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213516	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerkes%20Observatory	Yerkes Observatory	Yerkes Observatory ( ) is an astronomical observatory located in Williams Bay, Wisconsin, U.S.A. It was operated by the University of Chicago Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics from its founding in 1897 to 2020. Ownership was transferred to the non-profit Yerkes Future Foundation (YFF) in May 2020, which began restoration and renovation of the historic building and grounds. Re-opening for public visits and programming is expected in 2022. The observatory, often called "the birthplace of modern astrophysics", was founded in 1892 by astronomer George Ellery Hale and financed by businessman Charles T. Yerkes. It represented a shift in the thinking about observatories, from their being mere housing for telescopes and observers, to the early-20th-century concept of observation equipment integrated with laboratory space for physics and chemistry analysis. The observatory's main dome houses a doublet lens refracting telescope, the largest refractor ever successfully used for astronomy. Two smaller domes house 40-inch (102 cm) and 24-inch (61 cm) reflecting telescopes. There are several smaller telescopes – some permanently mounted – that are primarily used for educational purposes. The observatory also holds a collection of over 170,000 photographic plates. The Yerkes 40-inch was the largest refracting-type telescope in the world when it was dedicated in 1897, although there had been several larger reflecting telescopes. During this time, there were many questions about the merits of the various materials used to construct and design telescopes. Another large telescope of this period was the Great Melbourne Telescope, which was a reflector. In the United States, the Lick refractor had just a few years earlier come online in 1888 in California with a 91 cm lens. Prior to its installation, the telescope on its enormous German equatorial mount was shown at the World's Columbian Exhibition in Chicago during the time the observatory was under construction. The observatory was a center for serious astronomical research for more than 100 years. By the 21st century, however, it had reached the end of its research life. The University of Chicago closed the observatory to the public in October 2018. In November 2019, "an agreement in principle" was announced that the university would transfer Yerkes Observatory to the non-profit Yerkes Future Foundation (YFF). The transfer of ownership took place on May 1, 2020. Telescopes In the 1860s Chicago became home of the largest telescope in America, the Dearborn refractor. Later surpassed by the U.S. Naval Observatory's 26 inch, which would go on to discover the moons of Mars in 1877, there was an extraordinary increase of larger telescopes in finely furnished observatories in the late 1800s. In the 1890s various forces came together to establish an observatory of art, science, and superlative instruments in Williams Bay, Wisconsin. The telescope was surpassed by the Harvard College Observatory, reflector less than ten years later, although it remained a center for research for decades afterwards. In addition to the large refractor, Yerkes also conducted a great amount of Solar observations. Background Yerkes Observatory's 40-inch (102 cm) refracting telescope has a doublet lens produced by the optical firm Alvan Clark & Sons and a mounting by the Warner & Swasey Company. It was the largest refracting telescope used for astronomical research. In the years following its establishment, the bar was set and tried to be exceeded; an even larger demonstration refractor, the Great Paris Exhibition Telescope of 1900, was exhibited at the Paris Universal Exhibition of 1900. However, this was not much of a success and was dismantled, and it did not become part of an active University observatory. The mounting and tube for the 40-inch telescope was exhibited at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago before being installed in the observatory. The grinding of the lens was completed later. The 40-inch aperture refractor The glass blanks for what would become Yerkes Great Refractor were made in Paris, France by Mantois and delivered to Alvan Clark & Sons in Massachusetts where they were completed. Clark then made what would be the largest telescope lens ever crafted and this was mounted to an Equatorial mount made by Warner & Swasey for the observatory. The telescope had an aperture of 40 inches (~102 cm) and focal length of 19.3 meters, giving it a focal ratio of f/19. The lens, an achromatic doublet which has two sections to reduce chromatic aberration, weighed 225 kilograms, and was the last big lens made by Clark before he died