony is located, and the chick will then launch itself off, attempting to fly as far as possible, before crash landing on the ocean.
References
External links
Ornithology
Bird breeding
Animal developmental biology | [
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|
213320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldabra | Aldabra | Aldabra is the world's second-largest coral atoll. It is situated in the Aldabra Group of islands in the Indian Ocean that are part of the Outer Islands of the Seychelles, with a distance of 1,120 km (700 mi) southwest of the capital, Victoria, on Mahé Island.
History
Historically, the name Aldabra was Al-Hadra or Al-Khadra (with several variants), given by Arab seafarers for "the atoll’s harsh, sun-baked environment"; this name was included in the Portuguese maps of the 16th century. They had named the Indian Ocean as Bahr-el zanj. It was visited by Portuguese navigators in 1511. The islands were already known to the Persians and Arabs, from whom they got their name. In the middle of the 18th century, the atoll became a dependency of the French colony of Réunion, from where expeditions were made for the capture of the Aldabra giant tortoises. As there are no surface freshwater sources on Aldabra, the interests of the explorers (no proof of any European explorer's visit prior to 1742) was only to exploit the species of tortoise, turtle and fish, and not to inhabit the atoll. In 1810, with Mauritius, Réunion, the Seychelles and other islands, Aldabra passed into the possession of Great Britain. Réunion was later returned to France, and Mauritius gained possession of Aldabra as well as the rest of the Seychelles. The previous inhabitants were emigrants from the Seychelles.
Admiral W. J. L. Wharton of the British Navy landed in Aldabra in 1878 to conduct hydrographic surveys of the islands. In 1888, the first settlement was established after the Concession was granted by the Seychelles authorities. The small settlement was established on Picard Island facing west near the beach. The intention was to exploit and export the natural resources of the islands. The villagers built a chapel, in the middle of the badamier trees, using timber and steel; the chapel was considered an essential addition to the plantation houses and office buildings. As Aldabra had no freshwater resources, large rectangular-shaped water storage structures were built adjoining each of the houses. A two-roomed jail was also built in the village, a remnant of which is still seen at Aldabra. The exploitation of tortoises for commercial purposes at that time is illustrated by the remnants of a crushing mill at Picard Island, which was used to crush bones of tortoises, which were also brought in from other islands in the atoll. Efforts made to grow plantation crops of coconuts, cotton, and sisal failed due to inadequate water sources on the atoll; relics of these plantations are still found on some of the islands. In the late 19th century goats were introduced as a food source for the villagers (about 200) living there. Ship rats were introduced and recorded before 1870, and house geckos were noted from the 1970s. Sailors landed on the atoll in the 19th century and attempted to raid the island for tortoises as food; in 1842, two ships were reported to have taken 1200 of them. By 1900, the tortoises were nearly extinct, and a crew would often have to hunt for three days to find one.
In the early 1800s, concessions given to individuals almost destroyed the forests and tortoise habitats in many islands in Seychelles; on Aldabra Atoll, in view of its remoteness and rugged topography, only small areas of forests were cleared for agricultural operations (mostly coconut plantations) but the tortoises were intensely captured for meat and trade. However, James Spurs, who had the concession of the atoll, was responsible initially for saving the tortoises on the atoll when he banned killing them in 1891.
Following World War II, exploitation of Aldabra for commercial use came to an end and restrictions were even imposed on the number of people who could stay on the islands; this number was fixed at 200 at a time. Introduction of invasive species was banned, faunal species were protected under law, and active research on the ecology and biodiversity of the atoll was undertaken by the Royal Society of London from the middle of the 1970s.
Aldabra, along with Desroches and Farquhar, was part of the British Indian Ocean Territory from 1965 until Seychelles' independence in 1976. In the 1960s, as a part of their 'Ocean Island Policy', and to support East of Suez commitments, the British government considered establishing a RAF base on the island and invited the United States to help fund the project in return for shared use of the facility and a settlement of 11 million dollars. Simultaneously (mid-1960s), the British Broadcasting Corporation became interested in Aldabra as a possible site to locate transmitters with which to rebroadcast the BBC Overseas Service (BBC) into the African mainland. The BBC mounted a fact-finding expedition (Expedition Turtle) to assess its suitability for this purpose. The BBC were dependent upon the RAF for developing the atoll as without this their own ambitions would not have been feasible. After an international protest by scientists (known as 'the Aldabra Affair'), however, the military plans were abandoned and the atoll instead received full protection. The "Environmental lobbyists" under the leadership of Julian Huxley, with the support of the MP Tam Dalyell, got the British venture torpedoed. In 1966, the Minister of Defence Dennis Healey of the British Government had observed that: "As I understand it, the island of Aldabra is inhabited - like Her Majesty's Opposition Front bench - by giant turtles, frigate birds and boobies."
Subsequent to the thwarting of plans to establish a military station at Aldabra (which instead focused on Diego Garcia in the Chagos Islands), the Royal Society of London resumed their scientific study of the flora and fauna of the atoll with Professor David Stoddart as the leader. The Royal Society bought the lease of the atoll in 1970 and their research station became functional from 1970. After completion of their assigned work, the Royal Society left and the Seychelles Island Foundation (SIF), a public trust of Seychelles, took over the management and protection of the atoll in 1979. SIF functions under the patronage of the President of Seychelles and Aldabra was declared a Special Nature Reserve in 1981, and a year later it became a UNESCO World Heritage Site on 19 November 1982. A brass plaque inscribed with the citation "Aldabra, wonder of nature given to humanity by the people of the Republic of Seychelles" is stationed on the atoll. This appreciation befits the atoll which is truly one of the greatest ecologically undisturbed raised coral atolls in the world.
Geography
Aldabra atoll is in the most southwesterly part of the Seychelles, and is closer to the coast of Africa than to Mahé. It is northwest of Madagascar and from Moroni on the Comoro Islands. The atoll is the largest raised coral reef in the world with an elevation of ; and the second-largest atoll in the world after Kiritimati Atoll. Located at and belongs to the Aldabra Group, one of the island groups of the Outer Islands of the Seychelles, which includes the island of Assumption and the atolls of Astove and Cosmoledo. Aldabra atoll is long (in east–west direction) and wide. It has a large shallow lagoon, in area, of which roughly two thirds is dry during low tide. The lagoon is encircled by fringing coral reef. Around the rim of the lagoon are the larger islands of the Atoll. The total land area of the Atoll is . The size including the lagoon is . The outside rim of the atoll has three passages which connect to the lagoon, which is in width as it opens to the sea. The depth of water in the lagoon averages about ; however, the passages that open to the sea are up to deep and strongly affected by tidal currents.
List of islands
Aldabra atoll has, besides the four larger islands, some 40 smaller islands and rocks, all inside the lagoon, as well as a few very small islets at the West Channels between Grand Terre Island and Picard Islands, the largest of those being Îlot Magnan.
Îlot Magnan .
More Islands (unspecified location, but sizes are included under "Other Islands":
Île aux Cendres
Îlot Parc
Champignon des Os
Grand Mentor
Grand ÎIot
Heron Rock
Hide Island
Île aux Aigrettes
Île aux Cèdres
Îles Chalands
Île Fangame
Île Héron
Île Suacco
Îlot Déder
Îlot du Sud
Îlot du Milieu
Îlot du Nord
Îlot Macoa
Îlot Salade
Middle Row Island
Nobby Rock
North Row Island
Petit Mentor
Petits ÎIots
Pink Rock
South Row Island
Table Ronde
Geology
The atoll reflects both fossil and geomorphological features, the former is the source of the biodiversity seen today. The atoll is made of reef limestone of Pleistocene age (with irregular coral formations called "champignon", made up of two layers of varying stages of crystallization ) and this extends over an average width of rising to a height of above sea level, and forming the rim line (low cliffs with "deep notches, preceded by jagged pinnacles") of the shallow central lagoon. Geologically the limestone beds have been subjected to striation, sink holes and pits with prominent and continuous limestone bed on the eastern side above the sediment deposits. The coastline has undercut limestone cliffs above a perched beach; it is in two clear terraces of and height above sea level. Sand dunes dominate the windward south coast. While the terrestrial topography (spread over an elevation range of ) is rugged and dictated by the geomorphic conditions, the land surface comprises limestone of about 125,000 years age, which has uplifted many times above the sea level. The surface conditions are criss-crossed and riddled with pot holes and pits. In the eastern zone of the lagoon, though the surface is continuous, sediment beds are also seen. The windward southern coast is made up of sand dunes.
Climate and tides
Aldabra is situated in the dry zone of the south-west Indian Ocean. The northwest monsoon is from November to March and brings the heaviest rainfall. In the remaining months, the south-easterly trade winds are recorded. Aldabra receives an average of rainfall per year. Cyclones are rare in the Seychelles on account of its nearness to the Equator. Tides in the coastal zone rise to height, causing channel currents, and a huge influx of water; the main channel drains 60% flow into the lagoon. The reported monthly mean maximum temperature recorded in December is . The mean minimum temperature recorded in August is .
Wildlife
The earliest study of the flora and fauna, and also the geomorphological structure is dated to 1910. There are 307 species of animals and plants on Aldabra. Reptiles are the prominent terrestrial fauna. Sir David Attenborough called Aldabra "One of the wonders of the world", and it is also known as one of "crown jewels" of the Indian Ocean.
Flora
The higher areas of Aldabra are covered in pemphis, a thick coastal shrub, while the lower areas, which are home to the giant tortoises, are a mixture of trees, shrubs, herbs and grasses. There have been recorded 273 species of flowering plants, shrubs, and ferns on the atoll. There are dense thickets of Pemphis acidula, and a mixture of grasses and herbs called "tortoise turf" in many areas. This flora includes 19 endemic species and 22 species that are only common to neighboring islands, and several of these species are on the IUCN Red List. The tropicbird orchid (Angraecum seychellarum) is the national flower of Seychelles and is found in the dry craggy limestone champignon of Aldabra. Other endemic plants such as Pandanus aldabrensis, the Aldabra lily (Lomatophyllum aldebrense) and a sub-species of tropicbird orchid, Angraecum eburneum. The lagoon is bordered by mangrove forests, and has large inland seagrass meadows as well as areas of coral reef and sand flats. The mangroves, which thrive in tidal mudflat areas and saline conditions, are seen on the shores of the lagoon and are integral to the coastal ecosystem. There are seven species of mangrove occurring on Aldabra, three of which are rarely occurring species. These include 'Mangliye blan' or white mangrove (Avicennia marina) which grows to , 'Mangliye lat' or black mangrove (Bruguiera gymnorhiza) which grows to in a conical shape, 'Mangliye zonn' (Ceriops tagal) which grows to with a buttressed trunk, and 'Mangliye rouz' or red mangrove (Rhizophora mucronata) which is the tallest species up to in height.
Fauna
The atoll has distinctive fauna including the largest population of giant tortoises (Aldabrachelys gigantea) in the world (100,000 animals). Tortoise size varies substantially across the atoll, but adult tortoises typically have a carapace length of about and can weigh up to . They are herbivores and feed on a variety of plants, trees and even algae that grows in the freshwater pools. The tortoises mate between February and May, the females then lay their eggs from June to September in areas with suitable soil layers. They lay eggs (the size of golf balls ) in a clutch of three to five eggs every few years in high-density areas and 14-16 eggs in low-density areas. The females can lay several clutches in a year and the incubation period is 73–160 days. The small vulnerable juveniles have to survive the predation by coconut crabs, land crabs, rats and birds. In the past giant tortoises have been relocated to many other islands in Seychelles and also to Victoria Botanical Gardens in Mahé. One of the longest-lived Aldabra giant tortoises was Adwaita, a male who died at the age of about 250 years at Kolkata's Alipore Zoological Gardens on March 24, 2006.
Aldabra is a breeding ground for the hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) and green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas). Aldabra has one of the largest populations of nesting green turtles in the Western Indian Ocean. Aldabra has a large population of the world's largest terrestrial arthropod, the coconut crab (Birgus latro); and hosts the white-throated rail, the only surviving flightless rail species in the Indian Ocean. Sharks, manta rays, barracuda can be found in the seas surrounding the island. During the Pleistocene the dominant land predator was the crocodilian Aldabrachampsus which is now extinct. Three extant species of lizards occur, the skink Cryptoblepharus boutonii and the geckos Phelsuma abbotti and Hemidactylus mercatorius. Pleistocene fossils also indicate the former presence of an Oplurus iguana and other skink and gecko species. There are three endemic species of bat from Aldabra: Paratriaenops pauliani, Chaerephon pusilla and the Aldabra flying fox (Pteropus aldabrensis), as well as the more widely distributed Mauritian tomb bat (Taphozous mauritianus). There are 1,000 species of insects, many of them endemic. Many species of butterflies also flutter around Aldabra.
Endemic birds include the Aldabra drongo (Dicrurus aldabranus), the Aldabran subspecies of the white-throated rail (Dryolimnas cuvieri aldabranus), the last surviving flightless bird of the Indian Ocean region, and the endemic Aldabra fody (Foudia aldabrana), The islands are important breeding grounds for thousands of seabirds, including several species of tern, red-tailed tropicbirds, white-tailed tropicbirds, red-footed boobies, and the world's second largest breeding populations of great and lesser frigate birds. The bird fauna is most similar to Madagascar or Comoros and other birds found here include greater flamingos, the Malagasy pond heron, Comoros blue pigeon, Malagasy kestrel, Malagasy coucal, Madagascar nightjar, Malagasy bulbul and souimanga sunbird.
At least 13 species of cetaceans, including dolphins, orcas, and especially humpback whales, have been known in the waters. Dugongs, once thought to be regionally extinct in the 18th century, have been confirmed for multiple times in very recent years.
Conservation
Conservationists feared a major threat to the atoll's biodiversity in the 1960s when, as part of the British Indian Ocean Territory, the British made plans to set up a military establishment on the atoll. Due to national and international opposition this plan was cancelled in 1967. This incident became known as the 'Aldabra Affair' in England. Invasive alien species such as rats, cats and goats that were introduced in the past threaten the native biodiversity of the atoll. Goats were eradicated from the atoll in 2012 after a long-term eradication program. Cats have been removed from all of the islands except Grande Terre Island, which allowed for the reintroduction of the Aldabra rail to Picard Island. Research into a feasibility study to eradicate rats from the atoll has been undertaken. Aldabra was until recently free of introduced birds, but the introduced Foudia madagascariensis that was introduced to Assumption Island now occurs on Aldabra. An eradication program for this bird on both Assumption and Aldabra is almost done. Due to the limited space of its habitat, extreme weather conditions, epidemic and limited range could also pose serious threats to the entire ecology of the atoll.
Protection
Aldabra atoll was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site on 19 November 1982. it is one of the two UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the Seychelles ;, and is managed and protected by the Seychelles Islands Foundation (SIF). The marine protected area extends into the sea to ensure preservation of its marine fauna. Eco tourism is controlled and introduction of invasive species is restricted. Based on the evaluation process, UNESCO inscribed the site, a legally protected special reserve of , on the list of World Heritage Sites under three criteria: Criterion (vii): Aldabra Atoll encompasses a large expanse of relatively untouched natural beauty where a number of important animal species and some plant species thrive, along with remarkable land formations, and its process provides a unique spectacle of natural phenomena; Criterion (ix): The atoll is a superlative example of an oceanic island ecosystem in which evolutionary processes are active within a rich biota. The size and morphological diversity of the atoll has permitted the development of a variety of discrete insular communities with a high incidence of endemicity among the constituent species that are typical of island ecosystems. The natural processes take place with minimal human interference and can be clearly demonstrated in their full complexity; and Criterion (x): Aldabra provides a natural laboratory for the study of the process of evolutionary ecology and is a platform for key scientific discovery. The atoll constitutes a refuge harboring viable populations of a range of rare and endangered species of plants and animals. These include the last giant tortoise and flightless bird populations of the Western Indian Ocean, a substantial marine turtle breeding population, and large seabird colonies which number in the tens of thousands. The substantial tortoise population is self-sustaining and all the elements of its inter-relationship with the terrestrial environment are evident.
BirdLife International declared Aldabra as an Important Endemic Bird Area (IBA) in 2001 on account of its large seabird colonies under categories A1, A2, A4i, A4ii and A4iii, covering an area of overlapping with the special reserve area of of Aldabra Atoll.
Aldabra became a Ramsar Wetland Site of International Importance in 2010.
Covering 25,100 ha (over half the area of the whole atoll) the wetland ecosystem of Aldabra include the extensive shallow lagoon inside the atoll, which is carpeted with lush seagrass beds and patchy coral reefs, the intertidal mud flats, the coral reefs outside the lagoon, freshwater pools, beaches, and 2000 ha of mangrove stands. These wetlands support several endangered species including the increasing number of turtles at the atoll, dugongs and many other bird, fish and invertebrate species.
Aldabra was designated as a site under the Indian Ocean South East Asia (IOSEA) turtle network, in their 2014 convention.
Demography
A small scientific research station of the SIF is based on La Gigi village on Picard Island. The permanent staff (currently 12) conduct research to study Aldabra's biodiversity.
Transport
Aldabra is not easily accessed. No airstrips, helipads or landing jetties have been permitted to be built on the atoll. The nearest airfield on Assumption is south-east of Picard Island. Supply ships operating from Mahé provide food and other essentials once every two months to the scientists and staff at the research station.
Tourism
Cruises are operated by several companies along with dive boats which may visit the atoll on expedition tours. Visits to the island by people other than the scientists and staff of the SIF are strictly controlled and only guided tours are provided with prior permission. , an average of 900 tourists visit the atoll a year. Within the atoll, paved walking paths exist from the village of La Gigi, which leads to a promontory from where scenic views of the large lagoon (during low tides) and the mangrove species are seen.
Image gallery
References
Bibliography
External links
Aldabra islands
"Expedition Aldabra" (Gordon, Ethan, Fathoms Online, Issue #8)
Photos of Aldabran wildlife
WCMC Natural Site Data Sheet
Save Our Seas Foundation Promotional Video for Aldabra
Pictures of Russian Robinson Radio expedition to Aldabra
Island guide 1
National Bureau of Statistics
2010 Sailing directions
UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Center: Aldabra fact sheet
Gallery
Atolls of Seychelles
Ecoregions of Seychelles
Outer Islands (Seychelles)
World Heritage Sites in Seychelles
Former populated places in the Indian Ocean
Important Bird Areas of Seychelles
Former islands of the British Indian Ocean Territory
Ramsar sites in Seychelles | [
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|
213328 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative%20feedback | Negative feedback | Negative feedback (or balancing feedback) occurs when some function of the output of a system, process, or mechanism is fed back in a manner that tends to reduce the fluctuations in the output, whether caused by changes in the input or by other disturbances.
Whereas positive feedback tends to lead to instability via exponential growth, oscillation or chaotic behavior, negative feedback generally promotes stability. Negative feedback tends to promote a settling to equilibrium, and reduces the effects of perturbations. Negative feedback loops in which just the right amount of correction is applied with optimum timing can be very stable, accurate, and responsive.
Negative feedback is widely used in mechanical and electronic engineering, and also within living organisms, and can be seen in many other fields from chemistry and economics to physical systems such as the climate. General negative feedback systems are studied in control systems engineering.
Negative feedback loops also play an integral role in maintaining the atmospheric balance in various systems on Earth. One such feedback system is the interaction between solar radiation, cloud cover, and planet temperature.
Examples
Mercury thermostats (circa 1600) using expansion and contraction of columns of mercury in response to temperature changes were used in negative feedback systems to control vents in furnaces, maintaining a steady internal temperature.
In the invisible hand of the market metaphor of economic theory (1776), reactions to price movements provide a feedback mechanism to match supply and demand.
In centrifugal governors (1788), negative feedback is used to maintain a near-constant speed of an engine, irrespective of the load or fuel-supply conditions.
In a steering engine (1866), power assistance is applied to the rudder with a feedback loop, to maintain the direction set by the steersman.
In servomechanisms, the speed or position of an output, as determined by a sensor, is compared to a set value, and any error is reduced by negative feedback to the input.
In audio amplifiers, negative feedback reduces distortion, minimises the effect of manufacturing variations in component parameters, and compensates for changes in characteristics due to temperature change.
In analog computing feedback around operational amplifiers is used to generate mathematical functions such as addition, subtraction, integration, differentiation, logarithm, and antilog functions.
In a phase locked loop (1932) feedback is used to maintain a generated alternating waveform in a constant phase to a reference signal. In many implementations the generated waveform is the output, but when used as a demodulator in an FM radio receiver, the error feedback voltage serves as the demodulated output signal. If there is a frequency divider between the generated waveform and the phase comparator, the device acts as a frequency multiplier.
In organisms, feedback enables various measures (e.g. body temperature, or blood sugar level) to be maintained within a desired range by homeostatic processes.
History
Negative feedback as a control technique may be seen in the refinements of the water clock introduced by Ktesibios of Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE. Self-regulating mechanisms have existed since antiquity, and were used to maintain a constant level in the reservoirs of water clocks as early as 200 BCE.
Negative feedback was implemented in the 17th Century. Cornelius Drebbel had built thermostatically-controlled incubators and ovens in the early 1600s, and centrifugal governors were used to regulate the distance and pressure between millstones in windmills. James Watt patented a form of governor in 1788 to control the speed of his steam engine, and James Clerk Maxwell in 1868 described "component motions" associated with these governors that lead to a decrease in a disturbance or the amplitude of an oscillation.
The term "feedback" was well established by the 1920s, in reference to a means of boosting the gain of an electronic amplifier. Friis and Jensen described this action as "positive feedback" and made passing mention of a contrasting "negative feed-back action" in 1924. Harold Stephen Black came up with the idea of using negative feedback in electronic amplifiers in 1927, submitted a patent application in 1928, and detailed its use in his paper of 1934, where he defined negative feedback as a type of coupling that reduced the gain of the amplifier, in the process greatly increasing its stability and bandwidth.
Karl Küpfmüller published papers on a negative-feedback-based automatic gain control system and a feedback system stability criterion in 1928.
Nyquist and Bode built on Black's work to develop a theory of amplifier stability.
Early researchers in the area of cybernetics subsequently generalized the idea of negative feedback to cover any goal-seeking or purposeful behavior.
Cybernetics pioneer Norbert Wiener helped to formalize the concepts of feedback control, defining feedback in general as "the chain of the transmission and return of information", and negative feedback as the case when:
While the view of feedback as any "circularity of action" helped to keep the theory simple and consistent, Ashby pointed out that, while it may clash with definitions that require a "materially evident" connection, "the exact definition of feedback is nowhere important". Ashby pointed out the limitations of the concept of "feedback":
To reduce confusion, later authors have suggested alternative terms such as degenerative, self-correcting, balancing, or discrepancy-reducing in place of "negative".
Overview
In many physical and biological systems, qualitatively different influences can oppose each other. For example, in biochemistry, one set of chemicals drives the system in a given direction, whereas another set of chemicals drives it in an opposing direction. If one or both of these opposing influences are non-linear, equilibrium point(s) result.
In biology, this process (in general, biochemical) is often referred to as homeostasis; whereas in mechanics, the more common term is equilibrium.
In engineering, mathematics and the physical, and biological sciences, common terms for the points around which the system gravitates include: attractors, stable states, eigenstates/eigenfunctions, equilibrium points, and setpoints.
In control theory, negative refers to the sign of the multiplier in mathematical models for feedback. In delta notation, −Δoutput is added to or mixed into the input. In multivariate systems, vectors help to illustrate how several influences can both partially complement and partially oppose each other.
Some authors, in particular with respect to modelling business systems, use negative to refer to the reduction in difference between the desired and actual behavior of a system. In a psychology context, on the other hand, negative refers to the valence of the feedback – attractive versus aversive, or praise versus criticism.
In contrast, positive feedback is feedback in which the system responds so as to increase the magnitude of any particular perturbation, resulting in amplification of the original signal instead of stabilization. Any system in which there is positive feedback together with a gain greater than one will result in a runaway situation. Both positive and negative feedback require a feedback loop to operate.
However, negative feedback systems can still be subject to oscillations. This is caused by a phase shift around any loop. Due to these phase shifts the feedback signal of some frequencies can ultimately become in phase with the input signal and thus turn into positive feedback, creating a runaway condition. Even before the point where the phase shift becomes 180 degrees, stability of the negative feedback loop will become compromised, leading to increasing under- and overshoot following a disturbance. This problem is often dealt with by attenuating or changing the phase of the problematic frequencies in a design step called compensation. Unless the system naturally has sufficient damping, many negative feedback systems have low pass filters or dampers fitted.
Some specific implementations
There are a large number of different examples of negative feedback and some are discussed below.
Error-controlled regulation
One use of feedback is to make a system (say T) self-regulating to minimize the effect of a disturbance (say D). Using a negative feedback loop, a measurement of some variable (for example, a process variable, say E) is subtracted from a required value (the 'set point') to estimate an operational error in system status, which is then used by a regulator (say R) to reduce the gap between the measurement and the required value. The regulator modifies the input to the system T according to its interpretation of the error in the status of the system. This error may be introduced by a variety of possible disturbances or 'upsets', some slow and some rapid. The regulation in such systems can range from a simple 'on-off' control to a more complex processing of the error signal.
It may be noted that the physical form of the signals in the system may change from point to point. So, for example, a change in weather may cause a disturbance to the heat input to a house (as an example of the system T) that is monitored by a thermometer as a change in temperature (as an example of an 'essential variable' E), converted by the thermostat (a 'comparator') into an electrical error in status compared to the 'set point' S, and subsequently used by the regulator (containing a 'controller' that commands gas control valves and an ignitor) ultimately to change the heat provided by a furnace (an 'effector') to counter the initial weather-related disturbance in heat input to the house.
Error controlled regulation is typically carried out using a Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller (PID controller). The regulator signal is derived from a weighted sum of the error signal, integral of the error signal, and derivative of the error signal. The weights of the respective components depend on the application.
Mathematically, the regulator signal is given by:
where
is the integral time
is the derivative time
Negative feedback amplifier
The negative feedback amplifier was invented by Harold Stephen Black at Bell Laboratories in 1927, and granted a patent in 1937 (US Patent 2,102,671 "a continuation of application Serial No. 298,155, filed August 8, 1928 ...").
"The patent is 52 pages long plus 35 pages of figures. The first 43 pages amount to a small treatise on feedback amplifiers!"
There are many advantages to feedback in amplifiers. In design, the type of feedback and amount of feedback are carefully selected to weigh and optimize these various benefits.
Advantages of negative voltage feedback in amplifiers are-
It reduces non linear distortion that is it has higher fidelity.
It increases circuit stability that is the gain remains stable though there are variations in ambient temperature, frequency and signal amplitude.
It increases bandwidth that is the frequency response is improved.
It is possible to modify the input and output impedances.
The harmonic distortion, phase distortion are less.
The amplitude and frequency distortion are less.
Noise is reduced considerably.
An important advantage of negative feedback is that it stabilizes the gain.
Though negative feedback has many advantages, amplifiers with feedback can oscillate. See the article on step response. They may even exhibit instability. Harry Nyquist of Bell Laboratories proposed the Nyquist stability criterion and the Nyquist plot that identify stable feedback systems, including amplifiers and control systems.
The figure shows a simplified block diagram of a negative feedback amplifier.
The feedback sets the overall (closed-loop) amplifier gain at a value:
where the approximate value assumes βA >> 1. This expression shows that a gain greater than one requires β < 1. Because the approximate gain 1/β is independent of the open-loop gain A, the feedback is said to 'desensitize' the closed-loop gain to variations in A (for example, due to manufacturing variations between units, or temperature effects upon components), provided only that the gain A is sufficiently large. In this context, the factor (1+βA) is often called the 'desensitivity factor', and in the broader context of feedback effects that include other matters like electrical impedance and bandwidth, the 'improvement factor'.
If the disturbance D is included, the amplifier output becomes:
which shows that the feedback reduces the effect of the disturbance by the 'improvement factor' (1+β A). The disturbance D might arise from fluctuations in the amplifier output due to noise and nonlinearity (distortion) within this amplifier, or from other noise sources such as power supplies.
The difference signal I–βO at the amplifier input is sometimes called the "error signal". According to the diagram, the error signal is:
From this expression, it can be seen that a large 'improvement factor' (or a large loop gain βA) tends to keep this error signal small.
Although the diagram illustrates the principles of the negative feedback amplifier, modeling a real amplifier as a unilateral forward amplification block and a unilateral feedback block has significant limitations. For methods of analysis that do not make these idealizations, see the article Negative feedback amplifier.
Operational amplifier circuits
The operational amplifier was originally developed as a building block for the construction of analog computers, but is now used almost universally in all kinds of applications including audio equipment and control systems.
Operational amplifier circuits typically employ negative feedback to get a predictable transfer function. Since the open-loop gain of an op-amp is extremely large, a small differential input signal would drive the output of the amplifier to one rail or the other in the absence of negative feedback. A simple example of the use of feedback is the op-amp voltage amplifier shown in the figure.
The idealized model of an operational amplifier assumes that the gain is infinite, the input impedance is infinite, output resistance is zero, and input offset currents and voltages are zero. Such an ideal amplifier draws no current from the resistor divider.
Ignoring dynamics (transient effects and propagation delay), the infinite gain of the ideal op-amp means this feedback circuit drives the voltage difference between the two op-amp inputs to zero. Consequently, the voltage gain of the circuit in the diagram, assuming an ideal op amp, is the reciprocal of feedback voltage division ratio β:
.
A real op-amp has a high but finite gain A at low frequencies, decreasing gradually at higher frequencies. In addition, it exhibits a finite input impedance and a non-zero output impedance. Although practical op-amps are not ideal, the model of an ideal op-amp often suffices to understand circuit operation at low enough frequencies.
As discussed in the previous section, the feedback circuit stabilizes the closed-loop gain and desensitizes the output to fluctuations generated inside the amplifier itself.
Mechanical engineering
An example of the use of negative feedback control is the ballcock control of water level (see diagram), or a pressure regulator. In modern engineering, negative feedback loops are found in engine governors, fuel injection systems and carburettors. Similar control mechanisms are used in heating and cooling systems, such as those involving air conditioners, refrigerators, or freezers.
Biology
Some biological systems exhibit negative feedback such as the baroreflex in blood pressure regulation and erythropoiesis. Many biological processes (e.g., in the human anatomy) use negative feedback. Examples of this are numerous, from the regulating of body temperature, to the regulating of blood glucose levels. The disruption of feedback loops can lead to undesirable results: in the case of blood glucose levels, if negative feedback fails, the glucose levels in the blood may begin to rise dramatically, thus resulting in diabetes.
For hormone secretion regulated by the negative feedback loop: when gland X releases hormone X, this stimulates target cells to release hormone Y. When there is an excess of hormone Y, gland X "senses" this and inhibits its release of hormone X. As shown in the figure, most endocrine hormones are controlled by a physiologic negative feedback inhibition loop, such as the glucocorticoids secreted by the adrenal cortex. The hypothalamus secretes corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which directs the anterior pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). In turn, ACTH directs the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids, such as cortisol. Glucocorticoids not only perform their respective functions throughout the body but also negatively affect the release of further stimulating secretions of both the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, effectively reducing the output of glucocorticoids once a sufficient amount has been released.
Chemistry
Closed systems containing substances undergoing a reversible chemical reaction can also exhibit negative feedback in accordance with Le Chatelier's principle which shift the chemical equilibrium to the opposite side of the reaction in order to reduce a stress. For example, in the reaction
N2 + 3 H2 ⇌ 2 NH3 + 92 kJ/mol
If a mixture of the reactants and products exists at equilibrium in a sealed container and nitrogen gas is added to this system, then the equilibrium will shift toward the product side in response. If the temperature is raised, then the equilibrium will shift toward the reactant side which, since the reverse reaction is endothermic, will partially reduce the temperature.
Self-organization
Self-organization is the capability of certain systems "of organizing their own behavior or structure". There are many possible factors contributing to this capacity, and most often positive feedback is identified as a possible contributor. However, negative feedback also can play a role.
Economics
In economics, automatic stabilisers are government programs that are intended to work as negative feedback to dampen fluctuations in real GDP.
Mainstream economics asserts that the market pricing mechanism operates to match supply and demand, because mismatches between them feed back into the decision-making of suppliers and demanders of goods, altering prices and thereby reducing any discrepancy. However Norbert Wiener wrote in 1948:
"There is a belief current in many countries and elevated to the rank of an official article of faith in the United States that free competition is itself a homeostatic process... Unfortunately the evidence, such as it is, is against this simple-minded theory."
The notion of economic equilibrium being maintained in this fashion by market forces has also been questioned by numerous heterodox economists such as financier George Soros and leading ecological economist and steady-state theorist Herman Daly, who was with the World Bank in 1988–1994.
Environmental Science
A basic and common example of a negative feedback system in the environment is the interaction among cloud cover, plant growth, solar radiation, and planet temperature. As incoming solar radiation increases, planet temperature increases. As the temperature increases, the amount of plant life that can grow increases. This plant life can then make products such as sulfur which produce more cloud cover. An increase in cloud cover leads to higher albedo, or surface reflectivity, of the Earth. As albedo increases, however, the amount of solar radiation decreases. This, in turn, affects the rest of the cycle.
Cloud cover, and in turn planet albedo and temperature, is also influenced by the hydrological cycle. As planet temperature increases, more water vapor is produced, creating more clouds. The clouds then block incoming solar radiation, lowering the temperature of the planet. This interaction produces less water vapor and therefore less cloud cover. The cycle then repeats in a negative feedback loop. In this way, negative feedback loops in the environment have a stabilizing effect.
See also
References
External links
Control theory
Cybernetics
Signal processing
Analog circuits
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213329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant%20tortoise | Giant tortoise | Giant tortoises are any of several species of various large land tortoises, which include a number of extinct species, as well as a few living species formerly common on the islands of the western Indian Ocean and on the Galápagos Islands.
History
As of February 2021, giant tortoises are found on two remote groups of tropical islands: Aldabra Atoll and Fregate Island in the Seychelles and the Galápagos Islands in Ecuador. These tortoises can weigh as much as and can grow to be long. Giant tortoises originally made their way to islands from the mainland via oceanic dispersal. Tortoises are aided in such dispersal by their ability to float with their heads up and to survive for up to six months without food or fresh water. Giant tortoises were once all placed in a single genus (often referred to as Testudo or Geochelone), but more recent studies have shown that giant tortoises represent several distinct lineages that are not closely related to one another. These lineages appear to have developed large size independently and, as a result, giant tortoises are polyphyletic. For example, the Aldabra Atoll (Aldabrachelys) and Mascarenes (Cylindraspis) giant tortoises are related to Malagasy tortoises (Asterochelys) while the Galapagos giant tortoises are related to South American mainland tortoises, particularly the Chaco tortoise (Chelonoidis chiliensis). Giant tortoises are classified into several distinct genera, including Aldabrachelys, Centrochelys (in part, often excluding the extant African spurred tortoise (Centrochelys sulcata)), Chelonoidis (in part), †Cylindraspis (extinct c. 1840), †Hesperotestudo (extinct c. 9,000 years Before Present), †Megalochelys and †Titanochelon. Both Megalochelys and Titanochelon reached sizes substantially greater than modern giant tortoises, with up to and shell lengths respectively.
The phenomenon of animal species evolving in cache to unusually large size on islands (in comparison to continental relatives) is known as island gigantism or insular gigantism. This may occur due to factors such as relaxed predation pressure, competitive release, or as an adaptation to increased environmental fluctuations on islands. However, giant tortoises are no longer considered to be classic examples of island gigantism, as similarly massive tortoises are now known to have once been widespread. Giant tortoises were formerly common (prior to the Quaternary extinctions) across the Cenozoic faunas of Eurasia, Africa and the Americas.
Giant tortoises are notably absent from Australia and the South Pacific. However, extinct giant horned turtles (Meiolaniidae) likely filled a similar niche, with Late Pleistocene-Holocene meiolaniid species being known from Australia, New Caledonia, Lord Howe Island, Vanuatu, and the Fijian Archipelago. The identity of the Vanuatu meiolaniid has been controversial, however, with some studies concluding the remains actually belong to a giant tortoise, which are otherwise unknown from this region. Older (Early Miocene) meiolaniids are also known from the St. Bathans fauna in New Zealand.
Although often considered examples of island gigantism, prior to the arrival of Homo sapiens giant tortoises also occurred in non-island locales, as well as on a number of other, more accessible islands. During the Pleistocene, and mostly during the last 50,000 years, tortoises of the mainland of southern Asia (†Megalochelys atlas), North America (†Hesperotestudo spp.) and South America (Chelonoidis spp.), Indonesia, Madagascar (†Aldabrachelys) and even the island of Maltaall became extinct. Giant tortoises (†Titanochelon) also inhabited mainland Europe until the Early Pleistocene (2.0 Mya). The giant tortoises formerly of Africa died out somewhat earlier, during the Late Pliocene. While the timing of the disappearances of various extinct giant tortoise species seems to correlate with the arrival of humans, direct evidence for human involvement in these extinctions is usually lacking; however, such evidence has been obtained in the case of the distantly-related giant meiolaniid turtle Meiolania damelipi in Vanuatu. One interesting relic is the shell of an extinct giant tortoise found in a submerged sinkhole in Florida with a wooden spear piercing through it, carbon dated to 12,000 years ago. Today, only one of the species of the Indian Ocean survives in the wild; the Aldabra giant tortoise (two more are claimed to exist in captive or re-released populations, but some genetic studies have cast doubt on the validity of these as separate species) and 10 extant species in the Galápagos.
Life expectancy
Giant tortoises are among the world's longest-living animals, with an average lifespan of 100 years or more. The Madagascar radiated tortoise Tu'i Malila was 188 at her death in Tonga in 1965. Harriet (initially thought to be one of the three Galápagos tortoises brought back to England from Charles Darwin's Beagle voyage, but later shown to be from an island not even visited by Darwin) was reported by the Australia Zoo to be 176 years old when she died in 2006. Also, on 23 March 2006, an Aldabra giant tortoise named Adwaita died at the Alipore Zoological Gardens in Kolkata. He was brought to the zoo in the 1870s from the estate of Lord Clive and is thought to have been around 255 years old when he died. Around the time of its discovery, they were caught for food in such large numbers that they became virtually extinct by 1900. Giant tortoises are now protected by strict conservation laws and are categorized as threatened species.
Aldabra giant tortoise
The Aldabra giant tortoise (Aldabrachelys gigantea) lives on the remote Aldabra Atoll, one of the Seychelles group of islands in the Indian Ocean It is the only living species in the genus Aldabrachelys. Two other species in the genus, Aldabrachelys abrupta, and Aldabrachelys grandidieri were formerly endemic to Madagascar, but became extinct after the arrival of people.
Distribution and habitat
Aldabra giant tortoises have large dome-shaped shells in order to protect their delicate bodies that lie beneath their shells. They also have long necks in order to eat leaves from the higher branches of trees. The males, although not much bigger than the females, weigh nearly 100 kg (220 lbs) more. They move slowly and have small, thick legs and round, almost flat feet that assist them in walking on sand.
The Aldabra giant tortoise mainly inhabits grasslands and swamps on Aldabra Atoll's islands, which form a part of the Seychelles island chain in the Indian Ocean. In the past, they shared the islands with multiple other giant tortoise species, but many of them were hunted to extinction in the 1700s and 1800s. Despite the fact that they are usually found in regions of dense low-lying vegetation, they have been known to wander into areas with more sparse vegetation and rocks when food is scarce. They can also be seen resting in shaded areas or shallow pools of water in order to cool themselves on hot days. Aldabra giant tortoises tend to spend their lives grazing, but will cover surprising distances in search of food and have also been observed on bare rock and thin soil. They can drink from very shallow pools through their nostrils; the former genus Dipsochelys refers to this adaptation.
Species and subspecies
Galápagos giant tortoises
The closest living relative of the Galápagos giant tortoises (Chelonoidis niger species complex) is the small Chaco tortoise from South America, although it is not a direct ancestor. Scientists believe the first tortoises arrived to the Galápagos 2–3 million years ago by drifting 600 miles from the South American coast on vegetation rafts or on their own. They were already large animals before arriving in the Galápagos. Colonizing the easternmost islands of Española and San Cristóbal first, they then dispersed throughout the archipelago, eventually establishing about 16 separate populations on 10 of the largest of the Galápagos Islands. Currently, there are only 10 species of Galápagos giant tortoises left of the original 16 species. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Galápagos were frequented by buccaneers preying on Spanish treasure ships. Filling a ship's hold with tortoises was an easy way to stock up on food, a tradition that was continued by whalers in the centuries that followed: "whaling skippers were almost lyrical in their praise of tortoise meat, terming it far more delicious than chicken, pork or beef". They said the meat of the giant tortoise was 'succulent meat and the oil from their bodies as pure as butter, but best of all, the giants could hibernate in a ship's damp for a year or more." The tortoises also conveniently held water in their necks that could be used as drinking water.
These buccaneers stocked giant tortoises not only because of their meat and oil but because of these animals' ability to survive for six months to one year without food or water. Once buccaneers, whalers and fur sealers discovered that they could have fresh meat for their long voyages by storing live giant tortoises in the holds of their ships, massive exploitation of the species began. Tortoises were also exploited for their oil, which was used to light the lamps of Quito. Two centuries of exploitation resulted in the loss of between 100,000 and 200,000 tortoises. Three species have been extinct for some time, and a fourth species lost its last member, Lonesome George, in June 2012. In February 2019, a tortoise species once thought to have been extinct since 1906, the Fernandina giant tortoise, was discovered on its namesake island in the Galápagos. It is estimated that 20,000–25,000 wild tortoises live on the islands today.
Distribution and habitat
Galápagos tortoises are herbivorous, feeding primarily on cactus pads, grasses, and native fruit. They drink large quantities of water when available that they can store in their bladders for long periods of time. There are two main types of shell among them, the saddle-backed shell and the domed shell. They both provide special adaption to different environments. The saddle-backed tortoises are the smallest Galápagos tortoises, but present a very long neck and pairs of legs. They live on arid zone and feed on cactus. The domed tortoises are bigger with shorter neck and legs, they are found in the more vegetated islands and feed on grass.
They spend an average of 16 hours a day resting. Their activity level is driven by ambient temperature and food availability. In the cool season, they are active at midday, sleeping in in the morning and afternoon. In the hot season, their active period is early morning and late afternoon, while midday finds them resting and trying to keep cool under the shade of a bush or half-submerged in muddy wallows.
Life cycle
Tortoises breed primarily during the hot season from January to May; however, tortoises can be seen mating any month of the year. During the cool season (June to November), female tortoises migrate to nesting zones, which are generally located in low lands of the islands, to lay their eggs. A female can lay from 1–4 nests over a nesting season from June to December. She digs the hole with her hind feet, then lets the eggs drop down into the nest, and finally covers it again with her hind feet. The number of eggs ranges from 2 to 7 for saddle-backed tortoises to sometimes more than 20 to 25 eggs for domed tortoises. The eggs incubate from 110 to 175 days (incubation periods depend on the month the clutch was produced, with eggs laid early in the cool season requiring longer incubation periods than eggs laid at the end of the cool season, when the majority of their incubation will occur at the start of the hot season). After hatching, the young hatchlings remain in the nest for a few weeks before emerging out a small hole adjacent to the nest cap. Usually, the temperature of the nest influences on the sex of the hatchling. Warm temperatures would yield more females, while colder temperatures would yield more males.
Species
Mascarenes giant tortoises
The Mascarene Islands of Mauritius, Réunion and Rodrigues once harboured five species of giant tortoise belonging to the extinct genus Cylindraspis, comprising two species occurring on Mauritius, another two on Rodrigues, and one on Réunion. The tortoises were unique to these islands and had gained a number of special adaptations in the absence of ground predators. They differed from any other giant tortoise species because of their modified jaws, reduced scales on the legs and shells averaging just 1mm thick. The shells of the giant tortoises were open-ended; the name Cylindraspis actually means "cylinder-shaped". This was a specific adaptation in response to the lack of predators, where thick, heavily armored shells were no longer necessary.
Around the 16th century, with human arrival and the subsequent introduction of domestic animals, particularly pigs, the tortoises were rapidly hunted to extinction. Unfortunately, the thin shells were of no protection against these new invaders; rats, cats and pigs devoured the eggs and young and thousands were collected alive for provisioning ships. Sometimes they were even hunted for their oil, which was very valuable around that time because it provided a cure for many ailments, including scurvy.
On Mauritius, the giant tortoise disappeared from the main island by the end of the 17th century and the very last tortoises survived until the 1730s on the islets in the north. Around the late 1800s, large number of tortoise bones were discovered in the Mare aux Songes excavations. These resulted in the description of the two species of giant tortoise endemic to Mauritius, the Mauritius saddle-backed (Cylindraspis inepta) and the Mauritius domed (Cylindraspis triserrata).
Today, the only remains from these five species are a number of fossil bones and shells, a few drawings of live animals and one stuffed Rodrigues saddle-backed giant tortoise in France's National Museum of Natural History.
Species
Footnotes
See also
Island gigantism
References
External links
A giant Aldabra tortoise
Galapagos Giant Tortoise
Tortoises
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|
213330 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarborough%20Fair%20%28ballad%29 | Scarborough Fair (ballad) | "Scarborough Fair" () is a traditional English ballad. The song, which is a variant of The Elfin Knight, lists a number of impossible tasks given to a former lover who lives in Scarborough, North Yorkshire. The "Scarborough Fair" variant was most common in the Yorkshire and Northumbria, where it was sung to various melodies, with refrains resembling "parsley, sage, rosemary and thyme" and "Then she'll be a true love of mine."
The famous melody, which uses the Dorian mode (typical of the middle English period), was collected from Mark Anderson (1874–1953), a retired lead miner from Middleton-in-Teesdale, County Durham, England, by Ewan MacColl in 1947. This version was recorded by a number of musicians in the 20th century, including the version by the 1960s folk rock duo Simon & Garfunkel, who learned it from Martin Carthy.
History
The lyrics of "Scarborough Fair" appear to have something in common with a Scottish ballad titled "The Elfin Knight" (Child Ballad #2), collected by Francis James Child, which has been traced as far back as 1670. In this ballad, an elf threatens to abduct a young woman to be his lover unless she can perform an impossible task ("For thou must shape a sark to me / Without any cut or heme, quoth he"); she responds with a list of tasks that he must first perform ("I have an aiker of good ley-land / Which lyeth low by yon sea-strand").
Dozens of versions existed by the end of the 18th century. A number of older versions refer to locations other than Scarborough Fair, including Wittingham Fair, Cape Ann, "twixt Berwik and Lyne", etc. Many versions do not mention a place name and are often generically titled ("The Lovers' Tasks", "My Father Gave Me an Acre of Land", etc.).
The references to the traditional English fair, "Scarborough Fair" and the refrain "parsley, sage, rosemary, and thyme" date to 19th-century versions, and the refrain may have been borrowed from the ballad Riddles Wisely Expounded, (Child Ballad #1), which has a similar plot.
Lyrics
The lyrics, as published by Frank Kidson, begin:
Alternative refrains
The oldest versions of "The Elfin Knight" (circa 1650) contain the refrain "my plaid away, my plaid away, the wind shall not blow my plaid away." Slightly more recent versions often contain one of a group of related refrains:
"Sober and grave grows merry in time"
"Every rose grows merry with time"
"There's never a rose grows fairer with time"
"Yesterday holds memories in time"
These are usually paired with "Once (s)he was a true love of mine" or some variant. "Parsley, sage, rosemary and thyme" may simply be an alternate rhyming refrain to the original based on a corruption of "grows merry in time" into "rosemary and thyme."
Recordings
Field recordings
Authentic recordings of the ballad include the following examples:
Georgia Ann Griffin of Newberry, Alachua, Florida. Recorded by John Lomax in 1939.
Allie Long Parker of Hogscald Hollow, Eureka Springs, Arkansas. Recorded by Mary Parler on 7 April 1958.
Sara Cleveland of Brant Lake, New York. Recorded by Sandy Paton in 1966.
Elizabeth "Liz" Jefferies. Recorded in Bristol by Barry and Chris Morgan in 1976.
Commercial recordings
The earliest commercial recording of the ballad was made by actor/singers Gordon Heath and Lee Payant, Americans who ran a café and nightclub, L'Abbaye, on the Rive Gauche in Paris. The recording appeared on the 1955 Elektra album Encores from the Abbaye. The song was also included on A. L. Lloyd's 1955 album The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, using Kidson's melody.
The version using the melody later used by Simon & Garfunkel in "Scarborough Fair/Canticle" was first sung by Mark Anderson (1874-1953), a retired lead miner from Middleton-in-Teesdale, County Durham, England, to Ewan MacColl in 1947. MacColl recorded the lyrics and melody in a book of Teesdale folk songs, and later included it on his and Peggy Seeger's The Singing Island (1960). An audio recording of Anderson's version was never made, although Alan Lomax recorded Anderson singing other songs in 1950.
The first recorded version using the best-known melody was performed by Audrey Coppard on the 1956 album English Folk Songs. A decade after collecting the song, MacColl released his own version, accompanied by Peggy Seeger on guitar, on the 1957 LP Matching Songs of the British Isles and America and an a capella rendition another decade later on The Long Harvest (1967).
In 1965, Martin Carthy sang "Scarborough Fair" on his eponymous debut album after having picked up the tune from the songbook by MacColl and Seeger. He recorded an entirely different version originating from Goathland on Anchor (2018), with his daughter, Eliza, explaining that, "it helped him to exorcise a few more demons".
Marianne Faithfull recorded the song for her album North Country Maid, released in April 1966.
In 1969, Vicky Leandros recorded the song in several versions for release throughout Europe, Canada and Japan, singing in English, German, French ("Chèvrefeuille que tu es loin") and Greek ("Μα θυμασαι πως μ' αγαπας").
The German group Gregorian did a cover of the song as part of their second album Masters of Chant in 1999.
Celtic Women recorded the song for their third album Celtic Woman: A New Journey, released in January 2007.
Dan Avidan collaborated with the musical group Super Guitar Bros to record the song for the album Dan Avidan & Super Guitar Bros released in April 2020, there was also an animated music video created for the recording featuring a unicorn and dragon.
Peter Knight and John Spiers recorded a free improvisation version of the tune on their second album, Both In a Tune (2022). The recording was done in one take and entirely improvised. The duo had not played it together before the recording.
Simon & Garfunkel version
In London in 1965, Paul Simon learned the song from Martin Carthy, who had picked up the song from the songbook by MacColl and Seeger and included it on his eponymous 1965 album. Simon & Garfunkel set it in counterpoint with "Canticle", a reworking of the lyrics from Simon's 1963 anti-war song "The Side of a Hill", set to a new melody composed mainly by Art Garfunkel. "Scarborough Fair/Canticle" appeared as the lead track on the 1966 album Parsley, Sage, Rosemary and Thyme, and was released as a single after it had been featured on the soundtrack to The Graduate in 1968. Cash Box said that "delicate vocals floating on an airy guitar theme weave a gossamer-fine sound that should score with pop and easy listening fans."
The copyright credited only Simon and Garfunkel as the authors, which upset Carthy, who felt that the "traditional" source should have been credited. The rift persisted until Simon invited Carthy to perform the song with him as a duet at a London concert in 2000. Simon performed the song with the Muppets when he guest-starred on The Muppet Show.
Before Simon learned the song, Bob Dylan had borrowed the melody and several lines from Carthy's arrangement to create his song "Girl from the North Country", which is featured on The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan (1963), Nashville Skyline (1969) (with Johnny Cash), Real Live (1984) and The 30th Anniversary Concert Celebration (1993). Dylan's later Boots of Spanish Leather from 1964's The Times They Are a-Changin' also returns to the song's themes of enquiry about a departed, lost love, and a version of its tune and Carthy guitar arrangement.
Chart performance
References
1966 singles
Columbia Records singles
English ballads
English folk songs
List songs
Northumbrian folklore
Scarborough, North Yorkshire
Simon & Garfunkel songs
Song recordings produced by Bob Johnston
Songs about England
Songwriter unknown
Traditional ballads
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|
213334 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemba%20Island | Pemba Island | Pemba Island ( al-Jazīra al-khadrā, literally "The Green Island"; ) is a Tanzanian island forming part of the Zanzibar Archipelago, lying within the Swahili Coast in the Indian Ocean.
Geography
With a land area of it is situated about to the north of Unguja, the largest island of the archipelago. In 1964, Zanzibar was united with the former colony of Tanganyika to form Tanzania. It lies east of mainland Tanzania, across the Pemba Channel. Together with Mafia Island (south of Unguja), these islands form the Spice Islands (not to be confused with the Maluku Islands of Indonesia).
Most of the island, which is hillier and more fertile than Unguja, is dominated by small scale farming. There is also large scale farming of cash crops such as cloves.
In previous years, the island was seldom visited due to inaccessibility and a reputation for political violence, with the notable exception of those drawn by its reputation as a center for traditional medicine and witchcraft. There is a quite large Arab community on the island, who immigrated from Oman. The population is a mix of Arab and original Waswahili inhabitants of the island. A significant portion of the population also identifies as Shirazi people.
The most important towns in Pemba are Chake-Chake (the capital), Mkoani, and Wete, which is the largest city. The centrally located Chake-Chake is perched on a mound with a view to the west on a bay and the tiny Misali Island, where the tides determine when a dhow can enter the local harbour. Pemba is, with the exception of a strip of land along its eastern coast, a very fertile place: besides clove trees, the locals grow mainly rice, coconut, bananas, cassava, and red beans (called maharagwe in the Swahili language).
Pemba is home to several dive sites, with steep drop-offs, untouched coral, and very abundant marine life.
Important Bird Area
Pemba has been designated an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports populations of Pemba green pigeons, Pemba scops owls, Pemba white-eyes and Pemba sunbirds.
Climate
Pemba has a tropical climate, yet somewhat milder than Tanzania's mainland and milder than in Unguja island. This climate is classified as "Aw" by the Köppen-Geiger system. The average temperature in Chake Chake is 25.5 °C (78 °F). The average annual rainfall is 1,364 mm. The monthly average temperatures are usually between 24 - 27.4 °C (75 °F - 81 °F). There are two rain seasons, with most rainfall coming between April and May and smaller rain season coming between November and December. Drier months are January - February, and a longer drier season between June to October.
Archaeology
Archaeological research on Pemba has shown its centrality to the Swahili coast trading system as early as 600 AD. Along the northern coast, urban settlements at Chwaka later developed and flourished from the eleventh century to ~1500 AD.
West of Pemba's capital Chake-Chake, on a long stretched peninsula called Ras Mkumbuu, one can find some of the oldest and best preserved series of early ruins on the islands (Ndagoni ruins, probably 14th century).
East of Chake-Chake one can find the Mkama Ndume ruins at Pujini village (south of the airport) within easy reach by road from Chake-Chake. This is the only known early fortification on the whole Swahili Coast; it is dated to the fifteenth century.
History
According to the Arab geographer Yakut, in the mid-13th century there were two independent sultans ruling over parts of Pemba Island.
On 24 June 2016, the Australian Minister for Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Development, Darren Chester, said that a piece of aircraft debris was found on Pemba Island, possibly being from the missing Malaysia Airlines Flight 370.
Administration
Pemba is part of the semi-autonomous Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar. Administratively, it is divided into two regions, North Pemba (Pemba Kaskazini)with its capital at Wete, and South Pemba (Pemba Kusini) with its capital at Mkoani. Although the centrally located city of Chake Chake, near the airport, is considered Pemba's capital, and is the seat of Pemba's court and the President of Zanzibar's official Pemba residence.
Economy
Fishing
Pemba is also famous for its rich fishing grounds. Between the island and the mainland there is the deep 50 kilometre wide Pemba Channel, which is one of the most profitable fishing grounds for game fishing on the Swahili Coast.
Farming and agriculture
Pemba is, with the exception of a strip of land along its eastern coast, a very fertile place to keep it within the global farming industry.
Cash crops
A large segment of Zanzibar export earnings comes from cloves. The greatest concentration of clove trees in Zanzibar is found on Pemba (3.5 million trees), as growing conditions on the island are superior to those on Unguja island. Clove trees grow to a height of approximately 10 to 15 metres and can be harvested for sometimes over 50 years. Most of the island, which is hillier and more fertile than Unguja, is dominated by small scale farming. There is also large-scale farming of other crops, primarily rice, coconuts, and red beans (called maharagwe in Swahili), as well as cassava and bananas.
Land surveying
For the promotion of tourism, the Department of Surveys and Mapping at Chake-Chake has been publishing maps with tourist guides since 1992.
Transport
Airport
Pemba Airport is also known as Wawi Airport or Karume Airport and connects the island to Arusha, Dar es Salaam, and Zanzibar City.
Gallery
See also
Geography of Tanzania
Ghurabiyya Shia
References
External links
Short documentary about Pemba Island on YouTube
Audio interview with Pemba Island resident about life on Pemba Island
Swahili city-states
Zanzibar Archipelago
Islands of Tanzania
Important Bird Areas of the Zanzibar Archipelago | [
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|
213338 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando%20Po | Fernando Po | Fernando Po may refer to:
Fernando Po (island) in Equatorial Guinea, now called Bioko
Fernão do Pó, Portuguese explorer
Fernando Pó, village in Palmela, Portugal
Fernando Pó halt, railway halt in Palmela, Portugal
See also
Fernando Poe (disambiguation) | [
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|
213340 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentacle | Pentacle | A pentacle (also spelled and pronounced as pantacle in Thelema, following Aleister Crowley, though that spelling ultimately derived from Éliphas Lévi) is a talisman that is used in magical evocation, and is usually made of parchment, paper, cloth, or metal (although it can be of other materials), upon which a magical design is drawn. Protective symbols may also be included (sometimes on the reverse), a common one being the six-point form of the Seal of Solomon.
Pentacles may be sewn to the chest of one's garment, or may be flat objects that hang from one's neck or are placed flat upon the ground or altar. Pentacles are almost always shaped as disks or flat circles. In the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, though, a pentacle is placed within the triangle of evocation.
Many varieties of pentacle can be found in the grimoire called the Key of Solomon. Pentacles are also used in the neopagan magical religion called Wicca, alongside other magical tools. In the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and Wicca, pentacles symbolize the classical element earth. In the 1909 Rider–Waite–Smith tarot deck (the pentacles of which were designed by Arthur Edward Waite), and subsequent tarot decks that are based upon it, and in Wicca, pentacles prominently incorporate a pentagram in their design. This form of pentacle is formed upon a disk which may be used either upon an altar or as a sacred space of its own.
Definitions
The first documents to depict pentacles were the 1500s grimoires called the Heptameron by pseudo-Pietro d'Abano, and the Key of Solomon. In the Heptaméron, there is only one pentacle, whereas in the Key of Solomon, there are dozens of different pentacles. The Heptameron pentacle is a hexagram that is embellished by patee crosses and letters, whereas the Key of Solomon pentacles have a very broad variety of designs, only two of which are pentagrammic. That contrasts with the later popular definitions of pentacles from the 1900s, which state that pentacles are inherently pentagrammic.
Gerald Gardner, known by some as the 'Father of Wicca', got his concept of pentacles in large part from the 1909 Rider–Waite–Smith tarot deck, in which the pentacles are disks that are covered with a pentagram. In Gardner's 1949 book High Magic's Aid and 1954 book Witchcraft Today, Gardner defined a pentacle as a "five-pointed star", intending to mean a pentagram. In his 1959 book The Meaning of Witchcraft, Gardner defined a pentacle as a synonym of 'pentagram'.
There is a particular definition of 'pentacle' among many latter-day Wiccans: Namely, a 'pentacle' refers to a 'pentagram' circumscribed by a circle.
Etymology
The word is first recorded in English usage in 1561, from earlier French use. The French word had the meaning of "talisman". The French word is in turn from the Latinized word 'pentaculum' (using the Latin diminutive suffix -culum), which is in turn from the Italian word 'pentacolo'.
The Oxford English Dictionary in earlier editions (2nd edition 1989) went on to say that "some would connect it" with the Middle French word 'pentacol' (1328) or 'pendacol' (1418), a jewel or ornament worn around the neck (from pend- hang, à to, col or cou neck). This is the derivation the Theosophical Society employ in their glossary:
...it seems most likely that it comes through Italian and French from the root pend- "to hang", and so is equivalent to a pendant or charm hung about the neck. From the fact that one form of pentacle was the pentagram or star-pentagon, the word itself has been connected with the Greek pente (five).
As magical objects
Pentacles, despite the sound of the word, often had no connotation of "five" in the old magical texts, but were, rather, magical talismans inscribed with any symbol or character. When they incorporated star-shaped figures, these were more often hexagrams than pentagrams. Pentacles showing a great variety of shapes and images appear in the old magical grimoires, such as the Key of Solomon; as Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa summarises it, their use was to "fore-know all future things, & command whole nature, have power over devils, and Angels, and do miracles." Agrippa attributes Moses' feats of magic in part to his knowledge of various pentacles.
A Fourth Book of Occult Philosophy (c. 1565), which was falsely attributed to Agrippa, gives detailed instructions as to how pentacles should be formulated:
But we now come to speak of the holy and sacred Pentacles and Sigils. Now these pentacles, are as it were certain holy signes preserving us from evil chances and events, and helping and assisting us to binde, exterminate, and drive away evil spirits, and alluring the good spirits, and reconciling them unto us. And these pentacles do consist either of Characters of the good spirits of the superiour order, or of sacred pictures of holy letters or revelations, with apt and fit versicles, which are composed either of Geometrical figures and holy names of God, according to the course and maner of many of them; or they are compounded of all of them, or very many of them mixt.
Francis Barrett, in his influential work The Magus of 1801 (Book 2, part 2), repeats these instructions almost verbatim.
Another common design employed in pentacles is a magic square, such as the Sator-Arepo-Tenet square.
In the Golden Dawn magical system, the Earth Pentacle is one of four elemental "weapons" or tools of an Adept. These weapons are "symbolical representations of the forces employed for the manifestation of the inner self, the elements required for the incarnation of the divine."
Other pentacles for the evocation of spirits are also employed in the Golden Dawn system; these are engraved with the name and sigil of the spirit to be invoked, inside three concentric circles, having painted on their reverse a circle and cross like a celtic cross.
According to Aleister Crowley's instructions for the A∴A∴, the pentacle is a disc of wax, gold, silver-gilt or Electrum Magicum, eight inches diameter and half an inch thick; the Neophyte should "by his understanding and ingenium devise a symbol to represent the Universe", and engrave this on the disc.
There is, therefore, nothing movable or immovable under the whole firmament of heaven which is not included in this pantacle, though it be but "eight inches in diameter, and in thickness half an inch." Fire is not matter at all; water is a combination of elements; air almost entirely a mixture of elements; earth contains all both in admixture and in combination. So must it be with this Pantacle, the symbol of earth.
A pentacle is also employed as a magical tool within Wicca, generally to summon certain energies or summon spirits.
Method of employment
In many old grimoires dealing with magical evocation, the pentacle is described as being hung about the neck, providing protection and authority to the operator. Johannes Trithemius has the magician donning the pentacle just before casting the protective circle:
Then taking your ring and pentacle, put the ring on the little finger of your right hand; hang the pentacle round thy neck; (Note, the pentacle may be either wrote on clean virgin parchment, or engraven on a square plate of silver and suspended from thy neck to the breast)....
One version of the Key of Solomon mentions both a "Great Pentacle" which is drawn in a book, as well as a collection of other pentacles which are drawn in ink on separate pieces of parchment for use as amulets:
Thou shalt preserve them to suspend from thy neck, whichever thou wilt, on the day and hour wherein thou wast born, after which thou shalt take heed to name every day ten times, the Name which is hung from thy neck, turning towards the East, and thou mayest be assured that no enchantment or any other danger shall have power to harm thee.
The pentacle is of central importance in the evocation of spirits. A fairly typical evocation involves a series of conjurations of increasing potency, each involving the display of the pentacle:
... If they then immediately appear, it is well; if not, let the master uncover the consecrated pentacles which he should have made to constrain and command the spirits, and which he should wear fastened round his neck, holding the medals (or pentacles) in his left hand, and the consecrated knife in his right; and encouraging his companions, he shall say with a loud voice:
Here be the symbols of secret things, the standards, the ensigns, and the banners, of God the conqueror; and the arms of the almighty One, to compel the aerial potencies. I command ye absolutely by their power and virtue that ye come near unto us, into our presence, from whatsoever part of the world ye may be in, and that ye delay not to obey us in all things wherein we shall command ye by the virtue of God the mighty One. Come ye promptly, and delay not to appear, and answer us with humility.
If they appear at this time, show them the pentacles, and receive them with kindness, gentleness, and courtesy; reason and speak with them, question them, and ask from them all things which thou hast proposed to demand.
But if, on the contrary, they do not yet make their appearance, holding the consecrated knife in the right hand, and the pentacles being uncovered by the removal of their consecrated covering, strike and beat the air with the knife as if wishing to commence a combat, comfort and exhort thy companions, and then in a loud and stern voice repeat the following conjuration: ...
Once the spirit has appeared and been constrained, the pentacle is covered again, but is uncovered whenever demands are made of the spirit or when it is compelled to depart.
In the Golden Dawn system, the pentacles are not suspended from the neck, but wrapped in a cloth covering. Instead of wearing a pentacle, the magician wears fastened to their breast a lamen.
Gallery
In tarot
In the tarot, the Minor Arcana are divided into four suits (much like conventional playing cards), which are swords, batons, cups, and coins. Following the innovation of Éliphas Lévi, many English-language writers on tarot divination now call the coins "pentacles" (and the batons "wands"). The first published tarot deck to use an actual suit of pentacles was the 1909 Rider–Waite–Smith tarot deck. That deck inspired the creation of subsequent tarot decks which likewise have a suit of pentacles. In the Rider–Waite–Smith tarot deck, Arthur Edward Waite designed the pentacles as golden disks with a pentagram on them. The Wiccan style of pentacle, which is a disk that is covered by a pentagram symbol, was based upon the pentacles from the Rider–Waite–Smith tarot deck.
In mathematics
The term pentacle is used in Tilings and Patterns by Grumbaum and Shepard to indicate a five-pointed star composed of ten line segments, similar to a pentagram but containing no interior lines.
References
External links
Symbol 29:14—Pentagram inscribed in a circle—Symbols.com
Ceremonial magic
Ceremonial weapons
Honorary weapons
Magic symbols
Magical objects
Modern Pagan beliefs and practices
Religious symbols
Ritual weapons | [
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|
213343 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian%20jay | Eurasian jay | The Eurasian jay (Garrulus glandarius) is a species of passerine bird in the family Corvidae. It occurs over a vast region from western Europe and north-west Africa to the Indian subcontinent and further to the eastern seaboard of Asia and down into south-east Asia. Across this vast range, several distinct racial forms have evolved which look very different from each other, especially when comparing forms at the extremes of its range.
The bird is called jay, without any epithets, by English speakers in Great Britain and Ireland.
Taxonomy and systematics
The Eurasian jay was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Corvus glandarius. Linnaeus specified the locality as "Europa" but this was restricted to Sweden by Ernst Hartert in 1903. The Eurasian jay is now one of three species placed in the genus Garrulus that was established in 1760 by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson. The genus name Garrulus is a Latin word meaning "chattering", "babbling" or "noisy". The specific epithet glandarius is Latin meaning "of acorns".
Eight racial groups (33 subspecies in total) were recognised by Steve Madge & Hilary Burn in 1994:
the nominate group (nine European races), with a streaked .
the cervicalis group (three races in North Africa), with a rufous nape, grey , very pale head sides, and a streaked or black crown.
the atricapillus group (four races in Middle East, Crimea & Turkey), with a uniform mantle & nape, black crown and very pale face.
the race hyrcanus (Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests of Iran), small with black forecrown and broadly streaked hindcrown.
the brandtii group (four races in Siberia and northern Japan), with a streaked crown, reddish head, dark iris and grey mantle.
the leucotis group (two races in south-east Asia), with no white in the wing, a white forecrown, black hindcrown and much white on the sides of the head.
the bispecularis group (six races in the Himalayan region), with an unstreaked rufous crown, and no white wing-patch.
the japonicus group (four races in the southern Japanese islands), with a large white wing-patch, blackish face and scaled crown.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and Birdlife International split the Eurasian jay into three species. The subspecies G. g. leucotis becomes the white-face jay (Garrulus leucotis) and the bispecularis group containing six subspecies becomes the plain-crowned jay (Garrulus bispecularis).
Description
The Eurasian jay is a relatively small corvid, similar in size to a western jackdaw (Coloeus monedula) with a length of and a wingspan of . The nominate race has light rufous brown to a pinkish brown body plumage. The whitish throat is bordered on each side by a prominent black moustache stripe. The forehead and crown are whitish with black stripes. The rump is white. The complex colouring on the upper surface of the wing includes black and white bars and a prominent bright blue patch with fine black bars. The tail is mainly black.
In 2015, a team of scientists from the University of Sheffield discovered during their research at the synchrotron the secret of the unalterable color of living matter that does not fade with time. By studying the colors of a bird like the eurasian jay, they understand that the bright colors of the feathers are due to the level of a hair with a spongy structure composed of orifices and whose size and the simple distance between these orifices decide the color. These two parameters determine the way in which the light wave is reflected, directly influencing the reflected color. In the course of the research, scientists discovered that the animal is even able to change the size of the holes in this spongy structure, thus determining the color it reflects. This discovery of the layout of the nanostructure of bird feathers opens up new industrial perspectives in the creation of synthetic colors for paints and clothing, which would no longer fade.
Voice
The most characteristic call is a harsh, rasping screech that is used upon sighting various predators and as a advertising call. The jay is well known for its mimicry, often sounding so like a different species that it is difficult to distinguish its true identity unless the bird is seen. It will imitate the calls of birds of prey such as the mew of the common buzzard and the cackle of the northern goshawk.
Distribution and habitat
A member of the widespread jay group, it inhabits mixed woodland, particularly with oaks, and is a habitual acorn hoarder. In recent years, the bird has begun to migrate into urban areas, possibly as a result of continued erosion of its woodland habitat. Before humans began planting the trees commercially on a wide scale, Eurasian jays were the main source of movement and propagation for the European oak (Q. robur), each bird having the ability to spread more than a thousand acorns each year. Eurasian jays will also bury the acorns of other oak species, and have been cited by the National Trust as a major propagator of the largest population of holm oak (Q. ilex) in Northern Europe, situated in Ventnor on the Isle of Wight. Jays have been recorded carrying single acorns as far as 20 km, and are credited with the rapid northward spread of oaks following the last ice age.
Behaviour and ecology
Breeding
Eurasian jays normally first breed when 2 years of age, although they occasionally breed when only one year. Both sexes build the nest which is usually placed in a fork or on a branch of a tree close to the main trunk at a height of above the ground. Very occasionally the nest is located on a building. The nest has a base of twigs in diameter and a lining of thinner twigs, roots, grass, moss and leaves. The eggs are laid daily, normally early in the morning. The clutch is 3–6 eggs which are pale green to pale olive brown and are covered with fine darker speckles. They sometimes have brown or black streaks concentrated at the broader end. The eggs are and weigh around . They are incubated by the female and hatch after 16–19 days. While the female is on the nest the male brings her food. Both parents feed and care for the young which fledge after 19–23 days. The parents continue to feed the fledgelings until they are 6–8 weeks of age. Only a single brood is raised each year.
The maximum recorded age is 16 years and 9 months for a bird in Skelton, York, United Kingdom, that was ringed in 1966 and found dead in 1983.
Diet
Feeding in both trees and on the ground, it takes a wide range of invertebrates including many pest insects, acorns (oak seeds, which it buries for use during winter), beech and other seeds, fruits such as blackberries and rowan berries, young birds and eggs, bats, and small rodents. Like most species, the jay's diet changes with the seasons but is noteworthy for its prolific caching of food—especially oak acorns and beechnuts—for winter and spring. While caching occurs throughout the year, it is most intense in the autumn.
Health
For more information, see Anting (bird activity)
In order to keep its plumage free from parasites, it lies on top of anthills with spread wings and lets its feathers be sprayed with formic acid.
Intelligence
Similar to other corvids, Eurasian jays have been reported to plan for future needs. Male Eurasian jays also take into account the desires of their partner when sharing food with her as a courtship ritual and when protecting food items from stealing conspecifics.
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) - Birds & Wildlife - Jay
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 1.1 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
Feathers of Eurasian jay (Garrulus glandarius)
Jay photos and information (in Turkish)
The jay and box for tits
Garrulus
jay
Birds of the Himalayas
Birds described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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|
213344 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WCO | WCO | WCO may refer to:
Water Conservation Order
Weak Crossover
West Coast offense
Wisconsin Chamber Orchestra
World Council of Optometry
World Customs Organization
World Culture Open | [
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213351 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coccyx | Coccyx | The coccyx (: coccyges or coccyxes), commonly referred to as the tailbone, is the final segment of the vertebral column in all apes, and analogous structures in certain other mammals such as horses. In tailless primates (e.g. humans and other great apes) since Nacholapithecus (a Miocene hominoid), the coccyx is the remnant of a vestigial tail. In animals with bony tails, it is known as tailhead or dock, in bird anatomy as tailfan. It comprises three to five separate or fused coccygeal vertebrae below the sacrum, attached to the sacrum by a fibrocartilaginous joint, the sacrococcygeal symphysis, which permits limited movement between the sacrum and the coccyx.
Structure
The coccyx is formed of either three, four or five rudimentary vertebrae. It articulates superiorly with the sacrum. In each of the first three segments may be traced a rudimentary body and articular and transverse processes; the last piece (sometimes the third) is a mere nodule of bone. The transverse processes are most prominent and noticeable on the first coccygeal segment. All the segments lack pedicles, laminae and spinous processes. The first is the largest; it resembles the lowest sacral vertebra, and often exists as a separate piece; the remaining ones diminish in size from above downward.
Most anatomy books incorrectly state that the coccyx is normally fused in adults. In fact it has been shown that the coccyx may consist of up to five separate bony segments, the most common configuration being two or three segments.
Surfaces
The anterior surface is slightly concave and marked with three transverse grooves that indicate the junctions of the different segments. It gives attachment to the anterior sacrococcygeal ligament and the levatores ani and supports part of the rectum. The posterior surface is convex, marked by transverse grooves similar to those on the anterior surface, and presents on either side a linear row of tubercles–the rudimentary articular processes of the coccygeal vertebrae. Of these, the superior pair are the largest, and are called the coccygeal cornua they project upward, and articulate with the cornua of the sacrum, and on either side complete the foramen for the transmission of the posterior division of the fifth sacral nerve.
Borders
The lateral borders are thin and exhibit a series of small eminences, which represent the transverse processes of the coccygeal vertebrae. Of these, the first is the largest; it is flattened from before backward, and often ascends to join the lower part of the thin lateral edge of the sacrum, thus completing the foramen for the transmission of the anterior division of the fifth sacral nerve; the others diminish in size from above downward, and are often wanting. The borders of the coccyx are narrow, and give attachment on either side to the sacrotuberous and sacrospinous ligaments, to the coccygeus and levator ani in front of the ligaments, and to the gluteus maximus behind them.
Apex
The apex is rounded, and has attached to it the tendon of the external anal sphincter. It may be bifid (divided into two).
Coccygeal fossa
The coccygeal fossa is a shallow depression (fossa) on the surface between the sacrum and the perineum, located in the intergluteal cleft that runs from just below the sacrum to the perineum. It does not always appear. The coccygeal fossa marks the deepest part of the pelvic floor, next to the coccyx. The levator ani ascends from here.
Extensor coccygis
The extensor coccygis is a slender muscle fascicle, which is not always present. It extends over the lower part of the posterior surface of the sacrum and coccyx. It arises by tendinous fibers from the last segment of the sacrum, or first piece of the coccyx, and passes downward to be inserted into the lower part of the coccyx. It is a rudiment of the extensor muscle of the caudal vertebrae of other animals.
Sacrococcygeal and intercoccygeal joints
The joints are variable and may be: (1) synovial joints; (2) thin discs of fibrocartilage; (3) intermediate between these two; (4) ossified.
Attachments
The anterior side of the coccyx has attachments to the levator ani muscle, coccygeus, iliococcygeus, and pubococcygeus, anococcygeal raphe. Attached to the posterior side is the gluteus maximus, which extends the thigh at the hip joint. The ligaments attached to the coccyx include the anterior and posterior sacrococcygeal ligaments which are the continuations of the anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments that stretches along the entire spine. The lateral sacrococcygeal ligaments complete the foramina for the last sacral nerve. Some fibers of the sacrospinous and sacrotuberous ligaments (arising from the spine of the ischium and the ischial tuberosity respectively) also attach to the coccyx. An extension of the pia mater, the filum terminale, extends from the apex of the conus, and inserts on the coccyx.
Function
The coccyx is not entirely useless in humans, based on the fact that the coccyx has attachments to various muscles, tendons and ligaments. However, these muscles, tendons and ligaments are also attached at many other points, to stronger structures than the coccyx. It is doubtful that the coccyx attachments are important to the well-being of humans, given the large number of cases of coccygectomy for coccydynia. Reviews of studies covering more than 700 operations found the operation was successful in relieving pain in 84% of cases. 12% of the time, the only major complication faced was infection due to the proximity to the anus. However, one notable issue that arises from its removal is an increased risk of perineal hernia.
Clinical significance
Injuring the coccyx can give rise to a painful condition called coccydynia and one or more of the bones or the connections thereof may be broken, fractured tailbone. A number of tumors are known to involve the coccyx; of these, the most common is sacrococcygeal teratoma. Both coccydynia and coccygeal tumors may require surgical removal of the coccyx (coccygectomy). One very rare complication of coccygectomy is a type of perineal hernia known as a coccygeal hernia.
History
Etymology
The term coccyx is derived from the ancient Greek word kokkyx "cuckoo"; the latter is attested in the writings of the Greek physician Herophilus to denote the end of the vertebral column. This Greek name for the cuckoo was applied as the last three or four bones of the coccyx resemble the beak of this bird, when viewed from the side.
This established etymological explanation can also be found in the writings of the 16th century anatomist Andreas Vesalius who wrote: os cuculi, a similitudine rostri cuculi avis (the cuckoo bone shows a likeness to the beak of the cuckoo bird). Vesalius used the Latin expression os cuculi, with os, bone and cuculus, the Latin name for the cuckoo. The 16th/17th century French anatomist Jean Riolan the Younger gives a rather hilarious etymological explanation, as he writes: quia crepitus, qui per sedimentum exeunt, ad is os allisi, cuculi vocis similitudinem effingunt (because the sound of the farts that leave the anus and dash against this bone, shows a likeness to the call of the cuckoo). The latter is not considered as potential candidate.
Besides os cuculi, os caudae, with caudae, of the tail is attested. This Latin expression might be the source of the English, French language, German and Dutch terms tailbone, l'os de la queue, Schwanzbein and staartbeen. In the current official anatomic Latin nomenclature, Terminologia Anatomica, coccyx and os coccygis is used.
Additional images
See also
Bone terminology
Ganglion impar
Human vestigiality
Perineum
Pygostyle
References
Further reading
External links
– "The Female Perineum: Osteology"
Coccydynia (coccyx pain, tailbone pain) at eMedicine (Peer-reviewed medical chapter, available free online)
Coccyx - BlueLink Anatomy - University of Michigan Medical School
Bones of the thorax
Bones of the vertebral column
Vestigial organs | [
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|
213354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive%20feedback | Positive feedback | Positive feedback (exacerbating feedback, self-reinforcing feedback) is a process that occurs in a feedback loop which exacerbates the effects of a small disturbance. That is, the effects of a perturbation on a system include an increase in the magnitude of the perturbation. That is, A produces more of B which in turn produces more of A. In contrast, a system in which the results of a change act to reduce or counteract it has negative feedback. Both concepts play an important role in science and engineering, including biology, chemistry, and cybernetics.
Mathematically, positive feedback is defined as a positive loop gain around a closed loop of cause and effect.
That is, positive feedback is in phase with the input, in the sense that it adds to make the input larger.
Positive feedback tends to cause system instability. When the loop gain is positive and above 1, there will typically be exponential growth, increasing oscillations, chaotic behavior or other divergences from equilibrium. System parameters will typically accelerate towards extreme values, which may damage or destroy the system, or may end with the system latched into a new stable state. Positive feedback may be controlled by signals in the system being filtered, damped, or limited, or it can be cancelled or reduced by adding negative feedback.
Positive feedback is used in digital electronics to force voltages away from intermediate voltages into '0' and '1' states. On the other hand, thermal runaway is a type of positive feedback that can destroy semiconductor junctions. Positive feedback in chemical reactions can increase the rate of reactions, and in some cases can lead to explosions. Positive feedback in mechanical design causes tipping-point, or 'over-centre', mechanisms to snap into position, for example in switches and locking pliers. Out of control, it can cause bridges to collapse. Positive feedback in economic systems can cause boom-then-bust cycles. A familiar example of positive feedback is the loud squealing or howling sound produced by audio feedback in public address systems: the microphone picks up sound from its own loudspeakers, amplifies it, and sends it through the speakers again.
Overview
Positive feedback enhances or amplifies an effect by it having an influence on the process which gave rise to it. For example, when part of an electronic output signal returns to the input, and is in phase with it, the system gain is increased. The feedback from the outcome to the originating process can be direct, or it can be via other state variables. Such systems can give rich qualitative behaviors, but whether the feedback is instantaneously positive or negative in sign has an extremely important influence on the results. Positive feedback reinforces and negative feedback moderates the original process. Positive and negative in this sense refer to loop gains greater than or less than zero, and do not imply any value judgements as to the desirability of the outcomes or effects. A key feature of positive feedback is thus that small disturbances get bigger. When a change occurs in a system, positive feedback causes further change, in the same direction.
Basic
A simple feedback loop is shown in the diagram. If the loop gain AB is positive, then a condition of positive or regenerative feedback exists.
If the functions A and B are linear and AB is smaller than unity, then the overall system gain from the input to output is finite, but can be very large as AB approaches unity. In that case, it can be shown that the overall or "closed loop" gain from input to output is:
When AB > 1, the system is unstable, so does not have a well-defined gain; the gain may be called infinite.
Thus depending on the feedback, state changes can be convergent, or divergent. The result of positive feedback is to augment changes, so that small perturbations may result in big changes.
A system in equilibrium in which there is positive feedback to any change from its current state may be unstable, in which case the system is said to be in an unstable equilibrium. The magnitude of the forces that act to move such a system away from its equilibrium are an increasing function of the "distance" of the state from the equilibrium.
Positive feedback does not necessarily imply instability of an equilibrium, for example stable on and off states may exist in positive-feedback architectures.
Hysteresis
In the real world, positive feedback loops typically do not cause ever-increasing growth, but are modified by limiting effects of some sort. According to Donella Meadows:
"Positive feedback loops are sources of growth, explosion, erosion, and collapse in systems. A system with an unchecked positive loop ultimately will destroy itself. That’s why there are so few of them. Usually a negative loop will kick in sooner or later."
Hysteresis, in which the starting point affects where the system ends up, can be generated by positive feedback. When the gain of the feedback loop is above 1, then the output moves away from the input: if it is above the input, then it moves towards the nearest positive limit, while if it is below the input then it moves towards the nearest negative limit.
Once it reaches the limit, it will be stable. However, if the input goes past the limit, then the feedback will change sign and the output will move in the opposite direction until it hits the opposite limit. The system therefore shows bistable behaviour.
Terminology
The terms positive and negative were first applied to feedback before World War II. The idea of positive feedback was already current in the 1920s with the introduction of the regenerative circuit.
described regeneration in a set of electronic amplifiers as a case where the "feed-back" action is positive in contrast to negative feed-back action, which they mention only in passing. Harold Stephen Black's classic 1934 paper first details the use of negative feedback in electronic amplifiers. According to Black:
"Positive feed-back increases the gain of the amplifier, negative feed-back reduces it."
According to confusion in the terms arose shortly after this:
"...Friis and Jensen had made the same distinction Black used between 'positive feed-back' and 'negative feed-back', based not on the sign of the feedback itself but rather on its effect on the amplifier’s gain. In contrast, Nyquist and Bode, when they built on Black’s work, referred to negative feedback as that with the sign reversed. Black had trouble convincing others of the utility of his invention in part because confusion existed over basic matters of definition."
These confusions, along with the everyday associations of positive with 'good' and negative with 'bad', have led many systems theorists to propose alternative terms. For example, Donella Meadows prefers the terms 'Reinforcing' and 'Balancing' feedbacks.
Examples and applications
In electronics
Regenerative circuits were invented and patented in 1914 for the amplification and reception of very weak radio signals. Carefully controlled positive feedback around a single transistor amplifier can multiply its gain by 1,000 or more. Therefore, a signal can be amplified 20,000 or even 100,000 times in one stage, that would normally have a gain of only 20 to 50. The problem with regenerative amplifiers working at these very high gains is that they easily become unstable and start to oscillate. The radio operator has to be prepared to tweak the amount of feedback fairly continuously for good reception. Modern radio receivers use the superheterodyne design, with many more amplification stages, but much more stable operation and no positive feedback.
The oscillation that can break out in a regenerative radio circuit is used in electronic oscillators. By the use of tuned circuits or a piezoelectric crystal (commonly quartz), the signal that is amplified by the positive feedback remains linear and sinusoidal. There are several designs for such harmonic oscillators, including the Armstrong oscillator, Hartley oscillator, Colpitts oscillator, and the Wien bridge oscillator. They all use positive feedback to create oscillations.
Many electronic circuits, especially amplifiers, incorporate negative feedback. This reduces their gain, but improves their linearity, input impedance, output impedance, and bandwidth, and stabilises all of these parameters, including the closed-loop gain. These parameters also become less dependent on the details of the amplifying device itself, and more dependent on the feedback components, which are less likely to vary with manufacturing tolerance, age and temperature. The difference between positive and negative feedback for AC signals is one of phase: if the signal is fed back out of phase, the feedback is negative and if it is in phase the feedback is positive. One problem for amplifier designers who use negative feedback is that some of the components of the circuit will introduce phase shift in the feedback path. If there is a frequency (usually a high frequency) where the phase shift reaches 180°, then the designer must ensure that the amplifier gain at that frequency is very low (usually by low-pass filtering). If the loop gain (the product of the amplifier gain and the extent of the positive feedback) at any frequency is greater than one, then the amplifier will oscillate at that frequency (Barkhausen stability criterion). Such oscillations are sometimes called parasitic oscillations. An amplifier that is stable in one set of conditions can break into parasitic oscillation in another. This may be due to changes in temperature, supply voltage, adjustment of front-panel controls, or even the proximity of a person or other conductive item.
Amplifiers may oscillate gently in ways that are hard to detect without an oscilloscope, or the oscillations may be so extensive that only a very distorted or no required signal at all gets through, or that damage occurs. Low frequency parasitic oscillations have been called 'motorboating' due to the similarity to the sound of a low-revving exhaust note.
Many common digital electronic circuits employ positive feedback. While normal simple boolean logic gates usually rely simply on gain to push digital signal voltages away from intermediate values to the values that are meant to represent boolean '0' and '1', but many more complex gates use feedback. When an input voltage is expected to vary in an analogue way, but sharp thresholds are required for later digital processing, the Schmitt trigger circuit uses positive feedback to ensure that if the input voltage creeps gently above the threshold, the output is forced smartly and rapidly from one logic state to the other. One of the corollaries of the Schmitt trigger's use of positive feedback is that, should the input voltage move gently down again past the same threshold, the positive feedback will hold the output in the same state with no change. This effect is called hysteresis: the input voltage has to drop past a different, lower threshold to 'un-latch' the output and reset it to its original digital value. By reducing the extent of the positive feedback, the hysteresis-width can be reduced, but it can not entirely be eradicated. The Schmitt trigger is, to some extent, a latching circuit.
]
An electronic flip-flop, or "latch", or "bistable multivibrator", is a circuit that due to high positive feedback is not stable in a balanced or intermediate state. Such a bistable circuit is the basis of one bit of electronic memory. The flip-flop uses a pair of amplifiers, transistors, or logic gates connected to each other so that positive feedback maintains the state of the circuit in one of two unbalanced stable states after the input signal has been removed, until a suitable alternative signal is applied to change the state. Computer random access memory (RAM) can be made in this way, with one latching circuit for each bit of memory.
Thermal runaway occurs in electronic systems because some aspect of a circuit is allowed to pass more current when it gets hotter, then the hotter it gets, the more current it passes, which heats it some more and so it passes yet more current. The effects are usually catastrophic for the device in question. If devices have to be used near to their maximum power-handling capacity, and thermal runaway is possible or likely under certain conditions, improvements can usually be achieved by careful design.
Audio and video systems can demonstrate positive feedback. If a microphone picks up the amplified sound output of loudspeakers in the same circuit, then howling and screeching sounds of audio feedback (at up to the maximum power capacity of the amplifier) will be heard, as random noise is re-amplified by positive feedback and filtered by the characteristics of the audio system and the room.
Audio and live music
Audio feedback (also known as acoustic feedback, simply as feedback, or the Larsen effect) is a special kind of positive feedback which occurs when a sound loop exists between an audio input (for example, a microphone or guitar pickup) and an audio output (for example, a loudly-amplified loudspeaker). In this example, a signal received by the microphone is amplified and passed out of the loudspeaker. The sound from the loudspeaker can then be received by the microphone again, amplified further, and then passed out through the loudspeaker again. The frequency of the resulting sound is determined by resonance frequencies in the microphone, amplifier, and loudspeaker, the acoustics of the room, the directional pick-up and emission patterns of the microphone and loudspeaker, and the distance between them. For small PA systems the sound is readily recognized as a loud squeal or screech.
Feedback is almost always considered undesirable when it occurs with a singer's or public speaker's microphone at an event using a sound reinforcement system or PA system. Audio engineers use various electronic devices, such as equalizers and, since the 1990s, automatic feedback detection devices to prevent these unwanted squeals or screeching sounds, which detract from the audience's enjoyment of the event. On the other hand, since the 1960s, electric guitar players in rock music bands using loud guitar amplifiers and distortion effects have intentionally created guitar feedback to create a desirable musical effect. "I Feel Fine" by the Beatles marks one of the earliest examples of the use of feedback as a recording effect in popular music. It starts with a single, percussive feedback note produced by plucking the A string on Lennon's guitar. Artists such as the Kinks and the Who had already used feedback live, but Lennon remained proud of the fact that the Beatles were perhaps the first group to deliberately put it on vinyl. In one of his last interviews, he said, "I defy anybody to find a record—unless it's some old blues record in 1922—that uses feedback that way."
The principles of audio feedback were first discovered by Danish scientist Søren Absalon Larsen. Microphones are not the only transducers subject to this effect. Record deck pickup cartridges can do the same, usually in the low frequency range below about 100 Hz, manifesting as a low rumble. Jimi Hendrix was an innovator in the intentional use of guitar feedback in his guitar solos to create unique sound effects. He helped develop the controlled and musical use of audio feedback in electric guitar playing, and later Brian May was a famous proponent of the technique.
Video
Similarly, if a video camera is pointed at a monitor screen that is displaying the camera's own signal, then repeating patterns can be formed on the screen by positive feedback. This video feedback effect was used in the opening sequences to the first ten series of the television program Doctor Who.
Switches
In electrical switches, including bimetallic strip based thermostats, the switch usually has hysteresis in the switching action. In these cases hysteresis is mechanically achieved via positive feedback within a tipping point mechanism. The positive feedback action minimises the length of time arcing occurs for during the switching and also holds the contacts in an open or closed state.
In biology
In physiology
A number of examples of positive feedback systems may be found in physiology.
One example is the onset of contractions in childbirth, known as the Ferguson reflex. When a contraction occurs, the hormone oxytocin causes a nerve stimulus, which stimulates the hypothalamus to produce more oxytocin, which increases uterine contractions. This results in contractions increasing in amplitude and frequency.
Another example is the process of blood clotting. The loop is initiated when injured tissue releases signal chemicals that activate platelets in the blood. An activated platelet releases chemicals to activate more platelets, causing a rapid cascade and the formation of a blood clot.
Lactation also involves positive feedback in that as the baby suckles on the nipple there is a nerve response into the spinal cord and up into the hypothalamus of the brain, which then stimulates the pituitary gland to produce more prolactin to produce more milk.
A spike in estrogen during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle causes ovulation.
The generation of nerve signals is another example, in which the membrane of a nerve fibre causes slight leakage of sodium ions through sodium channels, resulting in a change in the membrane potential, which in turn causes more opening of channels, and so on (Hodgkin cycle). So a slight initial leakage results in an explosion of sodium leakage which creates the nerve action potential.
In excitation–contraction coupling of the heart, an increase in intracellular calcium ions to the cardiac myocyte is detected by ryanodine receptors in the membrane of the sarcoplasmic reticulum which transport calcium out into the cytosol in a positive feedback physiological response.
In most cases, such feedback loops culminate in counter-signals being released that suppress or break the loop. Childbirth contractions stop when the baby is out of the mother's body. Chemicals break down the blood clot. Lactation stops when the baby no longer nurses.
In gene regulation
Positive feedback is a well studied phenomenon in gene regulation, where it is most often associated with bistability. Positive feedback occurs when a gene activates itself directly or indirectly via a double negative feedback loop. Genetic engineers have constructed and tested simple positive feedback networks in bacteria to demonstrate the concept of bistability. A classic example of positive feedback is the lac operon in E. coli. Positive feedback plays an integral role in cellular differentiation, development, and cancer progression, and therefore, positive feedback in gene regulation can have significant physiological consequences. Random motions in molecular dynamics coupled with positive feedback can trigger interesting effects, such as create population of phenotypically different cells from the same parent cell. This happens because noise can become amplified by positive feedback. Positive feedback can also occur in other forms of cell signaling, such as enzyme kinetics or metabolic pathways.
In evolutionary biology
Positive feedback loops have been used to describe aspects of the dynamics of change in biological evolution. For example, beginning at the macro level, Alfred J. Lotka (1945) argued that the evolution of the species was most essentially a matter of selection that fed back energy flows to capture more and more energy for use by living systems. At the human level, Richard D. Alexander (1989) proposed that social competition between and within human groups fed back to the selection of intelligence thus constantly producing more and more refined human intelligence. Crespi (2004) discussed several other examples of positive feedback loops in evolution. The analogy of Evolutionary arms races provide further examples of positive feedback in biological systems.
It has been shown that changes in biodiversity through the Phanerozoic correlate much better with hyperbolic model (widely used in demography and macrosociology) than with exponential and logistic models (traditionally used in population biology and extensively applied to fossil biodiversity as well). The latter models imply that changes in diversity are guided by a first-order positive feedback (more ancestors, more descendants) and/or a negative feedback arising from resource limitation. Hyperbolic model implies a second-order positive feedback. The hyperbolic pattern of the world population growth has been demonstrated (see below) to arise from a second-order positive feedback between the population size and the rate of technological growth. The hyperbolic character of biodiversity growth can be similarly accounted for by a positive feedback between the diversity and community structure complexity. It has been suggested that the similarity between the curves of biodiversity and human population probably comes from the fact that both are derived from the interference of the hyperbolic trend (produced by the positive feedback) with cyclical and stochastic dynamics.
Immune system
A cytokine storm, or hypercytokinemia is a potentially fatal immune reaction consisting of a positive feedback loop between cytokines and immune cells, with highly elevated levels of various cytokines. In normal immune function, positive feedback loops can be utilized to enhance the action of B lymphocytes. When a B cell binds its antibodies to an antigen and becomes activated, it begins releasing antibodies and secreting a complement protein called C3. Both C3 and a B cell's antibodies can bind to a pathogen, and when a B cell has its antibodies bind to a pathogen with C3, it speeds up that B cell's secretion of more antibodies and more C3, thus creating a positive feedback loop.
Cell death
Apoptosis is a caspase-mediated process of cellular death, whose aim is the removal of long-lived or damaged cells. A failure of this process has been implicated in prominent conditions such as cancer or Parkinson's disease. The very core of the apoptotic process is the auto-activation of caspases, which may be modeled via a positive-feedback loop. This positive feedback exerts an auto-activation of the effector caspase by means of intermediate caspases. When isolated from the rest of apoptotic pathway, this positive-feedback presents only one stable steady state, regardless of the number of intermediate activation steps of the effector caspase. When this core process is complemented with inhibitors and enhancers of caspases effects, this process presents bistability, thereby modeling the alive and dying states of a cell.
In psychology
Winner (1996) described gifted children as driven by positive feedback loops involving setting their own learning course, this feeding back satisfaction, thus further setting their learning goals to higher levels and so on. Winner termed this positive feedback loop as a "rage to master." Vandervert (2009a, 2009b) proposed that the child prodigy can be explained in terms of a positive feedback loop between the output of thinking/performing in working memory, which then is fed to the cerebellum where it is streamlined, and then fed back to working memory thus steadily increasing the quantitative and qualitative output of working memory. Vandervert also argued that this working memory/cerebellar positive feedback loop was responsible for language evolution in working memory.
In economics
Markets with social influence
Product recommendations and information about past purchases have been shown to influence consumers choices significantly whether it is for music, movie, book, technological, and other type of products. Social influence often induces a rich-get-richer phenomenon (Matthew effect) where popular products tend to become even more popular.
Market dynamics
According to the theory of reflexivity advanced by George Soros, price changes are driven by a positive feedback process whereby investors' expectations are influenced by price movements so their behaviour acts to reinforce movement in that direction until it becomes unsustainable, whereupon the feedback drives prices in the opposite direction.
Systemic risk
Systemic risk is the risk that an amplification or leverage or positive feedback process presents to a system. This is usually unknown, and under certain conditions this process can amplify exponentially and rapidly lead to destructive or chaotic behavior. A Ponzi scheme is a good example of a positive-feedback system: funds from new investors are used to pay out unusually high returns, which in turn attract more new investors, causing rapid growth toward collapse. W. Brian Arthur has also studied and written on positive feedback in the economy (e.g. W. Brian Arthur, 1990). Hyman Minsky proposed a theory that certain credit expansion practices could make a market economy into "a deviation amplifying system" that could suddenly collapse, sometimes called a "Minsky moment".
Simple systems that clearly separate the inputs from the outputs are not prone to systemic risk. This risk is more likely as the complexity of the system increases, because it becomes more difficult to see or analyze all the possible combinations of variables in the system even under careful stress testing conditions. The more efficient a complex system is, the more likely it is to be prone to systemic risks, because it takes only a small amount of deviation to disrupt the system. Therefore, well-designed complex systems generally have built-in features to avoid this condition, such as a small amount of friction, or resistance, or inertia, or time delay to decouple the outputs from the inputs within the system. These factors amount to an inefficiency, but they are necessary to avoid instabilities.
The 2010 Flash Crash incident was blamed on the practice of high-frequency trading (HFT), although whether HFT really increases systemic risk remains controversial.
Human population growth
Agriculture and human population can be considered to be in a positive feedback mode, which means that one drives the other with increasing intensity. It is suggested that this positive feedback system will end sometime with a catastrophe, as modern agriculture is using up all of the easily available phosphate and is resorting to highly efficient monocultures which are more susceptible to systemic risk.
Technological innovation and human population can be similarly considered, and this has been offered as an explanation for the apparent hyperbolic growth of the human population in the past, instead of a simpler exponential growth.
It is proposed that the growth rate is accelerating because of second-order positive feedback between population and technology. Technological growth increases the carrying capacity of land for people, which leads to a growing population, and this in turn drives further technological growth.
Prejudice, social institutions and poverty
Gunnar Myrdal described a vicious circle of increasing inequalities, and poverty, which is known as "circular cumulative causation".
In meteorology
Drought intensifies through positive feedback. A lack of rain decreases soil moisture, which kills plants and/or causes them to release less water through transpiration. Both factors limit evapotranspiration, the process by which water vapor is added to the atmosphere from the surface, and add dry dust to the atmosphere, which absorbs water. Less water vapor means both low dew point temperatures and more efficient daytime heating, decreasing the chances of humidity in the atmosphere leading to cloud formation. Lastly, without clouds, there cannot be rain, and the loop is complete.
In climatology
Climate "forcings" may push a climate system in the direction of warming or cooling, for example, increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases cause warming at the surface. Forcings are external to the climate system and feedbacks are internal processes of the system. Some feedback mechanisms act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system while others are tightly coupled. Forcings, feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes. The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere, which in turn leads to further warming. The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan–Boltzmann law, the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space is proportional to the fourth power of the temperature of Earth's surface and atmosphere.
Other examples of positive feedback subsystems in climatology include:
A warmer atmosphere will melt ice and this changes the albedo which further warms the atmosphere.
Methane hydrates can be unstable so that a warming ocean could release more methane, which is also a greenhouse gas.
Peat, occurring naturally in peat bogs, contains carbon. When peat dries it decomposes, and may additionally burn. Peat also releases nitrous oxide.
Global warming affects the cloud distribution. Clouds at higher altitudes enhance the greenhouse effects, while low clouds mainly reflect back sunlight, having opposite effects on temperature.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report states that "Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible, depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change."
In sociology
A self-fulfilling prophecy is a social positive feedback loop between beliefs and behavior: if enough people believe that something is true, their behavior can make it true, and observations of their behavior may in turn increase belief. A classic example is a bank run.
Another sociological example of positive feedback is the network effect. When more people are encouraged to join a network this increases the reach of the network therefore the network expands ever more quickly. A viral video is an example of the network effect in which links to a popular video are shared and redistributed, ensuring that more people see the video and then re-publish the links. This is the basis for many social phenomena, including Ponzi schemes and chain letters. In many cases population size is the limiting factor to the feedback effect.
In chemistry
If a chemical reaction causes the release of heat, and the reaction itself happens faster at higher temperatures, then there is a high likelihood of positive feedback. If the heat produced is not removed from the reactants fast enough, thermal runaway can occur and very quickly lead to a chemical explosion.
In conservation
Many wildlife are hunted for their parts which can be quite valuable. The closer to extinction that targeted species become, the higher the price there is on their parts. This is an example of positive feedback.
See also
: in social and financial systems, a complex of events that reinforces itself through a feedback loop.
Positive reinforcement: a situation in operant conditioning where a consequence increases the frequency of a behaviour.
Praise of performance: a term often applied in the context of performance appraisal, although this usage is disputed
Self-reinforcing feedback: a term used in systems dynamics to avoid confusion with the "praise" usage
References
Further reading
Norbert Wiener (1948), Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine, Paris, Hermann et Cie - MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman. Rules of Play. MIT Press. 2004. . Chapter 18: Games as Cybernetic Systems.
External links
Classical control theory
Cybernetics
Electronic feedback
Feedback
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|
213355 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrulus | Garrulus | {{Automatic taxobox
| name = Garrulus
| image = Cyprus jay (Garrulus glandarius glaszneri).jpg
| image_caption = G. glandarius glaszneri, Cyprus
| taxon = Garrulus
| authority = Brisson, 1760
| type_species = Corvus glandarius| type_species_authority = Linnaeus, 1758
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = * Garrulus glandarius Garrulus lanceolatus Garrulus lidthi}}Garrulus is a genus of Old World jays, passerine birds in the family Corvidae.
Taxonomy and systematics
The genus was established by French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760. The type species is the Eurasian jay (Garrulus glandarius). The name Garrulus is a Latin word meaning chattering, babbling or noisy.
Species
Three species are recognized:
Former species
Formerly, some authorities also considered the following species (or subspecies) as species within the genus Garrulus:
Purple-winged roller (as Garrulus Temminckii'')
References
Bird genera | [
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|
213359 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Blake%20%28actor%29 | Peter Blake (actor) | Peter Blake (8 December 1948 – 21 July 2018) was a Scottish actor. Probably best known as the character Kirk St Moritz in the BBC sitcom Dear John, by John Sullivan, his other high-profile moments came through his playing of a 'Fonz'-type character in Pepsi-Cola commercials which led to a hit record in 1977 "Lipsmackin' Rock 'n' Rollin", Andy Evol the disc-jockey in Agony with Maureen Lipman for LWT and in an episode of Taggart ("Do or Die") as Sgt. Bill Kent. He also had a long association with The Rocky Horror Show playing Frank-N-Furter over a thousand times between 1975 and 1994.
Early life
Peter Blake was born John Beattie Dempsey on 8 December 1948 in Selkirk, Scotland. He was always referred to by his parents as Ian, the Scottish Gaelic term for John.
He began his career as an aspiring pop star before turning to acting; his first professional appearance was at the Edinburgh International Festival, in Frank Dunlop's 'Pop Theatre''' production of The Winter's Tale, at the Assembly Hall, in 1966.
Theatre
Peter Blake trained at the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama and joined the Citizens' Theatre Company, performing in a production of Twelfth Night, and Michael Blakemore's original production of Bertolt Brecht's The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui which opened in September 1967 at the Citizens' Theatre, Glasgow and, in August 1968, performed at The Lyceum, Edinburgh as part of the Edinburgh Festival.
After graduating in 1969 Peter worked briefly as a stage manager in several Soho strip clubs before he joined the international cast of Victor Spinetti's Amsterdam production of Hair, in 1970, and subsequently played the role of Berger in the show's national tour of The Netherlands.
Returning to the UK there followed a string of London's West End rock musicals, with roles in Hair at the Shaftesbury Theatre; as Pharaoh in the original productions of Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat at the Albery Theatre, as Pontius Pilate in Jesus Christ Superstar at the Palace Theatre; as Frank-N-Furter in The Rocky Horror Show at the King's Road Theatre; as Peter in the revue What’s a Nice Country like US doing in a State like This? at the May Fair Theatre; and reprising his role of Frank-N-Furter at the Comedy Theatre.
Peter Blake has also performed at the Chichester Festival Theatre, work included Julius Caesar, Murder in the Cathedral and In Order of Appearance; out of London theatre work included Nestor in Irma La Douce at the Sheffield Crucible; Count Dracula in Charles McKeown's play Dracula at the Thorndike Theatre, Leatherhead; Marat in The Promise at the Churchill Theatre, Bromley; and on tour in Jack Rosenthal's Smash!; Alan Ayckbourn's Absent Friends, Ray Cooney's Funny Money, and The Rocky Horror Show returning to his old role of 'Frank-N-Furter' in 1992 and 1994; he also starred in several pantomimes, including as Captain Hook in Peter Pan, as King Rat in Dick Whittington and as Abanazer in Aladdin.
Television and film
Peter Blake's best-known role was the flamboyant and boastful Kirk St Moritz, resplendent in white suit, big collars and golden medallion, in the British sitcom Dear John (1986–87). He appeared in other British television series including as Tony Miller, a member of CI5 in the hard-hitting police drama The Professionals (1978). As Michael Vincent in Penmarric (1979), Andy Evol in Agony (1979-1981), Dr Courant in Praying Mantis (1982), Carl Pierce in A Very Peculiar Practice (1986), Aubrey Owen in Dogfood Dan & the Carmarthen Cowboy (1988), David in Split Ends (1989), as Harvey in Fiddlers Three (1991) and as Ken Tate in EastEnders (2010).
Blake guested on shows such as The Squirrels, Out, Z-Cars, Minder, Shoestring, Shine on Harvey Moon, Bergerac, After Henry, Alas Smith and Jones, Ever Decreasing Circles, Boon, The New Statesman, Woof!, Underbelly, The High Life, The Bill, and Casualty, among others.
His film appearances include Intimate Games (1976), Panic (1978), Murder on Line One (1989), Cash in Hand (1998), The Lift (2008) and Man and Dog (2010).
Discography
In 1977, Peter Blake reached number 40 in the UK Singles Chart with the song Lipsmackin' Rock 'n' Rollin, performing it on the BBC Television music show Top of the Pops on 29 September 1977; and subsequently released a single called Boogie Breakout'' in 1979.
Lipsmackin' Rock 'N Rollin' / Clever Dick - Released : 26 August 1977.
Boogie Breakout / Rock 'N' Roll Lady - Released : 9 March 1979.
Stage Cast Recordings include :
Hair - The American Tribal Love-Rock Musical (Original Amsterdam Cast) - LP.Date of release: 1970.Written-By – Galt MacDermot, Gerome Ragni, James Rado.
London production of the musical, "What's a Nice Country like U.S. Doing in a State like This?"Date of release: 1976.Music by Cary Hoffman. Words by Ira Gasman.
Hard Times: The Musical (Original London Cast Recording Highlights) - EP.Date of release: 1 Jun 2000.Book, music and lyrics by Christopher Tookey and Hugh Thomas. From the novel by Charles Dickens.
Theatre credits
References
External links
Obituary - Peter Blake, The Herald
1948 births
2018 deaths
People from Selkirk, Scottish Borders
Scottish male television actors
People educated at Selkirk High School | [
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213361 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Blake%20%28sailor%29 | Peter Blake (sailor) | Sir Peter James Blake (1 October 1948 – 5 December 2001) was a New Zealand yachtsman who won the 1989–1990 Whitbread Round the World Race, held the Jules Verne Trophy from 1994 to 1997 by setting the around the world sailing record as co-skipper of ENZA New Zealand, and led New Zealand to successive victories in the America's Cup.
Blake was shot and killed by pirates while monitoring environment change on the Amazon River on 5 December 2001. He was 53 years old.
Early life and education
Blake was born in 1948 in Auckland, New Zealand, to artist and art director Brian Blake and photography engraver Joyce Wilson. He was the second of their four children. He grew up in the suburb of Bayswater and attended school at Bayswater School, Belmont Intermediate and Takapuna Grammar School.
Blake was passionate about sailing from an early age; he began sailing at the age of five in the family dinghy. At age 18, he and his brother built a keel yacht and won the 1967/68 New Zealand Junior Offshore Group Championship.
From 1966 to 1969, Blake studied mechanical engineering at the Auckland Technical Institute, and gained the New Zealand Certificate of Engineering.
Sailing career
In 1971, Blake began his international sailing career as watch leader on Ocean Spirit in the Cape Town to Rio de Janeiro race. Ocean Spirit won the race. The co-skippers of the yacht, Leslie Williams and Robin Knox-Johnston, recognised Blake's abilities in leadership and seamanship and invited him to join their team for the first Whitbread Round the World Race.
Whitbread Round the World Race
Blake raced in the 1973–1974 Whitbread Round the World Race as watch captain on board the Burton Cutter skippered by Leslie Williams. In the 1977–1978 race, Blake rejoined Williams and co-skipper Johnston on board Heaths Condor. While refitting the yacht in England after the race, Peter met Philippa (Pippa) Glanville and they married in Emsworth in August 1979.
For the 1981–1982 race, Blake mounted his own campaign as skipper of Ceramco New Zealand, a sloop designed by an up-and-coming naval architect called Bruce Farr. The campaign started well, but Ceramco lost its mast on the first leg, and Blake's crew did well to finish the race in third place. He returned for the 1985–1986 race as one of the race favourites, skipper of Lion New Zealand, sponsored by the Lion Brewery, and came second.
He won the 1989–1990 Whitbread race, where he skippered Steinlager 2 to an unprecedented clean sweep of line, handicap and overall honours on each of the race's six legs.
Jules Verne trophy
In 1994, Blake and his co-skipper Robin Knox-Johnson succeeded in their second attempt at the Jules Verne Trophy, by achieving the fastest non-stop navigation of the world under sail on the yacht ENZA New Zealand. Their first attempt in 1993 had foundered after the yacht struck an unidentified floating object 26 days into the attempt. Their time was 74 days, 22 hours, 17 minutes and 22 seconds, and they were the first foreign skippers to win the French award.
America's Cup
Brought in at the last minute by Carl McKenzie to manage New Zealand's 1992 America's Cup challenge, Blake led the Kiwi team to the challenger finals with NZL-20. However, Italy emerged from the controversial series with the Louis Vuitton Cup, and went on to face America³ in the America's Cup match.
Blake was back for the 1995 America's Cup challenge, this time as the syndicate head of Team New Zealand. With NZL 32, "Black Magic", the team made a clean sweep, beating Dennis Conner 5–0. Blake's "lucky red socks" (a present from his wife) became something of a trademark. It was commonplace to see New Zealanders wear red socks or fly them from car aerials during the Cup races and a highly successful "fundraising edition" of official red socks emblazoned with the sail numbers of the two NZL yachts was produced to help fund the syndicate. Subsequently, following his murder, red socks became a badge of mourning to his many admirers.
In the 2000 America's Cup, Team New Zealand, still led by Blake, became the first non-American team to successfully defend the America's Cup, beating Prada 5–0. Following this defence, Blake stood down from the team.
Blake was inducted into the America's Cup Hall of Fame in 1996.
Post racing
In 1997, Blake became the Cousteau Society's head of expeditions, and skipper of the Antarctic Explorer, which he later purchased from the Society and renamed Seamaster. After leaving the Society he led expeditions to Antarctica and the Amazon aboard Seamaster during 2001. The same year Blake was named Special Envoy for the UN Environment Programme. He began filming documentaries for 'blakexpeditions', a company he founded.
Honours and awards
In the 1983 New Year Honours, Blake was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire, for services to ocean yacht racing. In the 1991 New Year Honours, he was promoted to Officer of the Order of the British Empire, for services to yachting, and he was further promoted to Knight Commander of the same Order in the 1995 Queen's Birthday Honours.
Blake received an honorary doctorate in 1999 from Massey University, and another in 2000 from Auckland University of Technology.
Death and legacy
On 5 December 2001, pirates shot and killed Blake while he was on an environmental exploration trip in South America, monitoring global warming and pollution for the United Nations. The two-month expedition was anchored off Macapá, Brazil, at the mouth of the Amazon delta, waiting to clear customs after a trip up the Amazon river. At around 9 p.m. a group of six to eight armed, masked robbers wearing balaclavas and crash helmets boarded the Seamaster. As one of the robbers held a gun to the head of a crewmember, Blake sprang from the cabin wielding a rifle. He shot one of the assailants in the hand before the rifle malfunctioned; he was then fatally shot in the back by assailant Ricardo Colares Tavares. The boarders injured two other crew members with knives, and the remaining seven were unhurt.
The only thing seized by the attackers was a 15 hp outboard motor and some watches from the crew. Authorities eventually captured the pirates and sentenced them to an average of 32 years in prison each; Tavares, the man who fired the fatal shots, received a sentence of 36 years. Prior to the attack, the yacht's crew had been very careful when travelling up the river and back down again; they always had crew members on watch. Only upon return to Macapa did they relax their guard.
Blake is survived by his wife Pippa, Lady Blake, and their two children Sarah-Jane and James. Blake's sister's daughter Anna Burnet is also a sailor and an Olympic Silver medallist. Blake's environmental and leadership legacy is continued by The Sir Peter Blake Trust, a non-profit organisation based in New Zealand.
Around 30,000 people attended a memorial service held for Blake at the Auckland Domain on 23 December 2001, and included tributes from Blake's family, the New Zealand Prime Minister Helen Clark, the Brazilian Ambassador, and Neil and Tim Finn. Helen Clark spent a night aboard the Seamaster three weeks prior to the attack. She called Blake a "living legend" and a "national hero" in her eulogy she said in part: "Our small nation went into shock. Peter Blake was a living legend. As an outstanding sailor, he had brought great honour and fame to New Zealand. His death was unthinkable."
Blake is buried at Warblington Cemetery, located opposite St Thomas a Becket Church near Emsworth on the south coast of England. Emsworth is where Pippa and Peter settled and raised their two children. His headstone bears the words of John Masefield's famous poem, Sea-Fever: "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, / And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by...".
In October 2002, the International Olympic Committee posthumously awarded the Olympic Order, one of its highest honours, to Blake. In December 2003, the Sir Peter Blake Trust was established, with the support of the Blake family, "to help New Zealanders make a positive difference for the planet through activities that encourage environmental awareness and action, and leadership development."
The Trust has a range of initiatives, including the annual Sir Peter Blake Leadership Awards. These awards consist of the Blake Medal, awarded each year to an outstanding New Zealand leader, and the Sir Peter Blake Emerging Leader Awards, presented annually to six people recognised as younger leaders of considerable potential. The winners of the Blake Medal, in order starting 2005, are John Anderson, Stephen Tindall, Paul Callaghan, Murray Halberg, John Hood (university administrator), Ray Avery, Margaret Bazley, John Graham, Mick Brown, Peter Jackson, Rob Fenwick, Peter Gluckman, Mason Durie and Tariana Turia.
Seamaster was originally built in France. After Blake's death she was eventually purchased by Étienne Bourgois and renamed Tara expedition. She continues to undertake successful expeditions.
In 2002 the Sir Peter Blake Marine Education and Recreation Centre was named in honour of Blake.
The Sir Peter Blake Regatta is held annually in celebration of Blake's life. It is the largest youth centreboard regatta in the southern hemisphere.
Blake Massif is named after Blake.
References
External links
Official Tara Expeditions website
|-
|-
1948 births
1995 America's Cup sailors
2001 deaths
Sportspeople from Auckland
Male murder victims
New Zealand male sailors (sport)
Team New Zealand sailors
Laureus World Sports Awards winners
New Zealand Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
People in sports awarded knighthoods
New Zealand people murdered abroad
People murdered in Brazil
People killed by pirates
Recipients of the Olympic Order
Deaths by firearm in Brazil
Volvo Ocean Race sailors
ISAF World Sailor of the Year (male)
People educated at Takapuna Grammar School | [
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213362 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wong%20Kar-wai | Wong Kar-wai | Wong Kar-wai (born 17 July 1958) is a Hong Kong film director, screenwriter, and producer. His films are characterised by nonlinear narratives, atmospheric music, and vivid cinematography involving bold, saturated colours. A pivotal figure of Hong Kong cinema, Wong is considered a contemporary auteur, and ranks third on Sight & Sound 2002 poll of the greatest filmmakers of modern times. His films frequently appear on best-of lists domestically and internationally.
Born in Shanghai, Wong emigrated to British Hong Kong as a child with his family. He began a career as a screenwriter for soap operas before transitioning to directing with his debut, the crime drama As Tears Go By (1988). While As Tears Go By was fairly successful in Hong Kong, Wong moved away from the contemporary trend of crime and action movies to embark on more personal filmmaking styles. Days of Being Wild (1990), his first venture into such direction, did not perform well at the box office. It however received critical acclaim, and won Best Film and Best Director at the 1991 Hong Kong Film Awards. His next film, Ashes of Time (1994), was met with mixed reception because of its vague plot and atypical take on the genre.
The production of Ashes of Time was time-consuming and left Wong exhausted; he subsequently directed Chungking Express (1994) with hopes of reconciling with filmmaking. The film, expressing a more lighthearted atmosphere, catapulted Wong to international prominence, and won Best Film and Best Director at the 1995 Hong Kong Film Awards. Wong consolidated his worldwide reputation with the 1997 drama Happy Together, for which he won Best Director at the Cannes Film Festival.
The 2000 drama In the Mood for Love, revered for its lush visuals and subtle storytelling, concretely established Wong's trademark filmmaking styles. Among his other work are 2046 (2004) and The Grandmaster (2013), both of which received awards and nominations worldwide.
Early life
Wong Kar-wai was born on 17 July 1958 in Shanghai, the youngest of three siblings. His father was a sailor and his mother was a housewife. By the time Wong was five years old, the seeds of the Cultural Revolution were beginning to take effect in China and his parents decided to relocate to British-ruled Hong Kong. The two older children were meant to join them later, but the borders closed before they had a chance and Wong did not see his brother or sister again for ten years. In Hong Kong, the family settled in Tsim Sha Tsui, and his father got work managing a night club. Being an only child in a new city, Wong has said he felt isolated during his childhood; he struggled to learn Cantonese and English, only becoming fluent in these new languages when he was a teenager.
As a youth, Wong was frequently taken to the cinema by his mother and exposed to a variety of films. He later said: "The only hobby I had as a child was watching movies". At school he was interested in graphic design, and earned a diploma in the subject from Hong Kong Polytechnic in 1980. After graduating, Wong was accepted onto a training course with the TVB television network, where he learned the processes of media production.
Career
Beginnings (1980–1989)
He soon began a screenwriting career, firstly with TV series and soap operas, such as Don't Look Now (1981), before progressing to film scripts. He worked as part of a team, contributing to a variety of genres including romance, comedy, thriller, and crime. Wong had little enthusiasm for these early projects, described by the film scholar Gary Bettinson as "occasionally diverting and mostly disposable", but continued to write throughout the 1980s on films including Just for Fun (1983), Rosa (1986), and The Haunted Cop Shop of Horrors (1987). He is credited with ten screenplays between 1982 and 1987, but claims to have worked on about fifty more without official credit. Wong spent two years writing the screenplay for Patrick Tam's action film Final Victory (1987), for which he was nominated at the 7th Hong Kong Film Awards.
By 1987 the Hong Kong film industry was at a peak, enjoying a considerable level of prosperity and productivity. New directors were needed to maintain this success, and – through his links in the industry – Wong was invited to become a partner on a new independent company, In-Gear, and given the opportunity to direct his own picture. Gangster films were popular at the time, in the wake of John Woo's highly-successful A Better Tomorrow (1986), and Wong decided to follow suit. Specifically, unlike Hong Kong's other crime films, he chose to focus on young gangsters. The film, named As Tears Go By, tells the story of a conflicted youth who has to watch over his hot-headed friend.
Because he was well acquainted with the producer, Alan Tang, Wong was given considerable freedom in the making of As Tears Go By. His cast included what he considered some of "the hottest young idols in Hong Kong": singer Andy Lau, Maggie Cheung, and Jacky Cheung. As Tears Go By was released in June 1988 and was popular with audiences. Several journalists named Wong among the "Hong Kong New Wave". While it was a conventional crime film, critic David Bordwell said that Wong "[stood] out from his peers by abandoning the kinetics of comedies and action movies in favour of more liquid atmospherics." As Tears Go By received no attention from Western critics upon its initial release, but it was selected to be screened during the Directors' Fortnight of the 1989 Cannes Film Festival.
Developing style (1990–1994)
For his next film, Wong decided to move away from the crime trend in Hong Kong cinema, to which he felt indifferent. He was eager to make something unique, and the financial success of As Tears Go By made this possible. Developing a more personal project than his previous film, Wong picked the 1960s as a setting – evoking an era that he remembered well and had a "special feeling" for. Days of Being Wild focuses on a disillusioned young adult named Yuddy and those around him. There is no straightforward plot or obvious genre, but Stephen Teo sees it as a film about the "longing for love". Andy Lau, Maggie Cheung, and Jacky Cheung rejoined Wong for his second film, while Leslie Cheung was cast in the central role. Hired as cinematographer was Christopher Doyle, who became one of Wong's most important collaborators, photographing his next six films.
With its popular stars, Days of Being Wild was expected to be a mainstream picture; instead it was a character piece, more concerned with mood and atmosphere than narrative. Released in December 1990, the film earned little at the box office and divided critics. Despite this, it won five Hong Kong Film Awards, and received some attention internationally. With its experimental narrative, expressive camerawork, and themes of lost time and love, Days of Being Wild is described by film critic Peter Brunette as the first typical "Wong Kar-wai film". It has since gained a reputation as one of Hong Kong's finest releases. Its initial failure was disheartening for the director, and he could not gain funding for his next project – a planned sequel.
Struggling to get support for his work, Wong formed his own production company, Jet Tone Films, with Jeff Lau in 1992. In need of further backing, Wong accepted a studio's offer that he make a (ancient martial arts) film based on the popular novel The Legend of the Condor Heroes by Jin Yong. Wong was enthusiastic about the idea, claiming he had long wanted to make a costume drama. He eventually took little from the book other than three characters, and in 1992 began experimenting with several different narrative structures to weave what he called "a very complex tapestry". Filming began with another all-star cast: Leslie, Maggie, and Jacky Cheung returned alongside Brigitte Lin, Carina Lau, Charlie Young, and Tony Leung Chiu-wai − the latter of which became one of Wong's key collaborators.
Set during the Song dynasty, Ashes of Time concerns a desert-exiled assassin who is called upon by several different characters while nursing a broken heart. It was a difficult production and the project was not completed for two years, at a cost of HK$47 million. Upon release in September 1994, audiences were confused by the film's vague plotting and atypical take on . The film scholar Martha P. Nochimson has called it "the most unusual martial arts film ever made", as fast-paced action scenes are replaced with character ruminations, and story becomes secondary to the use of colour, landscape, and imagery. As such, Ashes of Time was a commercial failure, but critics were generally appreciative of Wong's "refusal to be loyal to [the ] genre". The film won several local awards, and competed at the Venice Film Festival where Doyle won Best Cinematography. In 2008, Wong reworked the film and re-released it as Ashes of Time Redux.
Breakthrough (1994–1995)
During the long production of Ashes of Time, Wong faced a two-month break as he waited for equipment to re-record sound for some scenes. He was in a negative state, feeling heavy pressure from his backers and worrying about another failure, and so decided to start a new project: "I thought I should do something to make myself feel comfortable about making films again. So I made Chungking Express, which I made like a student film." Conceived and completed within only six weeks, the new project ended up being released two months before Ashes of Time.
Chungking Express is split into two distinct parts – both set in contemporary Hong Kong and focusing on lonely policemen (Takeshi Kaneshiro and Tony Leung Chiu-wai) who each fall for a woman (Brigitte Lin and Faye Wong). Wong was keen to experiment with "two crisscrossing stories in one movie" and worked spontaneously, filming at night what he had written that day. Peter Brunette notes that Chungking is considerably more fun and lighthearted than the director's previous efforts, but deals with the same themes. At the 1995 Hong Kong Film Awards it was named Best Picture, and Wong received Best Director. Miramax acquired the film for American distribution, which, according to Brunette, "catapulted Wong to international attention". Stephen Schneider includes it in his book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die with the summary: "While other films by Wong may pack more emotional resonance, Chungking Express gets off on sheer innocence, exuberance, and cinematic freedom, a striking triumph of style over substance".
Wong continued to work without break, expanding his ideas from Chungking Express into another film about alienated young adults in contemporary Hong Kong. Chungking Express had originally been conceived as three stories, but when time ran out, Wong developed the third as a new project, Fallen Angels, with new characters. Wong conceived both films as complementary studies of Hong Kong: "To me Chungking Express and Fallen Angels are one film that should be three hours long."
Fallen Angels is broadly considered a crime thriller, and contains scenes of extreme violence, but is atypical of the genre and heavily infused with Wong's fragmented, experimental style. The loose plot again involves two distinct, subtly overlapping narratives, and is dominated by frantic visuals. The film mostly occurs at night and explores the dark side of Hong Kong, which Wong planned intentionally to balance the sweetness of Chungking: "It's fair to show both sides of a coin". Takeshi Kaneshiro and Charlie Young were cast again, but new to Wong's films were Leon Lai, Michelle Reis and Karen Mok. Upon release in September 1995, several critics felt that the film was too similar to Chungking Express and some complained that Wong had become self-indulgent. Film historians Zhang Yingjin and Xiao Zhiwei commented: "While not as groundbreaking as its predecessors, the film is still different and innovative enough to confirm [Wong's] presence on the international scene."
Widespread recognition (1996–2000)
While his reputation grew steadily throughout the early 1990s, Wong's international standing was "thoroughly consolidated" with the 1997 romantic drama Happy Together (1997). Its development was influenced by the handover of Hong Kong from Britain to China, which occurred that year. Wong was widely expected to address the event in his next film; instead, he avoided the pressure by choosing to shoot in Argentina. The issues of the handover were nevertheless important: knowing that homosexuals in Hong Kong faced uncertainty after 1997, Wong decided to focus on a relationship between two men. He was keen to present the relationship as ordinary and universal, as he felt Hong Kong's previous LGBT films had not.
Happy Together tells the story of a couple (Tony Leung Chiu-wai and Leslie Cheung) who travel to Buenos Aires in an effort to save their relationship. Wong decided to change the structure and style from his previous films, as he felt he had become predictable. Teo, Brunette, and Jeremy Tambling all see Happy Together as a marked change from his earlier work: the story is more linear and understandable, there are only three characters (with no women at all), and while it still has Doyle's "exuberant" photography, it is more stylistically restrained. After a difficult production period – where a six-week shoot was dragged out to four months – the film was released in May 1997 to great critical acclaim. It competed for the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival, where Wong became Hong Kong's first winner of the Best Director Award (an achievement he downplayed: "it makes no difference, it’s just something you can put on an ad.")
In his 2005 monograph, Brunette opines that Happy Together marked "a new stage in [Wong's] artistic development", and along with its successor – In the Mood for Love (2000) – showcases the director at "the zenith of his cinematic art." The latter film emerged from a highly complicated production history that lasted two years. Several different titles and projects were planned by Wong before they evolved into the final result: a romantic melodrama set in 1960s Hong Kong that is seen as an unofficial sequel to Days of Being Wild. Wong decided to return to the era that fascinated him, and reflected his own background by focusing on Shanghainese émigrés.
Maggie Cheung and Tony Leung Chiu-wai play the lead characters, who move into an apartment building on the same day in 1962 and discover that their spouses are having an affair; over the next four years they develop a strong attraction. Teo writes that the film is a study of "typical Chinese reserve and repressed desire", while Schneider describes how the "strange relationship" is choreographed with "the grace and rhythm of a waltz" and depicted in "a dreamlike haze by an eavesdropping camera".
The shoot lasted 15 months, with both Cheung and Leung reportedly driven to their breaking points. Wong shot more than 30 times the footage he eventually used, and only finished editing the film the morning before its Cannes premiere. At the festival, In the Mood for Love received the Technical Grand Prize and Best Actor for Leung. It was named Best Foreign Film by the National Society of Film Critics. Wong said after its release: "In the Mood for Love is the most difficult film in my career so far, and one of the most important. I am very proud of it." In subsequent years it has been included on lists of the greatest films of all time.
International work (2001–2007)
While In the Mood for Love took two years to complete, its sequel – 2046 – took double that time. The film was actually conceived first, when Wong picked the title as a reference to the final year of China's "One country, two systems" promise to Hong Kong. Although his plans changed and a new film developed, he simultaneously shot material for 2046, with the first footage dating back to December 1999. Wong immediately continued with the project once In the Mood for Love was complete, reportedly becoming obsessed with it. In Bettinson's account, it "became a behemoth, impossible to finish".
2046 continues the story of Chow Mo-wan, Leung's character from In the Mood for Love, though he is considered much colder and very different. Wong found that he did not want to leave the character, and commenced where he left off in 1966; nevertheless, he claimed: "It's another story, about how a man faces his future due to a certain past". His plans were vague and according to Teo, he set "a new record in his own method of free-thinking, time-extensive and improvisatory filmmaking" with the production. Scenes were shot in Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Macau, and Bangkok. Actresses Zhang Ziyi and Gong Li were cast to play the women who consume Mo-wan, as the character plans a science fiction novel titled 2046. The film premiered at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival, but Wong delivered the print 24 hours late and still was not happy: he continued editing until the film's October release. It was Wong's most expensive and longest-running project to date. 2046 was a commercial failure in Hong Kong, but the majority of western critics gave it positive reviews. Ty Burr of The Boston Globe praised it as an "enigmatic, rapturously beautiful meditation on romance and remembrance", while Steve Erikson of Los Angeles Magazine called it Wong's masterpiece.
Before starting on his next feature, Wong worked on the anthology film Eros (2004), providing one of three short films (the others directed by Michelangelo Antonioni and Steven Soderbergh) that centre on the theme of lust. Wong's segment, titled "The Hand", starred Gong Li as a 1960s call girl and Chang Chen as her potential client. Although Eros was not well received, Wong's segment was often called the most successful.
Following the difficult production of 2046, Wong wanted his next feature to be a simple, invigorating experience. He decided to make an English-language film in America, later justifying this by explaining: "It’s a new landscape. It’s a new background, so it’s refreshing." After hearing a radio interview with the singer Norah Jones he immediately decided to contact her, and she signed on as the lead. Wong's understanding of America was based only on short visits and what he had seen in films, but he was keen to depict the country accurately. As such, he co-wrote the film (one of the rare times a screenplay was pre-prepared) with author Lawrence Block. Titled My Blueberry Nights, it focused on a young New Yorker who leaves for a road trip when she learns that her boyfriend has been unfaithful. Cast as the figures she meets were Jude Law, Natalie Portman, Rachel Weisz and David Strathairn.
Filming on My Blueberry Nights took place over seven weeks in 2006, on location in Manhattan, Memphis, Las Vegas, and Ely, Nevada. Wong produced it in the same manner as he would in Hong Kong, and the themes and visual style – despite Doyle being replaced by cinematographer Darius Khondji – remained the same. Premiering in May 2007, My Blueberry Nights was Wong's fourth consecutive film to compete for the Palme d'Or at Cannes. Although he considered it a "special experience", critics were not enamoured by the results. With common complaints that the material was thin and the product uneven, My Blueberry Nights emerged as Wong's first critical failure.
2008–present
Wong's next film was not released for five years, as he underwent another long and difficult production on The Grandmaster (2013) – a biopic of the martial arts teacher Ip Man. The idea had occurred to him in 1999, but he did not commit to it until the completion of My Blueberry Nights. Ip Man is a legendary figure in Hong Kong, known for training actor Bruce Lee in the art of Wing Chun, but Wong decided to focus on an earlier period of Ip's life (1936–1956) that covered the turmoil of the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II. He set out to make "a commercial and colourful film". After considerable research and preparation, filming began in 2009. Tony Leung Chui-wai rejoined Wong for their seventh film together, having spent 18 months being trained in Wing Chun. The "gruelling" production lasted intermittently for three years, twice interrupted by Leung fracturing his arm, and is Wong's most expensive to date.
The Grandmaster is described by Bettinson as a mixture of popular and arthouse traditions, with form, visuals, and themes consistent with Wong's previous work. Three different versions of the film exist, as Wong shorted it from its domestic release for the 2013 Berlin Film Festival, and again for its US distribution by the Weinstein Company. Described in Slant Magazine as Wong's most accessible film since his debut, The Grandmaster won twelve Hong Kong Film Awards, including Best Film and Best Director, and received two Academy Award nominations (Cinematography and Production Design). Critics approved of the film, and with a worldwide gross of US$64 million it is Wong's most lucrative film to date.
When asked about his career in 2014, Wong told The Independent, "To be honest with you, I feel I’m only halfway done." In November 2016, he was announced as taking over an upcoming film about the murder of Maurizio Gucci from previous director Ridley Scott, but commented in October 2017 that he was no longer involved in the project. In September 2017, Amazon Video issued a straight-to-series order for Tong Wars, a television drama to be directed by Wong. It focuses on the gang wars that occurred in nineteenth-century San Francisco, but Amazon later dropped the series. Regarding his next film, the Asian media has reported that it will be titled Blossoms and based on Jin Yucheng's book of the same name, which focuses on numerous characters in Shanghai from the 1960s to the 2000s. Blossoms is also slated to become a web series for Tencent in which Wong produces.
In May 2019, Wong announced the 4K restoration of his entire filmography, which was released in 2021 in celebration of the 20th anniversary of In the Mood for Love. The restoration was carried out by the Cineteca di Bologna's film restoration laboratory L'Immagine Ritrovata. Criterion Collection released Wong's restored filmography as a box set in the United States in March 2021.
Personal life
Wong and his wife, Esther, have one child – a son named Qing. The director is known for always appearing in sunglasses, which James Motram of The Independent says adds "to the alluring sense of mystery that swirls around the man and his movies."
In 2009, Wong signed a petition in support of film director Roman Polanski, calling for his release after Polanski was arrested in Switzerland in relation to his 1977 charge for drugging and raping a 13-year-old girl.
Filmmaking
Influences
Wong is wary of sharing his favourite directors, but has stated that he watched a range of films growing up, from Hong Kong genre films to European art films. They were never labelled as such, and so he approached them equally and was broadly influenced. The energy of the Hong Kong films had a "tremendous" impact according to Brunette. Art professor Giorgio Biancorosso commented that Wong's international influences include Martin Scorsese, Michelangelo Antonioni, Alfred Hitchcock, and Bernardo Bertolucci. Some of his favorite contemporary filmmakers include Scorsese, Christopher Nolan, and Quentin Tarantino. He is often compared with French New Wave director Jean-Luc Godard. Wong's most direct influence was his colleague Patrick Tam, who was an important mentor and likely inspired his use of colour.
Outside of cinema, Wong has been heavily influenced by literature. He has a particular affinity for Latin American writers, and the fragmentary nature of his films came primarily from the "scrapbook structures" of novels by Manuel Puig and Julio Cortázar, which he attempted to emulate. Haruki Murakami, particularly his novel Norwegian Wood, also provided inspiration, as did the writing of Liu Yichang. The television channel MTV was a further influence on Wong. He said in a 1998 interview: "In the late eighties, when [MTV] was first shown in Hong Kong, we were all really impressed with the energy and the fragmented structure. It seemed like we should go in this direction."
Method and collaborators
Wong has an unusual approach to film making, starting production without a script and generally relying on instinct and improvisation rather than pre-prepared ideas. He has said he dislikes writing and finds filming from a finished script "boring". According to Stokes & Hoover, he writes as he shoots, "drawing inspiration from the music, the setting, working conditions, and actors". In advance, the cast are given a minimal plot outline and expected to develop their characters as they film. To capture naturalness and spontaneity, Wong does not allow for rehearsals while improvisation and collaboration are encouraged. He similarly does not use storyboards or plan camera placement, preferring to experiment as he goes. His shooting ratio is therefore very high, sometimes forty takes per scene, and production typically goes well over schedule and over budget. Tony Leung has commented that this approach is "taxing on the actors", but Stokes & Hoover speculate that Wong's collaborators endure it because "[the] results are always unexpected, invigorating, and interesting."
Though Wong admits to being controlling, and oversees every aspect of the film making process, he has formed several long-lasting partnerships and close collaborators. In 2013, he said: "It is always good to work with a very regular group of people because we know how high we can fly and what are the parameters, and it becomes very enjoyable." Two men have been instrumental in developing and achieving his aesthetic: production designer William Chang and cinematographer Christopher Doyle. Chang has worked on every Wong film and is a trusted confidant, responsible for all set design and costuming. Doyle photographed seven of his projects, all from Days of Being Wild to 2046. Stephen Schneider writes that he deserves "much credit" in Wong's success, as his "masterful use of light and colour renders every frame a work of art". Wong's other regular colleagues include writer-producer Jeffrey Lau, producer Jacky Pang, and assistant director Johnnie Kong.
Wong often casts the same actors. He is strongly associated with Tony Leung Chiu-wai, who has appeared in seven of Wong’s feature length films. Wong describes him as a partner, stating, "I feel like there is a lot of things between me and Tony that is beyond words. We don’t need meetings, talks, whatever, because a lot of things are understood." Other actors who have appeared in at least three of his films are Maggie Cheung, Chang Chen, Leslie Cheung, Jacky Cheung, and Carina Lau.
Style
Wong is known for producing art films focussed on mood and atmosphere, rather than following convention. His general style is described by Teo as "a cornucopia overflowing with multiple stories, strands of expression, meanings and identities: a kaleidoscope of colours and identities". Structurally, Wong's films are typically fragmented and disjointed, with little concern for linear narrative, and often with interconnected stories. Critics have commented on the lack of plot in his films, such as Burr who says: "The director doesn't build linear story lines so much as concentric rings of narrative and poetic meaning that continually revolve around each other". Similarly, Brunette says that Wong "often privileges audio/visual expressivity over narrative structure". Wong has commented on this, saying "in my logic there is a storyline."
Key to Wong's films is the visual style, which is often described as beautiful and unique. The colours are bold and saturated, the camerawork swooning, resulting in what Brunette calls his "signature visual pyrotechnics". One of his trademarks is the use of step-printing, which alters film rates to "[liquefy] hard blocks of primary colour into iridescent streaks of light." Other features of the Wong aesthetic include slow motion, off-centre framing, the obscuring of faces, rack focus, filming in the dark or rain, and elliptical editing. Schneider writes of Wong's fondness for "playing with film stock, exposure, and speed the way others might fiddle with a script."
Another trademark of Wong's cinema is his use of music and pop songs. He places great importance on this element, and Biancorosso describes it as the "essence" of his films; a key part of the "narrative machinery" that can guide the rhythm of the editing. He selects international songs, rarely cantopop, and uses them to enhance the sense of history or place. According to film scholar Julian Stringer, music "proved crucial to the emotional and cognitive appeal" of Wong's films.
Wong's dependence on music and his heavily visual and disjointed style has been compared to music videos, but detractors claim that they are "all surface and no depth". Academic Curtis K. Tsui argues that style is the substance in Wong's film, while Brunette believes that his "form remains resolutely in the service of character, theme, and emotion rather than indulged in for its own sake".
Recognition and impact
Wong is an important figure in contemporary cinema, regarded as one of the best filmmakers of his generation. His reputation as a maverick began early in his career: in the 1996 Encyclopedia of Chinese Film, Wong was described as having "already established a secure reputation as one of the most daring avant-garde filmmakers" of Chinese cinema. Authors Zhang and Xiao concluded that he "occupies a special place in contemporary film history", and had already "exerted a sizeable impact". With the subsequent release of Happy Together and In the Mood for Love, Wong's international standing grew further, and in 2002 voters for the British Film Institute named him the third greatest director of the previous quarter-century. In 2015, Variety named him an icon of arthouse cinema.
The East Asian scholar Daniel Martin describes Wong's output as "among the most internationally accessible and critically acclaimed Hong Kong films of all time". Because of this status abroad, Wong is seen as a pivotal figure in his local industry; Julian Stringer says he is "central to the contemporary Chinese cinema renaissance", Gary Bettinson describes him as "a beacon of Hong Kong cinema" who "has kept that industry in the public spotlight", and Film4 designate him the filmmaker from China with the greatest impact. Together with Zhang Yimou, Wong is seen by the historian Philip Kemp as representing the "internationalisation" of East Asian cinema. Domestically, his films were generally not financial successes, but he has been consistently well-awarded by local bodies. From early on, he was regarded as Hong Kong's "enfant terrible" and one of their most iconoclastic filmmakers. Despite this, he has been recognised in both cult and mainstream circles, producing art films that receive commercial exposure. He is known for confounding audiences, as he adopts established genres and subverts them with experimental techniques.
Both Stringer and Nochimson claim that Wong has one of the most distinctive filmmaking styles in the industry. From his first film As Tears Go By, he made an impact with his "liquid" aesthetic, which Ungerböck claims was completely new and quickly copied in Asian film and television. His second film, Days of Being Wild, is described by Brunette as "a landmark in Hong Kong cinema" for its unconventional approach. Nochimson writes that Wong's films are entirely personal, making him an auteur, and states, "Wong has developed his own cinematic vocabulary, with an array of shot patterns connected with him". Stringer argues that Wong's success demonstrates the importance of being "different".
Wong's films frequently appeared on best-of lists domestically and internationally. On the Hong Kong Film Awards Association's 2005 list of The Best 100 Chinese Motion Pictures, all except one of his films up to that time made the list. Days of Being Wild (1990) placed at number three, the highest position for a post-1980s film; other films ranked were Chungking Express (22), Ashes of Time (35), As Tears Go By (88), Happy Together (89), and In the Mood for Love (90). In the 2012 Sight & Sound poll, whereby industry professionals submit ballots to determine the greatest films of all time, In the Mood for Love was ranked 24th, the highest-ranked film since 1980 and the sixth greatest film by a living director. Chungking Express and Days of Being Wild both ranked in the top 250; Happy Together and 2046 in the top 500; and Ashes of Time and As Tears Go By also featured (all but two of Wong's films at the time).
Wong's influence has impacted contemporary directors including Quentin Tarantino, Sofia Coppola, Lee Myung-se, Tom Tykwer, Zhang Yuan, Tsui Hark, and Barry Jenkins. On 24 May 2018, he was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Arts degree by Harvard University.
Filmography and awards
Wong's oeuvre consists of ten directed features, 16 films where is he credited only as screenwriter, and seven films from other directors that he has produced. He has also directed commercials, short films, and music videos, and contributed to two anthology films. He has received awards and nominations from organisations in Asia, Europe, North America, and South America. In 2006, Wong accepted the National Order of the Legion of Honour: Knight (Lowest Degree) from the French Government. In 2013, he was bestowed with the title of a Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres, the highest order, by French Foreign Minister Laurent Fabius. The International Film Festival of India gave Wong a Lifetime Achievement Award in 2014.
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Wong Kar-wai at Variety
1958 births
Living people
Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director winners
César Award winners
Best Director Asian Film Award winners
European Film Awards winners (people)
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
English-language film directors
Film directors from Shanghai
Hong Kong film directors
Hong Kong film producers
Hong Kong screenwriters
Screenwriters from Shanghai | [
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|
213363 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Rivington | Charles Rivington | Charles Rivington (1688 – 22 February 1742) was a British publisher.
Life
The eldest son of Thurston Rivington, Rivington was born at Chesterfield, Derbyshire, in 1688. Coming to London as apprentice to a bookseller, he took over in 1711 the publishing business of Richard Chiswell (1639–1711), and, at the sign of the Bible and the Crown in Paternoster Row, he carried on a business almost entirely connected with theological and educational literature. He published one of George Whitefield's earliest works, 'The Nature and Necessity of a new Birth in Christ' (1737) and brought out an edition of The Imitation of Christ. George Whitefield at that time was acknowledged as the leader of Methodism and he was preaching to thousands. He recounts how he was approached by Charles Rivington and had to be persuaded that this was the correct course. Rivington published A General History of the Pyrates in 1724, containing vivid biographies of contemporary English and Welsh pirates.
In 1736 Rivington with Bettesworth founded the company of booksellers who called themselves the "New Conger," in rivalry with the older association, the "Conger," dating from about 1700. In 1741 he published the first volume of Samuel Richardson's novel, Pamela.
After his death, Charles Rivington was succeeded by his two sons, John (1720–1792) and James (1724–1802). James emigrated to America, and pursued his trade in New York City; John carried on the business of Rivington and Co. on the lines marked out by his father, and was the great Church of England publisher of the day.
A descendant, Luke Rivington (1838-1899), became an English Roman Catholic priest and prolific Christian writer.
See also
Rivington (publishers)
References
Septimus Rivington The House of Rivington (1894)
The Publishers' Circular (15 January 1885, 2 June 1890).
Notes
Attribution
Further reading
1688 births
British book publishers (people)
People from Chesterfield, Derbyshire
1742 deaths
Rivington family | [
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|
213364 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-Detached%20%28album%29 | Semi-Detached (album) | Semi-Detached is the fourth major label album by the rock band Therapy? Released on 30 March 1998 on A&M Records, it turned out to be their final album on the label. The album was recorded at various stages throughout 1997, including sessions at Chipping Norton Studios in Oxford, Homestead Studio in Randalstown, Moles Studio in Bath and Metropolis Studios in London. It was also the first Therapy? album recorded with Graham Hopkins and Martin McCarrick as full-time members. The album was not released in USA, but charted at number 21 in the UK Albums Chart.
The album was originally released on CD and Cassette, and as a limited edition box set of six 7" singles.
A remastered CD version of the album by Harvey Birrell was included in The Gemil Box, released on 18 November 2013.
The cover artwork is a reference to Happy Days, a play by Samuel Beckett, whose writings are often referenced in Therapy?'s music.
Track listing
Personnel
Therapy?
Andy Cairns – vocals, guitar
Graham Hopkins – drums, backing vocals
Martin McCarrick – guitar, cello, vocals, piano
Michael McKeegan – bass, backing vocals
Technical
Chris Sheldon – producer, mixer, engineer
Matt Sime – producer (track 11), additional engineering
Andrew Catlin – photography
Paul Davis – drawings
Pearce & Wise – design
Singles
"Church of Noise" was released on 2 March 1998 with "Church of Noise" (Messenger Mix), "Suing God", "60 Watt Bulb". This single reached number 29 in the UK Singles Chart.
"Lonely, Cryin', Only" was released on 18 May 1998 with "High Noon" (by DJ Shadow), "Diane" (New Recording), "Teethgrinder" (New Recording). A digipak CD was released with "Kids Stuff", "Disgracelands" (New Recording), "Lonely, Cryin', Only (Video)". A 7" vinyl was released with "Skyward" (New Recording). This single reached number 32 in the UK Singles Chart.
"Stay Happy" was released as a radio only single in 1998.
Promo videos
"Church of Noise": directed by John Hillcoat
"Lonely, Cryin', Only": directed by John Hillcoat
Charts
References
1998 albums
Therapy? albums
Albums produced by Chris Sheldon
A&M Records albums | [
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|
213371 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary%20art | Evolutionary art | Evolutionary art is a branch of generative art, in which the artist does not do the work of constructing the artwork, but rather lets a system do the construction. In evolutionary art, initially generated art is put through an iterated process of selection and modification to arrive at a final product, where it is the artist who is the selective agent.
Evolutionary art is to be distinguished from BioArt, which uses living organisms as the material medium instead of paint, stone, metal, etc.
Overview
In common with biological evolution through natural selection or animal husbandry, the members of a population undergoing artificial evolution modify their form or behavior over many reproductive generations in response to a selective regime.
In interactive evolution the selective regime may be applied by the viewer explicitly by selecting individuals which are aesthetically pleasing. Alternatively a selection pressure can be generated implicitly, for example according to the length of time a viewer spends near a piece of evolving art.
Equally, evolution may be employed as a mechanism for generating a dynamic world of adaptive individuals, in which the selection pressure is imposed by the program, and the viewer plays no role in selection, as in the Black Shoals project.
See also
Digital morphogenesis
Electric Sheep
Evolutionary music
NEAT Particles
Universal Darwinism
Further reading
Bentley, Peter, and David Corne. Creative Evolutionary Systems. Morgan Kaufmann, 2002.
Metacreations: Art and Artificial Life, M Whitelaw, 2004, MIT Press
The Art of Artificial Evolution: A Handbook on Evolutionary Art and Music, Juan Romero and Penousal Machado (eds.), 2007, Springer
Evolutionary Art and Computers, W Latham, S Todd, 1992, Academic Press
Genetic Algorithms in Visual Art and Music Special Edition: Leonardo. VOL. 35, ISSUE 2 - 2002 (Part I), C Johnson, J Romero Cardalda (eds), 2002, MIT Press
Evolved Art: Turtles - Volume One, , Tim Endres, 2009, EvolvedArt.biz
External links
, Abstract Genomic Art: An Introduction by Avi L. Friedlich
Thomas Dreher: History of Computer Art, Chap. IV.3: Evolutionary Art
"Evolutionary Art Gallery", by Thomas Fernandez
"Biomorphs", by Richard Dawkins
Genetic Art, a site that evolves images
EndlessForms.com, Collaborative interactive evolution allowing you to evolve 3D objects and have them 3D printed.
"MusiGenesis", a program that evolves music on a PC
"Evolve", a program by Josh Lee that evolves art through a voting process.
"Living Image Project", a site where images are evolved based on votes of visitors.
"An evolutionary art program using Cartesian Genetic Programming"
Evolutionary Art on the Web Interactively generate Mondriaan, Theo van Doesburg, Mandala and Fractal art.
"Darwinian Poetry"
"One mans eyes?", Aesthetically evolved images by Ashley Mills.
"E-volver", interactive breeding units.
"Breed", evolved sculptures produced by rapid manufacturing techniques.
"Picbreeder", Collaborative breeder allowing branching from other users' creations that produces pictures like faces and spaceships.
"CFDG Mutate", a tool for image evolution based on Chris Coyne's Context Free Design Grammar.
"xTNZ", a three-dimensional ecosystem, where creatures evolve shapes and sounds.
The Art of Artificial Evolution: A Handbook on Evolutionary Art and Music
Evolved Turtle Website Evolved Turtle Website - Evolve art based on Turtle Logo using the Windows app BioLogo.
Evolvotron - Evolutionary art software (example output).
Artificial Evolution of the Cyprus Problem (2005) is an evolutionary artwork created by Genco Gulan
Evo Art bibliography largest online bibliography to evolutionary art and related fields like evolutionary architecture and design, evolutionary image processing, generative art, computational aesthetics and computational creativity as part of the MediaWiki based Encyclopedia Evolutionary Art
"Evomusart. 1st International Conference and 10th European Event on Evolutionary and Biologically Inspired Music, Sound, Art and Design"
Computer art
Evolutionary algorithms | [
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|
213373 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Waller | William Waller | Sir William Waller (c. 159719 September 1668) was an English soldier and politician, who commanded Parliamentarian armies during the First English Civil War, before relinquishing his commission under the 1645 Self-denying Ordinance.
Elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Andover in 1640, then 1642, in June 1647 he was one of the Eleven Members accused of destabilising the kingdom. He was suspended in Pride's Purge of 1648, and arrested several times between 1650 and 1659. At the 1660 Restoration, he was elected to the Convention Parliament, but retired from politics when it dissolved. He died at Osterley Park, London in September 1668.
Waller was one of many who served in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms with great reluctance, but did so based on deeply held religious or political principles. He is perhaps best remembered by a letter written in 1643 to his close friend and Royalist opponent, Sir Ralph Hopton.
Biographical details
William Waller was born in Knole, near Sevenoaks in Kent, son of Sir Thomas Waller and his wife Margaret Lennard, the daughter of Margaret Fiennes, 11th Baroness Dacre. He attended Magdalen Hall, Oxford, but did not graduate. Both his father and grandfather served in Parliament, while his first cousin was Sir Hardress Waller.
He married three times; Jane Reynell (1622–1633), Lady Anne Finch (1638–1652), and Lady Anne Harcourt (1652–1661). In all, he had three sons and three daughters, only two of whom survived to adulthood; Margaret (1633–1694) and William (1639–1699).
Career
The Waller family held various offices in the 16th century, including constable of Dover Castle and MP for Dover, but lost most of their money in the 1590s. William's father Thomas served in Ireland and in 1601 purchased the family estates at Groombridge from his uncle George Waller.
Waller followed his father by becoming a professional soldier and in 1617, he joined the army of the Venetian Republic, where he met the English mercenary leader, Sir Horace Vere. In 1620, he and Sir Ralph Hopton were members of the personal bodyguard for Elizabeth, Queen of Bohemia, sister of the future Charles I. After her husband Frederick was defeated at White Mountain in November, they escorted her to safety in Frankfurt.
On his return in 1622, he was rewarded with a knighthood, while he inherited the right to wine import duties from his grandmother, which brought him the then substantial sum of £1,000£3,000 per year. This allowed him to marry Jane Reynell, from a wealthy Devon family; she died in 1633, followed by her father in 1634, then their son Richard in 1636. Waller inherited most of her estates, and he purchased a quarter-share in the Providence Island Company. A devout Presbyterian, this directly connected to others who shared his beliefs, and later became prominent supporters of Parliament, among them John Pym, Henry Darley, Lord Saye, and Lord Brooke.
His second wife, Lady Anne Finch, was related to another influential Kent politician, the Earl of Winchilsea, and shared his religious beliefs. They purchased Winchester Castle in 1638, and lived a 'retired life' in the country, but as the political conflict between Charles and Parliament increased, Waller felt it his duty to participate. In April 1640, he was elected to the Short Parliament as Member of Parliament for Andover, then re-elected to the Long Parliament on 3 May 1642.
The Civil War
A firm supporter of Parliament, when the First English Civil War began in August 1642, Waller was appointed a colonel, capturing Portsmouth, Farnham, Winchester and other key locations in southern England. In early 1643, Waller was promoted Major-general and given command of the Western Association army, his opponent being Sir Ralph Hopton, an old friend leading Royalist forces in the west.
After the inconclusive Battle of Lansdowne on 5 July, Hopton was joined by Prince Maurice and on 13 July, their combined force destroyed Waller's army at Roundway Down. Waller and around 500 cavalry escaped to Bristol, much of whose garrison had been lost at Roundway Down; not wishing to be trapped in the city, on 21 July he and his remaining troops made their way to Evesham. Four days later, Bristol surrendered to Prince Rupert, leaving Parliamentarian forces in the west confined to isolated garrisons in Plymouth and elsewhere.
Although defeat had little impact on Waller's military reputation, there were increasing signs on all sides of war weariness, including anti-war demonstrations on 7 to 9 August in London. At a strategy meeting in Oxford, the Royalist high command agreed Prince Rupert would capture Gloucester, the last major Parliamentary position in the west, then move against London. This would be supported by Hopton advancing into Hampshire and Sussex, whose iron foundries were Parliament's main source of armaments.
Waller assembled a new army at Farnham Castle, consisting of Trained Bands from the South-Eastern Association of Kent, Sussex and Hampshire, bolstered by others from London. Throughout the war, both sides relied on these militia; service was normally limited to 30 days, within their home area, but as the largest and best equipped, London units were often used by Parliament to fill gaps. Waller's army included several regiments mustered to repel Prince Rupert's advance on London, which ended at Newbury in late September. An attack on Basing House in November failed, with many shouting 'Home! Home!'.
Under instructions from the Earl of Essex to retake Alton, then Arundel, Waller persuaded the London Bands to help him capture Alton on 13 December. When he asked for their help with Arundel, they refused, and were sent home on 15 December. However, he successfully captured Arundel on 6 January, before a heavy snow fall ended operations for the next few weeks. By the end of February, Waller's army had been increased to 5,000 infantry and 3,500 horse; he was ordered to slip past Hopton and retake the west. Despite the defection of Sir Richard Grenville in early March, who shared this information with Hopton, Waller defeated him at Cheriton on 29 March 1644, ending the Royalist threat in the south-east.
Waller now joined Essex to attack Oxford; to avoid being trapped there, Charles and the main Royalist field army retreated to Worcester; Essex ordered Waller to follow him, while he went west to relieve the siege of Lyme Regis. On 29 June, Waller clashed with Charles at Cropredy Bridge; his losses were minimal, but his men were demoralised. His army disintegrated, causing panic in London, and allowing Charles to pursue Essex into the West Country. Essex was defeated at Lostwithiel in September and although he escaped with the cavalry, 5,000 infantry were forced to surrender. At Second Newbury on 27 October, the Royalists lifted the siege of Donnington Castle; lack of co-ordination among the Parliamentary forces under Waller, Essex and Manchester allowed Charles to re-enter Oxford.
Parliament was split between those who wanted an immediate, negotiated settlement and those for whom military victory was the only way to secure their objectives. They also objected to the Scottish alliance, especially the demand for a unified, Presbyterian church of England and Scotland; Oliver Cromwell claimed he would fight, rather than accept such terms. This conflict became public in recriminations over the failure to exploit Marston Moor, Essex' capitulation at Lostwithiel, and Manchester's alleged unwillingness to fight at Second Newbury; Waller supported these criticisms. In December, Sir Henry Vane introduced the Self-denying Ordinance, requiring any officers in the army or navy who were also members of Parliament to resign from one, or the other. This automatically removed Manchester and Essex, since they could not resign their titles, although later amended to allow them to be re-appointed, 'if Parliament approved.' Waller supported the Ordinance, and resigned his commission in April 1645.
Later life and death
Considered for command in Ireland, Waller also briefly explored returning to Venetian service, but this ended his active military career. Although he backed the creation of the New Model Army, like other Presbyterians, he came to see it as a threat, and supported attempts to disband it when the war ended in 1646. In June 1647, he was one of the Eleven members accused by Cromwell and other Independents of 'plotting to destabilise the kingdom', and fled abroad in August.
He stayed in The Hague, where he renewed his acquaintance with Elizabeth of Bohemia, before returning home in June 1648. He was arrested in 1650, allegedly for conspiring to restore Charles II, then released in early 1652. He purchased Osterley Park in 1654, and while frequently questioned under the Protectorate, avoided implication in the 1655 Penruddock uprising.
At the 1660 Restoration, he was elected for Middlesex to the Convention Parliament, but subsequently retired from political life. He spent some of his time writing A Vindication of the Character and Conduct of Sir William Waller, which was not published until 1793.
He died on 19 September 1668, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
References
Sources
External links
1590s births
1668 deaths
Roundheads
New Model Army generals
Eleven Members
People from Sevenoaks
English Presbyterians of the Interregnum (England)
English generals
English people of the Thirty Years' War
Republic of Venice military personnel
English MPs 1640 (April)
English MPs 1640–1648
English MPs 1660
Military personnel of the English Civil War | [
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|
213375 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longman | Longman | Longman, also known as Pearson Longman, is a publishing company founded in London, England, in 1724 and is owned by Pearson PLC.
Since 1968, Longman has been used primarily as an imprint by Pearson's Schools business. The Longman brand is also used for the Longman Schools in China and the Longman Dictionary.
History
Beginnings
The Longman company was founded by Thomas Longman (1699 – 18 June 1755), the son of Ezekiel Longman (died 1708), a gentleman of Bristol. Thomas was apprenticed in 1716 to John Osborn, a London bookseller, and at the expiration of his apprenticeship married Osborn's daughter. In August 1724, he purchased the stock and household goods of William Taylor, the first publisher of Robinson Crusoe, for 9s 6d. Taylor's two shops in Paternoster Row, London, were known respectively as the Black Swan and the Ship, premises at that time having signs rather than numbers, and became the publishing house premises.
Longman entered into partnership with his father-in-law, Osborn, who held one-sixth of the shares in Ephraim Chambers's Cyclopaedia (1728). Longman himself was one of the six booksellers, who undertook the responsibility of Samuel Johnson's Dictionary (1746–1755).
Second and third generations
In 1754, Longman took into partnership his nephew, Thomas Longman (1730–1797), and the title of the firm became 'T. and T. Longman'. Upon the death of his uncle in 1755, Longman became sole proprietor. He greatly extended the colonial trade of the firm. In 1794, he took Owen Rees as a partner; in the same year, Thomas Brown (c. 1777–1869) entered the house as an apprentice.
Longman had three sons. Of these, Thomas Norton Longman (1771–1842) succeeded to the business. In 1804, two more partners were admitted, and the former apprentice Brown became a partner in 1811; in 1824, the title of the firm was changed to 'Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown & Green'. A document of 1823 "Grant of Land in the Concan" printed by the firm under this name shows the name change was from 1823 or earlier.
In 1799, Longman purchased the copyright of Lindley Murray's English Grammar, which had an annual sale of about copies. In the following year, Richmal Mangnall's Historical and Miscellaneous Questions for the Use of Young People was purchased, and went through 84 editions by 1857. About 1800 he also purchased the copyright of Southey's Joan of Arc and Wordsworth's Lyrical Ballads, from Joseph Cottle of Bristol. He published the works of Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey and Scott, and acted as London agent for the Edinburgh Review, which was started in 1802. In 1802 appeared the first part of Rees's Cyclopædia, edited by Abraham Rees. This was completed in 39 volumes plus 6 volumes of plates in 1819.
In 1814 arrangements were made with Thomas Moore for the publication of Laila Rookh, for which he was paid ; and when Archibald Constable failed in 1826, Longmans became the proprietors of the Edinburgh Review. They issued in 1829 Lardner's Cabinet Encyclopaedia, and in 1832 McCulloch's Commercial Dictionary.
Fourth and fifth generations
Thomas Norton Longman died on 29 August 1842, leaving his two sons, Thomas (1804–1879) and William (1813–1877), in control of the business in Paternoster Row. Their first success was the publication of Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome, which was followed in 1841 by the issue of the first two volumes of his History of England, which after a few years had a sale of copies.
The two brothers were well known for their literary talent. Thomas Longman edited a beautifully illustrated edition of the New Testament, and William Longman was the author of several important books, among them a History of the Three Cathedrals dedicated to St Paul (1869) and a work on the History of the Life and Times of Edward III (1873). In 1863, the firm took over the business of John William Parker, and with it Fraser's Magazine, and the publication of the works of John Stuart Mill and James Anthony Froude; while in 1890 they incorporated with their own all the publications of the old firm of Rivington, established in 1711. The family control of the firm (later 'Longmans, Green & Co.') was continued by Thomas Norton Longman, son of Thomas Longman. In 1884 the firm employed John William Allen as an educationalist. Allen grew the firm's educational list, including textbooks he wrote himself. He later inherited the shares of W. E. Green and became a shareholder in 1918.
1900 onwards
In December 1940, Longman's Paternoster Row offices were destroyed in The Blitz, along with most of the company's stock. The company survived this crisis, however, and became a public company in 1948. Longman was acquired by the global publisher Pearson, owner of Penguin and The Financial Times, in 1968. Longman's medical lists was merged with other Pearson subsidiaries to form Churchill Livingstone in 1972. Also in 1972, Mark Longman, last of the Longman family to run the company, died.
Longman continued to exist as an imprint of Pearson, under the name 'Pearson Longman'. Pearson Longman specialized in English, including English as a second or foreign language, history, economics, philosophy, political science, and religion.
Longman is now primarily used by Pearson's ELT business (English Language Teaching). The Longman brand is now only used for the Longman Schools in China and oddments such as the Longman Dictionary and Kennedy's Revised Latin Primer. All other textbooks and products use the Pearson brand/imprint.
Longman imprints
Longman imprints:
1724 T. Longman
1725 J. Osborn and T. Longman
1734 T. Longman
1745 T. Longman and T. Shewell
1747 T. Longman
1753 T. and T. Longman
1755 M. and T. Longman
1755 T. Longman
1793 T. N. Longman. Also T. Longman
1797 Messrs. Longman and Rees
1799 T. N. Longman and O. Rees
1800 Longman and Rees
1804 Longman, Hurst, Rees and Orme
1811 Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown
1823 Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green
1825 Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green
1832 Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green and Longmans
1838 Longman, Orme, Brown, Green and Longmans
1840 Longman, Orme & Co.
1841 Longman, Brown & Co.
1842 Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans
1856 Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans and Roberts
1859 Longman, Green, Longman and Roberts
1862 Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts and Green
1865 Longmans, Green, Reader and Dyer
1880 Longmans, Green & Co.
1926 Longmans, Green & Co. (Ltd.)
1959 Longmans
1969 Longman
See also
Express Publishing
Macmillan Publishers
Oxford University Press
Notes
References
Attribution:
Further reading
External links
Longman USA
Longman UK
Longman Online Dictionary
Longman family (1724–1972) by Asa Briggs at Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
Book publishing companies based in London
1724 establishments in England
Companies established in 1724
Pearson plc
Publishing companies established in the 1720s
British companies established in 1724 | [
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|
213379 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20Shoals | Black Shoals | Black Shoals is an artificial ecosystem linked to the real time dynamics of the stock market. It was first shown at the Tate Gallery in 2001, and nominated for an Alternative Turner Prize in 2002. A more sophisticated Black Shoals was exhibited at the Nikolaj gallery in Copenhagen in the spring of 2004.
Stars representing companies and creatures representing speculators are projected into a domed ceiling in a dark room, creating an artificial night sky which visualises the dynamics of the world stock markets.
Within this world, a creature's survival depends upon the strategies it uses to explore its world. The more a company is traded, the richer the food source for the creatures. Consequently, changes in trading patterns can be seen in the planetarium as explosions of life surrounding specific clusters of stars.
For this project, Cefn Hoile designed a population of articulated creatures which reproduce and evolve both their morphology and behaviour in real time in a planetarium style display. The project was conceived by Lise Autogena and Joshua Portway of Stain. Tom Riley was the lead software developer during the second showing of Black Shoals in 2004.
The name of the project is a pun on Black–Scholes, a widely used equation in financial derivatives pricing which earned two of its three inventors a Nobel Prize in Economics.
See also
Evolutionary art
Artificial Life
Natural Selection
Joshua Portway
Lise Autogena
External links
The official Black Shoals website
Creature code open sourced
Lise Autogena's website
Cefn Hoile's Website
A paper on the creatures in Black Shoals
Tom Riley's photos taken during the installation of Black Shoals in the Nikolaj gallery in Copenhagen
Computer art
Planetarium shows | [
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|
213380 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left-%20and%20right-hand%20traffic | Left- and right-hand traffic | Left-hand traffic (LHT) and right-hand traffic (RHT) are the practices, in bidirectional traffic, of keeping to the left side or to the right side of the road, respectively. They are fundamental to traffic flow, and are sometimes referred to as the rule of the road. The terms right- and left-hand drive refer to the position of the driver and the steering wheel in the vehicle and are the reverse of the terms right- and left-hand traffic. The rule also extends to where on the road a vehicle is to be driven, if there is room for more than one vehicle in the one direction, as well as the side on which the vehicle in the rear overtakes the one in the front. For example, a driver in a LHT country would overtake on the right of the vehicle being overtaken.
RHT is used in 165 countries and territories, with the remaining 75 countries and territories using LHT.
Countries that use left-hand traffic account for about a sixth of the world's land area, with about a third of its population, and a quarter of its roads. In 1919, 104 of the world's territories were LHT and an equal number were RHT. Between 1919 and 1986, 34 of the LHT territories switched to RHT.
Many of the countries that adopted LHT were formerly part of the British Empire, although some, such as Indonesia, Macau, Mozambique, Nepal, Suriname, Sweden (RHT since 1967), Japan and Thailand, were not. Similarly, many of the countries that were a part of the French colonial empire adopted RHT.
In LHT traffic keeps left, and cars usually have the steering wheel on the right (RHD – right hand drive). Roundabouts circulate clockwise. RHT is the opposite of this: traffic keeps right, the driver usually sits on the left side of the car (LHD – left hand drive), and roundabouts circulate anti-clockwise.
In most countries rail traffic follows the handedness of the roads, although many of the countries that switched road traffic from LHT to RHT did not switch their trains. Boat traffic on rivers is effectively RHT. Boats are traditionally piloted from the starboard side to facilitate priority to the right.
History
Historically, many places kept left, while many others kept right, often within the same country. There are many myths that attempt to explain why one or the other is preferred. About 90 percent of people are right-handed, and many explanations reference this. Horses are traditionally mounted from the left, and led from the left, with the reins in the right hand. So people walking horses might use RHT, to keep the animals separated. Also referenced is the need for pedestrians to keep their swords in the right hand and pass on the left as in LHT, for self-defence. It has been suggested that wagon-drivers whipped their horses with their right hand, and thus sat on the left-hand side of the wagon, as in RHT. It has been written that in the year 1300, Pope Boniface VIII directed pilgrims to keep left; however, it has also been written that he directed them to keep to the right, and there is no documented evidence to back either claim.
Europe
In a study of the ancient traffic system of Pompeii, Eric Poehler was able to show that drivers of carts drove in the middle of the road whenever possible. This was the case even on roads wide enough for two lanes. The wear marks on the kerbstones, however, prove that when there were two lanes of traffic, and the volume of traffic made it necessary to divide the lanes, the drivers always drove on the right-hand side. These considerations can also be demonstrated in the archaeological findings of other cities in the Roman Empire.
One of the first references in England to requiring traffic direction was an order by the London Court of Aldermen in 1669, requiring a man to be posted on London Bridge to ensure that "all cartes going to keep on the one side and all cartes coming to keep on the other side". It later was legislated as the London Bridge Act 1765 (29 Geo. II c. 40), which required that "all carriages passing over the said bridge from London shall go on the east side thereof" – those going south to remain on the east, i.e. the left-hand side by direction of travel. This may represent the first statutory requirement for LHT.
In the Kingdom of Ireland, a law of 1793 (1793 [33 Geo. 3] c. 56) provided a ten-shilling fine to anyone not driving or riding on the left side of the road within the county of the city of Dublin, and required the local road overseers to erect written or printed notices informing road users of the law. The Road in Down and Antrim Act of 1798 (1798 [38 Geo. 3] c. 28) required drivers on the road from Dublin to Donadea to keep to the left. This time, the punishment was ten shillings if the offender was not the owner of the vehicle, or one Irish pound (twenty shillings) if he/she was. The Grand Juries (Ireland) Act 1836 mandated LHT for the whole country, violators to be fined up to five shillings and imprisoned in default for up to one month.
A frequently-heard story is that Napoleon changed the custom from LHT to RHT in France and the countries he conquered after the French Revolution. Scholars who have looked for documentary evidence of this story have found none, and it should be assumed untrue unless contemporary sources surface. In 1827, long after Napoleon's reign, Edward Planta wrote that, in Paris, "The coachmen have no established rule by which they drive on the right or left of the road, but they cross and jostle one another without ceremony."
Rotterdam was LHT until 1917, although the rest of the Netherlands was RHT.
In Russia, in 1709, the Danish envoy under Tsar Peter the Great noted the widespread custom for traffic in Russia to pass on the right, but it was only in 1752 that Empress Elizabeth officially issued an edict for traffic to keep to the right.
After the Austro-Hungarian Empire broke up, the resulting countries gradually changed to RHT. In Austria, Vorarlberg switched in 1921, North Tyrol in 1930, Carinthia and East Tyrol in 1935, and the rest of the country in 1938. In Romania, Transylvania, the Banat and Bukovina were LHT until 1919, while Wallachia and Moldavia were already RHT. Partitions of Poland belonging to the German Empire and the Russian Empire were RHT, while the former Austrian Partition changed in the 1920s. Croatia-Slavonia switched on joining the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1918, although Istria and Dalmatia were already RHT. The switch in Czechoslovakia from LHT to RHT had been planned for 1939, and was accelerated by the start of the German occupation of Czechoslovakia that year. Similarly, Hungary switched in 1941. West Ukraine was LHT, but the rest of Ukraine, having been part of the Russian Empire, was RHT.
In Italy it had been decreed in 1901 that each province define its own traffic code, including the handedness of traffic, and the 1903 Baedeker guide reported that the rule of the road varied by region. For example, in Northern Italy, the provinces of Brescia, Como, Vicenza, and Ravenna were RHT while nearby provinces of Lecco, Verona, and Varese were LHT, as were the cities Milan, Turin, and Florence. In 1915, allied forces of World War I imposed LHT in areas of military operation, but this was revoked in 1918. Rome was reported by Goethe as LHT in the 1780s. Naples was also LHT although surrounding areas were often RHT. In cities LHT was considered safer since pedestrians, accustomed to keeping right, could better see oncoming vehicular traffic. Finally, in 1923 Italian Duce Benito Mussolini decreed that all LHT areas would gradually transition to RHT. In spite of this, some Italian heavy commercial vehicles were right-hand drive until the traffic code was changed in 1959.
Portugal switched to RHT in 1928.
Finland, formerly part of LHT Sweden, switched to RHT in 1858 as the Grand Duchy of Finland by Russian decree.
Sweden switched to RHT in 1967, having been LHT from about 1734 despite having land borders with RHT countries, and approximately 90% of cars being left-hand drive (LHD). A referendum in 1955 overwhelmingly rejected a change to RHT, but a few years later the government ordered it, and it occurred on Sunday, 3 September 1967 at 5 am. The accident rate then dropped sharply, but soon rose to near its original level. The day was known as Högertrafikomläggningen, or Dagen H for short.
When Iceland switched to RHT the following year, it was known as Hægri dagurinn or H-dagurinn ("The H-Day"). Most passenger cars in Iceland were already LHD.
The United Kingdom is LHT, but two of its overseas territories, Gibraltar and the British Indian Ocean Territory, are RHT. In the late 1960s, the British Department for Transport considered switching to RHT, but declared it unsafe and too costly for such a built-up nation. Road building standards, for motorways in particular, allow asymmetrically designed road junctions, where merge and diverge lanes differ in length.
Today, four countries in Europe continue to use LHT; they are all island nations: the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland (formerly part of the United Kingdom), Cyprus and Malta (both former British colonies).
Africa
LHT was introduced in British West Africa. All of the countries formerly part of this colony border with former French RHT jurisdictions and have switched to RHT since decolonization. These include Ghana, Gambia, Sierra Leone, and Nigeria. Britain introduced LHT to the East Africa Protectorate (now Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda), Rhodesia, and the Cape Colony (now Zambia, Zimbabwe and South Africa). All of these have remained LHT. Sudan, formerly part of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan switched to RHT in 1973, as most of its neighbours were RHT countries, with the exception of Uganda and Kenya, but since the independence of South Sudan in 2011, all of its neighbours drive on the right. Despite it sharing land borders with two LHT countries, South Sudan has retained RHT.
The Portuguese Empire, then LHT, introduced LHT to Portuguese Mozambique and Portuguese Angola. Although Portugal itself switched to RHT in 1928, Mozambique remained LHT as they have land borders with former British colonies. Other former Portuguese colonies in Africa including Portuguese Angola, Guinea-Bissau, São Tomé and Príncipe, and Cape Verde switched to RHT in 1928.
France introduced RHT in French West Africa and the Maghreb, where it is still used. Countries in these areas include Mali, Mauritania, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Benin, Niger, Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. Other French former colonies that are RHT include Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Djibouti, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo.
Rwanda and Burundi are RHT but are considering switching to LHT (see "Potential future shifts" section below).
North America
In the late 1700s, traffic in the United States was RHT based on teamsters' use of large freight wagons pulled by several pairs of horses. The wagons had no driver's seat, so the (typically right-handed) postilion held his whip in his right hand and thus sat on the left rear horse. Seated on the left, the driver preferred that other wagons pass him on the left so that he would have a clear view of other vehicles. The first keep-right law for driving in the United States was passed in 1792 and applied to the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike. Massachusetts formalized RHT in 1821. However, the National Road was LHT until 1850, "long after the rest of the country had settled on the keep-right convention.". Today the United States is RHT except the United States Virgin Islands, which is LHT like many neighbouring islands.
Some special-purpose vehicles in the United States, including certain postal service trucks, garbage trucks, and parking-enforcement vehicles, are built with the driver's seat on the right for safer and easier access to the curb. A common example is the Grumman LLV, which is used nationwide by the United States Postal Service.
As former French colonies, the provinces of Quebec and Ontario were always RHT. The province of British Columbia changed to RHT in stages from 1920 to 1923. New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island, changed to RHT in 1922, 1923, and 1924 respectively. Newfoundland, then a British colony, changed to RHT in 1947, two years before joining Canada.
In the West Indies, colonies and territories drive on the same side as their parent countries, except for the United States Virgin Islands. Many of the island nations are former British colonies and drive on the left, including Jamaica, Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, and The Bahamas. However, most vehicles in The Bahamas, Cayman Islands, Turks and Caicos Islands and both the British Virgin Islands, and the United States Virgin Islands are LHD due to them being imported from the United States.
Asia
LHT was introduced by the British in British India (now India, Pakistan, Myanmar, and Bangladesh), British Malaya and British Borneo (now Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore), and British Hong Kong. All are still LHT except Myanmar, which switched to RHT in 1970, although much of its infrastructure is still geared to LHT. Most cars are used RHD vehicles imported from Japan. Afghanistan was LHT until the 1950s, in line with neighbouring British India and later Pakistan.
LHT was introduced by the Portuguese Empire in Portuguese Macau (now Macau) and Portuguese Timor (now East Timor). Both places are still LHT, despite Macau now being part of RHT China, requiring a right-to-left switching interchange at the Lotus Bridge that connects the two. East Timor shares the island of Timor with Indonesia, which is also LHT, although the former (then Portuguese Timor) switched to RHT along with Portugal in 1928 before changing back to LHT in 1976 during the Indonesian occupation of East Timor.
Mainland China is RHT except the Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau. LHT was uniform in the 1930s, then the northern provinces were RHT. Nationalist China adopted RHT in 1946. This convention was preserved when the CCP took the mainland and the KMT refuged to Taiwan.
Taiwan uses RHT. When it was governed by Japan, LHT was used, but the KMT government switched the island to RHT in 1946, and it remains in place today.
Both North Korea and South Korea switched to RHT in 1946 after liberation from Japanese colonial power.
The Philippines was mostly LHT during its Spanish and American colonial periods, as well as during the Commonwealth era. During the Japanese occupation, the Philippines remained LHT, also because LHT had been required by the Japanese; but during the Battle of Manila, the liberating American forces drove their tanks to the right for easier facilitation of movement. RHT was formalised in 1945 through a decree by then-president Sergio Osmeña.
Japan was never part of the British Empire, but its traffic also drives on the left. Although the origin of this habit goes back to the Edo period (1603–1868), it was not until 1872 that this unwritten rule became more or less official: the year when Japan’s first railway was introduced, built with technical aid from the British. Gradually, a massive network of railways and tram tracks was built, with all trains and trams being driven on the left-hand side. However, it took another half century, until 1924, that left-hand traffic was clearly written in law.
Post-World War II Okinawa was ruled by the United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands and was RHT. It was returned to Japan in 1972 but did not convert back to LHT until 1978. The conversion operation was known as 730 (Nana-San-Maru, which refers to the date of the changeover, 30 July). Okinawa is one of few places to have changed from RHT to LHT in the late 20th century.
Vietnam became RHT as part of French Indochina, as did Laos and Cambodia. In Cambodia, RHD cars, many of which were smuggled from Thailand, were banned from 2001, even though they accounted for 80% of vehicles in the country.
Oceania
Many former British colonies in the region have always been LHT, including Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, Kiribati, Solomon Islands, Tonga, and Tuvalu; and nations that were previously administered by Australia: Nauru and Papua New Guinea.
Samoa, a former German colony, had been RHT for more than a century, but switched to LHT in 2009, making it the first territory in almost 30 years to change sides. The move was legislated in 2008 to allow Samoans to use cheaper vehicles imported from Australia, New Zealand, or Japan, and to harmonise with other South Pacific nations. A political party, The People's Party, was formed by the group People Against Switching Sides (PASS) to protest the change, with PASS launching a legal challenge; in April 2008 an estimated 18,000 people attended demonstrations against switching. The motor industry was also opposed, as 14,000 of Samoa's 18,000 vehicles were designed for RHT and the government refused to meet the cost of conversion. After months of preparation, the switch from right to left happened in an atmosphere of national celebration. There were no reported incidents. At 05:50 local time, Monday 7 September, a radio announcement halted traffic, and an announcement at 6:00 ordered traffic to switch to LHT. The change coincided with more restrictive enforcement of speeding and seat-belt laws. That day and the following were declared public holidays, to reduce traffic. The change included a three-day ban on alcohol sales, while police mounted dozens of checkpoints, warning drivers to drive slowly.
South America
Brazil was a colony of Portugal until the early 19th century and during this century and the early 20th century had mixed rules, with some regions still on LHT, switching these remaining regions to RHT in 1928, the same year Portugal switched sides. Other Central and South American countries that later switched from LHT to RHT include Argentina, Chile, Panama, Paraguay, and Uruguay.
Suriname, along with neighbouring Guyana, are the only two remaining LHT countries in South America.
Potential future shifts
Rwanda and Burundi, former Belgian colonies in Central Africa, are RHT but are considering switching to LHT like neighbouring members of the East African Community (EAC). A survey in 2009 found that 54% of Rwandans favoured the switch. Reasons cited were the perceived lower costs of RHD vehicles, easier maintenance and the political benefit of harmonious traffic regulations with other EAC countries. The survey indicated that RHD cars were 16% to 49% cheaper than their LHD counterparts. In 2014, an internal report by consultants to the Ministry of Infrastructure recommended a switch to LHT. In 2015, the ban on RHD vehicles was lifted; RHD trucks from neighbouring countries cost $1000 less than LHD models imported from Europe.
Changing sides at borders
Although many LHT jurisdictions are on islands, there are cases where vehicles may be driven from LHT across a border into a RHT area. Such borders are mostly located in Africa and southern Asia. The Vienna Convention on Road Traffic regulates the use of foreign registered vehicles in the 78 countries that have ratified it.
LHT Thailand has three RHT neighbours: Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar. Most of its borders use a simple traffic light to do the switch, but there are also interchanges that enable the switch while keeping up a continuous flow of traffic.
There are four road border crossing points between Hong Kong and Mainland China. In 2006, the daily average number of vehicle trips recorded at Lok Ma Chau was 31,100. The next largest is Man Kam To, where there is no changeover system and the border roads on the mainland side Wenjindu intersect as one-way streets with a main road.
The Takutu River Bridge (which links LHT Guyana and RHT Brazil) is the only border in the Americas where traffic changes sides.
Although the United Kingdom is separated from Continental Europe by the English Channel, the level of cross-Channel traffic is very high; the Channel Tunnel alone carries 3.5 million vehicles per year by the Eurotunnel Shuttle between the UK and France.
Road vehicle configurations
Steering wheel position
In RHT jurisdictions, vehicles are typically configured LHD, with the steering wheel on the left side. In LHT jurisdictions, the reverse is true. The driver's side, the side closer to the centre of the road, is sometimes called the offside, while the passenger side, the side closer to the side of the road, is sometimes called the nearside.
Most windscreen wipers are designed to clear the driver's side better and have a longer blade on the driver's side and wipe up from the passenger side to the driver's side. Thus on LHD configurations, they wipe up from right to left, viewed from inside the vehicle, and do the opposite on RHD (Right Hand Drive) vehicles.
Historically there was less consistency in the relationship of the position of the driver to the handedness of traffic. Most American cars produced before 1910 were RHD. In 1908 Henry Ford standardised the Model T as LHD in RHT America, arguing that with RHD and RHT, the passenger was obliged to "get out on the street side and walk around the car" and that with steering from the left, the driver "is able to see even the wheels of the other car and easily avoids danger." By 1915 other manufacturers followed Ford's lead, due to the popularity of the Model T.
In specialised cases, the driver will sit on the nearside, or curbside. Examples include:
Where the driver needs a good view of the nearside, e.g. street sweepers, or vehicles driven along unstable road edges. Similarly in mountainous areas the driver may be seated opposite side so that they have a better view of the road edge which may fall away for very many metres into the valley below. Swiss Postbuses in mountainous areas are a well known example.
Where it is more convenient for the driver to be on the nearside, e.g. delivery vehicles. The Grumman LLV postal delivery truck is widely used with RHD configurations in RHT North America. Some Unimogs are designed to switch between LHD and RHD to permit operators to work on the more convenient side of the truck.
Generally, the convention is to mount a motorcycle on the left, and kickstands are usually on the left which makes it more convenient to mount on the safer kerbside as is the case in LHT. Some jurisdictions prohibit fitting a sidecar to a motorcycle's offside.
Headlamps and other lighting equipment
Most low-beam headlamps produce an asymmetrical light suitable for use on only one side of the road. Low beam headlamps in LHT jurisdictions throw most of their light forward-leftward; those for RHT throw most of their light forward-rightward, thus illuminating obstacles and road signs while minimising glare for oncoming traffic.
In Europe, headlamps approved for use on one side of the road must be adaptable to produce adequate illumination with controlled glare for temporarily driving on the other side of the road,. This may be achieved by affixing masking strips or prismatic lenses to a part of the lens or by moving all or part of the headlamp optic so all or part of the beam is shifted or the asymmetrical portion is occluded. Some varieties of the projector-type headlamp can be fully adjusted to produce a proper LHT or RHT beam by shifting a lever or other movable element in or on the lamp assembly. Some vehicles adjust the headlamps automatically when the car's GPS detects that the vehicle has moved from LHT to RHT and vice versa.
Rear fog lamps
In the European Union, vehicles must be equipped with one or two red rear fog lamps. A single rear fog lamp must be located between the vehicle's longitudinal centreline and the outer extent of the driver's side of the vehicle.
Crash testing differences
ANCAP reports that some RHD cars imported to that country did not perform as well on crash tests as the LHD versions, although the cause is unknown, and may be due to differences in testing methodology.
Rail traffic
In most countries rail traffic travels on the same side as road traffic. However, in many cases railways were built using LHT British technology and while road traffic switched to RHT, rail remained LHT. Examples include: Argentina, Belgium, Bolivia, Cambodia, Chile, Egypt, France, Iraq, Israel, Italy, Laos, Monaco, Morocco, Myanmar, Nigeria, Peru, Portugal, Senegal, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Tunisia, Uruguay, Venezuela, and Yemen. In Indonesia it is the reverse (RHT for rails (even for newer rail systems such as the LRT and the MRT systems) and LHT for roads). France is mainly LHT for trains except for the classic lines in Alsace-Lorraine, which belonged to Germany from 1870 to 1918 when the railways were built, along with most metro systems. China is basically LHT for long-distance trains and RHT for metro systems. Spain has RHT for railways and LHT for metros in Madrid and Bilbao. Metros and light rail sides of operation vary and might not match railways or roads in their country. Trams generally operate at the same side as other road traffic because they frequently share roads.
Boat traffic
Boats are traditionally piloted from starboard (the right-hand side) to facilitate priority to the right.
According to the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, water traffic is effectively RHT: a vessel proceeding along a narrow channel must keep to starboard, and when two power-driven vessels are meeting head-on both must alter course to starboard also.
Aircraft traffic
For aircraft the US Federal Aviation Regulations suggest RHT principles, both in the air and on water, and in aircraft with side-by-side cockpit seating, the pilot-in-command (or more senior flight officer) traditionally occupies the left seat.
Worldwide distribution by country
Of the 195 countries currently recognised by the United Nations, 141 use RHT and 54 use LHT on roads in general. A country and its territories and dependencies are counted as one. Whichever directionality is listed first is the type that is used in general in the traffic category.
Legality of wrong-hand-drive vehicles by country
Gallery
See also
Hook turn
Traffic-light signalling and operation
World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations
References
External links
Google Maps placemarks of border crossings where traffic changes sides (browser-based), also available as a Google Earth placemarks file (requires Google Earth)
The Extraordinary Street Railways of Asunción, Paraguay
Chirality
Driving
Road transport
Rules of the road
Traffic law | [
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|
213381 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holdenby%20House | Holdenby House | Holdenby House is a historic country house in Northamptonshire, traditionally pronounced, and sometimes spelt, Holmby. The house is situated in the parish of Holdenby, six miles (10 km) northwest of Northampton and close to Althorp. It is a Grade II* listed building.
History
The house was completed in 1583 by the Elizabethan Lord Chancellor, Sir Christopher Hatton, who refused to sleep a night in the mansion until Queen Elizabeth I had slept there. It was one of the largest prodigy houses of the Tudor period, rivalling in size both Audley End and Theobalds, and was reputed to occupy approximately 78,750 square feet (7,300 m²), although this probably included the two great courtyards around which it was built. The facades were symmetrical, with mullioned windows and open Doric arcades, reflecting the Renaissance style of architecture gradually spreading from Italy. Hatton died in 1591.
In 1607 the mansion was bought by Elizabeth's successor James I. His wife Anne of Denmark stayed in August 1608.
In February 1647, after the First English Civil War, Charles I was brought to Holdenby by the Scots and handed over to the English Long Parliament. He remained a prisoner there until June 1647 when Cornet George Joyce seized him and took him to Newmarket in the name of the New Model Army. Parliament later sold the estate to Captain Adam Baynes, who demolished the house almost entirely except for a small domestic wing.
In 1709, Holdenby was bought by the Marlborough family who in turn sold it to their kin the Clifden family whose descendants in the female line, the Lowthers, still own the property . The Clifdens had a new house built in the style of the older mansion, incorporating the older mansion's remains but being only about one eighth of its size. The first phase of the new house was designed by the architects Richard Carpenter and William Slater and built in 1873–75. A second phase was designed by Walter Mills and built in 1877–78.
, all that remains of Hatton's great house are two Grade I listed archways and the kitchen wing incorporated into the Victorian rebuild, now standing on a lawn, which once gave access to the courtyards; a near-identical third arch bears the date 1659 and so must have been built for Baynes, the Cromwellian owner.
The gardens are listed Grade I.
A door salvaged from the demolition of Holdenby palace is believed to be inside Morningside Cottage, a grade II listed building in the nearby village of Creaton.
Filming location
In July 2011, the exterior of Holdenby House was transformed as the location of Satis House in BBC One’s adaptation of Charles Dickens’s Great Expectations. Parts of the film Biggles (1986) were filmed at Holdenby. The house featured in a 2020 episode of An American Aristocrat's Guide to Great Estates.
Functions and visits
The estate is a private residence which is available as a corporate and wedding venue and is opened to the public on a limited and paid basis. Other activities include a falconry centre.
References
Further reading
Whyte Melville G. J. 'Holby House' Ch.XXVII of the historical novel Holby House: a Tale of Old Northamptonshire, written in 1859, reconstructs the house's appearance during the captivity of Charles I.
External links
Holdenby House Official Website
Houses completed in 1583
Country houses in Northamptonshire
Gardens in Northamptonshire
Grade II* listed buildings in Northamptonshire | [
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|
213382 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audioslave%20%28album%29 | Audioslave (album) | Audioslave is the debut studio album by American rock supergroup Audioslave. It was first released on November 18, 2002, through Epic Records and Interscope Records. The album features the hit singles "Cochise", "Show Me How to Live", "What You Are", "Like a Stone", and "I Am the Highway". The album was later certified 3x platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America in the United States. "Like a Stone" was nominated for a 2004 Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance.
Background and release
Audioslave was formed after Zack de la Rocha left Rage Against the Machine and the remaining members were searching for another vocalist. Producer and friend Rick Rubin suggested that they contact Chris Cornell. Rubin played the remaining Rage Against the Machine band members the Soundgarden song "Slaves & Bulldozers" to showcase his ability. Cornell was in the writing process of a second solo album, but decided to shelve that and pursue the opportunity to work with Tom Morello, Tim Commerford and Brad Wilk when they approached him. Morello described Cornell: "He stepped to the microphone and sang the song and I couldn't believe it. It didn't just sound good. It sounded transcendent. And... when there is an irreplaceable chemistry from the first moment, you can't deny it." The quartet wrote 21 songs during 19 days of rehearsal and began working in the studio in late May 2001.
Songs from the album were first heard when thirteen rough rehearsal demo tracks were leaked onto various peer-to-peer filesharing networks on May 17, 2002, six months before the official release of the album, under the name "Civilian" (or "The Civilian Project"). According to guitarist Tom Morello "it was very frustrating, especially with a band like this, there is a certain amount of expectation." He also said that the songs were not in their finished form and that in some cases "they weren't even the same lyrics, guitar solos, performances of any kind." In an earlier, July 2002 interview with Metal Sludge he spoke more explicitly about the incident, blaming "some jackass intern at Bad Animal Studios in Seattle" for stealing the demos and putting them on the Internet without the band's permission.
The band was nearly derailed before the album's release. Cornell was going through alcohol problems and a slot on the Ozzfest tour was canceled. During this time, there was a rumor that Cornell had checked himself into drug rehabilitation. He later confirmed it in an interview with Metal Hammer that was conducted from a clinic payphone. In a San Diego CityBeat article, Cornell explained that he went through "a horrible personal crisis" during the making of the first record, staying in rehab for two months and separating from his wife. The problems were ironed out and he remained sober until shortly before his passing in 2017. The album was released on November 18, 2002, in the United Kingdom and a day later in the United States. The band toured through 2003, before resting in 2004 to record their second album.
Artwork
The album cover was designed by Storm Thorgerson (with Peter Curzon and Rupert Truman), who, as leader of the group of artists known as Hipgnosis, was best known for his cover work for Pink Floyd. "We knew we were going to set this idea of the eternal flame, the graphic flame, in Lanzarote, a volcanic island, since volcanoes suited the brooding menace of Audioslave," Thorgerson recalled. An unreleased version of the cover, shot elsewhere at the same location, features a naked man looking at the flame. "We so nearly used it," said Thorgerson, "but we were not entirely sure of the nude figure."
Reception
Critical
Audioslave received mixed reviews. Some critics lambasted the group's effort as uninspired, and predictable. Pitchfork Media's reviewers Chris Dahlen and Ryan Schreiber praised Cornell's voice, but criticized virtually every other part of the album, calling it "the worst kind of studio rock album, rigorously controlled -- even undercut -- by studio gimmickry". They described Cornell's lyrics as "complete gibberish" and called producer Rick Rubin's work "a synthesized rock-like product that emits no heat". Jon Monks from Stylus Magazine had the same opinion. He considered Rubin's production over-polished and wrote that "lacking individuality, distinction and imagination this album is over-produced, overlong and over-indulgent". On the other hand, other critics praised the supergroup's style reminiscent of 1970s heavy metal and compared it to Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath, saying they add much-needed sound and style to contemporary mainstream rock music, and have the potential to become one of the best rock bands of the 21st century. In 2005, Audioslave was ranked number 281 in Rock Hard magazine's book of The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time.
Commercial
The album entered the Billboard 200 chart at position number seven after selling 162,000 copies in its first week. It was certified gold by the RIAA less than a month after its release, and by 2006 it had achieved triple platinum selling status. It is the most successful Audioslave album to date, having sold more than three million copies in the United States alone. The album spawned hits such as "Cochise", "Like a Stone" and "Show Me How to Live".