in 1897. Glass lens telescopes had a good reputation compared to speculum metal and silver on glass mirror telescopes, which had not quite proven themselves in the 1890s. For example, the Leviathan of Parsonstown was a 1.8 meter telescope with a speculum metal mirror, but getting good astronomical results from this technology could be difficult, and another large telescope of this period was the Great Melbourne Telescope in Australia, also a metal mirror telescope. Some of the instruments for the 40-inch refractor (circa 1890s): Filar Micrometer Solar spectrograph Spectroheliograph Stellar spectrograph Photoheliograph The 40-inch refractor was modernized in the late 1960s with electronics of the period. The telescope was painted, the manual controls were removed, and electric operations were added at this time. This included nixie tube displays for its operation. The 41-inch reflector In the late 1960s a 40-inch reflecting telescope was added. The 41 inch was finished by 1968, with overall installation completed by December 1967 and the optics in 1968. While the telescope has a clear aperture of 40-inches, the mirror's physical diameter measures 41-inches leading to the telescope usually being called the "41 inch" to avoid confusion with the 40 inch refractor. The mirror is made from low-expansion glass. The glass used was CER-VII−R. The launch instruments for the 41 inch reflector included: Image tube spectrograph photoelectric photometer photoelectric spectrophotometer The 40-inch reflector is of the Ritchey-Chretien optical design. The 41-inch helped pioneer the field of adaptive optics. Additional instruments and equipment A 12-inch refractor was moved to Yerkes from Kenwood Observatory in the 1890s. Two other telescopes planned for the observatory in the 1890s were a 12-inch aperture refractor and a 24-inch reflecting telescope. There was a heliostat mirror and a meridian room for a transit instrument. A two-foot aperture reflecting telescope was manufactured at the observatory itself. The clear aperture of the telescope was actually 23.5 inches. The glass blanks were cast in France by Saint Gobain Glass Works, and then were figured (polished into telescopic shape) at the Yerkes Observatory. The 'Two foot telescope' used a roughly seven foot long skeleton truss made of aluminum. At one point the Observatory had an IBM 1620 computer, which it used for three years. This was replaced with an IBM 1130 computer in the 1960s. A Microphotometer was built by Gaertner Scientific Corporation, which was delivered in February 1968 to the observatory. Later, there was another 24-inch reflecting telescope by Boller & Chivens. This was contracted in the early 1960s under direction of observatory director W. Albert Hiltner. This telescope was installed in one of the smaller Yerkes domes, and it is known to have been used for visitor programs. This was a design by Boller & Chivens with Cassegrain optical setup, with a 24-inch (61 cm) clear aperture and is on an off-axis equatorial mount. A 7-inch (18 cm) diameter aperture Schmidt camera was also at Yerkes Observatory. The Snow Solar Telescope was first established at Yerkes Observatory, and then later moved in 1904 out to California. A major difficulty of these telescopes was dealing with heat from the Sun, and it was built horizontally, but lead to a vertical solar tower design afterwards. Solar tower telescopes would be a popular style for solar observatories in the 20th century, and are still used in the 21st century to observe the Sun. Another instrument was the Bruce photographic telescope. The telescope had two objective lens for photography, one doublet of 10 inches aperture and another of 6.5 inches; in addition there is a 5-inch guide scope for visual viewing. The telescope was constructed from funds donated in 1897. The telescope was mounted on custom designed equatorial, the result of collaboration between Yerkes and Warner & Swasey, especially designed to offer an uninterrupted tracking for long image exposures. The images were taken on glass plates about a foot on each side. The Bruce astrograph lenses were made by Brashear with Mantois of Paris glass blanks, and the lenses were completed by the year 1900. The overall telescope was not completed until 1904, where it was installed in its own dome at Yerkes. The astronomer Edward Emerson Barnard's work with the Bruce telescope lead to the publication of a sky atlas using images taken with the instrument, and also a catalog of dark nebula known as the Barnard catalog. Dedication The Observatory was dedicated on October 21, 1897, and there was a large party with university, astronomers, and scientists. Before the dedication a conference of astronomers and astrophysicists was hosted at Yerkes Observatory, and took place on October 18–20, 1897. This is noted as a precursor to the founding of the American Astronomical Society Although dedicated in 1897, it was founded in 1892. Also, astronomical observations had started in the summer of 1897 before the dedication. Research and observations Research conducted at Yerkes in the last decade includes work on the interstellar medium, globular cluster formation, infrared astronomy, and near-Earth objects. Until recently the University of Chicago also maintained an engineering center in the observatory, dedicated to building and maintaining scientific instruments. In 2012 the engineers completed work on the High-resolution Airborne Wideband Camera (HAWC), part of the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA). Researchers also use the Yerkes collection of over 170,000 archival photographic plates that date back to the 1890s. The past few years have seen astronomical research largely replaced by educational outreach and astronomical tourism activities. In June 1967, Yerkes Observatory hosted the to-date largest meeting of the American Astronomical Society, with talks on over 200 papers. The Yerkes spectral classification (aka MKK system) was a system of stellar spectral classification introduced in 1943 by William Wilson Morgan, Philip C. Keenan, and Edith Kellman from Yerkes Observatory. This two-dimensional (temperature and luminosity) classification scheme is based on spectral lines sensitive to stellar temperature and surface gravity, which are related to luminosity (the Harvard classification is based on surface temperature). Later, in 1953, after some revisions of lists of standard stars and classification criteria, the scheme was named the Morgan–Keenan classification, or MK. Research work of the Yerkes Observatory has been cited over 10,000 times. In 1899, observations of Neptune's moon Triton were published, with data recorded using the Warner & Swasey micrometer. In 1898 and 1899, Neptune was at opposition. In 1906, a star catalog of over 13,600 stars was published. Also, there was some important work on Solar research in the early years, which was of interest to Hale. He went on to the Snow Solar Telescope at Mount Wilson in California. This was first operated at Yerkes and then moved to California. An example of an asteroid discovered at Yerkes is 1024 Hale, provisional designation , a carbonaceous background asteroid from the outer regions of the asteroid belt, approximately in diameter. The asteroid was discovered on 2 December 1923 by Belgian–American astronomer George Van Biesbroeck at Yerkes Observatory, and it was named for astronomer George Ellery Hale of Yerkes Observatory fame. Some additional examples include 990 Yerkes, 991 McDonalda, and 992 Swasey around this time; many more minor planets would be discovered at the observatory in the following decades. Notable staff and visitors Notable astronomers who conducted research at Yerkes include Albert Michelson, Edwin Hubble (who did his graduate work at Yerkes and for whom the Hubble Space Telescope was named), Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (for whom the Chandra Space Telescope was named), Russian-American astronomer Otto Struve, Dutch-American astronomer Gerard Kuiper (noted for theorizing the Kuiper belt, home to dwarf planet Pluto), Nancy Grace Roman, NASA's first Chief of Astronomy (who did her graduate work at Yerkes), and the twentieth-century popularizer of astronomy Carl Sagan. In May 1921, Albert Einstein visited the Yerkes Observatory. Directors of Yerkes Observatory: 2021–curr – Dennis Kois 2012–2018 – Doyal Al Harper (2nd time) 2001–2012 – Kyle M. Cudworth 1989–2001 – Richard G. Kron 1982–1989 – Doyal Al Harper 1974–1982 – Lewis M. Hobbs 1972–1974 – William Van Altena 1966–1972 – C. Robert O'Dell 1963–1966 – William Hiltner 1960–1963 – William W. Morgan 1957–1960 – Gerard P. Kuiper (2nd time) 1950–1957 – Bengt Stromgren 1947–1950 – Gerard P. Kuiper 1932–1947 – Otto Struve 1903–1932 – Edwin B. Frost 1897–1903 – George Ellery Hale The 2005 proposed development and preservation initiative In March 2005, the University of Chicago announced plans to sell the observatory and its land on the shore of Geneva Lake. Two purchasers had expressed an interest: Mirbeau, an East Coast developer that wanted to build luxury homes, and Aurora University, which has a campus straddling the Williams Bay property. The Geneva Lake Conservancy, a regional conservation and land trust organization, maintained that it was critical to save the historic Yerkes Observatory structures and telescopes for education and research, as well as to conserve the rare undeveloped, wooded lakefront and deep forest sections of the site. On June 7, 2006, the university announced it would sell the facility to Mirbeau for US$8 million with