Track listing
DualDisc version
The album was included among a group of 15 DualDisc releases that were test marketed in two cities: Boston and Seattle. The DualDisc has the standard album on one side, and bonus material on the second side. The DVD side of the Audioslave DualDisc featured the entire album in higher resolution 20bit 48 kHz sound, as well as some videos. The higher resolution DVD side of this disc has been termed a demonstration quality audiophile release.
Connected bonus track
For a limited time, the CD could be inserted into a CD-ROM and be used to access the ConnecteD website. Here, the user would be able to download bonus videos, interviews, photos, and a bonus track "Give".
Personnel
Audioslave
Chris Cornell – vocals
Tim Commerford – bass, backing vocals
Brad Wilk – drums
Tom Morello – guitars
Production
Produced by Rick Rubin, co-produced by Audioslave
Mixed by Rich Costey
Recorded by David Schiffman and Andrew Scheps
Additional engineering by John Burton, Floyd Reitsma, Thom Russo, and Andrew Scheps, assisted by Chris Holmes and Darron Mora
Digital editing by Greg Fidelman, Thom Russo, and Andrew Scheps
Album production coordinator/wrangler – Lindsay Chase
Mastered by Vlado Meller, assisted by Steve Kadison
Album cover by Storm Thorgerson and Peter Curzon
Art direction by Storm Thorgerson, assisted by Dan Abbott and Finlay Cowan
"Flame" logo by Peter Curzon
Photography by Rupert Truman
Band photos by Danny Clinch
Sculpture made by Hothouse
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Decade-end charts
Certifications
References
2002 debut albums
Albums produced by Rick Rubin
Albums with cover art by Storm Thorgerson
Audioslave albums
Epic Records albums
Interscope Records albums
Albums produced by Chris Cornell | [
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213383 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good%20governance | Good governance | Good governance is the process of measuring how public institution conduct public affairs and manage public resources and guarantee the realization of human rights in a manner essentially free of abuse and corruption and with due regard for the rule of law. Governance is "the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented (or not implemented)". Governance in this context can apply to corporate, international, national, or local governance as well as the interactions between other sectors of society.
The concept of "good governance" thus emerges as a model to compare ineffective economies or political bodies with viable economies and political bodies. The concept centers on the responsibility of governments and governing bodies to meet the needs of the masses as opposed to select groups in society. Because countries often described as "most successful" are liberal democratic states, concentrated in Europe and the Americas, good governance standards often measure other state institutions against these states. Aid organizations and the authorities of developed countries often will focus the meaning of "good governance" to a set of requirements that conform to the organization's agenda, making "good governance" imply many different things in many different contexts. The opposite of good governance, as a concept, is bad governance.
In international affairs (IR)
In international affairs, analysis of good governance can look at any of the following relationships:
between governments and markets
between governments and citizens
between governments and the private or voluntary sector
between elected officials and appointed officials
between government and Civil Society Organisations (CSOs)
The varying types of comparisons comprising the analysis of governance in scholastic and practical discussion can cause the meaning of "good governance" to vary greatly from practitioner to practitioner.
In corporate sectors
In corporate affairs, good governance can be observed in any of the following relationships:
between governance and corporate management
between governance and employee standards
between governance and corruption in the workplace
The meaning of good governance in regards to corporate sectors varies between actors. Legislation has been enacted in an attempt to influence good governance in corporate affairs. In the United States, the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002 set up requirements for businesses to follow. Whistleblowing has also been widely used by corporations to expose corruption and fraudulent activity.
In national governments
Good governance in the context of countries is a broad term, and in that regards, it is difficult to find a unique definition. According to Fukuyama (2013), there are two dimensions to qualify governance as good or bad: the capacity of the state and the bureaucracy's autonomy. They both complement, in the sense that when the state is more capable, for instance through the collection of taxes, there should be more autonomy because the bureaucrats are able to conduct things well without being instructed with a lot of details. In less capable states, however, less discretion and more rules setting are desirable.
Another way to think about good governance is through outcomes. Since governments carry out with goals like the provision of public goods to its citizens, there is no better way to think about good governance other than through deliverables, which are precisely the one demanded by citizens, like security, health, education, water, the enforcement of contracts, protection to property, protection to the environment and their ability to vote and get paid fair wages.
Similarly, good governance might be approximated with provision of public services in an efficient manner, higher participation given to certain groups in the population like the poor and the minorities, the guarantee that citizens have the opportunity of checks and balances on the government, the establishment and enforcement of norms for the protection of the citizens and their property and the existence of independent judiciary systems.
Lawson (2011) in his review of Rothstein's book "The quality of government: corruption, social trust, and inequality in international perspective" mentions that the author relates good governance to the concept of impartiality, which is basically when the bureaucrats perform their tasks following the public interest rather than their self-interest. Lawson differs with him in that this impartial application of law ignores important factors like the economic liberalism, which matters due to its relation with economic growth.
In local governments
Good governance is argued to be the most important in local governments. It tries to promote more relationships between government and:
Empowered citizens
Neighborhood councils
Community councils
Good governance with local government aims to increase civil engagement with more members of the community in order to get the best options that serves the people.
In scientific exploration
Before there can be scientific experimentation, organizations must be compliant with good governance, meaning that testing must be moral and practical. Many research organizations such as SPICE (Stratospheric Particle Injection for Climate Engineering), a geoengineering research project that was formed in the U.K., was required to go through stages of evaluation before testing could be conducted if they were to be funded by stakeholders. In 2011 SPICE made plans to experiment with solar radiation. The method for this experiment included injecting stratospheric sulfur aerosols into the Earth's atmosphere.
The criteria or "stage-gate" that they must pass before performing their experiment included the following; identify safe and principle risks, test must be compliant with relevant regulations, future applications and impacts, and mechanisms put in place to review these in the light of new information, and that the stakeholders must be regarded and taken into account. Before research can be conducted in the field of geoengineering it must be scrutinized using good governance to ensure testing isn't harmful to the environment and to detail all the possible risks that may occur.
Reform and standards
Three institutions can be reformed to promote good governance: the state, the private sector and civil society. However, among different cultures, the need and demand for reform can vary depending on the priorities of that country's society. A variety of country level initiatives and international movements put emphasis on various types of governance reform. Each movement for reform establishes criteria for what they consider good governance based on their own needs and agendas. The following are examples of good governance standards for prominent organizations in the international community.
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is playing an increasing role in good governance. According to former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, "Good governance is ensuring respect for human rights and the rule of law; strengthening democracy; promoting transparency and capacity in public administration." To implement this, the UN follows eight principles:
Participation – People should be able to voice their own opinions through legitimate immediate organizations or representatives.
Rule of Law – Legal framework should be enforced impartially, especially on human right laws.
Consensus Oriented – Mediates differing interests to meet the broad consensus on the best interests of a community.
Equity and Inclusiveness – People should have opportunities to improve or maintain their well-being.
Effectiveness and Efficiency – Processes and institutions should be able to produce results that meet the needs of their community while making the best of their resources.
Accountability – Governmental institutions, private sectors, and civil society organizations should be held accountable to the public and institutional stakeholders.
Transparency – Information should be accessible to the public and should be understandable and monitored.
Responsiveness – Institutions and processes should serve all stakeholders.
International Monetary Fund
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was created at a United Nations (UN) conference in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire. In 1996, the IMF declared "promoting good governance in all its aspects, including by ensuring the rule of law, improving the efficiency and accountability of the public sector, and tackling corruption, as essential elements of a framework within which economies can prosper". The IMF feels that corruption within economies is caused by the ineffective governance of the economy, either too much regulation or too little regulation. To receive loans from the IMF, countries must have certain good governance policies, as determined by the IMF, in place.
World Bank
The World Bank introduced the concept in its 1992 report entitled "Governance and Development". According to the document, good governance is an essential complement to sound economic policies and is central to creating and sustaining an environment which fosters strong and equitable development. For the World Bank, good governance consists of the following components: capacity and efficiency in public sector management, accountability, legal framework for development, and information and transparency.
Worldwide Governance Indicators
The Worldwide Governance Indicators is a program funded by the World Bank to measure the quality of governance of over 200 countries. It uses six dimensions of governance for their measurements, Voice & Accountability, Political Stability and Lack of Violence, Government Effectiveness, Regulatory Quality, Rule of Law, and Control of Corruption. They have been studying countries since 1996.
Effects
International humanitarian funding
Good governance defines an ideal that is difficult to achieve in full, though it is something development supporters consider donating to causes. Major donors and international financial institutions, like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) or World Bank, are basing their aid and loans on the condition that the recipient undertake reforms ensuring good governance. This is mostly due to the close link between poor governance and corruption.
Democratization
Because concepts such as civil society, decentralisation, peaceful conflict management and accountability are often used when defining the concept of good governance, the definition of good governance promotes many ideas that closely align with effective democratic governance. Not surprisingly, emphasis on good governance can sometimes be equated with promoting democratic government. However, a 2011 literature review analyzing the link between democracy and development by Alina Rocha Menocal of the Overseas Development Institute stresses the inconclusiveness of evidence on this relationship.
Example
A good example of this close association, for some actors, between western democratic governance and the concept of good governance is the following statement made by U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton in Nigeria on August 12, 2009:
Role of political parties
Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute have criticised past studies of good governance to place too little importance on developing political parties, their capacity and their ties to their grassroots supporters. While political parties play a key role in well-functioning democracies, elsewhere political parties are disconnected from voters and dominated by elites, with few incentives or capabilities to increase the representation of other voters. Political parties can play a key role in pivotal moments of a state's development, either negatively (e.g. organising and instigating violence) or positively (e.g. by leading dialogue in a fractured society). While differences in the electoral system play their role in defining the number of parties and their influence once in power (proportional, first past the post, etc.), the funding and expertise available to parties also plays an important role not only in their existence, but their ability to connect to a broad base of support. While the United Nations Development Program and the European Commission have been providing funds to political parties since the 1990s, there are still calls to increase the support for capacity development activities including the development of party manifestos, party constitutions and campaigning skills.
Scholarly approaches
Nayef Al-Rodhan, in his 2009 book Sustainable History and the Dignity of Man: A Philosophy of History and Civilisational Triumph, proposed eight minimum criteria for ensuring good national governance. Al-Rodhan's eight minimum criteria are: 1) participation, equity, and inclusiveness, 2) rule of law, 3) separation of powers, 4) free, independent, and responsible media, 5) government legitimacy, 6) accountability, 7) transparency, and 8) limiting the distorting effect of money in politics. In the book, he argues that good national governance is an important component in creating a history of sustainability for the human race. For Al-Rodhan, the eight minimal criteria of good governance are expressions of the fundamental values of democracy and more liberal constitutionalism.
The Tuskegee Study from 1932 to 1972 led to the signing of the National Research Act. This law outlined basic ethical ways in which research is to be carried out. The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (DHEW) made regulations that required voluntary agreements for anyone who was to take part in their studies. Governance is used in scientific studies to ensure that policies are safe and ethical when studies are being done on human subjects. After the National Research Act there have been other organization put in place such as the Ethics Advisory Board, which reviews biomedical research. Many federal agencies adopted the Federal Policy for Protection of Human Rights in 1991. In 1995 President Bill Clinton established the National Bioethics Advisory Commission led by the Department of Health and Human Services with the task of reviewing regulations and policies to ensure the safety of research volunteers.
Criticism
According to Sam Agere, "The discretionary space left by the lack of a clear well-defined scope for what governance encompasses allows users to choose and set their own parameters."
In the book Contesting 'good' governance, Eva Poluha and Mona Rosendahl contest standards that are common to western democracy as measures of "goodness" in government. By applying political anthropological methods, they conclude that while governments believe they apply concepts of good governance while making decisions, cultural differences can cause conflict with the heterogeneous standards of the international community.
An additional source of good governance criticism is The Intelligent Person's Guide to Good Governance, written by Surendra Munshi. Munshi's work was created in order to "revive" good governance. Many individuals tend to either wave away and be bored with the idea of governance, or not have a clue to what it has at all. This book is a generalized discussion on what the purpose of good governance is and how it serves that purpose throughout our society. Munshi targets the book toward anyone doing research or just simply "those concerned with the issue of governance".
Rethinking Systems: Configurations of Politics and Policy in Contemporary Governance, written by Michael P. Crozier, is another work analyzing good governance. Crozier's article discusses the different dynamics of changes that occur throughout communication systems and the effect it has on governance. The idea of various perspectives is presented throughout the article. This allows the reader to be able to see what contemporary governance is like from different viewpoints. Crozier's motive was to also create an open mindset when referring to how governance and policy within society operate, especially with the constant changes occurring day to day.
Recent criticism has been aimed at the idea that good governance and institutions are one of the primary explanatory variables of economic growth, such as argued by Kaufmann and Kraay and Acemoglu and Robinson, which has put institutional reforms high on global development agendas. The criticism is fundamentally concerned with the issue that the relatively few countries which have managed to develop rapidly over the last 70 years did not have the "right" kind of institutions; in contrast, countries like China and South-Korea have been plagued by corruption and a lack of checks-and-balances during their development trajectories. Or as the development economist Dani Rodrik put it: A development strategy that focused on anti-corruption in China would not have produced anything like the growth rate that this country has experienced since 1978, nor would it have resulted in 400 million plus fewer people in extreme poverty.
As a result, it has been pointed out that anti-corruption efforts and government reforms can have very negative consequences in especially fragile countries there can be significantly bigger barriers to economic growth than corruption or institutional quality, and anti-corruption efforts and governance reforms often fail because of a suboptimal understanding of local socio-political contexts.
Various authors have furthermore argued that "good governance" provides a very unhelpful development agenda as it is unclear what the "right" kind of institutions are or how they should be realized even if we were to accept that they are necessary or helpful.
See also
Developing country
Due diligence
Good government
Good Governance Day
Peace, order and good government
References
Sources
found at Google Books
found at Google Books
Heritier, P. & Silvestri P. (Eds.), Good government, Governance, Human complexity. Luigi Einaudi's legacy and contemporary societies, Leo Olschki, Firenze, 2012.
Quian, Yingyi (2003) 'How Reform Worked in China', in Rodrik.
External links
, UNESCAP
Sustainable Governance Indicators
World Bank Researchers Analysising Governance
Anti-corruption measures
Governance
International development
Political science terminology | [
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|
213388 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oatlands%2C%20Surrey | Oatlands, Surrey | Oatlands is a village in the north of the English county of Surrey on low, verdant ridges partially overlooking the River Thames. Oatlands acquired its name from the Royal Tudor and Stuart Oatlands Palace, which was built for Henry VIII to the north of Weybridge town centre. Before acquiring its first place of worship it was part of Walton on Thames, and shortly after thereby becoming a village did not qualify for post town status and instead its post town became Weybridge. The towns it adjoins have their centres away. Oatlands has a park, parade of shops, one pub, one Working Men's Club, and three schools.
Administratively its borough of Elmbridge electoral ward is Oatlands Park, and its Surrey electoral division is Walton South and Oatlands.
Geography
The village is elevated from the London Basin and has gentle slopes down to the old village in a slight dip and to Walton-on-Thames. The roads are characterised by many avenues and garden-fronted properties surrounded by parkland, no intersection by any major roads, with low rise apartments being a relatively common feature. The Weybridge Club spa resort and Broadwater lie to the north of the Oatlands Park Hotel within the lower London Basin. Several fine elevated views can be enjoyed from apartments on Oatlands Drive, reflected in names such as Ridgemount, Broadwater Place, Lakeside, Oakhill Gardens and Tower Grove. The architecture across the village is predominantly of classical, Georgian inspiration to complement the small group of terraced houses dating from the 18th and 19th centuries and grander, detached Georgian houses bordering on the approach to Monument Hill, which links Oatlands to Weybridge town centre. There are no dual carriageways around or within the village. The closest railway station is Walton-on-Thames, 1/2-mile from St Marys, Oatlands church to the south-east of the village, with a 25-minute one stop service in the mornings and evenings to London Waterloo.
Soil
The soil even in the majority of the upland parts has few pockets of sand (supporting fern, gorse, bog and conifers) compared to Weybridge Heath and the large areas of West Surrey former proper heath on the Bagshot sand, with the general mixture of gravel and alluvial deposits producing medium fertility and naturally conducive to open pasture or orchards.
Amenities
In an approximately park with outdoor pool and play areas, Oatlands Park is set back on its own drive on the south side of Oatlands Drive. This is opposite the Oatlands Park Hotel, the 19th Century building sited in the grounds of the former royal palace. There is a parade of cafés, fishing and hunting shop, boutiques and a traditional pub in a very small suburban vale in the district. Oatlands Infants school and Cleves School Junior School are within Oatlands.
The district of Oatlands contains an Iron Age burial ground, believed to be in the vicinity of St Mary Oatlands church.
Places of Worship
The parish of Oatlands exists in the Anglican church also known as St Mary Oatlands. Originally a chapel built in 1862, the parish church was ordained in 1867 and the parish of St Mary Walton in Walton-on-Thames was divided to reflect the increase in population owing to local industrialisation and commuter villas. Vicars have changed in 2005 (Revs Malcolm Anker, Andrew Parsons) and in 2010 (Rev Steve Brunn). In 2012 St Mary celebrated 150 years. On the 4th of July 2017, Revd. Folorunso (Folli) Olokose was installed as the Vicar of the church by Rt Revd Andrew Watson, Bishop of Guildford.
The Christian Science Church founded by Mary Baker Eddy (not to be confused with The Church of Scientology) has a major centre of worship on Oatlands Drive in Oatlands.
The North West Surrey Synagogue is in Rosslyn Park, Oatlands.
Demography and housing
The average level of accommodation in the region composed of detached houses was 28%, the average that was apartments was 22.6%.
The proportion of households in the village who owned their home outright compares to the regional average of 35.1%. The proportion who owned their home with a loan compares to the regional average of 32.5%. The remaining % is made up of rented dwellings (plus a negligible % of households living rent-free).
Notable residents
Henry Stuart, Duke of Gloucester (1640–1660), at Oatlands Park.
William Boteler (fl. 1640s and 1650s), lived at Oatlands Park in the 1660s, he was a member of the Parliament and one of the major-generals during the Rule of the Major-Generals
Princess Frederica Charlotte of Prussia (1767–1820), Duchess of York, at Oatlands Park (House).
Madeleine Albright, 64th United States Secretary of State, went to the school in Oatlands which has been converted into flats next to a large pub/restaurant, The Oatlands Chaser – formerly known as the Badger's Rest and The King's Manor.
William Chapman Hewitson (1806–1878), Naturalist and lepidopterist. From 1848 lived in Oatlands Park and built a house there.
Notes
References
Elmbridge museum
External links
North West Surrey Synagogue
Christian Science Church
St Mary Oatlands – Church of England
Villages in Surrey
Borough of Elmbridge | [
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|
213390 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Nepomuk%20Huber | Johann Nepomuk Huber | Johann Nepomuk Huber (18 August 1830 – 20 March 1879), was a German philosophical and theological writer, and a leader of the "Old Catholic Church".
Life
He was born at Munich. Originally destined for the priesthood, he studied theology from childhood. The writings of Spinoza and Lorenz Oken attracted him to philosophy, and it was in philosophy that he "habilitated" (1854) in the university of his native place, where he ultimately became professor (extraordinarius, 1859; ordinarius, 1864). With Döllinger and others he attracted a large amount of public attention. Firstly in 1869 by the challenge to the Ultramontane promoters of the First Vatican Council in the treatise Der Papst und das Koncil, which appeared under the pseudonym of "Janus,". Secondly in 1870 by a series of letters (Römische Briefe, a redaction of secret reports sent from Rome during the sitting of the council), which were published over the pseudonym Quirinus in the Allgemeine Zeitung. He died suddenly of heart disease at Munich.
Works
The treatise Über die Willensfreiheit (1858), followed in 1859 by Die Philosophie der Kirchenväter, which was promptly placed upon the Index, and led to the prohibition of all Catholic students from attending his lectures.
Johannes Scotus Erigena (1861)
Die Idee der Unsterblichkeit (1864)
Studien (1867)
Der Proletarier
Zur Orientirung in der sozialen Frage (1865)
Der Jesuitenorden nach seiner Verfassung und Doctrin, Wirksamkeit und Geschichte (1873), also placed upon the Index
Der Pessimismus (1876)
Die Forschung nach der Materie (1877)
Zur Philosophie der Astronomie (1878)
Das Gedächtnis (1878).
Huber also published adverse criticisms of Charles Darwin, David Strauss, Hartmann and Hackel; pamphlets on Des Papsttum und der Staat (1870), and Die Freiheiten der französischen Kirche (1871); and a volume of Kleine Schriften (1871).
He is mentioned in the Monty Python song Decomposing Composers.
References
See E Zirngiebl, Johannes Huber (1881); and M Carrière in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, xiii. (1881), and in Nord und Süd (1879).
External links
1830 births
People excommunicated by the Catholic Church
1879 deaths | [
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|
213392 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freckled%20duck | Freckled duck | The freckled duck (Stictonetta naevosa) is a waterfowl species endemic to Australia. The freckled duck has also been referred to as the monkey duck or oatmeal duck. These birds are usually present in mainland Australia, but disperse to coastal and subcostal wetlands in the dry period. During such times it is common for the freckled duck population to congregate in flocks in the same area, giving the impression that they are more common than they really are.
The freckled duck population is at risk of further reduction from habitat destruction, droughts and game hunting. Often habitat destruction and drought can lead to an increase in hunting, as the freckled duck is forced to disperse into more coastal ranges where they may not be recognised as a protected species.
In the past few decades, several institutions have established breeding programs to aid in supplementation of the freckled duck population. Such establishments included, but are not restricted to the Hunter Wetlands Australia, Slimbridge Wetlands, Melbourne Zoo, Bronx Zoo, Adelaide Zoo, Healesville Sanctuary and Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve. The success of these institutes has been variable, with some failing to establish self-maintaining colonies.
Description
The freckled duck has a distinctive appearance. It is characterised, in adults, by dark grey to black plumage covered with small white flecks, which gives the duck the 'freckled' look. The feet, legs and bill of both sexes is of a slate grey colour. Hatchlings and juveniles are distinguished by a uniform light grey plumage, which they lose around their 32nd week when they undergo a full body moult to assume the adult plumage.
The adult freckled displays a few sexual dimorphisms, the first being size. On average, males are the larger sex, with average weight between 700 - 1200 g. Females have an only slightly lower range between 600 – 1200 g. Both sexes have a length of 50 – 60 cm. During the breeding season particularly, the males are characterised by the base of their culmen, which takes on various shades of red. Those in prime reproductive condition take on a deep red colouring, while other males may only develop lighter shades of red, or in some instances, no colouring at all. Deep red colouring of the culmen is also associated with dominance, and those with the deepest red are those likely to breed with the females of the group.
Distribution and habitat
Endemic to Australia, the freckled duck is mainly situated throughout inland regions of the Eastern section of the country—including New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland. This species also has known populations in South Australia and Western Australia. Due to habitat requirements, distribution of the freckled duck directly correlates to water flow and rainfall in river catchments and wetland systems. Because of this, main populations of this species are located within the Paroo-Warrego catchment (Currawinya Lakes), Eyre-Georgine-Mulligan catchment (Lake Torquinie), and potentially at Lake Galilee. High numbers have also been recorded at the Cooper's Creek catchment, wetlands within the Barkley Tablelands, the Bulloo River catchment and Lake Gregory in central north Western Australia.
Freckled duck habitat preference can be split into two distinct categories: breeding and non-breeding habitat. While this species does not appear to have any sort of distinct migratory pathway or seasonal migration to find suitable breeding habitat. The freckled duck sometimes travels long distances to find a suitable breeding location, and seems to prefer large bodies of fresh water with thick vegetation. Usual contenders are recently flooded wetland systems and swamps. After breeding, the freckled duck disperses to more coastal areas with more permanent bodies of water such as lakes, reservoirs, and ponds. These areas are often more exposed and contain little vegetation.
Ecology
Diet
The diet of the freckled duck has been subjected to a degree of controversy and disagreement over the years, potentially due to the versatile diet of different populations and distributions of this duck. Despite this, it is widely agreed that the freckled duck is a resilient, specialist filter feeder that consumes a range of aquatic vegetation, insects, algae, larvae and crustaceans. Studies have found that the freckled duck prefers to feed in shallow water, using its bill to strain food particles from the mud or sand.
Social behaviour
A highly gregarious species, the freckled duck is known to have flock sizes ranging from 10 to 100 individuals, especially outside of breeding season. During breeding season, these flocks often break up into smaller sub-units, scattered throughout wetland and swamp systems.
Despite these large flock sizes, this species is lacking in demonstrative displays towards one another, with only cryptic gestures and few interactions towards fellow flock mates. The rare interaction that is observed within this species is usually of a quarrelsome nature.
Bathing
While there has been little research into the bathing behaviour of the freckled duck, it is known that a body of water (e.g. a swamp or dam) is essential for many natural behaviours such as feeding, mating and bathing. Freckled ducks have been observes preening both within water and after emerging from water while in a roosting position. There is no evidence that the freckled duck dust bathes or requires any other substrate for bathing.
Reproductive behaviour
The freckled duck is a polygamous species that undertakes short term, seasonal monogamous pairings in the wild. In this short term pairing, the male defends the receptive female during the pre-egg laying stage of the breeding season. During this time, the male also helps construct and defend the nest site—but leaves before the female lays her clutch, and plays no further role in rearing or defending his offspring.
The freckled duck has few pre or post copulatory behaviours. Copulation occurs in the water with the male approaching a receptive female, who adopts a semi-submerged orientation, with her head stretched outwards and tail raised. The male then mounts the female and clutches the feathers on the lower neck of the female during copulation. After dismounting, both sexes display bathing and preening behaviours.
The breeding season of the freckled duck is basically regular, with a generic breeding season between September and December. However, it retains the ability to breed out of season. Breeding out of season highly correlates with periods of heavy rainfall and flooding.
Both male and female freckled ducks reach sexual maturity at around 12 months of ages when the first breeding occurrence can commence. The freckled duck has been known to continue breeding annually throughout their life, with records suggesting successful breeding in birds in excess to 10 years of age.
The freckled duck has a standard incubation period of between 26 and 28 days, though some sources have recorded incubation periods of up to 35 days. The female is solely responsible for egg incubation and only leaves the eggs for short periods to feed.
The average clutch is seven eggs, but can range between four and 14 eggs. Clutches of up to 14 eggs can occur naturally, though this occurrence mainly appears to be the result of females 'dumping' additional eggs into another female's nest. This occurrence is common within freckled duck populations as it enables the offending females to pass on their genetic material while not expending energy to raise their hatchlings.
The eggs of the freckled duck are glossy, smooth and almost perfectly oval in shape. They are white in colour, ranging from shades of cream to ivory. The freckled duck egg is unique, having an exceptionally thick but soft shell unlike that of any other species. Egg measurements usually fall between 60-65mm by 45-48mm and weigh an average of 66g.
Freckled duck hatchlings are precocial, meaning they hatch fully functional and able to feed themselves. Despite this, they still need their mother for the best chance of survival. Apart from protection, the hatchlings need the mother to teach them important social cues and behaviours.
The ducklings fledge late compared with other waterfowl species, at nine weeks, when they no longer need their mother's protection. At this point, the mother and fledglings are likely to re-join a larger flock.(Flinchum, 2005)
In captivity
Historically, the freckled duck has been kept with limited success in captivity and ironing out the issues with captive life is still an ongoing issue. Issues with stress, breeding and mortality rates of chicks are amongst the biggest issues with keeping these ducks in captive environments. In recent years some of these concerns have been mitigated with establishments such as the Hunter Wetlands Australia and Slimbridge Wetlands UK implementing successful breeding programs, with chicks surviving to adulthood.
The freckled duck is a highly compatible species, with various establishments holding this species in groups of various sizes, sex ratios and species with no interspecific or intraspecific aggression. However, there has been limited success with breeding programs when housed in mixed exhibits.
Behavioural considerations are another consideration to take into account when holding a captive population of freckled ducks. The most important of these considerations is the possibility of imprinting on a subject other than the mother. Imprinting is an instinctual phenomenon that occurs early on in life whereby the juvenile establishes a long lasting behavioural response to the parent (or another animal, person or thing that is present during the crucial imprinting period). Imprinting on human keepers is a serious consideration, as hatchlings require the mother to learn important behaviour traits—including vocalisations, feeding, and other important attributes.
Conservation
The species is currently classified as Least Concern by the IUCN. Population numbers show no definite trend, but appear to be fluctuating quite strongly, with an assessment in 2016 of 7,300 - 17,000 mature individuals. Threats include misidentification of this protected species as a game bird and consequent shooting by hunters. The ongoing destruction of swamp habitat by water diversion schemes is thought to have the capacity to result in a population decline of up to 20% within the next 15 years.
References
freckled duck
freckled duck
Endemic birds of Australia
freckled duck | [
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|
213393 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanopica | Cyanopica | Cyanopica is a genus of magpie in the family Corvidae. They belong to a common lineage with the genus Perisoreus. The generic name is derived from the Latin words cyanos, meaning "lapis lazuli," and pica, meaning "magpie".
Species
References
Bird genera
Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte | [
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|
213394 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Morello | Tom Morello | Thomas Baptist "Tom" Morello (born May 30, 1964) is an American musician, singer, rapper, songwriter, actor, and political activist. He is best known for his tenure with the rock band Rage Against the Machine and then with Audioslave. Between 2016 and 2019, Morello was a member of the supergroup Prophets of Rage. Morello was also a touring musician with Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band. He is also known for his acoustic solo act, the Nightwatchman, and Street Sweeper Social Club. Morello co-founded Axis of Justice, which airs a monthly program on Pacifica Radio station KPFK (90.7 FM) in Los Angeles.
Born in Harlem, New York, and raised in Libertyville, Illinois, Morello became interested in music and politics while in high school. He attended Harvard University and earned a Bachelor of Arts degree from the Committee on Degrees in Social Studies. After his previous band Lock Up disbanded, Morello met Zack de la Rocha. The two founded Rage Against the Machine together, going on to become one of the more popular and influential rock acts of the 1990s.
He is best known for his unique and creative guitar playing style, which incorporates feedback noise, unconventional picking, and tapping, as well as heavy use of guitar effects. Morello is also known for his socialist political views and activism; creating the Nightwatchman offered an outlet for his views while playing apolitical music with Audioslave. He was ranked number 40 in Rolling Stone magazine's list of the "100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time".
Early life
Morello was born on May 30, 1964, in Harlem, New York, to Ngethe Njoroge and Mary Morello. Morello, an only child, is the son of an American mother of Italian and Irish descent and a Kikuyu Kenyan father. His mother was a schoolteacher from Marseilles, Illinois, who earned a Master of Arts at Loyola University, Chicago and traveled to Germany, Spain, Japan, and Kenya as an English language teacher between 1977 and 1983.
His father, Ngethe Njoroge, participated in the Mau Mau Uprising (1952–1960) and was Kenya's first ambassador to the United Nations. Morello's paternal great-uncle, Jomo Kenyatta, was the first elected president of Kenya. His aunt, Jemimah Gecaga, was the first woman to serve in the legislature of Kenya; and his uncle Njoroge Mungai was a Kenyan Cabinet Minister, Member of Parliament, and was considered one of the founding fathers of modern Kenya. His parents met in August 1963 while attending a pro-democracy protest in Nairobi, Kenya. After discovering her pregnancy, Mary Morello returned to the United States with Njoroge in November and married in New York City.
When Morello was 16 months old, Njoroge returned to his native Kenya and denied his paternity of his son. Morello was raised by his mother in Libertyville, Illinois and attended Libertyville High School, where his mother was a U.S. history teacher. She was the homeroom teacher for Morello's classmate and fellow guitarist Adam Jones, later of the band Tool. Morello sang in the school choir and was active in the speech and drama clubs; a prominent role he played was that of Oberon in A Midsummer Night's Dream.
Morello developed left-leaning political proclivities early, and has described himself as having been "the only anarchist in a conservative high school", and has since identified as a nonsectarian socialist. In the 1980 mock elections at Libertyville, he campaigned for a fictitious anarchist "candidate" named Hubie Maxwell, who came in fourth place in the election. He also wrote a piece headlined "South Africa: Racist Fascism That We Support" for the school alternative newspaper, The Student Pulse.
Morello graduated from high school with honors in June 1982 and enrolled at Harvard University as a political science student that autumn. Morello graduated in 1986 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in social studies. He moved to Los Angeles, where he supported himself, first by working as a stripper.When I graduated from Harvard and moved to Hollywood, I was unemployable. I was literally starving, so I had to work menial labor and, at one point, I even worked as an exotic dancer. 'Brick House' (by the Commodores) was my jam! I did bachelorette parties and I'd go down to my boxer shorts. Would I go further? All I can say is thank God it was in the time before YouTube! You could make decent money doing that job – people do what they have to do. Adam Jones, his high school classmate, moved to Los Angeles as well; Morello introduced Jones and Maynard James Keenan to Danny Carey, who would come to form the band Tool.
From 1987 to 1988, Morello worked in the office of United States Senator Alan Cranston (D-CA); however, this proved to be a negative experience for Morello, who decided never to pursue a career in politics.I never had any real desire to work in politics but if there was any ember burning in me, it was extinguished working in that job because of two things: one of them was the fact that 80 per cent of the time I spent with the Senator, he was on the phone asking rich people for money. It just made me understand that the whole business was dirty. He had to compromise his entire being every day. The other was the time a woman phoned up to the office and wanted to complain that there were Mexicans moving into her neighborhood. I said to her, 'Ma'am, you're a damn racist', and she was indignant. I thought I was representing our cause well, but I got yelled at for a week by everyone for saying that! I thought to myself that if I'm in a job where I can't call a damn racist a damn racist, then it's not for me.
Musical influences
At age 13, Morello joined his first band, a cover band called Nebula, as the lead singer; Nebula covered material by bands including Led Zeppelin, Steve Miller Band, and Bachman–Turner Overdrive. At this same age, Morello purchased his first guitar. Around 1982, Morello first started studying the guitar seriously. He had formed a band in the same year called the Electric Sheep, featuring future Tool guitarist Adam Jones on bass. He wrote original material for the band that included politically charged lyrics. He has said that he was profoundly influenced by Run-D.M.C, and Jam Master Jay in particular. This influence can be heard in songs like "Bulls on Parade" where his guitar solos mimic a DJ scratching. Additionally, the Bomb Squad and Public Enemy has had a large impact on his musical style.
At the time, Morello's musical tastes lay in the direction of hard rock and heavy metal, particularly Kiss and Iron Maiden. As he stated in Flight 666, he is a huge fan of Piece of Mind, Alice Cooper, Led Zeppelin, and Black Sabbath. In an interview with MTV he said Black Sabbath "set the standard for all heavy bands to come". He cited Sabbath guitarist Tony Iommi as one of his biggest influences as a riff writer. Morello developed his own unique sound through the electric guitar. Later, his musical style and politics were greatly influenced by punk rock bands like the Clash, the Sex Pistols, and Devo, and artists such as Bruce Springsteen and Bob Dylan. On Queen he said, "It's one of the few bands in the history of rock music that was actually best in a stadium. And I miss Freddie Mercury very much."
Recording career
Lock Up (1987–1990)
In the mid 1980s, Morello founded the band Lock Up, for which he played guitar. The band's debut album, Something Bitchin' This Way Comes, was issued by major label Geffen Records in 1989. Lock Up had disbanded prior to Morello forming Rage Against the Machine.
Rage Against the Machine (1991–2000; 2007–2011, 2019–present)
In 1991, Morello was looking to form a new band after Lock Up disbanded. Morello was impressed by Zack de la Rocha's freestyle rapping and asked him to join his band. He also drafted drummer Brad Wilk, who he knew from Lock Up, where Wilk unsuccessfully auditioned for a drumming spot. The band's lineup was completed when Zack convinced his childhood friend Tim Commerford to play bass. After frequenting the L.A. club circuit, Rage Against the Machine signed a record deal with Epic Records in 1992. That same year, the band released their self titled debut. They achieved a considerable amount of mainstream success and released three more studio albums.
In August 2000 in Los Angeles during the Democratic National Convention, Rage Against the Machine performed outside the Staples Center to a crowd numbering in the thousands while the Convention took place inside. After several audience members began to throw rocks, the Los Angeles Police Department turned off the power and ordered the audience to disperse, firing rubber bullets and pepper spray into the crowd.
In late 2000, amid disagreements on the band's direction and Commerford's stunt at the VMA's, the disgruntled de la Rocha quit the band. On September 13, 2000, Rage Against the Machine performed their last concert at the Grand Olympic Auditorium in Los Angeles. Although Rage Against the Machine officially disbanded in October 2000, their fourth studio album, Renegades, became a collection of cover songs from artists such as Bob Dylan, MC5, Bruce Springsteen and Cypress Hill. 2003 saw the release of their last album, titled Live at the Grand Olympic Auditorium, an edited recording of the band's final two concerts on September 12 and 13, 2000 at the Grand Olympic Auditorium in Los Angeles. It was accompanied by an expanded DVD release of the last show and included a previously unreleased music video for "Bombtrack".
After disbanding, Morello, Wilk, and Commerford went on to form Audioslave with then-former Soundgarden singer Chris Cornell and released three albums and a DVD from the band's concert in Cuba. De la Rocha started working on a solo album collaboration with DJ Shadow, Company Flow, and the Roots' Questlove, the project was dropped in favor of working with Nine Inch Nails' Trent Reznor. Recording was completed, but the album will probably never be released. So far, only two tracks have been released: "We Want It All" was featured on "Songs and Artists that Inspired Fahrenheit 9/11", and "Digging For Windows" was released as a single.
Reunion
On April 29, 2007, Rage Against the Machine reunited at the Coachella Music Festival. The band played in front of an EZLN backdrop to the largest crowds of the festival. The performance was initially thought to be a one-off, but this turned out not to be the case. The band played seven more shows in the United States in 2007 (including their first non-festival concert in seven years at the Alpine Valley Music Theater in East Troy, Wisconsin), and in January 2008, they played their first shows outside the US since re-forming as part of the Big Day Out Festival in Australia and New Zealand. In August 2008 they headlined nights at the Reading and Leeds festivals.
The band has since continued to tour around the world, headlining many large festivals in Europe and the United States, including Lollapalooza in Chicago. In 2008 the band also played shows in Denver, Colorado and Minneapolis, Minnesota to coincide with the Democratic National Convention and Republican National Convention, respectively. In July 2011, Rage Against the Machine played at L.A. Rising, a concert formed by the band in Los Angeles, in which they headlined and played with other artists including Muse and Rise Against.
On November 1, 2019, it was reported that Rage Against the Machine were reuniting for their first shows in nine years in the spring of 2020, including two appearances at that year's Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival. The summer 2020 planned tour was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Audioslave (2001–2007, 2017)
After de la Rocha left Rage Against the Machine, the remaining bandmates began collaborating with former Soundgarden vocalist Chris Cornell at the suggestion of producer Rick Rubin. The new group was first rumored to be called the Civilian Project, but the name Audioslave was confirmed before their first album was released.
The band released their eponymous debut album on November 19, 2002. It was a critical and commercial success, attaining triple-platinum status.
The band released their second album, Out of Exile, on May 24, 2005. It debuted at number 1 on the Billboard charts and attained platinum status. In the same year, they released a DVD documenting their trip as the first American rock band to play a free show in Cuba. The band's third album, Revelations, was released in the fall of 2006. As of February 15, 2007, Audioslave had broken up as a result of frontman Cornell's departure due to "irresolvable personality conflicts". The band reunited with Zack de la Rocha and resumed their previous band, Rage Against the Machine.
Audioslave reunited for only one show in January 2017, and there were talks about a reunion tour. However, Cornell's death on May 18, 2017, eliminated such possibility.
The Nightwatchman (2003–present)
Morello writes and performs folk music under the alias the Nightwatchman. He has explained:
In November 2003 the Nightwatchman joined artists Billy Bragg, Lester Chambers of the Chambers Brothers, Steve Earle, Jill Sobule, Boots Riley of the Coup and Mike Mills of R.E.M. on the Tell Us the Truth Tour. The thirteen-city tour was supported by unions, environmental and media reform groups including Common Cause, Free Press and A.F.L.-C.I.O. with the ultimate goal of "informing music fans, and exposing and challenging the failures of the major media outlets in the United States." Morello explained: "Media consolidation needs smashing and globalization needs unmasking. When presidents and politicians lie, it is the job of the press to expose those lies. When the press fails, the gangstas come out from hiding. The lie becomes the law. The point of the Tell Us the Truth Tour is to help others make connections, and to show them that activism can change the policies of this country."
One of his many songs, "No One Left", which compares the aftermath of September 11 to that of a U.S. attack on Iraq, appears on the album Songs and Artists that Inspired Fahrenheit 9/11. The Nightwatchman also appeared on the album/DVD Axis Of Justice: Concert Series Volume 1, contributing the songs "Until the End", "The Road I Must Travel", and "Union Song". Morello, as the Nightwatchman, released his debut solo album, One Man Revolution, on April 24, 2007. The Nightwatchman joined the Dave Matthews Band for its short European tour in May 2007. As well as opening for the Dave Matthews Band, he was invited to guest on a couple of songs each night. The last night of this Morello/DMB arrangement was May 30, 2007 at Wembley Arena in London, on Morello's birthday. The Nightwatchman supported Ben Harper on tour. During this tour, Morello joined Harper onstage for a cover of Bob Dylan's "Masters of War", on which he plays the electric guitar in the style for which he's best known.
Morello has presided over a Hotel Café residency in L.A. since November 2007, which has featured many of his musical cohorts, including Serj Tankian, Perry Farrell, Jon Foreman of Switchfoot, Shooter Jennings, Nuno Bettencourt, Sen Dog of Cypress Hill, Jill Sobule, Boots Riley, Alexi Murdoch, Wayne Kramer of MC5 and others. On October 10, 2008, the Nightwatchman appeared on The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson as a musical guest, promoting his new album The Fabled City. On December 17, 2011, Morello performed a live set for "Guitar Center Sessions" on DirecTV. The episode included an interview with program host, Nic Harcourt. Morello, as the Night Watchman, contributed a version of "Blind Willie McTell" on the Chimes Of Freedom: The Songs Of Bob Dylan Honoring 50 Years Of Amnesty International tribute album released in 2012.
On February 2, 2019, Morello made a guest appearance at the Foo Fighters pre-Super Bowl 53 concert in Atlanta, along with Zac Brown, for a cover of Black Sabbath's "War Pigs".
Street Sweeper Social Club (2006–present)
Following Audioslave's breakup in 2007, Morello met up with Boots Riley of the Coup, suggesting that they start a band which Morello had named Street Sweeper. After giving Riley a tape of various songs to write to, the two created the duo Street Sweeper Social Club.
Street Sweeper Social Club opened for Nine Inch Nails and Jane's Addiction in May 2009.
Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band (2008–2015)
In April 2008, Morello made two guest appearances with Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band at the Honda Center in Anaheim. They performed an extended electric version, featuring guitar solos, of "The Ghost of Tom Joad" (which had previously been covered by Rage Against the Machine on Renegades). One of these performance was included on Springsteen's Magic Tour Highlights EP as an audio track or video download. On October 29, 2009, Morello performed at the 25th Anniversary Rock & Roll Hall of Fame Concert at Madison Square Garden. He performed "The Ghost of Tom Joad", "London Calling", "Badlands", and "(Your Love Keeps Lifting Me) Higher and Higher" with Springsteen and the E Street Band.
Morello appears on two songs on Springsteen's 2012 album Wrecking Ball. He joined Springsteen, the E Street Band, and the Roots on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon to preview the album prior to its release. On December 4, 2012, Morello again joined Springsteen and the E Street Band for five songs during a concert in Anaheim. On January 17, 2013, it was announced that Morello would temporarily join Springsteen and the E Street Band on the March 2013 Australian leg of their Wrecking Ball Tour, filling in for longtime E Street Band guitarist Steve Van Zandt, who had scheduling conflicts filming the TV series Lilyhammer in Norway. During the tour, Morello joined the band in the studio to record new music.
The material Morello recorded with Springsteen appeared on Springsteen's 18th studio album, High Hopes, which was released in January 2014. Morello appears on eight of the album's 11 tracks and shares lead vocals with Springsteen on a re-recording of "The Ghost of Tom Joad". It was Morello who originally suggested that Springsteen perform the title track during a concert for the first time in March 2013. Springsteen had previously recorded the song in 1995, and the 2013 performance led to its re-recording, which subsequently developed into the album of the same name. Springsteen heavily credits Morello as being a major inspiration for the album by saying he was "my muse" and "he pushed the rest of this project to another level". Morello subsequently appeared alongside Springsteen and the E Street Band during a January 2014 appearance on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon and then on the ensuing High Hopes Tour which came to an end in May 2014. Springsteen's subsequent The River Tour 2016 featured a smaller lineup without Morello.
Morello made a surprise appearance during Springsteen and the E Street Band's The River Tour 2016 show on August 25, 2016, at MetLife Stadium in New Jersey, where he joined them on "Death to My Hometown", "American Skin (41 Shots)", "The Ghost of Tom Joad" and "Badlands".
Prophets of Rage (2016–2019)
Prophets of Rage formed in 2016. The supergroup consists of Morello, Rage Against the Machine's bassist and backing vocalist Tim Commerford, and drummer Brad Wilk, with Public Enemy's Chuck D and DJ Lord and Cypress Hill's B-Real. Morello declared to Rolling Stone: "We're an elite task force of revolutionary musicians determined to confront this mountain of election year bullshit, and confront it head-on with Marshall stacks blazing."
The band's name derives from the title of the Public Enemy song "Prophets of Rage" from their 1988 album It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back. To coincide with their protest performance at the Republican National Convention, the band released their debut single, entitled "Prophets of Rage". The group released the EP, "The Party's Over" in 2016, and the LP "Prophets of Rage" in 2017. The band began their "Make America Rage Again" tour of North America during the summer of 2016 and continued to tour through 2018. With the announcement of 2020 reunion of Rage Against the Machine, Prophets of Rage disbanded.
The Atlas Underground (2018)
On July 26, Morello announced a new solo album titled The Atlas Underground featuring collaborations with Marcus Mumford, Portugal. The Man, Bassnectar, the Wu-Tang Clan's RZA and GZA, Vic Mensa, K.Flay, Big Boi, Gary Clark Jr., Pretty Lights, Killer Mike, Tim McIlrath, Steve Aoki and Whethan. The first songs released from the album are "We Don't Need You" featuring Vic Mensa and "Battle Sirens" featuring Knife Party. The Atlas Underground was released on October 12, 2018.
The Atlas Underground Fire (2021)
On Sept 21, 2021 Tom released a new song called ‘Let’s Get The Party Started’ featuring members of Bring Me The Horizon. He followed this with the October 15, 2021 release of his second solo album, The Atlas Underground Fire. Like his first album, this included a diverse array of collaborations, with Bruce Springsteen, Eddie Vedder, Bring Me The Horizon, Phantogram, Chris Stapleton, grandson, Mike Posner, Damian Marley, phem, Protohype, Dennis Lyxzén of Refused, and Sama' Abdulhadi.
Other side projects (1992–present)
In 1992, Morello collaborated with American rap group Run-DMC on the song "Big Willie", which later appeared on their 1993 album, Down with the King. Morello and RATM bandmate Brad Wilk joined with Maynard James Keenan of Tool and Billy Gould of Faith No More to record the song "Calling Dr. Love" for the 1994 Kiss tribute album Kiss My Ass. The lineup was billed as Shandi's Addiction. Morello played lead guitar and produced on three tracks of Primus' 1999 studio album Antipop. Morello played the guitar on The Faculty soundtrack, featured with Class of '99 for their cover of Pink Floyd's "Another Brick in the Wall (pt. 2)". Morello recorded guitars along with country legend Johnny Cash during his late career with American Recordings, which was released on Unearthed. Morello was the executive producer of Anti-Flag's 2003 studio album "The Terror State." Morello played a short solo on the Benny Mason band song "Exodus IV".
As the Nightwatchman, Morello has often performed alongside Boots Riley, frontman of the Coup; also, he produced and performed on a track for the Coup's 2006 release Pick a Bigger Weapon. In July 2006, it was reported that Morello and Riley were to collaborate on a project called Street Sweepers (see section above). Morello appears in Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock as a "guitar boss" (the first of 3 in the career mode of the game) in a night club. Beating him in a one-on-one battle (playing an original composition he recorded for the game) will unlock him as a playable character and will result in the player and Morello playing the master track of "Bulls on Parade" as an encore immediately following the battle. Morello's original composition features many of his trademark guitar effects like those heard in songs such as Audioslave's "Cochise" and "Doesn't Remind Me" and Rage Against the Machine's "Bulls on Parade" and "Sleep Now in the Fire".
In April 2006, Morello produced two tracks for the group Outernational; on the band's website, it states that Morello will be producing their debut album. In 2007, Morello was a featured guitarist in the Mortal Kombat: Armageddon official soundtrack, playing guitar for the Armory stage's battle music. On February 23, 2010, Cypress Hill released the second single, "Rise Up", from their album Rise Up featuring Morello on guitar. He is also featured on the track "Shut 'Em Down" from the same album, unlike "Rise Up", which is very similar in style to Morello's rap metal band Rage Against the Machine, it contains strong Latin and punk influences. On November 2, 2010, Travis Barker and Morello released a song alongside RZA & Raekwon called "Carry It". It would later appear on Travis's debut solo album Give the Drummer Some. Like "Rise Up", it is very similar in style to Morello's previous band Rage Against the Machine.
He is collaborating with David Rovics' latest album. Morello was featured in the song "Opinion" in the eponymous debut album by Device, which was released in April 2013. Morello is featured on Linkin Park's album The Hunting Party on the song "Drawbar," released on June 17, 2014. Morello plays the guitar solo of the song "Without End" on Anti-Flag's studio album American Spring released on May 26, 2015. In March 2016, Morello appeared with Knife Party and Pendulum as a guest at Ultra Music Festival Miami. Songs played featuring Morello's guitar work included "Battle Sirens" from his upcoming album The Atlas Underground and a mashup of the two co-headliners entitled "Pendulum VS Knife Party - Tarantula VS Bonfire." Tom, along with Michael Moore and others involved in the film industry, is also a board member of the Traverse City Film Festival, an annual event that takes place at the end of July, in Traverse City, Michigan.
On February 24, 2019, Morello appeared as a presenter at the 91st Academy Awards. In February 2021, Morello was featured on The Pretty Reckless song "And So It Went" on their album Death by Rock and Roll. In April 2021, Morello released a new song and music video with Pussy Riot, Weather Strike. He has also hosted his own weekly show, One Man Revolution, on the Lithium channel at SiriusXM. He will join an additional weekly show beginning March 2, 2021, and also an original podcast starting March 3, 2021.
Appearances in films
Morello has appeared as himself in an array of documentary films; such as Sounds Like a Revolution, Iron Maiden: Flight 666, about heavy metal band Iron Maiden's Somewhere Back in Time World Tour, Iron Man (as a terrorist) and in Chevolution, an exposé about the famous Guerrillero Heroico photo of Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara. In addition, Morello was cast as an uncredited Son'a officer in Star Trek: Insurrection and later did a cameo in the Star Trek: Voyager episode Good Shepherd, and appeared in the film Made.
Morello was featured in the 2012 documentary film Let Fury Have the Hour by writer and director Antonino D'Ambrosio, where Morello talks about world citizenship, creative activism and his support for workers' rights.
Writing
In 2011, it was announced that Morello, a lifelong comic book fan, would write a new 12-issue comic book series for Dark Horse Comics, entitled Orchid. The series is a post-apocalyptic story in which the title character is "a teenage prostitute who learns that she is more than the role society has imposed upon her." The first issue was published in October 2011, and Morello released an exclusive new song to accompany each issue. Orchid is illustrated by Canadian artist Scott Hepburn. The series was collected into three trade paperback volumes released in 2012 and 2013.
The release party sponsored by Dark Horse was held at Jetpack Comics in Rochester, New Hampshire on October 12, 2011.
Morello contributed a written introduction to the 2016 edition of The Big Red Songbook, a compendium of wobbly protest music.
In 2021, Morello started publishing a regular newsletter in the New York Times.
Guitar playing technique
Morello is famed for his guitar style, which consists of heavy metal/punk hybrid riffs and hip hop-inspired sounds. A 1993 Melody Maker live review of a Rage Against The Machine gig, said "Guitarist Tom Morello wears his guitar high up to wring every sound out of it. Falling bombs, police sirens, scratching - he can do them all."
To produce his guitar sounds, Morello chooses various effects pedals. During his tenure in RATM, he used a Dunlop Cry Baby, a DigiTech WH-1 Whammy, a Boss DD-2 Digital Delay, a DOD EQ pedal (set flat and just used to boost the volume during guitar solos or particular rocking moments), and an Ibanez DFL Flanger. Around the time of The Battle of Los Angeles he added a Boss TR-2 Tremolo pedal (which can be heard on "Guerrilla Radio"). For Audioslave, Morello replaced the Ibanez Flanger with an MXR Phase 90. His amplifier of choice has always been a 50-watt Marshall JCM 800 2205 and a Peavey 4x12 cabinet. While the Marshall amplifier has two channels, he only uses the overdrive channel, and simply lowers the volume on his guitar to get cleaner sounds.
In the studio, Morello uses the same setup for the bulk of the guitar tracks. For The Battle of Los Angeles, he also used a few other amplifiers, such as a Line 6 as heard on the clean, spacey intro of "Mic Check", plus a Pignose mini-amplifier and a MusicMan "Twin" style amplifier. During the recording of Audioslave's last album, Revelations, Morello experimented with different amplifier setups. For the title track's solo he split his signal to his standard Marshall 2205 head and Peavey cabinet and a 100 watt Fender Bassman head and an Orange cabinet. With delay sent to one while the other is unaffected the sound is being "ping-ponged" between the two amplifiers. He also borrowed a Vox AC30 amplifier from producer Brendan O'Brien for some tracks.
Morello's unique technique and talent led to him being voted the fifth greatest guitarist of the past 30 years in a 2010 BBC poll.
Politics
Political views
Morello, as well as fellow members of Rage Against the Machine, hold left-leaning political views. Morello in particular identifies as a socialist, and has called socialism a "necessity" for the world, saying “I think [socialism is] a necessity, to save the planet [...] Look at how capitalism has responded to the global pandemic – it’s a disaster. Look at how capitalism has responded to the impending environmental crisis – it’s a disaster. Look at how capitalism has responded to racism and anti-immigrant sentiment in the 21st century – it’s a disaster.”
Morello frequently uses communist imagery, such as hammer and sickle stickers on his guitars, and Red star hats. Following the death of Cuban president Fidel Castro, he expressed support saying "While I don’t agree with all that Fidel Castro did there is ample reason why he is vilified in the US and yet remains a huge hero throughout the Third World [...] By defying Yankee imperialism for 50 years, instituting the best healthcare, child immunization and literacy systems in the Western Hemisphere (surpassing the US and Canada), exporting doctors to countries in need all over the globe [...], and being an unrepentant advocate of the poor and exploited it is no surprise that millions will mourn his passing."
In his childhood, he cites the Black Panther party, Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara and radical left militant organization Weather Underground as "Very important to [him]. These were people who unapologetically stood up to injustice with the most forceful means necessary."
His band has expressed support for guerrilla movements such as the Zapatista Army of National Liberation, Shining Path as well as social and political movements such as the Brazilian Landless Workers' Movement.
Activism
Morello, with fellow members of Rage Against the Machine, protested the "Parental Advisory" sticker on explicit albums and singles on the part of the Parents Music Resource Center, spearheaded by Tipper Gore. The protest consisted of the band refusing to perform at Lollapalooza 1993. They took the stage naked, mouths covered in duct tape, and bodies painted with the organization's abbreviation, PMRC. Instead of performing, the band allowed their instruments to feedback for 14 minutes.
Morello is a member of the labor union the Industrial Workers of the World.
On August 27, 2008, Morello performed in Denver, Colorado at the Open the Debates rally in opposition to the Commission on Presidential Debates exclusion of third party candidates from the nationally televised debates. He performed "This Land is Your Land" as the Nightwatchman and endorsed independent presidential candidate Ralph Nader. Sean Penn, Jello Biafra, Brooke Smith and Cindy Sheehan were also part of the rally.
In October 2009, Morello, among a number of musicians, sued the U.S. government for the declassification of all documents relating to the use of music in interrogations at the Guantanamo Bay detention camp. He stated, "Guantanamo is known around the world as one of the places where human beings have been tortured - from waterboarding to stripping, hooding and forcing detainees into humiliating sexual acts - playing music for 72 hours in a row at volumes just below that to shatter the eardrums. Guantanamo may be Dick Cheney's idea of America, but it's not mine. The fact that music I helped create was used in crimes against humanity sickens me."
On February 21, 2011, Morello organized and performed an acoustic concert in support of the protests over collective bargaining rights in Madison, WI. The concert also featured the MC5's Wayne Kramer and Boston punk band Street Dogs. He wrote an article in Rolling Stone about his experience.
Recently, Morello has played at many Occupy movements, including Occupy Wall Street as well as Occupy Los Angeles, San Francisco, Chicago, Seattle, Vancouver, British Columbia, Nottingham and Newcastle, England protests.
When Republican nominee for vice president in the 2012 election Paul Ryan said that he liked the music of Beethoven, Rage Against the Machine and Led Zeppelin, Morello responded with an op-ed in Rolling Stone stating that, "Paul Ryan's love for Rage Against The Machine is amusing, because he is the embodiment of the machine that our music has been raging against for two decades."
In June 2013, Morello and numerous other celebrities appeared in a video showing support for Chelsea Manning.
On September 26, 2014, Morello played a benefit concert for 15 Now, the group launched by Socialist Alternative and Kshama Sawant to raise the minimum wage to $15/hour. The concert was aimed at expanding the organization nationally.
Axis of Justice
Morello and Serj Tankian of System of a Down are the co-founders of Axis of Justice, a political group whose declared purpose is "to bring together musicians, fans of music, and grassroots political organizations to fight for social justice together." They "aim to build a bridge between fans of music around the world and local political organizations to effectively organize around issues of peace, human rights, and economic justice." The group has worked for such causes as immigrant rights and death-penalty abolition. Its recommended book list includes such authors as Karl Marx, Che Guevara, George Orwell, Noam Chomsky, Mumia Abu-Jamal and Grant Morrison.
Morello and Tankian, together with a handful of other artists, including Maynard James Keenan, Wayne Kramer of the MC5, the hip hop group Jurassic 5, and Michael "Flea" Balzary of the Red Hot Chili Peppers, released a live recording of covers and original songs, titled Axis of Justice: Concert Series Volume 1.
On April 6, 2006, Morello was honored with the Eleanor Roosevelt Human Rights Award for his support of worker's rights and for his AOJ work. Morello has worked on numerous labor campaigns: the Guess sweatshop boycott, the LA janitors strike, the Taco Bell boycott, the southern California grocery workers strike and lockout, and others.
Morello was a strong supporter of the 2006 United States immigration reform protests around the US. Morello played as the Nightwatchman at MacArthur Park in Los Angeles and has featured many articles on AOJ. On September 28, 2006, Morello was one of 400 protesters arrested protesting in support of immigrant hotel workers' rights, in what organizers called "the largest act of civil disobedience in the history of Los Angeles". Morello knew he was going to be arrested; he wore bright yellow signs, and gave the LAPD his driver's license number a few days before the march. Morello told MTV:
Shining Path
Controversially, Morello has on occasion expressed endorsement of the militant Peruvian communist organisation Shining Path. For example, he carries a sticker of the organisation on one of his guitars and in at least one interview he defends the group by deflecting reports on alleged atrocities.
Personal life
Morello and his wife Denise have two sons, Rhoads (born 2007) and Roman (born April 2011). Morello was raised Catholic and is a vegetarian. He lives in the affluent Laurel Canyon neighborhood of Los Angeles.
Equipment
Guitars
Morello uses heavily modified guitars from various manufacturers. As of recent, Fender has released a replica of his “Soul Power” Stratocaster.
Mongrel Custom "Arm The Homeless" - Morello's most famous guitar, and his primary guitar for standard tuning since 1986. The original guitar was made for Morello by Performance Guitar USA to his exact specifications. It featured a Stratocaster body with a Performance Corsair neck, two Seymour Duncan JB pickups, and a chrome original Floyd Rose tremolo. The guitar was a custom build, however, when he got the guitar he hated everything about it and completely reassembled it. Since then just about everything has been changed countless times and the only thing that remains from the original guitar is the body. According to Morello, he settled on the final version of the guitar around the year 1990 and the guitar's build has remained unmodified ever since. The body is finished in light blue with the words "Arm The Homeless" written on it in black and red. It has a 3-way pickup selector toggle switch mounted on the lower horn, two volume knobs and one tone knob, four hippos painted on the front, one large hippo painted upside down on the back, and a hammer and sickle symbol sticker. The neck is a graphite Kramer knock-off of unknown make with a 22 fret rosewood fretboard and a "banana" or "hockey stick" headstock. The guitar also has Gotoh Crownhead tuners, an EMG 85/EMG H pickup set and an Ibanez Edge double-locking Tremolo. The guitar is tuned to standard E. This guitar is available in the video game Guitar Hero 3: Legends of Rock.
Fender Stratocaster "Soul Power" - A Fender Aerodyne Stratocaster made initially as a Factory Special Run for Guitar Center. Morello found it on the rack and really liked the look of it. It has a black finished body with white binding and a color-matched headstock. It also has a mirror pickguard, Ibanez Edge double-locking Tremolo, a 2-way on/off toggle switch wired as a kill switch on the lower horn, a Seymour Duncan Hotrails pickup in the bridge, and two Fender Noiseless pickups in the middle and neck positions. It has the words "Soul Power" on the top of the body in silver paint and is his main guitar in Audioslave for songs that are in standard E tuning. Much of the guitar is original to the manufacturer's specs, however, Tom did make a few key modifications. The guitar originally features three Fender Noiseless single-coil pickups, but Tom replaced the bridge pickup with a Seymour Duncan Hot Rails Humbucker pickup. Tom also modified the electronics to add a killswitch which he placed under the neck pickup on the treble side horn of the Stratocaster. In 2020, Fender released replicas of the guitar signed by Morello as part of their 2020 Artist Series collection.
Fender Telecaster, "Sendero Luminoso" - A stock black 1982 American-made Standard Telecaster. This is Morello's main guitar for use in drop-D in Rage Against the Machine, Audioslave, Street Sweeper Social Club, and Prophets of Rage. He got this guitar in a trade with his roommate, in which Morello traded a Marshall amplifier head for the Telecaster. The guitar has various pictures taped on its body and most notably has the words "Sendero Luminoso" named after the terrorist group of Peru, classified by the Peruvian government, the United States, the European Union, and Canada as a terrorist organization, carved into the body and then painted in white and red. Also with a small red hammer and sickle communist party sticker.
Fender Telecaster 2. Black with white binding, mirror pickguard, Fender noiseless pickups, and toggle switch on the lower horn. Morello used this guitar when he played with "Fistful of Mercy" on Late Night with Conan O'Brien.
Ibanez Artstar Hollowbody (Custom) - Made especially for Morello by Ibanez, this guitar is based on an old Vox Ultrasonic. It contains several on-board effects (wah, echo, dist, treble/bass boost) and is painted in a red and black "split" design that runs over the whole guitar. Used live on the song "Guerrilla Radio" with Rage Against the Machine but rarely seen anywhere else until it was used in the video clip (and presumably on the studio recording) for Cypress Hill's "Rise Up".
St. George MP-3 "Creamy" - Morello bought this guitar at a Canadian pawn shop for $40 Canadian (about $30 American). It has been modified with a DiMarzio rail pickup in the bridge position. A toggle switch was also added that is dead in the middle position, resulting in a "hummingbird chirp" when toggled. Used as a Drop D tuning guitar for some songs on the RATM record Evil Empire. Used in Rage Against the Machine, Audioslave. Notably used for RATM songs "Calm Like a Bomb" and "Tire Me", the latter of which won the band their first Grammy. Morello stated in a 2012 video for Musician's Friend that he recorded "Tire Me" with the St. George and a 20-watt solid-state amp; he also said he's "not even sure it's made of wood" in the same video.
Ibanez Talman (Custom) - Has three single-coil "lipstick" pickups, an Ibanez Lo-Pro Edge tremolo, a killswitch and a custom Kenyan flag finish. Morello used this guitar on "Revolver", "How I Could Just Kill a Man", and "Pistol Grip Pump" for RATM and "Exploder" for Audioslave. The guitar has a faulty internal pickup that makes odd feedback noises, which Morello can adjust by adjusting the tone knob and using the guitar's tremolo. This technique can be heard at the beginning of RATM's "Revolver", Audioslave's "Exploder", and the live version of Street Sweeper Social Club's "Promenade". In addition to this effect, Morello also uses this guitar for Drop D tuning songs that require a killswitch. Morello also owns a second Talman in a white finish, with two mini-humbuckers.
Gibson EDS-1275 (Double Neck SG) - Cherry finish. Tuned to drop D on both necks. Used live on "The Ghost of Tom Joad" with RATM. Since 2017, with Prophets of Rage, Morello uses it again twice for "Rock Superstar" and on most live renditions of "How I Could Just Kill a Man".
Gibson "Budweiser" Les Paul - Given to him in 2006 by Brendan O'Brien for the recording of Audioslave's third album, Revelations, used throughout the whole record. Originally bearing an orange Budweiser logo that Morello hated and burned off with a lighter. He liked the new appearance and modified the guitar with DiMarzio pickups.
Gibson Les Paul Standard - Orange burst finish. Tuned to drop B for use in Audioslave and Street Sweeper Social Club. Morello also owns two other Les Pauls, one in a Tobacco burst finish used with Street Sweeper Social Club (it can be seen in the video for "100 Little Curses") and another in a Cherry Red finish (which he calls his "Taco Bell Les Paul"), tuned to drop D and used with Audioslave for Soundgarden covers.
James Trussart Steelcaster - A Telecaster style guitar with a body made in steel, finished with a red star graphic over a holey front. Has Seymour Duncan pickups (Alnico pro II in the neck and a Hot rails in bridge) and a killswitch on the lower horn. Seen occasionally on the Rage Against the Machine reunion tour and most recently on the High Hopes tour with Bruce Springsteen. Morello also owns one with a polished finish that was used on early tours.
Ibanez custom guitar "Arm The Homeless duplicate"- Morello's backup guitar for "Arm The Homeless". It has all the same specs as Arm The Homeless (light blue finish, Edge trem, toggle switch on the bottom horn, EMG pickups) but has several small hippos instead of the four larger ones seen on the original guitar. This guitar can be seen briefly in the "Sleep Now in the Fire" music video and is often used live with Prophets of Rage on a few standard tuning songs like Know Your Enemy.
Ovation Breadwinner - Tuned to standard E, used for "Ashes in the Fall" for RATM. Also used with a Music Man amplifier and Tone Bender pedal to capture the Korean radio station audio heard at the end of "Sleep Now in the Fire". Morello owns two other Breadwinners and confines them to the studio because he thinks they look ugly, although he did use one of them in the video for Travis Barker's "Carry It", which he is featured in, and in the video for Prophets of Rage's "Living on the 110".
Music Man St Vincent - Given to him by bandmate Tim Commerford as a gift in 2018.
"Whatever It Takes" guitar - A custom Ibanez Galvador classical acoustic guitar he uses during concerts as the Nightwatchman. Plain body with 'Whatever It Takes' and a star (★) written to the left of the bridge.
"Black Spartacus" guitar - A black Gibson J-45 steel string acoustic guitar Morello uses for The Nightwatchman, used prominently on the World Wide Rebel Songs album. Has Morello's own symbol on the left of the bridge which combines the Kenyan, Italian and American flags along with the hammer and sickle symbols and "Black Spartacus" in white on the top of the guitar. Morello says he wrote the song "Black Spartacus Heart Attack Machine" as a love song for this new guitar, which appears in the music video for this song.
Tanglewood Acoustic Guitar.
Gibson Explorer II - In a gold finish with gold hardware. This was Morello's main guitar in college, although he claims he ruined its sound by installing a Kahler Tremolo System. According to Tom, this was the guitar we acquired in the early 1980s when he felt he needed to upgrade his guitar from the Kay K-20T.
Kay K-20T - Morello's first electric guitar. He bought it for US$50 while his mother bought him an amplifier. It has an SG style body and is finished in cherry red. As of 2012, the guitar is still in Morello's possession and he refers to it as "a good, old friend".
Effects and amplifiers
Morello's amplifier and effects setup has remained practically the same throughout his career in Rage Against the Machine, Audioslave, Street Sweeper Social Club and Prophets of Rage.
Current Pedalboard
Although unconfirmed, it is believed that Morello runs all of his pedals through the effects loop on his Marshall.
Boss TU-3 Chromatic Tuner
DigiTech Whammy WH-1
Dunlop Cry Baby Classic GCB-95F
Boss DD-3 Digital Delay (most recently seen with two DD-3s: one for a dedicated long delay setting for solos, and the other to go between a short, "slapback" setting and an eighth note "ping-pong" long setting)
DOD FX40b Equalizer (Set flat across as a clean volume boost for guitar solos)
MXR Phase 90 M-101 (Replaced Morello's Ibanez Flanger around the time Audioslave was formed, now only used for the intro of Killing in the Name)
Digitech XP-300 "Space Station" (Digitech created this pedal – which imitates a lot of Morello's sounds – after the initial success of Rage Against the Machine. 2019 "Rig Rundown" with Premier Guitar that he only uses a couple of the Space Station's settings)
Past Effects
Dunlop Cry Baby Original GCB-95 (Morello states that his original Cry Baby is an early 80's model. Retired from the stage, but may still be used in the studio)
Boss DD-2 Digital Delay (used in early Rage Against the Machine)
Ibanez DFL Digital Flanger (used in Rage Against the Machine 1991-2000)
Boss TR-2 Tremolo (used in Audioslave 2002–2007, also heard on Guerrilla Radio with Rage Against the Machine)
Amplification
Marshall JCM800 2205 50-watt head (with the Marshall logo blocked out to avoid endorsement proposals)
Peavey VTM 4x12 Cabinet (fitted with four Celestion G12K-85 speakers)
Morello said in his "Rig Rundown" that after his gear was stolen on Valentine's Day years ago, he bought the Marshall head and the Peavey cabinet because he had a session the next weekend and had to "get what [the music store] had." He also removed the Peavey logo from the front of the cabinet because at the time, Hollywood musicians "couldn't be seen with Peavey."
Selected discography
Lock Up
Something Bitchin' This Way Comes (1989)
Rage Against the Machine
Rage Against the Machine (1992)
Evil Empire (1996)
Live & Rare (1998)
The Battle of Los Angeles (1999)
Renegades (2000)
Live at the Grand Olympic Auditorium (2003)
Audioslave
Audioslave (2002)
Out of Exile (2005)
Revelations (2006)
The Nightwatchman
One Man Revolution (2007)
The Fabled City (2008)
Union Town (2011)
World Wide Rebel Songs (2011)
Street Sweeper Social Club
Street Sweeper Social Club (2009)
The Ghetto Blaster EP (2010)
Bruce Springsteen
Wrecking Ball (2012)
High Hopes (2014)
Prophets of Rage
The Party's Over EP (2016)
Prophets of Rage (2017)
Solo
The Atlas Underground (2018)
Comandante (2020)
The Atlas Underground Fire (2021)
The Atlas Underground Flood (2021)
Filmography
Saturday Night Live (Episode #21.17, 1996) .... Musical Guest (Rage Against the Machine)
Star Trek: Insurrection (1998) .... Son'a officer (uncredited)
Star Trek: Voyager (Season 6, Episode 20, 2000, "Good Shepherd") .... Crewman Mitchell
Made (2001) .... Best Man
Berkeley (2005) .... Blue
Metal: A Headbanger's Journey (2005) .... Himself
Iron Man (2008) .... Insurgent #5
Chevolution (2008) .... Himself
Iron Maiden: Flight 666 (2009) .... Himself
Bruce Springsteen's High Hopes (2014) .... Himself
High Hopes In South Africa (2014) .... Himself
References
External links
1964 births
Living people
20th-century American guitarists
20th-century American musicians
21st-century American composers
21st-century American guitarists
21st-century American musicians
Activists from New York (state)
Activists from Illinois
African-American Catholics
African-American guitarists
African-American rock musicians
Alternative metal guitarists
American anti-fascists
American anti–Iraq War activists
American heavy metal guitarists
American male guitarists
American male singer-songwriters
American people of Irish descent
American people of Italian descent
American people of Kenyan descent
American people of Kikuyu descent
American punk rock guitarists
American socialists
Audioslave members
Class of '99 members
Grammy Award winners
Guitarists from Illinois
Guitarists from New York City
Harvard University alumni
Industrial Workers of the World members
Kenyatta family
Lead guitarists
Lock Up (American band) members
Midwest hip hop musicians
Singer-songwriters from Illinois
Singers from New York City
People from Harlem
People from Libertyville, Illinois
Prophets of Rage members
Rage Against the Machine members
Rap metal musicians
African-American songwriters
Mom + Pop Music artists
New West Records artists
Singer-songwriters from New York (state) | [
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|
213395 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azure-winged%20magpie | Azure-winged magpie | The azure-winged magpie (Cyanopica cyanus) is a bird in the crow family. It is 31–35 cm long and similar in overall shape to the Eurasian magpie (Pica pica) but is more slender with proportionately smaller legs and bill. It belongs to the genus Cyanopica.
It has a glossy black top to the head and a white throat. The underparts and the back are a light grey-fawn in colour with the wings and the feathers of the long (16–20 cm) tail an azure blue. It inhabits various types of coniferous (mainly pine) and broadleaf forest, including parks and gardens in the eastern populations.
Distribution and habitat
It occurs over a large region of eastern Asia in most of China, Korea, Japan, and north into Mongolia and southern Siberia. The Iberian magpie from southwestern and central parts of the Iberian Peninsula, in Spain and Portugal was formerly thought to be conspecific, but recent genetic analysis has shown them to be distinct at species level.
Behaviour and ecology
Often azure-winged magpies find food as a family group or several groups making flocks of up to 70 birds. The largest groups congregate after the breeding season and throughout the winter months. Their diet consists mainly of acorns (oak seeds) and pine nuts, extensively supplemented by invertebrates and their larvae, soft fruits and berries, and also human-provided scraps in parks and towns.
This species usually nests in loose, open colonies with a single nest in each tree. There are usually 6–8 eggs that are incubated for 15 days. Azure-winged magpies that have asynchronous broods, creating a size hierarchy among nestlings, produce more eggs and fledge more nestlings than those which have synchronous broods.
The voice is a quick fired and metallic sounding usually preceded by a single .
References
Cyanopica
Birds described in 1776
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|
213396 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellen%20Terry | Ellen Terry | Dame Alice Ellen Terry, (27 February 184721 July 1928), was a leading English actress of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Born into a family of actors, Terry began performing as a child, acting in Shakespeare plays in London, and toured throughout the British provinces in her teens. At 16, she married the 46-year-old artist George Frederic Watts, but they separated within a year. She soon returned to the stage but began a relationship with the architect Edward William Godwin and retired from the stage for six years. She resumed acting in 1874 and was immediately acclaimed for her portrayal of roles in Shakespeare and other classics.
In 1878 she joined Henry Irving's company as his leading lady, and for more than the next two decades she was considered the leading Shakespearean and comic actress in Britain. Two of her most famous roles were Portia in The Merchant of Venice and Beatrice in Much Ado About Nothing. She and Irving also toured with great success in America and Britain.
In 1903 Terry took over management of London's Imperial Theatre, focusing on the plays of George Bernard Shaw and Henrik Ibsen. The venture was a financial failure, and Terry turned to touring and lecturing. She continued to find success on stage until 1920, while also appearing in films from 1916 to 1922. Her career lasted nearly seven decades.
Early life and career
Terry was born in Coventry, England, the third surviving child born into a theatrical family. Her parents, Benjamin (1818–96), of Irish descent, and Sarah (née Ballard, 1819–92), of Scottish ancestry, were comic actors in a Portsmouth-based touring company, (where Sarah's father was a Wesleyan minister) and had 11 children. At least five of them became actors: Kate, Ellen, Marion, Florence, and Fred. Two other children, George and Charles, were connected with theatre management. Kate (the grandmother of Val and John Gielgud) and Marion were particularly successful on stage.
Terry made her first stage appearance at age nine, as Mamillius, opposite Charles Kean as Leontes, in Shakespeare's The Winter's Tale at London's Princess's Theatre in 1856. She also played the roles of Puck in A Midsummer Night's Dream (1856), Prince Arthur in King John (1858), and Fleance in Macbeth (1859), continuing at the Princess's Theatre until the Keans' retirement in 1859. During the theatre's summer closures, Terry's father presented drawing-room entertainments at the Royal Colosseum, Regent's Park, London, and then on tour. In 1859, she appeared in the Tom Taylor comedy Nine Points of the Law at the Olympic Theatre. For the next two years, Terry and her sister Kate toured the British provinces in sketches and plays, accompanied by their parents and a musician.
Between 1861 and 1862, Terry was engaged by the Royalty Theatre in London, managed by Madame Albina de Rhona, where she acted with W. H. Kendal, Charles Wyndham and other rising actors. In 1862, she joined her sister Kate in J. H. Chute's stock company at the Theatre Royal, Bristol, where she played a wide variety of parts, including burlesque roles requiring singing and dancing, as well as roles in Much Ado About Nothing, Othello, and The Merchant of Venice. In 1863, Chute opened the Theatre Royal, Bath, where 15-year-old Terry appeared at the opening as Titania in A Midsummer Night's Dream, then returned to London to join J. B. Buckstone's company at the Haymarket Theatre in Shakespeare roles as well as Sheridan and modern comedies.
Watts, Godwin and return to acting
Terry married three times and was involved in numerous relationships. In London, during her engagement at the Haymarket Theatre, she and her sister Kate had their portraits painted by the eminent artist George Frederic Watts. His famous portraits of Terry include Choosing, in which she must select between earthly vanities, symbolised by showy but scentless camellias, and nobler values symbolised by humble-looking but fragrant violets. His other famous portraits of her include Ophelia and Watchman, and, with Kate, The Sisters. He proposed marriage to Terry in spite of his being three decades her senior. She was impressed with Watts's art and elegant lifestyle, and she wished to please her parents by making an advantageous marriage. She left the stage during the run of Tom Taylor's hit comedy Our American Cousin at the Haymarket, in which she played Mary Meredith.
Terry and Watts married on 20 February 1864 at St Barnabas, Kensington, seven days before her 17th birthday, when Watts was 46. She was uncomfortable in the role of child bride, and Watts's circle of admirers, including Mrs Prinsep, were not welcoming. Terry and Watts separated after only 10 months. However, during that short time, she had the opportunity to meet many cultured, talented and important people, such as poets Robert Browning and Alfred, Lord Tennyson; prime ministers William Ewart Gladstone and Benjamin Disraeli; and photographer Julia Margaret Cameron. Because of Watts's paintings of her and her association with him, she "became a cult figure for poets and painters of the later Pre-Raphaelite and Aesthetic movements, including Oscar Wilde".
She returned to acting by 1866. In 1867, Terry performed in several Tom Taylor pieces, including A Sheep in Wolf's Clothing at the Adelphi Theatre, The Antipodes at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, and Still Waters Run Deep at the Queen's Theatre, Long Acre. She would play there later that year for the first time opposite Henry Irving in the title roles of Katherine and Petruchio, David Garrick's one-act version of The Taming of the Shrew.
In 1868, despite her parents' objection, she began a relationship with the progressive architect-designer and essayist Edward William Godwin, another man whose taste she admired, whom she had met some years before. They retreated to Pigeonwick, a house in Harpenden, where she retired from acting for six years. Terry was still married to Watts, not finalising the divorce until 1877, so she and Godwin could not marry. However, they had a daughter, Edith Craig, in 1869 and a son, Edward Gordon Craig, in 1872. The surname Craig was chosen to avoid the stigma of illegitimacy, but their cohabitation and children born out of wedlock were considered scandalous at the time.
The relationship cooled in 1874 amid Godwin's preoccupation with his architectural practice and financial difficulties. However, even after their 1875 separation, Godwin continued to design Terry's costumes when she returned to the stage. In 1874 Terry played in a number of roles in Charles Reade's works: Philippa Chester in The Wandering Heir; Susan Merton in It's Never Too Late to Mend; and Helen Rolleston in Our Seamen. That same year she performed at the Crystal Palace with Charles Wyndham as Volante in The Honeymoon by John Tobin and as Kate Hardcastle in She Stoops to Conquer by Oliver Goldsmith.
Shakespeare, Irving, Lyceum
In 1875, Terry gave an acclaimed performance as Portia in The Merchant of Venice at the Prince of Wales's Theatre, produced by the Bancrofts. Oscar Wilde wrote a sonnet, upon seeing her in this role: "No woman Veronese looked upon/Was half so fair as thou whom I behold." She recreated this role many times in her career until her last appearance as Portia at London's Old Vic Theatre in 1917.
In 1876 she appeared as Lady Teazle in The School for Scandal, Blanche Haye in a revival of T. W. Robertson's Ours, and the title role in Olivia by William Gorman Wills at the Court Theatre (an adaptation of The Vicar of Wakefield), where she joined the company of John Hare. In November 1877 she married Charles Clavering Wardell (stage name Charles Kelly; 1839–1885), an actor/journalist she had met while appearing in Reade's plays, but they separated in 1881. After this, she finally reconciled with her parents, whom she had not seen since she began to live out-of-wedlock with Godwin.
In 1878 the 30-year-old Terry joined Henry Irving's company at the Lyceum Theatre as its leading lady at a generous salary, beginning with Ophelia opposite Irving's Hamlet. Soon she was regarded as the leading Shakespearean actress in Britain, and in partnership with Irving, she reigned as such for over 20 years until they left the Lyceum in 1902. Their 1879 production of The Merchant of Venice ran for an unusual 250 nights, and success followed success in the Shakespeare canon as well as in Tennyson, Bulwer-Lytton, Reade, Sardou, and plays by other contemporary playwrights, such as W. G. Wills, and other major plays.
In 1879 The Times said of Terry's acting in Paul Terrier's All is Vanity, or the Cynic's Defeat, "Miss Terry's Iris was a performance of inimitable charm, full of movement, ease, and laughter ... the most exquisite harmony and natural grace ... such an Iris might well have turned the head of Diogenes himself." In 1880, at the Lyceum, she played the title role in an adaptation of King René's Daughter called Iolanthe. The Era wrote: "Nothing more winning and enchanting than the grace, and simplicity, and girlish sweetness of the blind Iolanthe as shown by Miss Ellen Terry has within our memory been seen upon the stage. The assumption was delightfully perfect. ... Exquisite ... exercise of the peculiarly fascinating powers of Miss Ellen Terry, who achieved an undoubted triumph ... and was cheered again and again".
Among her most celebrated roles with Irving were Ophelia, Pauline in The Lady of Lyons by Edward Bulwer-Lytton (1878), Portia (1879), Queen Henrietta Maria in William Gorman Wills's drama Charles I (1879), Desdemona in Othello (1881), Camma in Tennyson's short tragedy The Cup (1881), Beatrice in Much Ado About Nothing, another of her signature roles (1882 and often thereafter), Juliet in Romeo and Juliet (1882), Jeanette in The Lyons Mail (1883), the title part in Reade's romantic comedy Nance Oldfield (1883), Viola in Twelfth Night (1884), Margaret in the long-running adaptation of Faust by Wills (1885), the title role in Olivia (1885, which she had played earlier at the Court Theatre), Lady Macbeth in Macbeth (1888, with incidental music by Arthur Sullivan), Queen Katherine in Henry VIII (1892), Cordelia in King Lear (1892), Rosamund de Clifford in Becket by Alfred Tennyson (1893), Guinevere in King Arthur by J. Comyns Carr, with incidental music by Sullivan (1895), Imogen in Cymbeline (1896), the title character in Victorien Sardou and Émile Moreau's play Madame Sans-Gêne (1897) and Volumnia in Coriolanus (1901).
Terry made her American debut in 1883, playing Queen Henrietta opposite Irving in Charles I. Among the other roles she portrayed on this and six subsequent North American tours with Irving were Jeanette, Ophelia, Beatrice, Viola, and her most famous role, Portia. Her last role at the Lyceum was Portia in 1902, after which she toured in the British provinces with Irving and his company that autumn. Whether Irving's relationship with Terry was romantic as well as professional has been the subject of much speculation. According to Sir Michael Holroyd's book about Irving and Terry, A Strange Eventful History, after Irving's death, Terry stated that she and Irving had been lovers and that: "We were terribly in love for a while". Irving was separated, but not divorced from his wife. Terry had separated from Wardell in 1881, and Irving was godfather to both her children. They travelled on holiday together, and Irving wrote tender letters to Terry.
In London, Terry lived in Earls Court with her children and pets during the 1880s, first in Longridge Road, then Barkston Gardens in 1889, but she kept country homes. In 1900, she bought her farmhouse in Small Hythe, Kent, where she lived for the rest of her life. In 1889, her son joined the Lyceum company as an actor, appearing with the company until 1897, when he retired from the stage to study drawing and produce woodblock engravings. Her daughter Edith also played at the Lyceum for several years from 1887, but she eventually turned to stage direction and costume design, creating costumes for Terry, Lillie Langtry, and others early in the 20th century.
Shaw, Ibsen, Barrie
In 1902 Terry played Mistress Page in The Merry Wives of Windsor, with Herbert Beerbohm Tree as Falstaff and Madge Kendal as Mistress Ford. In the 1890s, Terry had struck up a friendship and conducted a famous correspondence with George Bernard Shaw, who wished to begin a theatrical venture with her. In 1903, Terry formed a new theatrical company, taking over management of the Imperial Theatre with her son, after her business partner Irving ended his tenure at the Lyceum in 1902. Here she had complete artistic control and could choose the works in which she would appear, as Irving had done at the Lyceum. The new venture focused on the plays of Shaw and Henrik Ibsen, including the latter's The Vikings in 1903, with Terry as the warlike Hiordis, a misjudged role for her. Theatre management turned out to be a financial failure for Terry, who had hoped the venture would showcase her son's set design and directing talents and her daughter's costume designs. She then toured England, taking engagements in Nottingham, Liverpool, and Wolverhampton, and created the title role in 1905 in J. M. Barrie's Alice-Sit-by-the-Fire at the Duke of York's Theatre. Irving died in 1905, and the distraught Terry briefly left the stage.
She returned to the theatre in April 1906, playing Lady Cecily Wayneflete to acclaim in Shaw's Captain Brassbound's Conversion at the Court Theatre and touring successfully in that role in Britain and America. On 12 June 1906, her golden jubilee was commemorated by a star-studded gala performance at the Drury Lane Theatre, for Terry's benefit, at which Enrico Caruso sang, W. S. Gilbert directed a performance of Trial by Jury, Eleonora Duse, Mrs. Patrick Campbell, Lillie Langtry, Herbert Beerbohm Tree, Nellie Melba, and more than 20 members of Terry's family performed an act of Much Ado about Nothing with her, among other performances. The benefit raised £6,000 for Terry. She next appeared at His Majesty's Theatre as Hermione in Tree's production of The Winter's Tale. In 1907 she toured America in Captain Brassbound's Conversion under the direction of Charles Frohman. During that tour, on 22 March 1907, she married her co-star, American James Carew, who had appeared with her at the Court Theatre. He was 30 years her junior, and the couple separated after two years, although they never divorced. Her acting career continued strongly.
In 1908 she was back at His Majesty's, playing Aunt Imogen in W. Graham Robertson's fairy play Pinkie and the Fairies. She played Nance Oldfield in a A Pageant of Great Women written in 1909 by Cicely Hamilton and directed by Terry's daughter Edith Craig. In 1910 she toured in the provinces and then in the US with much success, acting, giving recitations and lecturing on the Shakespeare heroines. Returning to England, she played roles such as Nell Gwynne in The First Actress (1911) by Christopher St. John (a pseudonym for Christabel Marshall), one of the first productions of the Pioneer Players theatre society, founded in 1911 by Craig and for which Ellen Terry served as President. Also in 1911, she recorded scenes from five Shakespeare roles for the Victor Talking Machine Company, which are the only known recordings of her voice. In 1914 to 1915, Terry toured Australasia, the US and Britain, again reciting and lecturing on the Shakespeare heroines. While in the US, she underwent an operation for the removal of cataracts from both eyes, but the operation was only partly successful. In 1916, she played Darling in Barrie's The Admirable Crichton (1916). During World War I she performed in many war benefits.
Films and last years
In 1916 she appeared in her first film as Julia Lovelace in Her Greatest Performance and continued to act in London and on tour, also making a few more films through 1922, including Victory and Peace (1918), Pillars of Society (1920), Potter's Clay (1922), and The Bohemian Girl (1922) as Buda the nursemaid, with Ivor Novello and Gladys Cooper. During this time, she continued to lecture on Shakespeare throughout England and North America. She also gave scenes from Shakespeare plays in music halls under the management of Oswald Stoll. Her last fully staged role was as the Nurse in Romeo and Juliet at the Lyric Theatre on Shaftesbury Avenue in 1919.
In 1920 she retired from the stage and in 1922 from film. She returned to play Susan Wildersham in Walter de la Mare's fairy play, Crossings, in November 1925 at the Lyric Hammersmith.
In 1922 the University of St Andrews conferred an honorary LLD upon Terry, and in 1925 she was appointed Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire, only the second actress, after Geneviève Ward, to be created a dame for her professional achievements. In her last years, she gradually lost her eyesight and suffered from senility. Stephen Coleridge anonymously published an annotated volume of his correspondence with Terry, The Heart of Ellen Terry, in 1928.
Death
On 21 July 1928, Terry died of a cerebral haemorrhage at her home at Smallhythe Place, near Tenterden, Kent, aged 81. Her son Edward later recalled, "Mother looked 30 years old ... a young beautiful woman lay on the bed, like Juliet on her bier". Margaret Winser created a death mask. Terry was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium. Her ashes are kept in a silver chalice on the right side of the chancel of the actors' church, St Paul's, Covent Garden, London, where a memorial tablet was unveiled by Sir John Martin-Harvey.
Legacy
After her death, the Ellen Terry Memorial Museum was founded by Edith Craig in her mother's memory at Smallhythe Place, an early 16th-century house that she bought at the turn of the 20th century. The museum was taken over by the National Trust in 1947.
Terry's daughter Edith Craig became a theatre director, producer, costume designer, and an early pioneer of the women's suffrage movement in England. Terry's son, Edward Gordon Craig, became an actor, scenery and effects designer, illustrator, and director; he also founded the Gordon Craig School for the Art of the Theatre in Florence, Italy, in 1913. The actor John Gielgud was her great-nephew. Illustrator Helen Craig is Terry's great-granddaughter.
An archive of Ellen Terry memorabilia is held by Coventry University, which also has an Ellen Terry Building, the former Odeon cinema in Jordan's Well.
Gallery
See also
Neilson–Terry Guild of Dramatic Art
Terry family
References
Sources
Auerbach, Nina. Ellen Terry: Player in Her Time (1987) W. W. Norton; (1997) University of Pennsylvania Press
Cockin, Katharine. Edith Craig (1869–1947): Dramatic Lives (1998) Cassell.
Cockin, Katharine (ed.) Ellen Terry, Spheres of Influence (2011) Pickering & Chatto.
Cockin, Katharine (ed.) Ellen Terry: Lives of the Shakespearian Actors (2012) Pickering & Chatto.
Cockin, Katherine (ed.) The Collected Letters of Ellen Terry, Vol. 6, London: Pickering & Chatto (2015)
"Drama: This Week", The Athenæum, 19 January 1895, p. 93.
Foulkes, Richard ed. Henry Irving: A Re-evaluation, (2008) London: Ashgate.
Gielgud, John. An Actor and His Time, Sidgwick and Jackson, London, 1979.
Goodman, Jennifer R. "The Last of Avalon: Henry Irving's King Arthur of 1895", Harvard Library Bulletin, 32.3 (Summer 1984) pp. 239–55.
Hartnoll, Phyllis and Peter Found, The Concise Oxford Companion to the Theatre. (1992) Oxford University Press
Holroyd, Michael. A Strange Eventful History, Farrar Straus Giroux, 2008.
Manvell, Roger. Ellen Terry. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1968.
Melville, Joy. Ellen and Edy. London: Pandora, 1987.
Parker, J. ed., Who's Who in the Theatre, 11th edn (1952)
Prideaux, Tom. Love or Nothing: The Life and Times of Ellen Terry (1976) Scribner.
Scott, Clement. Ellen Terry (1900) New York: Frederick A. Stokes Company, 1900.
Shearer, Moira. Ellen Terry (1998) Sutton.
Stoker, Bram. Personal Reminiscences of Henry Irving, 2 vols. (1906)
Biographies and correspondence
Cheshire, David F. Portrait of Ellen Terry (1989) Amber Lane Press,
Cockin, Katharine (ed). The Collected Letters of Ellen Terry (2010–2017; 8 volumes) London: Pickering & Chatto.
Craig, E. G. Ellen Terry and Her Secret Self (1932)
Ellen Terry and Bernard Shaw: A Correspondence (1931); and The Shaw-Terry Letters: A Romantic Correspondence (both edited by Christopher St. John)
The Heart of Ellen Terry (1928) Ed. Stephen Coleridge [anon.] London; Mills & Boon, Ltd.
Fecher, Constance. Bright Star: a Portrait of Ellen Terry (1970)
Hiatt, C. Ellen Terry and her Impersonations (1908)
Pemberton, Thomas Edgar. Ellen Terry and Her Sisters, London: C.A. Pearson (1902)
R. Manvell, Ellen Terry (1968)
St John, Christopher. Ellen Terry (1907)
(1908) London: Hutchinson & Co; (1982) Schocken Books
External links
Profile and photos of Terry, University of Rochester
Photos and links to Terry information at the Stage Beauty website
Terry bibliography
Paintings and other images of Terry at the National Portrait Gallery
Photos of Terry's home at Smallhythe and of Terry, National Trust
The Ellen Terry Collection held by the Victoria and Albert Museum Theatre and Performance Department.
Victor Catalog listing of recitals by Ellen Terry
1847 births
1928 deaths
19th-century English actresses
20th-century English actresses
Actresses awarded British damehoods
Actresses from Coventry
Actresses from Kent
Dames Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire
Deaths from cerebrovascular disease
English film actresses
English people of Scottish descent
English Shakespearean actresses
English silent film actresses
English stage actresses
People from Tenterden
Terry family
Women of the Victorian era | [
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|
213397 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenz%20Oken | Lorenz Oken | Lorenz Oken (1 August 1779 – 11 August 1851) was a German naturalist, botanist, biologist, and ornithologist.
Oken was born Lorenz Okenfuss () in Bohlsbach (now part of Offenburg), Ortenau, Baden, and studied natural history and medicine at the universities of Freiburg and Würzburg. He went on to the University of Göttingen, where he became a Privatdozent (unsalaried lecturer), and shortened his name to Oken. As Lorenz Oken, he published a small work entitled Grundriss der Naturphilosophie, der Theorie der Sinne, mit der darauf gegründeten Classification der Thiere (1802). This was the first of a series of works which established him as a leader of the movement of "Naturphilosophie" in Germany.
In it he extended to physical science the philosophical principles which Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) had applied to epistemology and morality. Oken had been preceded in this by Gottlieb Fichte (1762–1814), who, acknowledging that Kant had discovered the materials for a universal science, declared that all that was needed was a systematic coordination of these materials. Fichte undertook this task in his "Doctrine of Science" (Wissenschaftslehre), whose aim was to construct all knowledge by a priori means. This attempt, which was merely sketched out by Fichte, was further elaborated by the philosopher Friedrich Schelling (1775–1854). Oken built on Schelling's work, producing a synthesis of what he held Schelling to have achieved.
Oken produced the seven-volume series Allgemeine Naturgeschichte für alle Stände, with engravings by Johann Susemihl (1767–1847), and published in Stuttgart by Hoffman between 1839 and 1841.
New system of animal classification
In the Grundriss der Naturphilosophie of 1802 Oken sketched the outlines of the scheme he afterwards devoted himself to perfecting. The position advanced in that work, to which he continued to adhere, is that "the animal classes are virtually nothing else than a representation of the sense-organs, and that they must be arranged in accordance with them." Consequently, Oken contended that there are only five animal classes:
Dermatozoa, or invertebrates
Glossozoa, or fish, those animals in which a true tongue makes, for the first time, its appearance
Rhinozoa, or reptiles, in which the nose opens for the first time into the mouth and inhales air
Otozoa, or birds, in which the ear for the first time opens externally
Ophthalmozoa, or mammals, in which all the organs of sense are present and complete, the eyes being movable and covered with lids.
In 1805 Oken made a further advance in the application of the a priori principle in a book on generation (Die Zeugung), in which he maintained that "all organic beings originate from and consist of vesicles or cells. These vesicles, when singly detached and regarded in their original process of production, are the infusorial mass or protoplasma (Urschleim) whence all larger organisms fashion themselves or are evolved. Their production is therefore nothing else than a regular agglomeration of Infusoria—not, of course, of species already elaborated or perfect, but of mucous vesicles or points in general, which first form themselves by their union or combination into particular species."
A year after the production of this treatise, Oken developed his system one stage further, and in a volume published in 1806, written with the assistance of Dietrich von Kieser (1779–1862), entitled Beiträge zur vergleichenden Zoologie, Anatomie, und Physiologie, he demonstrated that the intestines originate from the umbilical vesicle, and that this corresponds to the vitellus or yolk-bag. Caspar Wolff (1735–1794) had previously claimed to demonstrate this fact in the chick (Theoria Generationis, 1774), but he did not see its application as evidence of a general law. Oken showed the importance of the discovery as an illustration of his system. In the same work Oken described and recalled attention to the corpora Wolffiana, or "primordial kidneys."