stipulations to preserve the observatory, the surrounding , and the entire shoreline of the site. Under the Mirbeau plan, a 100-room resort with a large spa operation and attendant parking and support facilities was to be located on the virgin wooded Yerkes land on the lakeshore—the last such undeveloped, natural site on Geneva Lake's shoreline. About 70 homes were to be developed on the upper Yerkes property surrounding the historic observatory. These grounds had been designed more than 100 years previously by John Charles Olmsted, the nephew and adopted son of famed landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted. Ultimately, Williams Bay's refusal to change the zoning from education to residential caused Mirbeau to abandon its development plans. In view of the public controversy surrounding the development proposals, the university suspended these plans in January 2007. The university's department of astronomy and astrophysics then formed a study group, including representatives from the faculty and observatory and a wide range of other involved parties, to plan for the operation of a regional center for science education at the observatory. The study group began its work in February 2007 and issued its final report November 30, 2007. The report recommended creating a formal business plan to ensure the financial viability of the proposed science education center, establishing ownership of the proposed center before initiating plans for creating it, and forming a partnership between the University of Chicago and local interests to plan for the center. It also suggested that some lakefront and woods parcels could be sold for residential development. Closure In March 2018, the University of Chicago announced that it would no longer operate the observatory after October 1, 2018, and would be seeking a new owner. In May 2018, the Yerkes Future Foundation, a group of local residents, submitted an expression of interest to the University of Chicago with a proposal that would seek to maintain public access to the site and continuation of the educational programs. Transfer of operation to a successor operator was not arranged by the end of August, and the facility was closed to the general public on October 1. Some research activities continued at the Observatory, including access and use of the extensive historical glass plate archives at the site. Yerkes education and outreach staff formed a nonprofit organization – GLAS – to continue their programs at another site after the closing. In May 2019, the university continued to negotiate with interested parties on Yerkes's future, primarily with the Yerkes Future Foundation. It was announced in November 2018 that a sticking point has been the need to include the Yerkes family in the discussions. Mr. Yerkes's agreement in making his donation to the university transfers ownership "To have and to hold unto the said Trustees [of the University of Chicago] and their successors so long as they shall use the same for the purpose of astronomical investigation, but upon their failure to do so, the property hereby conveyed shall revert to the said Charles T. Yerkes or his heirs at law, the same as if this conveyance had never been made." For the closing, there is a new gate with a sign that reads "Facilities Closed To The Public" since October 1, 2018. Gargoyle sculptures, location, and landscaping The Observatory grounds and buildings are renowned for more than the Great Refractor, but also sculptures and architecture. In addition, the landscaping is also famed for its design work by Olmstead. The observatory building was designed by architect Henry Ives Cobb, and has been referred to as being in the Beaux Arts style. The building is noted for its blend of styles and rich ornamentation featuring a variety of animal and mythological designs. On the building there are various carvings including Lion gargoyle designs. There are also sculptures to represent various people that oversaw or supported construction of the telescope and the facility. The location is noted for a good and pleasant location by Lake Geneva. Although it does not have a high-altitude as preferred by modern observatories, it does have a lot of good weather, and was a considerable distance from the light and pollution of the City of Chicago. In 1888, Williams Bay had railway terminal added by Chicago & North Western Railroad; this provided access from the City of Chicago, and is one factor that increased the site's development in the following decades. The editorial offices for The Astrophysical Journal were located at Yerkes Observatory until the 1960s. The landscape was designed by the same firm that did New York Central park, the firm of Frederick Law Olmsted, and the grounds were noted at one point for having multiple state record trees. The tree plan design was developed in the 1910s under design from the Olmstead firm and with support of the observatory Director; the grounds included the following types of trees at that time: white fir, yellowwood tree, golden rain tree, European beech, fernleaf beech, Japanese pagoda tree, littleleaf linden, Kentucky coffeetree, ginkgo, cut-leaf beeches, and chestnut trees. The original landscape plan was not completed by the 1897 dedication, and there was grading and construction of gravel roads under direction of the Olmstead design as late as 1908. Contemporaries on debut of the Great Yerkes Refractor Legend A major contemporary for the Yerkes was the well regarded 36-inch Lick refractor in California. The Yerkes, although just 4 inches in aperture larger, meant an increase of 23% in light-gathering ability. Both telescopes had achromatic doublets by Alvan Clark. Over the 19th century saw a transition in large telescope construction from refractor type to reflector type, with metal-film-coated glass mirrors tending to be used instead of difficult, older-style metal mirrors. The Yerkes was perhaps the greatest of the great refractors, the largest astronomical instrument in the traditional style of the 19th century refractor-based observatories. The Yerkes was not only the largest refractor, but was tied for being the largest telescope in the world with Paris Observatory reflector (48 inch, 122 cm) when it became operational in 1896. *Note the Leviathan of Parsonstown was not used after 1890 Understanding atmosphere and trends of telescope building of the late 19th century puts the choice of a large refactor in perspective. Although there were some very large reflectors, the speculum mirrors they relied on reflected about 2/3 of the light and had high upkeep. A major breakthrough came in the middle of the 19th century with a technique for coating glass with a metal film. This process (silver on glass) eventually lead to some bigger glass reflectors. Silvering has its own issues, in that coating must be reapplied usually every 2 years or so depending on conditions, and also it must be done very thinly so as to not affect the optical properties of the mirror. A large glass reflector (122 cm diameter glass mirror) was established in Paris by 1876, but problems with figuring of that mirror meant that the Paris Observatory's 122 cm telescope was not used and did not have a good reputation for viewing. The potential of metal coated glass became more apparent A.A. Common's 36 inch reflecting telescope by 1878. (this won an astrophotography award) The Warner and Swasey equatorial mount was shown in Chicago at the 1893 Colombia Exhibition, before it was moved to the Observatory. Largest telescopes (all types) in 1910 Legacy By 1905, the largest telescope in the World was the Harvard 60-inch Reflector ( 1.524 m 60″) at Harvard College Observatory, USA. Then in 1908, Mount Wilson Observatory matched that size with a 60-inch reflector of their own, and throughout the 20th century, increasingly larger reflectors would be established, aided also by refinements to mirror technology vapor-deposited aluminum on low-thermal expansion glass, pioneered for the 200 inch (5 meter) Hale telescope of 1948. In the latter years of the 20th century, space observatories also marked a major advance, and somewhat less than a century after Yerkes, the Hubble Space Telescope, with a 2.4 meter reflector, was launched. Small refractors remain popular for astronomical photography, although issues with chromatic aberration were never really entirely solved for the lens. (Isaac Newton had solved this with the reflecting design, although the refractors are not without their merits.) The renaissance-esque grounds and architecture, murals, and statues of the premiere 19th century great observatories, with their extraordinary great telescopes; the Yerkes facility was described as "castle-like". For example, the Yerkes Observatory was built on a 77-acre grounds, with artistically designed landscaping. The visually remarkable extremely long tubes and elaborate domes and mounts provided an egg of knowledge that astronomers and the public flocked to for knowledge about the stars. The Yerkes grounds have landscaping designed by Olmstead, for example. Great advancements such as astrophotography and the discovery of nebulas and different types of stars provided a major advance in this period. The importance of finely crafted mounts matched to a large aperture, harnessing the power of the basic equations of the telescopes design to bring the heavens into closer, brighter examination increased humankind's understanding of space and Earth's place in the Galaxy. Among the accomplishments, Kuiper discovered that Saturn's Moon Titan has an atmosphere. See