University of Jena
The reputation of the young Privatdozent of Göttingen had reached the ear of Johann von Goethe (1749–1832), and in 1807 Oken was invited to fill the office of Extraordinary Professor of the Medical Sciences at the University of Jena. He selected for the subject of his inaugural discourse his ideas on the "Signification of the Bones of the Skull," based on a discovery of the previous year. This lecture was delivered in the presence of Goethe, as privy councillor and rector of the university, and was published in the same year, with the title, Ueber die Bedeutung der Schädelknochen. With regard to the origin of the idea, Oken narrates in his Isis that, walking one autumn day in 1806 in the Harz forest, he stumbled on the blanched skull of a deer, picked up the partially dislocated bones, and contemplated them for a while, when it suddenly occurred to him, "It is a vertebral column!" At a meeting of the German naturalists held at Jena some years afterwards, Professor Kieser gave an account of Oken's discovery in the presence of the grand duke, which is printed in the Tageblatt, or "proceedings,” of that meeting. The professor stated that Oken told him of his discovery when journeying in 1806 to the island of Wangerooge. On their return to Göttingen, Oken explained his ideas by reference to the skull of a turtle in Kieser's collection, which he disarticulated for that purpose. Kieser displayed the skull, its bones marked in Oken's handwriting.
Oken's lectures at Jena were wide-ranging, and were highly regarded at the time. The subjects included natural philosophy, general natural history, zoology, comparative anatomy, the physiology of man, of animals and of plants. The spirit with which he grappled with the vast scope of science is characteristically illustrated in his essay Ueber das Universum als Fortsetzung des Sinnensystems (1808). In this work he lays it down that "organism is none other than a combination of all the universe's activities within a single individual body." This doctrine led him to the conviction that "world and organism are one in kind, and do not stand merely in harmony with each other." In the same year he published his Erste Ideen zur Theorie des Lichts, &c., in which he advanced the proposition that "light could be nothing but a polar tension of the ether, evoked by a central body in antagonism with the planets, and heat was none other than a motion of this ether"—a sort of vague anticipation of the doctrine of the "correlation of physical forces."
In 1809 Oken extended his system to the mineral world, arranging the ores, not according to the metals, but according to their combinations with oxygen, acids and sulphur. In 1810 he summed up his views on organic and inorganic nature into one compendious system. In the first edition of the Lehrbuch der Naturphilosophie, which appeared in that and the following years, he sought to bring his different doctrines into mutual connection, and to "show that the mineral, vegetable and animal kingdoms are not to be arranged arbitrarily in accordance with single and isolated characters, but to be based upon the cardinal organs or anatomical systems, from which a firmly established number of classes would necessarily be evolved; that each class, moreover, takes its starting-point from below, and consequently that all of them pass parallel to each other"; and that, "as in chemistry, where the combinations follow a definite numerical law, so also in anatomy the organs, in physiology the functions, and in natural history the classes, families, and even genera of minerals, plants, and animals present a similar arithmetical ratio." The Lehrbuch procured for Oken the title of Hofrath, or court-councillor, and in 1812 he was appointed ordinary professor of the natural sciences.
Journal Isis
In 1816 Oken began publication of his well-known periodical, Isis, eine encyclopädische Zeitschrift, vorzüglich für Naturgeschichte, vergleichende Anatomie und Physiologie. In this journal appeared essays and notices on the natural sciences and other subjects of interest; poetry, and even comments on the politics of other German states, were occasionally admitted. This led to representations and remonstrances from the governments criticized or impugned, and the court of Weimar called upon Oken either to suppress Isis or resign his professorship. He chose the latter alternative. The publication of Isis at Weimar was prohibited. Oken made arrangements for its issue at Rudolstadt, and this continued uninterruptedly until the year 1848.
In 1821 Oken promulgated in Isis the first idea of the annual general meetings of the Society of German Natural Scientists and Physicians, which was realized in the following year, when the first meeting was held at Leipzig. The British Association for the Advancement of Science was at the outset avowedly organized after the German or Okenian model. In 1828 Oken resumed his original humble duties as privatdocent in the newly established University of Munich, and soon afterwards he was appointed ordinary professor in the same university. In 1832, on the proposal by the Bavarian government to transfer him to a professorship in a provincial university of the state, he resigned his appointments and left the kingdom. He was appointed in 1833 to the professorship of natural history in the then recently established University of Zürich. There he continued to reside, fulfilling his professional duties and promoting the progress of his favourite sciences, until his death.
Homological views
All of Oken's writings are deductive illustrations of an assumed principle, which, with other philosophers of the transcendental school, he deemed equal to the explanation of all the mysteries of nature. According to him, the head was a repetition of the trunk—a kind of second trunk, with its limbs and other appendages; this sum of his observations and comparisons—few of which he ever gave in detail—ought always to be borne in mind in comparing the share taken by Oken in homological anatomy with the progress made by other cultivators of that philosophical branch of the science. The idea of the analogy between the skull, or parts of the skull, and the vertebral column had been previously propounded and ventilated in their lectures by Johann von Autenrieth (1772–1835) and Carl Kielmeyer (1765–1844), and in the writings of Johann Frank (1745–1821). By Oken it was applied chiefly in illustration of the mystical system of Schelling—the "all-in-all" and "all-in-every-part." From the earliest to the latest of Oken's writings on the subject, "the head is a repetition of the whole trunk with all its systems: the brain is the spinal cord; the cranium is the vertebral column; the mouth is intestine and abdomen; the nose is the lungs and thorax; the jaws are the limbs; and the teeth the claws or nails." Johann von Spix (1781–1826) in his folio Cephalogenesis (1818), richly illustrated comparative craniology, but presented the facts under the same transcendental guise; and Georges Cuvier (1769–1832) availed himself of the extravagances of these disciples of Schelling to cast ridicule on the whole inquiry into those higher relations of parts to the archetype which Sir Richard Owen (1804–1892) called "general homologies."
The vertebral theory of the skull had practically disappeared from anatomical science when the labours of Cuvier drew to their close. In Owen's Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton the idea was not only revived but worked out for the first time inductively, and the theory rightly stated, as follows: "The head is not a virtual equivalent of the trunk, but is only a portion, i.e. certain modified segments, of the whole body. The jaws are the 'haemal arches' of the first two segments; they are not limbs of the head" (p. 176).
Vaguely and strangely, however, as Oken had blended the idea with his a priori conception of the nature of the head, the chance of appropriating it seems to have overcome the moral sense of Goethe—unless indeed the poet deceived himself. Comparative osteology had early attracted Goethe's attention. In 1786 he published at Jena his essay Ueber den Zwischenkieferknochen des Menschen und der Thiere, showing that the intermaxillary bone existed in man as well as in brutes. But not a word in this essay gives the remotest hint of his having then possessed the idea of the vertebral analogies of the skull. In 1820, in his Morphologie, he first publicly stated that thirty years before the date of that publication he had discovered the secret relationship between the vertebrae and the bones of the head, and that he had always continued to meditate on this subject. The circumstances under which the poet, in 1820, narrates having become inspired with the original idea are suspiciously analogous to those described by Oken in 1807, as producing the same effect on his mind. A bleached skull is accidentally discovered in both instances: in Oken's it was that of a deer in the Harz forest; in Goethe's it was that of a sheep picked up on the shores of the Lido, at Venice.
It may be assumed that Oken, as a Privatdozent at Göttingen in 1806, knew nothing of this unpublished idea or discovery of Goethe, and that Goethe first became aware that Oken had the idea of the vertebral relations of the skull when he listened to the introductory discourse in which the young professor, invited by the poet to Jena, selected this very idea for its subject. It is incredible that Oken, had he adopted the idea from Goethe, or been aware of an anticipation by him, should have omitted to acknowledge the source—should not rather have eagerly embraced so appropriate an opportunity of doing graceful homage to the originality and genius of his patron.
In 1832, Oken was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
Works
Allgemeine Naturgeschichte für alle Stände. Vol.1–8 . Hoffmann, Stuttgart 1833-1843 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
Abbildungen zu Okens allgemeiner Naturgeschichte für alle Stände. Hoffmann, Stuttgart 1843 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
See also
:Category:Taxa named by Lorenz Oken
References
External links
Brief biography and bibliography in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute
Isis contents
Bibliography
1779 births
1851 deaths
19th-century German male writers
19th-century German biologists
19th-century German zoologists
German naturalists
German ornithologists
German taxonomists
People from Offenburg
University of Freiburg alumni
University of Würzburg alumni
University of Göttingen faculty
University of Jena faculty
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich faculty
University of Zurich faculty
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences | [
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|
213398 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%20de%20Bohun | Mary de Bohun | Mary de Bohun (c. 1369/70 – 4 June 1394) was the first wife of King Henry IV of England and the mother of King Henry V. Mary was never queen, as she died before her husband came to the throne.
Early life
Mary was a daughter of Humphrey de Bohun, 7th Earl of Hereford (1341-1373) by his wife Joan FitzAlan (1347/8–1419), a daughter of Richard FitzAlan, 10th Earl of Arundel, and Eleanor of Lancaster.
Mary and her elder sister, Eleanor de Bohun, were the heiresses of their father's substantial possessions. Eleanor became the wife of Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester, the youngest child of Edward III. In an effort to keep the inheritance for himself and his wife, Thomas of Woodstock pressured the child Mary into becoming a nun. In a plot with John of Gaunt, Mary's aunt took her from Thomas' castle at Pleshey back to Arundel whereupon she was married to Henry Bolingbroke, the future Henry IV.
Marriage and children
Mary married Henry—then known as Bolingbroke—on 27 July 1380, at Arundel Castle. It was at Monmouth Castle, one of her husband's possessions, that Mary gave birth to her first child, the future Henry V, on 16 September 1386. Her second child, Thomas, was born probably at London shortly before 25 November 1387.
Her children were:
Henry V, King of England (1386–1422)
Thomas of Lancaster, Duke of Clarence (1387–1421)
John of Lancaster, Duke of Bedford (1389–1435)
Humphrey of Lancaster, Duke of Gloucester (1390–1447)
Blanche of England (1392–1409) married in 1402 Louis III, Elector Palatine
Philippa of England (1394–1430) married in 1406 Eric of Pomerania, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden.
Death
Mary de Bohun died at Peterborough Castle, giving birth to her last child, a daughter, Philippa of England. She was buried in the collegiate Church of the Annunciation of Our Lady of the Newarke, Leicester, on 6 July 1394.
Ancestry
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Middleages.org article on Mary de Bohun
Document on Women and Spirituality from the University of the West of England – contains information on Mary de Bohun's spiritual life
1360s births
1394 deaths
14th-century English people
14th-century English women
Mary
Date of birth unknown
Daughters of British earls
Deaths in childbirth
Henry IV of England
Mary de Bohun
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213399 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amidah | Amidah | The Amidah (, Tefilat HaAmidah, 'The Standing Prayer'), also called the Shemoneh Esreh ( 'eighteen'), is the central prayer of the Jewish liturgy. Observant Jews recite the Amidah at each of three daily prayer services in a typical weekday: morning (Shacharit), afternoon (Mincha), and evening (Ma'ariv). On Shabbat, Rosh Chodesh, and Jewish festivals, a fourth Amidah (Mussaf) is recited after the morning Torah reading, and once per year a fifth Amidah (Ne'ilah) is recited, at sunset on Yom Kippur. Due to its importance, in rabbinic literature it is simply called hatefila (, 'the prayer'). According to legend, the prayer was composed by the Rabbis of the Anshei Knesset HaGedolah (c. 515-332 BCE). Accordingly, in Judaism, to recite the Amidah is a mitzvah de-rabbanan.
Although the name Shemoneh Esreh ("eighteen") refers to the original number of component blessings in the prayer, the typical weekday Amidah actually consists of nineteen blessings.
Among other prayers, the Amidah can be found in the siddur, the traditional Jewish prayer book. The prayer is recited standing with feet firmly together, and preferably while facing Jerusalem. In Orthodox public worship, the Amidah is usually first prayed quietly by the congregation and is then repeated aloud by the chazzan (reader); it is not repeated in the Maariv prayer. The repetition's original purpose was to give illiterate members of the congregation a chance to participate in the collective prayer by answering "Amen." Conservative and Reform congregations sometimes abbreviate the public recitation of the Amidah according to their customs. The rules governing the composition and recital of the Amidah are discussed primarily in the Talmud, in Chapters 4–5 of Berakhot; in the Mishneh Torah, in chapters 4–5 of Hilkhot Tefilah; and in the Shulchan Aruch, Laws 89–127. When the Amidah is modified for specific prayers or occasions, the first three blessings and the last three remain constant, framing the Amidah used in each service, while the middle thirteen blessings are replaced by blessings (usually just one) specific to the occasion.
Origin
The language of the Amidah most likely comes from the mishnaic period, both before and after the destruction of the Temple (70 CE). In the time of the Mishnah, it was considered unnecessary to fully prescribe its text and content. This may have been simply because the language was well known to the Mishnah's authors. The Mishnah may also have not recorded specific text because of an aversion to making prayer a matter of rigor and fixed formula.
According to the Talmud, Gamaliel II undertook to codify uniformly the public service, directing Simeon HaPakoli to edit the blessings (probably in the order they had already acquired) and made it a duty, incumbent on every one, to recite the prayer three times daily. But this does not imply that the blessings were unknown before that date; in other passages the Amidah is traced to the "first wise men", or to the Great Assembly. In order to reconcile the various assertions of editorship, the Talmud concludes that the prayers had fallen into disuse, and that Gamaliel reinstituted them.
The historical kernel in these conflicting reports seems to be that the benedictions date from the earliest days of the Pharisaic Synagogue. They were at first spontaneous outgrowths of the efforts to establish the Pharisaic Synagogue in opposition to, or at least in correspondence with, the Sadducean Temple service. This is apparent from the aggadic endeavor to connect the stated times of prayer (morning and afternoon) with the Temple sacrifices at the same times (for the evening prayer, recourse was had to artificial comparison with the sacrificial portions consumed on the altar during the night).
The Talmud indicates that when Rabbi Gamaliel II undertook to uniformly codify the public service and to regulate private devotion, he directed Samuel ha-Katan to write another paragraph inveighing against informers and heretics, which was inserted as the twelfth prayer in modern sequence, making the number of blessings nineteen. Other Talmudic sources indicate, however, that this prayer was part of the original 18; and that 19 prayers came about when the 15th prayer for the restoration of Jerusalem and of the throne of David (coming of the Messiah) was split into two.
When the Amidah is recited
On regular weekdays, the Amidah is prayed three times, once each during the morning, afternoon, and evening services that are known respectively as Shacharit, Mincha, and Ma'ariv.
One opinion in the Talmud claims, with support from Biblical verses, that the concept for each of the three services was founded respectively by each of the three biblical patriarchs. The prescribed times for reciting the Amidah thus may come from the times of the public tamid ("eternal") sacrifices that took place in the Temples in Jerusalem. After the Second Temple's destruction in 70 CE, the Council of Jamnia determined that the Amidah would substitute for the sacrifices, directly applying Hosea's dictate, "So we will render for bullocks the offering of our lips." For this reason, the Amidah should be recited during the time period in which the tamid would have been offered. Accordingly, since the Ma'ariv service was originally optional, as it replaces the overnight burning of ashes on the Temple altar rather than a specific sacrifice, Maariv's Amidah is not repeated by the hazzan (reader), while all other Amidot are repeated.
On Shabbat, Rosh Chodesh, and other Jewish holidays there is a Musaf ("Additional") Amidah to replace the additional communal sacrifices of these days. On Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement), a fifth public recitation, Ne'ilah, is added to replace a special sacrifice offered on that day.
Weekday Amidah
The weekday Amidah contains nineteen blessings. Each blessing ends with the signature "Blessed are you, O Lord..." and the opening blessing begins with this signature as well. The first three blessings as a section are known as the shevach ("praise"), and serve to inspire the worshipper and invoke God's mercy. The middle thirteen blessings compose the bakashah ("request"), with six personal requests, six communal requests, and a final request that God accept the prayers. The final three blessings, known as the hoda'ah ("gratitude"), thank God for the opportunity to serve the Lord. The shevach and hoda'ah are standard for every Amidah, with some changes on certain occasions.
The nineteen blessings
The nineteen blessings are as follows:
Avot ("Ancestors") - praises of God as the God of the Biblical patriarchs, "God of Abraham, God of Isaac and God of Jacob."
Gevurot ("powers") - praises God for His power and might. This prayer includes a mention of God's healing of the sick and resurrection of the dead. It is called also Tehiyyat ha-Metim = "the resurrection of the dead."
Rain is considered as great a manifestation of power as the resurrection of the dead; hence in winter a line recognizing God's bestowal of rain is inserted in this benediction. Except for many Ashkenazim, most communities also insert a line recognizing dew in the summer.
Kedushat ha-Shem ("the sanctification of the Name") - praises God's holiness.
During the chazzan's repetition, a longer version of the blessing called Kedusha is chanted responsively. The Kedusha is further expanded on Shabbat and Festivals.
Binah ("understanding") - asks God to grant wisdom and understanding.
Teshuvah ("return", "repentance") - asks God to help Jews to return to a life based on the Torah, and praises God as a God of repentance.
Selichah - asks for forgiveness for all sins, and praises God as being a God of forgiveness.
Geulah ("redemption") - asks God to rescue the people Israel.
On fast days, the chazzan adds in the blessing Aneinu during his repetition after concluding the Geulah blessing.
Refuah ("") - a prayer to heal the sick.
An addition can ask for the healing of a specific person or more than one name. The phrasing uses the person's Jewish name and the name of their Jewish mother (or Sara immeinu).
Birkat HaShanim ("blessing for years [of good]") - asks God to bless the produce of the earth.
A prayer for rain is included in this blessing during the rainy season.
Galuyot ("diasporas") - asks God to allow the ingathering of the Jewish exiles back to the land of Israel.
Birkat HaDin ("Justice") - asks God to restore righteous judges as in the days of old.
Birkat HaMinim ("the sectarians, heretics") - asks God to destroy those in heretical sects (Minuth), who slander Jews and who act as informers against Jews.
Tzadikim ("righteous") - asks God to have mercy on all who trust in Him, and asks for support for the righteous.
Boneh Yerushalayim ("Builder of Jerusalem") - asks God to rebuild Jerusalem and to restore the Kingdom of David.
Birkat David ("Blessing of David") - asks God to bring the descendant of King David, who will be the messiah.
Tefillah ("prayer") - asks God to accept our prayers, to have mercy and be compassionate.
On fast days, Ashkenazic Jews insert Aneinu into this blessing during Mincha. Sephardic Jews recite it during Shacharit as well.
Avodah ("service") - asks God to restore the Temple services and sacrificial services.
Hoda'ah ("thanksgiving") - thanks God for our lives, for our souls, and for God's miracles that are with us every day.
When the chazzan reaches this blessing during the repetition, the congregation recites a prayer called Modim deRabbanan ("the thanksgiving of the Rabbis").
Sim Shalom ("Grant Peace") - asks God for peace, goodness, blessings, kindness and compassion. Ashkenazim generally say a shorter version of this blessing at Minchah and Maariv, called Shalom Rav.
Final benedictions
Prior to the final blessing for peace, the following is said:
The priestly blessing is said in the reader's repetition of the Shacharit Amidah, and at the Mussaf Amidah on Shabbat and Jewish Holidays. On public fast days it is also said at Mincha; and on Yom Kippur, at Ne'ilah. It is not said in a House of Mourning. In Orthodox and some Conservative congregations, this blessing is chanted by kohanim (direct descendants of the Aaronic priestly clan) on certain occasions. In Ashkenazic practice, the priestly blessing is chanted by kohanim on Jewish Holidays in the Diaspora, and daily in the Land of Israel. In Yemenite Jewish synagogues and Sephardi synagogues, kohanim chant the priestly blessing daily, even outside Israel.
Concluding meditation
The custom has gradually developed of reciting, at the conclusion of the latter, the supplication with which Mar son of Ravina used to conclude his prayer:
My God, keep my tongue and my lips from speaking deceit, and to them that curse me let my soul be silent, and like dust to all. Open my heart in Your Torah, and after [in] Thy commandments let me [my soul] pursue. As for those that think evil of [against] me speedily thwart their counsel and destroy their plots. Do [this] for Thy name's sake, do this for Thy right hand's sake, do this for the sake of Thy holiness, do this for the sake of Thy Torah. That Thy beloved ones may rejoice, let Thy right hand bring on help [salvation] and answer me...
At this point, some say a Biblical verse related to their name(s). For example, someone named Leah might say , since both Leah and this verse begin with the letter Lamed and end with Hay. This practice is first recorded in the 16th century, and was popularized by the Shelah.
Then (which was the final line of Mar son of Ravina's supplication) is recited.
Followup
Three steps back are followed by a followup prayer:
Mainstream Ashkenazi Orthodox Judaism also adds the following prayer to the conclusion of every Amidah:
May it be your will, O my God and God of my fathers, that the Temple be rebuilt speedily in our days, and give us our portion in your Torah, and there we will worship you with reverence as in ancient days and former years. And may the Mincha offering of Judah and Jerusalem be pleasing to God, as in ancient days and former years.
Many Sephardic prayer books correspondingly add:
May it be your will, O my God and God of my fathers, that You Shall speedily rebuild the Temple in our days, and give us our portion in your Torah, so that we may fulfill your statutes and do Your Will and serve you with all our heart.
Many also customary add individual personal prayers as part of quiet recitation of the Amidah. Rabbi Shimon discourages praying by rote: "But rather make your prayer a request for mercy and compassion before the Ominipresent." Some authorities encourage the worshipper to say something new in his prayer every time.
Mode of prayer
The many laws concerning the Amidah's mode of prayer are designed to focus one's concentration as one beseeches God.
Concentration
Prayer in Judaism is called avodah shebalev ("service of the heart"). Thus, prayer is only meaningful if one focuses one's emotion and intention, kavanah, to the words of the prayers. The Shulchan Aruch thus advises that one pray using a translation one can understand, though learning the meaning of the Hebrew liturgy is ideal.
Halakhah requires that the first blessing of the Amidah be said with intention; if said by rote alone, it must be repeated with intention. Rema (16th century) wrote that this is no longer necessary, because "nowadays... even in the repetition it is likely he will not have intention". The second to last blessing of Hoda'ah also has high priority for kavanah.
When the Amidah is said to oneself in the presence of others, many Jews who wear a tallit (prayer shawl) will drape their tallit over their heads, allowing their field of vision to be focused only on their siddur and their personal prayer.
Interruptions
Interrupting the Amidah is forbidden. The only exceptions are in cases of danger or for one who needs to relieve oneself, though this rule may depend on the movement of Judaism. There are also halakhot to prevent interrupting the Amidah of others; for example, it is forbidden to sit next to someone praying or to walk within four amot (cubits) of someone praying.
Quiet prayer
The guideline of quiet prayer comes from Hannah's behavior during prayer, when she prayed in the Temple to bear a child. She prayed "speaking upon her heart," so that no one else could hear, yet her lips were moving. Therefore, when saying the Amidah one's voice should be audible to oneself, but not loud enough for others to hear.
Standing
The name "Amidah," which literally is the Hebrew gerund of "standing," comes from the fact that the worshipper recites the prayer while standing with feet firmly together. This is done to imitate the angels, whom Ezekiel perceived as having "one straight leg." As worshippers address the Divine Presence, they must remove all material thoughts from their minds, just as angels are purely spiritual beings. In a similar vein, the Tiferet Yisrael explains in his commentary, Boaz, that the Amidah is so-called because it helps a person focus his or her thoughts. By nature, a person's brain is active and wandering. The Amidah brings everything into focus.
The Talmud says that one who is riding an animal or sitting in a boat (or by modern extension, flying in an airplane) may recite the Amidah while seated, as the precarity of standing would disturb one's focus.
Facing Jerusalem
The Amidah is preferably said facing Jerusalem, as the patriarch Jacob proclaimed, "And this [place] is the gateway to Heaven," where prayers may ascend. The Talmud records the following Baraita on this topic:
There is a dispute regarding how one measures direction for this purpose. Some say one should face the direction which would be the shortest distance to Jerusalem, i.e. the arc of a great circle, as defined in elliptic geometry. Thus in New York one would face north-northeast. Others say one should face the direction along a rhumb line path to Jerusalem, which would not require an alteration of compass direction. This would be represented by a straight line on a Mercator projection, which would be east-southeast from New York. In practice, many individuals in the Western Hemisphere simply face due east, regardless of location.
Three steps
There are varying customs related to taking three steps backwards (and then forwards) before reciting the Amidah, and likewise after the Amidah. Before reciting the Amidah, it is customary for Ashkenazim to take three steps back and then three steps forward. The steps backward at the beginning represent withdrawing one's attention from the material world, and then stepping forward to symbolically approach the King of Kings. The Mekhilta notes that the significance of the three steps is based on the three barriers that Moses had to pass through at Sinai before entering God's realm. The Mishnah Berurah wrote that only the steps forward are required, while the backward steps beforehand are a prevalent custom. It is not the custom of the Sephardim to step backward or forward prior to reciting the Amidah.
Mention of taking three steps back, upon finishing the final meditation after the Amidah, is found in both Ashkenaz and Sephardi/עדות המזרח siddurim.
One takes three steps back upon finishing the final meditation after the Amidah, and then says, while bowing left, right, and forward, "He who makes peace in the heavens, may He make peace for us and all Israel, and let us say, Amen." Many have the custom to remain standing in place until immediately before the chazzan reaches the Kedusha, and then take three steps forward. The Talmud understands this as a reminder of the practice in the Temple in Jerusalem, when those offering the daily sacrifices would walk backward from the altar after finishing. It also compares the practice to a student's respectfully backs away from his teacher.
Bowing
The worshipper bows at four points in the Amidah: at the beginning and end of two blessings, Avot and Hoda'ah. It is the custom of the Ashkenazim that one bends the knees when saying "Blessed," then bows at "are You," and straightens while saying "O Lord." (At the beginning of Hoda'ah, one instead bows while saying the opening words "We are grateful to You" without bending the knees.) The reason for this procedure is that the Hebrew word for "blessed" (baruch) is related to "knee" (berech); while the verse in Psalms states, "The Lord straightens the bent." At each of these bows, one must bend over until the vertebrae protrude from one's back; one physically unable to do so suffices by nodding the head. It is not the custom of the Sephardim to bend the knees during the Amidah.
During certain parts of the Amidah said on Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur, Ashkenazi Jews traditionally go down to the floor upon their knees and make their upper body bowed over like an arch, similar to the Muslim practice of sujud. There are some variations in Ashkenazi customs as to how long one remains in this position. Some members of the Dor Daim movement also bow in this manner in their daily Amidah prayer.
The repetition
In Orthodox and Conservative (Masorti) public worship, the Amidah is first prayed quietly by the congregation; it is then repeated aloud by the chazzan (reader), except for the evening Amidah or when a minyan is not present. The congregation responds "Amen" to each blessing, and "Baruch Hu Uvaruch Shemo" ("blessed is He and blessed is His Name") when the chazzan invokes God's name in the signature "Blessed are You, O Lord..." If there are not six members of the minyan responding "Amen," the chazzan's blessing is considered in vain.
The repetition's original purpose was to give illiterate members of the congregation a chance to be included in the chazzan's Amidah by answering "Amen."
The public recitation of the Amidah is sometimes abbreviated, with the first three blessings (including Kedushah) said out loud and the remainder quietly. The individual's quiet repetition of the Amidah is said afterwards, not before. This practice is commonly referred to as heikha kedusha (, lit. "high (loud) kedushah"), and sometimes as bekol ram (Hebrew בקול רם, lit. "in a high voice"). It is occasionally performed in Orthodox prayers (in some communities it is customary for mincha to be recited in this way), and more common in Conservative and Reform congregations. A variety of customs exist for how exactly this practice is performed.
Special Amidot
Shabbat
On Shabbat, the middle 13 benedictions of the Amidah are replaced by one, known as Kedushat haYom ("sanctity of the day"), so that each Shabbat Amidah is composed of seven benedictions. The Kedushat haYom has an introductory portion, which on Sabbath is varied for each of the four services, and short concluding portion, which is constant:
Our God and God of our Ancestors! Be pleased with our rest; sanctify us with Your commandments, give us a share in Your Torah, satiate us with Your bounty, and gladden us in Your salvation. Cleanse our hearts to serve You in truth: let us inherit, O Lord our God, in love and favor, Your holy Sabbath, and may Israel, who loves Your name, rest thereon. Praised are You, O Lord, who sanctifies the Sabbath.
On Sabbath eve, after the congregation has read the Amidah quietly, the reader repeats aloud the Me'En Sheva''', or summary of the seven blessings. The congregation then continues:
Shield of the fathers by His word, reviving the dead by His command, the holy God to whom none is like; who causeth His people to rest on His holy Sabbath-day, for in them He took delight to cause them to rest. Before Him we shall worship in reverence and fear. We shall render thanks to His name on every day constantly in the manner of the benedictions. God of the 'acknowledgments,' Lord of 'Peace,' who sanctifieth the Sabbath and blesseth the seventh [day] and causeth the people who are filled with Sabbath delight to rest as a memorial of the work in the beginning of Creation.
Festivals
On festivals, like on Shabbat, the intermediate 13 blessings are replaced by a single blessing concerning "Sanctification of the Day" prayer. However, the text of this blessing differs from on Shabbat. The first section is constant on all holidays:
You have chosen us from all the nations, You have loved us and was pleased with us; You lifted us above all tongues, and sanctified us with Your commandments, and brought us, O our King, to Your service, and pronounced over us Your great and holy name.
A paragraph naming the festival and its special character follow.
If the Sabbath coincides with a festival, the festival blessing is recited, but with special additions relating to Shabbat.
Mussaf Amidah
On the Shabbat, festivals (i.e., on Yom Tov and on Chol HaMoed), and on Rosh Chodesh, a fourth Amidah prayer is recited, entitled Mussaf ("additional"). Like the Shacharit and Mincha Amidah, it is recited both quietly and repeated by the Reader.
The Mussaf Amidah begins with the same first three and concludes with the same last three blessings as the regular Amidah. In place of the 13 intermediate blessings of the daily service, a single blessing is added, relating to the holiday. (The Mussaf Amidah on Rosh Hashanah is unique in that apart from the first and last 3 blessings, it contains 3 central blessings making a total of 9.)
Historically (and currently in Orthodox services), the middle blessing focuses on the special Mussaf korban (sacrifice) that was offered in the Temple in Jerusalem, and contains a plea for the building of a Third Temple and the restoration of sacrificial worship. The biblical passage referring to the Mussaf sacrifice of the day is recited.
The Rabbinical Assembly of Conservative Judaism has devised two forms for the Mussaf Amidah with varying degrees of difference from the Orthodox form. One version refers to the prescribed sacrifices, but in the past tense ("there our ancestors offered" rather than "there we shall offer"). A newer version omits references to sacrifices entirely.
Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism generally omit the Mussaf Amidah on Shabbat, though it is retained on some festivals.
Ne'ilah Amidah
On Yom Kippur, a fifth Amidah (in addition to the Ma'ariv (Evening), Shacharit (Morning), Mussaf (Additional), and Mincha (Afternoon) Amidah is recited and repeated at the closing of Yom Kippur. The congregation traditionally stands during the entire repetition of this prayer, which contains a variety of confessional and supplicatory additions. In the Ashkenazi custom, it is also the only time that the Avinu Malkeinu prayer is said on Shabbat, should Yom Kippur fall on Shabbat, though by this point Shabbat is celestially over.
Truncated Amidah (Havineinu)
The Mishnah (Brachot 4:3) and Talmud (Brachot 29a) mention the option of saying a truncated version of the Amidah (see Havineinu), if one is in a rush or under pressure. It consists of only seven blessings - the usual first three and last three, and a middle blessing named after its first word, Havineinu.
Seasonal change
Prayers for rain in winter and dew in summer
"Mentioning the power of [providing] rain" ()
The phrase "" ("He [God] causes the wind to blow and the rain to fall") is inserted in the second blessing of the Amidah (Gevurot), throughout the rainy season in Israel (fall and winter). The most prominent of God's powers mentioned in this blessing is the resurrection of the dead. Rain is mentioned here because God's provision of rain is considered to be as great a manifestation of His power as the resurrection. Rain is not mentioned in spring and summer, when rain does not fall in Israel. Nevertheless, given the importance of moisture during the dry summer of Israel, many versions of the liturgy insert the phrase "," "He causes the dew to fall," during every Amidah of the dry half of the year.
The "mention" of rain (or dew) starts and ends on major festivals (Shemini Atzeret and Passover respectively) On these holidays, special extended prayers for rain or dew (known as Tefillat Geshem and Tefillat Tal respectively). In the Ashkenazic tradition, both prayers are recited by the Reader during the repetition of the Mussaf Amidah. Sephardic tradition, which prohibits such additions, places them before the Mussaf Amidah. The change is made on these holidays because they are days of great joy, and because they are days of heavy attendance at public prayers. Therefore, the seasonal change in the language of the prayers is immediately and widely disseminated.
Requesting (praying for) rain ()
In the ninth blessing of the weekdayAmidah, the words "may You grant dew and rain" are inserted during the winter season in the Land of Israel. Outside Israel, this season is defined as beginning on the 60th day after the autumnal equinox (usually 4 December) and ending on Passover. In Israel, the season begins on the 7th of Cheshvan. The Sephardi and Yemenite Jewish rituals, as opposed to just adding the words "dew and rain" during the winter, have two distinct versions of the ninth blessing. During the dry season, the blessing has this form:
Bless us, our Father, in all the work of our hands, and bless our year with gracious, blessed, and kindly dews: be its outcome life, plenty, and peace as in the good years, for Thou, O Eternal, are good and does good and blesses the years. Blessed be Thou, O Eternal, who blesses the years.
In the rainy season, the text is changed to read:
Bless upon us, O Eternal our God, this year and all kinds of its produce for goodness, and bestow dew and rain for blessing on all the face of the earth; and make abundant the face of the world and fulfil the whole of Thy goodness. Fill our hands with Thy blessings and the richness of the gifts of Thy hands. Preserve and save this year from all evil and from all kinds of destroyers and from all sorts of punishments: and establish for it good hope and as its outcome peace. Spare it and have mercy upon it and all of its harvest and its fruits, and bless it with rains of favor, blessing, and generosity; and let its issue be life, plenty, and peace as in the blessed good years; for Thou, O Eternal, are good and does good and blesses the years. Blessed be Thou, O Eternal, who blesses the years.
Conclusion of Shabbat and festivals
At the Maariv Amidah following the conclusion of a Shabbat or Yom Tov, a paragraph beginning Atah Chonantanu ("You have granted us...") is inserted into the weekday Amidah's fourth blessing of Binah. The paragraph thanks God for the ability to separate between the holy and mundane, paraphrasing the concepts found in the Havdalah ceremony. In fact, the Talmud teaches that if this paragraph is forgotten, the Amidah need not be repeated, because Havdalah will be said later over wine. Once Atah Chonantanu is said, work prohibited on the holy day becomes permitted because the separation from the holy day has been established.
The Ten Days of Repentance
During the Ten Days of Repentance between Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur, additional lines are inserted in the first, second, second to last, and last blessings of all Amidot. These lines invoke God's mercy and pray for inscription in the Book of Life. In many communities, when the chazzan reaches these lines during his repetition, he pauses and the congregation recites the lines before him. During the final recitation of the Amidah on Yom Kippur the prayer is slightly modified to read "seal us" in the book of life, rather than "write us".
Moreover, the signatures of two blessings are changed to reflect the days' heightened recognition of God's sovereignty. In the third blessing, the signature "Blessed are You, O Lord, the Holy God" is replaced with "Blessed are You, O Lord, the Holy King." On weekdays, the signature of the eleventh blessing is changed from "Blessed are You, O Lord, King who loves justice and judgement" to "Blessed are You, O Lord, the King of judgement."
Fast days
On public fast days, special prayers for mercy are added to the Amidah. At Shacharit, no changes are made in the quiet Amidah, but the chazzan adds an additional blessing in his repetition right after the blessing of Geulah, known by its first word Aneinu ("Answer us"). The blessing concludes with the signature "Blessed are You, O Lord, Who responds (some say: to His nation Israel) in time of trouble."
At Minchah, the chazzan adds Aneinu in his repetition again, as at Shacharit. In addition, during the quiet Amidah, all fasting congregatants recite the text of Aneinu without its signature in the blessing of Tefillah. In addition, communities that say the shortened version of the Shalom blessing at Minchah and Maariv say the complete version at this Minchah. The chazzan also says the priestly blessing before Shalom as he would at Shacharit, unlike the usual weekday Minchah when the priestly blessing is not said.
On Tisha B'Av at Minchah, Ashkenazim add a prayer that begins Nachem ("Console...") to the conclusion of the blessing Binyan Yerushalayim, elaborating on the mournful state of the Temple in Jerusalem. The concluding signature of the blessing is also extended to say "Blessed are You, O Lord, Who consoles Zion and builds Jerusalem." In other traditions, it is said in all the Amidot of Tisha B'av, or not included at all.
Ya'aleh VeYavo
On Chol HaMoed and Rosh Chodesh, the prayer Ya'aleh Veyavo ("May [our remembrance] rise and be seen...") is inserted in the blessing of Avodah. Ya'aleh Veyavo is also said in the Kedushat HaYom blessing of the Festival Amidah, and at Birkat HaMazon. One phrase of the prayer varies according to the day's holiday, mentioning it by name. Often, the first line is uttered aloud so that others will be reminded of the change.
Al HaNissim
On Hanukkah and Purim, the weekday Amidot are recited, but a special paragraph is inserted into the blessing of Hoda'ah. Each holiday's paragraph recounts the historical background of that holiday, thanking God for his salvation. Both paragraphs are prefaced by the same opening line, "[We thank You] for the miraculous deeds (Al HaNissim) and for the redemption and for the mighty deeds and the saving acts wrought by You, as well as for the wars which You waged for our ancestors in ancient days at this season."
Modern changes
The most recent known change to the text of the standard daily Amidah by an authority accepted by Orthodox Judaism was done by Isaac Luria in the 16th century. He formulated a text of the Amidah which seems to be a fusion of the Ashkenazi and Sepharadi texts in accordance with his understanding of Kabbalah.
Following the Zionist declaration of the State of Israel, some Orthodox authorities proposed changes to the special Nachem "Console..." prayer commemorating the destruction of Jerusalem added to the Amidah on Tisha B'Av in light of these events.
Conservative and Reform Judaism have altered the text to varying degrees to bring it into alignment with their view of modern needs and sensibilities. Conservative Judaism retains the traditional number and time periods during which the Amidah must be said, while omitting explicit supplications for restoration of the sacrifices. Reconstructionist and Reform Judaism, consistent with their views that the rhythm of the ancient sacrifices should no longer drive modern Jewish prayer, often omit some of the Amidah prayers, such as the Mussaf, omit temporal requirements and references to the Temple and its sacrifices.
Reform Judaism has changed the first benediction, traditionally invoking the phrase "God of our Fathers, God of Abraham, God of Isaac and God of Jacob," one of the Biblical names of God. New editions of the Reform siddur explicitly say avoteinu v'imoteinu "our fathers and our mothers", and Reform and some Conservative congregations amend the second invocation to "God of Abraham, God of Isaac and God of Jacob; God of Sarah, God of Rebekah, God of Leah, and God of Rachel." The new reform prayer book, Mishkan T'filah, reverses Leah's and Rachel's names. Some feminist Jews have added the names of Bilhah and Zilpah, since they were mothers to four tribes of Israel.
Liberal branches of Judaism make some additional changes to the opening benedictions. the phrase umeivi go'eil ("and brings a redeemer") is changed in Reform Judaism to umeivi ge'ulah ("who brings redemption"), replacing the personal messiah with a Messianic Age. The phrase m'chayei hameitim ("who causes the dead to come to life") is replaced in the Reform and Reconstructionist siddurim with m'chayei hakol ("who gives life to all") and m'chayei kol chai ("who gives life to all life"), respectively. This represents a turn away from the traditional article of faith that God will resurrect the dead.
Prayer 17, Avodah. asks God to restore the Temple services, build a Third Temple, and restore sacrificial worship. The concluding meditation ends with an additional prayer for the restoration of Temple worship. Both prayers have been modified within the siddur of Conservative Judaism, so that although they still ask for the restoration of the Temple, they remove the explicit plea for the resumption of sacrifices. (Some Conservative congregations remove the concluding quiet prayer for the Temple entirely.) The Reform siddur also modifies this prayer, eliminating all reference to the Temple service and replacing the request for the restoration of the Temple with "God who is near to all who call upon you, turn to your servants and be gracious to us; pour your spirit upon us."
Many Reform congregations will often conclude with either Sim Shalom or Shalom Rav. Once either of those prayers are chanted or sung, many congregations proceed to a variation on the Mi Shebeirach (typically the version popularized by Debbie Friedman), the traditional prayer for healing, followed by silent prayer, and then a resumption of the service.
Conservative Judaism is divided on the role of the Mussaf Amidah. More traditional Conservative congregations recite a prayer similar to the Mussaf prayer in Orthodox services, except they refer to Temple sacrifices only in the past tense and do not include a prayer for the restoration of the sacrifices. More liberal Conservative congregations omit references to the Temple sacrifices entirely. Reconstructionist and Reform congregations generally do not do the Mussaf Amidah at all, but if they do, they omit all references to Temple worship.
Within the early Christian Church
New Testament scholar Paul Barnett has identified as a modified version of the first blessing (Avot). This has also been identified by Paul Martin Hengel in his book The Pre-Christian Paul, arguing that Saul/Paul was a teacher in the Hellenistic synagogues of Jerusalem prior to his conversion to Christianity.
See also
Jewish services
Siddur
Zion and Jerusalem in Jewish prayer and ritual
References
Sources
.
.
.
Joseph Heinemann "Prayer in the Talmud", Gruyter, New York, 1977
.
.
Reuven Kimelman "The Messiah of the Amidah: A Study in Comparative Messianism." Journal of Biblical Literature 116 (1997) 313–320.
Zev Leff Shemoneh Esrei: The Depth and Beauty of Our Daily Prayer, Targum Press, Jerusalem, 2008.
Paula Reimers, "Feminism, Judaism and God the Mother" Conservative Judaism Volume XLVI, Number I, Fall, 1993
Joel Rembaum "Regarding the Inclusion of the names of the Matriarchs in the First Blessing of the Amidah" Proceedings of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards 1986–1990'' pp. 485–490
External links
The Amidah at Jewish Virtual Library
The Amidah at My Jewish Learning.com
The Jewish Morning Service, according to the text of Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi (in Hebrew, from the Open Siddur Project)
An English translation of the Amidah at Chabad.org.
Jewish prayer and ritual texts
Hebrew words and phrases in Jewish prayers and blessings
Maariv
Mincha
Mussaf
Ne'ila
Shacharit
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|
213401 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No%20Man%27s%20Land%20%282001%20film%29 | No Man's Land (2001 film) | No Man's Land (, Ничија земља) is a 2001 Bosnian war film that is set in the midst of the Bosnian War. The film is a parable and marked the debut of Bosnian writer and director Danis Tanović. It is a co-production among companies in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia, Italy, France, Belgium and the UK. The film won the Oscar for Best Foreign Language Film in 2002.
Plot
Two wounded soldiers, a Bosniak (Čiki, portrayed by Branko Đurić) and a Bosnian Serb (Nino, portrayed by Rene Bitorajac) are caught between their lines in the no man's land, in a struggle for survival. The two soldiers confront each other in a trench, where they wait for dark. They trade insults and even find some common ground. Confounding the situation is another wounded Bosniak soldier (Cera, portrayed by Filip Šovagović) who wakes from unconsciousness. A land mine had been buried beneath him by the Bosnian Serbs; should he make any move, it would be fatal.
A French sergeant (Marchand, portrayed by Georges Siatidis), of the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR), gets involved in effort to help the three trapped soldiers, despite initial orders to the contrary by high command. UNPROFOR's mission in Bosnia was to guard the humanitarian aid convoys, to remain neutral and act as a mere bystander. Luckily, an English reporter arrives on scene, bringing media pressure to bear that moves the United Nations high command to swing into action to try to save the soldiers.
A row between the stressed out and fatigued Čiki and Nino gradually escalates even after being rescued. Eventually, Čiki shoots Nino and is in turn shot by a Peacekeeper. Meanwhile, it is found that the mine cannot be defused. The UNPROFOR high command tries to save face: they lie, saying that Cera has been saved and they leave the area, along with the reporters and everyone else.
In reality, Cera is left alone and desolate in the trenches, still immobilized by the mine. Meanwhile, the UNPROFOR commander has arranged false information to be passed to both Bosnian and Serb troops, to make them believe their enemies will be trying to reoccupy the trench at night (which each side would try to counter with an artillery barrage that presumably will kill Cera and obliterate the evidence).
Cast
Branko Đurić - Čiki
Rene Bitorajac - Nino
Filip Šovagović - Cera
Georges Siatidis - Sergeant Marchand
Serge-Henri Valcke - Captain Dubois
Sacha Kremer - Michel
Alain Eloy - Pierre
Mustafa Nadarević - Older Serbian soldier
Bogdan Diklić - Serbian officer
Boro Stjepanović - Bosnian soldier
Simon Callow - Colonel Soft
Katrin Cartlidge - Jane Livingstone, journalist
Tanja Ribič - Martha
Branko Završan - Deminer
- officer
Accolades
Some of the awards that the film won are:
Best Foreign Language Film, 2002 74th Academy Awards
Best Foreign Language Film, 2002 59th Golden Globe Awards
Best Screenplay Award, European Film Academy
Best Screenplay, 2001 Cannes Film Festival
See also
Wicked Spring
References
External links
2001 films
2001 comedy-drama films
2000s war drama films
Bosnia and Herzegovina films
French films
Italian films
British films
Belgian films
2000s English-language films
2000s French-language films
Best Foreign Language Film Golden Globe winners
Bosnian-language films
2000s German-language films
Films directed by Danis Tanović
Anti-war films
Best Foreign Language Film Academy Award winners
Best First Feature Film César Award winners
Bosnian War films
Political satire films
2001 black comedy films
Films about the United Nations
French war drama films
United Artists films
Heart of Sarajevo Award for Best Film winners
British war drama films
2000s political drama films
2001 comedy films | [
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|
213403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primula | Primula | Primula () is a genus of mainly herbaceous flowering plants in the family Primulaceae. They include the familiar wildflower of banks and verges, the primrose (P. vulgaris). Other common species are P. auricula (auricula), P. veris (cowslip), and P. elatior (oxlip). These species and many others are valued for their ornamental flowers. They have been extensively cultivated and hybridised (in the case of the primrose, for many hundreds of years). Primula are native to the temperate Northern Hemisphere, south into tropical mountains in Ethiopia, Indonesia, and New Guinea, and in temperate southern South America. Almost half of the known species are from the Himalayas.
Primula has over 500 species in traditional treatments, and more if certain related genera are included within its circumscription.
Description
Primula is a complex and varied genus, with a range of habitats from alpine slopes to boggy meadows. Plants bloom mostly during the spring, with flowers often appearing in spherical umbels on stout stems arising from basal rosettes of leaves; their flowers can be purple, yellow, red, pink, blue, or white. Some species show a white mealy bloom (farina) on various parts of the plant. Many species are adapted to alpine climates.
Taxonomy
Primula was known at least as early as the mediaeval herbalists, although first formally described as a genus by Linnaeus in 1753, and later in 1754 in his Flora Anglica. Linnaeus described seven species of Primula. One of its earliest scientific treatments was that of Charles Darwin study of heterostyly in 1877 (The different forms of flowers on plants of the same species). Since then, heterostyly (and homostyly) have remained important considerations in the taxonomic classification of Primula. Primula is a member of the Primulaceae family. The most complete treatment of the family, with nearly 1000 species arranged into 22 genera, was by Pax and Knuth in 1905.
Phylogeny
Primula is the largest genus in the family Primulaceae, within which it is placed in the subfamily Primuloideae, being the nominative genus.
The position of Primula within the family and its relationship to other genera is shown in this cladogram:
Classification
The genus Dodecatheon originated from within Primula, so some authorities include the 14 species of Dodecatheon in Primula.
Sections of genus Primula
The classification of the genus Primula has been investigated by botanists for over a century. As the genus is both large and diverse (with about 430–500 species), botanists have organized the species in various sub-generic groups. The most common is division into a series of thirty sections. Some of these sections (e.g. Vernales, Auricula) contain many species; others contain only one.
Amethystina
Auricula
Bullatae
Candelabra
Capitatae
Carolinella
Cortusoides
Cuneifolia
Denticulata
Dryadifolia
Farinosae
Floribundae
Grandis
Malacoidea
Malvacea
Minutissimae
Muscaroides
Nivales
Obconica
Parryi
Petiolares
Pinnatae
Pycnoloba
Reinii
Rotundifolia
Sikkimensis
Sinenses
Soldanelloideae
Souliei
Vernales
Selected species
Species include:
Primula alcalina (bluedome primrose)
Primula algida
Primula aliciae
Primula allionii (Allioni's primrose)
Primula alpicola (moonlight primrose)
Primula amethystina
Primula angustifolia (alpine primrose)
Primula anisodora (anise primrose)
Primula anvilensis (boreal primrose)
Primula appenina
Primula arunachalensis
Primula atrodentata
Primula aurantiaca (primevère à fleurs oranges)
Primula aureata
Primula auricula (auricula, bear's ear)
Primula auriculata
Primula bathangensis
Primula beesiana (candelabra primrose)
Primula bella
Primula bellidifolia
Primula bergenioides
Primula bhutanica
Primula blattariformis
Primula boothii
Primula borealis (northern primrose)
Primula bracteosa
Primula bulleyana (candelabra primrose)
Primula calderiana
Primula calliantha
Primula calyptrata
Primula capillaris (Ruby Mountain primrose)
Primula capitata
Primula capitata ssp. mooreana
Primula capitata ssp. crispata
Primula capitellata
Primula carniolica (Carniolan primrose)
Primula caveana
Primula cawdoriana
Primula cernua
Primula chionantha
Primula chumbiensis
Primula chungensis
Primula chasmophila
Primula clarkei
Primula clusiana
Primula clutterbuckii
Primula cockburniana
Primula concholoba
Primula concinna
Primula conspersa
Primula cortusoides
Primula cuneifolia (wedgeleaf primrose, pixie-eye primrose)
Primula cusickiana (Cusick's primrose)
Primula daonensis
Primula darialica
Primula davidii
Primula deflexa
Primula denticulata (drumstick primrose, Himalayan primrose)
Primula deorum (Rila primrose, Rila cowslip, God's cowslip)
Primula deuteronana
Primula dryadifolia
Primula edgeworthii
Primula egaliksensis (Greenland primrose)
Primula elatior (oxlip, true oxlip, oxslip)
Primula elizabethiae
Primula elongata
Primula erythrocarpa
Primula farinosa (birdseye primrose)
Primula farreriana
Primula fedschenkoi
Primula fenghwaiana
Primula filchnerae
Primula filipes
Primula firmipes
Primula fistulosa
Primula flaccida
Primula floribunda
Primula florindae (Himalayan cowslip, Tibetan cowslip)
Primula forrestii
Primula frondosa
Primula gambeliana
Primula gemmifera
Primula geraniifolia
Primula giraldiana
Primula glabra
Primula glaucescens
Primula glomerata
Primula glutinosa
Primula gracilenta
Primula gracillipes
Primula griffithii
Primula halleri (long-flowered primrose, Haller's primrose)
Primula helodoxa
Primula hendersonii (broad-leaved shootingstar, Henderson's shootingstar, mosquito-bill, sailor caps)
Primula heucherifolia
Primula hirsuta (stinking primrose)
Primula hookeri
Primula incana (silvery primrose, mealy primrose)
Primula interjacens
Primula involucrata
Primula ioessa
Primula irregularis
Primula japonica (Japanese primrose, Japanese cowslip)
Primula jesoana
Primula jigmediana
Primula juliae (Julia's primrose, purple primrose)
Primula kingii
Primula kisoana
Primula kitaibeliana (Kitaibel's primrose)
Primula klattii
Primula laurentiana (birdseye primrose)
Primula lihengiana
Primula listeri
Primula longiscapa
Primula lutea
Primula luteola
Primula macrophylla (largeleaf primrose)
Primula magellanica
Primula malacoides (fairy primrose, baby primrose)
Primula malvacea
Primula marginata (marginate primrose)
Primula megaseifolia
Primula melanantha
Primula melanops
Primula minima (dwarf primrose)
Primula minor
Primula mistassinica (Mistassini primrose)
Primula modesta
Primula mollis
Primula moupinensis
Primula munroi
Primula muscarioides
Primula nipponica
Primula nivalis (snowy primrose)
Primula obconica (poison primrose, German primrose)
Primula orbicularis
Primula palinuri
Primula parryi (Parry's primrose)
Primula pedemontana
Primula petelotii
Primula petiolaris
Primula pinnatifida
Primula poissonii
Primula polyneura
Primula prenantha
Primula prolifera (glory-of-the-marsh)
Primula pulchella
Primula pulverulenta (mealy cowslip)
Primula pumila (arctic primrose)
Primula reidii
Primula reinii
Primula renifolia
Primula reptans
Primula reticulata
Primula rockii
Primula rosea (Himalayan meadow primrose)
Primula rotundifolia
Primula rusbyi (Rusby's primrose)
Primula sapphirina
Primula saxatilis (rock primrose)
Primula scandinavica (Scandinavian primrose)
Primula scapigera
Primula scotica (Scottish primrose)
Primula secundiflora
Primula septemloba
Primula serratifolia
Primula sheriffii
Primula sieboldii (Japanese primrose)
Primula sikkimensis (Sikkim cowslip)
Primula sinensis (syn. P. praenitens)
Primula sinolisteri
Primula sinomollis
Primula soldanelloides
Primula sonchifolia
Primula souliei
Primula spectabilis
Primula specuicola (alcove primrose, cave-dwelling primrose)
Primula stricta (coastal primrose, strict primrose)
Primula strumosa
Primula suffrutescens (Sierra primrose)
Primula szechuanica
Primula takedana
Primula tanneri
Primula tardiflora
Primula tenella
Primula tenuiloba
Primula tenuituba
Primula tibetica
Primula tschuktschorum (Chukchi primrose)
Primula tyrolensis
Primula vaginata
Primula valentiniana
Primula veris (cowslip)
Primula verticillata (yellow primrose)
Primula vialii (wayside primrose, pagoda primrose, orchid primrose, poker primrose)
Primula villosa
Primula vulgaris (primrose)
Primula waltonii
Primula watsonii
Primula warshenewskiana
Primula whitei
Primula wilsonii
Primula wollastonii (Wollaston's primrose)
Primula wulfeniana (Wulfen's primrose)
Primula xanthopa
Primula yunnanensis
Primula yuparensis
Etymology
The word primula is the Latin feminine diminutive of primus, meaning first (prime), applied to flowers that are among the first to open in spring.
Ecology
Primulas are used as a food plant by the Duke of Burgundy butterfly.
Distribution and habitat
Although there are over 400 species of Primula, about 75% are found in the eastern Himalayan mountain chain and western China (Yunnan Province), constituting a centre of diversity. Other centres of diversity are a western Asian centre (Caucasus, European mountain ranges from the Pyrenees, through the Alps to the Carpathian Mountains), mountains of East Asia and those of western North America. Primula is found in mountainous or higher latitude zones of North America, Europe, and Asia, with extension into South America, Africa (mountains of Ethiopia) and tropical Asia (islands of Java and Sumatra). About 25 species occur in North America (represented in five sections).
Primula is found in the humid and moderate climate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, predominantly in the forest belt, plain meadows, Alpine lawns, and nival and meadow tundras.
Garden hybrids and cultivars
Primula species have been extensively cultivated and hybridised, mainly derived from P. elatior, P. juliae, P. veris and P. vulgaris. Polyanthus (often called P. polyantha) is one such group of plants, which has produced a large variety of strains in all colours, usually grown as annuals or biennials and available as seeds or young plants.
Another huge range of cultivars, known as auriculas, are derived from crosses between P. auricula and P. hirsuta (among others). Specialist nurseries and auricula societies support the growing and showing of these choice strains.
AGM cultivars
The following hybrid varieties and cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-
'Broadwell Milkmaid' (auri)
Charisma series (prim)
'Clarence Elliott' (auri)
Crescendo Series (poly)
'Crescendo Blue Shades'
'Crescendo Bright Red'
'Crescendo Pink and Rose Shades'
Danova Series (prim)
'Danova Rose'
'Francisca' (poly)
'Guinevere' (poly)
Primula × loiseleurii 'Aire Mist' (auri)
Primula × pubescens (auri)
'Tony' (auri)
'Wanda' (prim)
Hybrids
Primula × kewensis = P. floribunda × P. verticillata (Kew primrose)
Primula × polyantha = P. veris × P. vulgaris (false oxlip, polyanthus primula)
Primula × pubescens = P. hirsuta × P. auricula
References
Bibliography
, see also Species Plantarum
Species
, in Flora of China online vol. 15
External links
Armeniapedia: Medicinal Uses of Primula
Garden plants
Primulaceae genera
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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|
213406 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Au%20Bonheur%20des%20Dames | Au Bonheur des Dames | Au Bonheur des Dames (; The Ladies' Delight or The Ladies' Paradise) is the eleventh novel in the Rougon-Macquart series by Émile Zola. It was first serialized in the periodical Gil Blas and published in novel form by Charpentier in 1883.
The novel is set in the world of the department store, an innovative development in mid-nineteenth century retail sales. Zola models his store after Le Bon Marché, which consolidated under one roof many of the goods hitherto sold in separate shops. The narrative details many of Le Bon Marché's innovations, including its mail-order business, its system of commissions, its in-house staff commissary, and its methods of receiving and retailing goods.
Au Bonheur des Dames is a sequel to Pot-Bouille. Like its predecessor, Au Bonheur des Dames focuses on Octave Mouret, who at the end of the previous novel married Caroline Hédouin, the owner of a small silk shop. Now a widower, Octave has expanded the business into an international retail powerhouse occupying, at the beginning of the book, the greater part of an entire city block.
Plot summary
The events of Au Bonheur des Dames cover approximately 1864-1869.
The novel tells the story of Denise Baudu, a 20-year-old woman from Valognes who comes to Paris with her younger brothers and begins working as a saleswoman at the department store "Au Bonheur des Dames". Zola describes the inner workings of the store from the employees' perspective, including the 13-hour workdays, the substandard food and the bare lodgings for the female staff. Many of the conflicts in the novel spring from each employee's struggle for advancement and the malicious infighting and gossip among the staff.
Denise's story is played against the career of Octave Mouret, the owner of Au Bonheur des Dames, whose retail innovations and store expansions threaten the existence of all the neighborhood shops. Under one roof, Octave has gathered textiles (silks, woolens) as well as all manner of ready-made garments (dresses, coats, lingerie, gloves), accessories necessary for making clothes, and ancillary items like carpeting and furniture. His aim is to overwhelm the senses of his female customers, forcing them to spend by bombarding them with an array of buying choices and by juxtaposing goods in enticing and intoxicating ways. Massive advertising, huge sales, home delivery, and a system of refunds and novelties such as a reading room and a snack bar further induce his female clientele to patronize his store in growing numbers. In the process, he drives the traditional retailers who operate smaller speciality shops out of business.
In Pot-Bouille, an earlier novel, Octave is depicted as a ladies' man, sometimes inept, who seduces or attempts to seduce women who can give him some social or financial advantage. In Au Bonheur des Dames, he uses a young widow to influence a political figure–modeled after Baron Haussmann–in order to gain frontage access to a huge thoroughfare, the present day rue de Quatre-Septembre, for the store.
Despite his contempt for women, Octave finds himself slowly falling in love with Denise, whose refusal to be seduced by his charms further inflames him. The book ends with Denise admitting her love for Octave and agreeing to marry him.
The depiction of women is modern. The department store is described as a place where female customers can live out their fantasies and impulses; for the female employees, it offers the possibility of financial independence.
Relationship to the other Rougon-Macquart novels
Zola designed the Rougon-Macquart novels to demonstrate how heredity and environment operate on the members of one family over the course of the Second French Empire. In this case, the environment is the department store.
Octave Mouret is introduced briefly in La fortune des Rougon. He plays a larger but background role in La conquête de Plassans, which focuses on his parents, the first cousins Marthe Rougon and François Mouret. As an innovator and risk-taker, Octave combines his mother's imagination with his father's business sense, making the department store the perfect milieu for his natural gifts.
Octave's brother is the priest Serge (La faute de l'Abbé Mouret), who served as a guardian to their mentally challenged sister Desirée.
In Le docteur Pascal, the final novel in the series set in 1872-1873, Octave and Denise are married and have three children. Octave also appears briefly or is mentioned in La joie de vivre and L'œuvre.
Adaptations
The novel has been adapted for film several times.
Zum Paradies der Damen (1922) directed by Lupu Pick
Au bonheur des dames (1930) directed by Julien Duvivier starring Dita Parlo
Au Bonheur des Dames (English: Shop Girls of Paris) (1943) directed by André Cayatte starring Blanchette Brunoy
The BBC used the novel as the basis for a 2012 eight-part television series set in northern England titled The Paradise. It starred Joanna Vanderham and Emun Elliott. The BBC launched a second series in October 2013.
The novel was also adapted as an Italian language television series in 2015, Il Paradiso delle Signore, which has run for several seasons and stars Giuseppe Zeno and Giusy Buscemi.
The novel was adapted for the stage, with the title The Department Store, by Justin Fleming, and was premiered at The Old Fitzroy Theatre Sydney in 2005, directed by Christopher Hurrell.
The novel was adapted into a play for BBC Radio 4 that premiered in September 2010.
Translations
Shop Girls of Paris (1883, tr. Mary Neal Sherwood, T.B. Peterson & Bros.)
The Ladies' Paradise (1883, tr. Frank Belmont, Tinsley Bros.)
The Ladies' Paradise (1895, tr. Ernest Alfred Vizetelly, Hutchinson & Co.)
Ladies' Delight (1957, tr. April Fitzlyon, John Calder)
The Ladies Paradise (1995, tr. Brian Nelson, Oxford University Press)
Au Bonheur des Dames (The Ladies' Delight) (2001, tr. Robin Buss, Penguin Books)
See also
Aristide Boucicaut
Grands Magasins du Louvre
Kleptomania
La Samaritaine
Ready-to-wear
Retailing
Shopping
Sources
Brown, F. (1995). Zola: A life. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.
Zola, E. Au Bonheur des Dames, translated as The Ladies' Paradise by Brian Nelson (1995).
Zola, E. Au Bonheur des Dames, translated as The Ladies' Delight by Robin Buss (2002).
Zola, E. Le doctor Pascal, translated as Doctor Pascal by E. A. Vizetelly (1893).
References
External links
(French)
(1943) (French)
(1930) (French) directed by Julien Duvivier
(German) (1922)
Au Bonheur des Dames, audio version
1883 French novels
Novels by Émile Zola
Books of Les Rougon-Macquart
Novels first published in serial form
Works originally published in Gil Blas (periodical)
Novels about marketing
Fiction set in the 1860s
Novels set in Paris
French novels adapted into films | [
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|
213407 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay | Jay | A jay is a member of a number of species of medium-sized, usually colorful and noisy, passerine birds in the crow family, Corvidae. The evolutionary relationships between the jays and the magpies are rather complex. For example, the Eurasian magpie seems more closely related to the Eurasian jay than to the East Asian blue and green magpies, whereas the blue jay is not closely related to either.
Systematics and species
Jays are not a monophyletic group. Anatomical and molecular evidence indicates they can be divided into an American and an Old World lineage (the latter including the ground jays and the piapiac), while the grey jays of the genus Perisoreus form a group of their own. The black magpies, formerly believed to be related to jays, are classified as treepies.
Old World ("brown") jays
Grey jays
American jays
In culture
Slang
The word jay has an archaic meaning in American slang meaning a person who chatters impertinently.
The term jaywalking was coined in 1915 to label persons crossing a busy street carelessly and becoming a traffic hazard. The term began to imply recklessness or impertinent behavior as the convention became established.
In January 2014, Canadian author Robert Joseph Greene embarked on a lobbying campaign among ornithologists in Europe and North America to get Merriam-Websters Dictionary to have a "Jabber of Jays" as an official term under bird groups.
References
External links
Jay videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Corvidae
Jays
Bird common names | [
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213408 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Edward%20Forster | William Edward Forster | William Edward Forster, PC, FRS (11 July 18185 April 1886) was an English industrialist, philanthropist and Liberal Party statesman. His staunch advocacy of lethal force against the Land League earned him the nickname Buckshot Forster.
Early life
Born to William and Anna Forster, Quaker parents at Bradpole, near Bridport in Dorset, Forster was educated at the Quaker school at Tottenham, where his father's family had long been settled, and on leaving school he was put into business. He declined to enter a brewery and became involved in woollen manufacture in Burley-in-Wharfedale, Yorkshire. In 1850 he married Jane Martha, eldest daughter of Dr Thomas Arnold. She was not a Quaker and Forster was formally read out of meeting for marrying her, but the Friends who were commissioned to announce the sentence "shook hands and stayed to luncheon". Forster thereafter ranked himself as a member of the Church of England.
The Forsters had no natural children, but when Mrs Forster's brother, William Delafield Arnold, died in 1859, leaving three orphans, the Forsters adopted them as their own. One of the children was Hugh Oakeley Arnold-Forster, a Liberal Unionist member of parliament, who eventually became a member of Balfour's cabinet. Another was Florence Arnold-Forster, who wrote a journal about family life and politics in the 1880s. The youngest child, Frances, compiled the first systematic study of English church dedications, published in 1899 as "Studies in English Church Dedications or England's Patron Saints" (London 1899).
William Forster became known as a practical philanthropist. In 1846–47, he accompanied his father to Ireland as distributor of the Friends' relief fund for the famine in Connemara, and the state of the country made a deep impression on him. He began to take an active part in public affairs by speaking and lecturing.
Political career
In 1859, Forster stood as Liberal candidate for Leeds, but lost. He was highly esteemed in the West Riding, and in 1861 was returned unopposed for Bradford. He was returned again in 1865 (unopposed) and in 1868 (at the head of the poll). He took a prominent part in parliament in the debates on the American Civil War, and in 1865 was made Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies in Lord John Russell's ministry. It was then that he first became a prominent advocate of imperial federation. In 1866, his attitude on parliamentary reform attracted attention. He showed knowledge of the real condition of common people, and foreshadowed Radical legislation, heralding the start of a campaign of educational reform.
Directly after the Reform Bill had passed, Forster and Edward Cardwell brought in Education Bills in 1867 and 1868. In 1868, when the Liberal party returned to office, Forster was appointed Vice-president of the Council, with the duty of preparing a government measure for national education. The Elementary Education Bill was introduced on 17 February 1870 and school boards were set up with elected representatives (for example, Charles Reed in London) the same year where possible. The religious difficulty at once came to the front. The Manchester Education Union and the National Education League/Birmingham Education League had already formulated in the provinces the two opposing theories, the former standing for the preservation of denominational interests, the latter advocating secular rate-aided education as the only means of protecting Nonconformity against the Church.
The Dissenters were not satisfied with Forster's "conscience clause" as contained in the bill, and they regarded him, the ex-Quaker, as a deserter from their own side. They resented the "25th clause", permitting school boards to pay the fees of needy children at denominational schools out of the rates, as an insidious attack on their interests. By 14 March, at the second reading, the controversy had assumed threatening proportions; and George Dixon, the Liberal member for Birmingham and chairman of the National Education League, moved an amendment, the effect of which was to prohibit all religious education in board schools. The government made its rejection a question of confidence, and the amendment was withdrawn; but the result was the insertion of the Cowper-Temple clause (which prohibited the use of distinctive religious formularies in a rate-supported school) as a compromise before the bill passed. The bill of 1870, imperfect as it was, established at last some approach to a system of national education in England.
Forster's next important work was in passing the Ballot Act 1872. In 1874, he was again returned for Bradford. In 1875, when Gladstone "retired," Forster was strongly supported for the leadership of the Liberal party, but declined to be nominated. In the same year he was elected to the Royal Society, and made Lord Rector of Aberdeen University. In 1876, when the Eastern question was looming, he visited Serbia and Turkey, and his subsequent speeches on the subject were marked by moderation. On Gladstone's return to office in 1880, he was made Chief Secretary for Ireland. He carried the Compensation for Disturbance Bill through the Commons, only to see it thrown out in the Lords. On 24 January 1881, he introduced a Coercion Bill in the House of Commons, to deal with the growth of the Land League, and in the course of his speech declared it to be "the most painful duty" he had ever had to perform. The bill passed, among its provisions being one enabling the Irish government to arrest without trial persons "reasonably suspected" of crime and conspiracy.
The Irish party used every opportunity to oppose the act, and Forster was kept constantly on the move between Dublin and London, conducting his campaign and defending it in the House of Commons.
He was nicknamed "Buckshot" by the Nationalist press, on the supposition that he had ordered its use by the police when firing on a crowd. On 13 October 1881, Charles Stewart Parnell was arrested, and soon after the Land League was suppressed. From that time Forster's life was in danger, and he had to be escorted by mounted police in Dublin. In speeches given across Ireland in early 1882, Forster, while criticizing the populace for not helping the government, nonetheless pledged that it was the government's duty to protect them. The danger to his life became more apparent, and several plans to murder him were frustrated by the merest accidents. On 2 May 1882, Gladstone announced that the government intended to release Parnell and his fellow-prisoners from Kilmainham Gaol, and that both Lord Cowper-Temple and Forster had in consequence resigned; on the following Saturday, Forster's successor, Lord Frederick Cavendish, was murdered in Phoenix Park, Dublin. Still, Forster offered to return to Dublin temporarily as chief secretary, but the offer was declined. In the ensuing parliamentary session, he charged Parnell with conspiring in the murders, to be in turn denounced by Parnell.
During the remaining years of his life, Forster's political record covered various interesting subjects, but his efforts in Ireland threw them all into shadow. He was at variance with Gladstone's Liberalism, for example in policies towards Sudan and Transvaal. When the constituency of Bradford was divided into three, he was returned for the central division but did not take up his seat.
Forster died on the eve of the introduction of the First Home Rule Bill, which he opposed. He was buried in Burley-in-Wharfedale.
In popular culture
Forster is referred to as 'Buckshot' in the Irish folk song "Monto" made famous by The Dubliners and in Andy Irvine's song Forgotten Hero about Michael Davitt.
References
Sources
External links
Life of the Right Honourable William Edward Forster, by Thomas Wemyss Reid, published by Chapman & Hall, 1889, and available from Microsoft Books Live Search
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION ACT (1870) AMENDMENT BILL, House of Commons Debate, 17 July 1873, Hansard, vol 217 cc502-90 502, speech of Mr. William Edward Forster on the SECOND READING of the bill
Memorial
There is a memorial to him in his home village of Bradpole.
1818 births
1886 deaths
People from West Dorset District
Liberal Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
People from Tottenham
People disowned by the Quakers
UK MPs 1859–1865
UK MPs 1865–1868
UK MPs 1868–1874
UK MPs 1874–1880
UK MPs 1880–1885
UK MPs 1885–1886
Rectors of the University of Aberdeen
Politicians from Bradford
Fellows of the Royal Society
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Members of the Privy Council of Ireland
Chief Secretaries for Ireland | [
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|
213409 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provinces%20of%20Spain | Provinces of Spain | Spain and its 17 autonomous communities are subdivided into 50 provinces (, ; sing. provincia). Spain's provincial system was recognized in its 1978 Constitution but its origin dates back to 1833 with a similar predecessor from 1822 (during the Trienio Liberal). Ceuta, Melilla, and the plazas de soberanía are not part of any provinces.
Provincial organization
The layout of Spain's provinces closely follows the pattern of the territorial division of the country carried out in 1833. The only major change of provincial borders since that time has been the subdivision of the Canary Islands into two provinces rather than one.
Historically, the provinces served mainly as transmission belts for policies enacted in Madrid, as Spain was a highly centralised state for most of its modern history. The importance of the provinces has declined since the adoption of the system of autonomous communities in the period of the Spanish transition to democracy. They nevertheless remain electoral districts for national elections and as geographical references: for instance in postal addresses and telephone codes. National media will also frequently use the province to disambiguate small towns or communities whose names occur frequently throughout Spain.
A small town would normally be identified as being in, say, Valladolid province rather than the autonomous community of Castile and León. The provinces were the "building-blocks" from which the autonomous communities were created. Consequently, no province is divided between more than one of these communities.
Most of the provinces—with the exceptions of Álava, Asturias, Biscay, Cantabria, Gipuzkoa, the Balearic Islands, La Rioja, and Navarre—are named after their principal town. Only two capitals of autonomous communities—Mérida in Extremadura and Santiago de Compostela in Galicia—are not also the capitals of provinces.
Seven of the autonomous communities comprise no more than one province each: Asturias, the Balearic Islands, Cantabria, La Rioja, Madrid, Murcia, and Navarre. These are sometimes referred to as "uniprovincial" communities.
The table below lists the provinces of Spain. For each, the capital city is given, together with an indication of the autonomous community to which it belongs and a link to a list of municipalities in the province. The names of the provinces and their capitals are ordered alphabetically according to the form in which they appear in the main Wikipedia articles describing them. Unless otherwise indicated, their Spanish-language names are the same; locally valid names in Spain's other co-official languages (Basque, Catalan, which is officially called Valencian in the Valencian Community, Galician) are also indicated where they differ.
Provinces
Notes
See also
Autonomous communities of Spain
Comarcas of Spain
ISO 3166-2:ES
List of provincial flags of Spain
List of Spanish provinces by area
List of Spanish provinces by population
Spanish Federation of Municipalities and Provinces
General
Political divisions of Spain
External links
Maps of the provinces of Spain
List of municipalities of Spain listed by province from the Spanish INE (National Statistics Institute)
Spain 2
Provinces
Provinces, Spain
Spain geography-related lists
Subdivisions of Spain | [
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213413 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%20the%20Mood%20for%20Love | In the Mood for Love | In the Mood for Love is a 2000 romantic drama film written, produced and directed by Wong Kar-wai. A co-production between Hong Kong and France, it portrays a man (Tony Leung) and a woman (Maggie Cheung) whose spouses have an affair together and who slowly develop feelings for each other.
The film premiered at the Cannes Film Festival on 20 May 2000, to critical acclaim and a nomination for the Palme d'Or; Leung won Best Actor (the first Hong Kong actor to win the award). It is often listed as one of the greatest films of all time and one of the major works of Asian cinema. In a 2016 survey by the BBC, it was voted the second-best film of the 21st century by 177 film critics from around the world.
It forms the second part of an informal trilogy, alongside Days of Being Wild and 2046.
Plot
Opening Intertitle
The following intertitle begins the film:
那是一種難堪的相對。她一直羞低著頭，給他一個接近的機會。他沒有勇氣接近。她轉身，走了。(As it appears on screen)
那是一种难堪的相对。她一直羞低着头，给他一个接近的机会。他没有勇气接近。她转身，走了。(In Simplified Chinese)
It is a restless moment. She has kept her head lowered... to give him a chance to come closer. But he could not, for lack of courage. She turns and walks away. (Translation)
That was a type of embarrassing encounter. She has shyly kept her head lowered, giving him a chance to come close. He does not have the courage to come close. She turns, walked away. (Literal translation)
Summary
In 1962 British Hong Kong, Shanghai expatriates Chow Mo-wan, a journalist, and Su Li-shen, a secretary at a shipping company, rent rooms in adjacent apartments. Each has a spouse who works and often leaves them alone on overtime shifts. Due to the friendly but overbearing presence of a Shanghainese landlady, Mrs. Suen, and their bustling, mahjong-playing neighbours, Chow and Su are often alone in their rooms. Although they initially are friendly to each other only as need be, they grow closer as they realize that their spouses are having an affair.
Chow invites Su to help him write a martial arts serial. Their increased time together draws the attention of their neighbors, leading Chow to rent a hotel room where they can work together undistracted. As time passes, they acknowledge that they have developed feelings for each other. When Chow takes a job in Singapore, he asks Su to go with him. She agrees but arrives too late at the hotel to accompany him.
The next year, Su goes to Singapore and visits Chow's apartment. She calls Chow, who is working for a Singaporean newspaper, but remains silent when Chow picks up. Later, Chow realises she has visited his apartment after seeing a lipstick-stained cigarette butt in his ashtray. While dining with a friend, Chow relays a story about how in older times, when a person had a secret, they could go atop a mountain, make a hollow in a tree, and whisper it into the hollow and cover it with mud.
Three years later, Su visits Mrs. Suen, who is about to emigrate to the United States, and inquires about whether her apartment is available for rent. Some time later, Chow returns to visit his landlords, who have emigrated to the Philippines. He asks about the Suen family next door, and the new owner tells him a woman and her son are now living there. He leaves without realising Su is the lady living there.
Chow travels to Siem Reap, Cambodia and visits Angkor Wat. He whispers into a hollow in a wall and plugs the hollow with mud.
Closing Intertitle
After Chow leaves Angkor Wat, the following intertitle appears and concludes the film:
那些消逝了的歲月，彷彿隔著一塊積著灰塵的玻璃，看得到，抓不著。他一直在懷念過去的一切。如果他能衝破那塊積著灰塵的玻璃，他會走回早已消逝的歲月。(As it appears on screen)
那些消逝了的岁月，仿佛隔着一块积着灰尘的玻璃，看得到，抓不着。他一直在怀念过去的一切。如果他能冲破那块积着灰尘的玻璃，他会走回早已消逝的岁月。(In Simplified Chinese)
He remembers those vanished years. As though looking through a dusty window pane, the past is something he could see, but not touch. And everything he sees is blurred and indistinct. (Translation)
Those vanished years, as if through a piece of dust-laden glass, can be seen, cannot be grasped. He has always been thinking about everything in the past. If he can burst through that piece of dust-laden glass, he will walk back into those long-vanished years. (Literal translation)
Cast
Maggie Cheung as Su Li-zhen (Mrs. Chan)
Tony Leung as Chow Mo-wan
Siu Ping Lam as Ah Ping, Chow's co-worker
Rebecca Pan as Mrs. Suen, the Chans' landlady
Kelly Lai Chen as Mr. Ho, Su's employer
Joe Cheung as man living in Mr. Koo's apartment
Chan Man-Lei as Mr. Koo, the Chows' landlord
Chin Tsi-ang as Suen's amah (female servant)
Roy Cheung as Mr. Chan (voice)
Paulyn Sun as Mrs. Chow
Title
The film's original Chinese title, meaning "the age of blossoms" or "the flowery years" – a Chinese metaphor for the fleeting time of youth, beauty and love – derives from a song of the same name by Zhou Xuan from a 1946 film. The English title derives from the song "I'm in the Mood for Love". Director Wong had planned to name the film Secrets until listening to the song late in post-production.
Development and pre-production
In the Mood for Love went through a long gestation period. In the 1990s, Wong Kar-wai found some commercial success, much critical acclaim, and wide influence on other filmmakers throughout Asia and the world with films such as Chungking Express and Fallen Angels, both set in present-day Hong Kong. His 1997 film Happy Together was also successful internationally, winning him Best Director at the Cannes Film Festival and surprising many. It was even popular with mainstream audiences in Hong Kong, despite its then-unusual focus on a gay love story and its having been largely improvised in Argentina, a landscape unfamiliar to Wong. By the end of the decade, with sovereignty of Hong Kong transferred from Britain to the People's Republic of China, Wong was eager to work once more in the mainland, where he had been born. He had been dissatisfied with the final result of his 1994 wuxia epic Ashes of Time, which was set in ancient times and filmed in remote desert regions, and decided to deal with a more 20th-century, urban setting.
By 1998, Wong had developed a concept for his next film Summer in Beijing. Although no script was finalized, he and cameraman Christopher Doyle had been to Tiananmen Square and other areas of the city to do a small amount of unauthorized shooting. Wong told journalists the film was to be a musical and a love story. Wong secured the participation of Tony Leung Chiu-wai and Maggie Cheung to star, and with his background in graphic design, had even made posters for the film. He had begun work on script treatments, which since Days of Being Wild, he tended to treat as only a very loose basis for his work to secure financing, preferring to leave things open to change during the shoot.
It transpired that there would be difficulties securing permission to shoot in Beijing with Wong's spontaneous methods of working and potential political sensitivities in setting his film in mid-20th century China. Wong had come to think of Summer in Beijing as a triptych of stories, much like his original concept of Chungking Express (in which the third story had been spun off into the film Fallen Angels). Quickly, Wong decided to jettison this structure, saving only one of the three planned stories, which had been titled provisionally, A Story of Food, and dealt with a woman and a man who shared noodles and secrets. As he reunited with his actors and production team, most of whom had collaborated several times before, Wong decided A Story of Food would be the heart of his next film. The story would slowly evolve into In the Mood for Love, after transposing its setting away from mainland China and back to 1960s Hong Kong.
Wong had set his breakthrough Days of Being Wild in that time in Hong Kong, when mainland-born Chinese and their memories, including those of Wong, then a young child, had a strong presence in the territory. Still saturated with the sounds of 1930s and 1940s Shanghai singing stars and the ideals they represented, the time also reminded him of the wide array of vibrant dance music floating in over the Pacific from the Philippines, Hawaii, Latin America and the United States, which Wong had used as a backdrop in Days of Being Wild. Wong had regarded Days of Being Wild upon its release in 1990 as an artistic success, and had planned a sequel to it. However, his producers had been disappointed by its box-office returns, particularly given that its shoot had been prolonged and expensive, with Wong, who had come out of the Hong Kong industry, first attempting to work more independently, including collaborating for the first time with cinematographer Christopher Doyle, who favored jazz-like spontaneity in his shooting methods. Despite involving many of Hong Kong's top stars, the film's profits had been modest, so Wong was not given the opportunity to follow it up. Yet as he moved on to other films, he had always retained the dream of doing so. With the impossibility of the original idea of Summer in Beijing, he was now able to pursue it.
The cast of Maggie Cheung and Tony Leung in A Story of Food (soon to become In the Mood for Love) provided an opportunity to pick up a loose thread of Days of Being Wild, as the actors had appeared in that film, although never together. Leung's few scenes had been left incomplete, awaiting Wong's planned sequel that was never made. 2046, a sequel in its plot to In the Mood for Love, would later serve for Wong as a sequel in spirit to Days of Being Wild, connecting the story of Leung's character in Days and In the Mood. The writing of 2046 essentially began at the same time as that of In the Mood for Love. Because neither film had its plot, structure, or even all its characters, scripted in advance, Wong began working on the ideas that eventually made it into 2046 during the shoot of In the Mood for Love. As he and his collaborators made the film in a variety of settings, its story took shape. Eventually, these constantly developing ideas, taken from one of the remnants of Summer in Beijing, were developed too much to fit into one film. Wong discarded most of the footage and story before arriving at In the Mood, later reshooting and reimagining the rest as 2046.
Production
Wong's plan to make a film set primarily in Hong Kong did not simplify matters when it came to the shoot. The city's appearance was much changed since the 1960s, and Wong's personal nostalgia for the time added to his desire for historical accuracy. Wong had little taste for working in studio settings, let alone using special effects to imitate the look of past times. Christopher Doyle later discussed the necessity of filming where the streets, the buildings, and even the sight of clothes hanging on lines (as in 1960s Hong Kong) could give a real energy to the actors and the story, whose outlines were constantly open to revision as shooting progressed. While set in Hong Kong, a portion of the filming (like outdoor and hotel scenes) was shot in less modernized neighborhoods of Bangkok, Thailand. Further, a brief portion later in the film is set in Singapore (one of Wong's initial inspirations on the story had been a short story set in Hong Kong, Intersection, by the Hong Kong writer Liu Yichang). In its final sequences, the film also incorporates footage of Angkor Wat, Cambodia, where Leung's character is working as a journalist.
The film took 15 months to shoot. The actors found the process inspiring but demanding. They required a lot of work to understand the times, being slightly younger than Wong and having grown up in a rapidly changing Hong Kong or, in Maggie Cheung's case, partly in the United Kingdom.
Cheung portrayed 1930s Chinese screen icon Ruan Lingyu in Stanley Kwan's 1992 film Center Stage, for which she wore qipao, the dresses worn by stylish Chinese women throughout much of the first half of the 20th century. It had been Cheung's most recognized performance to date and her hardest, partly due to the clothing, which restricted her freedom of movement. For Wong's film, Cheung, playing a married woman in her thirties who had carried over the elegance of her younger years in the pre-revolutionary mainland, would again wear qipao, known in Cantonese as cheongsam, and spoke of it as the way of understanding her character Su Li-zhen, whose quiet strength Cheung felt was unlike her own more spontaneous spirit.
The cinematographer Christopher Doyle, for whom the film was the sixth collaboration with Wong Kar-wai, had to leave when production went over schedule and was replaced by Mark Lee Ping Bin, renowned for his work with Taiwanese filmmaker Hou Hsiao-hsien. Both DPs are credited equally for the final film. Some scenes in the final cut are thought to have been shot by each, with some critics noting differences between Doyle's more kinetic style as seen in earlier Wong movies, and the more subtle long shots of Lee framing key parts of In the Mood for Love.
Critic Tony Rayns, on the other hand, noted in a commentary on another Wong film that the differing styles of the two cinematographers were blended seamlessly by Wong's own fluid aesthetic. Like all of Wong's previous work, this one was shot on film, not digitally.
Doyle's departure did not result from major artistic arguments with Wong. However, despite his agreement with Wong's spontaneous approach to scripting, he found it frustrating to reshoot many of the key moments over and over in environments throughout Southeast Asia until they felt right to the director. He had to turn down many other projects due to the total commitment, without a clear time limit, required by Wong. Several years later Doyle initially signed on to work on the sequel 2046, but he also abandoned that project halfway through for similar reasons (being replaced by a range of DPs) and has not worked with Wong since. Tony Leung, on the other hand, returned to work on 2046, in which he starred without Maggie Cheung, who made only a brief appearance in already shot footage from In the Mood for Love. Leung also starred in Wong's 2013 film, The Grandmaster. Cheung felt In the Mood for Love was the high point of her career, and she has worked much more infrequently since, starring in several films soon after but within four years, all but retired from acting, despite winning a Best Actress Award at Cannes for 2004's Clean.
The final months of production and post-production on In the Mood for Love, a submission to the Cannes Film Festival in May 2000, were notorious for their confusion. The film was barely finished in time for the festival, as would occur again four years later when Wong submitted 2046. Wong continued shooting more and more of In the Mood for Love with the cast and crew as he worked furiously to edit the massive amounts of footage he had shot over the past year. He removed large chunks of the story to strip it down to its most basic element, the relationship between these characters in the 1960s, with brief allusions to earlier and later times. In the meantime, Wong screened brief segments before the festival for journalists and distributors. Despite the general lack of commercial interest in Chinese cinema at the time by North American media corporations, Wong was given a distribution deal for a limited theatrical release in North America on USA Films, based only on a few minutes of footage.
By early 2000, with the deadline for Cannes approaching, Wong was contacted by the director of Cannes, who encouraged him to quickly complete a final cut, and offered a constructive criticism about the title. Although the title in Cantonese and Mandarin is based on a Zhou Xuan song whose English title is translated "Age of Bloom", the international title proved more complex. After discarding Summer in Beijing and A Story of Food, Wong had provisionally settled on Secrets, but Cannes felt this title was not as distinctive as the film Wong was preparing and suggested he should change it.
Finally having completed the cut, but at a loss for titles, Wong was listening to a then-recent album by Bryan Ferry and Roxy Music titled Slave to Love: The Very Best of the Ballads, and noticed a resonance in the song "I'm in the Mood for Love", which shared its title with a popular jazz standard of the mid-20th century. Many of Wong's previous English-language titles had come from pop songs, so he found this title particularly appropriate.
Wong states he was very influenced by Hitchcock's Vertigo while making this film and compares Tony Leung's character to James Stewart's:
Title song
The title track "Hua Yang De Nian Hua" is a song by famous singer Zhou Xuan from the Solitary Island period. The 1946 song is a paean to a happy past and an oblique metaphor for the darkness of Japanese-occupied Shanghai. Wong also set the song to his 2000 short film, named Hua Yang De Nian Hua, after the track.
Soundtrack
Shigeru Umebayashi: "Yumeji's Theme" (originally from the soundtrack of Seijun Suzuki's Yumeji)
Michael Galasso: "Angkor Wat Theme", "ITMFL", "Casanova/Flute"
Nat King Cole: "Aquellos Ojos Verdes", "Te Quiero Dijiste", "Quizás, Quizás, Quizás"
Bryan Ferry: "I'm in the Mood for Love" (the inspiration for the English title, found on, e.g., the French two-CD soundtrack, not in the film)
Zhou Xuan:《花樣的年華》 "Hua Yang De Nian Hua" (the inspiration for the original Chinese title)
Rebecca Pan: "Bengawan Solo"
All of the traditional pingtan, Cantonese, Beijing and Yue operas are historic recordings
Box office and distribution
In the Mood for Love made HK$8,663,227 during its Hong Kong run.
On 2 February 2001, the film opened in six North American theatres, earning $113,280 ($18,880 per screen) in its first weekend. It finished its North American run with a gross of $2,738,980.
The total worldwide box office gross was US$12,854,953.
Home media
The film has been released on DVD and Blu-ray, most notably by the Criterion Collection, who released a restored high-definition digital transfer in the United States in 2012.
Reception and legacy
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 91% based on 138 reviews, with an average rating of 7.90/10. The website's critical consensus reads "This understated romance, featuring good performances by its leads, is both visually beautiful and emotionally moving." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 85 out of 100 based on 28 critic reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three stars out of four, calling it "a lush story of unrequited love". Elvis Mitchell, writing for The New York Times, referred to it as "probably the most breathtakingly gorgeous film of the year".
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote that "In the hands of a hack, In the Mood for Love could have been a snickering sex farce. In the hands of Wong Kar-wai ... the film is alive with delicacy and feeling". Peter Walker of The Guardian, describing it as his "favourite film", wrote that it provides "profound and moving reflections on life's fundamentals. It's a film about, yes, love; but also betrayal, loss, missed opportunities, memory, the brutality of time's passage, loneliness—the list goes on". David Parkinson of Empire awarded the film five out of five stars, writing that "the performances are masterly, and the photography beautiful. It's a genuinely romantic romance and makes for sublime cinema."
Lists
In 2000, Empire ranked it number 42 in its list titled "The 100 Best Films of World Cinema. It was ranked 95th on 100 Best Films from 1983 to 2008 by Entertainment Weekly. In November 2009, Time Out New York ranked the film as the fifth-best of the decade, calling it the "consummate unconsummated love story of the new millennium."
They Shoot Pictures, Don't They?, a review aggregator covering the history of cinema, lists In the Mood for Love as the 45th most acclaimed film of all time, making it the most widely acclaimed film released anywhere in the world since its release in 2000. In the 2012 Sight & Sound critics poll, In the Mood for Love appeared at number 24, making it the highest ranked film from the 2000s and one of only two from the 2000s to be listed in the top 50 of all time, along with David Lynch's Mulholland Drive. Wong's film was also the highest ranked film by a Chinese filmmaker. In the Mood for Love received its placement due to the votes of 42 critics (out of 846) who placed it in their own top 10 lists individually.
Three years later, Sofia Coppola credited In the Mood for Love as her largest inspiration on her Academy Award-winning film Lost in Translation, which ended with secrets being shared, and made important use of another song by Bryan Ferry. Lost in Translations iconic opening shot was inspired by a shot from In the Mood for Love. Coppola thanked Wong Kar-wai in her Oscar acceptance speech.
In 2015, the Busan International Film Festival ranked the film No. 3 in its Asian Cinema 100 list, behind Yasujirō Ozu's Tokyo Story and Akira Kurosawa's Rashomon.
In 2016, the film appeared in second place on BBC's list of 100 Greatest Films of the 21st Century after Mulholland Drive. The film ranked 9th in BBC's 2018 list of The 100 greatest foreign language films voted by 209 film critics from 43 countries around the world.
In 2019, The Guardian ranked the film fifth in its Best Films of the 21st Century list. In 2021 the film was ranked at No. 8 on Time Out magazine's list of The 100 best movies of all time.
Awards
2000 Cannes Film Festival
Won: Best Actor (Tony Leung Chiu-wai)
Won: Technical Grand Prize (Christopher Doyle, Lee Ping-bing, William Chang)
Nominated: Palme d'Or
2001 Hong Kong Film Awards
Won: Best Actor (Tony Leung Chiu-wai)
Won: Best Actress (Maggie Cheung)
Won: Best Art Direction (William Chang)
Won: Best Costume and Make-up Design (William Chang)
Won: Best Film Editing (William Chang)
Nominated: Best Picture
Nominated: Best Director (Wong Kar-wai)
Nominated: Best Supporting Actress (Poon Dick-wah)
Nominated: Best Screenplay (Wong Kar-wai)
Nominated: Best New Performer (Siu Ping-lam)
Nominated: Best Cinematography (Christopher Doyle, Lee Pin-bing)
Nominated: Best Original Score (Michael Galasso)
2000 Golden Horse Film Festival and Awards
Won: Best Actress (Maggie Cheung)
2001 Hong Kong Film Critics Society Awards
Won: Best Director (Wong Kar-wai)
Won: Film of merit
2001 Belgian Syndicate of Cinema Critics (Belgium)
Won: Grand Prix
2002 National Society of Film Critics (USA)
Won: Best Foreign Language Film
Won: Best Cinematography (Christopher Doyle, Lee Pin-bing)
2001 César Awards
Won: Best Foreign Film
2001 German Film Awards
Won: Best Foreign Film
2001 New York Film Critics Circle Awards
Won: Best Foreign Language Film
Won: Best Cinematography (Christopher Doyle, Lee Pin-bing)
2001 BAFTA Awards
Nominated: Best Foreign Language Film
2002 Argentine Film Critics Association Awards
Won: Best Foreign Language Film
2000 Asia-Pacific Film Festival
Won: Best Cinematography (Christopher Doyle, Lee Pin-bing)
Won: Best Editing (William Chang)
2001 Australian Film Institute Awards
Nominated: Best Foreign Language Film
2001 British Independent Film Awards
Won: Best Foreign Language Film
2002 Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards
Nominated: Best Foreign Language Film
See also
List of films set in Hong Kong
References
External links
In the Mood for Love: Haunted Heart an essay by Steve Erickson at the Criterion Collection
2000 films
2000 romantic drama films
Adultery in films
Best Foreign Film César Award winners
2000s Cantonese-language films
European Film Awards winners (films)
Films directed by Wong Kar-wai
Films scored by Shigeru Umebayashi
Films set in 1962
Films set in Cambodia
Films set in Hong Kong
Films set in Shanghai
Films set in Singapore
Films shot in Cambodia
Films shot in Macau
Films shot in Shanghai
Films shot in Thailand
Hong Kong films
Hong Kong New Wave films
Hong Kong nonlinear narrative films
Hong Kong romantic drama films
Shanghainese-language films | [
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213416 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Replacements%20%28film%29 | The Replacements (film) | The Replacements is a 2000 American sports comedy film directed by Howard Deutch. It stars Keanu Reeves, Gene Hackman, Brooke Langton, Rhys Ifans, Jon Favreau, and Jack Warden in his last film appearance.
The movie was loosely based on the 1987 NFL strike, specifically the Washington Redskins, who won all three replacement games without any of their regular players and went on to win Super Bowl XXII. Though the film is a story of the replacement players, the Falco-Martel quarterback controversy is quite similar to the one in the post-strike Washington controversy between Doug Williams and Jay Schroeder. Hackman narrated the episode of NFL Network's America's Game: The Super Bowl Champions devoted to that team.
Plot
A fictional pro football league is hit with a players' strike with four games left in the season. Washington Sentinels owner Edward O'Neil calls a former coach of his, Jimmy McGinty, asking him to coach the Sentinels' replacement players for the rest of the season, adding that winning three of the last four games will get the Sentinels into the playoffs. McGinty accepts on the condition that he can sign the players he wants without O'Neil's interference.
McGinty pulls together players of varying talents who he believes can make a winning team. For quarterback, McGinty chooses Shane Falco, a former All-American from Ohio State whose career went to pieces after a lopsided Sugar Bowl loss; he now lives on a houseboat in a D.C. marina and makes a living doing hull maintenance on private yachts. Falco initially refuses, but McGinty persuades him, believing that Falco can still become the player he was meant to be. The striking players greet the replacement players at their first practice with hostility, calling them "scabs" and throwing eggs at them; Falco, who arrives late, gets his truck overturned. Head cheerleader Annabelle Farrell, who has to find new cheerleaders since the originals apparently walked out in sympathy with the players, hires strippers when the other tryouts go terribly badly. After practice, she drives Falco home and surprises him with her vast football knowledge.
The replacements' first game is against Detroit, and the team struggles to get along. Falco tries to rally them, but on the last play, he falters when he sees a pending blitz and calls an audible, which falls short of the winning touchdown. McGinty berates Falco, telling him, "winners always want the ball when the game's on the line." At a local bar, the replacements are brooding over their loss when some of the striking players, led by their prima donna quarterback Eddie Martel, arrive and taunt them. Falco stands up to Martel, a brawl ensues, and the replacements are arrested, but in jail they bond, dancing together to the Gloria Gaynor song "I Will Survive" in their cell before McGinty bails them out. Farrell meets Falco the next day and tells him that he's the first quarterback she's seen in a long time who cares more for his teammates than himself, and a connection starts to grow between them.
The next day, in a "chalk talk", when McGinty asks the players what their fears are, they begin to realize they're all afraid of failing in their second chance at football. McGinty inspires the team to use their shared fear as a source of strength. In the Sentinels' next game against San Diego, they fall behind again but are able to come together and win on a 65-yard field goal by their Welsh kicker, Nigel. Falco meets Farrell at the bar she inherited from her father and now runs. After a short conversation and a beer, they share a deep kiss.
The Sentinels nearly lose their next game on the road against Phoenix, but win on a couple of improbable plays. When they return to D.C., O'Neil tells McGinty that Martel has crossed the picket line, as has the entire Dallas team—the league's defending champion and the Sentinels' next opponent. O'Neil shows no confidence in Falco's ability to beat Dallas, and hints to McGinty that he could be fired if he refuses to start Martel. McGinty gives in and tells Falco, saying that he has the "heart" Martel lacks; Falco then must give his teammates the news. Too downcast to face Farrell, he stands her up for the date they had planned.