also List of largest optical refracting telescopes List of astronomical observatories List of largest optical telescopes in the 20th century List of largest optical telescopes in the 19th century List of telescope types Yerkes 41-inch reflector References External links Description and history from the National Park Service. Save Yerkes Yerkes Study Group Geneva Lake Conservancy GLAS Guide to the University of Chicago Yerkes Observatory Logbooks and Notebooks 1892-1988 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center Guide to the University of Chicago, Yerkes Observatory, Office of the Director Records 1891-1946 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center Astronomical observatories in Wisconsin Research institutes of the University of Chicago Buildings and structures in Walworth County, Wisconsin	[ 0.28978562355041504, 0.7920550107955933, 0.3239210546016693, -0.17434313893318176, 0.07543472200632095, 0.21231737732887268, 0.9658191800117493, 0.03036816418170929, -0.5178796052932739, -0.7768082618713379, -0.250861793756485, -0.29155433177948, -0.2894446551799774, 0.5361968874931335, -0.5533519387245178, 0.2512011229991913, -0.18502065539360046, 0.5078336596488953, 0.2421015202999115, -0.6934754252433777, 0.06085216626524925, -0.25244227051734924, 0.5643845796585083, 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213517	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crypto-Judaism	Crypto-Judaism	Crypto-Judaism is the secret adherence to Judaism while publicly professing to be of another faith; practitioners are referred to as "crypto-Jews" (origin from Greek kryptos – κρυπτός, 'hidden'). The term is especially applied historically to Spanish Jews who outwardly professed Catholicism, also known as Conversos, Marranos, or the Anusim. The phenomenon is especially associated with Renaissance Spain, following the Massacre of 1391 and the expulsion of the Jews in 1492. Europe Officially, Jews who converted in Spain during the 14th and 15th centuries were known as Cristianos Nuevos (New Christians), but were commonly called conversos. Spain and Portugal passed legislation restricting their rights in the mother countries and colonies; only Christians were allowed to go to the New World. Despite the dangers of the Inquisition, many conversos continued to secretly and discreetly practice Jewish rituals, such as the Festival of Santa Esterica. After the Alhambra decree of 1492, numerous conversos, also called Xueta (or Chueta) in the Balearic Islands ruled by Spain, publicly professed Roman Catholicism but privately adhered to Judaism, even through the Spanish Inquisition. They are among the most widely known and documented crypto-Jews. Crypto-Judaism existed also in earlier periods, whenever Jews were forced or pressured to convert to the majority religion by the rulers of places where they resided. Some of the Jewish followers of Sabbatai Zevi (Sabbateans) formally converted to Islam and were known as Dönmeh. Later followers of Jacob Frank ("Frankists") formally converted to Christianity but maintained aspects of practice of their versions of Judaism. Crypto-Jews persisted in Russia and Eastern European countries influenced by the Soviet Union after the rise of Communism with the Russian Revolution of 1917. The government, which included secular Communist Jews, did not force Jews to convert to the Russian Orthodox Church but regarded the practice of any religion as undesirable. Some faiths were allowed to continue under strict supervision by the regime. Since the end of Communism, many people in former Soviet states, including descendants of Jews, have publicly taken up the faith of their ancestors again. The "Belmonte Jews" of Portugal, dating from the 12th century, maintained strong secret traditions for centuries. A whole community survived in secrecy by maintaining a tradition of endogamous marriage and hiding all external signs of their faith. They and their practices were discovered only in the 20th century. Their rich Sephardic tradition of crypto-Judaism is unique. Some now profess Orthodox Judaism, although many still retain their centuries-old traditions. Role of Maimonides As one of the towering figures in Judaism and the author of the Mishneh Torah commentary on the Talmud, Maimonides also issued a landmark doctrinal response to the forced conversions of Jews in the Iberian peninsula by the Almohads: In his Epistle on Martyrdom, however, Maimonides suggested that the persecuted Jew should publicly adopt Islam while maintaining crypto-Judaism and not seek martyrdom unless forced to transgress Jewish commandments in public. He also excoriated one writer who advocated martyrdom for "long-winded foolish babbling and nonsense" and for misleading and hurting the Jews. In a sweeping view of