In the first half of the Dallas game, Martel clashes severely with the replacement players, blames them for his own mistakes, and smugly ignores McGinty's play calls. The Sentinels trail Dallas 17–0 at halftime. On the way to the locker room, McGinty tells a TV reporter that what the team needs to come back and win is "miles and miles of heart". Seeing this on television, Falco returns to the stadium, and McGinty promptly benches Martel. The rest of the team throws Martel out of the locker room. Back on the field, Falco finds Farrell and apologizes to her, giving her another deep kiss.
McGinty tells the replacements that the strike will officially end the next day, encouraging them to give everything they have left. The Sentinels rally back to 17–14 with less than a minute left. Falco calls for a deep pass to the replacements' deaf tight end, Brian Murphy, and hits him with the game-winning touchdown pass as time expires, earning the Sentinels a playoff berth. McGinty narrates that the replacement players left the field with nothing but the satisfaction and personal glory of living the athlete's dream of a "second chance", as the replacements dance on the field to "I Will Survive".
Cast
Keanu Reeves as Shane Falco #16 (QB) — A left-handed former All-American quarterback for Ohio State who fell off the grid after choking in the 1996 Sugar Bowl and washing out of the pros after one season.
Gene Hackman as Jimmy McGinty — Former head coach of the Washington Sentinels. Once fired by O'Neil, he is asked back to coach the replacement players. Seeing this as an opportunity to put together his personal fantasy football team, McGinty offers his recruits a chance at glory and truly believes in his players.
Brooke Langton as Annabelle Farrell — Head cheerleader for the Washington Sentinels and owner of a bar on 8th Street in Washington.
Orlando Jones as Clifford Franklin #81 (WR) — A stockboy in a minimart who can outrun anyone, but can't catch anything.
Faizon Love as Jamal Abdul Jackson #72 (G)
Michael Taliferro as André "Action" Jackson #73 (G)
The Jackson Brothers — Brothers and former offensive guards turned bodyguards for rapper ODB who seem to excel only when they play on the same team. Both would have remained in the pros had they not fallen apart after one got traded.
Ace Yonamine as Jumbo Fumiko #68 (OT) — A Japanese sumo wrestler turned offensive tackle whose battle cry, "Nan desu ka" ("What is this") becomes the team's own.
Troy Winbush as Walter Cochran #34 (RB) — An ordained minister who played one game in the pros and blew out his knee. He repeats this injury during his final game on the Sentinels after diving into the end zone for a touchdown.
David Denman as Brian Murphy #86 (TE) — A tight end from Gallaudet University who would have been a first-round pick had he not been born deaf. He plays a major role in the team both on the field and off, scoring the game-winning touchdown and sparking the conversation that leads to a bar fight.
Jon Favreau as Daniel "Danny" Bateman #56 (MLB) — A reserved, almost reticent man during normal interaction with people, who goes completely berserk when placed in an adversarial situation. Linebacker and defensive captain. He was a walk on player at Michigan State and is a Gulf War veteran who received a Purple Heart. Current member of the Washington D.C. SWAT team.
Michael Jace as Earl Wilkinson aka "Ray Smith" #42 (CB) — A former star cornerback and kick returner, serving a prison sentence for assaulting a police officer. He's allowed to play with the permission of the governor of Maryland, albeit under an alias to avoid the controversy of having a convicted felon on the field.
Rhys Ifans as Nigel Gruff #3 (K) — A Welsh footballer and pub owner, nicknamed "The Leg" because he can kick a football the entire length of the playing field. He smokes on the field and has a crippling gambling addiction.
Gailard Sartain & Art LaFleur as Pilachowski and Banes, respectively — McGinty's coaching staff. Skeptical about the replacement players, they nevertheless follow McGinty's recommendations and find ways to work with them.
Brett Cullen as Eddie Martel #7 — Regular starting quarterback for the Washington Sentinels, two-time Super Bowl winner, and primary antagonist of the film.
Archie L. Harris, Jr. as Wilson Carr.
Evan Dexter Parke as Malcolm LaMont.
John Madden and Pat Summerall portray themselves, offering commentary on the games.
Jack Warden as Edward O'Neil — Owner of the Washington Sentinels. O'Neil is the epitome of the double-talking, manipulative businessman interested only in accolades and doesn't think twice about reneging on a deal if it will earn him a more desirable result.
Sarah Ann Morris as Heather and Caroline Keenan as Dawn — Two dancers from "Pussycats" ("You know, the club next to the airport") who try out to be Sentinels cheerleaders during the strike. Farrell is delighted to have experienced dancers in the squad and asks them to invite their co-workers to the tryouts.
Reception
Box office
The film opened at the third position at the North American box office, making $11,039,214 in its opening weekend, behind Space Cowboys and Hollow Man, which was in its second consecutive week at the top spot. It eventually grossed $44.7 million domestically and $5.3 million internationally to over $50 million worldwide.
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 41% based on 108 reviews, with an average rating of 4.96/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "The clichéd characters and obvious outcome make all the fun and excitement amount to nothing." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 30 out of 100 based on 32 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews", but Metacritic users scored the film an 8.6 out of 10, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale, and 91% of Google reviewers liked the film, suggesting that everyday viewers found the film far more appealing than did critics, despite its formulaic plot and other flaws.
Roger Ebert gave the film 2 out of 4 stars, writing that the film was "Slap-happy entertainment painted in broad strokes, two coats thick."
References
External links
The Replacements on American football movies
2000 films
American football films
American sports comedy films
American films
Cheerleading films
Films directed by Howard Deutch
Films shot in Virginia
Films set in Baltimore
Films shot in Baltimore
Films about the labor movement
Warner Bros. films
Films scored by John Debney
Washington Redskins
2000s English-language films
2000s sports comedy films | [
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|
213422 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominguito%20del%20Val | Dominguito del Val | Dominguito del Val (died c. 1250) was a legendary child of Medieval Spain, who was allegedly a choirboy ritually murdered by Jews in Zaragoza (Saragossa). Dominguito is the protagonist of the first blood libel in the history of Spain – stories that grew in prominence in the 12th and 13th centuries of the Middle Ages, and contributed to antisemitic incidents. According to the legend, Dominguito was ritually murdered by Jews of Zaragoza.
Saint Dominguito is no longer included on the official Roman Catholic liturgical calendar; however, there is still a chapel dedicated to him in the cathedral of Zaragoza. There exists little historical evidence of Dominguito aside from the stories and legends built around him.
Dominguito's legend
The historical basis for Dominguito is unclear. No medieval references to the legend have been found; the first texts that recount the tale date from 1583, three hundred thirty-three years after the fact. The story appears to have been largely copied from the legend of Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln, collected by Fray Alonso de Espina. According to the accounts, Alfonso X of Castile wrote the original rendition of the story in 1250, saying: "We have heard it said that some very cruel Jews, in memory of the Passion of Our Lord on Good Friday, kidnapped a Christian boy and crucified him."
According to the legend, Dominguito was born in Zaragoza and was admitted as a cathedral altar-boy and chorister at La Seo because of beautiful voice. He disappeared on 31 August 1250, when he was seven years old. Some months later, some boatmen discovered the decomposed corpse on the bank of Ebro river.
The story goes that one day on his way home the boy met a Jew by the name of Albayuceto, deceived him and brought him to a house in the Jewish quarter, where he was nailed to a cross and tortured until he died. In an effort to dispose of the body, they beheaded him, cut off the feet and buried the corpse on the banks of the Ebro River.
The child's bones were later interred in the cathedral, where in the chapel of Santo Dominguito del Val they are still revered as holy relics. Dominguito is still revered as a saint and celebrated in 31 August in the diocese of Zaragoza.
The story resembles others like the so-called "Holy Children" of La Guardia (inspired by a real inquisitorial process 1491).
The story has similarities with other tales circulating in medieval Europe alleging the murder of a child at hands of Jews. These were symptomatic of the growing anti-Semitism in the Middle Ages. During the Middle Ages it was very frequent that in the face of any misfortune -weather, droughts, etc.- the Jewish community was blamed. Often, these stories were used to rationalize imposing greater repressive measures against the Jews.
References
Sources
Álvarez Chillida, Gonzalo (2002). The Antisemitism in Spain. The image of the Jew (1812–2002). Madrid: Marcial Pons. p. 47. .
Whitechapel, Simon. Flesh Inferno: Atrocities of Torquemada and the Spanish Inquisition (Creation Books, 2003).
1250 deaths
13th-century births
People from Zaragoza
Blood libel
Roman Catholic child saints
Folk saints
Spanish Roman Catholic saints
Spanish children
Spanish victims of crime
Antisemitism in Spain | [
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|
213424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Leung%20Chiu-wai | Tony Leung Chiu-wai | Tony Leung Chiu-wai (, born 27 June 1962) is a Hong Kong actor and singer. He is one of Asia's most successful and internationally recognized actors, and was named as "Small Tiger" among the Five Tiger Generals of TVB. He has won many international acting prizes, including the Cannes Film Festival award for Best Actor for his performance in Wong Kar-wai's film In the Mood for Love. He was named by CNN as one of "Asia's 25 Greatest Actors of All Time".
Leung is known for his collaborations with director Wong Kar-wai, with whom he has worked in seven films, including Chungking Express (1994), Happy Together (1997), In the Mood for Love (2000), and The Grandmaster (2013). He also appeared in three Venice Film Festival Golden Lion-winning films: A City of Sadness (1989), Cyclo (1995) and Lust, Caution (2007), directed by Ang Lee. Leung also stars in the Academy Award-nominated film Hero, the cult classic Hard Boiled (1992), and box office hits Infernal Affairs (2002) and Red Cliff (2008). He later came to prominence in Hollywood with his role as Xu Wenwu in the Marvel Cinematic Universe film Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings (2021).
Leung has a comprehensive set of awards that he has won in a career that began in the 1980s. For In the Mood for Love, Leung earned the Best Actor award at the Cannes Film Festival. He is also a seven-time winner at the Hong Kong Film Awards and three-time winner at the Golden Horse Film Awards, holding the record for most awards in the Best Actor category. The 2002 book East Asian Film Stars describes Leung as "undoubtedly one of the most successful and widely-acclaimed Hong Kong actors of his generation, with a broad and diverse filmography."
Early life
Leung was born in Hong Kong to a family of Taishan, Guangdong ancestry. Leung's early childhood was punctuated with parents' quarrels and arguments about money. A mischievous boy in his early years, Leung's personality changed when his father, a chronic gambler, left the family when he was eight; he and his younger sister were brought up by their mother.
Leung was a slightly reticent, quiet child. He has said that his childhood experiences paved the way for his acting career, which allows him to openly express his feelings:You don't know what happened, just one day your pop disappears. And from that day on I try not to communicate with anyone. I'm so afraid to talk to my classmates, afraid that if someone says something about family I won't know what to do. So I became very isolated. So that's why I love acting, because I can express all my feelings the way I couldn't for so long.
I'm a quiet person. And then when I went to TV it all came out; I cried and I wasn't ashamed. The audience thinks it's the character's feelings, but really it's my feelings, all coming out in a rush.Leung went to private school, but he quit at the age of 15 due to financial difficulties. He was a well-behaved teenager who was very close to his mother. During an interview on the making of Hero, he says that he sees his mother as his definition of a hero for having brought up two children alone.
Television career
After quitting his studies, Leung worked in a variety of jobs, first as a grocer's runner at his uncle's shop, then a home appliance salesman in a Hong Kong shopping centre. Around the age of 16 he met future actor and comedian Stephen Chow who influenced his decision to become an actor and remains a good friend.
In 1982, he graduated from television channel TVB's acting class. Due to his boyish looks, TVB initially cast him as the host of a children's programme 430 Space Shuttle, but soon moved him to drama roles beginning with Soldier of Fortune (1982). He was quickly promoted to leading man status in highly successful primetime series including The Duke of Mount Deer (1984) and New Heavenly Sword and Dragon Sabre (1986). Leung mostly enjoyed comedies during his television years; it was for these he became well known. In the 1980s, he was named as one of "TVB's Five Tigers" (their five up-and-coming male TV stars) along with Andy Lau, Felix Wong, Michael Miu and Kent Tong.
Leung starred in the extremely popular Police Cadet TV serial in 1984 (later named Police Cadet 84 to distinguish it from its two subsequent sequels). The series had an average viewership rating of 50% per episode during its original run. Leung played an outgoing young man who decides to become a police officer; Maggie Cheung, who also started her career at the same time, played Leung's upstairs neighbour and love interest. Since then they have worked together on The Yang's Saga (1985), Days of Being Wild (1991), The Eagle Shooting Heroes (1993), Ashes of Time (1994), In the Mood for Love (2000), Hero (2002), and 2046 (2005). Interviewed by Wong Kar Wai, Leung said that he considered Cheung to be his alter ego. "Maggie is a truly formidable partner – one to waltz with. We do not spend a lot of time with each other, as we like to keep some mystery between us. Whenever I see her, I discover something new about her".
After 8 years with TVB, he left the network to focus on his film career with his final television drama being Ode to Gallantry in 1989.
Film career
Leung is considered by many to be the most acclaimed contemporary actor in greater China. He first garnered international attention in Hou Hsiao-hsien's 1989 film A City of Sadness, which won the Venice Golden Lion. Before that he was already locally known for his TV shows and films in the mid 1980s in Hong Kong.
Leung's initial transition from television to film in the late 80s and early 90s is considered a low period in his career. He had won two HKFA Best Supporting Actor awards in quick succession but was struggling to establish himself as a leading man on the big screen. In 1992, when he was nominated for a third time in the Supporting Actor category for Hard Boiled, Leung refused the nomination on the grounds that he had a leading role in the film. His protest was supported by director John Woo and co-star Chow Yun-fat. This later led the Hong Kong Film Awards to change its nomination rules to allow for multiple leading roles from the same film. Leung has also stated that prior to Days of Being Wild (1990), he had lost interest in acting and even considered quitting, but working with Wong Kar-wai and seeing his scene in the final film changed his mind. His career entered a new chapter when he won dual Best Actor awards at the Golden Horse Awards and Hong Kong Film Awards for Chungking Express (1994), becoming only the second actor to do so after Danny Lee in 1984. He later repeated the feat with Infernal Affairs in 2003. Beginning with Chungking Express and over the next thirteen years, Leung picked up a record of eight Best Actor wins at the two most prestigious Chinese language film awards, plus a Best Actor prize at Cannes.
Leung often collaborates with director Wong Kar-wai and has appeared in many of his films. His roles include the lonely policeman in Chungking Express (1994), a gay Chinese expatriate living in Argentina in Happy Together (1997), and a self-controlled victim of adultery in In the Mood for Love (2000) for which he won the Best Actor award at Cannes. He reprised his role from In the Mood for Love as a new Chow Mo-wan in 2046 (2004) and trained in Wing Chun for five years to prepare for his role as Ip Man in Wong's The Grandmaster. Wong's Jet Tone Film Production was also Leung's management agency for many years until 2018.
In addition to his works with Wong, Leung has also starred in three Venice Golden Lion winning films: A City of Sadness (1989), Cyclo (1995) and Lust, Caution (2007), cementing his reputation internationally in the arthouse cinema world. In 2014, he was a member of the jury of the 64th Berlin International Film Festival. Robert De Niro and Brad Pitt are admirers of his work, and Leung has been labeled by The Times as Asia's answer to Clark Gable due to their romantic leading roles. His place in Asian cinema has also been compared to Cary Grant, or a combination of several A-list Hollywood stars.
Leung is widely believed to be a method actor. He has stated in interviews that he often has trouble separating the characters from himself, beginning with his early TV roles. He usually takes long breaks after filming to recover from a psychologically taxing role, and remnants of the characters still remain within him years later. He has said that the voice of his wife Carina Lau can bring him back to reality.
Leung admits that he has a tendency to stay in his comfort zone and work with familiar teams and filmmakers. Over the course of his career, he has worked with Wong Kar-wai eight times (including See You Tomorrow (2016) which Wong wrote), three times with John Woo, three times with Derek Yee, and twice with Hou Hsiao-hsien. He has also worked with the creators of Infernal Affairs (Andrew Lau, Alan Mak, Felix Chong) on three other films: Confession of Pain (2006), The Silent War (2012) and the upcoming Once Upon a Time in Hong Kong. In recent years, Leung has become more adventurous and more willing to try new things; this includes collaborating with new directors and taking on his first Hollywood role.
In an interview with Senses of Cinema in 2001, Leung said that he had no plans to make a Hollywood debut, but would consider it for the right project. He said, "I have many more choices on the character I can play (in Hong Kong). The role for Asian actors and actresses is very restrictive in Hollywood movies." Actors such as Chow Yun-fat and Jet Li had then made their own debuts in the 1990s. In 2005, he signed with an American agent with the intention to appear in a Hollywood film. In 2017, Leung was invited to become a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Producer Kevin Feige announced at the 2019 San Diego Comic-Con that Leung will join the Marvel Cinematic Universe as the villain in Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings, marking his Hollywood debut. Leung's character Wenwu is a composite character of Fu Manchu and the Mandarin. The movie premiered on September 3, 2021 and his performance was universally praised.
Leung also had a successful Cantopop and Mandarin pop singing career in the 1990s, which he abandoned to focus on acting. He still occasionally sings for his films; the theme song of Infernal Affairs which he performed with Andy Lau is one of the Top 10 Song of 2003 and won the 22nd Hong Kong Film Awards' Best Original Film Song.
During the promotion of the film Hero, some commentators in Hong Kong alleged that Leung expressed the view that the Tiananmen Square demonstration crackdown was necessary to maintain stability. Leung made a single comment in response that he may have been misquoted and his statement taken out of context.
Leung speaks Cantonese, English and Mandarin. Lust, Caution (2007) is the first film where he used his own voice in a Mandarin-speaking role (his dialogue in Hero is dubbed) and Shang-chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings (2021) is his first English-speaking role, despite always being fluent in the language.
Albert Yeung of Emperor Motion Pictures announced on February 20, 2021 that Leung and Andy Lau will star in the crime drama film Once Upon a Time in Hong Kong, inspired by the downfall of the Carrian Group in the 1980s, in a co-production with mainland Chinese partners. This would be the duo's first collaboration since Infernal Affairs III in 2003. Felix Chong, who had previously co-written the Infernal Affairs trilogy, is set to write and direct. In December 2021, Leung completed filming of the World War II spy thriller Anonymous, directed by Cheng Er and produced by Bona Film Group.
Personal life
Leung publicly dated fellow TVB actress Margie Tsang in an on-again, off-again relationship from 1982-1988. In 1986 during one of their breakups, Leung briefly dated Kitty Lai, his co-star at the time in New Heavenly Sword and Dragon Sabre, before getting back together with Tsang. Leung and Tsang broke up permanently in 1988 and he has been in a relationship with Carina Lau since 1989.
Relationship with Carina Lau
Leung and Carina Lau are one of Hong Kong's biggest celebrity couples. They began their romantic relationship in 1989 after working together on a Hong Kong production of Run For Your Wife and dated for 19 years before marrying in Bhutan in 2008. They had known each other since The Clones in 1984, and also co-starred together in Duke of Mount Deer (1984), Police Cadet (1984, 1985, 1988), The Yangs' Saga (1985), Days of Being Wild (1991), He Ain't Heavy, He's My Father (1993), Ashes of Time (1994), and 2046 (2005).
In 1990, during the filming of Days of Being Wild, Lau was abducted for several hours. Leung dropped out of the film to spend more time with her. Wong Kar-wai said, "Originally, there were plans for Days of Being Wild I and II, and the sequence featuring Leung was meant to be the opening scene of the second movie. But two things happened, one of which was that Days of Being Wild didn't do well in Hong Kong, so the producers said, 'No Part 2.' The other reason was Lau's kidnapping."
On 21 July 2008, the couple got married in Bhutan in royal fashion. The wedding ceremony was directed by Wong Kar-wai and attended by numerous celebrities including Faye Wong, Li Yapeng, Bridgitte Lin, Cecilia Yip, Ti Lung and Chang Chen. It created a media frenzy in Hong Kong, with companies spending hundreds of thousands of dollars to pursue the wedding party.
According to Ming Pao Daily News, Faye Wong and Li Yapeng had taken the couple to India in 2007 to visit the 17th Karmapa. The Karmapa's counsel helped them to resolve a crisis in their relationship, and he also suggested Bhutan as a wedding venue.
Religion
Leung is a Buddhist. He has donated to constructions of Buddhist institutions, performed his marriage in a Buddhist ceremony, attends Buddhist gatherings, and had been seen doing Buddhist palm greetings. He appeared pro bono in the Bhutanese Buddhist film Hema Hema: Sing Me a Song While I Wait (2016). In 2016, he was seen at a ceremony in India that was also attended by members of the Tibetan government-in-exile, which earned the consternation of Chinese officials.
Filmography
Film
Television
Discography
Awards and nominations
International honours
:
Officier of the National Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (2015)
References
External links
Tony Leung Chiu-wai at the Hong Kong Movie Database
Tony Leung Chiu-wai at LoveHKFilm.com
Tony Leung Chiu-wai fan site
1962 births
20th-century Hong Kong male actors
21st-century Hong Kong male actors
Living people
Cantopop singers
Hong Kong Buddhists
Hong Kong male film actors
Hong Kong male singers
Hong Kong Mandopop singers
Hong Kong male television actors
Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actor winners
Best Actor Asian Film Award winners
Hong Kong idols
Officiers of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres | [
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|
213426 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-headed%20jay | Black-headed jay | The black-headed jay or lanceolated jay (Garrulus lanceolatus) is roughly the same size as its close relative the Eurasian jay, but a little more slender overall except for the bill which is slightly shorter and thicker. The top of the head is black and it has a more obvious crest too and a longer tail.
It ranges from eastern Afghanistan eastwards, across the Himalayas, from India to Nepal and Bhutan. It occurs in wooded country with large areas of open ground rather than dense forest. It also occurs in some cultivated areas and even near villages as long as there are enough trees and scrubland nearby.
It feeds both on the ground and in trees, and takes virtually the same wide range of plant and animal foods as its close relative, including eggs and nestlings, as well as scraps near human habitation.
It nests in trees and suitable bushes and in this resembles the Eurasian jay in every respect. There are usually 3–5 eggs incubated over 16 days. Both parents feed the young.
The voice is very similar to its close relative too and is most often a loud screech but with longer pauses between.
Gallery
References
External links
Avibase
black-headed jay
Birds of Afghanistan
Birds of Pakistan
Birds of North India
Birds of Nepal
black-headed jay
Taxa named by Nicholas Aylward Vigors | [
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|
213429 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accentor | Accentor | The accentors are a genus of birds in the family Prunellidae, which is endemic to the Old World. This small group of closely related passerines are all in the genus Prunella. All but the dunnock and the Japanese accentor are inhabitants of the mountainous regions of Europe and Asia; these two also occur in lowland areas, as does the Siberian accentor in the far north of Siberia. These birds are not strongly migratory, but they will leave the coldest parts of their range in winter and make altitudinal movements.
Taxonomy and etymology
The genus Prunella was introduced by the French ornithologist Louis Vieillot in 1816 with the dunnock (Prunella modularis) as the type species. Although the genus is usually used for all the accentors, the alpine accentor and Altai accentor are sometimes separated into the genus Laiscopus.
Harrison used the group name dunnock for all of the species, not just Prunella modularis (thus e.g. Japanese dunnock for P. rubida); this usage is based on the oldest known name for any of the species (old English dun-, brown, + -ock, small: "little brown bird"). Accentor derives from the old scientific name for the Alpine accentor (Accentor collaris). It comes from Late Latin, meaning "sing with another" (ad + cantor). The genus name Prunella is from the German Braunelle, "dunnock", a diminutive of braun, "brown".
Description
These are small, fairly drab species superficially similar, but not closely related to, sparrows. They are 14 to 18 centimetres in length, and weigh between 25 and 35 grams. However, accentors have thin sharp bills, reflecting their diet of ground-dwelling insects in summer, augmented with seeds and berries in winter. They may also swallow grit and sand to help their stomach break up these seeds.
Most of the species live together in flocks. The dunnock is an exception since it prefers to be solitary except when feeding. The dunnock also earned a nickname of "shuffle-wing" since it most strongly displays the characteristic wing flicks used during courtship and other displays.
Accentors may have two to three broods a year. Courtship consists of a great deal of song from the males, which may include short lark-like song flights to attract a mate. In most species, the male and female share in the nest making, with the dunnocks again being an exception – their males have no part in nest building or incubation. They build neat cup nests and lay about 4 unspotted green or blue eggs. The eggs are incubated for around 12 days. The young are fed by both parents and take an additional 12 days or so to fledge.
Habitat
Their typical habitat is mountainous regions in an area far above the tree-line, but below the snow-line. The Himalayan accentor can be found as high as 17,000 ft above sea level when breeding, however, most accentors breed in scrub vegetation at lower levels. Most species migrate downwards to spend the winter, with only some being hardy enough to remain. Accentors spend the majority of their time in the undergrowth and even when flushed, stay low to the ground until reaching cover.
Species list
FAMILY: PRUNELLIDAE
Genus: Prunella
Alpine accentor, Prunella collaris
Altai accentor, Prunella himalayana
Black-throated accentor, Prunella atrogularis
Brown accentor, Prunella fulvescens
Dunnock, Prunella modularis
Japanese accentor, Prunella rubida
Maroon-backed accentor, Prunella immaculata
Mongolian accentor, Prunella koslowi
Radde's accentor, Prunella ocularis
Robin accentor, Prunella rubeculoides
Rufous-breasted accentor, Prunella strophiata
Siberian accentor, Prunella montanella
References
External links
Accentor videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Taxa named by Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot | [
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|
213432 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estoc | Estoc | The French estoc is a type of sword, also called a tuck in English, in use from the 14th to the 17th century. It is characterized by a cruciform hilt with a grip for two-handed use and a straight, edgeless, but sharply pointed blade of around to in length. It is noted for its ability to pierce mail armor.
Description
The estoc was a variation of the longsword designed for fighting against mail armour or plate armour. It was long, straight and stiff with no cutting edge, just a point. Examples from Poland are more than long, with a blade of ; however, others show a more manageable , with a blade. Such swords average about four pounds (2 kg) with no specimen weighing more than six pounds.
Blade cross-sections can be triangular, square, rhomboid or flat hexagonal. This geometry leaves hardly any cutting capability as a sharpened edge could simply not be ground, but allowed the weapon to be lengthy, stiff, and very acutely pointed.
Early on, the estoc was hung from the saddle when on horseback and simply hung from the belt when a soldier took to the ground. As the weapon developed, however, infantrymen began to wear it in a scabbard. Most varieties of estoc provide a long grip like that of a greatsword, though others mimic the zweihänder in providing a long ricasso with a secondary guard of parrierhaken.
As on the zweihänder, this extended grip gives the wielder the advantage of extra leverage with which more accurately and powerfully to thrust the long weapon. Some other forms provided finger rings, curved quillons, or other varieties of compound hilts.
History
As armour improved, so did the methods of attacking it. It was quickly realized that cutting weapons were losing their effectiveness, so crushing weapons such as maces and axes were utilized. Thrusting weapons that could split the rings of mail, or find the joints and crevices of plate armour, were also employed. Long tapered swords could also be used as lances once an actual lance had splintered. Thus was the estoc developed. The French word estoc translates to thrust.
While there is nothing to stop an estoc from being one-handed, most are two-handed, being used half-sword or two hands on the grip.
During the English Civil Wars, General George Monck recommended that foot soldiers carry "a good stiff tuck, not very long" because they often broke regular swords by using them to chop firewood.
In addition to being popular for use as a cavalry weapon, the estoc was frequently used during dismounted hand-to-hand combat at tournaments, its lack of a sharp edge reducing the risk of unintentional injury.
Hunting
It was also widely employed as a hunting sword in the late 15th century, usually for hunting wild boar, bear, and stag; typically from horseback. Although hunting with a sword is less ideal than using a lance or spear, the added element of danger added to the thrill of the hunt, since using a sword brought the hunter in closer proximity to dangerous animals, as well as bringing more glory. The estoc was useful for this purpose, being a long sword with a strong blade, able to take the shock of meeting with an animal without breaking, while also giving the necessary reach to attack from horseback. However, it also had a very thin, sharp point, designed for penetrating chain mail. This thin point had little immediate terminal wounding effect on a wild boar or bear, unless a vital organ was hit, requiring a second man to stand by with a spear to finish the wounded animal off. It was also very easy to over-penetrate, bringing the wielder into danger from the animal's claws and teeth. Around 1500 AD, a solution was reached by replacing the thin point of the estoc with a standard leaf-shaped boar-spear head, in essence creating a one-handed short spear. To prevent the blade from over-penetrating, most were fitted with a cross-shaft above the blade. To allow the blade to fit into a scabbard, these were typically simple removable pegs of wood or bone, but some examples have spring-loaded shafts that automatically deploy when the blade is drawn. An early image of these "boar-spear swords" shows Emperor Maximilian I in a triumphal procession after a successful boar-hunt, the riders proudly carrying their spear-pointed swords upright. These weapons quickly became widely popular all over Europe, and examples can be found in numerous illustrations and descriptions of the time.
Bullfighting
Estoc is also the name given for the sword used by a matador in the Spanish sport of bullfighting, also known as espada de matar toros ('sword for killing bulls'). The matador's estoc is typically a shorter (88 cm), one-handed sword used for thrusting.
See also
Oakeshott types XV, XVII
Koncerz
Rapier
Gisèle d'Estoc (1845-1894), French writer, sculptor, feminist
Notes
References
Medieval European swords
Renaissance-era swords | [
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|
213443 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Climbing%20and%20Mountaineering%20Federation | International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation | The International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation, commonly known by its French name Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme (UIAA, lit. International Union of Alpine Clubs), was founded in August 1932 in Chamonix, France when 20 mountaineering associations met for an alpine congress. Count Charles Egmond d’Arcis, from Switzerland, was chosen as the first president and it was decided by the founding members that the UIAA would be an international federation which would be in charge of the "study and solution of all problems regarding mountaineering". The UIAA Safety Label was created in 1960 and was internationally approved in 1965 and currently (2015) has a global presence on five continents with 86 member associations in 62 countries representing over 3 million people.
Role
The UIAA is today the international governing body of climbing and mountaineering and represents climbers and mountaineers around the world on a wide range of issues related to mountain safety, sustainability and competition sport.
The International Climbers’ Meet, the goal of these meets is to foster good will and cultural understanding through our shared passion of climbing by hosting a diverse group of climbing abilities from a multitude of countries.
Safety
The UIAA Safety Commission develops and maintains safety standards for climbing equipment. These standards are implemented worldwide by the manufacturers who also participate in annual Safety Commission meetings. The Commission works with nearly 60 manufacturers worldwide and has 1,861 products certified.
Dynamic Rope UIAA fall count rating
The test to determine the fall count uses a 5.1m rope and drops a weight (80 kg single rope / 55 kg double rope) so that it falls 4.8m before experiencing a reaction force from the rope. This means that the weight is falling below the fixed end and there is minimal rope to stretch and absorb the force. The fall count rating is the number of times the rope can undergo this test before breaking. For the dynamic rope to be UIAA certified it requires a fall count rating of 5 or more.
This number does not indicate that the rope needs to be discarded after this many falls while climbing, since a fall would usually not have the climber fall beyond the belayer and there is usually more rope to stretch and absorb the fall. There has been no recorded accidents of a UIAA certified dynamic rope breaking without there being damage from a sharp edge or chemical.
Mountain Medicine Diploma
Together with the International Society of Mountain Medicine (ISMM) and the International Commission for Alpine Rescue (ICAR), the UIAA Medical Commission has established and developed a joint Diploma in Mountain Medicine that establishes minimal requirements for courses in mountain medicine in August 1997 (Interlaken, Switzerland). Many course organizers adopted these standards and the Diploma in Mountain Medicine (DiMM) has become a widely respected qualification.
The Medical Commission was founded in 1981. Its history dates back to an earlier time when there were only a few doctors representing the largest mountaineering federations. The commission has grown to include 22 delegated doctors from 18 different mountaineering federations, as well as 16 corresponding members from all over the world. The UIAA Medical Commission has worked very closely with the Medical Commission of the International Commission for Alpine Rescue (ICAR). The current presidents of the UIAA Medical commission and the MedCom ICAR are always on the advisory board of the ISMM.
Competitions
The UIAA is the world governing body for ice climbing competitions. The annual World Cup circuit and the bi annual World Championship and Youth World Championship are organised on different continents with athletes from over 30 countries participating.
Ice climbing
The UIAA is the world governing body for ice climbing competitions. The annual UIAA Ice Climbing World Cup circuit and the bi annual World Championship and Youth World Championship are organized in different continents with athletes from over 30 countries participating.
There are two ice climbing disciplines, Speed and Lead. In Speed, athletes race up an ice face for the best time. In Lead competitions the climbers' ability to master a difficult route in a given time is tested.
Anti-Doping Commission
The UIAA has adopted the World Anti-Doping Code (2014); this includes the mandatory articles of the Code and all relevant International Standards. The commission also oversees the anti-doping testing of athletes who participate in UIAA ice climbing competitions.
Global Youth Summit
The Global Youth Summit is a series of UIAA youth events where young mountaineers from around the world come together to climb, promote peace and cooperation between countries and work on the protection of the environment. First implemented ten years ago, it consists of a series of expeditions and camps offered by UIAA member federations to other UIAA member federations and their members.
All UIAA Global Youth Summit events are organised and undertaken in strict accordance with the relevant Federation's regulations and UIAA Youth Commission Handbook & UIAA Youth Commission criteria and recommendations governing such events. Once approved the National Federation or event organiser and their designated leaders have responsibility for the event. The UIAA Youth Commission and UIAA Office may on occasion appoint other responsible persons such as trainers, event organisers and partners.
Safety Label holders
Source:
Alpidex
Alien Cams
Austrialpin
Arcteryx
Beal
Beste
Big Wall
Black Diamond
Black Safe
Blue Water Ropes
Camp
Cassin
Cilao
Cousin-Trestec
Conquista
Climbing Technology
DMM
Edelweiss
Edelrid
EKS
Faders
FIXE
Fusion
Gaetani
Gilmonte
Gipfel
Gleisein
GM Climbing
GrandWall
Grivel
Haftgohar
Ice Rock
Kailas
Kong
Lyon
Mad Rock
Mammut
Metolius
Millet
Misty Mountain
Nal Hon
New England Ropes
Ocun
Omega Pacific
Peguet
Petzl
PMI
Ravina
Raumer
Roca
Rock Exotica
Ropenet
SMC
Salewa
Schweiger Fulpmes
Simond
Singing Rock
Skylotec
Southern Ropes
Sterling
Stubai
Tapecraft
Tendon
Usang
Vento
Waves
Presidents
1932–1964: Count Charles Egmond d'Arcis
1964–1968: Edouard Wyss-Dunant
1968–1972: Albert Eggler
1972–1976: Jean Juge
1976–1984: Pierre Bossus
1984–1990: Carlo Sganzini
1990–1995: Pietro Segantini
1995–2004: Ian McNaught-Davis
2004–2005: Alan Blackshaw
2005–2011: Mike Mortimer
2012–2020: Frits Vrijlandt
2020–present: Peter Muir
Source:
Members
References
External links
UIAA official website
1932 establishments in France
Climbing organizations
International sports bodies based in Switzerland
Alpinisme
Organisations based in Bern
Sport in Bern
Sports organizations established in 1932 | [
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213446 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worldview | Worldview | A worldview or world-view is the fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual or society encompassing the whole of the individual's or society's knowledge and point of view. A worldview can include natural philosophy; fundamental, existential, and normative postulates; or themes, values, emotions, and ethics.
Worldviews are often taken to operate at a conscious level , directly accessible to articulation and discussion, as opposed to existing at a deeper, pre-conscious level, such as the idea of "ground" in Gestalt psychology and media analysis.
Etymology
The term worldview is a calque of the German word Weltanschauung , composed of Welt ('world') and Anschauung ('perception' or 'view'). The German word is also used in English. It is a concept fundamental to German philosophy, especially epistemology and refers to a wide world perception. Additionally, it refers to the framework of ideas and beliefs forming a global description through which an individual, group or culture watches and interprets the world and interacts with it.
Types of worldviews
There are a number of main classes of worldviews that group similar types of worldviews together. These relate to various aspects of society and individuals' relationships with the world. Note that these distinctions are not always unequivocal: a religion may include economic aspects, a school of philosophy may embody a particular attitude, etc.
Attitudinal
An attitude is an approach to life, a disposition towards certain types of thinking, a way of viewing the world. The attitudinal worldview is typically what tends to govern an individual's approach, understanding, thinking, and feelings about something. For instance, people with an optimistic worldview will tend to approach things with a positive attitude, and assume the best. In a metaphor referring to a thirsty person looking at half a glass of water, the attitude is elicited by asking "Is the glass half empty or half full?".
Ideological
Ideologies are sets of beliefs and values that a person or group has for normative reasons, the term is especially used to describe systems of ideas and ideals which form the basis of economic or political theories and resultant policies. An ideological worldview arises out of these political and economic beliefs about the world. So capitalists believe that a system that emphasizes private ownership, competition, and the pursuit of profit ends up with the best outcomes. On the other hand, communists believe that a system that emphasizes the collective ownership of the means of production, and the overcoming of the profit motive as a means to organize the allocation of resources to fix its harmful effects through economic planning has better outcomes. These two ideological worldviews are fundamentally at odds.
Philosophical
A school of philosophy is a collection of answers to fundamental questions of the universe, based around common concepts, normally grounded in reason, and often arising from the teachings of an influential thinker. The term "philosophy" originates with the Greek, but all world civilizations have been found to have philosophical worldviews within them. A modern example is postmodernists who argue against the grand narratives of earlier schools in favor of pluralism, and epistemological and moral relativism.
Religious
A religion is a system of behaviors and practices, that relate to supernatural, transcendental, or spiritual elements, but the precise definition is debated. A religious worldview is one grounded in a religion, either an organized religion or something less codified. So followers of an Abrahamic religion (e.g. Christianity, Islam, Judaism, etc.), will tend to have a set of beliefs and practices from their scriptures that they believe is given to their prophets from God, and their interpretation of those scriptures will define their worldview.
Theories of worldviews
Assessment and comparison
One can think of a worldview as comprising a number of basic beliefs which are philosophically equivalent to the axioms of the worldview considered as a logical or consistent theory. These basic beliefs cannot, by definition, be proven (in the logical sense) within the worldview – precisely because they are axioms, and are typically argued from rather than argued for. However their coherence can be explored philosophically and logically.
If two different worldviews have sufficient common beliefs it may be possible to have a constructive dialogue between them.
On the other hand, if different worldviews are held to be basically incommensurate and irreconcilable, then the situation is one of cultural relativism and would therefore incur the standard criticisms from philosophical realists.
Additionally, religious believers might not wish to see their beliefs relativized into something that is only "true for them".
Subjective logic is a belief-reasoning formalism where beliefs explicitly are subjectively held by individuals but where a consensus between different worldviews can be achieved.
A third alternative sees the worldview approach as only a methodological relativism, as a suspension of judgment about the truth of various belief systems but not a declaration that there is no global truth. For instance, the religious philosopher Ninian Smart begins his Worldviews: Cross-cultural Explorations of Human Beliefs with "Exploring Religions and Analysing Worldviews" and argues for "the neutral, dispassionate study of different religious and secular systems—a process I call worldview analysis."
The comparison of religious, philosophical or scientific worldviews is a delicate endeavor, because such worldviews start from different presuppositions and cognitive values. Clément Vidal has proposed metaphilosophical criteria for the comparison of worldviews, classifying them in three broad categories:
objective: objective consistency, scientificity, scope
subjective: subjective consistency, personal utility, emotionality
intersubjective: intersubjective consistency, collective utility, narrativity
Linguistics
The Prussian philologist Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) originated the idea that language and worldview are inextricable. Humboldt saw language as part of the creative adventure of mankind. Culture, language and linguistic communities developed simultaneously and could not do so without one another. In stark contrast to linguistic determinism, which invites us to consider language as a constraint, a framework or a prison house, Humboldt maintained that speech is inherently and implicitly creative. Human beings take their place in speech and continue to modify language and thought by their creative exchanges.
Edward Sapir (1884–1939) also gives an account of the relationship between thinking and speaking in English.
The linguistic relativity hypothesis of Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897–1941) describes how the syntactic-semantic structure of a language becomes an underlying structure for the worldview of a people through the organization of the causal perception of the world and the linguistic categorization of entities. As linguistic categorization emerges as a representation of worldview and causality, it further modifies social perception and thereby leads to a continual interaction between language and perception.
Whorf's hypothesis became influential in the late 1940s, but declined in prominence after a decade. In the 1990s, new research gave further support for the linguistic relativity theory in the works of Stephen Levinson (b. 1947) and his team at the Max Planck institute for psycholinguistics at Nijmegen, Netherlands.
The theory has also gained attention through the work of Lera Boroditsky at Stanford University.
If the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis is correct, the worldview map of the world would be similar to the linguistic map of the world. However, it would also almost coincide with a map of the world drawn on the basis of music across people.
Characteristics
While Leo Apostel and his followers clearly hold that individuals can construct worldviews, other writers regard worldviews as operating at a community level, or in an unconscious way. For instance, if one's worldview is fixed by one's language, as according to a strong version of the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, one would have to learn or invent a new language in order to construct a new worldview.
According to Apostel, a worldview is an ontology, or a descriptive model of the world. It should comprise these six elements:
An explanation of the world
A futurology, answering the question "Where are we heading?"
Values, answers to ethical questions: "What should we do?"
A praxeology, or methodology, or theory of action: "How should we attain our goals?"
An epistemology, or theory of knowledge: "What is true and false?"
An etiology. A constructed world-view should contain an account of its own "building blocks", its origins and construction.
Weltanschauung and cognitive philosophy
Within cognitive philosophy and the cognitive sciences is the German concept of Weltanschauung. This expression is used to refer to the "wide worldview" or "wide world perception" of a people, family, or person. The Weltanschauung of a people originates from the unique world experience of a people, which they experience over several millennia. The language of a people reflects the Weltanschauung of that people in the form of its syntactic structures and untranslatable connotations and its denotations.
The term Weltanschauung is often wrongly attributed to Wilhelm von Humboldt, the founder of German ethnolinguistics. However, as Jürgen Trabant points out, and as James W. Underhill reminds us, Humboldt's key concept was Weltansicht. Weltansicht was used by Humboldt to refer to the overarching conceptual and sensorial apprehension of reality shared by a linguistic community (Nation). On the other hand, Weltanschauung, first used by Immanuel Kant and later popularized by Hegel, was always used in German and later in English to refer more to philosophies, ideologies and cultural or religious perspectives, than to linguistic communities and their mode of apprehending reality.
In 1911, the German philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey published an essay entitled "The Types of Worldview (Weltanschauung) and their Development in Metaphysics" that became quite influential. Dilthey characterized worldviews as providing a perspective on life that encompasses the cognitive, evaluative, and volitional aspects of human experience. Although worldviews have always been expressed in literature and religion, philosophers have attempted to give them conceptual definition in their metaphysical systems. On that basis, Dilthey found it possible to distinguish three general recurring types of worldview. The first of these he called naturalism because it gives priority to the perceptual and experimental determination of what is and allows contingency to influence how we evaluate and respond to reality. Naturalism can be found in Democritus, Hobbes, Hume and many other modern philosophers. The second type of worldview is called the idealism of freedom and is represented by Plato, Descartes, Kant, and Bergson among others. It is dualistic and gives primacy to the freedom of the will. The organizational order of our world is structured by our mind and the will to know. The third type is called objective idealism and Dilthey sees it in Heraclitus, Parmenides, Spinoza, Leibniz and Hegel. In objective idealism the ideal does not hover above what is actual but inheres in it. This third type of worldview is ultimately monistic and seeks to discern the inner coherence and harmony among all things. Dilthey thought it impossible to come up with a universally valid metaphysical or systematic formulation of any of these worldviews, but regarded them as useful schema for his own more reflective kind of life philosophy. See Makkreel and Rodi, Wilhelm Dilthey, Selected Works, volume 6, 2019.
Anthropologically, worldviews can be expressed as the "fundamental cognitive, affective, and evaluative presuppositions a group of people make about the nature of things, and which they use to order their lives."
If it were possible to draw a map of the world on the basis of Weltanschauung, it would probably be seen to cross political borders—Weltanschauung is the product of political borders and common experiences of a people from a geographical region, environmental-climatic conditions, the economic resources available, socio-cultural systems, and the language family. (The work of the population geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza aims to show the gene-linguistic co-evolution of people).
Worldview is used very differently by linguists and sociologists. It is for this reason that James W. Underhill suggests five subcategories: world-perceiving, world-conceiving, cultural mindset, personal world, and perspective.
Terror management theory
A worldview, according to terror management theory (TMT), serves as a buffer against death anxiety. It is theorized that living up to the ideals of one's worldview provides a sense of self-esteem which provides a sense of transcending the limits of human life (e.g. literally, as in religious belief in immortality; symbolically, as in art works or children to live on after one's death, or in contributions to one's culture). Evidence in support of terror management theory includes a series of experiments by Jeff Schimel and colleagues in which a group of Canadians found to score highly on a measure of patriotism were asked to read an essay attacking the dominant Canadian worldview.
Using a test of death-thought accessibility (DTA), involving an ambiguous word completion test (e.g. "COFF__" could either be completed as either "COFFEE" or "COFFIN" or "COFFER"), participants who had read the essay attacking their worldview were found to have a significantly higher level of DTA than the control group, who read a similar essay attacking Australian cultural values. Mood was also measured following the worldview threat, to test whether the increase in death thoughts following worldview threat were due to other causes, for example, anger at the attack on one's cultural worldview. No significant changes on mood scales were found immediately following the worldview threat.
To test the generalisability of these findings to groups and worldviews other than those of nationalistic Canadians, Schimel et al conducted a similar experiment on a group of religious individuals whose worldview included that of creationism. Participants were asked to read an essay which argued in support of the theory of evolution, following which the same measure of DTA was taken as for the Canadian group. Religious participants with a creationist worldview were found to have a significantly higher level of death-thought accessibility than those of the control group.
Goldenberg et al found that highlighting the similarities between humans and other animals increases death-thought accessibility, as does attention to the physical rather than meaningful qualities of sex.
Causality
A unidirectional view of causality is present in some monotheistic views of the world with a beginning and an end and a single great force with a single end (e.g., Christianity and Islam), while a cyclic worldview of causality is present in religious traditions which are cyclic and seasonal and wherein events and experiences recur in systematic patterns (e.g., Zoroastrianism, Mithraism and Hinduism). These worldviews of causality not only underlie religious traditions but also other aspects of thought like the purpose of history, political and economic theories, and systems like democracy, authoritarianism, anarchism, capitalism, socialism and communism.
With the development of science came a clockwork universe of regular operation according to principle, an idea that was very popular among deists during the Enlightenment. But later developments in science put this deterministic picture in doubt.
Some forms of philosophical naturalism and materialism reject the validity of entities inaccessible to natural science. They view the scientific method as the most reliable model for building an understanding of the world.
The term worldview denotes a comprehensive set of opinions, seen as an organic unity, about the world as the medium and exercise of human existence. worldview serves as a framework for generating various dimensions of human perception and experience like knowledge, politics, economics, religion, culture, science and ethics. For example, worldview of causality as uni-directional, cyclic, or spiral generates a framework of the world that reflects these systems of causality.
Religion
Nishida Kitaro wrote extensively on "the Religious Worldview" in exploring the philosophical significance of Eastern religions.
According to Neo-Calvinist David Naugle's World view: The History of a Concept, "Conceiving of Christianity as a worldview has been one of the most significant developments in the recent history of the church."
The Christian thinker James W. Sire defines a worldview as "a commitment, a fundamental orientation of the heart, that can be expressed as a story or in a set of presuppositions (assumptions which may be true, partially true, or entirely false) which we hold (consciously or subconsciously, consistently or inconsistently) about the basic construction of reality, and that provides the foundation on which we live and move and have our being." He suggests that "we should all think in terms of worldviews, that is, with a consciousness not only of our own way of thought but also that of other people, so that we can first understand and then genuinely communicate with others in our pluralistic society."
The commitment mentioned by James W. Sire can be extended further. The worldview increases the commitment to serve the world. With the change of a person's view towards the world, he/she can be motivated to serve the world. This serving attitude has been illustrated by Tareq M Zayed as the 'Emancipatory Worldview' in his writing "History of emancipatory worldview of Muslim learners".
David Bell has also raised questions on religious worldviews for the designers of superintelligences – machines much smarter than humans.
Classification systems for worldviews
A number of modern thinkers have created and attempted to popularize various classification systems for worldviews, to various degrees of success. These systems often hinge on a few key questions.
Roland Muller's classification of cultural worldviews
From across the world across all of the cultures, Roland Muller has suggested that cultural worldviews can be broken down into three separate worldviews. It is not simple enough to say that each person is one of these three cultures. Instead, each individual is a mix of the three. For example, a person may be raised in a Power–Fear society, in an Honor–Shame family, and go to school under a Guilt–Innocence system.
Guilt–Innocence: In a Guilt–Innocence focused culture, schools focus on deductive reasoning, cause and effect, good questions, and process. Issues are often seen as black and white. Written contracts are paramount. Communication is direct, and can be blunt.
Honor–Shame: Societies with a predominantly Honor–Shame worldviews teach children to make honorable choices according to the situations they find themselves in. Communication, interpersonal interaction, and business dealings are very relationship-driven, with every interaction having an effect on the Honor–Shame status of the participants. In an Honor–Shame society the crucial objective is to avoid shame and to be viewed honorably by other people. The Honor–Shame paradigm is especially strong in most regions of Asia.
Power–Fear: Some cultures can be seen very clearly in operating under a Power–Fear worldview. In these cultures it is very important to assess the people around you and know where they fall in line according to their level of power. This can be used for good or for bad. A benevolent king rules with power and his citizens fully support him wielding that power. On the converse, a ruthless dictator can use his power to create a culture of fear where his citizens are oppressed.
Michael Lind's classification of American political worldviews
According to Michael Lind, "a worldview is a more or less coherent understanding of the nature of reality, which permits its holders to interpret new information in light of their preconceptions. Clashes among worldviews cannot be ended by a simple appeal to facts. Even if rival sides agree on the facts, people may disagree on conclusions because of their different premises." This is why politicians often seem to talk past one another, or ascribe different meanings to the same events. Tribal or national wars are often the result of incompatible worldviews. Lind has organized American political worldviews into five categories:
Green Malthusianism
Libertarian isolationism
Neoliberal globalism
Populist nationalism
Social democracy
Lind argues that even though not all people will fit neatly into only one category or the other, their core worldview shape how they frame their arguments.
James Anderson's evangelical classification of worldviews
James Anderson says that a worldview is an overall "philosophical view, an all-encompassing perspective on everything that exists and matters to us". He breaks worldviews down between (evangelical) "Christian" and "non-Christian." He lists the following non-Christian worldviews:
Islam
Moralistic therapeutic deism
Naturalism
Pantheism
Pluralism
Postmodernism
As such, his system focuses on the similarities and differences of worldviews to evangelicalism.
Related terms
Belief systems
A belief system is the set of interrelated beliefs held by an individual or society. It can be thought of as a list of beliefs or axioms that the believer considers true or false. A belief system is similar to a worldview, but is based around conscious beliefs.
Belief systems became increasingly important to 20th century philosophy for a number of reasons, such as widespread contact between cultures, and the failure of some aspects of the Enlightenment project, such as the rationalist project of attaining all truth by reason alone. Mathematical logic showed that fundamental choices of axioms were essential in deductive reasoning and that, even having chosen axioms not everything that was true in a given logical system could be proven. Some philosophers believe the problems extend to "the inconsistencies and failures which plagued the Enlightenment attempt to identify universal moral and rational principles"; although Enlightenment principles such as universal suffrage and the universal declaration of human rights are accepted, if not taken for granted, by many.
Conventional wisdoms
Conventional wisdom is the body of ideas or explanations generally accepted as true by the general public, or by believers in a worldview. It is the set of underlying assumptions that make up the base of a body of shared ideas, like a worldview.
Folk-epics
As natural language becomes manifestations of world perception, the literature of a people with common worldview emerges as holistic representations of the wide world perception of the people. Thus the extent and commonality between world folk-epics becomes a manifestation of the commonality and extent of a worldview.
Epic poems are shared often by people across political borders and across generations. Examples of such epics include the Nibelungenlied of the Germanic people, the Iliad for the Ancient Greeks and Hellenized societies, the Silappadhikaram of the Tamil people, the Ramayana and Mahabharata of the Hindus, the Epic of Gilgamesh of the Mesopotamian–Sumerian civilization and the people of the Fertile Crescent at large, The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian nights) of the Arab world, and the Sundiata epic of the Mandé people.
Geists
A geist is a German concept, similar to English "spirit", here referring to the spirit of a group or age. It is the common character or invisible force motivating a collection of people to act in certain ways. It is sometimes used in philosophy, but can also pragmatically refer to fads or fashions. The weltgeist is the geist of the world, a volksgeist is the geist of a nation or people, and a zeitgeist is the geist of an age. Geists are similar to worldviews in that they underlie the character of a people, but are more ineffable in their understanding.
Memeplexes
A memeplex is a group of memes, within the theory of memetics. This is a way of approaching ideas and worldviews using the theory of Universal Darwinism. Like the gene complexes found in biology, memeplexes are groups of memes, or worldviews, that are often found present together. Memes were first suggested in Richard Dawkins' book The Selfish Gene.
Mindsets
A mindset is a set of assumptions, methods, or notations held by one or more people or groups of people. The idea is common to decision theory and general systems theory. A mindset is often seen to arise out of a person's worldview, a mindset is a temporary attitude guided by a person's worldview.
Paradigms
Paradigms are outstandingly clear patterns or archetypes, the typifying example of a particular model or idea. Especially in science and philosophy, a paradigm is a distinct set of concepts or thought patterns, including theories, research methods, postulates, and standards for what constitutes legitimate contributions to a field.
Reality tunnels
A reality tunnel is a theoretical subconscious set of mental filters formed from beliefs and experiences, every individual interprets the same world differently, hence "Truth is in the eye of the beholder". The idea being that an individual's perceptions are influenced or determined by their worldview. The idea does not necessarily imply that there is no objective truth; rather that our access to it is mediated through our senses, experience, conditioning, prior beliefs, and other non-objective factors. The term can also apply to groups of people united by beliefs: we can speak of the fundamentalist Christian reality tunnel or the ontological naturalist reality tunnel. A parallel can be seen in the psychological concept of confirmation bias—the human tendency to notice and assign significance to observations that confirm existing beliefs, while filtering out or rationalizing away observations that do not fit with prior beliefs and expectations.
Social norms
Social norms are collective representations of acceptable behavior within a group, including values, customs, and traditions. These represent individuals' understanding, or worldview, in regards what others in their group do, and what they think that they ought to do.
See also
References
External links
GLOGO – Global Governance System for Planet Earth at think tank Gold Mercury International
Apostel, Leo and Van der Veken, Jan. (1991) Wereldbeelden, DNB/Pelckmans.
Wikibook:The scientific world view
Wiki Worldview Themes: A Structure for Characterizing and Analyzing Worldviews includes links to nearly 400 Wikipedia articles
– a 2002 essay on research in linguistic relativity (Lera Boroditsky)
inTERRAgation.com—A documentary project. Collecting and evaluating answers to "the meaning of life" from around the world.
The God Contention—Comparing various worldviews, faiths, and religions through the eyes of their advocates.
Cole, Graham A., Do Christians have a Worldview? A paper examining the concept of worldview as it relates to and has been used by Christianity. Contains a helpful annotated bibliography.
World View article on the Principia Cybernetica Project
Pogorskiy, E. (2015). Using personalisation to improve the effectiveness of global educational projects. E-Learning and Digital Media, 12(1), 57–67.
Worldviews – An Introduction from Project Worldview
"Studies on World Views Related to Science" (list of suggested books and resources) from the American Scientific Affiliation (a Christian perspective)
Eugene Webb, Worldview and Mind: Religious Thought and Psychological Development. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 2009.
Benjamin Gal-Or, Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy, Springer Verlag, 1981, 1983, 1987, , .
Conceptual modelling
Consensus reality
Psychological concepts
Concepts in epistemology
Epistemology of religion | [
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|
213452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20Bohr | Christian Bohr | Christian Harald Lauritz Peter Emil Bohr (1855–1911) was a Danish physician, father of the physicist and Nobel laureate Niels Bohr, as well as the mathematician and football player Harald Bohr and grandfather of another physicist and Nobel laureate Aage Bohr. He married Ellen Adler in 1881.
Personal life
He wrote his first scientific paper, "Om salicylsyrens indflydelse på kødfordøjelsen" ("On salicylic acid's influence on the digestion of meat"), at the age of 22. He received his medical degree in 1880, studied under Carl Ludwig at University of Leipzig, took a Ph.D. in physiology and was appointed professor of physiology at the University of Copenhagen in 1886.
On his religious views, Bohr was raised as a Lutheran. He was an atheist in later life.
Christian Bohr is buried in the Assistens Kirkegård.
Physiology
In 1891, he was the first to characterize dead space.
In 1904, Christian Bohr described the phenomenon, now called the Bohr effect, whereby hydrogen ions and carbon dioxide heterotopically decrease hemoglobin's oxygen-binding affinity. This regulation increases the efficiency of oxygen release by hemoglobin in tissues, like active muscle tissue, where rapid metabolization has produced relatively high concentrations of hydrogen ions and carbon dioxide.
References
Sources
Fredericia, L.S. (1932) Christian Bohr, pp. 173–176 in: Meisen, V. Prominent Danish Scientists through the Ages. University Library of Copenhagen 450th Anniversary. Levin & Munksgaard, Copenhagen.
1855 births
1911 deaths
Danish atheists
Danish scientists
Danish physiologists
University of Copenhagen faculty
Science teachers
Scientists from Copenhagen
Niels Bohr
Rectors of the University of Copenhagen
Christian
Former Lutherans | [
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|
213454 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corvus%20%28constellation%29 | Corvus (constellation) | Corvus is a small constellation in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere. Its name means "crow" in Latin. One of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy, it depicts a raven, a bird associated with stories about the god Apollo, perched on the back of Hydra the water snake. The four brightest stars, Gamma, Delta, Epsilon, and Beta Corvi, form a distinctive quadrilateral in the night sky.
With an apparent magnitude of 2.59, Gamma Corvi—also known as Gienah—is the brightest star in the constellation. It is an aging blue giant around four times as massive as the Sun. The young star Eta Corvi has been found to have two debris disks. Three star systems have exoplanets, and a fourth planetary system is unconfirmed. TV Corvi is a dwarf nova—a white dwarf and brown dwarf in very close orbit.
History and mythology
In the Babylonian star catalogues dating from at least 1100 BCE, what later became known as Corvus was called the Raven (MUL.UGA.MUSHEN). As with more familiar Classical astronomy, it was placed sitting on the tail of the Serpent (Greek Hydra). The Babylonian constellation was sacred to Adad, the god of rain and storm; in the second Millennium it would have risen just before the autumnal rainy season. John H. Rogers observed that Hydra signified Ningishzida, the god of the underworld in the Babylonian compendium MUL.APIN. He proposed that Corvus and Crater (along with Hydra) were death symbols and marked the gate to the underworld. These two constellations, along with the eagle Aquila and the fish Piscis Austrinus, were introduced to the Greeks around 500 BCE; they marked the winter and summer solstices respectively. Furthermore, Hydra had been a landmark as it had straddled the celestial equator in antiquity. Corvus and Crater also featured in the iconography of Mithraism, which is thought to have been of middle-eastern origin before spreading into Ancient Greece and Rome.
Corvus is associated with the myth of Apollo and his lover Coronis the Lapith. Coronis had been unfaithful to Apollo; when he learned this information from a pure white crow, he turned its feathers black in a fit of rage. Another legend associated with Corvus is that a crow stopped on his way to fetch water for Apollo, to eat figs. Instead of telling the truth to Apollo, he lied and said that a snake, Hydra, kept him from the water, while holding a snake in his talons as proof. Apollo, realizing this was a lie, flung the crow (Corvus), cup (Crater), and snake (Hydra) into the sky. He further punished the wayward bird by ensuring it would forever be thirsty, both in real life and in the heavens, where the Cup is just out of reach.
In other cultures
In Chinese astronomy, the stars of Corvus are located within the Vermilion Bird of the South (南方朱雀, Nán Fāng Zhū Què). The four main stars depict a chariot, Zhen, which is the 28th and final lunar mansion; Alpha and Eta mark the linchpins for the wheels, and Zeta is Changsha, a coffin. In Indian astronomy, the five main stars of Corvus represent a hand or fist corresponding to the Hasta, the 13th nakshatra or lunar mansion.
Corvus was recognized as a constellation by several Polynesian cultures. In the Marquesas Islands, it was called Mee; in Pukapuka, it was called Te Manu, and in the Society Islands, it was called Metua-ai-papa. To Torres Strait Islanders, Corvus was the right hand (holding kupa fruit) of the huge constellation Tagai, a man fishing.
The Bororo people of Mato Grosso in central Brazil regarded the constellation as a land tortoise Geriguigui, while the Tucano people of the northwestern Amazon region saw it as an egret. To the Tupi people of São Luís Island in Brazil, Corvus might have been seen as a grill or barbecue—seychouioura, on which fish were grilled. The depiction could have also referred to the Great Square of Pegasus.
Characteristics
Covering 184 square degrees and hence 0.446% of the sky, Corvus ranks 70th of the 88 constellations in area. It is bordered by Virgo to the north and east, Hydra to the south, and Crater to the west. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is "Crv". The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of six segments (illustrated in infobox). In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −11.68° and −25.20°. Its position in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere means that the whole constellation is visible to observers south of 65°N.
Features
Stars
The German cartographer Johann Bayer used the Greek letters Alpha through Eta to label the most prominent stars in the constellation. John Flamsteed gave nine stars Flamsteed designations, while one star he designated in the neighbouring constellation Crater—31 Crateris—lay within Corvus once the constellation boundaries were established in 1930. Within the constellation's borders, there are 29 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6.5.
Four principal stars, Delta, Gamma, Epsilon, and Beta Corvi, form a quadrilateral asterism known as "the "Spica's Spanker" or "the Sail". Although none of the stars are particularly bright, they lie in a dim area of the sky, rendering the asterism easy to distinguish in the night sky. Gamma and Delta serve as pointers toward Spica. Also called Gienah, Gamma is the brightest star in Corvus at magnitude 2.59. Its traditional name means "wing", the star marking the left wing in Bayer's Uranometria. 154±1 light-years from Earth, it is a blue-white hued giant star of spectral type B8III that is times as massive, and 355 times as luminous as the Sun. Around million years old, it has largely exhausted its core hydrogen and begun expanding and cooling as it moves away from the main sequence. A binary star, it has a companion orange or red dwarf star of spectral type K5V to M5V that is about 0.8 times as massive as the Sun. Around 50 astronomical units distant from Gamma Corvi A, it is estimated to complete an orbit in 158 years. Delta Corvi, traditionally called Algorab, is a double star divisible in small amateur telescopes. The primary is a blue-white star of magnitude 2.9, around 87 light-years from Earth. An enigmatic star around 2.7 times as massive as the Sun, it is more luminous (65–70 times that of the Sun) than its should be for its surface temperature of 10,400 K, and hence is either a 3.2 million year-old very young pre-main sequence star that has not settled down to a stable main sequence life stage, or a 260-million-year-old star that has begun to exhaust its core hydrogen and expand, cool and shine more brightly as it moves away from the main sequence. Its spectral type is given as A0IV, corresponding with the latter scenario. Warm circumstellar dust—by definition part of its inner stellar system—has been detected around Delta Corvi A. Delta Corvi B is an orange dwarf star of magnitude 8.51 and spectral class K, also surrounded by circumstellar dust. A post T-tauri star, it is at least 650 AU distant from its brighter companion and takes at least 9400 years to complete an orbit. Delta Corvi's common name means "the raven". It is one of two stars marking the right wing. Located 4.5 degrees northeast of Delta Corvi is Struve 1669, a binary star that is divisible into two stars 5.4" apart by small amateur telescopes, 280 light-years from Earth. The pair, both white stars, is visible to the naked eye at magnitude 5.2; the primary is of magnitude 5.9 and the secondary is of magnitude 6.0.
The raven's breast is marked by Beta Corvi (the proper name is Kraz), a star of magnitude 2.7 located 146 ± 1 light-years from Earth. Roughly 206 million years old and 3.7 ± 1 times as massive as the Sun, it has exhausted its core hydrogen and expanded and cooled to a surface temperature of around 5,100 K and is now a yellow bright giant star of spectral type G5II. It likely spent most of its existence as a blue-white main sequence star of spectral type B7V. Bearing the proper name of Minkar and marking the raven's nostril is Epsilon Corvi, located some 318 ± 5 light-years from Earth. It is a red giant of spectral type K2III that is around 54 times the Sun's radius and 930 times its luminosity. Around 4 times as massive as the Sun, it spent much of its life as a main-sequence star of spectral type B5V. Lying to the south of the quadrilateral between Beta and Epsilon Corvi is the orange-hued 6 Corvi, an ageing giant star of spectral type K1III that is around 70 times as luminous as the Sun. It is 331 ± 10 light-years away from Earth.
Named Alchiba, Alpha Corvi is a white-hued star of spectral type F1V and magnitude 4.0, 48.7 ± 0.1 light-years from Earth. It exhibits periodic changes in its spectrum over a three-day period, which suggests it is either a spectroscopic binary or (more likely) a pulsating Gamma Doradus-type variable. If the latter is the case, it is estimated to be 1.39 times as massive as the Sun. According to Bayer's atlas, it lies above the bird's beak.
Marking the raven's right wing is Eta Corvi, a yellow-white main-sequence star of type F2V that is 1.52 times as massive and 4.87 times as luminous as the Sun. It is 59 light-years distant from our Solar System. Two debris disks have been detected orbiting this star, one warm within 3.5 astronomical units and another out at ~150 astronomical units distant. Zeta Corvi marks the raven's neck. It is of apparent magnitude 5.21, separated by 7 arcseconds from the star HR 4691. Located 420 ± 10 light-years distant, it is a blue-white Be star of spectral type B8V, the presence of hydrogen emission lines in its spectrum indicating it has a circumstellar disc. These stars may be an optical double or a true multiple star system, with a separation of at least 50,000 astronomical units and the stars taking 3.5 million years to orbit each other. HR 4691 is itself double, composed of an ageing yellow-orange giant whose spectral type has been calculated at K0 or G3, and an F-type main-sequence star.
31 Crateris (which was originally placed in Crater by Flamsteed) is a 5.26 magnitude star which was once mistaken for a moon of Mercury. On 27 March 1974, the Mariner 10 mission detected emissions in the far ultraviolet from the planet (suggesting a satellite), but they were found to emanate from the star. It is in reality a remote binary star system with a hot blue-white star of spectral type B1.5V and a companion about which little is known. The two stars orbit each other every 2.9631 days. The primary is possibly a blue straggler of the Hyades group. The primary is around 15.5 times as massive as the Sun and 52262 times as luminous.
VV Corvi is a close spectroscopic binary, its two component stars orbiting each other with a period of 1.46 days. Both are yellow-white main-sequence stars of spectral type F5V, though the primary has begun expanding and cooling as it nears the end of its time on the main sequence. The mass ratio of the two stars is 0.775 ± 0.024. A tertiary companion was discovered during the Two Micron All-Sky Survey. W Corvi is an eclipsing binary that varies in brightness from apparent magnitude 11.16 to 12.5 over 9 hours. Its period has increased by 1/4 second over a century. It is an unusual system in that its two stars are very close to each other yet have different surface temperatures, and hence thermal transfer is not taking place as expected. SX Corvi is an eclipsing binary that is also a contact binary known as a W Ursae Majoris variable. The two component stars orbit closely enough to each other for mass to have been transferred between them—in this case the secondary having transferred a large amount of mass to the primary. RV Corvi is another eclipsing binary. Its brightness varies from apparent magnitude 8.6 to 9.16 over 18 hours. The system is composed of stars of spectral types F0 and G0, which orbit each other every 0.7473 days.
Close to Gamma Corvi and visible in the same binocular field is R Corvi, a long period (Mira) variable star. It ranges in brightness from a magnitude of 6.7 to 14.4 with a period of approximately 317 days. TT Corvi is a semiregular variable red giant of spectral type M3III and apparent magnitude 6.48 around 923 light years distant. It is around 993 times as luminous as the Sun. TU Corvi is a Delta Scuti variable—a class of short period (six hours at most) pulsating stars that have been used as standard candles and as subjects to study astroseismology. It varies by 0.025 of a magnitude around apparent magnitude 6.53 over 59 minutes.
Three star systems have confirmed planets. HD 103774 is a young yellow-white main-sequence star of apparent magnitude 7.12 that is 181 ± 5 light-years distant from Earth. It is 1.335 ± 0.03 times as massive and 3.5 ± 0.3 as luminous as the Sun. Variations in its radial velocity showed it was being orbited by a Neptune-sized planet every 5.9 days in 2013. HD 104067 is an orange dwarf of spectral type K2V of apparent magnitude 7.93 that is 69 ± 1 light-years distant from Earth. Around 80% as massive as the Sun, it is orbited by a planet 3.6 times the mass of Neptune every 55.8 days. WASP-83 has a planet around as massive as Saturn that orbits it every 5 days. It was discovered by its transit across the star in 2015. A fourth star system has an unconfirmed planet. HD 111031 is a sunlike star of spectral type G5V located 101 ± 2 light-years distant from Earth.
Ross 695 is a red dwarf star located a mere 28.9 ± 0.6 light-years distant from Earth. At apparent magnitude 11.27, it is much too faint to be seen with the unaided eye. A small star, it has around 23% the mass and radius of the Sun, but only 0.7% its luminosity. VHS J1256–1257 is a triple system of young brown dwarfs located light-years distant from Earth. The system consists of a central, equal-mass binary system of late-M spectral type dwarfs and an outer, planetary-mass brown dwarf companion that is widely separated at 102 ± 9 AU. DENIS-P J1228.2-1547 is a system composed of two brown dwarfs orbiting each other located 73 ± 3 light-years away from Earth. TV Corvi is a dwarf nova composed of a white dwarf and brown dwarf that orbit each other every 90 minutes. The system has a baseline magnitude of 17 that brightens periodically to magnitude 12, discovered by Clyde Tombaugh in 1931 and David Levy in 1990 and 2005.
Deep-sky objects
Corvus contains no Messier objects. It has several galaxies and a planetary nebula observable with amateur telescopes. The center of Corvus is home to a planetary nebula, NGC 4361. The nebula itself resembles a small elliptical galaxy and has a magnitude of 10.3, but the magnitude 13 star at its centre gives away its true nature.
The NGC 4038 Group is a group of galaxies across Corvus and Crater. The group may contain between 13 and 27 galaxies. The best-known member is the Antennae peculiar galaxy, located 0.25 north of 31 Crateris. It consists of two interacting galaxies—NGC 4038 and 4039—that appear to have a heart shape as seen from Earth. The name originates from the huge tidal tails that come off the ends of the two galaxies, formed because of the spiral galaxies' original rotation. Both original galaxies were spiral galaxies and are now experiencing extensive star formation due to the interaction of gas clouds. The galaxies are 45 million light-years from Earth and each has multiple ultraluminous X-ray sources, the source of which is unknown. Astronomers theorize that they may be a rare type of x-ray emitting binary stars or intermediate-mass black holes. The Antennae Galaxies appear in a telescope at the 10th magnitude. SN 2004gt was a type Ic supernova that erupted on December 12, 2004. The progenitor was not identified from older images of the galaxy, and is either a type WC Wolf–Rayet star with a mass over 40 times that of the Sun, or a star 20 to 40 times as massive as the Sun in a binary star system. SN 2007sr was a Type Ia supernova event that peaked in brightness on December 14, 2007. The galaxy has been identified as a good place to take detailed images in case of further supernovae.
NGC 4027 is another member of the NGC 4038 group, notable for its extended spiral arm. Known as the Ringtail Galaxy, it lies close to 31 Crateris. A barred spiral galaxy, its distorted shape is probably due to a past collision, possibly with the nearby NGC 4027A. NGC 4782 and NGC 4783 are a pair of merging elliptical galaxies in the northeastern part of the constellation, around 200 million light-years distant.
Meteor showers
Two established meteor showers originate from within Corvus' boundaries. German astronomer Cuno Hoffmeister discovered and named the Corvids in 1937, after observing them between June 25 and July 2. They have not been seen since, nor was there evidence of a shower when previous records were examined. Hoffmeister noted the trajectory of the shower was similar to that of the comet 11P/Tempel–Swift–LINEAR, though this was not confirmed by Zhukov and colleagues in 2011. The shower has been tentatively linked with 4015 Wilson–Harrington. In January 2013, the MO Video Meteor Network published the discovery of the Eta Corvids, assigning some 300 meteors seen between January 20 and 26. Their existence was confirmed by data analysis later that year.
Popular culture
In 1624, German astronomer Jakob Bartsch equated the constellation Argo Navis with Noah's Ark, linking Corvus and Columba to the crow and dove that feature in the story in Genesis.
In Action Comics #14 (January 2013), which was published 7 November 2012, astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson appears in the story, in which he determines that Superman's home planet, Krypton, orbited the red dwarf LHS 2520 in the constellation Corvus, 27.1 light-years from Earth. Tyson assisted DC Comics in selecting a real-life star that would be an appropriate parent star to Krypton, and picked the star in Corvus, and which is the mascot of Superman's high school, the Smallville Crows.
See also
Corvus (Chinese astronomy)
Notes
References
Sources
External links
The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Corvus
The clickable Corvus
Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Corvus)
Constellations
Constellations listed by Ptolemy
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213455 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphrey%2C%20Duke%20of%20Gloucester | Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester | Humphrey of Lancaster, Duke of Gloucester (3 October 139023 February 1447) was an English prince, soldier, and literary patron. He was (as he styled himself) "son, brother and uncle of kings", being the fourth and youngest son of Henry IV of England, the brother of Henry V, and the uncle of Henry VI. Gloucester fought in the Hundred Years' War and acted as Lord Protector of England during the minority of his nephew. A controversial figure, he has been characterised as reckless, unprincipled, and fractious, but is also noted for his intellectual activity and for being the first significant English patron of humanism, in the context of the Renaissance.
Unlike his brothers, Humphrey was given no major military command by his father, instead receiving an intellectual upbringing. Created Duke of Gloucester in 1414, he participated in Henry V's campaigns during the Hundred Years' War in France: he fought at Agincourt in 1415 and at the conquest of Normandy in 1417–9. Following the king's death in 1422, Gloucester became one of the leading figures in the regency government of the infant Henry VI. He proved a rash, impulsive, unscrupulous, and troublesome figure: he quarreled constantly with his brother, John, Duke of Bedford, and uncle, Cardinal Henry Beaufort, and went so far as to violently prosecute a dispute with the Duke of Burgundy, a key English ally in France, over conflicting claims to lands in the Low Countries. At home, Gloucester never fully achieved his desired dominance, while his attempts to gain a foreign principality for himself were fruitless.
A staunch opponent of concessions in the French conflict, and a proponent of offensive warfare, Gloucester increasingly lost favour among the political community, and King Henry VI himself after the end of his minority, following a series of setbacks on the war in France. The trial in 1441 of Eleanor Cobham, his second wife, under charges of witchcraft, destroyed Gloucester's political influence. In 1447, he himself was accused, probably falsely, of treason, and died a few days later while under arrest.
Humphrey was the exemplar of the romantic chivalric persona. Mettled and courageous, he was a foil for the countess Jacqueline of Hainaut, his first wife. His learned, widely read, scholarly approach to the early renaissance cultural expansion demonstrated the quintessential well-rounded princely character. He was a paragon for Eton College and an exemplar for the University of Oxford, accomplished, diplomatic, with political cunning. Unlike his brothers, he was not naturally brave, but opinionated; fervent and judgmental. He exaggerated his own achievements, but idolized his brother Henry V. Despite the errors in both his public and private life, and the mischief he caused in politics, Gloucester is also at times praised as a patron of learning and a benefactor to the University of Oxford. He was popular among the literary figures of his age for his scholarly activity, and with the common people for his advocacy of a spirited foreign policy. For these causes he was known as the "good Duke Humphrey".
Diplomatic and military career
The place of his birth is unknown, but he was named after his maternal grandfather, Humphrey de Bohun, 7th Earl of Hereford. He was the youngest in a powerful quadrumvirate of brothers, who were very close companions; on 20 March 1413, Henry and Humphrey had been at their dying father's bedside. Thomas, John and Humphrey had all been knighted in 1399. They joined the Order of the Garter together in 1400.
During the reign of Henry IV, Humphrey received a scholar's education, while his elder brothers fought on the Welsh and Scottish borders. Following his father's death he was created Duke of Gloucester in 1414, and Chamberlain of England, and he took his seat in Parliament. He became a member of the Privy Council in 1415. Before embarking for France, the army camped at Southampton, where the Earl of Cambridge failed in an assassination plot to kill the king. Humphrey and his brother, the Duke of Clarence, led an Inquiry of Lords to try Cambridge and Scrope for high treason on 5 August.
During Henry V's campaigns in France, Humphrey gained a reputation as a successful commander. His knowledge of siege warfare, gained from his classical studies, contributed to the fall of Honfleur. During the Battle of Agincourt Humphrey was wounded; as he fell, the king sheltered him, and withstood a determined assault from French knights. For his services, Humphrey was granted offices including Constable of Dover, Warden of the Cinque Ports on 27 November, and King's Lieutenant. His tenure in government was peaceful and successful. This period commenced with Emperor Sigismund's peace mission, the only visit of a medieval emperor to England. According to "Holinshed's Chronicles", Humphrey was the principal actor of a symbolic ceremony. He welcomed the emperor on the shoreline with a sword in his hand, "extorting" from Sigismund the renunciation of his prerogatives of dominion over the king of England before allowing him to land on the evening of 1 May, 1416.
The Treaty of "eternal friendship" signed at Canterbury on 15 August served only to anticipate renewed hostility from France.
Upon the death of his brother in 1422, Humphrey became Lord Protector to his young nephew Henry VI. He also claimed the right to the regency of England following the death of his elder brother, John, Duke of Bedford, in 1435. Humphrey's claims were strongly contested by the lords of the king's council, and in particular his half-uncle, Cardinal Henry Beaufort. Henry V's will, rediscovered at Eton College in 1978, actually supported Humphrey's claims. In 1436 Philip, Duke of Burgundy, attacked Calais. Duke Humphrey was appointed garrison commander. The Flemings assaulted from the landward but the English resistance was stubborn. Humphrey marched the army to Baillieul, taking the English to safety; he threatened St. Omer before sailing home.
Humphrey was consistently popular with the citizens of London and the Commons. He also had a widespread reputation as a patron of learning and the arts. His popularity with the people and his ability to keep the peace earned him the appointment of Chief Justice of South Wales. However, his unpopular marriage to Eleanor Cobham became ammunition for his enemies. Eleanor was arrested and tried for sorcery and heresy in 1441, and Humphrey retired from public life. He himself was arrested on a charge of treason on 20 February 1447. He died at Bury St Edmunds in Suffolk three days later, and was buried at St Albans Abbey, adjacent to St Alban's shrine. At the time, some suspected that he had been poisoned, though it is more probable that he died of a stroke.
Marriages
He married twice but left no surviving legitimate progeny.
First marriage: Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut and Holland
In about 1423 he married Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut and Holland (died 1436), daughter of William VI, Count of Hainaut. Through this marriage Gloucester assumed the title "Count of Holland, Zeeland and Hainault", and briefly fought to retain these titles when they were contested by Jacqueline's cousin Philip the Good (see: War of Succession in Holland). They had a stillborn child in 1424. The marriage was annulled in 1428, and Jacqueline died (disinherited) in 1436.
Second marriage: Eleanor Cobham
In 1428 Humphrey married secondly Eleanor Cobham, his mistress, who in 1441 was tried and convicted of practising witchcraft against the king in an attempt to retain power for her husband. She was condemned to public penance followed by exile and life imprisonment. The marriage was without progeny.
Children
By mistresses unknown Humphrey had two illegitimate children. Eleanor Cobham was possibly the mother of one or both, before her marriage. Due to their illegitimacy they were unable to succeed to their father's titles. The illegitimate children were:
Arthur Plantagenet (died after 1447)
Antigone Plantagenet, who married firstly Henry Grey, 2nd Earl of Tankerville, Lord of Powys (c. 1419–1450) and secondly John d'Amancier.
Legacy
After inheriting the manor of Greenwich, Gloucester enclosed Greenwich Park and from 1428 had a palace built there on the banks of the Thames, known as Bella Court and later as the Palace of Placentia. The Duke Humphrey Tower surmounting Greenwich Park was demolished in the 1660s and the site was chosen for building the Royal Observatory. His name lives on in Duke Humfrey's Library, part of the Bodleian Library in Oxford University, and in Duke Humphrey Road on Blackheath, south of Greenwich. Duke Humphrey was a patron and protector of Oxford, donating more than 280 manuscripts to the University. The possession of such a library did much to stimulate new learning.
Duke Humphrey was also a patron of literature, notably of the poet John Lydgate and of John Capgrave. He corresponded with many leading Italian humanists and commissioned translations of Greek classics into Latin. His friendship with Zano Castiglione, Bishop of Bayeux, led to many further connections on the Continent, including Leonardo Bruni, Pietro Candido Decembrio and Tito Livio Frulovisi. Duke Humphrey also patronised the Abbey of St Albans.
Duke Humphrey's Walk was the name of an aisle in Old St Paul's Cathedral near to what was popularly believed to be Duke Humphrey's tomb, though, according to W. Carew Hazlitt, it was in reality a monument to John Lord Beauchamp de Warwick (died 1360). This was an area frequented by thieves and beggars. The phrase "to dine with Duke Humphrey" was used of poor people who had no money for a meal, in reference to this. Saki updates the phrase by referring to a "Duke Humphrey picnic", one without food, in his short story "The Feast of Nemesis". In fact, Humphrey's tomb is in the Abbey of St Albans (the Cathedral): it was restored by Hertfordshire Freemasons in 2000 to celebrate the millennium.
In literature
In Shakespeare's History plays, the portrayal of Humphrey is notable for being one of the most unambiguously sympathetic: in the War of the Roses Tetralogy, he is one of only a handful of historical personages to be portrayed in a uniformly positive light. He appears as a minor character in Henry IV, Part 2 and Henry V, but as a major character in two others: his conflict with Cardinal Beaufort is portrayed in Henry VI, Part 1, and his disgrace and death following his wife's alleged sorcery is depicted in Henry VI, Part 2. Shakespeare portrays Humphrey's death as a murder, ordered by William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk, and Queen Margaret of Anjou.
The 1723 play Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester by Ambrose Philips revolves around the life of Gloucester. In the original Drury Lane production he was played by Barton Booth.
Margaret Frazer's 2003 historical mystery, The Bastard's Tale, revolves around the events surrounding Gloucester's arrest and death.
Titles, honours and arms
Duke of Gloucester; created in 1414 (second creation).
Earl of Pembroke; created in 1414 (fifth creation). The title was subsequently made hereditary, but defaulted to William de la Pole.
Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, 1415.
Ancestry
References
Further reading
Hollman, Gemma (2019). Royal Witches: From Joan of Navarre to Elizabeth Woodville. Cheltenham: The History Press.
1390 births
1447 deaths
14th-century English people
15th-century English politicians
15th-century viceregal rulers
Peers created by Henry V
Burials at St Albans Cathedral
Dukes of Gloucester
Earls of Pembroke
Governors of Jersey
Heirs to the English throne
House of Lancaster
Knights of the Garter
Lords Protector of England
Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports
Male Shakespearean characters
Patrons of literature
Regents of England
Sons of kings
Children of Henry IV of England | [
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|
213457 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PGM-11%20Redstone | PGM-11 Redstone | The PGM-11 Redstone was the first large American ballistic missile. A short-range ballistic missile (SRBM), it was in active service with the United States Army in West Germany from June 1958 to June 1964 as part of NATO's Cold War defense of Western Europe. It was the first US missile to carry a live nuclear warhead, in the 1958 Pacific Ocean weapons test, Hardtack Teak.
Redstone was a direct descendant of the German V-2 rocket, developed primarily by a team of German rocket engineers brought to the United States after World War II. The design used an upgraded engine from Rocketdyne that allowed the missile to carry the W39 warhead which weighed with its reentry vehicle to a range of about . Redstone's prime contractor was the Chrysler Corporation.
The Redstone spawned the Redstone rocket family which holds a number of firsts in the US space program, notably launching the first US astronaut. It was retired by the Army in 1964 and replaced by the solid-fueled MGM-31 Pershing. Surplus missiles were widely used for test missions and space launches, including the first US man in space, and in 1967 the launch of Australia's first satellite.
History
Redstone was a direct descendant of the German V-2 rocket, developed by a team of predominantly German rocket engineers under the leadership of Wernher von Braun, that had been brought to the United States after World War II as part of Operation Paperclip.
A product of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) at Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama, Redstone was designed as a surface-to-surface missile for the U.S. Army. It was named for the arsenal on 8 April 1952, which traced its name to the region's red rocks and soil. The first Redstone lifted off from LC-4A at Cape Canaveral on 20 August 1953. It flew for one minute and 20 seconds before suffering an engine failure and falling into the sea. Following this partial success, the second test was conducted on 27 January 1954, this time without a hitch as the missile flew 55 miles. After these first two prototypes were flown, an improved engine was introduced to reduce problems with LOX turbopump cavitation.
The third Redstone flight on 5 May was a total loss as the engine cut off one second after launch, causing the rocket to fall back on the pad and explode. After this incident, Major General Holger Toftoy pressured Wernher von Braun for the cause of the failure. The latter replied that he had no idea, but they would review telemetry and other data to find out. Toftoy persisted, asking "Wernher, why did the rocket explode?" An exasperated von Braun said "It exploded because the damn sonofabitch blew up!"
Von Braun pressured the ABMA team to improve reliability and workmanship standards, allegedly remarking that "Missile reliability will require that the target area is more dangerous than the launch area." Subsequent test flights went better and the Army declared Redstone operational in mid-1955. Testing was moved from LC-4 to the bigger LC-5 and LC-6.
The Redstone program proved to be a bone of contention between the Army and Air Force due to their different ideas of nuclear warfare. The Army favored using small warheads on mobile missiles as tactical battlefield weapons while the Air Force, which was responsible for the ICBM program, wanted large cross-continental missiles that could strike Soviet targets and rapidly cripple the USSR's infrastructure and ability to wage war.
With the arrival of newer solid-fueled missiles that could be stored and not require fueling before launch, Redstone was rendered obsolete and production ended in 1961. The 40th Artillery Group was deactivated in February 1964 and 46th Artillery Group was deactivated in June 1964, as Redstone missiles were replaced by the Pershing missile in the U.S. Army arsenal. All Redstone missiles and equipment deployed to Europe were returned to the United States by the third quarter of 1964. In October 1964, the Redstone missile was ceremonially retired from active service at Redstone Arsenal.
Description
Redstone was capable of flights from . It consisted of a thrust unit for powered flight and a missile body for overall missile control and payload delivery on target. During powered flight, Redstone burned a fuel mixture of 25 percent water–75 percent ethyl alcohol with liquid oxygen (LOX) used as the oxidizer. Later Redstones used Hydyne, 60% unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) and 40% diethylenetriamine (DETA), as the fuel. The missile body consisted of an aft unit containing the instrument compartment, and the warhead unit containing the payload compartment and the radar altimeter fuze. The missile body was separated from the thrust unit 20–30 seconds after the termination of powered flight, as determined by the preset range to target. The body continued on a controlled ballistic trajectory to the target impact point. The thrust unit continued on its own uncontrolled ballistic trajectory, impacting short of the designated target.
The nuclear-armed Redstone carried the W39, either a MK 39Y1 Mod 1 or MK 39Y2 Mod 1, warhead with a yield of 3.8 megatons.
Production
Chrysler Corporation was awarded the prime production contract, to be made at the newly renamed Michigan Ordnance Missile Plant in Warren, Michigan. The navy-owned facility was previously known as the Naval Industrial Reserve Aircraft Plant used for jet engine production. Following the cancellation of a planned jet engine program, the facility was made available to the Chrysler Corporation for missile production, and began missile and support equipment production in 1952. Rocketdyne Division of North American Aviation Company provided the rocket engines; Ford Instrument Company, division of Sperry Rand Corporation, produced the guidance and control systems; and Reynolds Metals Company fabricated fuselage assemblies as subcontractors to Chrysler.
Redstone derivatives
In 1955, the Jupiter-C rocket (not to be confused with the later, unrelated Jupiter IRBM) was developed as an enhanced Redstone for atmospheric and reentry vehicle tests. It had elongated propellant tanks for increased burn time and a new engine that burned a fuel mixture known as hydyne and under the name of the Jupiter C/Juno 1 was used for the first successful US space launch of the Explorer 1 satellite in 1958.
The Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle was a derivation of the Redstone with a fuel tank increased in length by and was used on 5 May 1961 to launch Alan Shepard on his sub-orbital flight to become the second person and first American in space. It retained the Jupiter C's longer propellant tanks, but went back to using ethyl alcohol/water for propellant instead of hydyne.
From 1966 to 1967, a series of surplus modified Redstones called Spartas were launched from Woomera, South Australia as part of a joint U.S.–United Kingdom–Australian research program aimed at understanding re-entry phenomena. These Redstones had two solid fuel upper stages added. The U.S. donated a spare Sparta for Australia's first satellite launch, WRESAT, in November 1967.
Operators
United States Army
40th Field Artillery Group 1958–1961 – West Germany
1st Battalion, 333rd Artillery Regiment
46th Field Artillery Group 1959–1961 – West Germany
2nd Battalion, 333rd Artillery Regiment
209th Field Artillery Group – Fort Sill, Oklahoma
4th Bn, 333rd Artillery Regiment
Surviving examples
Displayed as PGM-11:
National Air and Space Museum at the Udvar-Hazy Center, Washington, DC
Warren, New Hampshire
US Space and Rocket Center, Huntsville, Alabama
Battleship Memorial Park, Mobile, Alabama
Air Force Space and Missile Museum, Cape Canaveral, Florida
Kansas Cosmosphere, Hutchinson, Kansas (payload and aft unit only)
National Museum of Nuclear Science and History, Albuquerque, New Mexico
White Sands Missile Range Museum, White Sands, New Mexico
Evergreen Aviation Museum, McMinnville, Oregon
Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama
US Army Field Artillery Museum, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
Displayed as Jupiter-C
US Space and Rocket Center, Huntsville, Alabama
Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, Merritt Island, Florida
Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama
Petal, Mississippi (formerly at John C. Stennis Space Center's StenniSphere, now INFINITY Science Center, not publicly visible)
Displayed as a Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle
Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, Merritt Island, Florida
One in the rocket garden, one near the badging office, and one at Launch Complex 5
Air Zoo, Kalamazoo, Michigan (in storage)
Kansas Cosmosphere, Hutchinson, Kansas
Museum of Life + Science, Durham, North Carolina
Parque de las Ciencias Luis A. Ferré at Bayamón, Puerto Rico
Space Center Houston, Houston, Texas
Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicles
US Space and Rocket Center, Huntsville, Alabama
United States Astronaut Hall of Fame, Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex
Gallery
See also
Comparable missiles
Ghaznavi
Abdali-I
Shaheen-I
J-600T Yıldırım
SOM
Bora
Fateh-313
Qiam 1
Al-Hussein
Nasr
Zelzal
Tondar-69
Burkan-1
References
Bibliography
Technology and Culture, Vol. 4, No. 4, The History of Rocket Technology (Autumn 1963), pp. 452–465.
External links
Redstone Army Command site
NASA Documents relating to Redstone and Mercury Projects
Redstone Image Collection
Redstone from Encyclopedia Astronautica
Redstone timeline
Boeing: History– Products – North American Aviation Rocketdyne Redstone Rocket Engine
Appendix A: The Redstone Missile in Detail
Redstone at the White Sands Missile Range
40th Artillery Group (Redstone)
46th Artillery Group (Redstone)
From the Stars & Stripes Archives: "Redstone Rocketeers"
Jupiter A
The Chrysler Corporation Missile Division and the Redstone missiles
Brigadier General Julius Braun Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections Files of Julius Braun, Project Officer for the Redstone missiles.
1960 in spaceflight
1961 in spaceflight
Cold War missiles of the United States
Marshall Space Flight Center
Nuclear weapons of the United States
Short-range ballistic missiles
Project Mercury
PGM-011
Wernher von Braun
Operation Paperclip
Military equipment introduced in the 1950s | [
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|
213459 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke%20of%20Gloucester | Duke of Gloucester | Duke of Gloucester () is a British royal title (after Gloucester), often conferred on one of the sons of the reigning monarch. The first four creations were in the Peerage of England and the last in the Peerage of the United Kingdom; the current creation carries with it the subsidiary titles of Earl of Ulster and Baron Culloden.
The title was first conferred on Thomas of Woodstock, the thirteenth child of King Edward III. The title became extinct at his death, as it did upon the death of the duke of the second creation, Humphrey of Lancaster, fourth son of King Henry IV.
The title was next conferred on Richard, brother to King Edward IV. When Richard himself became king, the dukedom merged into the crown. After Richard's death, the title was considered ominous, since the first three such dukes had all died without issue to inherit their titles. The title was not awarded for over 150 years: the next to receive the dukedom was the son of King Charles I, Henry Stuart, upon whose death the title again became extinct.
Prince William, son of the future Queen Anne, was styled "Duke of Gloucester" for his whole life (1689–1700), but was never formally created duke. Frederick, Prince of Wales, was styled "Duke of Gloucester" from 1718–1726, but was then created Duke of Edinburgh rather than of Gloucester.
There was next a creation of a double dukedom (not two dukedoms) for the brother of King George III, Prince William Henry, his proper title becoming "Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh".
The fifth and most recent creation was for the Prince Henry, third son of King George V. Upon Prince Henry's death, the dukedom was inherited by his only surviving son Prince Richard, who still holds the title. The heir to the title is Alexander Windsor, styled Earl of Ulster. The next in the line of succession is the Earl of Ulster's son Xan Windsor, known by his grandfather's third title of Lord Culloden.
The royal dukedom will devolve into an ordinary one when inherited by Alexander Windsor; as a great-grandson of a sovereign he lacks any royal style. Therefore, he will be styled as His Grace The Duke of Gloucester.
Dukes of Gloucester
First creation, 1385–1397
| Thomas of WoodstockHouse of Plantagenet1385–1397also: Duke of Aumale (1385–1397), Earl of Essex (1376–1397), Earl of Buckingham (1377) || || 7 January 1355Woodstock Palaceson of Edward III of England and Queen Philippa || Eleanor de Bohun13765 children || 8 September 1397Calaisaged 42
|-
|colspan=5|Thomas of Woodstock's son died two years after his father, but never succeeded to his titles except that of Earl of Buckingham. At the time of Thomas's death, he was regarded as a traitor and thus his titles were forfeit after his murder (except Earl of Buckingham). His son had no issue and his male line died out in 1399.
|-
|}
Second creation, 1414–1447
| Humphrey of LancasterHouse of Lancaster1414–1447also: Earl of Pembroke (1414) || || 3 October 1390Lancaster Castleson of Henry IV of England and Mary de Bohun || Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut1422–1428 (annulled)1 child (stillborn)Eleanor de Cobham1428–1441 (annulled)2 children || 23 February 1447Bury St Edmundsaged 56
|-
|colspan=5|Before marrying Humphrey, Eleanor de Cobham was his mistress. At the time of Humphrey's 1447 death, he had two children, Arthur and Antigone. However, both children were born before his marriage to Eleanor and were thus illegitimate and could not succeed to his titles.
|-
|}
Third creation, 1461
| Richard PlantagenetHouse of York1461–1483
|
| 2 October 1452Fotheringhay Castle, Oundleson of Richard, Duke of York and Cecily Neville
| Anne Neville1472–1485(her death)1 child
| 22 August 1485Bosworth Fieldaged 32
|-
|colspan=5|Richard succeeded as Richard III in 1483 upon his nephew's disappearance, and his titles merged with the crown.
|-
|}
Fourth creation, 1659
| Henry StuartHouse of Stuart1659–1660also: Earl of Cambridge (1659)
|
| 8 July 1640Oatlands Palace, Oatlandsson of King Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria
| Never married
| 18 September 1660Whitehall, Londonaged 20
|-
|}
Only styled, 1689
| Prince WilliamHouse of Oldenburg1689–1700
|
| 24 July 1689Hampton Court Palace, Londonson of Queen Anne and Prince George
| Never married
| 30 July 1700Windsor Castle, Windsoraged 11
|-
|}
Only styled, 1717
| Prince FrederickHouse of Hanover1717–1726
|
| 1 February 1707Leineschloss, Hanoverson of King George II and Queen Caroline
| Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha17 April 17369 children
| 31 March 1751Leicester House, Londonaged 44
|-
|colspan=5|Prince Frederick became Duke of Edinburgh in 1726 and then Prince of Wales in 1729.''
|-
|}
Fifth creation, 1928
| Prince HenryHouse of Windsor1928–1974also: Earl of Ulster and Baron Culloden (1928)
|
| 31 March 1900York Cottage, Sandringhamson of King George V and Queen Mary
| Lady Alice Montagu Douglas Scott6 November 19352 children
| 10 June 1974Barnwell Manor, Barnwellaged 74
|-
| Prince RichardHouse of Windsor1974–presentalso: Earl of Ulster and Baron Culloden (1928)
|
| 26 August 1944St. Matthew's Nursing Home, Northamptonson of Prince Henry and Princess Alice
| Birgitte van Deurs8 June 19723 children
| now old
|-
|}
Line of succession
Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester (born 1944)
(1) Alexander Windsor, Earl of Ulster (born 1974)
(2) Xan Windsor, Lord Culloden (born 2007)
Family tree
See also
List of dukedoms by reign
Earl of Gloucester
References
External links
The Duke of Gloucester at the Royal Family website
Dukedoms in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
1385 establishments in England
1928 establishments in the United Kingdom
Noble titles created in 1385
Noble titles created in 1414
Noble titles created in 1461
Noble titles created in 1659
Noble titles created in 1928 | [
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213461 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flamin%27%20Groovies | Flamin' Groovies | Flamin' Groovies is an American rock band that formed in San Francisco in 1965, originally co-led by Roy Loney and Cyril Jordan. After the Groovies released three albums, on Epic (Supersnazz) and Kama Sutra (Flamingo and Teenage Head), Loney left the band in 1971. He was replaced as co-leader by Chris Wilson, and the band's emphasis shifted more toward British Invasion power pop.
The band signed to United Artists Records in 1972, releasing just three more singles until 1976. The Groovies then signed to Sire Records and released three albums between 1976 and 1979, Shake Some Action, Flamin' Groovies Now (both produced by Dave Edmunds at Rockfield Studios in Wales) and Jumpin' in the Night. The 1976 album's title track "Shake Some Action" (also released as a single) became a power pop anthem and is revered by many, including Greil Marcus in his book, The History of Rock and Roll in Ten Songs. Wilson left the band in 1981, and the band continued in various forms, including the release of three more albums, before breaking up in 1991. After a couple of limited reunions with different lineups, the 1970s nucleus of Jordan, Wilson, and Alexander reformed the group in 2013, and the band's first post-reunion album, Fantastic Plastic, was released in 2017. Alexander left the reformed band in 2017, and in 2019 Wilson went on hiatus.
In addition to the band's role in the advancement of power pop, the Flamin' Groovies have also been called one of the forerunners of punk rock.
Career
Beginnings
Roy Loney and Tim Lynch, who met in first grade, had put together a Kingston Trio-type folk band with guitars when they were in junior high and high school. Beginning in 1965, after adding their friend George Alexander (whom they told to learn bass), they became a Rolling Stones-influenced rock band with drummer Ron Greco. Greco knew a 15-year-old lead guitarist named Cyril Jordan, who quickly became a part of the group, although Greco then left and was replaced by Danny Mihm. After playing together for about three years under various group names and not getting any record company offers, they decided to put up their own money and make their own EP, which they could also use as a label demo. That EP, 1968's Sneakers, was recorded on 4-track and mixed in about eight hours total and featured Jordan (guitar, vocals), Loney (vocals, guitar), Alexander (bass, harmonica, vocals), Lynch (guitar, harmonica, vocals) and Mihm (drums). As a result of its success, they were signed to a contract by Epic Records; at about the same time, their manager leased The Fillmore from Bill Graham, and they became managers of the venue, which introduced them to a much wider variety of music, including The Stooges and Alice Cooper.
During this period, they released 1969's Supersnazz. In Loney's words, the album was "all over the map" and "kinda grasping at every possible straw"; it contained both re-creations of 1950s rock and roll and more melodic songs that anticipated the power pop movement of the 1970s—a genre to which the Flamin' Groovies would eventually contribute significant work. However, the album's low sales led to their release by Epic. They then started doing national tours, and their further exposure to Detroit's musical scene "hardened up our sound a whole lot", in Loney's words. At the instigation of Richard Robinson (a journalist and the Groovies' future producer), the Groovies then signed to Kama Sutra Records for their next two albums, 1970's Flamingo and 1971's Teenage Head. Flamingo had the disadvantage of being recorded on 12-track, which used the same 1" tape as 8-track recording did, so the dynamic width had to be compressed; as Jordan later put it, "12-track sounds like shit." Teenage Head, which was recorded on 16-track, is listed in the 2006 book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die, and Mick Jagger reportedly compared the album favorably to the Rolling Stones' contemporaneous Sticky Fingers. Despite the critical plaudits, though, neither album sold well, which caused Loney and Lynch to lose interest and left the Groovies in limbo about their future. Loney (a rockabilly and blues aficionado) and Jordan (who leaned more to Beatle-style pop) also clashed over the band's direction, leading to a meme that "Roy is the Stones guy, Cyril is the Beatles guy". Jordan, however, felt the band was just evolving. Tim Lynch then left the band and was replaced by James Ferrell, shortly before the Groovies played a concert for the closing of the Fillmore West that was broadcast live on local San Francisco radio station KSAN.
Isolation and success
Not long after the KSAN concert, Loney also left the band and was replaced by 18-year-old singer and guitarist Chris Wilson, who, along with Jordan, began to move the group in a more overtly power pop direction. Alexander had become friends with British music executive Andrew Lauder, and in 1972, the band reached a deal to sign with Lauder's United Artists Records ("UA") and to record with British producer Dave Edmunds at Rockfield Studios in Wales, even though the U.S. division of UA had already turned down the band. The Groovies moved to Britain, where they remained for the rest of 1972, but the UA deal was never expanded beyond two single releases, "Slow Death"/"Tallahassee Lassie" and "Married Woman"/"Get a Shot of Rhythm and Blues", which United Artists preferred to Edmunds and the band's choices "Shake Some Action" and "You Tore Me Down". However, "Slow Death", an anti-drug song that Jordan had written with Loney, was banned by the BBC for using the word "morphine", which killed the momentum behind the signing. All seven songs recorded in 1972 by the Groovies for UA (the six named above plus Chuck Berry's "Little Queenie") were released in 1995 by EMI on the A Bucket of Brains album.
The failure of these singles effectively left the band in limbo for two years. During this lull, drummer Danny Mihm also left the band, replaced first by Terry Rae and ultimately by David Wright. In 1973, the Groovies re-recorded "Shake Some Action" as part of a deal with Capitol Records, but executive turnover at Capitol blocked that deal before the contracts were signed. In an effort to gain some leverage, the band agreed to release the Edmunds-produced version of "You Tore Me Down" as the first single on the brand-new Bomp! Records label in 1974. Some of the various released and unreleased recordings made and produced by the Groovies during this period (six demos from 1971, "Tallahassee Lassie" from 1972, one TV recording from 1972, and the two Capitol demos from 1973) were later collected on the 2002 Norton album Slow Death.
Finally in 1975, Greg Shaw from Bomp! became the Flamin' Groovies' manager and arranged for them to sign to the new (but poorly distributed) label Sire Records, headed by Seymour Stein. Due to that, the Groovies returned to the UK and recorded and released (in 1976) Shake Some Action, again produced by Edmunds, which included the same recordings of two songs ("Shake Some Action" and "You Tore Me Down") that United Artists had passed on in 1972 but Stein loved. The album received rave critical reviews, similar to Teenage Head. The Groovies continued to tour continually and were supported by the Ramones and The Stranglers at the Roundhouse in London on July 4, 1976 (which was coincidentally the US's bicentennial) in the latter band's first ever appearance in the UK. This concert has been widely noted as a seminal moment in the development of punk rock.
Sire's distribution was taken over by Warner Bros. Records in 1977, and so the Groovies returned to a major label; however, shortly before that, James Ferrell, who had been unhappy with the band's "Beatle-esque" direction, was fired and replaced by Mike Wilhelm, who had previously played with Wilson in the San Francisco band "Loose Gravel". The band then recorded two albums for Sire/Warners, 1978's Flamin' Groovies Now, once more produced by Dave Edmunds, and 1979's Jumpin' in the Night, produced by Jordan and Roger Bechirian. Wilson felt that Now was his favorite album and the band with Edmunds was in "one of our most creative times". However, Sire gave the album little promotion, and it didn't sell appreciably better. Edmunds also intended to produce Jumpin' in the Night, but, according to Wilson, his new manager Jake Riviera blocked him from doing so. Both albums included several covers of older material from other artists, which became an issue between Jordan, who wanted to include the covers (because he was trying to renegotiate his publishing rights with Sire), and Wilson, who did not. According to Jordan, during this period Warners also released a punk rock songbook that featured the Sex Pistols. the Ramones, and the Groovies.
Breakup
The commercial failure of Jumpin' in the Night, as well as clashes between Jordan and Stein, led Sire to drop the Flamin' Groovies in 1980, although the band nevertheless added keyboardist Mark Dunwoody. Then, a failed recording session at Gold Star Studios in 1981 for a new album tentatively called Tour de Force (in which only five complete songs were recorded in a three-week period, but four of them were covers) and the widening personal differences between Jordan and Wilson led both David Wright and Chris Wilson to quit the Groovies, with Wilson's departure taking place on Halloween night 1981. Wilson called the Gold Star sessions "a complete debacle" and referred to the time as being "like a messy family divorce"; all of the Groovies blamed the collapse of the Gold Star sessions on excessive drug use. As Jordan admitted, "We got tired. We were beaten up and cast aside, and the feeling was that this thing’s over, and you couldn’t stop that feeling with anybody in the band because it looked like it was." Despite that, Jordan and Alexander added new members, including the return of drummer Danny Mihm, and resumed touring.
However, after Wilhelm, Mihm and Dunwoody all left in 1982, the Flamin' Groovies once again had to reform. Later in the 1980s, the Groovies, now including Jordan, Alexander, guitarist-vocalist Jack Johnson, and drummer Paul Zahl, became involved with an Australian promoter named Peter Noble (the owner of AIM Records), who began to issue various Groovies live and studio recordings and reissue prior albums. After a 1987 live-in-the-studio recording in Australia for AIM entitled One Night Stand, and Sire/Warner's release of a 1989 greatest hits album focused on the Jordan-Wilson recordings entitled Groovies' Greatest Grooves, Noble put the Groovies on a financially mismanaged 80-day, 80-city tour of Europe, which shattered the group. The Groovies finally disbanded in 1991, with their last releases being the AIM compilation of demos entitled Step Up in 1991 and the post-breakup album Rock Juice (which used several of the same backing tracks as Step Up, according to Alexander) in 1993.
Post-breakup and partial reunions
In 1979, Roy Loney formed the Phantom Movers featuring two other former Groovies, drummer Danny Mihm and guitarist James Ferrell, as well as Larry Lea (guitar) and Maurice Tani (bass). The band released several albums between 1979 and 1993 as well as a greatest hits CD (A Hundred Miles an Hour 1978-1989 on the Raven label out of Australia). Loney and Lea continued to work together after the band folded.
In 1995, "Shake Some Action" appeared in the movie Clueless, which regenerated interest in the group. Loney, Mihm and Ferrell, who were then playing together in a band called the Fondellas, tried to put a Groovies reunion together to capitalize on that interest, which had been further fueled by re-releases of Flamingo and Teenage Head, but Jordan wasn't interested at that time.
The Flamin' Groovies headlined the Azkena Rock Festival in Mendizabala, Spain, on September 11, 2004, although Jordan was the only member of the pre-1981 band who participated.
In 2005, Jordan founded a new band, Magic Christian, which released a self-titled double album in 2005 and the album Evolver in 2009.
In 2009, Loney and Jordan reunited and embarked on a brief tour, backed by members of the A-Bones and Yo La Tengo, including the Ponderosa Stomp in April. The tour focused on the Groovies' pre-1972 catalog, omitting the later songs; Jordan noted that, despite the band's continuing popularity, "when I did that tour with Roy, . . . the halls didn’t exactly fill up." During an English date on this tour, Jordan reconnected with Wilson, who was then living in England (and who had joined The Barracudas and the Fortunate Sons there in the 1980s after leaving the Groovies).
One result of the Loney/Jordan tour were more reunions on the 2010 Chris Wilson album Love Over Money. George Alexander, Roy Loney, James Ferrell and Mike Wilhelm all appear on the CD, as does Procol Harum's keyboard legend Matthew Fisher and Barracudas guitarist Robin Wills. The album was released on the French label Rock Paradise. Wilson then followed this up with the 2013 album It's Flamin' Groovy, which featured the same musicians as previously plus three songs with both Alexander and Cyril Jordan.
1980s Groovies keyboardist Mark Dunwoody, who also played with the Phantom Movers, died of a heart attack on June 12, 2013. Guitarist Mike Wilhelm (1976-1982) died from cancer on May 14, 2019. Drummer Danny Mihm died on March 26, 2020, following a stroke.
Reunion
Beginning in late 2012, following the "reunions" on Wilson's solo albums, Jordan and Wilson considered reforming and relaunching the band. Said Jordan, "the Flamin' Groovies Shake Some Action version makes way more money and did make way more money in the '70s than the Roy Loney version ever did. So it was a no-brainer to put that second version back together again and see if we could make some good money." That second Groovies line-up of Jordan, Wilson, and Alexander (with the addition of Victor Penalosa on drums) played live for the first time since their 1981 split in Australia (Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne, and Perth) as part of the Hoodoo Gurus' invitational Dig It Up in April 2013. Jordan noted that the band received $75,000 for six or seven shows on the tour, which was enough money to overcome the band's post-breakup geographic spread. The Groovies then played a series of sold-out shows in Japan. Their next show, in San Francisco at The Elbo Room on May 4, sold out in less than 24 hours, and Loney even attended.
As a result, Jordan, Wilson, and Alexander decided to reform the Flamin' Groovies and to record a new album. Their first release was a limited-edition single (on vinyl) in 2016 to commemorate the band's 50th anniversary entitled "Crazy Macy" b/w "Let Me Rock", followed by the album Fantastic Plastic, which was released in September 2017. The reformed band also did an East Coast, European, and Midwest tour behind the new album, with Jordan and Wilson accompanied by Chris Von Sneidern on bass and Tony Sales (son of bassist Tony Fox Sales) on drums. In 2019, the Groovies, consisting of Jordan, Von Sneidern (now on guitar), Sales, and Atom Ellis (on bass), with special guest Roy Loney (vocals) but without Wilson (who was on hiatus in 2019), embarked on the "Teenage Head Tour" in the US and Europe. However, Loney was hospitalized after a fall at the airport in June, just as the tour was headed to Europe, which forced the European leg of the tour to continue without him. Loney died on December 13, 2019.
Personnel
Timeline
Discography
Albums
Studio
Supersnazz (Epic BN-26487, September 1969)
Flamingo (Kama Sutra KSBS 2021, July 1970)
Teenage Head (Kama Sutra KSBS 2031, April 1971)
Shake Some Action (Sire SASD-7521, June 1976) U.S. No. 142
Flamin' Groovies Now (Sire SRK 6059, June 1978)
Jumpin' in the Night (Sire SRK 6067, July 1979)
One Night Stand (AIM Records (Australia) 1008, July 1987)
Rock Juice (National Records NAT-030-2, November 1992)
Fantastic Plastic (Severn 0069, September 2017)
Live
Slow Death, Live! (Lolita, 1983) (1971 KSAN broadcast)
Bucketful of Brains (Voxx, 1983) (1971 KSAN broadcast)
Flamin' Groovies '68 (Eva, 1984) (live at The Matrix, 1968)
Flamin' Groovies '70 (Eva, 1984)
68/70 (Eva, 1984) (selections from '68 and '70)
Groove In (Revenge, 1988) (compilation from '68 and '70)
Rockin' at the Roundhouse (Mystery MRC 103, 1993) (live recordings from 1976 and 1978)
Live at the Festival of the Sun (AIM (Australia) 1051, 1995) (1987 Barcelona, Spain concert)
California Born and Bred (Norton 243, 1995) (1968-71 live recordings)
The Flamin' Groovies In Person (Norton 255, 2006) (official 1971 KSAN broadcast plus bonus tracks)
Demos
Step Up (AIM (Australia) 1030, 1991) (studio recordings from 1984 to 1989)
Slow Death (Norton 297, September 2002) (self-produced recordings with Chris Wilson from 1971 to 1973)
Compilation
Still Shakin (Buddah Records BDS 5683, 1976) (compilation from Flamingo and Teenage Head)
Super Grease (Skydog SKI 2226, 1984) (Grease & More Grease)
Groovies' Greatest Grooves (Sire 9 25948-2, July 1989) (official greatest hits from 1971–81)
Supersneakers (Sundazed SC 6077, 1996) (official reissue of Sneakers, with 10 live tracks from 1968)
Yesterday's Numbers (Camden (Australia), 1998) (compilation from Loney period)
Grease: The Complete Skydog Singles Collection (Skydog PVCP-8727, 1998) (Grease & More Grease plus Gold Star Tapes)
Sneakers & Rockfield Sessions (AIM (Australia) 0002, 2004) (both EPs on one CD)
Bust Out at Full Speed: The Sire Years (Sire, 2006) (US only; not complete)
At Full Speed... The Complete Sire Recordings (Sire 812274 0612, 2006) (complete)
This Band Is Red Hot (Raven (Australia), 2008) (greatest hits compilation from 1969-79 (Supersnazz to Jumpin' in the Night))
EPs
Sneakers (Snazz R-2371, 1968) (official first Groovies release)
Grease (Skydog FGG-001, 1973) (1971 demo recordings with Chris Wilson)
More Grease (Skydog FGG-002, 1974) (1971 demo & live recordings with Chris Wilson)
The Gold Star Tapes (Skydog SKI 2224, 1984) (1981 Gold Star Studios sessions)
Rockfield Sessions (AIM (Australia) COLLECT 2, 1989) (Rockfield 1972 sessions for UA)
A Bucket of Brains (EMI 7243 8 32144 2 6, 1995) (official release of Rockfield 1972 sessions for UA, from original masters)
Singles
"Rockin' Pneumonia and the Boogie Woogie Flu" b/w "The First One's Free" (Jul 1969, Epic)
"Somethin' Else" b/w "Laurie Did It" (1970, Epic)
"Have You Seen My Baby?" b/w "Yesterday's Numbers" (1971, Kama Sutra)
"Teenage Head" b/w "Evil Hearted Ada" (non-USA) (Aug 1971, Kama Sutra)
"Slow Death" b/w "Tallahassee Lassie" (Jun 1972, UA)
"Married Woman" b/w "Get a Shot of Rhythm and Blues" (Dec 1972, UA)
"You Tore Me Down" b/w "Him or Me" (1974, Bomp)
"I Can't Hide" b/w "Teenage Confidential" (1976, Sire)
"Shake Some Action" b/w "Teenage Confidential" (non-USA) (1976, Sire)
"Teenage Head" (rerelease) b/w "Headin' for the Texas Border" (Jun 1976, Kama Sutra)
"Don’t You Lie To Me" b/w "She Said Yeah"; "Shake Some Action" (30 cm, UK) (1976, Sire)
"I Can't Explain" b/w "Little Queenie" (1977, Sire)
"Move It" b/w "When I Heard Your Name" (UK, Aug 1978, Sire)
"Absolutely Sweet Marie" b/w "Werewolves Of London"; "Next One Crying" (UK, Jun 1979, Sire)
"Sealed with a Kiss" (1993, National)
"Baby Please Don't Go" (live) b/w "Milk Cow Blues" (live) (1987)
"Scratch My Back" b/w "Carol" (2010; both recorded 1971)
"Crazy Macy" b/w "Let Me Rock" (2016, Burger)
"Long Way to Be Happy" b/w "Don't Forget to Write" (2017, EFDE Music) (new vocals on A-side; both are 1981 Gold Star unfinished tracks)
Notes
Sneakers was a 7-song, 17:10 long 10" EP.
Grease and More Grease were 4-song EPs recorded in 1971/72, largely duplicated by Slow Death.
The Gold Star Tapes was a 5-song, 12:44 long 3" CD and 12" EP released only in France.
The Rockfield Sessions was a 7-song, 23:57 12" EP released only in Australia.
A Bucket of Brains was a legitimate release of The Rockfield Sessions by UA's successor EMI (now Parlophone).
Flamingo was released in Germany as This Is the Flamin' Groovies.
Half of Still Shakin consisted of tracks from Flamingo and Teenage Head; the rest were outtakes.
Book references
The Flamin' Groovies, along with the band Frumious Bandersnatch, are mentioned in Roger Hall's 1970 novel, "19," which refers to them both as one band, "Frumious Bandersnatch and the Flamin' Groovies." (First edition, page 110).
References
External links
[ Flamin' Groovies biography] at AllMusic
Flamin' Groovies Biography in musicianguide.com
Flamin' Groovies interview
Boogie Song
Musical groups established in 1965
Protopunk groups
American power pop groups
Musical groups from San Francisco
Kama Sutra Records artists | [
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|
213462 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2046%20%28film%29 | 2046 (film) | 2046 is a 2004 romantic drama film written, produced and directed by Wong Kar-wai. An international co-production between Hong Kong, France, Italy, China and Germany, it is a loose sequel to Wong's films Days of Being Wild (1990) and In the Mood for Love (2000). It follows the aftermath of Chow Mo-wan's unconsummated affair with Su Li-zhen in 1960s Hong Kong and includes elements of science fiction.
Plot
There are 4 main story arcs, their approximate order listed below, though typical of Wong's films, they are presented in pieces and in non-chronological order. For concision, knowledge of Days of Being Wild and In the Mood for Love is assumed, though not absolutely necessary.
2046 arc part I
In the future, a rail network connects Earth. Lonely souls try to reach a mysterious room called 2046; nothing ever changes there so there is never loss or sadness. No one has ever returned from 2046 except Japanese man Tak.
"All Memories Are Traces of Tears"
Returning to Hong Kong after years in Singapore, Chow becomes a suave ladies' man to cover up his pain from losing Su. On Christmas Eve, Chow meets Lulu and takes her home but accidentally keeps her room key. As he leaves, he notices that her room number is 2046. Upon returning the key, the landlord informs him that the room is not available due to renovations and offers the adjacent 2047. Chow later learns that Lulu was stabbed in 2046 the night before by a jealous boyfriend.
After finishing renovation of 2046, the landlord asks Chow if he wants to move in. He has now gotten used to 2047 and stays there.
Wang Jing-wen and Wang Jie-wen arc part I
The landlord's daughter Jing-wen moves into 2046; she is involved with a Japanese man that her father opposes. Eventually, Jing-wen breaks up with him, suffers a breakdown, and is institutionalized. The next tenant is Jing-wen's younger sister Jie-wen who seduces Chow to no avail.
A short time later, Chow runs into financial difficulties so he starts writing a series called 2046 about heartsick individuals trying to find the mysterious 2046. Nearly all of the characters in 2046 are based on people Chow has met, such as Su, Lulu, and Jing-wen.
Bai Ling arc part I
The 3rd to move into 2046 is Bai Ling, implied to be a nightclub girl and high-class prostitute seeking a long-term relationship. On the next Christmas Eve, Bai runs into Chow just after she is dumped by her boyfriend before they are to go to Singapore. He intrigues her with his experiences in Singapore and they become friends, but their initially platonic relationship soon becomes sexual. Chow wants to keep it strictly physical, continuing to pick up other prostitutes. To compromise, Bai makes him pay $10 each time he stays over. However, Bai realizes that she has feelings for Chow and asks him to stop seeing other women. Chow refuses so Bai breaks off with him, starts seeing men solely for money, and moves out of 2046.
Jing-wen part II
After Bai moves out, Jing-wen moves back in from the mental hospital but is still depressed over the loss of her ex. Her ex wants to reconcile with her but she refuses due to her father. Jing-wen helps Chow with his writing; he remarks that this is his happiest period post-Su. He develops feelings for her and makes some weak attempts but nothing develops since she still loves her ex.
One day Jing-wen asks Chow if some things in life never change. He answers by writing a story called 2047 in which a Japanese man falls in love on the trip home from 2046. While he initially tried to base the story on Jing-wen's ex, he realises that the story is ultimately about himself.
2046 arc part II
Tak (portrayed by Jing-wen's ex) tries to leave 2046 because he lost his love there. On the trip, he falls for one of the train's gynoid assistants (portrayed by Jing-wen), but it never responds to him. Tak realises that it is in love with someone else and finds the strength to leave the train and 2046. Completing the story marks a turning point in Chow's recovery.
Jing-wen part III
Next Christmas, Chow finds out Jing-wen still misses her ex so he lets her call him in his office. While he has feelings for her and could have taken advantage of the situation, he is happy that he did the "right thing." Soon after, Jing-wen moves to Japan and gets engaged.
While still depressed over the loss of Jing-wen, Chow runs into Lulu again as she confronts another woman for sleeping with her current boyfriend. Chow thinks Lulu is likely to forever remain in the past, though she seems content with her misery, and he resolves to get over Su.
Bai arc part II
Some time later, Bai calls Chow and they go out to dinner. She informs Chow that she plans to leave for Singapore and asks him for a reference and plane fare. Bai also asks where he was last Christmas, as she stopped by then, hoping to see him. Chow had gone back to Singapore to find another woman named Su Li-zhen.
Su Arc
Chow met the second Su when he first arrived in Singapore and was grieving over the first Su. The second Su agreed to help him win back his money so he could return to Hong Kong. They became lovers but unless he beat her in a "high-card" draw, she would never reveal her identity. After she won back his money, he asked her to go with him. She challenged him to a draw, which he again lost. Chow speculated that she also had a troubled past.
Initially heartbroken, Chow realizes after completing 2047 that the second Su did not go with him because he would have tried to recapture the past by looking for elements of the first Su in her. When Chow returned to Singapore to visit her the second time, he did not find her. He inquired about her whereabouts and theorized that she either returned to Cambodia or was killed.
Bai arc part III
The night before Bai leaves for Singapore, Chow dines with her again. She insists on paying for dinner after getting paid by a client and hands him a stack of money, each $10 bill representing a night they spent together. After dinner, Chow walks her back to her apartment. Grasping his hands at the door, she begs him to spend the night once more. He reminds her of a question she asked him, whether there was anything he wouldn't lend, and now he realizes that there is one thing he won't lend to anyone. Chow leaves in a taxi, staring emptily into space. He never saw her again.
Cast
Tony Leung Chiu-Wai as Chow Mo-wan, the main character and narrator. A journalist and writer, he is the same character, played by the same actor, as in In the Mood for Love. He also appears in a silent cameo at the very end of Days of Being Wild.
Maggie Cheung as Su Li-zhen, the woman Chow Mo-wan loved most. She appears only in flashback. See In the Mood for Love.
Gong Li as Another Su Li-zhen. Presented as a "professional gambler" and nicknamed "Black Spider", she said that she was from Phnom Penh. Chow Mo-wan met her in Singapore.
Wang Sum as
Mr. Wang, the hotel owner. He had taken singing lessons in Harbin, China.
The captain of the train to (or from) 2046.
Faye Wong as
Wang Jing-wen, the first daughter of Mr. Wang, the hotel owner. She was in love with a Japanese man, a relationship that her father opposed strongly.
A Gynoid in the train to (or from) 2046.
Takuya Kimura as
A Japanese man, sent to Hong Kong for a while by his company. He is Wang Jing-wen's boyfriend.
Tak, a passenger of the train to (or from) 2046.
Dong Jie as Wang Jie-wen. The second daughter of Mr. Wang, the hotel owner.
Carina Lau as
Mimi/Lulu. See Days of Being Wild.
A gynoid in the train to (or from) 2046.
Chang Chen as
The drummer boyfriend of Mimi/Lulu.
A passenger of the train to (or from) 2046.
Zhang Ziyi as Bai Ling. A beautiful cabaret girl who lived in room 2046 in the Oriental Hotel, and a lover of Chow Mo-wan.
Siu Ping-lam as Ah Ping, a colleague and friend of Chow Mo-wan.
Bird McIntyre as Bird
Benz Kong as Brother Hoi
Berg Ng as Mo-wan's party friend
Akina Hong as a party girl
Production
It took four years to complete the film. During that time, production was closed because of the SARS epidemic in March 2003.
It was picked up by Sony Pictures Classics for distribution in the United States, and was released on 5 August 2005.
Title
2046 is the number of the hotel room in In the Mood for Love in which Chow Mo-wan (Tony Leung Chiu-wai) and Su Li-zhen (Maggie Cheung) meet to write their kung fu novel serial. It is the number of a hotel room occupied by Lulu, and later by Bai Ling at the Oriental Hotel, while Mo-Wan's room number is 2047.
Chow writes science fiction stories, in which 2046 is a popular year and place to which people travel through time. The stories are titled 2046 and later 2047 (in collaboration with Wang Jing-wen).
The year 2046 has its own significance for Hong Kong, as it is 49 years after the handover of Hong Kong by the British on 1 July 1997. At the time of handover, the Mainland government promised fifty years of self-regulation for the former British colony. The year 2046 references the moment before Hong Kong's special, self-regulated status ends.
Critical reception
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 86% based on 119 reviews, with an average rating of 7.40/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Director Wong Kar-Wai has created in 2046 another visually stunning, atmospheric, and melancholy movie about unrequited love and loneliness." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 78 out of 100 based on 34 critic reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
One of the most positive reviews came from Manohla Dargis in The New York Times, who called the film "an unqualified triumph", and praised Zhang Ziyi's performance, saying: "Ms. Zhang's shockingly intense performance burns a hole in the film that gives everything, including all the other relationships, a sense of terrific urgency." Dargis also describes the film:"Routinely criticized for his weak narratives, Mr. Wong is one of the few filmmakers working in commercial cinema who refuse to be enslaved by traditional storytelling. He isn't the first and certainly not the only one to pry cinema from the grip of classical narrative, to take a pickax to the usual three-act architecture (or at least shake the foundation), while also dispatching with the art-deadening requirements (redemption, closure, ad nauseam) that have turned much of Big Hollywood into a creative dead zone. Like some avant-garde filmmakers and like his contemporary, Hou Hsiao-hsien of Taiwan, among precious few others these days, Mr. Wong makes movies, still a young art, that create meaning through visual images, not just words."
In Premiere, Glenn Kenny gave the film four stars and ranked it as one of the ten best films of 2005:"Insanely evocative '60s-style landscapes and settings share screen space with claustrophobic futuristic CGI metropolises; everyone smokes and drinks too much; musical themes repeat as characters get stuck in their own self-defeating modes of eternal return. A puzzle, a valentine, a sacred hymn to beauty, particularly that of Ziyi Zhang, almost preternaturally gorgeous and delivering an ineffable performance, and a cynical shrug of the shoulders at the damned impermanence of it all, 2046 is a movie to live in."
Said Ty Burr of The Boston Globe:"Is it worth the challenge? Of course it is. Wong stands as the leading heir to the great directors of post-WWII Europe: His work combines the playfulness and disenchantment of Godard, the visual fantasias of Fellini, the chic existentialism of Antonioni, and Bergman's brooding uncertainties. In this film, he drills further into an obsession with memory, time, and longing than may even be good for him, and his world reflects and refracts our own more than may be comfortable for us. Love hurts in 2046, but it's the only way anybody knows they're alive."
Daniel Eagan of Film Journal International:"it's clear his [Wong Kar-wai] skills and interests have no match in today's cinema. Whatever his motives, Wong has assembled a remarkable team for this film. The cinematography, production design and editing combine for a mood of utter languor and decadence. Leung Chiu-wai continues his string of outstanding roles, while pop singer Wong achieves a gravity missing from her earlier work...it's Zhang who is the real surprise here...her performance puts her on a level with the world's best actresses."
One of the less enthusiastic reviews came from Roger Ebert who, in the Chicago Sun-Times, gave the film a midly-negative 2½ stars out of a possible four and a "marginal thumbs down" on the television show Ebert & Roeper."2046 arrived at the last minute at Cannes 2003, after missing its earlier screenings; the final reel reportedly arrived at the airport almost as the first was being shown. It was said to be unfinished, and indeed there were skeletal special effects that now appear in final form, but perhaps it was never really finished in his mind. Perhaps he would have appreciated the luxury that Woody Allen had with Crimes and Misdemeanors; he looked at the first cut of the film, threw out the first act, called the actors back and reshot, focusing on what turned out to be the central story. Watching 2046, I wonder what it could possibly mean to anyone not familiar with Wong's work and style. Unlike In the Mood for Love, it is not a self-contained film, although it's certainly a lovely meander."
The official journal of the Film Society of Lincoln Center, Film Comment'''s 2005 end-of-the-year film critics' poll, placed the film as the second best film of that year, with 668 points. 2046 was called the best film of 2005 by Michael Atkinson (The Village Voice), Daryl Chin (Journal of Performance and Art), Josef Brown (Vue Weekly), Sean Burns (Philadelphia Weekly), Will Sloan (The Martingrove Beacon), and Justine Elias (The Guardian), and was ranked among the top ten best films of the year by Manohla Dargis (The New York Times), Richard Corliss (Time Magazine), Same Adams (Philadelphia City Paper), Leslie Camhi (The Village Voice), Jason Anderson (eye Weekly), Gary Dretzka (Movie City News), Godfrey Cheshire (The Independent Weekly), Ty Burr (The Boston Globe), Liza Bear (indieWIRE), Edward Crouse (The Village Voice), Jeffrey M. Anderson (The San Francisco Examiner), John DeFore (Austin American Statesman), Brian Brooks (indieWIRE), Chris Barsanti (Filmcritic.com), F.X. Feeney (L.A. Weekly), David Ehrnstein (New Times), J. Hoberman (The Village Voice), Robert Horton (Everett Herald), Bilge Ebiri (Nerve), Eugene Hernandez (indieWIRE)
Box office and distribution2046 opened in North America on 5 August 2005, where it grossed US$113,074 on four screens ($28,268 average). In Wong Kar-wai's home country of Hong Kong, 2046 earned a total of US$778,138. It went on to gross a total of $1,444,588 in North America, playing at 61 venues at its widest release. Its total worldwide box office gross is US$19,271,312.
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the film on DVD on 26 December 2005. Since then, it has yet to be re-released or restored in the United States. A region free Blu-ray was released by EOS Entertainment on 17 September 2014 in South Korea, as part of a Wong Kar Wai boxset.
The film finally debuted on Blu-ray in the United States on March 23, 2021 in a set compiled by the Criterion Collection entitled "World of Wong Kar-wai" and includes this film alongside 6 of his other films.
Accolades
In April 2004, the film was nominated for the Golden Palm at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival.
In November 2004, it won awards for Best Art Direction and Best Original Film Score at the Golden Horse Film Festival in Taiwan. The same year, it also won the European Film Award for Best Non-European Film, the Best Foreign Language Film award at the San Sebastián International Film Festival, and was voted Best Foreign Language Film by the New York Film Critics Circle, while taking second place at the Boston Society of Film Critics and Los Angeles Film Critics Association Awards in the same category.
In March 2005, it was nominated in numerous categories at the Hong Kong Film Awards, winning Best Actor (Tony Leung), Best Actress (Zhang Ziyi), Best Cinematography (Christopher Doyle), Best Costume Design and Make-Up, Best Art Direction, and Best Original Film Score (Shigeru Umebayashi).
Music
Original music:
Shigeru Umebayashi – "2046 Main Theme" (scenes 5, 15 and closing credits), "2046 Main Theme (Rumba Version)" (scene 25), "Interlude I" (scenes 29, 38), "Polonaise" (scenes 37, 43), "Lost", "Long Journey" (Scenes 40–41), "Interlude II" (Scene 30), "2046 Main Theme" (With Percussion, Train Remix)
Adopted music:
Peer Raben – "Dark Chariot" (Scenes 7–9, 12–13) from Rainer Werner Fassbinder's Querelle (1982) and "Sisyphos at Work" (Scene 4) from Fassbinder's film The Third Generation (1979)
Xavier Cugat – "Siboney" (scenes 6 (instrumental), 17, 19, 24), "Perfidia" (scenes 10, 39)
Dean Martin – "Sway" (scene 18)
Georges Delerue – "Julien et Barbara" from François Truffaut's Vivement Dimanche! (1983) (scenes 21–23, 42)
Connie Francis – "Siboney"
Vincenzo Bellini and Felice Romani – "Casta Diva" from Bellini's Norma, performed by Angela Gheorghiu and the London Symphony Orchestra, directed by Evelino Pidò – recorded in 2000 (scenes 11, 14, 28, 36) and Bellini's Il pirata (scenes 16, 26)
Zbigniew Preisner – "Decision" from Thou shalt not kill, part 5 of Krzysztof Kieślowski's The Decalogue Secret Garden – "Adagio" with David Agnew (cor anglais) (scenes 3, 27, 31, 34)
Nat King Cole and the Nat King Cole Trio – "The Christmas Song" (1946 version with strings) (scenes 20, 35)
See also
List of films set in Hong Kong
List of Hong Kong films
Six DaysReferences
External links
Official website, by Jet Tone Films Ltd (Hong Kong)
2046'' at the TCM Movie Database
2046 at LoveHKFilm.com
2004 films
2004 romantic drama films
2000s science fiction drama films
2000s Cantonese-language films
European Film Awards winners (films)
Films about journalists
Films directed by Wong Kar-wai
Films scored by Shigeru Umebayashi
Films set in the 1960s
Films set in 2046
Films set in the future
Hong Kong films
Hong Kong New Wave films
Hong Kong romantic drama films
Hong Kong science fiction films
Japanese-language films
Mandarin-language films | [
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|
213463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphonse%20Picou | Alphonse Picou | Alphonse Floristan Picou (October 19, 1878 – February 4, 1961) was an important very early American jazz clarinetist of New Orleans, Louisiana, who also wrote and arranged music.
Early life and education
Alphonse Picou was born into a prosperous middle-class Creole of Color family in downtown New Orleans, Louisiana, United States. His parents were Alfred Picou and Clotilde (Serpas) Picou, who also had other children: Cecilia, Willie, Feriol, Joseph, and Philomene Picou. Cecilia married Alfred Forrestier on August 1, 1900. Alphonse Picou took to music early.
Career
By the age of 16, he was working as a professional musician on both the guitar and clarinet, but then concentrated on the latter instrument. As his family frowned on music being a person's sole trade, Picou trained and worked as a tinsmith, including putting the copper sheeting on church steeples. Soon Picou was so much in demand as a clarinetist that he made most of his living from music.
He played classical music with the Creole section's Lyre Club Symphony Orchestra. He also played with various dance bands and brass bands, including those of Bouboul Fortunea Augustat, Bouboul Valentin, Oscar DuConge, Manuel Perez, Freddie Keppard, Bunk Johnson, the Excelsior Brass Band, the Olympia Brass Band and others. The light-skinned Picou, with majority European ancestry, sometimes worked with white bands as well in his youth, including at least on occasion with Papa Jack Laine. (This opportunity was not available to musicians with darker skin due to racial discrimination in the U.S. Southern States at the time.)
Picou was one of the early musicians playing in the new style that was developing in the city, not yet known as "jazz". He sometimes played in the band of Buddy Bolden, perhaps the most important force in the musical change.
Many younger clarinetists, including Johnny Dodds and Jimmie Noone, cited Picou as an important influence. Picou's style (those who knew him for many years said that his style when he recorded was little changed from how he had played early in the 20th century) is lilting with a gentle raggy feel. His subtle variations are usually more melodic embellishments than what would later be called improvisation. His style struck many who heard Picou late in his career as either "not quite jazz" or "just barely jazz".
Picou is perhaps best known for originating the clarinet part on the standard "High Society". Some have mistakenly stated that he wrote the number, which was a 1901 marching band composition by Porter Steele. Picou rearranged it giving it a gentle swing and paraphrased the piccolo part to create his famous clarinet solo. This became a local standard part, and no younger New Orleans clarinetist was considered proficient until he could play a duplication of Picou's part. Unusually in a music that values improvisation, it became a set piece. Commonly, later clarinetists would solo once through reproducing or sticking close to Picou's solo, and then do their own improvisations on a second solo.
Alphonse Picou at least once followed fellow musicians up north to Chicago about 1917-1918 (and possibly briefly to New York City in the early 1920s), but said he did not like life up North. He spent most of his career in his home city.
"King" Joe Oliver commissioned Picou to write new tunes for his band. Picou's compositions include "Alligator Hop", and "Olympia Rag".
During the Great Depression, Picou returned to metal smithing. In the 1940s, he was able to return to playing professionally regularly, made his first recordings, and opened a bar in a building he owned on Claiborne Avenue. For years into the 1950s, he was a regular on Bourbon Street in the French Quarter with Papa Celestin's Band (with whom he also did radio broadcasts) and leading his own group.
Picou's funeral procession in 1961, was one of the largest the city had seen, with several brass bands and many additional musicians playing to give Alphonse Picou a send off. Many commentators said it marked the end of an era; his death was that of the last prominent musician who had worked from the very birth of jazz music.
References
1878 births
1961 deaths
Jazz musicians from New Orleans
American jazz clarinetists
Louisiana Creole people
Dixieland clarinetists
Excelsior Brass Band members
Olympia Orchestra members
Tuxedo Brass Band members
Olympia Brass Band members | [
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213464 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallen%20angel%20%28disambiguation%29 | Fallen angel (disambiguation) | A fallen angel, in Abrahamic religions, is an angel that has been exiled or banished from Heaven.
Fallen Angel or The Fallen Angel may also refer to:
Film
Fallen Angel (1945 film), a film-noir by Otto Preminger
Fallen Angel (1981 film), a TV film starring Dana Hill
Fallen Angel (1991 film), a TV film starring Michael Chow
Fallen Angel (1997 film), a film featuring George Buck Flower
Fallen Angel (2003 film), a TV film starring Gary Sinise and Joely Richardson
Gram Parsons: Fallen Angel, a 2004 documentary film about Gram Parsons
The Fallen Angel (2010 film), a Japanese film by Genjiro Arato
Fallen Angel (2010 film), a film starring Erik Contreras
Novels
The Fallen Angel (novel), a 2012 novel by Daniel Silva
Angel of Ruin, a 2001 novel by Kim Wilkins, released in the UK as Fallen Angel
Fallen Angel, a novel by Howard Fast
Fallen Angel, a novel by Kosuke Kindaichi
Music
Albums
Fallen Angel (Uriah Heep album), or the title song, 1978
Fallen Angel (25 ta Life EP), 2006
Fallen Angel (Versailles Suicide EP), or the title song, 2002
Fallen Angel, by Maxim Reality, 2005
Fallen Angel, by Punky Meadows, 2016
Fallen Angel..., or the 1960 title song, by Webb Pierce, 1961
Songs
"Fallen Angel" (King Crimson song), 1974
"Fallen Angel" (Poison song), (1988)
"Fallen Angel" (Rogue song), 1975; covered by Frankie Valli (1976)
"Fallen Angel" (Three Days Grace song), 2015
"Fallen Angel" (Tix song), 2021
"Fallen Angel" (Traci Lords song), 1995
"Fallen Angel", by Aldo Nova from Twitch, 1985
"Fallen Angel", by Alphaville from Forever Young, 1984
"Fallen Angel", by Alvin Lee and Mylon Lefevre from On the Road to Freedom, 1973
"Fallen Angel", by Baby, 1977
"Fallen Angel", by Barbara Dickson, 1978
"Fallen Angel", by Blue Öyster Cult from Cultösaurus Erectus, 1980
"Fallen Angel", by Bulldozer from The Day of Wrath, 1984
"Fallen Angel", by Chris Brown from Exclusive, 2007
"Fallen Angel", by Coney Hatch from Outa Hand, 1983
"Fallen Angel", by Debbie Gibson from Out of the Blue, 1987
"Fallen Angel", by Diamond Head from All Will Be Revealed, 2005
"Fallen Angel", by Elbow from Cast of Thousands, 2003
"Fallen Angel", by Esham from Judgement Day, 1992
"Fallen Angel", by Jag Panzer from the re-release of Ample Destruction, 1984
"Fallen Angel", by John Entwistle from Too Late the Hero, 1981
"Fallen Angel", by Ketty Lester, 1963
"Fallen Angel", by Kit Hain from School for Spies, 1983
"Fallen Angel", by Neil Young from Mirror Ball, 1995
"Fallen Angel", by Possessed from Seven Churches, 1985
"Fallen Angel", by Robbie Robertson from Robbie Robertson, 1987
"Fallen Angel", by Sirenia from The Enigma of Life, 2011
"Fallen Angel", by Styx from Brave New World, 1999
"Fallen Angel", by Treat, 1986
"The Fallen Angel", by Iron Maiden from Brave New World, 2000
"(She's Just A) Fallen Angel", by Starz from Starz, 1976
Television
Fallen Angel (British TV series), a 2007 series based on the Roth trilogy by Andrew Taylor
Fallen Angel (Singaporean-Malaysian TV series), a 2007 series starring Shaun Chen
"Fallen Angel" (The X-Files), a 1993 episode of The X-Files
"Fallen Angel", an episode of Xena: Warrior Princess
"Fallen Angel", an episode of Charlie's Angels
"Fallen Angel", an episode of Kamen Rider Hibiki
"Fallen Angel", an episode of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles
Other uses
Sacred 2: Fallen Angel, a 2008 fantasy role-playing video game
Fallen Angel (comics), an American fictional comic book heroine
Fallen Angel (cocktail), a gin cocktail
Christopher Daniels or The Fallen Angel (born 1970), professional wrestler
Fallen Angel, a moniker used by the person who sent the 2003 ricin letters in the United States
Fallen angel, a term for a company whose credit rating has been downgraded from investment-grade to high-yield/junk status
The Fallen Angel, an 1847 painting by Alexandre Cabanel
See also
Fallen Angels (disambiguation)
Ángel caído (disambiguation)
Angel of Darkness (disambiguation)
Angels Fall (disambiguation)
Dark Angel (disambiguation)
Evil Angel (disambiguation)
Falling Angel, a 1978 novel by William Hjortsberg
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|
213468 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydra%20%28constellation%29 | Hydra (constellation) | Hydra is the largest of the 88 modern constellations, measuring 1303 square degrees, and also the longest at over 100 degrees. Its southern end borders Libra and Centaurus and its northern end borders Cancer. It was included among the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy. Commonly represented as a water snake, it straddles the celestial equator.
History and mythology
Western mythology
The Greek constellation of Hydra is an adaptation of a Babylonian constellation: the MUL.APIN includes a "serpent" constellation (MUL.DINGIR.MUŠ) that loosely corresponds to Hydra. It is one of two Babylonian "serpent" constellations (the other being the origin of the Greek Serpens), a mythological hybrid of serpent, lion and bird.
The shape of Hydra resembles a twisting snake, and features as such in some Greek myths. One myth associates it with a water snake that a crow served Apollo in a cup when it was sent to fetch water; Apollo saw through the fraud, and angrily cast the crow, cup, and snake, into the sky. It is also associated with the monster Hydra, with its many heads, killed by Hercules, represented in another constellation. According to legend, if one of the Hydra's heads was cut off, two more would grow in its place. However, Hercules' nephew, Iolaus, seared the necks with a torch to prevent them from growing back and thus enabled Hercules to overcome the Hydra.
Mythology and equivalents in other cultures
In Hindu Mythology the star that equivalents Hydra is Ashlesha.
In Chinese astronomy, the stars that correspond to Hydra are located within the Vermilion Bird and the Azure Dragon. The head of Hydra was collectively known as "Min al Az'al," meaning "belonging to the uninhabited spot" in Arabic.
Features
Stars
Despite its size, Hydra contains only one moderately bright star, Alphard, designated Alpha Hydrae. It is an orange giant of magnitude 2.0, 177 light-years from Earth. Its traditional name means "the solitary one". Beta Hydrae is a blue-white star of magnitude 4.3, 365 light-years from Earth. Gamma Hydrae is a yellow giant of magnitude 3.0, 132 light-years from Earth.
Hydra has one bright binary star, Epsilon Hydrae, which is difficult to split in amateur telescopes; it has a period of 1000 years and is 135 light-years from Earth. The primary is a yellow star of magnitude 3.4 and the secondary is a blue star of magnitude 6.7. However, there are several dimmer double stars and binary stars in Hydra. 27 Hydrae is a triple star with two components visible in binoculars and three visible in small amateur telescopes. The primary is a white star of magnitude 4.8, 244 light-years from Earth. The secondary, a binary star, appears in binoculars at magnitude 7.0 but is composed of a magnitude 7 and a magnitude 11 star; it is 202 light-years from Earth. 54 Hydrae is a binary star 99 light-years from Earth, easily divisible in small amateur telescopes. The primary is a yellow star of magnitude 5.3 and the secondary is a purple star of magnitude 7.4. N Hydrae (N Hya) is a pair of stars of magnitudes 5.8 and 5.9. Struve 1270 (Σ1270) consists of a pair of stars, magnitudes 6.4 and 7.4.
The other main named star in Hydra is Sigma Hydrae (σ Hydrae), which also has the name of Minchir, from the Arabic for snake's nose. At magnitude 4.54, it is rather dim. The head of the snake corresponds to the Āshleshā Nakshatra, the lunar zodiacal constellation in Indian astronomy. The name of Nakshatra (Ashlesha) became the proper name of Epsilon Hydrae since 1 June 2018 by IAU.
Hydra is also home to several variable stars. R Hydrae is a Mira variable star 2000 light-years from Earth; it is one of the brightest Mira variables at its maximum of magnitude 3.5. It has a minimum magnitude of 10 and a period of 390 days. V Hydrae is an unusually vivid red variable star 20,000 light-years from Earth. It varies in magnitude from a minimum of 9.0 to a maximum of 6.6. Along with its notable color, V Hydrae is also home to at least two exoplanets. U Hydrae is a semi-regular variable star with a deep red color, 528 light-years from Earth. It has a minimum magnitude of 6.6 and a maximum magnitude of 4.2; its period is 115 days.
Hydra includes GJ 357, an M-type main sequence star located only 31 light-years from the Solar System. This star has three confirmed exoplanets in its orbit, one of which, GJ 357 d, is considered to be a "Super-Earth" within the circumstellar habitable zone.
The constellation also contains the radio source Hydra A galaxy as well as nearby WISE 0855−0714 brown dwarf aka Proxima Hydra being the closest (sub)stellar object of the constellation.
Deep-sky objects
Hydra contains three Messier objects. M83, also known as the Southern Pinwheel Galaxy, is located on the border of Hydra and Centaurus, M68 is a globular cluster near M83, and M48 is an open star cluster in the western end of the serpent.
NGC 3242 is a planetary nebula of magnitude 7.5, 1400 light-years from Earth. Discovered in 1785 by William Herschel, it has earned the nickname "Ghost of Jupiter" because of its striking resemblance to the giant planet. Its blue-green disk is visible in small telescopes and its halo is visible in larger instruments.
M48 (NGC 2548) is an open cluster that is visible to the naked eye under dark skies. Its shape has been described as "triangular"; this 80-star cluster is unusually large, more than half a degree in diameter, larger than the diameter of the full Moon.
There are several globular clusters in Hydra. M68 (NGC 4590) is a globular cluster visible in binoculars and resolvable in medium amateur telescopes. It is 31,000 light-years from Earth and of the 8th magnitude. NGC 5694 is a globular cluster of magnitude 10.2, 105,000 light-years from Earth. Also called "Tombaugh's Globular Cluster", it is a Shapley class VII cluster; the classification indicates that it has intermediate concentration at its nucleus. Though it was discovered as a non-stellar object in 1784 by William Herschel, its status as a globular cluster was not ascertained until 1932, when Clyde Tombaugh looked at photographic plates taken of the region near Pi Hydrae on 12 May 1931.
M83 (NGC 5236), the Southern Pinwheel Galaxy, is an 8th magnitude face-on spiral galaxy. It is easily observed in skies south of 40°N latitude, found by using 1, 2, 3, and 4 Centauri as guide stars. It has been host to six supernovae, more than any Messier object. Large amateur telescopes - above 12 inches aperture - reveal its spiral arms, bar, and small, bright nucleus. In a medium-sized amateur instrument, around 8 inches in aperture, the spiral arms become visible under good conditions. It is not perfectly symmetrical in the eyepiece, rather, the northwest side is flattened and the nucleus has a southwest-to-northeast bar. A smaller sister to the Milky Way, it is a grand design spiral galaxy 40,000 light-years across.
There are many other galaxies located in Hydra. NGC 3314, usually delineated as NGC 3314a and NGC 3314b, is a pair of galaxies that appear superimposed, despite the fact that they are not related or interacting in any way. The foreground galaxy, NGC 3314a, is at a distance of 140 million light-years, and is a face-on spiral galaxy. The background galaxy, NGC 3314b, is an oblique spiral galaxy, and has a nucleus that appears reddened because of NGC 3314a's dusty disk. ESO 510-G13 is a warped spiral galaxy located 150 million light-years from Earth. Though most galactic disks are flat because of their rate of rotation, their conformation can be changed, as is the case with this galaxy. Astronomers speculate that this is due to interactions with other galaxies. NGC 5068 may be a member of the M83 group, but its identity is disputed. It has a low surface brightness and has a diameter of 4.5 arcminutes. It is not perfectly circular, rather, it is elliptical and oriented on a west-northwest/east-southeast axis. However, it is of fairly uniform brightness throughout.
Another notable galaxy is NGC 4993, an elliptical galaxy which was the source of events GW170817, GRB 170817A and SSS17a from the merger of two neutron stars.
Meteor showers
The Sigma Hydrids peak on December 6 and are a very active shower with an unknown parent body. The Alpha Hydrids are a minor shower that peaks between January 1 and 7.
See also
Hydra (Chinese astronomy)
References
Citations
References
Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. . Princeton University Press, Princeton. .
External links
The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Hydra
Star Tales – Hydra
Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Hydra)
Constellations
Constellations listed by Ptolemy
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|
213471 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chungking%20Express | Chungking Express | Chungking Express is a 1994 Hong Kong romantic crime comedy-drama film written and directed by Wong Kar-wai. The film consists of two stories told in sequence, each about a lovesick Hong Kong policeman mulling over his relationship with a woman. The first story stars Takeshi Kaneshiro as a cop obsessed with his breakup with a woman named May, and his encounter with a mysterious drug smuggler (Brigitte Lin). The second stars Tony Leung as a police officer roused from his gloom over the loss of his flight attendant girlfriend (Valerie Chow) by the attentions of a quirky snack bar worker (Faye Wong).
"Chungking" in the title refers to Chungking Mansions in Tsim Sha Tsui, Hong Kong, where Wong grew up in the 1960s. "Express" refers to the food stand Midnight Express, located in Lan Kwai Fong, an area in Central, Hong Kong.
Plot
First story
Taiwan-raised cop He Qiwu is dumped by his girlfriend named May on 1 April. To verify her earnestness in breaking up with him, Qiwu chooses to wait for a month. Every day he buys a tin of pineapples with an expiration date of 1 May, because May enjoyed pineapples. Meanwhile, a woman in a blonde wig tries to survive in the drug underworld after a smuggling operation goes sour.
On 1 May, Qiwu approaches the woman in the blonde wig at the Bottoms Up Club. However, she is exhausted and falls asleep in a hotel room, leaving him to watch old films and order food. He shines her shoes before he leaves her sleeping on the bed. She leaves in the morning and shoots the drug baron who set her up. Qiwu goes jogging and receives a message from her on his pager wishing him a happy birthday. He visits his usual snack food store where he collides with a new staff member, Faye.
Second story
Another police officer is also dealing with a breakup—with a flight attendant. Faye secretly falls for him. One day, the flight attendant visits the store and waits for the man. She learns he is on his day off and leaves a letter for him with the snack bar owner containing a set of keys to the officer's apartment.
Faye tells him of the letter, but he delays reading it and asks the snack bar to keep it for him. Faye uses the keys to repeatedly enter the man's apartment to clean and redecorate. Gradually, her ploys help him cheer up. He finds Faye coming to his apartment and realizes that she likes him; he arranges a date at a restaurant named California. Faye does not arrive, and the snack bar owner, her cousin, goes to the restaurant to tell him that Faye has left for the US state of California. She leaves him a boarding pass drawn on a paper napkin dated one year later.
Faye, now a flight attendant, returns to Hong Kong. She finds that the man has bought the snack bar and is converting it into a restaurant. He asks her to stay for the grand opening, and asks her to send him a postcard if she leaves. As Faye is about to leave, he presents the boarding pass, wrinkled and water-stained, and she writes him a new one. She asks him where he wants the destination to be, to which he replies, "Wherever you will take me."
Theme
"Chungking Express tells its story of love, loss, and memory through the romance of goods". In the first story, He Qiwu desires closer social contacts but can only depend on desperate phone calls to May's parents and cans of pineapples (May's favourite food) as substitutes for actual physical and emotional contact and intimacy.
"At our closest point, we were just 0.01 cm apart from each other." 0.01 cm is an urban space of possibilities—separation or connection, strangers or friends. This is a form of urban space that is of interest to Wong—that physical gap between busy passers-by in the city.
"In the first story, Wong suggests that the sharing of 0.01 cm in a busy city can produce an affect. In the second, the possibility of sustaining a relationship through the non-simultaneous sharing of space is posited."
Cast
Brigitte Lin as woman in blonde wig
Takeshi Kaneshiro as He Qiwu (, Cantonese Hòh Ji-móuh), nicknamed Ah Wu (Cantonese Ah Mouh), Cop 223
Faye Wong as Faye
Tony Leung Chiu-Wai as Cop 663
Valerie Chow as flight attendant who breaks up with Cop 663
Chan Kam-Chuen as manager of the takeaway restaurant Midnight Express
Thom Baker as double-crossing drug dealer
Kwan Lee-na as Richard
Wong Chi-Ming as man
Leung Sun as the second May, who works at the Midnight Express
Choh Chung-Sing as man
Production
Wong Kar-wai made Chungking Express during a two-month break from the editing of his wuxia film Ashes of Time. He said "While I had nothing to do, I decided to make Chungking Express following my instincts," and that "After the very heavy stuff, heavily emphasized in Ashes of Time, I wanted to make a very light, contemporary movie, but where the characters had the same problems." Originally, Wong envisioned the stories as similar but with contrasting settings: one in Hong Kong Island in daylight, and the other in Kowloon at night. He felt that "despite the difference, they are the same stories": one was about encountering love in the tight city, the other was about the keeping love without physical connection.
The screenplay was not finished by the time filming began; Wong finished it when filming paused over New Year. He wrote the second story in a single day. He developed a third story, about a love-sick hitman, but as he felt it would make Chungking Express overlong, he produced it as a separate film, Fallen Angels (1995).
Wong wanted to film in Tsim Sha Tsui, since he grew up in the area and felt a strong connection to it. He described it as "an area where the Chinese literally brush shoulders with westerners, and is uniquely Hong Kong." He was drawn to Chungking Mansion for its many lodgings, mix of cultures, and its significance as a crime hotspot; he felt that, as a "mass-populated and hyperactive place", it worked as a metaphor for Hong Kong itself.
The director once talked about his inspiration by the works of Haruki Murakami. As an example, the original title of the film is "重慶森林", while the Chinese title of Haruki Murakami's "Norwegian Wood" (1987) is "挪威的森林".
The second story was shot in Central, including Lan Kwai Fong, near a popular fast food shop called Midnight Express. "In this area, there are a lot of bars, a lot of foreign executives would hang out there after work," Wong remembers. The fast food shop is forever immortalized as the spot where Tony Leung and Faye Wong's characters met and became attracted to one another. Wong was also drawn to "the escalator from Central to the mid-levels. That interests me because no one has made a movie there. When we were scouting for locations we found the light there entirely appropriate." The apartment of Tony Leung's character was cinematographer Christopher Doyle's apartment at the time of filming.
Wong narrates the story in a fragmented structure and connecting it through monologues. By looking at the pictures created by Wong, it can be clearly seen that the emotions and themes which are created by Wong.
Marketing
The film's marketing posters were designed by artist Stanley Wong, under his pseudonym "Another Mountain Man".
Soundtrack
The main recurring music for the first story is Dennis Brown's "Things in Life". The song "Baroque", composed by Michael Galasso, can be heard twice during the first part of the movie: during the opening and when Brigitte Lin's character takes the gun in the closer. This track does not appear on the soundtrack album, although three other tracks are similar to it: "Fornication in Space" (track 3), "Heartbreak" (track 8) and "Sweet Farewell" (track 9), played respectively on synth, guitar and piano.
The song "California Dreamin'" by The Mamas & the Papas plays in the key scenes in the second story, which also features Faye Wong's Cantonese cover version of "Dreams" by The Cranberries, which is also played over the end credits (titled "Mung Zung Yan", it's also included in her 1994 album Random Thoughts while her next album, Sky, includes a Mandarin cover).
"California Dreamin'" is played numerous times as it is the favourite song of Faye Wong's character, which showed her aversion but desire of changes, and fits the theme of the second story. "What a Diff'rence a Day Made", performed by Dinah Washington, is played during a scene between Tony Leung and Valerie Chow's characters, as well as an encounter between Tony Leung and Faye Wong's characters later in the film.
The film's soundtrack is also widely credited with introducing Dream Pop to the Hong-Kongese market. Bands featured in the soundtrack, including The Cranberries and Cocteau Twins saw significant commercial success in Hong Kong following the release of Chungking Express, and contemporary Canto-pop stars such as Candy Lo began adopting a more dream-pop sound, such as in Lo's 1998 EP ‘Don’t Have to be… Too Perfect’ and subsequent album ‘Miao...’.
Distribution
On 8 March 1996, the film began a limited theatrical run in North America through Quentin Tarantino's Rolling Thunder distribution company under Miramax. The Region 1 DVD was distributed by Rolling Thunder as Tarantino is an admirer of Wong Kar-wai.
Chungking Express was later released by The Criterion Collection on DVD and Blu-ray Disc in 2008, although both versions are now out of print. Criterion has since reclaimed the rights and the film is currently available on its streaming platform, the Criterion Channel (as of February, 2021). In March 2021, the film was re-released in a new 4k version by Criterion as a part of their boxset, The World of Wong Kar Wai.
Reception
Box office
Chungking Express earned HK$7,678,549 during its Hong Kong run. In the United States, opening on four screens, it grossed $32,779 ($8,194 per screen) in its opening weekend. Playing at 20 theatres at its widest point, it went on to gross $600,200 total.
Critical response and legacy
During its release in North America, Chungking Express drew generally positive, sometimes ecstatic reviews from critics. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 89% based on 62 reviews, and an average rating of 7.90/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Even if all it had to offer were writer-director Wong Kar-wai's thrillingly distinctive visuals, Chungking Express would be well worth watching; happily, its thoughtfully drawn characters and naturalistic performances also pack a potent dramatic wallop." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 78 out of 100 based on 18 critic reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
Film critic Roger Ebert was measured in his praise (giving the film three out of four stars):
This is the kind of movie you'll relate to if you love film itself, rather than its surface aspects such as story and stars. It's not a movie for casual audiences, and it may not reveal all its secrets the first time through . . .
If you are attentive to the style, if you think about what Wong is doing, Chungking Express works. If you're trying to follow the plot, you may feel frustrated ... When Godard was hot, in the 1960s and early 1970s, there was an audience for this style, but in those days, there were still film societies and repertory theaters to build and nourish such audiences. Many of today's younger filmgoers, fed only by the narrow selections at video stores, are not as curious or knowledgeable and may simply be puzzled by Chungking Express instead of challenged. It needs to be said, in any event, that a film like this is largely a cerebral experience: You enjoy it because of what you know about film, not because of what it knows about life.
Rolling Stones Peter Travers praised the film as both "exasperating and exhilarating":
There is no mistaking Wong's talent. His hypnotic images of love and loss finally wear down your resistance as seemingly discordant sights and sounds coalesce into a radiant, crazy quilt that can make you laugh in awe at its technical wizardry in one scene and pierce your heart in the next.
Janet Maslin of The New York Times criticized the film's MTV-like "aggressive energy":
Mr. Wong has legitimate visual flair, but his characters spend an awful lot of time playing impish tricks. A film in which a man talks to his dishtowel has an overdeveloped sense of fun.
In a 2002 poll published by Sight and Sound (the monthly magazine of the British Film Institute) asking fifty leading UK film critics to choose the ten best films from the previous 25 years, Chungking Express was placed at number eight. In the magazine's 2012 poll to find the most acclaimed films of all time, Chungking Express ranked 144. The film was included in Times All-Time 100 best movies list in 2005. The film ranked 56th in BBC's 2018 list of The 100 greatest foreign language films voted by 209 film critics from 43 countries around the world.
Academy Award-winning director Barry Jenkins (Moonlight) is said to be influenced by this film.
Awards and nominations
1994 Stockholm International Film Festival
Winner – Best Actress (Faye Wong)
Winner – FIPRESCI prize (Wong Kar-Wai)
nomination – Bronze Horse: Best Film (Wong Kar-Wai)
1994 Golden Horse Awards
Winner – Best Actor (Tony Leung Chiu-Wai)
1995 Hong Kong Film Awards
Winner – Best Picture
Winner – Best Director (Wong Kar-wai)
Winner – Best Actor (Tony Leung Chiu-Wai)
Winner – Best Editing (William Cheung Suk-Ping, Kwong Chi-Leung, Hai Kit-Wai)
Nomination – Best Actress (Faye Wong)
Nomination – Best Supporting Actress (Valerie Chow Kar-Ling)
Nomination – Best Screenplay (Wong Kar-wai)
Nomination – Best Cinematography (Christopher Doyle, Andrew Lau Wai-Keung)
Nomination – Best Art Direction (William Cheung Suk-Ping)
Nomination – Best Original Film Score (Frankie Chan Fan-Kei, Roel A. Garcia)
See also
Cinema of Hong Kong
Hong Kong in films
Chinese Odyssey 2002, another film starring Tony Leung and Faye Wong, produced by Wong Kar-wai
Wong Kar-wai
Tony Leung Chiu-wai
Faye Wong
References
External links
Chungking Express: Electric Youth an essay by Amy Taubin at the Criterion Collection
"Chungking Express: Walking with a Map of Desire in the Mirage of the Global City", Tsung-Yi Huang
Pictures of some filming locations
1994 films
1994 comedy-drama films
1994 crime drama films
1994 romantic comedy films
1994 romantic drama films
1990s crime comedy-drama films
1990s Hindi-language films
1990s romantic comedy-drama films
Best Film HKFA
1990s Cantonese-language films
1990s English-language films
Fiction with unreliable narrators
Films directed by Wong Kar-wai
Films set in Hong Kong
Films shot in Hong Kong
Hong Kong New Wave films
Hong Kong crime comedy-drama films
Hong Kong films
Hong Kong romantic comedy-drama films
Japanese-language films
1990s Mandarin-language films | [
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213472 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliens%20%28film%29 | Aliens (film) | Aliens is a 1986 science fiction action film written and directed by James Cameron. It is the sequel to the 1979 science fiction horror film Alien, and the second film in the Alien franchise. Set in the far future, the film stars Sigourney Weaver as Lieutenant Ellen Ripley, the sole survivor of an alien attack on her ship. When communications are lost with a human colony on the moon on which her crew first encountered the alien creatures, Ripley agrees to return to the site with a troop of Colonial Marines to investigate. Aliens features Michael Biehn, Paul Reiser, Lance Henriksen, and Carrie Henn in supporting roles.
Despite the success of Alien, its sequel took years to develop; it was delayed by lawsuits, a lack of enthusiasm from 20th Century Fox, and repeated changes in management. Based on his scripts for The Terminator (1984) and Rambo: First Blood Part II (1985), Cameron was hired to write a story for Aliens in 1983. The project stalled again until new Fox executive Lawrence Gordon pursued a sequel. Although relatively inexperienced, Cameron was given the director role based on his success directing The Terminator. On an approximately $18.5million budget, Aliens began principal photography in September 1985. Like its development, filming was tumultuous and rife with conflicts between Cameron and the British crew at Pinewood Studios. James Horner composed the film's score. The difficult shoot also affected Horner, who was given little time to record the music.
Aliens was released on July 18, 1986, to critical acclaim. It was well-received for its action, but some reviewers were critical of the intensity of some scenes. Weaver's performance received consistent praise; other members of the cast were positively received, including Bill Paxton and Jenette Goldstein, who played Colonial Marines. The film received a number of awards and nominations, including an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress for Weaver at a time when the science-fiction genre was generally overlooked. The film earned $131.1–183.3million during its theatrical run, one of the highest-grossing films of 1986 worldwide.
Aliens is now considered to be among the greatest films of the 1980s, and both one of the best science fiction or action films and one of the best sequels ever made. It has been called equal to (or better than) Alien. Aliens is credited with expanding the franchise's scope with additions to the series' lore and factions such as the Colonial Marines. With its effect on popular culture and fan following, Aliens has inspired a variety of merchandise which includes video games, comic books, and toys. The film was followed by two sequelsAlien 3 (1992) and Alien Resurrection (1997), neither of which were as successful, and a fourth sequel was in development in 2020. The series also has prequels to Alien, Prometheus (2012) and Alien: Covenant (2017).
Plot
Ellen Ripley has been in stasis for 57 years in an escape shuttle after destroying her ship, the Nostromo, to escape a lethal alien creature which slaughtered her crew. She is rescued and debriefed by her employers at the Weyland-Yutani Corporation, who are skeptical about her claim of alien eggs in a derelict ship on the exomoon LV-426, since it is now the site of the terraforming colony Hadleys Hope. After contact is lost with the colony, Weyland-Yutani representative Carter Burke and Colonial Marine Lieutenant Gorman ask Ripley to accompany them to investigate. Still traumatized from her alien encounter, she agrees on the condition they exterminate the creatures. Ripley is introduced to the Colonial Marines and an android, Bishop, on the spaceship Sulaco.
A dropship delivers the expedition to the surface of LV-426, where they find the colony deserted. Makeshift barricades and signs of battle are inside, but no bodies; they only find two live alien facehuggers in containment tanks and a traumatized young girl nicknamed Newt. The team locates the colonists beneath the fusion-powered atmosphere processing station and head to their location, descending into corridors covered with alien secretions. At the center of the station, the Marines find the cocooned colonists serving as incubators for the creatures' offspring. The Marines kill an infant alien after it bursts from a colonist's chest, rousing multiple adult aliens who ambush the Marines and kill or capture many of them. When the inexperienced Gorman panics, Ripley assumes command, takes control of their armored personnel carrier, and rams the nest to rescue Corporal Dwayne Hicks and Privates Hudson and Vasquez. Hicks orders the dropship to recover the survivors, but a stowaway alien kills the pilots and it crashes into the station. The survivors barricade themselves inside the colony.
Ripley discovers Burke ordered the colonists to investigate the derelict spaceship containing the alien eggs, intending to profit by recovering them for biological weapon research. Before she can expose him, Bishop informs the group the dropship crash damaged the power-plant cooling system; the plant will soon overheat and explode, destroying the colony. He volunteers to reach the colony transmitter and remotely pilot the Sulacos remaining dropship to the surface.
After falling asleep in the medical laboratory, Ripley and Newt awaken to find themselves trapped with the two released facehuggers. Ripley triggers a fire alarm to alert the Marines, who rescue them and kill the creatures. She accuses Burke of releasing the facehuggers to impregnate her and Newt, allowing him to smuggle the embryos through Earth's quarantine. The power is suddenly cut, and aliens attack through the ceiling. In the ensuing firefight, the aliens kill Burke, subdue Hudson, and injure Hicks; Gorman and Vasquez sacrifice themselves to avoid being captured. Newt is separated from Ripley and taken by the creatures.
Ripley and Hicks reach Bishop in the second dropship, but she refuses to abandon Newt. The group travels to the processing station, allowing a heavily-armed Ripley to enter the hive and rescue Newt. Escaping, they encounter the alien queen in her egg chamber. When an egg begins to open, Ripley uses her weapon to destroy the eggs and the queen's ovipositor. Pursued by the enraged queen, Ripley and Newt join Bishop and Hicks on the dropship and escape moments before the station explodes consuming the colony in a nuclear blast.
On the Sulaco the group is ambushed by the queen, who stowed away in the dropship's landing gear. The queen tears Bishop in half and advances on Newt, but Ripley fights the creature with an exosuit cargo-loader and expels it through an airlock into space. Ripley, Newt, Hicks, and the critically-damaged Bishop enter hypersleep for their return trip to Earth.
Cast
Sigourney Weaver as Ellen Ripley: The sole survivor of an alien attack on her ship, the Nostromo
Michael Biehn as Dwayne Hicks: A corporal in the Colonial Marines
Paul Reiser as Carter J. Burke: A Weyland-Yutani Corporation representative
Lance Henriksen as Bishop: An android aboard the Sulaco
Carrie Henn as Rebecca "Newt" Jorden: A young girl in the Hadleys Hope colony on LV-426
The Colonial Marine cast includes privates Hudson (Bill Paxton), Vasquez (Jenette Goldstein), Drake (Mark Rolston), Frost (Ricco Ross), Spunkmeyer (Daniel Kash), Crowe (Tip Tipping), and Wierzbowski (Trevor Steedman), and corporals Dietrich (Cynthia Dale Scott) and Ferro (Colette Hiller). Al Matthews played Sergeant Apone, and William Hope played the Marines' inexperienced commanding officer Gorman. In addition to the main cast, Aliens featured Paul Maxwell as Van Leuwen (a member of the board reviewing Ripley's competence) and Barbara Coles as the cocooned colonist killed when an alien bursts from her chest. Carl Toop played an alien warrior.
Some scenes removed from the film's theatrical version were restored in subsequent releases. Additional cast credited for these scenes included Newt's father, Russ Jorden (Jay Benedict), and her mother Anne (Holly de Jong). Henn's brother, Christopher, played her brother Timmy in the film. Mac McDonald played colony administrator Al Simpson. Weaver's mother, Elizabeth Inglis, made a cameo appearance as Ripley's daughter Amanda.
Development
Early development
Following the success of Alien (1979), Brandywine Productions was eager to make a sequel. Even so, it took seven years for the sequel to be completed. 20th Century Fox president Alan Ladd Jr. was supportive of the proposed AlienII, but left before the project to found The Ladd Company production studio and was replaced by Norman Levy. According to Brandywine co-founder David Giler, Levy thought the sequel would be a "disaster." Levy disputed this account, saying he wanted to make AlienII but was concerned about production costs. The studio thought Aliens success was a fluke, it was not profitable enough to warrant a follow-up, and audiences would not return for a sequel. Box-office returns for horror films were also declining.
Development was further delayed when Giler and Brandywine co-founders Walter Hill and Gordon Carroll sued Fox for unpaid profits from Alien. Using Hollywood accounting methods, Fox had declared Alien a financial loss despite its earnings of over $100million against a $9–$11million budget. According to the studio, Alien was a low-earning film and a potential box-office failure. Brandywine's lawsuit was settled by early 1983: Fox would finance the development of AlienII, but was not required to distribute the film.
New Fox studio head Joe Wizan was receptive to a sequel, although other executives remained noncommittal. Giler's development executive Larry Wilson began looking for a scriptwriter by mid-1983. He came across the script for the in-development science fiction film, The Terminator (1984), written by James Cameron. With Cameron's collaborative scriptwriting efforts alongside Sylvester Stallone on Rambo: First Blood Part II (1985), Wilson was convinced to show The Terminator script to Giler, Hill, and Carroll. By November 1983, Cameron submitted a 42-page treatment (a story outline) for AlienII—written in three days—based on Giler and Hill's suggestion of "Ripley and soldiers". The studio had a mixed reaction, with one executive calling it a constant stream of horror without character development. Negotiations to sell the sequel rights to Rambo developers Mario Kassar and Andrew G. Vajna failed and the project stalled again.
Revival
By July 1984, Lawrence Gordon had replaced Wizan. With few projects in development, Gordon looked at sequels of Fox's existing properties and came across the AlienII treatment. Gordon said he was surprised no one had pursued it already. Production of The Terminator was delayed for nine months because star Arnold Schwarzenegger was contractually obligated to film Conan the Destroyer (1984). Cameron used the time to develop his treatment, expanding it to ninety pages. He drew ideas from "Mother", one of his story concepts about an alien on a space station involving a power-loader suit. This version was better-received by Fox executives and Gordon, but Cameron also wanted to direct the project.
Because Cameron was a relatively new director, the studio was reluctant to grant his request; his only film to have been released at the time was Piranha II: The Spawning (1982), a low-budget, independent horror film. His credibility was elevated following the surprise financial and critical success of The Terminator in late 1984, and Gordon gave him the job. Because of his low expectations for The Terminator, Cameron spent much of his free time during its production developing and trying out ideas for AlienII. Cameron's collaborative partner and girlfriend, Gale Anne Hurd, was not taken seriously as a producer. Fox did not believe Hurd would stand up to Cameron, but the director said she was the only person who would. Hurd had several of her industry associates contact Fox executives to convince them she was a legitimate producer. Cameron said people tried to convince him not to take the job, believing anything good about the film would be attributed to Alien director Ridley Scott and anything negative to Cameron, but he was determined to make it. Scott said he was never offered the chance to direct the sequel, possibly because he was difficult to work with on the original. The film's title, Aliens, reportedly came from Cameron writing "Alien" on a whiteboard during a pitch meeting and adding a "$" suffix.
Cameron turned in the finished script in February 1985, hours before a Hollywood writer's strike. The script was well-received, but Fox executives (including chairman Barry Diller) were concerned about the budget. Fox estimated the cost as close to $35million, but Hurd said it would be closer to $15.5million. Diller offered $12million, prompting Cameron and Hurd to quit the project. Gordon negotiated with Diller until he relented, and Cameron and Hurd returned. In April 1985, conflict turned to the cast; Fox did not want Weaver to return because they expected her to demand a large salary. Cameron and Hurd were insistent Weaver return as the solo star; Fox refused, saying they would damage the studio's negotiating power with Weaver's agent. Cameron and Hurd again left the project, marrying and going on a honeymoon. When they returned, the Aliens project was ready to move forward. Cameron credited Gordon with Aliens being greenlit.
The director had seen Alien while he was working as a truck driver and remembered his fellow audience members' reactions to what they saw on screen. Cameron did not understand at first why Alien needed a sequel, believing it was a "perfect" film and it would be difficult to recreate the emotion and novelty of the original. He and Hurd agreed to combine the horror of Alien with the action of The Terminator. According to Hill, Cameron said if the first film could be compared to a haunted attraction, Aliens should be like a roller coaster. Cameron believed in having a strong female heroine to distinguish his films from typical Hollywood action fare and wrote the script with a picture of Weaver on his desk. He referred to The Terminator, and how he removed the normal protective forces from Sarah Connor so she had to fend for herself. Cameron had also always wanted to make a film about space infantry.
Casting
Weaver rejected a number of offers to return. She was only mildly interested after reading Cameron's script and had to be convinced Aliens was not being made exclusively for financial reasons. Weaver reportedly received a $1million (equivalent to $ in ) salary and a percentage of the box-office profits, the highest salary of her career at the time. Negotiations were reportedly so lengthy that Cameron and Hurd told Schwarzenegger's agent they intended to write Ripley out of the movie (knowing Weaver's agent would be told); terms were reached shortly afterward.
An unknown actor was sought to play Newt, and Henn was scouted by casting agents at her school in Lakenheath, England. Although she lacked acting experience, Cameron said she had a "great face and expressive eyes". James Remar was cast as Hicks on the recommendation of his close friend Hill but left shortly into filming, ostensibly due to urgent family matters or creative differences with Cameron. Remar later admitted he was fired after being arrested for drug possession. Hurd hired Michael Biehn the following Friday. Stephen Lang also auditioned for the role.
Paxton credited his casting as Hudson to a chance encounter with Cameron at Los Angeles International Airport, during which he mentioned he would be interested in a role. The studio supported Paxton's casting because of positive feedback for his performance in Weird Science (1985). He was concerned the character would annoy audiences until he realized he was comic relief for the tense scenes. Cameron rewrote the role for the actor. Henriksen, worried about appearing as the android Bishop after the success of Ian Holm in Alien and Rutger Hauer in Blade Runner (1982), played the character like an innocent child who pitied the short-lived humans. Although he suggested distinctive eye pupils for Bishop when the character was alerted and had lenses mocked up, Cameron felt they made Bishop look more frightening than the aliens. Biehn, Paxton, and Henriksen had worked with Cameron on The Terminator. Aliens was Reiser's first major theatrical role, following small parts in films like Beverly Hills Cop (1984).
The Colonial Marines cast was a mix of British and American actors who underwent three weeks of intensive training with the British Special Air Service (SAS). Vietnam War veteran Al Matthews (Apone) helped to train the actors, teaching them not to point their weapons at people because their blanks were still hazardous. The training was intended to help the marine cast to develop camaraderie and treat the rest of the cast (Weaver, Reiser, and Hope) as outsiders. Biehn's late casting caused him to miss the training, and he said he regretted being unable to customize his armor like the other actors had (since he inherited Remar's). Cameron created a backstory for each marine and instructed the actors to read the novel Starship Troopers.
Vasquez was Goldstein's first feature-film role. She credited her physique to being out of work and going to the gym. She gained an additional at Cameron's request. The Caucasian Goldstein wore dark contact lenses and underwent an hour of makeup to cover her freckles and darken her skin to appear more Latina; she studied gang interviews to develop her demeanor and accent. Ricco Ross (Frost) was committed to Full Metal Jacket (1987), whose filming schedule overlapped for a week with Aliens. Although Cameron offered to let Ross join the filming later, Ross was concerned Kubrick's projects often overran their schedules and opted for Aliens instead. Rolston misled the filmmakers to help get his part; he had finished filming Revolution (1985), and implied he was its most-prominent actor after Al Pacino. William Hope (Gorman) was cast as Hudson before Cameron and Hurd decided to take the character in a different direction.
Cynthia Dale Scott (Dietrich) was an aspiring singer when she was cast. Colette Hiller (Ferro) was upset she had to cut her hair short for the role since she was getting married afterward. Although she made the filmmakers buy her a long, blonde wig, she never wore it. Trevor Steadman (Wiezbowski) was a stuntman rather than an actor, and Aliens was Daniel Kash's (Spunkmeyer) first film role. He offered Cameron his coat if he got the part, and also auditioned for Hudson. The actors stayed at the Holiday Inn in Langley, Berkshire, during filming. Paxton described the actors' time outside work positively: "God, we had the best time ... We all hung very hard together. That's where I first met [Henriksen], who I fell in love with. [Matthews] ... was a really good spirit to have around, with a great voice. And all these hilarious British characters, like [Steadman], the stuntman, who used to grab my bicep and go, 'Blimey, more meat on a cat's cock!
Filming
Principal photography began in September 1985, with a 75 day schedule. The budget was reported to be $18.5million, in addition to film prints and marketing. Filming was primarily at Pinewood Studios in Buckinghamshire near London, because of its large sets and the relatively lower cost of filming in England. Before Remar was fired, he accidentally shot a hole through the set of Frank Oz's Little Shop of Horrors; it was being filmed on an adjacent stage.
Filming was tumultuous. Cameron, a Canadian, was unfamiliar with British film-industry traditions such as tea breaks, which interrupted production for up to an hour each weekday; he was frustrated at losing hours of filming every week. In his book, The Making of Aliens, J. W. Rinzler described Cameron coming onto the set as George Lucas had before him for Star Wars (1977), but Cameron was aggressive and certain of what he wanted, which irked the crew. If he wanted to modify a scene (such as its lighting) in accordance with his vision, he did not involve the unionized crew.
The crew was dismissive of Cameron for his relative inexperience, thinking he had not done enough to earn such a prominent position, and Hurd had her job only because she was his partner. Cinematographer Dick Bush insisted on lighting the alien hive brightly (counter to Cameron's request), and was eventually replaced with Adrian Biddle. First assistant director Derek Cracknell also ignored Cameron's requests. Gale described the situation: "[Cameron] would ask him to set up a shot one way and [Cracknell] would say, 'Oh no no no, I know what you want,' ... Then he'd do it wrong and the whole set would have to be broken down." The situation deteriorated until Cameron and Hurd fired Cracknell and the Pinewood crew walked out in the middle of the day.
Cameron called Fox for advice and became determined to move the production out of England until Hurd convinced him otherwise. The situation was more difficult because the number of films simultaneously in production meant the crew could not be easily exchanged. Cameron and Hurd gathered the crew to discuss their grievances; Cameron explained the importance of the production, and any member of the crew who could not support it should volunteer to be replaced. The crew agreed to support Cameron if he supported their scheduled working hours. The relationship between filmmakers and crew remained cool; when filming concluded at Pinewood, Cameron told the crew: "This has been a long and difficult shoot, fraught by many problems ... but the one thing that kept me going, through it all, was the certain knowledge that one day I would drive out the gate of Pinewood and never come back, and that you sorry bastards would still be here". He described most of the crew as "lazy, insolent, and arrogant". Paxton called the crew's work impeccable, but their attitude more relaxed than the American crews to which he was accustomed.
The alien nest was filmed in the decommissioned Acton Lane Power Station in London, and the set was left in place until the 1989 superhero film Batman was filmed there. While filming the dropship descent from the Sulaco, shaking collapsed the set roof onto the cast and crew. Most of the cast were unharmed, but Cameron's head was cut by a large piece of debris. Because of the tight budget, Hurd made Cameron pay for an early scene of a laser cutting Ripley free from her hyposleep chamber. According to Henriksen, Paxton was unaware he would be involved in the knife-trick scene until it was filmed; Henriksen nicked Paxton's finger during the reshoot. Early, establishing scenes were filmed near the end of principal photography to capture the bond between cast and characters.
Some improvisation was encouraged. Weaver discussed tweaks to her character with Cameron on set, believing she understood how Ripley would act. Her line "Get away from her, you bitch!" had to be filmed in one take due to the tight schedule remaining, and the actress thought she had messed it up. Paxton believed he was not good at improvisation and discussed ideas with Cameron before filming. One of his signature lines, "Game over man, game over", originated when Paxton developed a backstory for Hudson in which he was trained on simulators. Henn found it hard to act afraid of the aliens (since she was fond of the actors in the suits) and imagined a dog was chasing her. Other cast members spent time with Henn between scenes, including Weaver and Paxton (who would color or craft things with her). Biehn said he and Paxton spent much of their free time together. Weaver gave a bouquet of flowers to each actor on the day their death scene was filmed and gave Reiser a bouquet of dead flowers. Despite the difficulties during filming, Fox was satisfied with the daily footage; Aliens was delivered on time and on budget.
Post-production
Post-production began in late April 1986, and Ray Lovejoy edited the film. Several scenes were removed from Aliens theatrical release, including Ripley learning about her daughter's death and a cocooned Burke begging her for death. Fox and Hurd suggested removing a long opening scene detailing the lives of the colonists, Newt's family discovering the derelict alien ship, and her father being attacked by a facehugger, because it ruined the film's pacing and sense of mystery. Two scenes with James Remar as Hicks (shown from the back) were used in the film.
Cameron's final edit was two hours, 17 minutes long. Fox wanted the film to be under two hours so it could be shown more times per day in theaters, increasing its revenue potential. Fox production president Scott Rudin flew to England to ask Cameron and Hurd if they could cut another 12 minutes; Cameron was concerned further cuts would make the film nonsensical, and Rudin relented.
Music
James Horner became acquainted with Cameron early in their careers, when they worked for director Roger Corman. Aliens was Horner and Cameron's first collaboration, one which Horner called a "nightmare". He arrived in London to compose the score, expecting a six-week schedule. There was no film for him to score, however; Cameron was still filming and editing, and Horner had only three weeks to come up with a score. The producers were unwilling to give him any more time, and he was scheduled to begin scoring The Name of the Rose (1986) shortly afterwards.
Horner recorded the score at Abbey Road Studios with the London Symphony Orchestra. His schedule was so tight the score for the climactic battle between Ripley and the queen was written overnight. Cameron first heard the score while it was being recorded by the orchestra and did not like it; however, it was too late to make changes. The Terminator with composer Brad Fiedel's synth-inspired tracks had allowed Cameron regular feedback and rapid implementation of changes, but he had no experience managing orchestral music. Cameron cut the score up, using pieces where he believed they fit best; he inserted pieces of Jerry Goldsmith's Alien score and hired unknown composers to fill gaps. The director said in a later interview he thought the score was good, but did not fit the scenes he had filmed. Horner's "alien sting" sound was initially only used once, during the scene with the cocooned woman. Cameron initially disliked it, but eventually used it throughout the film. Unused portions of Horner's Aliens score were used in 1988's Die Hard.
Special effects and design
Aliens special effects began development by May 1985, supervised by John Richardson and developed by a 40-person team at Stan Winston Studio. Miniatures and optical effects were created by L.A. Effects Group. Cameron avoided using bigger special effects studios because he lacked contacts with them and believed his hands-on approach would not be welcomed. He avoided hiring too many Alien crew members because he did not want to be restricted by loyalties to the first film. Some crew did return, often with a higher status (such as Crispian Sallis, Alien focus puller and Aliens set decorator). Cameron had enjoyed returning artist Ron Cobb's work on Alien. Conceptual artist Syd Mead was recruited, since the director was a fan of his work on films such as 2010: The Year We Make Contact (1984).
Sets and technology
Mead designed the Sulaco, the marines' spaceship. He conceived it as a large sphere with antennae, but Cameron wanted it to be flatter; the full craft had to pass the camera, and a sphere would not work with the film's aspect ratio. Mead designed the craft as a commercial freighter carrying a military unit. Its exterior was designed with a row of loading doors, a crane, and large gun fixtures to defend against threats. Mirrors were used as a cost-cutting measure to increase the number of sleeping pods on the Sulaco and add a power loader. Cobb designed the Sulaco dropship interiors, the marines' land vehicle, the armored personnel carrier (APC), and exteriors of the colony and its vehicles. The Sulacos dropship was designed to be life-size, for use on the Sulaco set, but a smaller replica was used for some shots. The APC was a disguised pushback tug for a Boeing 747. The alien derelict spacecraft, originally used in Alien, had been in historian Bob Burns III's driveway since the first film was made.
Most of the colony, apart from the main entrance used by the marines, was constructed in scale miniature form. The set was about long to accommodate the sixth-scale APC replica. The set was so large it had to be laid out diagonally across the stage, and forced perspective was used to add in buildings that would otherwise not fit. Cobb used a stylized design for the colony, resembling a western frontier town. It features a makeshift construction from cargo containers, broken filming equipment, and beer crates. The alien nest scene was one of the earliest filmed; Weaver's participation was delayed by three weeks because of production issues on her previous film Half Moon Street (1986), and the scene was one of the few not involving her. The Acton Power Station location was filled with decaying asbestos and three weeks were spent having it professionally cleaned. During this time, the alien hive was fabricated in clay from which hundreds of fiberglass and vacuum-formed castings were made and installed at the station over a further three weeks. Cameron wanted to vertically pan as the marines enter the hive, but disguising the area above the marines would be time-intensive. A hanging miniature was made about square from plywood and styrofoam hung just above the actors' heads and carefully blended into the larger set. After Remar was replaced, Cameron wanted to reshoot the scene but the miniature had been destroyed; Cameron was able to edit the scene to conceal Remar.
The marines' smart guns weighed , and were constructed from German MG 42 anti-aircraft machine guns attached to a steadicam and augmented with motorcycle parts. Since getting in and out of the smart-gun rig was difficult, the actors kept them on when not filming. The pulse rifle was made from a Thompson submachine gun and a Franchi SPAS-12 pump-action shotgun in a futuristic shell. Weaver was opposed to weapons in general, but Cameron explained weapons were secondary to the core narrative of Ripley bonding with (and protecting) Newt. Weaver found using the weapons strange and difficult, due to their weight and her concern about pulling the wrong trigger.
A cast was made of Henn's upper body and her stunt double's legs to construct a lightweight dummy for Weaver to hold when carrying a gun; Henn's weight plus a gun would have been too heavy. Goldstein had also not handled a gun before, and held her weapon incorrectly in closeups; Hurd stood in for her instead. The flamethrowers were functional. The art department had covered the sets in an unspecified substance to artificially age them; the flamethrowers vaporized it, causing fire and heavy smoke. Goldstein struggled to breathe, and (since improvisation was encouraged) Paxton thought she was acting until he also became breathless.
The nuclear explosion of the colony in the film's finale was created by shining a light bulb through cotton. Reebok designer Taun Le was commissioned to design custom sneakers for Weaver to wear in the film. Using an existing mold for Reebok's basketball sneaker BB 5600 to save time and money, Le replaced the laces with a velcro strap, as the only mandate was that the sneakers be laceless so that one could easily slide off of Weaver's foot during the finale.
Creature effects
H. R. Giger, who designed the Alien creature, was not involved in Aliens and was reportedly unhappy about it. According to Hurd, Giger was contractually obligated to Poltergeist II: The Other Side (1986) and Fox was not allowed to negotiate with him. Giger was replaced by special-effects creator Stan Winston. Cameron (a designer) also contributed to designs, but was not as concerned with the warrior aliens because they were onscreen only briefly.
The aliens were played by dancers and stuntmen in lightweight costumes, which allowed them to move quickly. A number of mannequins were used for aliens which were contorted into inhuman poses. Although it appears hordes of alien creatures are in the film, there were only 12 alien suits: simple, black leotards covered in molded foam for faster-moving shots, and detailed models with articulated upper bodies and mouths for closeups. When the aliens were shot and destroyed, puppets were hung up and detonated. The aliens' acidic blood was a combination of tetrachloride, cyclohexylamine, acetic acid, and yellow dye. Winston added arms to the chestburster alien form (since the adult form had arms), explaining how it could drag itself out of a host's chest. Two chestburster puppets were used: a reinforced one, and an articulated one for movement. A puppeteer punched the former through a fabricated latex-foam chest; the scene took several takes to film because it could not pierce the clothing.
Cameron designed the alien queen and worked with Winston on several concepts, including large puppets, miniatures, and costumes with several people inside. A frame was built large enough to hold two people, covered in black polythene bags, and hung on a crane. The prototype was a success, and Cameron wrote the alien-queen scene. The final alien queen was a puppet made of lightweight polyurethane foam. Two people sat inside to control the arms; the legs were controlled by rods connected at the ankles, and a separate person whipped the tail around with fishing line. The head was manipulated with a combination of servomotors and hydraulics controlled by up to four people. The effect was hidden by lighting, steam, slime, and smoke.
The Stan Winston Studio had not used hydraulics before and considered them a learning experience. They were essential for moving larger parts of the queen puppet, including the head; a foot press in the body could hydraulically move the tail up and down. Shane Mahan sculpted the head by sight based on a maquette, since computer technology to scale up the model's design did not yet exist; it took several weeks to sculpt. Two heads were built: a lightweight, fragile one, and another which could survive some damage. Each was articulated with hydraulics and cables to control the queen's mouth and lips.
To create the effect of the queen piercing Bishop's chest with her tail, Tom Woodruff Jr. and Alec Gillis constructed a chestplate for Henriksen with a rubber segment of the queen's tail flattened against it. The tail was pulled forward by wire, apparently exploding through Bishop's torso. A rigid piece of tail (attached to a body harness) was used to show more of the tail moving through Bishop, and Henriksen was leveraged upward as if he was being lifted by the tail. To complete the effect, a dummy of Bishop was constructed with a spring-loaded mechanism which would forcibly separate his upper and lower body, as if the queen had ripped him in half. Once separated, Henriksen's upper body was below the set and a fake torso attached up to his shoulders. The android blood was milk, and after several days of filming, it was sour and foul-smelling.
John Richardson designed the mechanical power loader exosuit, with input from Mead. Like the queen, a prototype was built out of wood and polythene bags stuffed with newspaper to see how the movement would work. The finished design was so cumbersome that stuntman John Lees, in a black skinsuit, operated it from behind. The battle between the queen and power loader was choreographed extensively, as Weaver risked serious injury battling a large, unwieldy animatronic. The camera was sometimes moved around to simulate subjects moving faster. The scene of the queen running at Ripley was one of the more difficult shots; the wires and rods had to be concealed, since they could not be removed in post-production. Miniatures were used for parts of the scene with go motion, a version of stop motion with motion blur added.
Release
Context
The 1986 summer film season began in mid-May. The season had been starting earlier each year as studios attempted to beat each other with their biggest films. Fifty-five films were scheduled for release between May and September, including the action drama Top Gun and the comedic Sweet Liberty. The season was not expected to break financial records set in previous years due to fewer sequels (Poltergeist II: The Other Side and Friday the 13th Part VI: Jason Lives), anticipated blockbusters, and films by Steven Spielberg or starring popular comedians which had dominated the earlier half of the decade. Some industry experts also blamed the burgeoning home-video market, which had grown from 7million rentals in 1983 to 58million by 1985. Films expected to do well were aimed at younger audiences and featured comedy or horror, such as Back to School, Ferris Bueller's Day Off and SpaceCamp. Some films targeted at adults were also seen as potential successes, including Legal Eagles, Ruthless People and Cobra.
Aliens was seen as a potential sleeper hit based on positive industry word-of-mouth during filming, "enthusiastic" industry screenings, and favorable pre-release reviews. The film's success was considered to depend on its ability to attract audiences outside the young males and blue-collar workers typical for the genre. Biehn and Paxton sneaked into a press screening for Aliens, since they had not been allowed to see the finished film. The film's tagline was, "This time, it's war".
Box office
Aliens began a wide release in the United States (U.S.) and Canada on July18, 1986. During its opening weekend, the film earned $10.1million from 1,437 theaters—an average of $6,995 per theater. It was the weekend's number-one film, ahead of the martial-arts drama The Karate Kid Part II ($5.6million in its fifth weekend) and the black comedy Ruthless People ($4.5million in its fourth weekend). Based on its opening-five-day total ($13.4million), Aliens was anticipated to become the summer's top film and surpass The Karate Kid Part II, Back to School and Top Gun. These early figures exceeded Fox's expectations. The Los Angeles Times reported long lines at theatres, even on weekday afternoons.
It retained the number-one position in its second weekend with an additional gross of $8.6million, ahead of the debuting comedy-drama Heartburn ($5.8million) and The Karate Kid Part II ($5million). Aliens remained the number-one film of its third weekend with a gross of $7.1million, ahead of the debuts of Friday the 13th Part VI: Jason Lives ($6.8million) and the comedy Howard the Duck ($5.1million). The film fell to third place in its fifth weekend with a gross of $4.30million, behind the debuts of the science-fiction horror film The Fly ($7million) and the comedy Armed and Dangerous ($4.33million). Aliens was one of the top ten highest-grossing films for 11 weeks.
By the end of its theatrical run, the film had grossed about $85.1million. This figure made it the year's seventh highest-grossing film, behind Back to School ($91.3million), the science-fiction film Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home ($109.6million), The Karate Kid Part II ($115.1million), Platoon (138.5million), the action comedy Crocodile Dundee ($174.8million) and Top Gun ($176.8million). Aliens box-office returns to the studio, minus the theaters' share, was $42.5million.