the Jewish past, Maimonides marshals examples of heretics and sinners from the Bible to show that even oppressors of Israel were rewarded by God for a single act of piety or respect. How much greater then, he argues, will be the reward of the Jews "who despite the exigencies of forced conversion perform commandments secretly." Maimonides championed rationalism over the then-accepted practice of martyrdom when facing religious adversity. This consequently legitimized crypto-Judaism by the religion's standards and provided doctrinal backing for Jews during the centuries of the Spanish Inquisition (1478–1834). Before the Spanish Inquisition According to the Encyclopaedia Judaica, several incidents of forced conversions happened prior to 1492 and outside of Iberia. One of the earliest conversions happened a century after the Fall of Rome and was in Clermont-Ferrand. After a member of the Jewish community in Clermont-Ferrand became a Jewish Christian and was persecuted by other members of the community for doing so, the cavalcade in which he was marching persecuted his persecutors in turn: The participants in the procession then made an attack "which destroyed [the synagogue] completely, razing it to the grounds." Subsequently, Bishop Avitus directed a letter to the Jews in which he disclaimed the use of compulsion to make them adopt Christianity, but announced at the end of the missive: "Therefore if ye be ready to believe as I do, be one flock with us, and I shall be your pastor; but if ye be not ready, depart from this place." The community hesitated for three days before making a decision. Finally the majority, some 500, accepted Christianity. The Christians in Clermont greeted the event with rejoicing: "Candles were lit, the lamps shone, the whole city radiated with the light of the snow-white flock" (i.e., the forced converts). The Jews who preferred exile left for Marseilles (Gregory of Tours, Histories, 5:11). The poet Venantius Fortunatus composed a poem to commemorate the occasion. In 582 the Frankish king Chilperic compelled numerous Jews to adopt Christianity. Again the anusim were not wholehearted in their conversion, for "some of them, cleansed in body but not in heart, denied God, and returned to their ancient perfidy, so that they were seen keeping the Sabbath, as well as Sunday" (ibid., 6:17). The Clermont-Ferrand conversions preceded the first forced conversions in Iberia by 40 years. Forced baptisms of Jews took place in Iberia in 616 at the insistence of Visigoth monarch Sisibut: Persistent attempts to enforce conversion were made in the seventh century by the Visigoths in Spain after they had adopted the Roman Catholic faith. Comparatively mild legal measures were followed by the harsh edict issued by King Sisibut in 616, ordering the compulsory baptism of all Jews. After conversion, however, the anusim evidently maintained their Jewish cohesion and religious life. It was undoubtedly this problem that continued to occupy Spanish sovereigns at the successive Councils of Toledo representing both the ecclesiastical and secular authorities...Thus, steps were taken to secure that the children of converts had a Christian religious education as well as to prevent the older generation from continuing to observe the Jewish rites or from failing to observe the Catholic ones. A system of strict supervision by the clergy over the way of life and movements of the anusim was imposed... Neofiti The Neofiti were a group of crypto-Jews living in the Kingdom of Sicily, which included all of Southern Italy from the 13th to the 16th centuries. Susiti The ancestral line Sus, Süßkind and Lindauer was a crypto-Jewish susitic ancestral line that settled in the Holy Roman Empire and lived as Catholic or Protestant crypto-Jews. Secondary lineages of the Lindauer are: Lindauere, Lindouer, Lindaer, Linduaer, Lindeaur, Lindeauer, Lindhauer, Linndauer, Lindayer as well as Lindaurr. Mediterranean and Asia There have been several communities of crypto-Jews in Muslim lands. The ancestors of the Daggatuns in Morocco are thought to have kept up their Jewish practices a long time after their nominal adoption of Islam. In Iran, a large community of crypto-Jews lived in Mashhad, near Khorassan, where they were known as "Jedid al-Islam"; they were mass-converted to Islam around 1839 after the Allahdad events. Most of this community left for Israel in 1946. Some converted to Islam and remained in Iran. India In 1494, after the signing of the Treaty of Tordesillas, authorized by Pope Alexander VI, Portugal was given the right to found colonies in the Eastern Hemisphere. In his lecture at the Library of Congress, Professor Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Chair in Social Sciences at University of California, Los Angeles, explains that