Box office figures outside of the U.S. and Canada are inconsistent and not available for all 1986 films. According to the box-office tracking websites Box Office Mojo and The Numbers, Aliens earned from $45.9million to $98.1million; this gives it a worldwide gross of $131.1million to $183.3million, making it the year's fourth-highest-grossing film of 1986 behind Platoon ($138million), Crocodile Dundee ($328.2million), and Top Gun ($356.8million), or the third-highest-grossing film behind Crocodile Dundee and Top Gun. According to Fox's 1992 estimate, Aliens had earned $157million worldwide. The New York Times described the film as "extremely successful."
Reception
Critical response
Aliens opened to generally-positive reviews. It appeared on the cover of Time magazine (July 1986), which called it "The Summer's Scariest Movie". Audience polls by CinemaScore reported moviegoers gave the film an average grade of "A" on an scale.
Reviewers generally agreed Aliens was a worthy successor to Alien. Variety and Walter Goodman said it could not replicate the novelty of Alien, but Aliens compensated with special effects, technique, and a constant stream of set-piece thrills and scary scenes. Variety added Aliens was made by an expert craftsman, implying its predecessor was a more artistic endeavor. Sheila Benson said Aliens was clever and ironically funny, but lacked Alien pure horror. Benson attributed this to an overabundance of creature effects in the intervening years, particularly the 1982 science-fiction horror film The Thing (which, Benson said, took alien monstrosities to an extreme).
According to Rick Kogan, Aliens demonstrated science-fiction horror could still be entertaining after many poorly-received Alien-derived films. Dave Kehr and Richard Schickel called it a rare sequel which surpassed the original, and Kehr appreciated the action used to develop the characters. Schickel wrote the film had evolved from Alien, giving Weaver new emotional depths to explore. Jay Scott said the talented Cameron had redefined the war film, combining Rambo with Star Wars. Kogan agreed Cameron possessed a knack for action pacing and excitement, but Kehr believed Cameron pushed some elements beyond believability.
Roger Ebert called the film's last hour "painfully, unremittingly intense" in horror and action, leaving him emotionally drained and unhappy. Ebert believed it could not be defined as entertainment, despite his admiration of the filmmaking craft on display. Dennis Fischer wrote for The Hollywood Reporter, however, the unrelenting scenes of action and suspense worked for Aliens as they had in The Terminator; tension was created by placing the characters in successive, increasingly-difficult situations. According to Fischer, though, Cameron mistakenly thought over-long scenes created suspense. Gene Siskel was more critical, describing the film as "one extremely violent, protracted attack on the senses ... Some people have praised the technical excellence of Aliens. Well, the Eiffel Tower is technically impressive, but I wouldn't want to watch it fall apart on people for two hours." In the Orlando Sentinel, Jay Boyar called it the Jaws of the 1980s: the most "intensely shocking" film in years.
Reviewers consistently praised Weaver's performance. Benson called her the film's "white-hot core" around whose "defiant intelligence" and "sensual athleticism" Aliens was built, and Ripley returned not for vengeance but out of compassion. Ebert credited Weaver's sympathetic performance with holding the film together. Kogan compared her to a more attractive John Rambo (Sylvester Stallone's action character). Scott agreed, saying Weaver made action stars like Stallone and Schwarzenegger look like male pin-up models. He described her as the ultimate adventure heroine, balancing action with femininity and maternal instincts. Critical of the film overall as a "mechanical" and "inflated example of formula gothic", Pauline Kael praised Weaver: "With her great cheekbones, her marvelous physique, and her lightness of movement, Weaver seems to take over by natural authority and her strength as an actress. Her surprisingly small, tense mouth holds all the suspense in the story ... Weaver gives the movie a presence; without her it’s a B picture that lacks the subplots and corny characters that can make B pictures amusing."
Most of the cast was also praised, particularly Biehn, Goldstein, Henriksen, Henn and Reiser. Benson, however, noted less time was spent exploring the new characters than was spent in Alien. Schickel said Henn played her character as endearingly brave and clever, without self-pity. Benson praised Horner's "ruminative, intelligent" music, but Fischer criticized it for borrowing too much from Goldsmith's score and Horner's work on Star Trek III: The Search for Spock (1984).
Accolades
Aliens received two awards at the 1987 Academy Awards: Best Sound Effects Editing (Don Sharpe) and Best Visual Effects (Robert Skotak, Stan Winston, John Richardson, Suzanne Benson). Weaver was nominated for Best Actress, losing to Marlee Matlin for the romantic drama Children of a Lesser God. Weaver's was the first Best Actress nomination for a science-fiction film, when the genre was given little respect. The film received four other nominations: Best Original Score for Horner (losing to Herbie Hancock for the musical drama Round Midnight); Best Art Director for Peter Lamont and Crispian Sallis (losing to Gianni Quaranta, Brian Ackland-Snow, Brian Savegar and Elio Altamura for the romance, A Room with a View); Best Editing for Ray Lovejoy (losing to Claire Simpson for Platoon), and Best Sound for Graham V. Hartstone, Nicolas Le Messurier, Michael A. Carter, and Roy Charman (losing to John K. Wilkinson, Richard Rogers, Charles Grenzbach and Simon Kaye for Platoon). Weaver's nomination remains a rarity in the action or science-fiction genres. At the 44th Golden Globe Awards, she was nominated for Best Actress in a Drama (again losing to Matlin for Children of a Lesser God).
At the 40th British Academy Film Awards, Aliens received the award for Best Special Visual Effects and three other nominations: Best Production Design (losing to A Room with a View); Best Makeup and Hair for Peter Robb King (losing to Sohichiro Meda, Tameyuki Aimi, Chihako Naito, and Noriko Takemazawa for the war film Ran), and Best Sound (losing to romantic drama Out of Africa). At the 14th Saturn Awards, the film received eight awards: Best Science Fiction Film, Best Actress (Weaver), Best Performance by a Young Actor (Henn), Best Supporting Actress (Goldstein), Best Supporting Actor (Paxton), Best Special Effects (Winston and the L.A. Effects Group) and Best Director and Best Writing (both for Cameron). It received a Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation.
Post-release
Home media
Aliens was released on VHS in February 1987, priced at $89.98. An extended cut of the film, including scenes deleted from the theatrical release, was broadcast on CBS TV in 1989. An extended edition with more deleted scenes, including the opening scene of Newt's family investigating the derelict spacecraft, was released on LaserDisc in 1991. The extended cut is 157minutes long, 20 minutes longer than the theatrical cut. Cameron has stated he prefers the extended cut.
The extended edition was released on VHS and DVD in 1999 as part of the Alien Legacy box set with the other three available Alien films: Alien, Alien 3 and Alien Resurrection. The DVD version was also sold separately, and both versions included additional behind-the-scenes footage. The 2003 Alien Quadrilogy nine-DVD box set included all four films and an additional disc for each film with behind-the-scenes footage and featurettes (including a three-hour documentary, Superior Firepower: The Making of Aliens). Theatrical and extended cuts were available for each film. The Aliens disc included commentary by cast and crew members, including Cameron; Weaver did not participate. Each film was sold separately (including its bonus disc) in 2004.
Aliens was released on Blu-ray in 2010 as part of the Alien Anthology box set with remastered footage, theatrical and extended versions, and featurettes found in earlier releases. The film was released separately on Blu-ray in 2011. It was released on Blu-ray and digital download for its 30th anniversary in 2016, with a new interview with Cameron about his inspirations for the film. In addition to the theatrical and extended versions, the release contained a limited-edition lithograph of Ripley in battle with the alien queen, an art book focused on the Aliens comic books by Dark Horse Comics, and collectible cards with concept art by Cameron. A limited-edition, 75-copy vinyl soundtrack was also released that year.
Other media
Merchandising for a film was a relatively-new concept, popularized by the Star Wars film series. Kenner had attempted to release figures based on Alien in 1979. Only an alien action figure was released, which was quickly withdrawn when it was deemed too frightening for children. Aliens was considered a different prospect (despite its adult-oriented content), since it focused on action and featured marines (instead of ordinary workers) fighting a large number of aliens. The toys were intended to tie into Operation Aliens (a children's cartoon scheduled for release with Alien 3 in 1992) and a series of mini-comics by Dark Horse Comics. Figures included Colonial Marines and alien hybrids. Aliens has appeared across a variety of merchandise, including action figures, punching bags, clothing and board games. The National Entertainment Collectibles Association (NECA) has released figures based on the film, including Newt, Burke and Cameron dressed as a Colonial Marine. NECA revived the original Kenner designs in 2019, releasing better-quality models.
The film has had several video-game adaptations. The earliest version, a first-person shooter Aliens: The Computer Game (1986), was released on several platforms. A game with the same name was released in 1987. A side-scroller, Aliens (1987), was released in Japan for the MSX. A 1990 arcade game, Aliens, allowed players to play as Ripley or Hicks against alien variants; some levels required the player to control Newt. Aliens: A Comic Book Adventure, an adventure game focusing on puzzles, was released in 1995. A first-person shooter, Alien Trilogy (1996), was based on Alien, Aliens, and Alien 3. Aliens Online (1998) was an online game which allowed players to play as Colonial Marines or aliens. Aliens: Colonial Marines (2013) is a first-person shooter and a canonical sequel of Aliens, focusing on the marines sent to search for Ripley's expedition. Several other games have the Aliens brand or are side stories or sequels to the film's events, and the Aliens vs. Predator game series.
A number of comic books based on (and continuing) the story of Aliens have been published (primarily by Dark Horse Comics) since 1988. Dark Horse published a crossover of the titular aliens and those of the Predator franchise by 1990, creating a derivative Alien vs. Predator franchise with its own films, video games and comic books; this led to additional crossovers with Superman, Batman, Green Lantern, Judge Dredd, Wildcats, and the Terminator franchise. Reebok's boots designed for Ripley became available to the public in 2016; other versions included boots based on the power loader, Bishop, the Colonial Marines and the alien queen. Author J. W. Rinzler published The Making of Aliens, a 300-page behind-the-scenes book with cast and crew interviews and previously-unseen photographs, in August 2020. Operation Aliens, a board game, was released in 1992. Players are cast as a Colonial Marine or Ripley and tasked with finding a self-destruct code to destroy an infested spaceship.
Analysis
Motherhood
A central theme of Aliens is motherhood. Alien can be seen as a metaphor for childbirth, but Aliens focuses on Ripley's maternal feelings for Newt. A scene in which Ripley learns her child died while she was in stasis was cut from the theatrical release, but restored in the extended edition. This helped to explain Ripley's motherly attention to Newt, since she had lost her own child. Newt has also lost everything of value, and they form a new family from the remnants of their old ones; this is reflected in the alien queen, mother of the alien creatures. There are no paternal figures; both are single mothers, defending their young. The alien queen seeks revenge against Ripley, who destroyed her brood and her means of reproduction. According to Richard Schickel, Alien is about survival; Aliens is about fighting to ensure someone else's survival.
Newt's capture by the aliens forces Ripley to realize she is willing to die to save her. This demonstrates a selfless motherhood, unlike the queen's selfish motherhood. Writing for the Los Angeles Times, Nancy Weber wrote that as a mother, she saw in Aliens the constant vigilance required to protect her child from predators, sexism and threats to childhood innocence. Leilani Nishime believed despite the focus on motherhood, the nuclear family is represented in Aliens with a mother (Ripley), father (Hicks), daughter (Newt) and a loyal, self-sacrificing dog (Bishop).
According to Charles Berg, the depictions of aliens in science fiction which became more popular during the 1980s represented American fears of immigrants (the "other"). In Aliens, this can be seen in the Caucasian single mother (Ripley) confronting the dark-skinned alien queen with an endless brood. Tammy Ostrander and Susan Younis also note fears of overcrowding, dwindling resources and pollution, suggesting the alien queen demonizes motherhood and make it less attractive. She represents mindless, unchecked maternal instinct spawning armies of children, regardless of the lives which must be sacrificed to ensure their survival. Despite imminent destruction by the colony exploding, the queen continues to reproduce. The aliens' life cycle taints the reproductive cycle. Creation involves rape, and birth involves a violent death. In destroying the aliens and their queen, Ripley rejects the unchecked proliferation of their species and sets an example for her own.
Masculine femininity
Ripley has been compared to John Rambo and dubbed Ramboette, Rambette, Fembo, Ramboline; Weaver called herself Rambolina. Mary Lee Settle said females in television and film had evolved from escapist fantasy to more accurately reflect their audiences. A gun, which can be seen as a phallic symbol, has a different meaning when wielded by Weaver. Schickel described Ripley as transcending the customary boundaries imposed on her gender, where females serve the male hero. In Aliens, the male characters are neutralized by the film's climax and Ripley faces the queen alone. Cameron said he does not like cowardly female characters and removes their expected protectors to force them to fend for themselves. He called the overuse of male heroes "commercially shortsighted" in an industry whose audience is 50-percent female, and where "80 percent of the time, it's women who decide which film to see."
The growth of female-led action films after the success of Aliens reflects the increase in women assuming non-traditional roles and the divide between professional critics (who perceive a masculinization of the heroine) and audiences which, regardless of gender, embrace, emulate and quote Ripley. The hyper-masculine heroes played by Schwarzenegger, Stallone and Jean-Claude Van Damme were replaced by independent women capable of defending themselves and defeating villains in films such as The Silence of the Lambs (1991) and Cameron's Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991). These female characters often perform stereotypical male actions, however, and have muscular physiques rather than feminine "soft" bodies. When Ripley has seized command of the marines and is no longer a passive outsider in Aliens, the traditional male hero (Hicks) instructs her in the use of their weapons. The comparison of Ripley to Rambo conflates her with the male, musclebound, gun-wielding action hero. To balance her masculine traits, Cameron gives Ripley maternal instincts; this counters homophobic audiences, who might see a masculinized female as lesbian or butch. These traits are further offset by the more-openly-masculine Vasquez, a minor character. Vasquez (who has short hair and bigger muscles) is introduced to the audience by working out, and is asked if she has ever been mistaken for a man. Weber appreciated the change in female characters between the films, contrasting Alien hysterical Lambert with the tough Vasquez (who sacrifices herself for her team, not only for the protagonist).
War and trauma
Aliens is as seen as an allegory for the Vietnam War; the marines (like the United States) have superior weaponry and technology, which is ineffective against an unseen, local enemy. Like some Vietnam veterans, Ripley developed post-traumatic stress disorder after the events of Alien. Writer Joe Abbott contrasted the depiction of the military in Aliens to the 1954 science-fiction film, Them!. In both films, humans are beset by a monstrous invasion; in Them!, the military is the hero despite its responsibility for the infestation. Abbott said its post-World War II America setting depicts a competent military and a state authority which demands (and receives) the compliance of its citizens. The image of the post-Vietnam military is tarnished and scrutinized; in Aliens, it is ill-equipped, bumbling, and incapable of combating the threat posed by the alien creatures. Citizen cooperation can no longer be demanded (or expected), and it is Ripley, an independent contractor from outside the state and military infrastructures, who saves the day. Unlike Them!, the military is not at fault for creating the problem in Aliens; it is the Weyland-Yutani corporation. The power of the state has been superseded by the corporation, which also demands conformity for rewards and advancement and reflects a growing mistrust of corporatism; the company is represented by Burke, a self-interested opportunist. Ripley is elevated throughout the film as she benefits the community, and Burke works to undermine it for the company. Male greed in Alien and Aliens is the catalyst for the alien infestations. In Aliens, Newt's father disregards safety measures to investigate the alien derelict without interference (ensuring any profits will be his). Then, attacked by a facehugger, he is the initial infection point.
According to Weaver, Aliens is about confronting trauma to obtain closure. This may be seen as a reflection of Ronald Reagan's United States presidency and a conservatism which believed the hero must return to confront their fears with ethics and morality on their side. Comparing Alien with Aliens, Roger Luckhurst said: "Even if Alien was a piece of leftist science fiction, the core of [its] myth could be inflected the other way. [Cameron's] Aliens would be a defiantly Reaganite version of the story—pumped, militarized, libertarian driven by a staunch defense of the nuclear family." Abbott said Aliens adheres to a radical ideology and condemns centrism; similar films were popular because they represented audience dissatisfaction with the social status quo. The film places power in the individual (Ripley), instead of institutions like the military, corporations or the government.
Legacy
A cinematic touchstone with an enduring legacy, Aliens has influenced films which followed it. Although The Terminator was a success for Cameron, the critical and commercial success of Aliens made him a blockbuster director. The film expanded the Alien series into a franchise, spanning video games, comic books and toys. Ripley and the alien creature originated in Alien, but Cameron expanded on the creature's life cycle, added new characters and factions (such as the Colonial Marines), and expanded the films' universe.
Many cast and crew members reunited at the 2016 San Diego Comic-Con to celebrate the film's 30th anniversary, including Weaver, Biehn, Paxton, Henriksen, Reiser, Henn, Cameron and Hurd. Cameron said he normally would not participate (and did not do so for The Terminators anniversary), but he considered Aliens special because of its impact on his career. Asked why he thought Aliens popularity had endured, Cameron said:
I have to take my filmmaker hat off and look at it as a fan and think, "Well, I really like those characters ..." There's certain lines, moments, you remember moments. It's satisfying, it ends in a satisfying way ... But I actually think it's those characters. We can all relate to Hudson running around "What the hell are we gonna do now man? What the f*** we gonna do?" We all know that guy.
Hurd believed that it was the experience itself: "It's a great midnight screening movie because you can talk back to the screen and you can have this group experience. It not only makes you feel something, it makes you cheer, it makes you jump. When you think of all the things that something can do, which is projected on a screen, it ticks all those boxes and it makes you laugh."
Despite her sudden fame, Henn decided not to pursue acting so that she could remain close to her family. She said some people resented her fame and was uncertain whether people liked her for being in the film or for herself. Henn became a teacher; she maintains a relationship with Weaver and kept a framed picture of her and Weaver which the actress had given her after filming was complete.
Cultural impact
Aliens has influenced popular culture; elements of the film, such as a team of soldiers being dismantled by a villain, have been repeated to the point of cliché. The same is true of Horner's influential (and often imitated) score, which regularly appeared in action-film trailers for the following decade. The film's influence may be seen in video-game (particularly science-fiction games) ships, armor and weapons. Ripley became a post-feminist icon, a proactive hero who retained feminine traits.
The film has been quoted, including Paxton's "Game over, man, game over". Weaver's "Get away from her, you bitch" is considered one of Aliens most memorable lines and has often been cited in other media. Paxton is remembered as the only actor to play characters killed by an alien, a Terminator (in The Terminator), and a Predator (in 1990's Predator 2). The ensemble cast's popularity led to many members appearing together in later films, including Henriksen, Goldstein and Paxton in Near Dark (1987) and Goldstein and Rolston in Lethal Weapon 2 (1989). Biehn lost a role in Cameron's Avatar (2009) because Weaver had been cast, and the director did not want to associate that film with Aliens.
The 1989 Italian film Shocking Dark is a remake of Aliens, moving much of the film's plot and scenes to a Venetian setting and incorporating elements of The Terminator; outside Italy, it was released as Terminator II. Aliens was named by director Roland Emmerich as one of his top ten science-fiction films, with Alien.
Critical reassessment
Aliens has been listed among the greatest films ever made and is regarded as one of the best science-fiction, action, and sequel films. In 2008, Empire ranked it 30th on the magazine's "500 Greatest Movies Of All Time" list. Ellen Ripley has been recognized; the American Film Institute ranked her the eighth-most-heroic character on its 2003 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains list, and she was ninth on Empires 2006 "100 Greatest Movie Characters" list. It is listed in the book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die. Aliens is considered one of the best sequels of all time, and equal to (or better than) Alien. According to Slant Magazine, it exceeded Alien in every way. In 2009, Den of Geek called it the best blockbuster sequel ever made, and remarkable even as a standalone film. In 2017, the website ranked it the second-best film in the series (behind Alien). In 2011, Empire called it the greatest movie sequel ever.
Several publications have ranked Aliens as one of the best science-fiction films ever made, among the best films of the 1980s, and one of the greatest action films of all time. The British Film Institute called Aliens one of the 10 greatest action films of all time: "A matriarchal masterpiece of God-bothering structural engineering, there’s really little that Aliens doesn't get right; from its slow-burn exemplification of character and world-building through to its jab-jab-hook-pause-uppercut series of sustained climaxes, Cameron delivers a masterclass in action direction". Empire readers ranked the film 17th on its 2017 "100 Greatest Movies" list. Alan Jones of Radio Times awarded it five stars out of five, saying it surpassed the original "in terms of sheer spectacle" and was "an outstanding science-fiction thriller", praising Cameron for "masterfully controlling the tension and moving the involving plot at a lightning pace", as well as exploiting "everyone's worst fears" and carrying them "to the riveting extreme". However, Halliwell's Film Guide was less positive, considering it a "frightening but mechanical sequel with none of the half-assed poetry of the original".
It has a approval rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes from reviews, with an average rating of . Its critical consensus reads, "While Alien was a marvel of slow-building, atmospheric tension, Aliens packs a much more visceral punch, and features a typically strong performance from Sigourney Weaver." The film has a score of 84 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 22 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Despite her character's popularity, the casting of Jenette Goldstein (a white, Jewish actress of Russian, Moroccan, and Brazilian descent) as the Latina Vasquez has been considered odd. Goldstein has said she considers herself unrecognizable as Vasquez on film, but a muscular actress was required and the filmmakers could not find anyone else with her physique.
Sequels
Aliens success resulted in immediate discussion of a sequel. Alien 3 was released in 1992, after a tumultuous development with multiple writers and directors; Cameron did not return. The film was financially successful, but "generally panned" by critics, and its director David Fincher disowned it after the release, citing studio interference. The film was also derided by fans because it killed the Hicks and Newt characters off-screen. Biehn called it one of his greatest disappointments and refused permission for the use of his likeness in Alien 3. About the treatment of his characters, Cameron said:
I thought [the decision to eliminate Newt, Hicks, and Bishop] was dumb ... I thought it was a huge slap in the face to the fans ... I think it was a big mistake. Certainly, had we been involved we would not have done that, because we felt we earned something with the audience for those characters.
An early script for Alien 3 by William Gibson was adapted as a 2019 audio drama, focusing on Hicks as the protagonist, with Biehn and Henriksen voicing their respective roles.
A third sequel, Alien Resurrection, was released in 1997. Instead of a fourth sequel, Fox began development of a crossover film pitting the series' aliens against the titular alien race of its science-fiction property, Predator; the film was poorly received. It was followed by a sequel, Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem (2007), the least financially-successful and worst-reviewed film in either franchise. Ridley Scott returned to the series for Prometheus (2012) (a prequel to Alien) and its sequel, Alien: Covenant (2017). In 2019, Scott was reported to be pursuing a sequel to Alien: Covenant. A fifth sequel of the main Alien films was in development in 2020, based on a story by Giler and Hill; Weaver was expected to return as Ripley.
A five-hour 2017 audio drama, River of Pain, takes place between Alien and Aliens and covers the early days of the LV-426 colony and its downfall to the aliens. Actors returning to voice their characters included William Hope, Mac MacDonald, Stuart Milligan, and Alibe Parsons.
See also
List of films featuring extraterrestrials
List of films featuring powered exoskeletons
List of films featuring space stations
References
Notes
Citations
Works cited
External links
1986 horror films
American films
1980s science fiction action films
1980s monster movies
Alien (franchise) films
American monster movies
American science fiction action films
American science fiction adventure films
American science fiction horror films
American science fiction thriller films
American sequel films
Android (robot) films
1980s feminist films
BAFTA winners (films)
Films scored by James Horner
Films shot at Pinewood Studios
Films set in the future
Films set on fictional moons
Films shot in England
Films that won the Best Sound Editing Academy Award
Films that won the Best Visual Effects Academy Award
Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation winning works
Military science fiction films
Siege films
20th Century Fox films
Films directed by James Cameron
Films produced by Gale Anne Hurd
Films produced by Gordon Carroll
Films produced by Walter Hill
Films with screenplays by James Cameron
Films with screenplays by Walter Hill
Brandywine Productions films
Girls with guns films
1980s action horror films
1980s English-language films | [
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|
213473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20largest%20optical%20refracting%20telescopes | List of largest optical refracting telescopes | Refracting telescopes use a lens to focus light. The largest refracting telescope in the world is the Yerkes Observatory 40 inch (102 cm) refractor, used for astronomical and scientific observation for over a century. The Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope, which has an actual lens diameter of 43 inches, is technically then larger than the lens of the Yerkes, but only 39 inches are clear for the aperture, and is used today for solar observations .The next largest refractor telescopes are the James Lick telescope, and the Meudon Great Refractor.
Most are classical great refractors, which used achromatic doublets on an equatorial mount. However, other large refractors include a 21st-century solar telescope which is not directly comparable because it uses a single element non-achromatic lens, and the short-lived Great Paris Exhibition Telescope of 1900. It used a 78-inch (200 cm) Focault siderostat for aiming light into the Image-forming optical system part of the telescope, which had a 125 cm diameter lens. Using a siderostat incurs a reflective loss. Larger meniscus lenses have been used in later catadioptric telescopes which mix refractors and reflectors in the image-forming part of the telescope. As with reflecting telescopes, there was an ongoing struggle to balance cost with size, quality, and usefulness.
This list includes some additional examples, such as the Great Paris telescope, which also used a mirror, and some solar telescopes which may have more complicated optical configurations. The SST has an optical aperture of 98 cm (39.37"), although the lens itself is 110 cm (43.31"). It is a single element lens whereas most of this list are doublets, with a crown and flint lens elements.
Under construction
See also
Lists of telescopes
List of largest optical reflecting telescopes
List of largest optical telescopes in the 20th century
List of largest optical telescopes in the 19th century
List of largest optical telescopes in the 18th century
References
Further reading
List of largest refracting telescopes circa 1914 List
Refracting telescopes
Telescopes | [
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|
213474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic%20Competition%20Federation | Academic Competition Federation | The Academic Competition Federation (ACF) is an organization, founded as the Academic Competition Foundation in 1991, that runs a national championship for collegiate quiz bowl as well as other tournaments.
History
During the mid-1980s, several schools began to prepare for College Bowl's regional and national tournaments by holding independent invitationals, during which players became unsatisfied with College Bowl's questions. Several scandals soon emerged, in which the 1988 College Bowl Regionals were found to have recycled nearly all of their questions from the 1982 College Bowl Regionals, independent tournaments were threatened with lawsuits from College Bowl, and the 1983 and 1985 College Bowl National Championship Tournaments were cancelled.
In response to these concerns, the University of Maryland and University of Tennessee stopped participating in College Bowl, followed a few years later by the Georgia Institute of Technology and a steadily increasing number schools.
In the fall of 1990, the then-coach of the University of Tennessee team Carol Guthrie joined with a few University of Maryland team members to found the Academic Competition Foundation. In 1991, they held the first ACF Nationals, which was won by the host Tennessee team over Georgia Tech. While departing from College Bowl's structure, the tournament initially included a few elements carried over from College Bowl games. Those elements were later removed. No ACF Nationals tournament was held in 1992, but, beginning in 1993, Regionals and Nationals tournaments were held every year. By 1996, ACF Nationals was attracting 40 teams, but after the 1997 Nationals, Carol Guthrie announced that she and co-founder Jim Dendy were each resigning, and that ACF would go defunct.
In 1996, a new company called National Academic Quiz Tournaments (1996) was formed. NAQT was more organized than ACF in several respects, yet also included College Bowl-like features in their questions. University of Virginia student Andrew Yaphe thus organized the Academic Competition Federation to continue running the Regional and National tournaments along with John Sheahan and David Hamilton. The 1999 Nationals saw the first presentation of the Dr. N. Gordon Carper Lifetime Achievement Award, which recognizes individuals "for meritorious services in sustaining and enriching collegiate academic competitions."
Following the rise to popularity of NAQT, the decline of College Bowl, and longstanding complaints about the difficulty of ACF, a decision was made in 2001 to focus on the accessibility of Academic Competition Federation tournaments. Despite those efforts, however, only sixteen teams attended ACF Nationals in 2001, and the future of the tournament seemed tenuous. Thus, a third, easier tournament, ACF Fall, was conceived by University of Kentucky player Kelly McKenzie, star player of the University of Kentucky team, and held in November 2001. This three-tournament lineup continues to the present day, with an "ACF Winter" tournament occurring in 2009 and 2010.
Format
An ACF game consists of twenty ten-point tossups with thirty-point bonuses, a format now widely used by various collegiate and high school quiz bowl tournaments.
The ACF finals format is unique in that it involves awarding a tournament title outright to a team which is two or more games ahead in the standings of the second-place team at the end of the tournament proper. If two teams are tied, a one-game winner-take-all final is played. An advantaged final of up to two games is played if the first-place team is exactly one game ahead of the second-place team.
ACF Tournaments
Overview
ACF tournaments follow the packet submission model, where editors organize the writing project and teams submit questions which will be used in competition. Depending on the experience of the players on a given team, that team may need to submit questions that will either comprise the entirety of a 20-tossup, 20-bonus packet, or that will be combined by editors with the question submissions of one or more teams to produce a full packet.
ACF Fall
ACF Fall is intended to be an easy college tournament for new college players or players with limited high school quiz bowl experience. ACF fall is played concurrently each year throughout the United States and internationally in Canada and the United Kingdom. With over 200 teams participating across all sites, ACF fall is the most-widely played college set in a given year. ACF Fall follows the packet-submission model.
ACF Regionals
ACF Regionals is the regular-difficulty (more difficult that ACF Fall) college tournament by which teams may qualify for ACF Nationals. In 2020, there were 11 concurrent ACF Regionals tournaments in the United States, 2 in Canada, and one in the United Kingdom. ACF Regionals follows the packet-submission model.
ACF Nationals
ACF Nationals is the final ACF tournament each season, and it has been run for more than 25 years. With the 48 strongest teams in the United States, Canada, and United Kingdom competing together at a single tournament location, the questions at ACF Nationals are more difficult than those at ACF Regionals. ACF Nationals does not follow the same packet-submission model as ACF Fall and ACF Regionals. Most of the questions are written by the tournament's editors, but teams may submit questions for a discounted entry fee.
Past ACF Tournaments
ACF Winter
In 2009 and 2010, ACF organized the ACF Winter tournament. The target difficulty for ACF Winter was that of a regular college tournament, i.e. more difficult than ACF Fall and easier than ACF Regionals. In February 2020, ACF announced that it will be releasing ACF Winter again for the 2020-2021 season.
Early Autumn Collegiate Novice
EACN was an ACF-sponsored collegiate novice tournament written and competed on from 2010 to 2013. With stricter eligibility requirements than ACF Fall, EACN was intended to be an introduction to collegiate quiz bowl for players entirely new with quiz bowl.
ACF Nationals results
Carper Award recipients
Dr. N. Gordon Carper Lifetime Achievement Award was established in 1999 to honor individuals for meritorious services in sustaining and enriching collegiate academic competitions. The award is presented annually to a member of the quizbowl community who exhibits the kind of dedication to and long-term support of academic competitions as exemplified by career of Dr. Carper. Beginning in 2019, ACF empowered a committee of former Carper winners who are also ACF members to select a second winner.
1999: Dr. N. Gordon Carper, coach at Berry College
2000: Dr. Carol Guthrie, former coach at the University of Tennessee
2001: Dr. Robert Meredith, coach at the Georgia Institute of Technology
2002: Not presented
2003: Eric Hillemann, coach at Carleton College
2004: Don Windham, ACF co-founder and Gaius Stern, of the University of California, Berkeley
2005: Charlie Steinhice, coach at the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga
2006: R. Robert Hentzel, president of National Academic Quiz Tournaments
2007: Andrew Yaphe, player at the University of Chicago
2008: Chris Sewell, developer of the SQBS statistics program
2009: Ezequiel Berdichevsky, ACF editor
2010: Subash Maddipoti, former player at the University of Chicago and the University of Illinois
2011: Seth Teitler, former player at the University of Chicago and the University of California, Berkeley
2012: Jeff Hoppes, former player at Princeton University and the University of California, Berkeley
2013: Matt Weiner, tournament organizer and question set editor
2014: Susan Ferrari, former player at the University of Chicago
2015: Jerry Vinokurov, former player at the University of California, Berkeley and Brown University
2016: Andrew Hart, former player at the University of Minnesota
2017: Jonathan Magin, former player at the University of Maryland
2018: Mike Bentley, former player at the University of Maryland and the University of Washington
2019: Rob Carson, former player at the University of Minnesota; and Kelly McKenzie, former player at the University of Kentucky and creator of ACF Fall
2020: Alex Damisch, former player at Lawrence University; and Mike Sorice, former player at the University of Illinois
See also
College Bowl
National Academic Quiz Tournaments
References
External links
Official website
Student quiz competitions
1991 establishments in the United States
Recurring events established in 1991 | [
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|
213477 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lidth%27s%20jay | Lidth's jay | Lidth's jay (Garrulus lidthi) or the Amami jay, is a passerine bird in the family Corvidae, native to Japan.
Measuring up to in total length, it is slightly larger than its close relative the Eurasian jay, with a proportionately stouter bill and also a longer tail. It has no discernible crest, with the head feathers a velvety black, the shoulders and back a deep purplish blue and all other parts a rich chestnut purple.
This jay has a very restricted distribution occurring only on the southern Japanese islands of Amami Ōshima and Tokunoshima in pine forest, sub-tropical woodland and cultivated areas especially around villages.
Food is largely made up of the acorns of the native oak Quercus cuspidata but includes small reptiles and invertebrates of many types.
The bird nests in large cavities in trees but otherwise the nest is the same as that of the other two Garrulus species with 3–4 eggs.
The voice is similar to that of the Eurasian jay.
The species was threatened in the past by hunting for its feathers, which were used for decorating ladies' hats. Today it is threatened by introduced small Indian mongooses, which were brought to its range to control the venomous Okinawa pit viper. The species is fully protected under Japanese law and is increasing in numbers thanks to control of the mongooses.
The species name commemorates the Dutch zoologist Theodoor Gerard van Lidth de Jeude.
In 1965 it was chosen as the symbolic bird of Kagoshima Prefecture
References
Lidth's jay
Endemic birds of Japan
Birds of the Ryukyu Islands
Lidth's jay
Natural monuments of Japan
Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte | [
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|
213478 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M57 | M57 | M57 or M-57 may refer to:
BMW M57, a 1998 diesel automobile engine
Halcón ML-57, an Argentine submachine gun
Miles M.57 Aerovan, a 1945 British short-range, low-cost transport
M-57 (Michigan highway), a state highway in Michigan
M57 motorway, a motorway in England
M57, a New York City Bus route in Manhattan
Messier 57 (M57), a planetary nebula also known as the Ring Nebula
Rangeley Lake Seaplane Base (FAA LID: M57)
TT pistol (Yugoslavian m57), a Yugoslavian-produced TT-33 pistol model, with an added safety
Zastava M57, pistol | [
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|
213480 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Academic%20Quiz%20Tournaments | National Academic Quiz Tournaments | National Academic Quiz Tournaments, LLC is a question-writing and quiz bowl tournament-organizing company founded by former players in 1996. It is unique among U.S. quiz organizations for supplying questions and hosting championships at the middle school, high school, and college levels. NAQT operates out of Shawnee, Kansas and Minneapolis–Saint Paul.
The company mostly writes practice questions and questions for high school and middle school invitational tournaments, as well as for some game shows. Its involvement in college quiz bowl is mostly restricted to sectional tournaments and the Intercollegiate Championship Tournament.
At the college level
The ICT is divided into divisions, unlike ACF Nationals, so that a clear undergraduate champion is determined (all formats allow graduate students to compete in some form).
Collegiate divisions
Division I Overall
NAQT's eligibility rules state that any student taking at least three credit hours towards a degree at a university may compete on that university's team, and indeed may not compete independently if such a team exists. If no program exists at their university's campus, they may compete on the team for another campus of the same university, with the provision that they must leave that team should their home campus organize a program.
If any member of the team has an undergraduate degree, the team competes in the Division I competition, and is only eligible for the open championship (i.e. the overall championship).
Division I Undergraduate
At Sectional Championship Tournaments (SCTs) and the Intercollegiate Championship Tournament (ICT), teams that do not meet the Division II requirements play together. However, awards are given, including bids to the ICT, for the top undergraduate team. A team is eligible for the undergraduate championship if all members of the team are undergraduate students, and none of them have played in four years of NAQT collegiate competition prior to the current year. The undergraduate championship was first awarded in 1998.
Division II
Also introduced in 1998, Division II is intended to give first- and second-year students an opportunity to compete against other players and teams of the same level of experience. The rules of Division II eligibility are that one must be eligible for DI Undergraduate (i.e. no degree, and less than four years of experience), and in no year prior qualified for or participated in ICT.
Exceptions to the eligibility rules have been granted to deal with special circumstances in past years; however, as they are controversial when they occur, they do not occur often.
Community colleges
Two-year colleges usually compete in separate SCTs each February (it is permitted, but rare, for teams from these schools to compete in DI). Eight teams qualify for the Division II ICT, where they compete alongside other DII teams in a manner analogous to that of DI Undergraduate teams. However, students at two-year colleges are exempt from the DII eligibility restrictions. In fact, they have three years of eligibility at the DII level.
Winners of NAQT Intercollegiate Championship Tournament
Notes
At the high school level
Teams qualify to the High School National Championship Tournament through a variety of methods. Most commonly, a team qualifies by finishing in the top 15% of the field at a tournament that uses NAQT questions. If a school wants to send more than one team to nationals, the school must qualify all said teams at the same time during a single tournament.
The small school award is given to a public school with a non-selective admissions policy and less than 500 students in grades 10 through 12. Up until and including 2013, the small school champion was decided on a playoff between top finishing teams at the High School National Championship Tournament. Since 2014, a separate national championship tournament has been held for small schools.
Winners of NAQT High School National Championship Tournament
At the middle school level
For the 2010-2011 academic year, NAQT has introduced a program for middle school. A corresponding middle school national championship, called the MSNCT, was held in 2011 in Chicago. Famous players include William Groger, Cooper Roh, Shiva Oswal, Karsten Rynearson, and Arin Parsa.
Winners of NAQT Middle School National Championship Tournament
Notes
Jeopardy!
Various NAQT employees and former NAQT players have appeared on the game show Jeopardy! Over 30 NAQT players or employees have participated on the show, including 17 who qualified for the Ultimate Tournament of Champions, including two finalists, Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings. Jennings writes questions and edits the literature and mythology categories for NAQT. Due to the success of these players, adults trying out must now declare any affiliation to NAQT or quizbowl on their information sheet. (See Jeopardy! audition process for further discussion.)
In 2006, competitors in the High School National Championship Tournament were given the opportunity to audition for the Jeopardy! Teen Tournament and the Jeopardy! College Championship. Ben Schenkel of Moravian Academy (Allentown, Pennsylvania) qualified for the Teen Tournament at this tryout, and finished as the tournament's first runner-up. Meryl Federman of Livingston High School (Livingston, New Jersey) qualified for the second edition of the teen tournament, called the Jeopardy! Teen Tournament Summer Games, and won.
See also
Quiz bowl
PACE
Academic Competition Federation
National History Bee and Bowl
College Bowl
Rules
References
External links
NAQT
Media guide with FAQs
Quiz Bowl packet archive
Quiz Bowl Forums
Interactive Quiz Bowl question database
Student quiz competitions
1996 establishments in the United States
Companies based in Kansas
Educational publishing companies | [
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213483 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBA%20Jam%20%281993%20video%20game%29 | NBA Jam (1993 video game) | NBA Jam is a basketball video game developed and published by Midway for arcades in 1993. It is the first entry in the NBA Jam series. The project leader for this game was Mark Turmell.
NBA Jam was the third basketball video game released by Midway, after TV Basketball (1974) and Arch Rivals (1989). Midway had previously also released such sports video games as the American football titles High Impact (1990) and Super High Impact (1991). The gameplay of NBA Jam is based on Arch Rivals, which was also a 2-on-2 basketball game. However, it was the release of NBA Jam that brought mainstream success to the genre.
The release of NBA Jam gave popularized a subgenre of basketball games which were based around fast, action-packed gameplay and exaggerated realism, a formula which Midway would also later apply to the sports of football (NFL Blitz), hockey (2 on 2 Open Ice Challenge, later NHL Hitz) and baseball (MLB Slugfest).
Gameplay
NBA Jam, which features two-on-two basketball, is one of the first real playable basketball arcade games and is also one of the first sports games to feature NBA-licensed teams and players, and their real digitized likenesses.
A key feature of NBA Jam is the exaggerated nature of the play – players can jump extremely high and make slam dunks that defy both human capabilities and the laws of physics. There are no fouls, free throws, or violations except goaltending and 24-second violations. This means the player is able to freely shove or elbow opponents out of the way. Additionally, if a player makes three baskets in a row, the character becomes "on fire" and has an unlimited turbo and increased shooting precision. The "on fire" mode continues until the other team scores, or until the player who is "on fire" scores four additional consecutive baskets while "on fire".
The game is filled with Easter eggs, special features and players activated by initials or button/joystick combinations. For example, pressing A five times and right five times on any Genesis controller will activate "Super Clean Floors". This feature causes characters to fall if they run too fast or change direction too quickly. Players can also enter special codes to unlock hidden players, ranging from US President Bill Clinton to Hugo, the Charlotte Hornets mascot. On the arcade machine, there is also a hidden "tank" game that allows the player to drive a tank and shoot enemy tanks for a minute. Just before the court is shown at the start of a game, joysticks 1 and 2 must be moved down and all six of their buttons held down.
Featured teams and players
The original arcade version of NBA Jam features team rosters from the 1992–93 NBA season and the console versions use rosters from the 1993–94 NBA season. More up-to-date rosters were available in subsequent ports released for the Sega CD, Game Boy, and Game Gear in 1994. Midway did not secure the license to use Michael Jordan's name or likeness (as Jordan himself owns the rights to his name and likeness and not the NBA), and as such he was not available as a player for the Chicago Bulls or any other team. Another notable absence from the home versions is Shaquille O'Neal, who was in the arcade version as a member of the Orlando Magic (and who later followed in Jordan's footsteps in buying his name and likeness from the NBA). New Jersey Nets guard Dražen Petrović and Boston Celtics forward Reggie Lewis, both of whom died after the release of the arcade version, were also removed from the home versions.
A limited edition version of the game with an additional team composed of Gary Payton and Michael Jordan was developed primarily for Jordan and Payton's personal use.
Some home console versions of NBA Jam were coded later than others, and as a result of real-life roster changes or in the cases of Charles Barkley and Shaquille O'Neal, legal reasons, some rosters differ from version to version.
During development, Godzilla and Bart Simpson were planned to be secret characters, but were ultimately scrapped.
Development
The game was devised after Midway's previous arcade release Total Carnage failed to meet sales expectations. Lead designer and programmer Turmell wanted to develop a game with a wider appeal and decided to mix the digitized graphics of some of Midway's previous titles to create a title similar to Midway's previous basketball game Arch Rivals. Midway was able to procure a license from the NBA, paying royalties of $100 for each unit sold. The NBA initially reacted negatively to the game feeling that an arcade game was wrong for the branding; however, after a second pitch, they eventually became convinced of its potential.
In one of Midway's original pitch videos to the NBA, they stated that they planned on including various additional features. These included different camera angles, tips from coaches, instant replays and a first-person view on fast breaks. None of these features were included in the final game. The graphics for the NBA players were created from digitized video footage of several amateur basketball players, including future NBA player Stephen Howard. These players were available as secret characters in certain versions of the game.
Turmell recounted, "My big ideas in NBA Jam were to do the spectacular dunks and two-on-two basketball, but the whole game was very much a team effort. For instance, someone else came up with the idea of attributes, giving different players different abilities."
In 2008, Turmell confirmed a long-held suspicion that the game had a bias against the Chicago Bulls. According to Turmell, a Detroit Pistons fan, the game was programmed such that the Bulls would miss last-second shots in close games against the Pistons.
Iguana Entertainment handled the conversion of the game to home consoles. According to Iguana president Jeff Spangenberg, including the time spent on learning the then-new PlayStation hardware, the PlayStation version took six months to develop. The Saturn version took longer to develop, in part because of the greater complexity of the hardware, but also because Iguana Entertainment did not have access to the Sega Graphics Library operating system (which was used to facilitate the Saturn versions of Virtua Fighter 2 and Virtua Cop, among other games). The Game Gear and PlayStation ports were programmed by Iguana UK employee Chris Kirby, with the Sega Saturn version coded by Darren Tunnicliff. Steve Snake, who would later create the Genesis emulator Kega Fusion, made the 32X version.
The game was written entirely in assembly language. The game had a marketing budget of $10 million.
Sequels/spin-offs
Tournament Edition
An update named NBA Jam: Tournament Edition (commonly referred to as NBA Jam: T.E.) was released in arcades. NBA Jam: T.E. included updated rosters, new features and Easter eggs combined with the same gameplay of the original. Jon Hey created new music specifically for NBA Jam: T.E. to replace the original NBA Jam music. Teams now consisted of three players (though only two could be on the court at any time; in practice, the extra player meant greater variety in lineups), with the exception of the new "Rookies" team, which consists of five players, all picked in the 1994 NBA draft. Players could be substituted into the game between quarters. The game also featured new hidden teams and secret playable characters. Early versions of the game included characters from Midway's Mortal Kombat games. Players were also assigned more attributes, including clutch and fatigue levels. In addition, the game also introduced features such as a "Tournament" mode that turned off computer assistance and on-court hot spots that allowed for additional points or special slam dunks.
The test version of NBA Jam: Tournament Edition included six hidden characters which were taken out of the final version at the request of the NBA: Elviscious, Grim Reaper, Kong, Raiden, Reptile, and Sub-Zero. Midway also stated they would update all test version cabinets to remove these characters.
In addition to the arcade version, NBA Jam: Tournament Edition was ported to the Super NES, Genesis, Genesis 32X, Game Boy, Game Gear, Sega Saturn, PlayStation, and Atari Jaguar, with the PlayStation port serving as a North American launch title.
Ports and follow-ups
The NBA Jam games were ported to many home video game consoles as well as PC, beginning with the original's debut on the highly publicized Jam Day (March 4, 1994). Console versions were well known for featuring many new secret characters; the home versions of Jam T.E. even allowed the player to use then-President Bill Clinton, First Lady Hillary Clinton, Vice President Al Gore, and Atari's Vice President of Software Development Leonard Tramiel on the Atari Jaguar version. Acclaim published the console versions and later ended up winning the exclusive rights to use the NBA Jam name.
Acclaim used the name on NBA Jam Extreme in 1996, a 3D version of Jam which featured Marv Albert doing commentary (whereas the previous games by Midway had Tim Kitzrow doing an impression of Albert on the commentary). The game was a flop in comparison to Midway's version released that same year, rechristened NBA Hangtime. Hangtime added a create-a-player option to the usual batch of new features combined with classic, but refined NBA Jam gameplay. An update called NBA Maximum Hangtime was subsequently released.
In 1995, Acclaim released a collegiate version of NBA Jam for home consoles entitled College Slam. Although the game was created to capitalize on the popularity of March Madness and the subsequent Final Four, it did not enjoy the popularity of the earlier NBA Jam games.
However, the idea was not quite dead as Midway passed it to their other sports games. This included the hockey games 2 on 2 Open Ice Challenge and Wayne Gretzky's 3D Hockey, as well as NFL Blitz and WWF Wrestlemania: The Arcade Game. Midway had also developed Power Up Baseball around 1996 based on the same concepts as NBA Jam, but was cancelled as they found the game did not test well due to the large number of paid plays users would need to complete one game, among other issues. Midway produced successors to the series with 3-D graphics, NBA Showtime: NBA on NBC and NBA Hoopz. Acclaim continued to keep the NBA Jam name alive with its console games, although the games were only mildly popular.
After making the switch to develop console games exclusively, Midway used Jams idea on several other sports, with NFL Blitz, NHL Hitz, MLB Slugfest, and RedCard 20-03. Many of Jams influences remained in their games including the NBA Ballers series.
On October 5, 2010, EA Sports released a new version of NBA Jam for the Wii. The game was later ported to the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in November 2010. Original NBA Jam creator Mark Turmell was hired to work on this new version in conjunction with EA Vancouver. Following the game's critical and commercial success, a follow-up, NBA Jam: On Fire Edition was released on October 4, 2011 on PSN and XBLA on October 5, 2011.
In 2020, Tastemakers LLC released a 3/4 scale replica of the original NBA Jam cabinet featuring emulated versions of the original arcade game, along with Tournament Edition and Hangtime, with newly added online play.
Reception
The game became exceptionally popular, and generated a significant amount of money for arcades after its release. In the United States, it topped the monthly RePlay charts for upright arcade cabinets from April 1993 through summer to October 1993. RePlay listed it as America's top-grossing arcade game of Summer 1993. The game's US revenue in 1993 exceeded the ( adjusted for inflation) domestic box office gross of the film Jurassic Park the same year. NBA Jam was America's highest-grossing arcade game of 1993. Individual machines at the time were earning up to $2400 per week, setting the all-time record for the highest per-unit arcade earnings in the United States. In Japan, Game Machine listed NBA Jam on their August 15, 1993 issue as the fourth most successful upright arcade unit of the month. The game grossed over worldwide in its first twelve months. , the arcade game has sold more than 20,000 arcade units and generated a lifetime revenue of .
On consoles in the United States, it was the top-selling Sega Genesis, Super NES and Game Gear game in February 1994, the top Genesis and Game Gear game in March, and the top Game Gear game in April 1994. It was the second best-selling home video game of 1994 in the United States (below Donkey Kong Country), with the Genesis version outselling the Super NES version. The console ports sold copies in 1994, more than cartridges worldwide by February 1995, and over within a year. , the Genesis and Super NES versions sold a combined copies worldwide.
Critical response
The four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly gave the Super NES version a unanimous score of 9 out of 10 and their "Game of the Month" award. They praised its graphics, sounds, and the four-player mode, and remarked that the gameplay is easy to pick up and incredibly fun even for people who don't like sports games. Reviewing the Genesis version, Mike Weigand commented that "The voices are fuzzy and the colors are a bit bland", but that the game is still very fun. EGM rated the Game Gear version as weaker than either the SNES or Genesis versions, chiefly due to the removal of most of the jams, but said it is still worthwhile for Game Gear owners.
GamePro praised the Sega CD version's updated roster, more intuitive controls, and improved audio with "more voice samples, more music, and more sound effects than any other home version." However, they criticized the graphics as much worse than in the Super NES and arcade versions, complained of long load times, and concluded that the improvements were not enough to make the game worthwhile for those who already had a home version of NBA Jam.
GamePro commented of the Game Boy version, "Obviously the GB is far too limited a system to capture more than a fraction of what made NBA Jam an arcade smash, but at least it has that fraction."
Next Generation reviewed the Sega CD version of the game, and stated that "It's good, but it could have been so much more."
In 1996, Next Generation listed NBA Jam at number 99 in their "Top 100 Games of All Time", commenting that "Despite it having been flogged to death by Acclaim at home and now in the arcades, NBA Jam is still a terrific game, especially in the arcade with four players." Retro Sanctuary placed NBA Jam 92nd in their "Top 100 Best SNES Games". In 2017, Gamesradar ranked NBA Jam 23rd on its "Best Sega Genesis/Mega Drive games of all time."
Tournament Edition
Reviewing the 32X version, GamePro opined that people who already own the Genesis version should not bother with the 32X one, but summarized that "Despite some sloppy rough edges, Jam's classic run-n-gun gameplay brings much-needed excitement to the cart-starved 32X." The two sports reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly said the 32X version was the most accurate conversion of the arcade game to date. Next Generation reviewed the 32X version of NBA Jam: Tournament Edition, rating it three stars out of five, and stated that "NBA Jam T.E. is a good game, but it is just as good on the Genesis and SNES, and shows no signs of 32-bit gaming. While there have been some decent games for the 32X, this is yet one more of the many disappointments."
A reviewer for Next Generation, after enumerating the improvements Tournament Edition offers over the original game, concluded, "What does all this equal? Same game (albeit a good one), new package! Only Jam fanatics and the two guys who don't own the original need slam down the cash for this rehash."
A GamePro critic covered the Tournament Edition release and was less forgiving of the Game Boy version's technical flaws, complaining of sprites with too little detail to discern which player is which during play, and summarizing the conversion as "a pale imitation of an otherwise great game."
Electronic Gaming Monthlys two sports reviewers highly praised the PlayStation version as a precise conversion with good enhancements. Next Generation concurred and declared it the best version of the game to date. Videohead of GamePro disagreed, saying the PlayStation version conspicuously lacks graphical details and voice clips from the arcade version and suffers from overly tough A.I.
Steve Merrett of Sega Saturn Magazine gave the Saturn version an 89%, declaring it "A perfect conversion of one of the most original coin-ops around." He particularly praised the reliance on timing and precision over complex button combinations, and the game's high playability in general, saying it "ensures a return for late-night rematches whilst the graphically-stunning games are gradually coated in dust." Both Sega Saturn Magazine and Maximum were impressed with the Saturn version's retention of all the considerable content of the arcade version. However, the reviewer for Maximum added that it nonetheless failed to offer any game-changing features that would make buying it worthwhile to anyone who already owned the Genesis or Super NES version.
GamePro commented that the Jaguar version is competent but far inferior to the PlayStation version. The two sports reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly were slightly more pleased with the conversion but felt it pointless since there had already been so many versions of the game, and the Jaguar release fails to offer anything new.
Entertainment Weekly gave NBA Jam: Tournament Edition an A and wrote that "The latest upgrade, NBA Jam Tournament Edition, of the two-on-two in-your-face hoopfest boasts the participation of fully one third of the NBA's roster. And the graphics and sound are astounding-not only is playing this game like watching TV, but so is listening to it, with unnervingly accurate commentary that precisely follows the action of the game. Loads of hidden tricks and guest appearances make this one an arcade slam dunk." Retro Sanctuary listed the game #87th on its "Top 100 Best Genesis Games" In 2018, Complex named NBA Jam Tournament Edition 44th on their "The Best Super Nintendo Games of All Time."
Popular culture
In popular sports culture, the phrases "He's heating up", "He's on fire", and "Boomshakalaka!" are identified with NBA Jam. In the game, these catch-phrases describe when a player hits two or three shots in a row. When a player is "on fire", the ball literally catches fire and singes the net. Voiced by Tim Kitzrow, the announcer is reminiscent of Marv Albert and has contributed numerous memorable lines to the basketball lexicon. The NBA Jam script was written solely by Jon Hey, although Kitzrow has stated that the lines were largely improvised.
NBA Jam also incorporates a slogan from Spike Lee's alter-ego in his 1986 film She's Gotta Have It, Mars Blackmon, who was also featured in a Nike basketball shoe television commercial at the time. The NBA Jam commentator asks, "Is it the shoes?" after a player performs spectacularly. The 2010 game features a nod to this particular piece of commentary, when the commentator (Kitzrow reprising the role) sometimes exclaims "It's gotta be the shoes!" under similar circumstances.
The upbeat, funky music written by Jon Hey was inspired by sports music themes and has been compared to George Clinton's P-Funk All Stars. Funkadelic's 1979 "(Not Just) Knee Deep" shares the most similarity with the music of NBA Jam but was recorded more than a decade before NBA Jams music was written. The likeness of George Clinton was used as the character "P. Funk" in the console versions of NBA Jam: Tournament Edition. The original NBA Jam arcade release and the NBA Jam T.E. arcade release had different music for the title screen and for each quarter.
In July 2009, Mortal Kombat creator Ed Boon revealed (on Twitter) that a Mortal Kombat court was to be hidden in a console port of NBA Jam or NBA Hangtime.
In October 2019, writer Reyan Ali published a book on the game/series for Boss Fight Books called NBA Jam documenting the game's development, success and impact on Midway afterward.
See also
Double Dribble (1986 video game)
Arch Rivals (1989)
References
External links
Game Information
NBA Jam Oral History | Where Are They Now? - SI.com
1993 video games
Arcade video games
Atari Jaguar games
NBA Jam
Game Boy games
Game Gear games
Midway video games
Sega CD games
Sega Genesis games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System games
Tiger handheld games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games with digitized sprites
Acclaim Entertainment games | [
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|
213490 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Cameron%20%28journalist%29 | James Cameron (journalist) | Mark James Walter Cameron CBE (17 June 1911 – 26 January 1985) was a British journalist, in whose memory the annual James Cameron Memorial Lecture is given.
Early life
Cameron was born in Battersea, London, of Scottish parentage. His father, William Ernest Cameron, was a barrister who wrote novels under the pseudonym Mark Allerton and his mother was Margaret Douglas (née Robertson) Cameron.
Career
Cameron began as an office dogsbody with the Weekly News in 1935. Having worked for several Scottish newspapers and for the Daily Express in Fleet Street, he was rejected for military service in World War II. After the war, his experience of reporting on the Bikini Atoll nuclear experiments turned him into a pacifist and, later, a founding member of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. He continued to work for the Express until 1950, after which he briefly joined Picture Post, where he and photographer Bert Hardy covered the Korean War, winning the Missouri Pictures of the Year International Award for "Inchon". Tom Hopkinson, the editor of Picture Post, lost his job as publisher when he defended the magazine's coverage of atrocities committed by South Korean troops at a concentration camp in Pusan. Cameron wrote, "I had seen Belsen, but this was worse. This terrible mob of men – convicted of nothing, un-tried, South Koreans in South Korea, suspected of being 'unreliable'." The founder of the Hulton press, Edward G. Hulton, decided to "kill" the story.
In 1952 Cameron wrote an obituary essay for The Illustrated London News, "The King Is Dead", about the death of King George VI. Cameron then spent eight years with the News Chronicle. In 1953 he visited Albert Schweitzer in Lambaréné, in French Equatorial Africa (now Gabon) and found flaws in the practices and attitudes of Schweitzer and his staff. This was the subject of The Walrus and the Terrier, a BBC Radio 4 Afternoon Play by Christopher Ralling, broadcast on 7 April 2008.
In 1965, Cameron wangled his way into North Vietnam for interviews and photos (with photographer Romano Cagnoni) of Ho Chi Minh and its other leaders. His book Here Is Your Enemy was published in the United States, and his five-part series on North Vietnam was published in December 1965 in The New York Times, where it was edited by journalist Anthony Lewis.
Cameron also did illustration work, especially in his early career. Working in Scotland for D. C. Thomson, he prepared drawings for sensationalist items in Thomson's publications. He rebelled when asked to draw a picture of a murdered young girl, embellishing it with excess blood and grisly detail. Called to Thomson's office, he was rebuked merely for exposing her underwear.
Cameron became a broadcaster for the BBC after the war, writing and presenting such television series as Cameron Country, and numerous single documentaries. An unusual example was Edgar Wallace: The Man Who Made His Name, a television biography of the thriller writer and journalist. He was a frequent contributor to Up Sunday, a magazine show that featured him and other commentators talking to the camera about topics of interest to them. Cameron also wrote a radio play, The Pump (1973), based on his experience of open heart surgery, which won a Prix Italia award in 1973. In his last years, he wrote a column for The Guardian. Cameron wrote two volumes of autobiography: Point of Departure, a chronicle of his life, and An Indian Summer, about his relationship with India; his marriage to his third wife, Moni, originally of Indian nationality, and his serious car accident and near death in Calcutta.
Personal life
Cameron's first wife, Elma, died in childbirth near the start of World War II. Before she died she gave birth to their daughter, also Elma (Eleanor Margaret).
He later married Elizabeth Marris (who already had son Desmond Roderic O’Conor by a previous marriage to Denis O'Conor Don). He also had a son with Elizabeth; Fergus.
In 1971 he married Moneesha ("Moni") Sarkar,.
James Cameron died of a stroke in his sleep on 26 January 1985. He was 73.
Among his literary relatives are the Gighan poet the Rev Kenneth Macleod – of "The Road to the Isles" fame – and the writer the Rev Dr John Urquhart Cameron of St Andrews.
Works by Cameron
Books by Cameron
Touch of the Sun (1950)
Mandarin Red (1955)
1914: A Portrait of the Year (1959)
The African Revolution (1961)
1916: Year of Decision (1962)
Men of Our Time (1963)
Here is Your Enemy (1965)
Witness [in Vietnam] (1966)
Point of Departure (1967)
What a Way to Run the Tribe (selected journalism) (1968)
An Indian Summer: A Personal Experience of India (1974)
The Making of Israel (1976)
Wish You Were Here: The English at Play. London: Gordon Fraser, 1976. . Introduction and commentary by Cameron, photographs by Patrick Ward).
Yesterday's Witness (1979)
The Best of Cameron (1981)
Broadcasts
Cameron's television work include:
James Cameron Memorial Trust Award
There is an annual James Cameron Award Ceremony in London.
Previous winners include:
1987. David Hirst
1988. Michael Buerk
1989. Neal Ascherson
1990. John Simpson
1991. Robert Fisk & Charles Wheeler
1992. Bridget Kendall
1993. Martin Woollacott
1994. Ed Vulliamy
1995. George Alagiah
1996. Maggie O'Kane
1997. Fergal Keane
1998. Jonathan Steele
1999. Ann Leslie
2000. Jon Swain
2001. For consistently impartial reporting from Israel, Suzanne Goldenberg.
2002. For reporting from Africa, Chris McGreal.
2003. Norma Percy
2004. For Outstanding Journalism, John Ware.
2004. Special Posthumous Award, Paul Foot.
2005. Lindsey Hilsum
2006. Patrick Cockburn
2007. Ghaith Abdul-Ahad
2008. Peter Taylor
2009. For reporting on Barack Obama's election, Gary Younge.
2010. Michela Wrong & Lasantha Wickrematunge
2011. Alex Crawford
2012. Martin Wolf
2013. Lyse Doucet
2014. Luke Harding
2015. Jeremy Bowen
2016. Ian Pannell received the James Cameron Memorial Award. The Special Award went to David Walsh of The Sunday Times. The lecture was given by Gideon Rachman of The Financial Times.
From 2017 onwards, City, University of London continued to host the James Cameron Memorial Lecture, but the prize was replaced with the Eric Robbins Prize. The James Cameron Memorial Lecture was given by:
2017. Lyse Doucet
2018. Lionel Barber
2019. Isabel Hilton
References
External links
James Cameron Memorial Lecture and Award at City University London
James Cameron at BFI
In the Beginning was the Word, BBC TV, 1984 – first episode in Once Upon a Time series about Cameron
Point of Departure, Cameron Country episode (clip), BBC TV, 14 September 1968
James Cameron: A Pain In The Neck, BBC Time Shift Documentary
James Cameron (short biography with excerpts from his writing), spartacus-educational.com
Meeting Two British Journalists Who Made History by David J. Marcou. Great History Blog, 2009 (archived 2013)
Another Famous James Cameron by David J. Marcou, 2009, La Crosse History Unbound
James Cameron's World (1911-1985): A Great Journalist Lives His Calling Via the Curiosity and Talents of a Cat by David Joseph Marcou as cited in La Crosse Public Library Catalog
1911 births
1985 deaths
British autobiographers
Scottish journalists
British male journalists
British reporters and correspondents
British television presenters
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Prix Italia winners | [
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213492 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleet%20Street | Fleet Street | Fleet Street is a major street mostly in the City of London. It runs west to east from Temple Bar at the boundary with the City of Westminster to Ludgate Circus at the site of the London Wall and the River Fleet from which the street was named.
The street has been an important through route since Roman times. During the Middle Ages, businesses were established and senior clergy lived there; several churches remain from this time including Temple Church and St Bride's. The street became known for printing and publishing at the start of the 16th century, and it became the dominant trade so that by the 20th century most British national newspapers operated from here. Much of that industry moved out in the 1980s after News International set up cheaper manufacturing premises in Wapping, but some former newspaper buildings are listed and have been preserved. The term Fleet Street remains a metonym for the British national press, and pubs on the street once frequented by journalists remain popular.
Fleet Street has a significant number of monuments and statues along its length, including the dragon at Temple Bar and memorials to a number of figures from the British press, such as Samuel Pepys and Lord Northcliffe. The street is mentioned in several works by Charles Dickens and is the home of the fictional murderer Sweeney Todd.
Geography
Fleet Street is named after the River Fleet, which runs from Hampstead to the River Thames at the western edge of the City of London. It is one of the oldest roads outside the original city and was established by the Middle Ages. In the 13th century, it was known as Fleet Bridge Street, and in the early 14th century it became known as Fleet Street.
The street runs east from Temple Bar, the boundary between the Cities of London and Westminster, as a continuation of the Strand from Trafalgar Square. It crosses Chancery Lane and Fetter Lane to reach Ludgate Circus by the London Wall. The road ahead is Ludgate Hill. The street numbering runs consecutively from west to east south-side and then east to west north-side. It links the Roman and medieval boundaries of the City after the latter was extended. The section of Fleet Street between Temple Bar and Fetter Lane is part of the A4, a major road running west through London, although it once ran along the entire street and eastwards past St Paul's Churchyard towards Cannon Street.
The nearest London Underground stations are Temple, Chancery Lane, and Blackfriars tube/mainline station and the City Thameslink railway station. London Bus routes 4, 11, 15, 23, 26, 76 and 172 run along the full length of Fleet Street, while route 341 runs between Temple Bar and Fetter Lane.
History
Early history
Fleet Street was established as a thoroughfare in Roman London and there is evidence that a route led west from Ludgate by 200 AD. Local excavations revealed remains of a Roman amphitheatre near Ludgate on what was Fleet Prison, but other accounts suggest the area was too marshy for regular inhabitation by the Romans. The Saxons did not occupy the Roman city but established Lundenwic further west around what is now Aldwych and the Strand.
Many prelates lived around the street during the Middle Ages, including the Bishops of Salisbury and St Davids and the Abbots of Faversham, Tewkesbury, Winchcombe and Cirencester. Tanning of animal hides became established on Fleet Street owing to the nearby river, though this increased pollution leading to a ban on dumping rubbish by the mid-14th century. Many taverns and brothels were established along Fleet Street and have been documented as early as the 14th century. Records show that Geoffrey Chaucer was fined two shillings for attacking a friar in Fleet Street, though modern historians believe this is apocryphal.
An important landmark in Fleet Street during the late Middle Ages was a conduit that was the main water supply for the area. When Anne Boleyn was crowned queen following her marriage to Henry VIII in 1533, the conduit flowed wine instead of water. By the 16th century, Fleet Street, along with much of the City, was chronically overcrowded, and a royal proclamation in 1580 banned any further building on the street. This had little effect, and construction continued, particularly timber. Prince Henry's Room over the Inner Temple gate dates from 1610 and is named after Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, eldest son of James I, who did not survive to succeed his father.
The eastern part of the street was destroyed by the Great Fire of London in 1666, despite attempts to use the River Fleet to preserve it. Fire damage reached to about Fetter Lane, and the special tribunal of the 'Fire Courts' was held at Clifford's Inn, an inn of Chancery at the edge of the extent of the fire, to arbitrate on claimants' rights. Properties were rebuilt in the same style as before the fire.
During the early 18th century, a notorious upper-class gang known as the Mohocks operated on the street causing regular violence and vandalism. Mrs Salmon's Waxworks was established at Prince Henry's Room in 1711. It had a display of macabre and black-humoured exhibits, including the execution of Charles I; a Roman lady, Hermonie, whose father survived a sentence of starvation by sucking her breast; and a woman who gave birth to 365 children simultaneously. The waxworks were a favourite haunt of William Hogarth, and survived into the 19th century. The Apollo Society, a music club, was established in 1733 at the Devil Tavern on Fleet Street by composer Maurice Greene.
In 1763, supporters of John Wilkes, who had been arrested for libel against the Earl of Bute, burned a jackboot in the centre of the street in protest against Bute. It led to violent demonstrations and rioting in 1769 and 1794.
Tanning and other industries declined sharply after the River Fleet was routed underground in 1766. The street was widened during the late-19th century, when Temple Bar was demolished and Ludgate Circus was constructed. The headquarters of the Anti-Corn Law League were based at No. 67 Fleet Street, and a blue plaque marks the location.
Printing and journalism
Publishing started in Fleet Street around 1500 when William Caxton's apprentice, Wynkyn de Worde, set up a printing shop near Shoe Lane, while at around the same time Richard Pynson set up as publisher and printer next to St Dunstan's Church. More printers and publishers followed, mainly supplying the legal trade in the four Inns of Court around the area, but also publishing books and plays.
In March 1702 the first issue of London's first daily newspaper, the Daily Courant, was published in Fleet Street. It was followed by the Morning Chronicle. The publisher John Murray was founded at No. 32 Fleet Street in 1762 and remained there until 1812, when it moved to Albemarle Street. The popularity of newspapers was restricted due to various taxes during the early 19th century, particularly paper duty. Peele's Coffee-House at No. 177–178 Fleet Street became popular and was the main committee room for the Society for Repealing the Paper Duty, starting in 1858. The society was successful and the duty was abolished in 1861. Along with the repeal of the newspaper tax in 1855, this led to a dramatic expansion of newspaper production in Fleet Street. The "penny press" (newspapers costing one penny) became popular during the 1880s and the initial number of titles had consolidated into a few nationally important ones.
By the 20th century, Fleet Street and the area surrounding it were dominated by the national press and related industries. The Daily Express relocated to No. 121–8 Fleet Street in 1931, into a building designed by Sir Owen Williams. It was the first curtain wall building in London. It has survived the departure of the newspaper in 1989 and was restored in 2001. The Daily Telegraph was based at No. 135–142. These premises are both Grade II-listed. In the 1930s, No. 67 housed 25 separate publications; by this time the majority of British households bought a daily paper produced from Fleet Street.
In 1986 News International owner Rupert Murdoch caused controversy when he moved publication of The Times and The Sun away from Fleet Street to new premises in Wapping, East London. Murdoch believed it was impossible to produce a newspaper profitably on Fleet Street and the power of the print unions, the National Graphical Association (NGA) and the Society of Graphical and Allied Trades (SOGAT), was too strong (an opinion endorsed by the Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher). All Fleet Street print staff were sacked and new staff from the Electrical, Electronic, Telecommunications and Plumbing Union were brought in to operate the presses at Wapping using modern computer-operated technology, rendering the power of the old unions obsolete. The resulting Wapping dispute featured violent protests at Fleet Street and Wapping that lasted over a year, but ultimately other publishers followed suit and moved out of Fleet Street towards Canary Wharf or Southwark. Reuters was the last major news outlet to leave Fleet Street, in 2005. In the same year, The Daily Telegraph and Sunday Telegraph announced they were returning to the centre of London from Canary Wharf to new premises in Victoria in 2006.
Some publishers have remained on Fleet Street. The London office of D.C. Thomson & Co., creator of The Beano, is at No. 185. The Secretariat of the Commonwealth Broadcasting Association is at No. 17, as is Wentworth Publishing, an independent publisher of newsletters and courses. The Associated Press has an office in Fleet Street as did The Jewish Chronicle until 2013 when it moved to Golders Green. The British Association of Journalists is based at No. 89 while Metro International are at No. 85.
Though many prominent national newspapers have moved away from Fleet Street, the name is still synonymous with the printing and publishing industry. In the adjacent St. Brides Lane is the St Bride Library, holding a specialist collection relating to the type and print industry and providing courses in printing technology and methods. On the wall of Magpie Alley, off Bouverie Street, is a mural depicting the history of newspapers in the area.
The last two journalists to work for the Dundee-based Sunday Post, left in 2016, as the paper closed its London offices.
Modern history
Despite the domination of the print industry, other businesses were also established on Fleet Street. The Automobile Association was established at No. 18 Fleet Street in 1905. Since the post-Wapping migration, Fleet Street is now more associated with the investment banking, legal and accountancy professions. For example, The Inns of Court and barristers' chambers are down alleys and around courtyards off Fleet Street itself and many of the old newspaper offices have become the London headquarters for various companies. One example is Goldman Sachs, whose offices are in the old Daily Telegraph and Liverpool Echo buildings of Peterborough Court and Mersey House.
C. Hoare & Co, England's oldest privately owned bank, has been operating in Fleet Street since 1672. Child & Co., now a wholly owned subsidiary of Royal Bank of Scotland, claims it is the oldest continuous banking establishment in the United Kingdom. It was founded in 1580 and has been based at No.1 Fleet Street, adjacent to Temple Bar, since 1673. The law firm Freshfields moved to No. 65 Fleet Street in 1990.
Notable buildings
In the High Middle Ages senior clergymen had their London palaces in the street. Place-names surviving with this connection are Peterborough Court and Salisbury Court after their respective Bishops' houses here; apart from the Knights Templars' establishment the Whitefriars monastery is recalled by Whitefriars Street and the remains of its undercroft have been preserved in a public display area. A Carmelite church was established on Fleet Street in 1253, but it was destroyed during the Reformation in 1545.
Today three churches serve the spiritual needs of the three 'communities' associated with the area of the street. Temple Church was built by the Knights Templar in 1162 and serves the legal profession. St Bride's Church was established as early as the 6th century and was later designed by Sir Christopher Wren in a style that complemented St Mary Le Bow further east in the City. It remains the London church most associated with the print industry. St Dunstan-in-the-West also dates from the 12th century supplements these as the local parish (as opposed to guild church) and is the London home for the Romanian Orthodox church.
To the south lies an area of legal buildings known as the Temple, formerly the property of the Knights Templar, which at its core includes two of the four Inns of Court: the Inner Temple and the Middle Temple. There are many lawyers' offices (especially barristers' chambers) in the vicinity. The gatehouse to Middle Temple Lane was built by Sir Christopher Wren in 1684. To the west, at the junction with Strand are the Royal Courts of Justice whilst at the eastern end of the street the Old Bailey is near Ludgate Circus.
As a principal route leading to and from the City, Fleet Street was especially noted for its taverns and coffeehouses. Many notable persons of literary and political fame such as Samuel Johnson frequented these, and journalists would regularly meet in pubs to collect stories. Some, such as Ye Olde Cock Tavern at No. 22 and Ye Olde Cheshire Cheese at No. 145, have survived to the 21st century and are Grade II listed. The El Vino wine bar moved to No. 47 in 1923, quickly becoming popular with lawyers and journalists. Women were not allowed in the bar until 1982, and then only because of a court order. The Old Bank of England, which from 1888 to 1975 was a trading house for the country's central bank, is now a Grade II listed pub.
Since 1971, the southern side of the street has been part of the Fleet Street Conservation Area, which ensures buildings are regularly maintained and the character of the street is preserved. The area expanded to the north side in 1981.
Monuments and statues
The area around Fleet Street contains numerous statues and memorials to prominent public figures. At the north-eastern corner is a bust of Edgar Wallace, and a full-length representation of Mary, Queen of Scots in a first-floor niche at No. 143–144 commissioned by John Tollemache Sinclair. Above the entrance to the old school-house of St Dunstan's is a statue of Queen Elizabeth I provided for the then new Ludgate in 1586 by William Kerwin; it was moved to here following the gate's demolition in 1776. Adjacent to this is a bust of Lord Northcliffe, the newspaper proprietor, co-founder of the Daily Mail and the Daily Mirror. At No. 72 is a bust of the Irish journalist and MP TP O'Connor, constructed in 1934 by F. W. Doyle-Jones.
On the southern side of the street nearby memorials and monuments include the Temple Bar marker where the Temple Bar (a gateway) used to stand until it was removed in 1878. The marker was designed by Sir Horace Jones in 1880. It has a statue of a dragon at the top (sometimes called "the Griffin"), and a statue of Queen Victoria in a niche in the side.
In the Inner Temple Gardens is a memorial to Charles Lamb. In Salisbury Square there is an obelisk commemorating Robert Waithman, mayor of London between 1823 and 1833, and a blue plaque commemorating the birthplace of diarist and naval secretary Samuel Pepys.
Notable residents
Several writers and politicians are associated with Fleet Street, either as residents or regulars to the various taverns, including Ben Jonson, John Milton, Izaak Walton, John Dryden, Edmund Burke, Oliver Goldsmith and Charles Lamb. The lexicographer Samuel Johnson lived at Gough Square off Fleet Street between 1748 and 1759; the building has survived into the 21st century. The cartographer John Senex owned a map store, The Sign of the Globe, on Fleet Street between 1725 and his death in 1736. Wynkyn de Worde was buried in St. Bride's Church in 1535, as was poet Richard Lovelace in 1657, while Samuel Pepys was baptised there in 1633.
The Royal Society was based in Crane Court from 1710 to 1782, when it moved to Somerset House on the Strand.
Cultural references
The barber Sweeney Todd is traditionally said to have lived and worked in Fleet Street in the 18th century, where he would murder customers and serve their remains as pie fillings. An urban myth example of a serial killer, the character appears in various English language works starting in the mid-19th century. Adaptations of the story include the 1936 George King film, the 1979 Stephen Sondheim musical, and the 2007 Tim Burton film based on the musical, all titled Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street.
Fleet Street is mentioned in several of Charles Dickens's works. The eponymous club in The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club, more commonly known as The Pickwick Papers, is set in the street, as is Tellson's Bank in A Tale of Two Cities. The poet John Davidson wrote two works in the late 19th century titled the Fleet Street Eclogues. Arthur Ransome has a chapter in his Bohemia in London (1907) about earlier inhabitants of the street: Ben Jonson, the lexicographer Doctor Samuel Johnson, Coleridge, Hazlitt and Lamb; and about Temple Bar and the Press Club.
Fleet Street is a square on the British Monopoly board, in a group with the Strand and Trafalgar Square. One of the Chance cards in the game, "You Have Won A Crossword Competition, collect £100" was inspired by rival competitions and promotions between Fleet Street-based newspapers in 1930s, particularly the Daily Mail and Daily Express.
See also
The Printworks, Fleet Street of the North
Holborn, with a description of the surrounding area
Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg in Delhi, known as the Fleet Street of India
Paternoster Row
Notes
References
Citations
Further reading
. (bird's eye view)
. (about Fleet Street)
External links
Farewell, Fleet Street. Bill Hagerty, BBC News Online. 14 June 2005.
Fleet Street's finest. Christopher Hitchens, The Guardian Review. 3 December 2005.
Newspaper headquarters
Streets in the City of Westminster
Streets in the City of London
Tourist attractions in the City of Westminster
A4 road (England) | [
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|
213495 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathryn%20Bigelow | Kathryn Bigelow | Kathryn Ann Bigelow (; born November 28, 1951) is an American film director, producer, and screenwriter. Covering a wide range of genres, her films include Near Dark (1987), Point Break (1991), Strange Days (1995), K-19: The Widowmaker (2002), The Hurt Locker (2008), Zero Dark Thirty (2012), and Detroit (2017).
With The Hurt Locker, Bigelow became the first woman to win the Academy Award for Best Director, the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing, and the BAFTA Award for Best Direction. She also became the first woman to win the Saturn Award for Best Director in 1995 for Strange Days.
Bigelow was included on the 2010 Time 100 list of most influential people of the year.
Early life and education
Bigelow was born in San Carlos, California, the only child of Gertrude Kathryn (née Larson; 1917–1994), a librarian, and Ronald Elliot Bigelow (1915–1992), a paint factory manager. Her mother was of Norwegian descent. She attended Sunny Hills High School in Fullerton, California.
Bigelow's early creative endeavors were as a student of painting. She enrolled at San Francisco Art Institute in the fall of 1970 and received her Bachelor of Fine Arts in December 1972. While enrolled at SFAI, she was accepted into the Whitney Museum of American Art's Independent Study Program in New York City. For a while, Bigelow lived as an impoverished artist, staying with painter Julian Schnabel in performance artist Vito Acconci's loft. She had a minor role in Richard Serra's video Prisoner's Dilemma (1974). Bigelow teamed up with Philip Glass on a real-estate venture in which they renovated distressed apartments downtown and sold them for a profit.
Bigelow entered the graduate film program at Columbia University, where she studied theory and criticism and earned her master's degree. Her professors included Vito Acconci, Sylvère Lotringer, and Susan Sontag, as well as Andrew Sarris and Edward W. Said, and she worked with the Art & Language collective and Lawrence Weiner. She also taught at the California Institute of the Arts. While working with Art & Language Bigelow published an article, "Not on the Development of Contradiction," in the short-lived Art & Language magazine The Fox, and began a short film, The Set-Up (1978), which found favor with director Miloš Forman, then teaching at Columbia University, and which Bigelow later submitted as part of her MFA at Columbia.
Directing career
Early career
Bigelow's short The Set-Up is a 20-minute deconstruction of violence in film. The film portrays "two men fighting each other as the semioticians Sylvère Lotringer and Marshall Blonsky deconstruct the images in voice-over." Bigelow asked her actors to actually beat and bludgeon each other throughout the film's all-night shoot.
Her first full-length feature was The Loveless (1981), a biker film that she co-directed with Monty Montgomery. It featured Willem Dafoe in his first starring role.
Next, she directed Near Dark (1987), which she co-scripted with Eric Red. With this film, she began her lifelong fascination with manipulating movie conventions and genre. The main cast included three actors who had appeared in the film Aliens. In the same year, she directed a music video for the New Order song "Touched by the Hand of God"; the video is a spoof of glam metal imagery.
Bigelow's subsequent films, Blue Steel, Point Break, and Strange Days, merged her philosophically minded manipulation of pace with the market demands of mainstream film-making. In the process, Bigelow became recognizable as both a Hollywood brand and an auteur. All three films rethink the conventions of action cinema while exploring gendered and racial politics.
Blue Steel starred Jamie Lee Curtis as a rookie police officer who is stalked by a psychopathic killer, played by Ron Silver. As with Near Dark, Eric Red co-wrote the screenplay. The film, originally bankrolled for $10 million, was shot on location in New York due to financial considerations and because Bigelow doesn't "like movies where you see a welfare apartment and it's the size of two football fields."
Bigelow followed Blue Steel with the cult classic Point Break (1991), which starred Keanu Reeves as an FBI agent who poses as a surfer to catch the "Ex-Presidents", a team of surfing armed robbers led by Patrick Swayze who wear Reagan, Nixon, LBJ and Jimmy Carter masks when they hold up banks. Point Break was Bigelow's most profitable 'studio' film, taking approximately $80 million at the global box office during the year of its release, and yet it remains one of her lowest rated films, both in commercial reviews and academic analysis. Critics argued that it conformed to some of the clichés and tired stereotypes of the action genre and that it abandoned much of the stylistic substance and subtext of Bigelow's other work.
In 1993, she directed an episode of the TV series Wild Palms and appeared in one episode as Mazie Woiwode (uncredited).
Bigelow's 1995 film Strange Days was written and produced by her ex-husband James Cameron. Despite some positive reviews, the film was a commercial failure. Furthermore, many attributed the creative vision to Cameron, diminishing Bigelow's perceived influence on the film.
She directed three episodes of Homicide: Life on the Street in 1997 and 1998.
Based on Anita Shreve's novel of the same name, Bigelow's 2000 film The Weight of Water is a portrait of two women trapped in suffocating relationships.
In 2002, she directed K-19: The Widowmaker, starring Harrison Ford and Liam Neeson, about a group of men aboard the Soviet Union's first nuclear-powered submarine. The film fared poorly at the box office and was received with mixed reactions by critics.
2008–present
Bigelow next directed The Hurt Locker, which was first shown at the Venice Film Festival in September 2008, was the Closing Night selection for Maryland Film Festival in May 2009, and theatrically released in the US in June 2009. It qualified for the 2010 Oscars as it did not premiere in an Oscar-qualifying run in Los Angeles until mid-2009. Set in post-invasion Iraq, the film received "universal acclaim" (according to Metacritic) and a 97% "fresh" rating from the critics aggregated by Rotten Tomatoes. The film stars Jeremy Renner, Brian Geraghty and Anthony Mackie, with cameos by Guy Pearce, David Morse and Ralph Fiennes. She won the Directors Guild of America award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures (becoming the first woman to win the award) and also received a Golden Globe nomination for her direction. In 2010, she won the award for Best Director and The Hurt Locker won Best Picture at the 63rd British Academy Film Awards. She became the first woman to receive an Academy Award for Best Director for The Hurt Locker. She was the fourth woman in history to be nominated for the honor, and only the second American woman. A competitor in the category was her ex-husband, James Cameron, who directed the sci-fi film Avatar.
In her acceptance speech for her Academy Award, Bigelow surprised many audience members when she didn't mention her status as the first woman to ever receive an Oscar for Best Director. In the past, Bigelow has refused to identify herself as a "woman filmmaker" or a "feminist filmmaker." She has been criticized for the violence in her films by writers like Mark Salisbury, who asked in The Guardian, "Why does she make the kind of movie she makes?" and by Marcia Froelke Coburn, who asked in the Chicago Tribune, "What's a nice woman like Bigelow doing making erotic, violent vampire movies?"
Bigelow's next film was Zero Dark Thirty, a dramatization of American efforts to find Osama bin Laden. Zero Dark Thirty was acclaimed by film critics but also attracted controversy and strong criticism for its allegedly pro-torture stance. Bigelow won the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Director for the film, making her the first woman to win the award twice. She had already won previously for directing The Hurt Locker. She was also the first woman to receive the National Board of Review Award for Best Director.
Bigelow collaborated with Mark Boal for the third time on the film Detroit, set during the 1967 Detroit riots. Detroit began filming in the summer of 2016 and was released in July 2017, around the time of the 50th anniversary of the riots, and on the anniversary day of the Algiers Motel incident, which is depicted in the film. John Boyega, Hannah Murray, Will Poulter, Jack Reynor, Anthony Mackie, and Joseph David-Jones starred in the film.
She served as executive producer of Triple Frontier, a film that she was originally going to direct. She gave up directing duties to J. C. Chandor to focus on other projects.
Bigelow also directs commercials. She is represented internationally by commercial production company SMUGGLER, where she has directed commercials for the Army National Guard, Budweiser and AT&T, some of which were broadcast during the Super Bowl.
Unrealized projects
In 2014, Bigelow announced plans to direct two movies: an adaptation of Anand Giridharadas's non-fiction book The True American: Murder and Mercy in Texas starring Tom Hardy and a feature based on the life of Bowe Bergdahl written by Mark Boal.
Film style
Bigelow is known for her shifting relationship with Hollywood and its conventional film standards and techniques. Her work "both satisfies and transcends the demands of formula to create cinema that's ideologically complex, viscerally thrilling, and highly personal". She has had success both ascribing to conventional Hollywood cinema techniques as well as creating her own unique style that pushes against mainstream conventions. She is also known for entrenching social issues of gender, race, and politics into her work of all genres.
While her films are often categorized in the action genre, she describes her own style as an exploration of "film's potential to be kinetic". Her frequent and notable action sequences are unique because of her use of "purpose-built" camera equipment to create unique mobile shots that are very distinctive and indicative of the physicality of her work. In many of her films, such as The Hurt Locker, Point Break, and Strange Days, she has used utilized mobile and hand-held cameras.
Perhaps what Bigelow is most well known for is her use of extensive violence in her films. Most of her films include violent sequences and many of them revolve around the theme of violence. Violence has been a staple in her films from the beginning of her career. In her first short film The Set-Up (1978), two professors deconstruct two men beating each other up and reflect on the "fascistic appeal of screen violence". For this film Bigelow asked the two actors, including a then unknown Gary Busey, to actually beat each other up in the film's all-night shoot. This interest in violence seeped its way into her first full-length feature film The Loveless, starring Willem Dafoe, which follows a 1950s motorcycle gang's visit to a small town and the ensuing violence that occurs. Her next film, Near Dark, follows a young boy who falls in love with a vampire after being bitten by her. The film was originally conceived of as a Western but the genre was so unpopular at the time that Bigelow had to adjust her script and invert the genres conventions. She still used the violent staples of the genre including sieges, shoot-outs, and horseback chases. It is regarded for its combination of the Western and horror genre and its exploration of "homosexuality and 'white America's illusion of safety and control'". The film became a cult classic within the horror genre community. Bigelow herself saw a screening of it in Greenwich Village with a horror genre crowd.
Blue Steel was her first venture into the action film genre, with which she has stayed throughout her career and has found most success. The film revolves around a female cop who is falsely accused of a murder and who in the process of clearing her name investigates a killing spree connected to the original murder. Similarly to Near Dark, Bigelow inverts the typical action genre conventions by placing a female protagonist at the center. The film digs deeply into feminist issues and is often taught and studied by feminist film scholars. Her next film Point Break, starring Keanu Reeves and Patrick Swayze, was her breakout film in terms of mainstream success. The film follows a detective who goes undercover in a suspected criminal gang of surfers who primarily rob banks. It marks the first time that Bigelow used lengthy Steadicam tracking shots. It was also her biggest financial success yet, grossing $83.5 million worldwide with a budget of $24 million. Although her next film, Strange Days, which ruminates on the relationships between media, sex, race, class, and technology, had a budget of $42 million, it only grossed just under $8 million. Although the film flopped, it led Bigelow and her team to spend over a year developing a camera that intended to approximate human vision. Sequences filmed by this camera are widely regarded as innovative and startling regardless of the film's success.
The commercial failure of Strange Days was followed by a stream of commercial and critical flops for Bigelow. Her films The Weight of Water and K-19: The Widowmaker received negative reviews from critics and little attention from the general public. With her independently produced film The Hurt Locker she made a commercial and critical comeback. This film was her transition into political and historical film. The Hurt Locker, which follows members of a bomb squad serving in the Iraq War, was Bigelow's first venture into pseudo-documentary style film, abandoning the aesthetic stylization found in Strange Days and Near Dark. The film utilizes the genre's tendency to use quick cuts, shaky camera, and rapid zooms. It also breaks with the conventional narrative structures of her previous films, following a more unorganized and experimental narrative structure. Her next film, Zero Dark Thirty, is widely seen as a direct extension of The Hurt Locker, going further in-depth of historical analysis and addressing issues of geopolitics and American foreign policy. The film is her most controversial to date, with heavy criticism on the depiction of the CIA's torture practices.
Throughout her career, Bigelow has been known for her tendency to go to extremes for her films. In Point Break, while filming the skydiving scene, Bigelow was on the airplane with a parachute on, as she filmed Patrick Swayze throw himself into the sky. During surfing scenes in the same film, she would either paddle on a longboard or lean over a nearby boat as far as possible to get shots of Keanu Reeves surfing. For the opening of Strange Days she controlled a crane that dropped a camera man off the edge of a tall building. For The Hurt Locker, Bigelow filmed in Jordan in up to heat.
Other work
In 1975, Bigelow published an article in the third and final issue of the Art & Language Foundation magazine The Fox entitled "Not on the Development of Contradiction." In it, Bigelow argued that the magazine's function was "the unintelligible manifestation of contradiction" (p. 38) and that it was connected to "a mode of socialization reproducing bourgeois-liberal thinking" (p. 39). The article quotes from writings by Jurgen Habermas and Mao Tse-Tung to substantiate this proposition.
In the early 1980s, Bigelow modeled for a Gap advertisement.
Her acting credits include Lizzie Borden's 1983 film Born in Flames as a feminist newspaper editor, and as the leader of a cowgirl gang in the 1988 music video of Martini Ranch's "Reach", which was directed by James Cameron.
Personal life
Bigelow was married to director James Cameron from 1989 to 1991.
Filmography
Film
Television
Wild Palms: "Rising Sons" (1993) miniseries
Homicide: Life on the Street: "Fallen Heroes" Parts 1 & 2 (1998)
Homicide: Life on the Street: "Lines of Fire" (1999)
Karen Sisco: "He Was a Friend of Mine" (2004)
Other works
Awards and nominations
See also
List of Academy Award records
List of female film and television directors
List of accolades received by Zero Dark Thirty
List of accolades received by The Hurt Locker
Vulgar auteurism
Arthouse action film
Cult film
References
External links
June 2009 Interview with The A.V. Club
Q&A with Kathryn Bigelow in Men's Journal
Literature on Kathryn Bigelow
Davidson, Amy, "The Oscar for Torture?", blog, The New Yorker, January 2013. "The problems people have with Zero Dark Thirty are about directorial choices, and it is more than reasonable that Kathryn Bigelow be judged on them."
Denby, David,"Bigelow's Fact and Fiction", review, The New Yorker, December 2012.
G. Roger Denson, "Zero Dark Thirty Account of Torture Verified by Media Record of Legislators and CIA Officials", commentary, criticism, "Huffington Post", December 31, 2012.
G. Roger Denson, "Women Looking at Men Loving: Eve Sussman, Kathryn Bigelow and the Women Writers of Mad Men", cultural criticism, "Huffington Post", March 8, 2013.
Brockes, Emma, "Kathryn Bigelow: under fire", The Guardian (London), January 11, 2013. "[S]ome say her new thriller, Zero Dark Thirty ... endorses torture".
The films of Kathryn Bigelow, Hell Is For Hyphenates, December 31, 2013
Jérôme d'Estais, Kathryn Bigelow, passage de frontières, Editions Rouge profond, 2020,
Jérôme d'Estais, Kathryn Bigelow, passage de frontières, Editions Rouge profond, 2020,
1951 births
Living people
American women film producers
American film producers
American people of Norwegian descent
Screenwriters from California
American television directors
American women film directors
Best Directing Academy Award winners
Best Director BAFTA Award winners
Columbia University School of the Arts alumni
American women television directors
Film directors from California
Film producers from California
People from San Carlos, California
Filmmakers who won the Best Film BAFTA Award
Producers who won the Best Picture Academy Award
Primetime Emmy Award winners
San Francisco Art Institute alumni
American women screenwriters
Directors Guild of America Award winners
Action film directors
Art & Language
21st-century American women | [
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|
213497 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasian%20Albania | Caucasian Albania | Caucasian Albania is a modern exonym for a former state located in ancient times in the Caucasus: mostly in what is now Azerbaijan (where both of its capitals were located). The modern endonyms for the area are Aghwank and Aluank, among the Udi people, who regard themselves as descended from the inhabitants of Caucasian Albania. However, its original endonym is unknown.
The name Albania is derived from the Ancient Greek name and Latin . The prefix "Caucasian" is used purely to avoid confusion with modern Albania of the Balkans, which has no known geographical or historical connections to Caucasian Albania.
Little is known of the region's prehistory, including the origins of Caucasian Albania as a geographical and/or ethnolinguistic concept. In the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD, the area south of the Greater Caucasus and north of the Lesser Caucasus was divided between Caucasian Albania in the east, Caucasian Iberia in the center, Kolchis in the west, Armenia in the southwest and Atropatene to the southeast.
In 252, Caucasian Albania acknowledged the suzerainty of the Sasanian Empire, appearing among its provinces in Shapur I's inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht. The kingdom would remain an integral part of the empire until its fall. By the end of the 3rd-century, the kings of Caucasian Albania were replaced with an Arsacid family, and would later be succeeded by another Iranian royal family in the 5th century AD, the Mihranids.
Geonyms
Aghuank (Old Armenian: Աղուանք Ałuankʿ, Modern Armenian: Աղվանք Aġvank’) is the Armenian name for Caucasian Albania. Armenian authors mention that the name derived from the word "ału" («աղու») meaning amiable in Armenian. The term Aghuank is polysemous and is also used in Armenian sources to denote the region between the Kur and Araxes rivers as part of Armenia. In the latter case it is sometimes used in the form "Armenian Aghuank" or "Hay-Aghuank".
The Armenian historian of the region, Movses Kaghankatvatsi, who left the only more or less complete historical account about the region, explains the name Aghvank as a derivation from the word ału (Armenian for sweet, soft, tender), which, he said, was the nickname of Caucasian Albania's first governor Arran and referred to his lenient personality. Movses Kaghankatvatsi and other ancient sources explain Arran or Arhan as the name of the legendary founder of Caucasian Albania (Aghvan) or even of the Iranian tribe known as Alans (Alani), who in some versions was a son of Noah's son Yafet. James Darmesteter, translator of the Avesta, compared Arran with Airyana Vaego which he also considered to have been in the Araxes-Ararat region, although modern theories tend to place this in the east of Iran.
The Parthian name for the region was Ardhan (Middle Persian: Arran). The Arabic was ar-Rān. In Georgian, it was known as რანი (Rani). In Ancient Greek, it was called . What its inhabitants were called is unknown.
Geography
In pre-Islamic times, Caucasian Albania/Arran was a wider concept than that of post-Islamic Arran. Ancient Arran covered all eastern Transcaucasia, which included most of the territory of the modern-day Azerbaijan Republic and part of the territory of Dagestan. However, in post-Islamic times the geographic notion of Arran reduced to the territory between the rivers of Kura and Araks.
Ancient Caucasian Albania lay on the south-eastern part of the Greater Caucasus mountains. It was bounded by Caucasian Iberia (present-day Georgia) to the west, by Sarmatia to the north, by the Caspian Sea to the east, and by the provinces of Artsakh and Utik in Armenia to the west along the river Kura. These boundaries, though, were probably never static—at times the territory of Caucasian Albania included land to the west of the river Kura.
Albania or Arran in Islamic times was a triangle of land, lowland in the east and mountainous in the west, formed by the junction of the Kura and Aras rivers, Mil plain and parts of the Mughan plain, and in the pre-Islamic times, corresponded roughly to the territory of the modern-day Republic of Azerbaijan.
The districts of Albania were:
Cambysene
Getaru
Elni/Xeni
Begh
Shake
Xolmaz
Kapalak
Hambasi
Gelavu
Hejeri
Kaladasht
The kingdom's capital during antiquity was Qabala (Gabala; Kapalak).
Classical sources are unanimous in making the Kura River (Cyros) the frontier between Armenia and Albania after the conquest of the territories on the right bank of Kura by Armenians in the 2nd century BC.
The original territory of Albania was approximately 23,000 km². After 387 AD the territory of Caucasian Albania, sometimes referred to by scholars as "Greater Albania," grew to about 45,000 km². In the 5th century the capital was transferred to Partav in Utik', reported to have been built in the mid-5th century by the King Vache II of Albania, but according to M. L. Chaumont, it existed earlier as an Armenian city.
In a medieval chronicle "Ajayib-ad-Dunia", written in the 13th century by an unknown author, Arran is said to have been 30 farsakhs (200 km) in width, and 40 farsakhs (270 km) in length. All the right bank of the Kura River until it joined with the Aras was attributed to Arran (the left bank of the Kura was known as Shirvan). The boundaries of Arran have shifted throughout history, sometimes encompassing the entire territory of the present-day Republic of Azerbaijan, and at other times only parts of the South Caucasus. In some instances, Arran was a part of Armenia.
Medieval Islamic geographers gave descriptions of Arran in general, and of its towns, which included Barda, Beylagan, and Ganja, along with others.
Ethnogenesis
Originally, at least some of the Caucasian Albanians probably spoke Lezgic languages close to those found in modern Daghestan; overall, though, as many as 26 different languages may have been spoken in Caucasian Albania.
After the Caucasian Albanians were Christianized in the 4th century, parts of the population was assimilated by the Armenians (who dominated in the provinces of Artsakh and Utik that were earlier detached from the Kingdom of Armenia) and Georgians (in the north), while the eastern parts of Caucasian Albania were Islamized and absorbed by Iranian and subsequently Turkic peoples (modern Azerbaijanis). Small remnants of this group continue to exist independently, and are known as the Udi people.
The pre-Islamic population of Caucasian Albania might have played a role in the ethnogenesis of a number of modern ethnicities, including the Azerbaijanis of Qabala, Zaqatala, Shaki, and Oguz. the Armenians of Vartashen and Shaki, the Georgians of Kakhetia and Hereti (Ingiloy), the Laks, the Lezgins and the Tsakhurs of Daghestan.
Alphabet and languages
Caucasian Albanian language
According to Armenian medieval historians Movses Khorenatsi, Movses Kaghankatvatsi and Koryun, the Caucasian Albanian (the Armenian name for the language is Aghvank, the native name of the language is unknown) alphabet was created by Mesrob Mashtots, the Armenian monk, theologian and translator who is also credited with creating the Armenian alphabet. This alphabet was used to write down the Udi language, which was probably the main language of the Caucasian Albanians.
Koryun, a pupil of Mesrob Mashtots, in his book The Life of Mashtots, wrote about how his tutor created the alphabet:
Then there came and visited them an elderly man, an Albanian named Benjamin. And he (Mashtots) inquired and examined the barbaric diction of the Albanian language, and then through his usual God-given keenness of mind invented an alphabet, which he, through the grace of Christ, successfully organized and put in order.
A Caucasian Albanian alphabet of fifty-two letters, bearing resemblance to Georgian, Ethiopian and Armenian characters, survived through a few inscriptions, and an Armenian manuscript dating from the 15th century. This manuscript, Matenadaran No. 7117, first published by Ilia Abuladze in 1937 is a language manual, presenting different alphabets for comparison – Armenian alphabet, Greek, Latin, Syriac, Georgian, Coptic, and Caucasian Albanian among them. The alphabet was titled: "Ałuanicʿ girn ē" (, meaning, "These are Albanian letters").
In 1996, Zaza Aleksidze of the Georgian Centre of Manuscripts discovered at Saint Catherine's Monastery at Mount Sinai, Egypt, a text written on parchment that had been reused in a Georgian palimpsest. In 2001 Aleksidze identified its script as Caucasian Albanian, and the text as an early lectionary dating to perhaps before the 6th century. Many of the letters discovered in it were not in the Albanian alphabet listed in the 15th-century Armenian manuscript.
Muslim geographers Al-Muqaddasi, Ibn-Hawqal and Estakhri recorded that a language which they called Arranian was still spoken in the capital Barda and the rest of Arran in the 10th century.
Iranian languages
Iranian contact in the region goes back to the Median and Achaemenid times. During this Arsacid Dynasty of Caucasian Albania, the Parthian language spread in the region. It is possible that the language and literature for administration and record-keeping of the imperial chancellery for external affairs naturally became Parthian, based on the Aramaic alphabet. According to Toumanoff: "the predominance of Hellenism, as under the Artaxiads, was now followed by a predominance of "Iranianism", and, symptomatically, instead of Greek, as before, Parthian became the language of the educated".
With the establishment of the Sassanids, Middle Persian, a closely related language to Parthian, became an official language of the Sassanid Empire. At this time, Persian enjoyed even more success than the Caucasian Albanian language and the region was greatly affected by Iran. According to Vladimir Minorsky: "The presence of Iranian settlers in Transcaucasia, and especially in the proximity of the passes, must have played an important role in absorbing and pushing back the aboriginal inhabitants. Such names as Sharvan, Layzan, Baylaqan, etc., suggest that the Iranian immigration proceeded chiefly from Gilan and other regions on the southern coast of the Caspian". The presence of the Persian language and Iranian culture continued during the Islamic era.
Religion
The original population of the Caucasus followed different pagan religions. Under Achaemenid, Parthian and especially Sassanid influence, Zoroastrianism also grew in the region. Christianity started to spread in the late 4th century in the Sassanid era.
The Arab conquest and the Chalcedonian crisis led to severe disintegration of the Church of Caucasian Albania. Starting from the 8th century, much of the local population converted to Islam. By the 11th century there already were conciliar mosques in Partaw, Qabala and Shaki; the cities that were the creed of Caucasian Albanian Christianity.
These Islamised groups would later be known as Lezgins and Tsakhurs or mix with the Turkic and Iranian population to form present-day Azeris, whereas those that remained Christian were gradually absorbed by Armenians or continued to exist on their own and be known as the Udi people.
The Caucasian Albanian tribes of Hereti were converted to Eastern Orthodoxy by Dinar, Queen of Hereti in the 10th century. The religious affairs of this small principality were now officially administered by the Georgian Orthodox Church. In 1010, Hereti became absorbed into the neighbouring Georgian kingdom of Kakheti. Eventually, in the early 12th century, these lands became part of the Georgian Kingdom under David the Builder finalising the process of their Georgianisation.
History
The history of Albania before the 6th century BC is unknown.
Median and Achaemenid era
According to one hypothesis, Caucasian Albania was incorporated in the Median empire, as early as the 7th or 6th century BC. However, an increasing Persian influence on the region is usually believed to be connected with the defence of Persia's northern frontiers, from invading nomads. As early as the Achaemenid empire, measures may have been taken to fortify the Caucasian passes. By the mid-6th century BC, Albania has been incorporated in the Achaemenid empire; it was later controlled by the Achaemenid satrapy of Media. The building of fortifications and gates in and around Darband is traditionally ascribed to the Sassanid Empire.
Hellenistic era
The Greek historian Arrian mentions (perhaps anachronistically) the Caucasian Albanians for the first time in the battle of Gaugamela, where the Albanians, Medes, Cadussi and Sacae were under the command of Atropates. Albania first appears in history as a vassal state in the empire of Tigranes the Great of Armenia (95-56 BC). The kingdom of Albania emerged in the eastern Caucasus in 2nd or 1st century BC and along with the Georgians and Armenians formed one of the three nations of the Southern Caucasus. Albania came under strong Armenian religious and cultural influence.
Herodotus, Strabo, and other classical authors repeatedly mention the Caspians but do not seem to know much about them; they are grouped with other inhabitants of the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, like the Amardi, Anariacae, Cadusii, Albani (see below), and Vitii (Eratosthenes apud Strabo, 11.8.8), and their land (Caspiane) is said to be part of Albania (Theophanes Mytilenaeus apud Strabo, 11.4.5).
In the 2nd century BC parts of Albania were conquered by the Kingdom of Armenia, presumably from Medes (although possibly it was earlier part of Orontid Armenia).
The original population of the territories on the right bank of Kura before the Armenian conquest consisted of various autochthonous people. Ancient chronicles provide the names of several peoples that populated these districts, including the regions of Artsakh and Utik. These were Utians, Mycians, Caspians, Gargarians, Sakasenians, Gelians, Sodians, Lupenians, Balas[ak]anians, Parsians and Parrasians. According to Robert H. Hewsen, these tribes were "certainly not of Armenian origin", and "although certain Iranian peoples must have settled here during the long period of Persian and Median rule, most of the natives were not even Indo-Europeans". He also states that the several peoples of the right bank of Kura "were highly Armenicized and that many were actually Armenians per se cannot be doubted". Many of those people were still being cited as distinct ethnic entities when the right bank of Kura was acquired by the Caucasian Albanians in 387 AD.
Roman Empire
There was an enduring relation of Albania with Ancient Rome.
The Latin rock inscription close to Boyukdash mountain in Gobustan, Baku, which mentions Legio XII Fulminata, is the world's easternmost Roman evidence known. In Albania, Romans reached the Caspian Sea for the first time.
The Roman coins circulated in Caucasian Albania till the end of the 3rd century AD. Two denarii, which were unearthed in the 2nd-century BC layer, were minted by Clodius and Caesar. The coins of Augustus are ubiquitous. The Qabala treasures revealed the denarii of Otho, Vespasian, Trajan and Hadrian.
In 69-68 BC Lucullus, having overcome Armenian ruler Tigranes II, approached the borders of Caucasian Albania and was succeeded by Pompey.
After the 66-65 BC wintering Pompey launched the Iberian campaign. It is reported by Strabo upon the account of Theophanes of Mytilene who participated in it. As testified by Kamilla Trever, Pompey reached the Albanian border at modern Qazakh District of Azerbaijan. Igrar Aliyev showed that this region called Cambysene was inhabited mainly by stock-breeders at the time. When fording the Alazan river, he was attacked by forces of Oroezes, King of Albania, and eventually defeated them. According to Plutarch, Albanians "were led by a brother of the king, named Cosis, who as soon as the fighting was at close quarters, rushed upon Pompey himself and smote him with a javelin on the fold of his breastplate; but Pompey ran him through the body and killed him". Plutarch also reported that "after the battle, Pompey set out to march to the Caspian Sea, but was turned back by a multitude of deadly reptiles when he was only three days march distant, and withdrew into Lesser Armenia". The first kings of Albania were certainly the representatives of the local tribal nobility, to which attest their non-Armenian and non-Iranian names (Oroezes, Cosis and Zober in Greek sources).
The population of Caucasian Albania of the Roman period is believed to have belonged to either the Northeast Caucasian peoples or the South Caucasian peoples.
According to Strabo, the Albanians were a group of 26 tribes which lived to the north of the Kura river and each of them had its own king and language. Sometime before the 1st century BC they federated into one state and were ruled by one king.
Strabo wrote of the Caucasian Albanians in the 1st century BC:
Albania is also mentioned by Dionysius Periegetes (2nd or 3rd century AD) who describes Albanians as a nation of warriors, living by the Iberians and the Georgians.
In 1899 a silver plate featuring Roman toreutics was excavated near Azerbaijani village of Qalagah.
The rock inscription near the south-eastern part of Boyukdash's foot (70 km from Baku) was discovered on June 2, 1948 by Azerbaijani archaeologist Ishag Jafarzadeh. The legend is IMPDOMITIANO CAESARE·AVG GERMANIC L·IVLIVS MAXIMVS> LEG XII·FVL. According to Domitian's titles in it, the related march took place between 84 and 96. The inscription was studied by Russian expert Yevgeni Pakhomov, who assumed that the associated campaign was launched to control the Derbent Gate and that the XII Fulminata has marched out either from Melitene, its permanent base, or Armenia, where it might have moved from before. Pakhomov supposed that the legion proceeded to the spot continually along the Aras River. The later version, published in 1956, states that the legion was stationing in Cappadocia by that time whereas the centurion might have been in Albania with some diplomatic mission because for the talks with the Eastern rulers the Roman commanders were usually sending centurions.
In 1953 twelve denarii of Augustus were unearthed. In 1958 one denarius, coined in c. 82 AD, was revealed in the Şamaxı trove.
During the reign of Roman emperor Hadrian (117-138) Albania was invaded by the Alans, an Iranian nomadic group. This invasion promoted an alliance between Rome and the Albanians that was reinforced under Antoninus Pius in 140 AD. Sassanians occupied the area around 240 Ad but after a few years, the Roman Empire regained control of Caucasian Albania.
Indeed, in 297 the treaty of Nisibis stipulated the reestablishment of the Roman protectorate over Caucasian Iberia and Albania. But fifty years later Rome lost the area that since then remained an integral part of the Sasanian Empire.
Parthian period
Under Parthian rule, Iranian political and cultural influence increased in the region. Whatever the sporadic suzerainty of Rome, the country was now a part—together with Iberia (East Georgia) and (Caucasian) Albania, where other Arsacid branches reigned—of a pan-Arsacid family federation. Culturally, the predominance of Hellenism, as under the Artaxiads, was now followed by a predominance of "Iranianism", and, symptomatically, instead of Greek, as before, Parthian became the language of the educated. An incursion in this era was made by the Alans who between 134 and 136 attacked Albania, Media, and Armenia, penetrating as far as Cappadocia. But Vologases persuaded them to withdraw, probably by paying them.
Sassanid period
In 252-253, Caucasian Albania, along with Caucasian Iberia and Greater Armenia, was conquered and annexed by the Sassanid Empire. Albania became a vassal state of the Sassanid Empire, but retained its monarchy; the Albanian king had no real power and most civil, religious, and military authority lay with the Sassanid marzban (military governor) of the territory.
The Roman Empire again obtained control of Caucasian Albania as a vassal state for a few years around 300 AD, but then the Sassanids regained control and subsequently dominated the area for centuries until the Arab invasions.
Albania was mentioned among the Sassanid provinces listed in the trilingual inscription of Shapur I at Naqsh-e Rustam.
In the middle of the 4th century, King Urnayr of Albania arrived in Armenia and was baptized by Gregory the Illuminator, but Christianity spread in Albania only gradually, and the Albanian king remained loyal to the Sassanids. After the partition of Armenia between Byzantium and Persia (in 387 AD), Albania with Sassanid help was able to seize from Armenia all the right bank of the river Kura up to river Araxes, including Artsakh and Utik.
In the mid-5th century, the Sassanid King Yazdegerd II passed an edict requiring all the Christians in his empire to convert to Zoroastrianism, fearing that Christians might ally with Roman Empire, which had recently adopted Christianity as its official religion. This led to a rebellion of Albanians, along with Armenians and Georgians. At the Battle of Avarayr, the allied forces of Caucasian Albania, Georgia, and Armenia, devoted to Christianity, suffered defeat at the hands of the Sassanid army. Many of the Armenian nobility fled to the mountainous regions of Albania, particularly to Artsakh, which had become a center for resistance to Sassanid Persia. The religious center of the Albanian state also moved here. However, King Vache of Albania, a relative of Yazdegerd II, was forced to convert to Zoroastrianism, but soon thereafter converted back to Christianity.
According to The History of the Country of Albania, Peroz ordered the Albanian king Vache II to have the city of Perozapat ("the city of Peroz" or "Prosperous Peroz") constructed. However, this is unlikely as the Kingdom of Caucasian Albania had been abolished by Peroz after suppressing a revolt by Vache II in the mid-460s. The city was seemingly founded by Peroz himself after the removal of the ruling family in Caucasian Albania. Due to its more secure location, it was made the new residence of the Iranian . Albania remained kingless until 485, when Vachagan III () was installed on the throne by Peroz's brother and successor Balash (). In 552, the seat of the Albanian Catholicos was also transferred to Partaw.
By the end of the 5th century, the ancient Arsacid royal house of Albania, a branch of the ruling dynasty of Parthia, became extinct, and in the 6th century, it was replaced by princes of the Persian or Parthian Mihranid family, who claimed descent from the Sassanids. They assumed the Persian title of Arranshah (i.e. the Shah of Arran, the Persian name of Albania). The ruling dynasty was named after its Persian founder Mihran, who was a distant relative of the Sasanians. The Mihranid dynasty survived under Muslim suzerainty until 821-22.
In the late 6th to early 7th centuries the territory of Albania became an arena of wars between Sassanid Persia, Byzantium, and the Khazar Khanate, the latter two very often acting as allies against Sassanid Persia. In 628, during the Third Perso-Turkic War, the Khazars invaded Albania, and their leader Ziebel declared himself Lord of Albania, levying a tax on merchants and the fishermen of the Kura and Araxes rivers "in accordance with the land survey of the kingdom of Persia". Most of Transcaucasia was under Khazar rule before the arrival of the Arabs. However, some other sources state that the Khazars later left the region because of political instability.
According to Peter Golden, "steady pressure from Turkic nomads was typical of the Khazar era, although there are no unambiguous references to permanent settlements", while Vladimir Minorsky stated that, in Islamic times, "the town of Qabala lying between Shirvan and Shakki was a place where Khazars were probably settled".
Impact of Armenian politics, culture and civilization
Armenian politics, culture and civilization played a critical role in the entire history of Caucasian Albania (Aghvank, in Armenian). This, due to the fact that after the partition of the Kingdom of Armenia by Persia and Byzantium in 387 AD, the Armenian provinces of Artsakh and Utik were disassociated from the Armenian kingdom and included by Persians into a single province (marzpanate) called Aghvank (Arran). This new unit included: the original Caucasian Albania, found between the River Kura and the Great Caucasus; tribes living along the Caspian shore; as well as Artsakh and Utik, two territories now detached from Armenia.
The Armenian medieval atlas Ashkharatsuits (Աշխարացույց), compiled in the 7th century by Anania Shirakatsi (Անանիա Շիրակացի, but sometimes attributed to Movses Khorenatsi as well), categorizes Artsakh and Utik as provinces of Armenia despite their presumed detachment from the Armenian Kingdom and their political association with Caucasian Albania and Persia at the time of his writing. Shirakatsi specifies that Artsakh and Utik are "now detached" from Armenia and included in "Aghvank," and he takes care to distinguish this new entity from the old "Aghvank strictly speaking" (Բուն Աղվանք) situated north of the river Kura. Because it was more homogeneous and more developed than the original tribes to the north of the Kura, the Armenian element took over Caucasian Albania's political life and was progressively able to impose its language and culture.
The Armenian population of Artsakh and Utik remained in place as did the entire political, social, cultural and military structure of the provinces. In the 5th century, early medieval historian Khorenatsi (Խորենացի) testifies that the population of Artsakh and Utik spoke Armenian, with the River Kura, in his words, marking the "boundary of Armenian speech" (... զեզերս հայկական խօսիցս). though this does not mean that its population consisted exclusively of ethnic Armenians.
Whatever little is known about Caucasian Albania after 387 AD comes from the Old Armenian text History of the Land of Aghvank (Պատմություն Աղվանից Աշխարհի) by the Armenian author Movses Kaghankatvatsi (also known as Movses Daskhurantsi), which in essence is the history of Armenia's provinces of Artsakh and Utik. Kaghankatvatsi, repeating Khorenatsi, mentions that the very name "Aghvank"/"Albania" is of Armenian origin, and relates it to the Armenian word "aghu" (աղու, meaning "kind," "benevolent". Khorenatsi states that "aghu" was a nickname given to Prince Arran, whom the Armenian King Vologases I (Vagharsh I) appointed as governor of northeastern provinces bordering on Armenia. According to a legend reported by Khorenatsi, Arran was a descendant of Sisak, the ancestor of the Siunids of Armenia's province of Syunik, and thus a great-grandson of the ancestral eponym of the Armenians, the Forefather Hayk. Kaghankatvatsi and another Armenian author, Kirakos Gandzaketsi, confirm Arran's belonging to Hayk's bloodline by calling Arranshahiks "a Haykazian dynasty".
In Kaghankatvatsi's History and in the historical text of the Armenian early medieval author Agathangelos, the Kingdom of Aghvank's feudal system, including its political terminology, was Armenian. As in Armenia, nobles of Aghvank are referred to by the terms nakharars (նախարար), azats (ազատ), hazarapets (հազարապետ), marzpets (մարզպետ), shinakans (շինական), etc.
Princely families, which were later mentioned in Kaghankatvatsi's History were included in the Table of Ranks called "Gahnamak" (direct translation: "List of Thrones," Arm. Գահնամակ) of the Kingdom of Armenia, which defined Armenia's aristocratic hierarchy. Princely families of Caucasian Albania were also included in the Table of Armies called "Zoranamak" (Arm. Զորանամակ) of the Kingdom of Armenia which determined military obligations of key aristocratic families before the Armenian King in times of war.
As in Armenia, the "Albanian" clergy used exclusively Armenian church terms for clerical hierarchy (katholikos/կաթողիկոս, vardapet/վարդապետ, sargavag/սարգավագ, etc.) Identifiably Armenian are also most if not all toponyms found in the History. Not only are the names of most towns, villages, mountains, and rivers uniquely Armenian morphologically, exactly the same toponyms were and are still found in other parts of historical Armenia. They include the root kert ("town") for towns (Arm.: կերտ, such Dastakert, Hnarakert – compare with Tigranakert or modern Stapanakert in Nagorno Karabakh), shen and kan (village) for villages (Arm. շեն, and կան, such as Karashen or Dyutakan), etc.
First names of most rulers, commoners and clergy in Kaghankatvatsi's History are uniquely Armenian. Many of these names survived for centuries and are still used only by modern Armenians. These include: Vachagan (Վախագան), Vache (Վաչե), Bakur (Բակուր), Taguhi (Թագուհի), Vrtanes (Վրթաննես), Viro (Վիրո), Varaz-Trdat (Վարազ-Տրդաթ), Marut (Մարութ), etc. Some of these names can be translated from Armenian as common words: e.g. Taguhi means "queen" and Varaz means "wild boar". In fact, Armenians to this day use the first name Aghvan (Աղվան) that directly refers to the Kingdom of Aghvank.
After the partition, the capital city of Caucasian Albania was moved from the territories on the eastern bank of the River Kura (referred to by Armenians "Aghvank Proper," Arm. Բուն Աղվանք) to Partav, located in the former Armenian province of Utik. This was followed by the transfer of the Seat of the Kingdom of Albania's religious leader (Katholicos) from territories north of Kura to Partav.
The Kingdom of Albania was converted to Christianity at the start of the 4th century by none other than the Armenian evangelizer St. Gregory the Enlightener (Arm. Սբ. Գրիգոր Լուսավորիչ), who baptized Armenia into the first Christian state by 301 AD. In about 330 AD, the grandson of St. Gregory, St. Grigoris, ecumenical head of the eastern provinces of Armenia, was designated bishop for the Kingdom of Aghvank. Mausoleum interning Grigoris’ remains, the Amaras Monastery stands as the oldest dated monument in Nagorno Karabakh. Amaras was started by St. Gregory and completed by St. Grigoris himself.
According to tradition, the Amaras Monastery housed the first Armenian school in historical Armenia, which was opened early in the 5th century by the inventor of the Armenian alphabet St. Mesrob Mashtots. St. Mesrob Mashtots was intensely active in preaching Gospel in Artsakh and Utik. Movses Kaghankatvatsi's History dedicates four separate chapters to St. Mashtots’ mission, referring to him as "enlightener" and "saint" (chapters 27, 28 and 29 of Book One, and chapter 3 of Book Two). Overall, St. Mesrob made three trips to the Kingdom of Albania where he toured not only the Armenian lands of Artsakh and Utik but also territories to the north of the River Kura.
Kaghankatvatsi's History describes Armenian influence on the Church of Aghvank, whose jurisdiction extended from Artsakh and Utik to regions to the north of the River Kura, in the territories of the "original", "pre-Armenian" Caucasian Albania. One of the consequences of this was that the Armenian language progressively supplanted Albanian as the language of church and state (and only if there was any single "Albanian" language in the first place which is doubtful because the population of Albania/Aghvank was described as consisting of as many 26 different tribes). In the same 7th century, Armenian poet Davtak Kertogh writes his Elegy on the Death of Grand Prince Juansher, where each passage begins with a letter of Armenian script in alphabetical order.
Christianization
The polytheistic religion of Albania was centered on the worship of three divinities, designated by Interpretatio Romana as Sol, Zeus, and Luna.
Christianity started to enter Caucasian Albania at an early date, according to Movses Kaghankatvatsi, as early as during the 1st century. The first Christian church in the region was built by St. Eliseus, a disciple of Thaddeus of Edessa, at a place called Gis. Shortly after Armenia adopted Christianity as its state religion (301 AD), the Caucasian Albanian king Urnayr went to the See of the Armenian Apostolic Church to receive baptism from St. Gregory the Illuminator, the first Patriarch of Armenia.
King Vachagan III helped to implant Christianity in Caucasian Albania, through a synod allowing the church legal rights in some domestic issues. In 498 AD (in other sources, 488 AD) in the settlement named Aluen (Aghuen) (present-day Agdam District of Azerbaijan), an Albanian church council convened to adopt laws further strengthening the position of Christianity in Albania.
Albanian churchmen took part in missionary efforts in the Caucasus and Pontic regions. In 682, the catholicos, Israel, led an unsuccessful delegation to convert Alp Iluetuer, the ruler of the North Caucasian Huns, to Christianity. The Albanian Church maintained a number of monasteries in the Holy Land. In the 7th century, Varaz-Grigor, ruler of Albania, and "his nation" were christened by Emperor Heraclius at Gardman.
After the overthrow of Nerses in 705, the Caucasian Albanian elite decided to reestablish the tradition of having their Catholicoi ordained through the Patriarch of Armenia, as it was the case before 590. This event is generally regarded as the abolition of the Church of Caucasian Albania, and the lowering of its denominational status to that of a Catholicate within the body of the Armenian Apostolic Church.
Islamic era
Sassanid Albania fell to the Islamic conquest of Persia in the mid-7th century and was incorporated into the Rashidun Caliphate. King Javanshir of Albania, the most prominent ruler of Mihranid dynasty, fought against the Arab invasion of caliph Uthman on the side of Sassanid Iran. Facing the threat of the Arab invasion on the south and the Khazar offensive on the north, Javanshir had to recognize the caliph's suzerainty. The Arabs then reunited the territory with Armenia under one governor.
By the 8th century, "Albania" had been reduced to a strictly geographical and titular ecclesiastical connotation, and was referred to as such by medieval Armenian historians; on its place sprang a number principalities, such as that of the Armenian principality and kingdom of Khachen, along with various Caucasian, Iranian and Arabic principalities: the principality of Shaddadids, the principality of Shirvan, the principality of Derbent. Most of the region was ruled by the Persian Sajid Dynasty from 890 to 929. The region was at times part of the Abbasid province of Armenia based on numismatic and historical evidence.
Early Muslim ruling dynasties of the time included Rawadids, Sajids, Salarids, Shaddadids, Shirvanshahs, and the Sheki and Tiflis emirates. The principal cities of Arran in early medieval times were Barda (Partav) and Ganja. Barda reached prominence in the 10th century, and was used to house a mint. Barda was sacked by the Rus and Norse several times in the 10th century as a result of the Caspian expeditions of the Rus. Barda never revived after these raids and was replaced as capital by Baylaqan, which in turn was sacked by the Mongols in 1221. After this Ganja rose to prominence and became the central city of the region. The capital of the Shaddadid dynasty, Ganja was considered the "mother city of Arran" during their reign.
The territory of Arran became a part of the Seljuk empire, followed by the Ildegizid state. It was taken briefly by the Khwarizmid dynasty and then overran by Mongol Hulagu empire in the 13th century. Later, it became a part of Chobanid, Jalayirid, Timurid, and Safavid states.
In Azerbaijani historiography
The history of Caucasian Albania has been a major topic of Azerbaijani revisionist theories, which came under criticism in Western and Russian academic and analytical circles, and were often characterized as "bizarre" and "futile".
In his article "The Albanian Myth", Russian historian and anthropologist Victor Schnirelmann states that Azerbaijani academics have been "renaming prominent medieval Armenian political leaders, historians and writers, who lived in Nagorno Karabakh and Armenia into "Albanians". Schnirelmann argues that these efforts were first launched in the 1950s and were directed towards "ripping the population of early medieval Nagorno Karabakh off from their Armenian heritage" and "cleansing Azerbaijan of Armenian history". In the 1970s, Azerbaijan made a transition from ignoring, discounting or concealing Armenian historical heritage in Soviet Azerbaijan to misattributing and mischaracterizing it as examples of Azerbaijani culture by arbitrarily declaring "Caucasian Albanians" as ancestors of modern Azerbaijanis. In this regard, Thomas de Waal, a scholar at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, writes about the political context of Azerbaijan's historical revisionism:
This rather bizarre argument has the strong political subtext that Nagorno Karabakh had in fact been Caucasian Albanian and that Armenians had no claim to it.
Schnirelmann states that a significant revisionist method used by Azerbaijani scholars was "re-publishing of ancient and medieval sources, where the term "Armenian state" was routinely and systematically removed and replaced with "Albanian state". American author George Bournoutian gives examples of how that was done by Ziya Bunyadov, vice-chairman of Azerbaijani Academy of Sciences, who earned the nickname of "Azerbaijan’s foremost Armenophobe".
According to de Waal:
Buniatov’s scholarly credentials were dubious. It later transpired that the two articles he published in 1960 and 1965 on Caucasian Albania were direct plagiarism. Under his own name, he had simply published, unattributed, translations of two articles, originally written in English by Western scholars C.F.J. Dowsett and Robert Hewsen.
Hewsen, a historian from Rowan College and the acknowledged authority in this field, wrote in his volume Armenia: A Historical Atlas, published by University of Chicago Press:
According to de Waal, a disciple of Bunyadov, Farida Mammadova, has "taken the Albanian theory and used it to push Armenians out of the Caucasus altogether. She had relocated Caucasian Albania into what is now the Republic of Armenia. All those lands, churches, and monasteries in the Republic of Armenia—all had been Albanian. No sacred Armenian fact was left un-attacked". De Waal describes Mammadova as a sophisticated end of what "in Azerbaijan has become a very blunt instrument indeed". Both Ziya Bunyadov and Farida Mammadova are known for their anti-Armenian public pronouncements and pamphlets.
Historical revisionism in Azerbaijan supported a number of policies on the ground, including cultural vandalism directed against Armenian monuments in Soviet and post-Soviet Azerbaijan. Armenian memorial stone crosses known as "khachkars on the territory of Azerbaijan were regularly misrepresented as "Caucasian Albanian" both before and after Azerbaijan's independence. Furthermore, mischaracterization of Armenian khachkars as supposedly non-Armenian monuments of Caucasian Albania was associated with acts of cultural vandalism against Armenian historical monuments in Nakhichevan. The Khachkar destruction in Nakhchivan refer to the systematic campaign by the government of Azerbaijan to completely demolish the Armenian cemetery in Julfa with thousands of Armenian khachkars near the town of Julfa (known as Jugha in Armenian), Nakhchivan. Claims by Armenians that Azerbaijan was undertaking a systematic campaign to destroy and remove the monuments first arose in late 1998 and those charges were renewed in 2002 and 2005. Adam T. Smith, an anthropologist and associate professor of anthropology at the University of Chicago, called the removal of the khachkars "a shameful episode in humanity's relation to its past, a deplorable act on the part of the government of Azerbaijan which requires both explanation and repair". Smith and other scholars, as well as several United States Senators, signed a letter to the UNESCO and other organizations condemning Azerbaijan's government. Azerbaijan instead contends that the monuments were not of Armenian, but of Caucasian Albanian, origin, which, per Thomas De Waal, did not protect "the graveyard from an act in the history wars".
Anti-Armenian cultural vandalism in Azerbaijan perpetrated with the use of revisionist theories on Caucasian Albania was also noted in northern Azerbaijan, where Norwegian archeologists were involved in the restoration of an Armenian-Georgian church in the village of Kish near the city of Shaki. Azerbaijanis erased Armenian inscriptions on the church's walls, which led to by an official complaint by Norwegian foreign ministry.
Furthermore, revisionist theories about Caucasian Albania have also been used by Azerbaijani statesmen in the ongoing Azerbaijani-Georgian dispute over the territorial status of David Gareja monastery complex, a Georgian spiritual and historical monument partially located on the territory of Azerbaijani Republic. David Gareja is a rock-hewn Georgian Orthodox monastery complex in the Kakheti region of Eastern Georgia, on the semi-desert slopes of Mount Gareja, some 60–70 km southeast of Georgia's capital Tbilisi. Giorgi Manjgaladze, Georgia's deputy foreign minister proposed that Georgia would be willing to exchange other territory for the remainder of David Gareja because of its historical and cultural significance to the Georgians. Baku disapproves of this land swap, and in April 2007, Azerbaijan's deputy foreign minister Khalaf Khalafov told a press conference in Baku that it was "out of the question" for Azerbaijan to "give up its claims to the borderlands" including David Gareja. Khalafov then stated that the monastery "was home to the Caucasian Albanians, who are believed to have been the earliest inhabitants of Azerbaijan". Georgian art historian Dimitri Tumanishvili dismissed this claim and stated that the complex "is covered in the work of Georgian masters". "There are Georgian inscriptions everywhere dating back to the sixth century," he said "There are no traces of another culture there. After that, I don’t think you need any further proof".
See also
Arsacid Dynasty of Caucasian Albania
Arts of Caucasian Albania
Artsakh
Church of Caucasian Albania
Shirvan
Notes
Footnotes
References
Marco Bais Albania caucasica: ethnos, storia, territorio attraverso le fonti greche, latine e armene. Mimesis Edizioni. Roma, 2001
Movses Kalankatuatsi. The History of Aluank. Translated from Old Armenian (Grabar) by Sh.V.Smbatian, Yerevan, 1984.
Koriun, The Life of Mashtots, translated from Old Armenian (Grabar) by Bedros Norehad.
Movses Kalankatuatsi. History of Albania. Translated by L. Davlianidze-Tatishvili, Tbilisi, 1985.
Movses Khorenatsi The History of Armenia. Translated from Old Armenian (Grabar) by Gagik Sargsyan, Yerevan, 1990.
Ilia Abuladze. "About the discovery of the alphabet of the Caucasian Albanians". Bulletin of the Institute of Language, History and Material Culture (ENIMK), Vol. 4, Ch. I, Tbilisi, 1938.
External links
About the Caucasian Albania (section 10)
Caucasian History
705 disestablishments
Former countries in Europe
Geographic history of Azerbaijan
History of Dagestan
Roman client kingdoms | [
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213498 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue%20jay | Blue jay | The blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata) is a passerine bird in the family Corvidae, native to eastern North America. It lives in most of the eastern and central United States; some eastern populations may be migratory. Resident populations are also in Newfoundland, Canada; breeding populations are found across southern Canada. It breeds in both deciduous and coniferous forests, and is common in residential areas. Its coloration is predominantly blue, with a white chest and underparts, and a blue crest; it has a black, U-shaped collar around its neck and a black border behind the crest. Males and females are similar in size and plumage, and plumage does not vary throughout the year. Four subspecies have been recognized.
The blue jay feeds mainly on seeds and nuts, such as acorns, which it may hide to eat later; soft fruits; arthropods; and occasionally small vertebrates. It typically gleans food from trees, shrubs, and the ground, and sometimes hawks insects from the air. Blue jays can be very aggressive to other birds; they sometimes raid nests and have decapitated other birds.
It builds an open cup nest in the branches of a tree; both sexes participate. The clutch may be two to seven eggs, which are blueish or light brown with darker brown spots. Young are altricial, and are brooded by the female for 8–12 days after hatching. They may stay with their parents for one to two months.
The name jay derives from the bird's noisy, garrulous nature and has been applied to other birds of the same family, which are also mostly gregarious. Jays are also called jaybirds.
Taxonomy
The blue jay was first described as Pica glandaria cærulea cristata in English naturalist Mark Catesby's 1731 publication of Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahamas. It was later described as Corvus cristatus in Carl Linnaeus' 1758 edition of Systema Naturae. In the 19th century, the jay was described by French ornithologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1838 as Cyanocorax cristatus in A geographical and comparative list of the birds of Europe and North America, and given its modern scientific name Cyanocitta cristata by Hugh Edwin Strickland in 1845. The genus name Cyanocitta derives from the Greek words 'kyaneos' (blue) and the 'kitta' and 'kissa' (chattering bird, jay), and the term 'blue chatterer' refers to the bright blue plumage of the head, nape, back, and tail of the bird. The specific name cristata (crested, tufted) derives from Latin referring to the prominent blue crest of the jay.
Description
The blue jay measures from bill to tail and weighs , with a wingspan of . Consistent with Bergmann's rule, jays from Connecticut averaged in mass, while jays from warmer southern Florida averaged . There is a pronounced crest on the head, a crown of feathers, which may be raised or lowered according to the bird's mood. When excited or aggressive, the crest will be fully raised. When frightened, the crest bristles outwards, brushlike. When the bird is feeding among other jays or resting, the crest is flattened on the head.
Its plumage is lavender-blue to mid-blue in the crest, back, wings, and tail, and its face is white. The underside is off-white and the neck is collared with black which extends to the sides of the head. The wing primaries and tail are strongly barred with black, sky-blue, and white. The bill, legs, and eyes are all black. Males and females are almost identical, but the male is slightly larger. The black plumage on its nape, face, and throat varies extensively between individuals; it is believed to assist in recognition between individuals.
As with most other blue-hued birds, the blue jay's coloration is not derived from pigments but is the result of light interference due to the internal structure of the feathers; if a blue feather is crushed, the blue disappears because the structure is destroyed. The actual pigment in its feathers is melanin. This is referred to as structural coloration.
Distribution and habitat
The blue jay occurs from southern Canada (including the southern areas of provinces from Alberta eastward to Quebec and throughout the Atlantic provinces) and throughout the eastern and central United States south to Florida and northeastern Texas. The western edge of the range stops where the arid pine forest and scrub habitat of the closely related Steller's jay (C. stelleri) begins, generally in the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains. Recently, the range of the blue jay has extended northwestwards so that it is now a rare but regularly seen winter visitor along the northern US and southern Canadian Pacific Coast. As the two species' ranges now overlap, C. cristata may sometimes hybridize with Steller's jay. The increase in trees throughout the Great Plains during the past century due to fire suppression and tree planting facilitated the western range expansion of the blue jay as well as range expansions of many other species of birds. From 1966 to 2015, the Blue Jay experienced a population decline along the Atlantic coast, but a greater than 1.5% annual population increase throughout the northern part of its range, including Labrador, Nova Scotia, southern Quebec, and southern Manitoba.
The northernmost subspecies C. c. bromia is migratory, subject to necessity. It may withdraw several hundred kilometers south in the northernmost parts of its range. Thousands of blue jays have been observed to migrate in flocks along the Great Lakes and Atlantic coasts. It migrates during the daytime, in loose flocks of 5 to 250 birds. Much about their migratory behavior remains a mystery. Some are present throughout winter in all parts of their range. Young jays may be more likely to migrate than adults, but many adults also migrate. Some individual jays migrate south one year, stay north the next winter, and then migrate south again the next year. To date, no one has concretely worked out why they migrate when they do. Likely, it is related to weather conditions and how abundant the winter food sources are, which can determine whether other northern birds will move south.
The blue jay occupies a variety of habitats within its large range, from the pine woods of Florida to the spruce-fir forests of northern Ontario. It is less abundant in denser forests, preferring mixed woodlands with oaks and beeches. It has expertly adapted to human activity, occurring in parks and residential areas, and can adapt to wholesale deforestation with relative ease if human activity creates other means for the jays to get by.
Subspecies
Four subspecies are generally accepted, though the variation within this species is rather subtle and essentially clinal. No firm boundaries can be drawn between the inland subspecies. The ranges of the coastal races are better delimited.
Behavior
The blue jay is a noisy, bold, and aggressive passerine. It is a moderately slow flier (roughly ) when unprovoked. It flies with body and tail held level, with slow wing beats.
Its slow flying speeds make this species easy prey for hawks and owls when it flies in open areas. Virtually all the raptorial birds sympatric in distribution with the blue jay may prey upon it, especially swift bird-hunting specialists such as the Accipiter hawks. Diverse predators may prey on jay eggs and young up to their fledgling stage, including tree squirrels, snakes, cats, crows, raccoons, opossums, other jays and possibly many of the same birds of prey who attack adults.
The blue jay can be beneficial to other bird species, as it may chase predatory birds, such as hawks and owls, and will scream if it sees a predator within its territory. It has also been known to sound an alarm call when hawks or other dangers are near, and smaller birds often recognize this call and hide themselves away accordingly. It may occasionally impersonate the calls of raptors, especially those of the red-tailed and red-shouldered hawks, possibly to test if a hawk is in the vicinity, though also possibly to scare off other birds that may compete for food sources. It may also be aggressive towards humans who come close to its nest, and if an owl roosts near the nest during the daytime the blue jay mobs it until it takes a new roost. However, blue jays have also been known to attack or kill other smaller birds, and foliage-roosting bat species such as Eastern red bats. Jays are very territorial birds, and they will chase others from a feeder for an easier meal. Additionally, the blue jay may raid other birds' nests, stealing eggs, chicks, and nests. However, this may not be as common as is typically thought, as only 1% of food matter in one study was bird material. Despite this, other passerines may still mob jays who come within their breeding territories.
When a blue jay is agitated or angry, the blue crest atop its head will rise. It will lower when the bird is relaxed or calm.
Blue jays, like other corvids, are highly curious and are considered intelligent birds. Young individuals playfully snatch brightly coloured or reflective objects, such as bottle caps or pieces of aluminum foil, and carry them around until they lose interest. While not confirmed to have engaged in tool use in the wild, blue jays in captivity have been observed using strips of newspaper as tools to obtain food, while captive fledglings have been observed attempting to open the doors of their cages.
Diet
Blue jays are omnivorous, but the Audubon Society estimates that 75% of their diet is vegetable matter. They have strong black bills which they use for cracking nuts, usually while holding them with their feet, and for eating corn, grains and seeds. Blue jays particularly love to eat peanuts in the shell. Its food is sought both on the ground and in trees and includes virtually all known types of plant and animal sources, such as acorns and beech mast, weed seeds, grain, fruits and other berries, peanuts, bread, meat, small invertebrates of many types, scraps in town parks, bird-table food and rarely eggs and nestlings. Blue jays will sometimes cache food, though to what extent differs widely among individuals. Although seemingly contentious in their general behavior, blue jays are frequently subservient to other medium-sized birds who visit bird-feeders. In Florida, blue jays were dominated at feeders by eastern gray squirrels, Florida scrub-jays, common grackles and red-headed woodpeckers, all of which were occasionally observed to aggressively prevent the jays from feeding.
Reproduction
The mating season begins in mid-March, peaks in mid-April to May, and extends into July. Any suitable tree or large bush may be used for nesting, though an evergreen is preferred. The nest is preferentially built at a height in the trees of . It is cup-shaped and composed of twigs, small roots, bark strips, moss, other plant material, cloth, paper, and feathers, with occasional mud added to the cup.
Blue jays are not very picky about nesting locations. If no better place is available – e.g. in a heavily deforested area – they will even use places like the large mailboxes typical of the rural United States. They also appropriate nests of other mid-sized songbirds as long as these are placed in suitable spots; American robin nests are commonly used by blue jays, for example.
Blue jays typically form monogamous pair bonds for life. Both sexes build the nest and rear the young, though only the female broods them. The male feeds the female while she is brooding the eggs. There are usually between 3 and 6 (averaging 4 or 5) eggs laid and incubated over 16–18 days. The young fledge usually between 17 and 21 days after hatching.
After the juveniles fledge, the family travels and forages together until early fall, when the young birds disperse to avoid competition for food during the winter. Sexual maturity is reached after one year of age. The oldest known wild, banded Blue Jay was at least 26 years, 11 months old when it was found dead after being caught in fishing gear. It had been banded in the Newfoundland/Labrador/St. Pierre et Miquelon area in 1989 and was found there in 2016. Another wild jay was found to have been around 17 and a half years old. A more common lifespan for wild birds that survive to adulthood is around 7 years. Beyond predation and the occasional collision with man-made objects, a common cause of mortality in recent decades has been the West Nile virus, to which corvids as a whole seem especially susceptible. However, despite several major local declines, overall blue jays have not seemed to have been depleted by the disease.
Vocalizations
Blue jays can make a large variety of sounds, and individuals may vary perceptibly in their calling style. Like other corvids, they may learn to mimic human speech. Blue jays can also copy the cries of local hawks so well that it is sometimes difficult to tell which it is. Their voice is typical of most jays in being varied, but the most commonly recognized sound is the alarm call, which is a loud, almost gull-like scream. There is also a high-pitched jayer-jayer call that increases in speed as the bird becomes more agitated. This particular call can be easily confused with the chickadee's song because of the slow-starting chick-ah-dee-ee. Blue jays will use these calls to band together to mob potential predators such as hawks and drive them away from the jays' nests.
Blue jays also have quiet, almost subliminal calls which they use among themselves in proximity. One of the most distinctive calls of this type is often referred to as the "rusty pump" owing to its squeaky resemblance to the sound of an old hand-operated water pump. The blue jay (and other corvids) are distinct from most other songbirds for using their call as a song.
In human culture
In old African American folklore of the southern United States, the blue jay was a significant metaphysical creature. In some tales, the blue jay was credited with making the earth "when all de worl' was water" by bringing the first "grit" or "dirt". In other tales the blue jay was temporarily conscripted as a servant of the Devil to bring "kindling" to the "bad place": and "was not encountered on a Friday as he was fetching sticks down to Hell; furthermore, he was so happy and chirpy on a Saturday as he was relieved to return from Hell".
The blue jay was adopted as the team symbol of the Toronto Blue Jays Major League Baseball team, as well as some of their minor league affiliates. Their mascot, Ace, is an anthropomorphic blue jay. The blue jay is also the official mascot for Johns Hopkins University, Elmhurst University, and Creighton University. The latter two spell the name as one word - Bluejay. It is also the provincial bird of the province of Prince Edward Island in Canada.
References
External links
Blue Jay ID, including sound and video, at Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Blue Jay – Cyanocitta cristata – USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
Blue Jay at borealforest.org
Blue Jay Bird Sound at Florida Museum of Natural History
Photo essay of blue jay nestlings
Cyanocitta
Birds of North America
Birds of Canada
Native birds of Eastern Canada
Birds of the United States
Fauna of the Eastern United States
Tool-using animals
Blue jay
Articles containing video clips
Blue jay
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|
213502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince%20of%20Persia%20%281989%20video%20game%29 | Prince of Persia (1989 video game) | Prince of Persia is a fantasy cinematic platformer designed and implemented by Jordan Mechner for the Apple II and published by Broderbund in 1989. Taking place in medieval Persia, players control an unnamed protagonist who must venture through a series of dungeons to defeat the Grand Vizier Jaffar and save an imprisoned princess.
Much like Karateka, Mechner's first game, Prince of Persia used rotoscoping for its fluid and realistic animation. For this process, Mechner used as reference for the characters' movements videos of his brother doing acrobatic stunts in white clothes, and swashbuckler films such as The Adventures of Robin Hood.
The game was critically acclaimed, but was not an immediate commercial success as it was released at the tail end of the Apple II's relevance. It sold many copies as it was ported to a wide range of platforms. It is believed to have been the first cinematic platformer and inspired many games in this subgenre, such as Another World. Its success led to the release of two sequels, Prince of Persia 2: The Shadow and the Flame and Prince of Persia 3D, and two reboots of the series, first in 2003 with Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time, which led to three sequels of its own, and then again in 2008 with the identically-titled Prince of Persia.
Plot
The game is set in medieval Persia. While the sultan is fighting a war in a foreign land, his vizier Jaffar, a wizard, seizes power. His only obstacle to the throne is the Sultan's daughter. Jaffar locks her in a tower and orders her to become his wife, or she would die within 60 minutes (extended to 120 minutes in the Super NES version, which has longer and harder levels). The game's unnamed protagonist, whom the Princess loves, is thrown prisoner into the palace dungeons. In order to free her, he must escape the dungeons, get to the palace tower and defeat Jaffar before time runs out. In addition to guards, various traps and dungeons, the protagonist is further hindered by his own doppelgänger, conjured out of a magic mirror.
Gameplay
The main objective of the player is to lead the unnamed protagonist out of dungeons and into a tower before time runs out. This cannot be done without bypassing traps and fighting hostile swordsmen. The game consists of twelve levels (though some console versions have more). However, a game session may be saved and resumed at a later time only after level 2.
The player has a health indicator that consists of a series of small red triangles. The player starts with three. Each time the protagonist is damaged (cut by sword, fallen from two floors of heights or hit by a falling rock), the player loses one of these indicators. There are small jars containing potions of several colours and sizes. The red potions scattered throughout the game restore one health indicator. The blue potions are poisonous, and they take one life indicator as damage. There are also large jars of red potion that increase the maximum number of health indicators by one, and large jars of green potion that grants a temporarily ability to hover. If the player's health is reduced to zero, the protagonist dies. Subsequently, the game is restarted from the beginning of the stage in which the protagonist died but the timer will not reset to that point, effectively constituting a time penalty. There is no counter for the number of lives; but if time runs out, the princess will be gone and the game will be over, subject to variations per console versions:
The DOS version allows the player already in the very late part of Level 12 to continue after time is out with no extra life, so:
Restarting the level by pressing appropriate buttons is not death, thus not failing the game yet.
Any player's death, including having killed Jaffar then falling from excessive floors of heights, also fails the game in which case the Princess is also gone.
Only defeating Jaffar and exiting Level 12 alive will still save the Princess, with a negative time score in the hall of fame.
The Macintosh port will not give the player a game over once they reach the final area of Level 12 (stored in data as Level 13), provided they make it there on time. The player must cross the magic bridge and make a screen-transition to a room with falling tiles to be 'safe'; once there, they will always be allowed to continue, regardless of deaths or time expiration. Running out of time at any point before the screen-transition, including the bridge, will result in game over as usual.
The Super NES remake allows the players to save themselves after time is out, to get the game over at the end without the princess saved.
There are three types of traps that the player must bypass: Spike traps, deep pits (three or more levels deep) and guillotines. Getting caught or falling into each results in the instant death of the protagonist. In addition, there are gates that can be raised for a short period of time by having the protagonist stand on the activation trigger. The player must pass through the gates while they are still open, avoiding locking triggers. Sometimes, there are various traps between an unlock trigger and a gate.
Hostile swordsmen (Jaffar and his guards) are yet another obstacle. The player obtains a sword in the first stage, which they can use to fight these adversaries. The protagonist's sword maneuvers are as follows: advance, back off, slash, parry, or a combined parry-then-slash attack. Enemy swordsmen also have a health indicator similar to that of the protagonist. Killing them involves slashing them until their health indicator is depleted or by pushing them into traps while fighting.
In stage three a skeletal swordsman comes to life and does battle with the protagonist. The skeleton cannot be killed with the sword, but can be defeated by being dropped into one of the pits.
A unique trap encountered in stage four, which serves as a plot device, is a magic mirror, whose appearance is followed by an ominous leitmotif. The protagonist is forced to jump through this mirror upon which his doppelganger emerges from the other side, draining the protagonist's health to one. This apparition later hinders the protagonist by stealing a potion and throwing him into a dungeon. The protagonist cannot kill this apparition as they share lives; any damage inflicted upon one also hurts the other. Therefore, the protagonist must merge with his doppelganger.
In stage eight, the protagonist becomes trapped behind a gate before he can reach the exit. In this stage the Princess sends a white mouse to trigger the gate open again, allowing him to proceed to the next level.
In stage twelve protagonist faces his shadow doppelgänger. Once they have merged, the player can run across an invisible bridge to a new area, where they battle Jaffar (once the final checkpoint is reached, the player will no longer get a game over screen even if time runs out, except if the player dies after the timeout). Once Jaffar is defeated, his spell is broken and the Princess can be saved. In addition, the in-game timer is stopped at the moment of Jaffar's death, and the time remaining will appear on the high scores.
Development
Development for the game began in 1985, the year Jordan Mechner graduated from Yale University. At that time, Mechner had already developed one game, Karateka, for distributor Broderbund. Despite expecting a sequel to Karateka, the distributor gave Mechner creative freedom to create an original game.
The game drew from several sources of inspiration beyond video games, including literature such as the Arabian Nights stories, and films such as Raiders of the Lost Ark and The Adventures of Robin Hood.
{{Quote box|quote=For a few seconds, the camera angle has them in exact profile. This was a godsend. I did my VHS/one-hour-photo rotoscope procedure, spread two-dozen snapshots out on the floor of the office and spent days poring over them trying to figure out what exactly was going on in that duel, how to conceptualise it into a repeatable pattern.|source=Jordan Mechner on how he used the final duel between Errol Flynn and Basil Rathbone from The Adventures of Robin Hood to create the game's swordfighting mechanic |width=30% |align=left}}Prince of Persia was programmed in 6502 assembly, a low-level programming language. Mechner used an animation technique called rotoscoping, with which he used footage to animate the characters' sprites and movements. To create the protagonist's platforming motions, Mechner traced video footage of his younger brother running and jumping in white clothes. To create the game's sword fighting sprites, Mechner rotoscoped the final duel scene between Errol Flynn and Basil Rathbone in the 1938 film The Adventures of Robin Hood. Though the use of rotoscoping was regarded as a pioneering move, Mechner later recalled that "when we made that decision with Prince of Persia, I wasn't thinking about being cutting edge—we did it essentially because I'm not that good at drawing or animation, and it was the only way I could think of to get lifelike movement." Also unusual was the method of combat: protagonist and enemies fought with swords, not projectile weapons, as was the case in most contemporary games. Mechner has said that when he started programming, the first ten minutes of the film Raiders of the Lost Ark had been one of the main inspirations for the character's acrobatic responses in a dangerous environment.
During development, the Prince was meant to be a nonviolent character, so the game didn't initially include combat. However, due to finding the gameplay to be dull and after incessant demand from Tomi Pierce, a colleague of his, Mechner added sword fighting to the game and created Shadow Man, the Prince's doppelgänger. Guards were later added when Mechner managed to make use of an additional 12K of the Apple II's memory.
For the Japanese computer ports, Arsys Software and Riverhillsoft enhanced the visuals and redesigned the Prince's appearance, introducing the classic turban and vest look. This version became the basis for the Macintosh version and later Prince of Persia ports and games by Brøderbund. Riverhillsoft's FM Towns version also added a Red Book CD audio soundtrack.
The Game Boy version was the first game to feature music by Tommy Tallarico. He was a playtester for Virgin Interactive and offered to compose the music free of charge.
Ports
After its release on the Apple II, Prince of Persia was ported to a variety of platforms. Below is a list of the ports that were developed.
ReceptionPrince of Persia received a positive critical reception, but was initially a commercial failure in North America, where it had sold only 7,000 units each on the Apple II and IBM PC by July 1990. It was when the game was released in Japan and Europe that year that it became a commercial success. In July 1990, the NEC PC-9801 version sold 10,000 units as soon as it was released in Japan. It was then ported to various different home computers and video game consoles, eventually selling 2 million units worldwide by the time its sequel Prince of Persia 2: The Shadow and the Flame (1993) was in production. It has sold more than copies, .
Charles Ardai of Computer Gaming World stated that the game package's claim that it "breaks new ground with animation so uncannily human it must be seen to be believed" was true. He wrote that Prince of Persia "succeeds at being more than a running-jumping game (in other words, a gussied-up Nintendo game)" because it "captures the feel of those great old adventure films", citing Thief of Baghdad, Frankenstein, and Dracula. Ardai concluded that it was "a tremendous achievement" in games comparable to that of Star Wars in film.
In 1991, the game was ranked the 12th best Amiga game of all time by Amiga Power. In 1992, The New York Times described the Macintosh version as having "brilliant graphics and excellent sound ... Sure, you could do all this years ago on a Commodore 64 or Atari 400. But those games never looked or sounded like this". Reviewing the Genesis version, GamePro praised the "extremely fluid" animation of the player character and commented that the controls are difficult to master but nonetheless very effective. Comparing it to the Super NES version, they summarized that "the Genesis version has better graphics, and the SNES has better music. Otherwise, the two are identical in almost every way ..." Electronic Gaming Monthly (EGM) likewise assessed the Genesis version as "An excellent conversion of the classic action game", and added that the game's challenging strategy and technique give it high longevity. EGMs panel of four reviewers each gave it a rating of 8 out of 10, adding up to an overall score of 32 out of 40.
In 1991, PC Format named Prince of Persia one of the 50 best computer games ever, highlighting its "unbelievably good animation". In 1996, Computer Gaming World named Prince of Persia the 84th best game ever, with the editors calling it "an acrobatic platformer with amazingly fluid action".
LegacyPrince of Persia influenced cinematic platformers such as Another World and Flashback as well as action-adventure games such as Tomb Raider, which used a similar control scheme. A few DOS games were created using exactly the same game mechanics of the DOS version of Prince of Persia. Makh-Shevet created Cruel World in 1993 and Capstone Software created Zorro in 1995.
In 2007, Prince of Persia was remade and ported by Gameloft. The remake, titled Prince of Persia Classic, was released on June 13, 2007, to the Xbox Live Arcade, and on October 23, 2008, on the PlayStation Network. It features the same level design and general premise but contained 3D-rendered graphics, more fluid movements, and Sands of Time'' aesthetics. The gameplay and controls were slightly adjusted to include a wall-jump move and different swordplay. New game modes were also added, such as "Time Attack" and "Survival". The game has also been released on Android.
Reverse engineering efforts by fans of the original game have resulted in detailed documentation of the file formats of the MS-DOS version. Various level editors have been created that can be used to modify the level files of the game. With these editors and other software, over 60 mods have been created.
On April 17, 2012, Jordan Mechner established a GitHub repository containing the long-thought-lost original Apple II source code for Prince of Persia. A technical document describing the operation of this source code is available on Mechner's website.
On April 30, 2020, Mechner did an AMA on Reddit where he stated that he would be releasing his journals from the development of the game as a book and users could ask any questions that they may have about the game to him.
References
External links
Prince of Persia 1 page at PoPUW.com
1989 video games
Action-adventure games
Amiga games
Amstrad CPC games
Apple II games
Atari ST games
Broderbund games
Commercial video games with freely available source code
Commodore 64 games
DOS games
FM Towns games
Game Boy Color games
Game Boy games
Game Gear games
Konami games
Classic Mac OS games
Mobile games
NEC PC-9801 games
Nintendo Entertainment System games
Platform games
PlayStation Network games
Prince of Persia games
IOS games
SAM Coupé games
Sega CD games
Master System games
Sega Genesis games
Sharp X68000 games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System games
TurboGrafx-CD games
Video games scored by Mark Cooksey
Video games scored by Tommy Tallarico
Video games developed in the United States
Video games set in Iran
Video games with alternative versions
Video games with oblique graphics
Video games with rotoscoped graphics
Virgin Interactive games
Virtual Console games
Xbox 360 Live Arcade games
ZX Spectrum games
Cinematic platform games | [
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|
213505 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tecmo%20Super%20Bowl | Tecmo Super Bowl | Tecmo Super Bowl is an American football video game for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) that was released in December 1991. Developed by Tecmo, it is the first sports video game that was licensed by both the National Football League and the National Football League Players Association, thus allowing the game to use both the names and attributes of real NFL teams and real NFL players. Prior games use either the real teams, the real players, or fictional substitutes, but not real teams and real players together.
The game was a major success, resulting in several follow-ups for subsequent game consoles. The NES original has had an extensive cult following across the decades, with widely covered tournaments as the game modification community provides annual roster updates. It has been variously named as one of the best NES games, one of the best sports games, and one of the most influential video games of all time.
Overview
With Tecmo Bowl for NES in 1989, Tecmo had procured an official license from the National Football League Players Association, providing twelve teams and a truncated roster. The full NFL team license was unavailable because of the exclusive license held for another NES game, NFL. The success of Tecmo Bowl was followed by the release of Tecmo Super Bowl in 1991 in North America and Japan, for which Tecmo acquired a complete set of NFL licenses, making it the first and only NES game to feature both real NFL teams and players. Although the game was released in late 1991, all team rosters and player attributes are from the prior 1990–91 NFL season, so it contains no rookies taken in the 1991 NFL Draft and no player team changes executed before the start of the 1991 season.
Tecmo Super Bowl surpasses its predecessor with the complete 1991 league of 28 teams, expanded rosters, expanded playbooks, and statistical tracking including NFL records. Jim Kelly, Randall Cunningham, and Bernie Kosar are represented by generic names of QB Bills, QB Eagles, and QB Browns, respectively, because the players were not members of the NFLPA's marketing contract. This gameplay foundation would be expanded upon in the series.
Gameplay
In the previous Tecmo Bowl for NES, each team has a roster of at least twenty players (twenty-one if the kick returner is not a starter), with nine players for offense, nine players for defense, a kicker, and a punter. In Tecmo Super Bowl, each roster has thirty different players. Each team has eleven defensive players who can be neither substituted nor injured. Each team has seventeen offensive players, which includes eleven starters and six substitutes. Eleven players are always on the field for each team.
In addition to using real teams and players, Tecmo Super Bowl incorporates the full-length 1991 NFL regular season schedule. Its playoff format includes the Super Bowl and the post-season Pro Bowl game.
Tecmo Super Bowl retains the arcade-style football gameplay of the predecessor, including the ability to break tackles and a lack of penalties. New features include the coin toss, fumbles, five-minute quarters, timeouts to avoid ten-second runoffs, statistical tracking, single season NFL records, expanded and editable playbooks with eight plays instead of four, the ability to substitute players, varying health conditions of players, and player injuries. The game expands on cut scenes for important events like touchdowns, halftime shows, injuries, or big plays.
Players can adjust offensive plays and substitute players for each NFL team and for the two Pro Bowl teams. The Pro Bowl team's roster can be edited. Offensive, defensive, and special-teams players may be viewed as individual "player cards" with statistics, attributes, and status. These can improve or decrease, making the player better or worse.
Modes
The game has multiple modes, including preseason, regular season, and Pro Bowl. In regular season mode, a player controls a team through the entire NFL season. Multiple teams may be controlled. Players can choose three styles of play in any of the game modes: "MAN" in which the user both calls and runs plays; "COA" in which the user coaches the team by calling the plays only, with the computer running them; and "COM" in which the computer handles all aspects of the game, with the user as just a viewer.
In all game modes, unless the user edits the team beforehand by setting plays and starters, the default team depth chart and play selection is used.
In preseason and Pro Bowl modes, statistics are not kept and the computer player is easier than in season games.
Reception
In the United States, the game topped Babbage's NES sales charts for three months in 1992, from October to December.
In 1997, Electronic Gaming Monthly and IGN each named Tecmo Super Bowl as one of the top 100 video games of all time. IGN ranked Tecmo Super Bowl number 53 in its top 100 NES games. GamesRadar ranked it number 22 in its list of the best NES games, noting that it may be the only football game from the NES still widely played. PC Magazine ranked the game number 10 in its list of the ten most-influential video games of all time. ESPN named Tecmo Super Bowl the greatest sports video game of all time.
Legacy
Sequels and related games
Tecmo produced several direct sequels to Tecmo Super Bowl, and other games originating with the Tecmo Bowl engine. 16-bit versions of Tecmo Super Bowl for the Super NES and Genesis were released in 1993 (reflecting the rosters and attributes for that season), which fixed many bugs and added some new features. New features include these: improved game graphics and sound; official NFL team logos in the end zones; user-controlled touchbacks; the ability to control a player to attempt a punt block; the in-game option to change plays in a team's playbook during games; a running back "dive play" option; a designated return team that includes defensive backs; statistical achievements during games; and three weather conditions (sunny, rain and snow), which can occur randomly in Season mode. Accelerated fifteen-minute and ten-minute quarters can only be used for Exhibition and Pro Bowl games. The game can play three consecutive seasons (1991–1993). Sequels to these versions, Tecmo Super Bowl II: Special Edition and Tecmo Super Bowl III: Final Edition, were released in subsequent years for the Super NES and Genesis. These were followed by Tecmo Super Bowl for the PlayStation in 1996.
Tecmo Super Bowl for the PlayStation sports new features such as a new player editor which can make unlimited amounts of unrestricted trades, change jersey numbers, edit player attributes, edit names, and swap player portraits. It has a play-by-play announcer voice. Offenses can pick a formation before selecting a particular play. The game has alternate camera angles, instant replay, and the option to adjust AI difficulty in regular season games. This is the last entry in the series to have the NFL and NFLPA licenses, and reflected the rosters and attributes of the 1996 season.
A Sega Saturn version was in development, but was never released. Subsequent entries, such as 2008's Tecmo Bowl: Kickoff for the Nintendo DS, and 2010's Tecmo Bowl Throwback for the Xbox 360 and PS3 feature generic players and teams, due to Electronic Arts obtaining the exclusive NFL and NFLPA licenses in 2004 for the Madden NFL series.
Cult following
Since the advent of modern console emulation on computers, Tecmo Super Bowl is one of the most modified NES games. This contributes greatly to its cult following as it is constantly updated with rosters for college and professional football. Numerous websites are dedicated to pickup games, online leagues, and message boards for the original game and its mods. In 2016, popularity spiked with 26 national tournaments, Tecmo Madison XIII's livestream having 161,076 viewers, and ESPN.com providing coverage.
An episode of NFL Films Presents documents the video game and its cult following. Centering on the annual world championship tournament in Madison, Wisconsin, the episode includes interviews with NFL greats such as Emmitt Smith and Christian Okoye who are featured in the original game, and modern NFL players such as Philip Rivers who discuss their passion for the game.
In popular culture
Gameplay is featured in the Family Guy episode "Run, Chris, Run", where Peter uses Bo Jackson to beat Quagmire.
Tecmo Bowl is a central theme for two 2016 Kia Sorento commercials, starring Bo Jackson and playing off his ridiculously advantageous in-game characteristics. One features Brian Bosworth, who had been famously run over by Jackson during a Monday Night Football game in 1987 as he attempted to score a touchdown.
Notes
References
1991 video games
Tecmo Bowl video games
Nintendo Entertainment System games
Sega Genesis games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System games
Video games developed in Japan
Video games scored by Keiji Yamagishi
Mobile games | [
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|
213507 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Converso | Converso | A converso (; ; feminine form conversa), "convert", () was a Jew who converted to Catholicism in Spain or Portugal, particularly during the 14th and 15th centuries, or one of his or her descendants.
To safeguard the Old Christian population and make sure that the converso "New Christians" were true to their new faith, the Holy Office of the Inquisition was established in Spain in 1478. The Catholic monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella expelled the remaining openly practising Jews by the Alhambra decree of 1492, following the Christian Reconquista (reconquest) of Spain. However, even a significant proportion of these remaining practising Jews chose to join the already large converso community rather than face exile.
Conversos who did not fully or genuinely embrace Catholicism, but continued to practise Judaism in secrecy, were referred to as judaizantes ("Judaizers") and pejoratively as marranos ("swine").
New Christian converts of Muslim origin were known as moriscos. Unlike Jewish conversos, moriscos were subject to an edict of expulsion even after their conversion to Catholicism, which was implemented severely in Valencia and in Aragón and less so in other parts of Spain.
Conversos played a vital role in the 1520–1521 Revolt of the Comuneros, a popular uprising in the Crown of Castile against the rule of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.
History
Ferrand Martínez, Archdeacon of Écija, directed a 13-year anti-Semitic campaign that began in 1378. Martínez used a series of provocative sermons, through which he openly condemned the Jews with little to no opposition. He rallied non-Jews against the Jews by creating a constant state of fear through riots. Martínez's efforts led to a series of outbreaks on 4 June 1391, where several synagogues in Seville were burned to the ground and churches were erected in their place. Amidst this outbreak, many Jews fled the country, some converted to Christianity in fear, and some were sold to Muslims. Martínez set in motion the largest forced mass conversion of Jews in Spain.
Both the Church and the Crown had not anticipated such a large-scale conversion stemming from an unplanned anti-Semitic campaign led by Ferrand Martínez. The new converts, most of whom were forced, due to their large numbers, were victims of a new problem. A problem that temporarily solved the Jewish presence in Spain, however, led to the creation of a new group that was neither completely Catholic or Jewish.
The conversos, who were now fully privileged citizens, competed in all aspects of the economic sphere. This resulted in a new wave of racial anti-Semitism that was targeted at the conversos. This anti-Semitism evolved into small and large riots in Toledo, 1449, that now oppressed not the Jews by the Christians, but the New Christians (conversos) by the Old Christians. Thus, the Crown established a National Inquisition in 1478, that would test the loyalty and purity of a newly baptised Christian (converso). Due to continued oppression, some Jews and conversos fled Spain, others created a community to ensure the survival of Judaism in the Iberian Peninsula, although outwardly practising Christianity.
Perpetuation of Jewish heritage
Conversas played a pivotal role in keeping Jewish traditions alive by observing many Jewish holidays like Shabbat. Conversas cooked and baked traditional Jewish dishes in honour of the Sabbath (starting on Friday sundown), Yom Kippur, and other religious holidays. During festivals like Sukkot and Passover, Conversas participated by giving clothing articles and ornaments to Jewish women, attending a seder, or obtaining a baking matzah. Conversas ensured that their household maintained similar dietary regulations as their Jewish counterparts, by eating only kosher birds and other animals. Conversas also financially contributed to the growth of the Jewish/Converso community and synagogue. The Jewish community and the conversos exchanged books and knowledge, Jews taught conversos how to read to ensure constant growth of their Jewish heritage. To take a stance against the church and its principles, some conversos performed professional work even on Sundays.
The traditional Jewish Purim was kept by the conversos in the disguise of a Christian holiday, they named it "Festival of Santa Esterica".
Description
Conversos were subject to suspicion and harassment from both what was left of the community they were leaving and that which they were joining. Both Christians and Jews called them tornadizo (renegade). James I, Alfonso X and John I passed laws forbidding the use of this epithet. This was part of a larger pattern of royal oversight, as laws were promulgated to protect their property, forbid attempts to convert them back to Judaism or the Muslim faith, and regulate their behaviour, preventing their cohabitation or even dining with Jews, lest they convert back.
Conversos did not enjoy legal equality. Alfonso VII prohibited the "recently converted" from holding office in Toledo. They had supporters and bitter opponents in the Christian secular of general acceptance, yet they became targets of occasional pogroms during times of social tension (as during an epidemic and after an earthquake). They were subject to the Spanish and Portuguese inquisitions.
While "pure blood" (so-called limpieza de sangre), free of the "taint" of non-Christian lineage, would come to be placed at a premium, particularly among the nobility, in a 15th-century defence of conversos, Bishop Lope de Barrientos would list what Roth calls "a veritable 'Who's Who' of Spanish nobility" as having converso members or being of converso descent. He pointed out that given the near-universal conversion of Iberian Jews during Visigothic times, (quoting Roth) "[W]ho among the Christians of Spain could be certain that he is not a descendant of those conversos?"
With advances in science able to trace individuals' ancestry via their DNA, according to a widely publicised study (December 2008) in the American Journal of Human Genetics, modern Spaniards (and Portuguese) have an average admixture of 19.8 percent from ancestors originating in the Near East during historic times (i.e. Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Jews and Levantine Arabs) – compared to 10.6 percent of North African – Berber admixture. This proportion could be as high as 23% in the case of Latin Americans, however, according to a study published in Nature Communications. The possibly higher proportion of significant Jewish ancestry in the Latin American population could stem from increased emigration of Conversos to the New World to avoid persecution by the Spanish Inquisition.
By country
In Spain
The Chuetas are a current social group on the Spanish island of Majorca, in the Mediterranean Sea, who are descendants of Majorcan Jews that either were conversos (forcible converts to Christianity) or were Crypto-Jews, forced to keep their religion hidden. They practiced strict endogamy by marrying only within their own group.
The Chuetas has been stigmatized up until today in Balearic Islands. In the latter part of the 20th century, the spread of freedom of religion and laïcité reduced both the social pressure and community ties. An estimated 18,000 people in the island carry Chueta surnames in the 21st century.
All this, however, does not imply the complete elimination of rejection behaviors, as indicated by a survey carried out among Majorcans by the University of the Balearic Islands in 2001, in which 30% stated that they would never marry a Chueta and 5% declared that they do not even want to have Chueta friends.
In Italy
Specific groups of conversos left Spain and Portugal after the Spanish Inquisition in 1492, in search for a better life. They left for other parts of Europe, especially Italy, where they were inevitably looked at with suspicion and harassment, both in their old and new communities. Subsequently, many conversos who arrived in Italian cities did not openly embrace their Judaism, since they were tempted by the advantages they could seek in the Christian world.
The first three cities to accept the conversos who openly converted back to Judaism, were Florence, Ferrara, and Ancona. Most of these conversos appeared after 1536 from Portugal, and most lived in Florence. In 1549, Duke Cosimo de' Medici allowed the Portuguese conversos to trade and reside within Florence. Most of the re-converted Jews lived in the ghetto of Florence, and by 1705 there were 453 Jews in the city.
Conversos arrived to Ferrara in 1535, and were able to assimilate with their neighbours, perform circumcisions, and return openly to Judaism, due to the Lettres Patentes issued by Duke Ercole II. After the plague in 1505 and the eventual fall of Ferrara in 1551, many of these Jews relocated North towards the economically stable ports in Venice. Venice slowly became a center for conversos who either stopped temporarily on their way to Turkey or stayed permanently as residents in the ghetto Jewish community port. Venetian leaders were convinced to openly accept conversos to practice Judaism because they recognised that if conversos were not welcome in Venice, they would take their successful trades to the country's economic rival of Turkey. A Portuguese converso in Venice, named Abraham de Almeda, connected strongly with Christianity, however, turned to the Jewish members of his family when in need of financing for moral support. As a result, many of the conversos during this period struggled with their Christian and Jewish identities.
Conversos in the city of Ancona faced difficult lives living under the pope and eventually fled to Ferrara in 1555. Portuguese conversos in Ancona were falsely misled that they were welcome to Ancona and that they could openly convert back to Judaism. Their fate was overturned by the succeeding pope, Pope Paul IV. The conversos in Ancona faced traumatic emotional damage after the pope imprisoned 102 conversos who refused to reside in the ghetto and wear badges to distinguish themselves. In 1588, when the duke granted a charter of residence in return for the conversos building up the city's economy, they refused, due to accumulated scepticism.
See also
Marrano
Chuetas
Dönmeh
Allahdad
Chala
Neofiti
Anusim
Crypto-Judaism
Judaism in Mexico
Further reading
Alberro, Solange. Inquisición y sociedad en México, 1571–1700. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica 1993.
Alexy, T. The Marrano Legacy: A Contemporary Crypto-Jewish Priest Reveals Secrets of His Double Life. University of New Mexico Press 2002. . OCLC 51059087.
Amelang, James. Historias paralelas: Judeoconversos y moriscos en la España moderna. Madrid: Ediciones Akal, 2011.
Beinart, Haim. "The Conversos in Spain and Portugal in the 16th to 18th Centuries", in Moreshet Sepharad: TheSephardi Legacy, ed. Haim Beinart. Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, 1992.
Beinart, Haim. "The Records of the Inquisition: A Source of Jewish and Converso History", Proceedings of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities 2 (1968).
Beinart, Haim. Conversos ante la inquisición. Jerusalem: Hebrew University 1965.
Bodian, Miriam. Hebrews of the Portuguese Nation: Conversos and Community in Early Modern Amsterdam. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997.
Bodian, Miriam. “'Men of the Nation': The Shaping of Converso Identity in Early Modern Europe". Past & Present 143 (1994): 48–76.
Brooks, Andrée Aelion. The Woman who Defied Kings: the life and times of Dona Gracia Nasi, Paragon House, 2002.
Dirks, Doris A. "I will make the Inquisition burn you and your sisters: The role of gender and kindship in accusations against Conversas." Magistra 6.2 (2000): 28.
Domínguez Ortiz, Antonio. Los judeoconversos en la España moderna. Madrid: Editorial MAPFRE, 1992.
Gerber, Jane S. The Jews of Spain: A History of the Sephardic Experience. New York: The Free Press 1994. .
Gitlitz, David. Secrecy and Deceit: The Religion of the Crypto-Jews, Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 2002.
Gojman de Backal, Alicia. "Conversos" in Encyclopedia of Mexico. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, vol. 1, pp. 340–344.
Gojman Goldberg, Alicia. Los conversos en la Nueva España. Mexico City: Enep-Acatlan, UNAM 1984.
Greenleaf, Richard E. The Mexican Inquisition in the Sixteenth Century. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1969.
Jacobs, J. Hidden Heritage: The Legacy of the Crypto-Jews. University of California Press 2002. . OCLC 48920842.
Kamen, Henry. The Spanish Inquisition. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson 1965.
Lafaye, Jacques. Cruzadas y Utopias: El judeocristianismo en las sociedades Ibéricas. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica 1984.
Lanning, John Tate. "Legitimacy and Limpieza de Sangre in the Practice of Medicine in the Spanish Empire." Jahrbuch für Geschicte 4 (1967)
Liebman, Seymour. Los Judíos en México y en América Central. Mexico city: Siglo XXI 1971.
Martínez, Maria Elena. "Limpieza de Sangre" in Encyclopedia of Mexico, vol. 1, pp. 749–752. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997.
Navarrete Peláez, María Cristina. "Judeoconversos en el Nuevo Reino de Granada." In Los judíos en Colombia: Una aproximación histórica, edited by Adelaida Sourdis Nájera and Alfonso Velasco Rojas, 26–52. Madrid: Casa Sefarad Israel, 2011.
Navarrete Peláez, María Cristina.. La diáspora judeoconversa en Colombia, siglos XVI y XVII: Incertidumbres de su arribo, establecimiento y persecución. Cali: Universidad del Valle, 2010.
Novoa, Nelson. Being the Nação in the Eternal City: New Christian Lives in Sixteenth-Century Rome. Peterborough: Baywolf Press 2014
Pulido Serrano, Juan Ignacio. "Converso Complicities in an Atlantic Monarchy: Political and Social Conflicts behind the Inquisitorial Persecutions". In The Conversos and Moriscos in Late Medieval Spain and Beyond, Volume Three: Displaced Persons, edited by KevinIngram and Juan Ignacio Pulido Serrano, 117–128. Leiden: Brill, 2015.
Pulido Serrano, Juan Ignacio. "Political Aspects of the Converso Problem: On the Portuguese Restauraçao of 1640". In The Conversos and Moriscos in Late Medieval Spain and Beyond, Volume Two: The Morisco Issue, edited by Kevin Ingram, 219–246. Leiden: Brill, 2012.
Roth, Norman, Conversos, Inquisition, and the Expulsion of the Jews from Spain, Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995.
Saban, Mario Javier. Judíos Conversos: Los antepasados judíos de las familias tradicionales argentinas. Buenos Aires: Editorial Distal, 1990.
Seed, Patricia. To Love, Honor, and Obey in Colonial Mexico: Conflicts over Marriage Choices, 1574–1821. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1988.
Sicroff, Albert A. Los estatutos de limpieza de sangre. Translated by Mauro Armiño. Madrid: Tauros 1985.
Soyer, François. “'It is not possible to be both a Jew and a Christian': Converso Religious Identity and the Inquisitorial Trial of Custodio Nunes (1604–5).” Mediterranean Historical Review 26 (2011): 81–97.
Tobias, H.J. A History of the Jews in New Mexico. University of New Mexico Press 1992. [page needed]. . OCLC 36645510
Ventura, Maria da Graça A. "Los judeoconversos portugueses en el Perú del siglo XVII: Redes de complicidad". In Familia, Religión y Negocio: El sefardismo en las relaciones entre el mundo ibérico y los Países Bajos en la Edad Moderna, edited by Jaime Contreras, Bernardo J. García García, e Ignacio Pulido, 391–406. Madrid: Fundación Carlos Amberes, 2002.
References
External links
Ana Gómez-Bravo, "Conversos and identity in the poetry of the fifteenth century" (poems of Comendador Román and Antón de Montoro, excerpts from Andrés Bernáldez’s Memorias and the Libro de Alborayque [late 15th century]), in English and Spanish (pedagogical edition) with introduction, notes, and bibliography in Open Iberia/América (open access teaching anthology))
Selections in English and Spanish of Ferrán Martínez’s speech at the Tribunal del Alcázar in Seville, 19 February, 1388 (pedagogical edition) with introduction, notes, and bibliography in Open Iberia/América (open access teaching anthology)
Out of Spain educational materials
Converso lectures and activities
Alhambra Decree: 521 Years Later, a blog post on the Law Library of Congress's In Custodia Legis''
Song From a Withered Limb: Las Posadas and the Converso Crisis of the 16th Century/
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Judaism
History of the conversos
History of the Jews in South America
Jewish Mexican history
Jewish Spanish history
Judaism in Spain
Puerto Rican Jews
Sephardi Jews topics
Spanish Inquisition
Spanish people of Jewish descent | [
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|
213508 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtyping | Subtyping | In programming language theory, subtyping (also subtype polymorphism or inclusion polymorphism) is a form of type polymorphism in which a subtype is a datatype that is related to another datatype (the supertype) by some notion of substitutability, meaning that program elements, typically subroutines or functions, written to operate on elements of the supertype can also operate on elements of the subtype. If S is a subtype of T, the subtyping relation is often written S <: T, to mean that any term of type S can be safely used in a context where a term of type T is expected. The precise semantics of subtyping crucially depends on the particulars of what "safely used in a context where" means in a given programming language. The type system of a programming language essentially defines its own subtyping relation, which may well be trivial, should the language support no (or very little) conversion mechanisms.
Due to the subtyping relation, a term may belong to more than one type. Subtyping is therefore a form of type polymorphism. In object-oriented programming the term 'polymorphism' is commonly used to refer solely to this subtype polymorphism, while the techniques of parametric polymorphism would be considered generic programming.
Functional programming languages often allow the subtyping of records. Consequently, simply typed lambda calculus extended with record types is perhaps the simplest theoretical setting in which a useful notion of subtyping may be defined and studied. Because the resulting calculus allows terms to have more than one type, it is no longer a "simple" type theory. Since functional programming languages, by definition, support function literals, which can also be stored in records, records types with subtyping provide some of the features of object-oriented programming. Typically, functional programming languages also provide some, usually restricted, form of parametric polymorphism. In a theoretical setting, it is desirable to study the interaction of the two features; a common theoretical setting is system F<:. Various calculi that attempt to capture the theoretical properties of object-oriented programming may be derived from system F<:.
The concept of subtyping is related to the linguistic notions of hyponymy and holonymy. It is also related to the concept of bounded quantification in mathematical logic (see Order-sorted logic). Subtyping should not be confused with the notion of (class or object) inheritance from object-oriented languages; subtyping is a relation between types (interfaces in object-oriented parlance) whereas inheritance is a relation between implementations stemming from a language feature that allows new objects to be created from existing ones. In a number of object-oriented languages, subtyping is called interface inheritance, with inheritance referred to as implementation inheritance.
Origins
The notion of subtyping in programming languages dates back to the 1960s; it was introduced in Simula derivatives. The first formal treatments of subtyping were given by John C. Reynolds in 1980 who used category theory to formalize implicit conversions, and Luca Cardelli (1985).
The concept of subtyping has gained visibility (and synonymy with polymorphism in some circles) with the mainstream adoption of object-oriented programming. In this context, the principle of safe substitution is often called the Liskov substitution principle, after Barbara Liskov who popularized it in a keynote address at a conference on object-oriented programming in 1987. Because it must consider mutable objects, the ideal notion of subtyping defined by Liskov and Jeannette Wing, called behavioral subtyping is considerably stronger than what can be implemented in a type checker. (See below for details.)
Examples
A simple practical example of subtypes is shown in the diagram, right. The type "bird" has three subtypes "duck", "cuckoo" and "ostrich". Conceptually, each of these is a variety of the basic type "bird" that inherits many "bird" characteristics but has some specific differences. The UML notation is used in this diagram, with open-headed arrows showing the direction and type of the relationship between the supertype and its subtypes.
As a more practical example, a language might allow integer values to be used wherever floating point values are expected (Integer <: Float), or it might define a generic type Number as a common supertype of integers and the reals. In this second case, we only have Integer <: Number and Float <: Number, but Integer and Float are not subtypes of each other.
Programmers may take advantage of subtyping to write code in a more abstract manner than would be possible without it. Consider the following example:
function max (x as Number, y as Number) is
if x < y then
return y
else
return x
end
If integer and real are both subtypes of Number, and an operator of comparison with an arbitrary Number is defined for both types, then values of either type can be passed to this function. However, the very possibility of implementing such an operator highly constrains the Number type (for example, one can't compare an integer with a complex number), and actually only comparing integers with integers, and reals with reals, makes sense. Rewriting this function so that it would only accept 'x' and 'y' of the same type requires bounded polymorphism.
Subsumption
In type theory the concept of subsumption is used to define or evaluate whether a type S is a subtype of type T.
A type is a set of values. The set can be described extensionally by listing all the values, or it can be described intensionally by stating the membership of the set by a predicate over a domain of possible values. In common programming languages enumeration types are defined extensionally by listing values. User-defined types like records (structs, interfaces) or classes are defined intensionally by an explicit type declaration or by using an existing value, which encodes type information, as a prototype to be copied or extended.
In discussing the concept of subsumption, the set of values of a type is indicated by writing its name in mathematical italics: . The type, viewed as a predicate over a domain, is indicated by writing its name in bold: T. The conventional symbol <: means "is a subtype of", and :> means "is a supertype of".
A type T subsumes S if the set of values which it defines, is a superset of the set , so that every member of is also a member of .
A type may be subsumed by more than one type: the supertypes of S intersect at .
If S <: T (and therefore ), then T, the predicate which circumscribes the set , must be part of the predicate S (over the same domain) which defines .
If S subsumes T, and T subsumes S, then the two types are equal (although they may not be the same type if the type system distinguishes types by name).
A rule of thumb follow: a subtype is likely to be "bigger/wider/deeper" (its values hold more information) and "fewer/smaller" (the set of values is smaller) than one of its supertypes (which has more restricted information, and whose set of values are a superset of those of the subtype).
In the context of subsumption, the type definitions can be expressed using Set-builder notation, which uses a predicate to define a set. Predicates can be defined over a domain (set of possible values) . Predicates are partial functions that compare values to selection criteria. For example: "is an integer value greater than or equal to 100 and less than 200?". If a value matches the criteria then the function returns the value. If not, the value is not selected, and nothing is returned. (List comprehensions are a form of this pattern used in many programming languages.)
If there are two predicates, which applies selection criteria for the type T, and which applies additional criteria for the type S, then sets for the two types can be defined:
The predicate is applied alongside as part of the compound predicate S defining . The two predicates are conjoined, so both must be true for a value to be selected. The predicate subsumes the predicate T, so
For example: there is a subfamily of cat species called Felinae, which is part of the family Felidae. The genus Felis, to which the domestic cat species Felis catus belongs, is part of that subfamily.
The conjunction of predicates has been expressed here through application of the second predicate over the domain of values conforming to the first predicate. Viewed as types, .
If T subsumes S (T :> S) then a procedure, function or expression given a value as an operand (input argument or term) will therefore be able to operate over that value as one of type T, because . In the example above, we could expect the function ofSubfamily to be applicable to values of all three types Felidae, Felinae and Felis.
Subtyping schemes
Type theorists make a distinction between nominal subtyping, in which only types declared in a certain way may be subtypes of each other, and structural subtyping, in which the structure of two types determines whether or not one is a subtype of the other. The class-based object-oriented subtyping described above is nominal; a structural subtyping rule for an object-oriented language might say that if objects of type A can handle all of the messages that objects of type B can handle (that is, if they define all the same methods), then A is a subtype of B regardless of whether either inherits from the other. This so-called duck typing is common in dynamically typed object-oriented languages. Sound structural subtyping rules for types other than object types are also well known.
Implementations of programming languages with subtyping fall into two general classes: inclusive implementations, in which the representation of any value of type A also represents the same value at type B if A <: B, and coercive implementations, in which a value of type A can be automatically converted into one of type B. The subtyping induced by subclassing in an object-oriented language is usually inclusive; subtyping relations that relate integers and floating-point numbers, which are represented differently, are usually coercive.
In almost all type systems that define a subtyping relation, it is reflexive (meaning A <: A for any type A) and transitive (meaning that if A <: B and B <: C then A <: C). This makes it a preorder on types.
Record types
Width and depth subtyping
Types of records give rise to the concepts of width and depth subtyping. These express two different ways of obtaining a new type of record that allows the same operations as the original record type.
Recall that a record is a collection of (named) fields. Since a subtype is a type which allows all operations allowed on the original type, a record subtype should support the same operations on the fields as the original type supported.
One kind of way to achieve such support, called width subtyping, adds more fields to the record. More formally, every (named) field appearing in the width supertype will appear in the width subtype. Thus, any operation feasible on the supertype will be supported by the subtype.
The second method, called depth subtyping, replaces the various fields with their subtypes. That is, the fields of the subtype are subtypes of the fields of the supertype. Since any operation supported for a field in the supertype is supported for its subtype, any operation feasible on the record supertype is supported by the record subtype. Depth subtyping only makes sense for immutable records: for example, you can assign 1.5 to the 'x' field of a real point (a record with two real fields), but you can't do the same to the 'x' field of an integer point (which, however, is a deep subtype of the real point type) because 1.5 is not an integer (see Variance).
Subtyping of records can be defined in System F<:, which combines parametric polymorphism with subtyping of record types and is a theoretical basis for many functional programming languages that support both features.
Some systems also support subtyping of labeled disjoint union types (such as algebraic data types). The rule for width subtyping is reversed: every tag appearing in the width subtype must appear in the width supertype.
Function types
If T1 → T2 is a function type, then a subtype of it is any function type S1 → S2 with the property that T1 <: S1 and S2 <: T2. This can be summarised using the following typing rule:
The argument type of S1 → S2 is said to be contravariant because the subtyping relation is reversed for it, whereas the return type is covariant. Informally, this reversal occurs because the refined type is "more liberal" in the types it accepts and "more conservative" in the type it returns. This is what exactly works in Scala: a n-ary function is internally a class that inherits the trait (which can be seen as a general interface in Java-like languages), where are the parameter types, and is its return type; "-" before the type means the type is contravariant while "+" means covariant.
In languages that allow side effects, like most object-oriented languages, subtyping is generally not sufficient to guarantee that a function can be safely used in the context of another. Liskov's work in this area focused on behavioral subtyping, which besides the type system safety discussed in this article also requires that subtypes preserve all invariants guaranteed by the supertypes in some contract. This definition of subtyping is generally undecidable, so it cannot be verified by a type checker.
The subtyping of mutable references is similar to the treatment of function arguments and return values. Write-only references (or sinks) are contravariant, like function arguments; read-only references (or sources) are covariant, like return values. Mutable references which act as both sources and sinks are invariant.
Relationship with inheritance
Subtyping and inheritance are independent (orthogonal) relationships. They may coincide, but none is a special case of the other. In other words, between two types S and T, all combinations of subtyping and inheritance are possible:
S is neither a subtype nor a derived type of T
S is a subtype but is not a derived type of T
S is not a subtype but is a derived type of T
S is both a subtype and a derived type of T
The first case is illustrated by independent types, such as Boolean and Float.
The second case can be illustrated by the relationship between Int32 and Int64. In most object oriented programming languages, Int64 are unrelated by inheritance to Int32. However Int32 can be considered a subtype of Int64 since any 32 bit integer value can be promoted into a 64 bit integer value.
The third case is a consequence of function subtyping input contravariance. Assume a super class of type T having a method m returning an object of the same type (i.e. the type of m is T → T, also note that the first argument of m is this/self) and a derived class type S from T. By inheritance, the type of m in S is S → S. In order for S to be a subtype of T the type of m in S must be a subtype of the type of m in T, in other words: S → S ≤: T → T. By bottom-up application of the function subtyping rule, this means: S ≤: T and T ≤: S, which is only possible if S and T are the same. Since inheritance is an irreflexive relation, S can't be a subtype of T.
Subtyping and inheritance are compatible when all inherited fields and methods of the derived type have types which are subtypes of the corresponding fields and methods from the inherited type .
Coercions
In coercive subtyping systems, subtypes are defined by implicit type conversion functions from subtype to supertype. For each subtyping relationship (S <: T), a coercion function coerce: S → T is provided, and any object s of type S is regarded as the object coerceS → T(s) of type T. A coercion function may be defined by composition: if S <: T and T <: U then s may be regarded as an object of type u under the compound coercion (coerceT → U ∘ coerceS → T). The type coercion from a type to itself coerceT → T is the identity function idT
Coercion functions for records and disjoint union subtypes may be defined componentwise; in the case of width-extended records, type coercion simply discards any components which are not defined in the supertype. The type coercion for function types may be given by f(s) = coerceS2 → T2(f(coerceT1 → S1(t))), reflecting the contravariance of function arguments and covariance of return values.
The coercion function is uniquely determined given the subtype and supertype. Thus, when multiple subtyping relationships are defined, one must be careful to guarantee that all type coercions are coherent. For instance, if an integer such as 2 : int can be coerced to a floating point number (say, 2.0 : float), then it is not admissible to coerce 2.1 : float to 2 : int, because the compound coercion coercefloat → float given by coerceint → float ∘ coercefloat → int would then be distinct from the identity coercion idfloat.
See also
Covariance and contravariance
The circle-ellipse problem (for the perils of subtyping variable-types on the same basis as value-types)
Class-based programming
Top type
Refinement type
Behavioral subtyping
Notes
References Textbooks Benjamin C. Pierce, Types and programming languages, MIT Press, 2002, , chapter 15 (subtyping of record types), 19.3 (nominal vs. structural types and subtyping), and 23.2 (varieties of polymorphism)
C. Szyperski, D. Gruntz, S. Murer, Component software: beyond object-oriented programming, 2nd ed., Pearson Education, 2002, , pp. 93–95 (a high-level presentation aimed at programming language users)Papers'''
Reynolds, John C. Using category theory to design implicit conversions and generic operators. In N. D. Jones, editor, Proceedings of the Aarhus Workshop on Semantics-Directed Compiler Generation, number 94 in Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Springer-Verlag, January 1980. Also in Carl A. Gunter and John C. Mitchell, editors, Theoretical Aspects of Object-Oriented Programming: Types, Semantics, and Language Design (MIT Press, 1994).
Further reading
John C. Reynolds, Theories of programming languages, Cambridge University Press, 1998, , chapter 16.
Martín Abadi, Luca Cardelli, A theory of objects'', Springer, 1996, . Section 8.6 contrast the subtyping of records and objects.
Data types
Polymorphism (computer science)
Type theory
Object-oriented programming | [
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|
213511 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain%20Bike%20Hall%20of%20Fame | Mountain Bike Hall of Fame | The Mountain Bike Hall of Fame (MBHOF) was founded in 1988 to chronicle the history of mountain biking. Formerly located in Crested Butte, Colorado, it relocated to Fairfax, California in 2014 and became part of the Marin Museum of Bicycling.
Since the creation of this sport in the 1970s, mountain biking has grown to be immensely popular worldwide and the MBHOF works to document individuals and events which have significantly contributed to mountain biking history. The museum houses items of memorabilia, vintage bikes and components, classic photos, press clippings, and highlights from historic races and events. As of 2016, the MBHOF has inducted more than 140 individuals and groups who have made major contributions to mountain biking.
Inductees
See also
Mountain biking
History of the mountain bike and mountain biking
Hall of fame
United States Bicycling Hall of Fame
List of bicycle and human powered vehicle museums
References
External links
The Mountain Bike Hall of Fame website
Mountain biking
Mountain bike
Cycling museums and halls of fame
Halls of fame in California
Sports museums in California
Museums in Marin County, California
Awards established in 1988
Cycling awards | [
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|
213512 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquisitor | Inquisitor | An inquisitor was an official (usually with judicial or investigative functions) in an inquisition – an organization or program intended to eliminate heresy and other things contrary to the doctrine or teachings of the Catholic faith. Literally, an inquisitor is one who "searches out" or "inquires" (Latin inquirere < quaerere, 'to seek'). Inquisitors sought out the social networks that people used to spread heresy. There were accounts where the Inquisition could not tell who was a heretic or devout, and they were killed anyway. One of these accounts was Arnaud Amalric at the storming of Béziers. The abbot was recorded as saying “Kill them. For God knows who are his.” This brought up concern about the role the Inquisition was playing and whether or not it was a truly righteous cause.
The role of the Inquisitor was further brought into question by a work of satire by author Dostoyevsky. In this prose poem, Christ came back to earth and was imprisoned by the Grand Inquisitor. The Grand Inquisitor argued that Christ couldn't be free because his work would directly oppose the church, because free will was a burden to humanity. Dostoyevsky ends the poem by saying that the Roman Empire secretly followed the work of Satan instead of Christ, due to Satan allowing the best form of order for Humankind. In this story, the Roman Empire used Religion as a way to control the average population. This made the Inquisition out to be a war on ideology and free will, as opposed to a suppression of heresy.
Prominent inquisitors
Some of the better-known inquisitors throughout history include:
Peter of Verona (also known as Saint Peter Martyr), whose canonization was the fastest in history
Pedro de Arbués
Nicolau Aymerich author of Directorium Inquisitorum
Stephen of Bourbon
Arnaut Catalan
Fabio Chigi (later Pope Alexander VII)
Diego Deza
Bernard Gui
Heinrich Institoris, author of Malleus Maleficarum
Francisco Jimenez de Cisneros
Konrad von Marburg
Sebastien Michaelis
Giovanni Pietro Carafa (later Pope Paul IV)
Jacob Sprenger, purported co-author of Malleus Maleficarum
Tomás de Torquemada
Martín García Ceniceros
Hentenius (1540s-1566)
See also
Grand Inquisitor
Medieval Inquisition
Spanish Inquisition
Portuguese Inquisition
Roman Inquisition
Mexican Inquisition
Inquisitorial system, a type of legal system
Inquisition
I
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|
213514 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand%20Inquisitor | Grand Inquisitor | Grand Inquisitor (, literally Inquisitor General or General Inquisitor) was the lead official of the Inquisition. The title usually refers to the chief inquisitor of the Spanish Inquisition, even after the reunification of the inquisitions. Secretaries-general of the Roman Inquisition were often styled as Grand Inquisitor but the role and functions were different.
The Portuguese Inquisition was headed by a Grand Inquisitor, or General Inquisitor, named by the Pope but selected by the king, always from within the royal family.
The most famous Inquisitor General was the Spanish Dominican Tomás de Torquemada, who spearheaded the Spanish Inquisition.
List of Spanish Grand Inquisitors
Separation of Inquisitions of Castile and Aragon
Castile
Aragon
Reunification of the Inquisitions
List of inquisitors-general of Portugal
External links
Council of Inquisition: List of Grand Inquisitors
References
Spanish Inquisition
Portuguese Inquisition
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|
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