crypto-Jews were especially attracted to India because not only was it a center of trade, but India had established an ancient Jewish settlements along its Western coast. The presence of these communities meant that crypto-Jews, who had been forced to accept Catholicism but did not want to emigrate to tolerant countries (e.g. Morocco, Poland, Ottoman Empire, etc.), could operate within the Portuguese Empire with the full freedom of Catholic subjects but away from the Inquisition while collaborating with existing Jewish communities to hide their true beliefs. The presence of crypto-Jews in Goa angered the Archbishop of Goa, Dom Gaspar Jorge de Leão Pereira, and other Europeans like Francis Xavier who wrote polemics and letters to Lisbon urging that the Inquisition be brought to Goa. Crypto-Jews presented a security threat to the Kingdom of Portugal, because Sephardic Jews had an established reputation in Iberia for joining forces with Moors to overthrow Christian rulers. The Goan Inquisition commenced in 1560 and ended in 1812. It targeted crypto-Jews, crypto-Muslims, and crypto-Hindus. Of the 1,582 persons convicted between 1560 and 1623, 45.2% were convicted for offenses related to Judaism and Islam. A compilation of the auto-da-fé statistics of the Goa Inquisition reveal that a total of 57 persons were burnt in the flesh and 64 in effigy (i.e. a statue resembling the person). All the burnt were convicted as relapsed heretics or for sodomy. Spanish America Crypto-Judaism was documented chiefly in Spanish-held colonial territories in northern Mexico. Numerous conversos joined Spanish and Portuguese expeditions, believing there was an economic opportunity in the new lands, and that they would have more freedom at a distance far from Iberia. Different situations developed in the early colonial period of Mexico, the frontier province of Nuevo León, the later northern frontier provinces, and the colonial experience of the Mexican Inquisition The crypto-Jewish traditions have complex histories and are typically embedded in an amalgam of syncretic Roman Catholic and Judaic traditions. In many ways resurgent Judaic practices mirrored indigenous peoples' maintaining their traditions practiced loosely under a Roman Catholic veil. In addition, Catholicism was syncretic, absorbing other traditions and creating a new creole religion. The traditional Festival of Santa Esterica was preserved among the Conversos who migrated to the New World and is still practiced today among their descendants. Early colonial period—16th century Some of the Sephardic Jews expelled from Spain went to Portugal, but in 1497 that country effectively converted all remaining Jewish children, making them wards of the state unless the parents also converted. Therefore, many of the early crypto-Jewish migrants to Mexico in the early colonial days were technically first to second-generation Portuguese with Spanish roots before that. The number of such Portuguese migrants was significant enough that Spanish colonists began to use "Portuguese" as a synonym for "Jewish" for their settlers. Immigration to Mexico offered lucrative trade possibilities in a well-populated colony with nascent Spanish culture. Some migrants believed that this region would be more tolerant since the lands were overwhelmingly populated by non-Christian indigenous peoples and it was far removed from the metropole. Colonial officials believed that many crypto-Jews were going to Mexico during the 16th century and complained in written documents to Spain that Spanish society in Mexico would become significantly Jewish. Officials found and condemned clandestine synagogues in Mexico City. At this point, colonial administrators instituted the Law of the Pure Blood, which prohibited migration to Mexico for New Christians (Cristiano Nuevo), i.e. anyone who could not prove to be Old Christians for at least the last three generations. In addition, the administration initiated the Mexican Inquisition to ensure the Catholic orthodoxy of all migrants to Mexico. The Mexico Inquisition was also deployed in the traditional manner to ensure orthodoxy of converted indigenous peoples. The first victims of burnings (or autos de fé) of the Mexican Inquisition were indigenous converts convicted of heresy or crypto-Jews convicted of relapsing into their ancestral faith. Except for those allowed to settle the province of Nuevo Leon under an exemption from the Blood Purity Laws, the number of conversos migrating to the New World was reduced. Nuevo León (1590s to early 17th century) The colonization of New Spain took place as a northward expansion over increasingly harsh geography, in regions that were occupied by tribes angered at the encroachment; they formed loose confederations of indigenous peoples to resist the settlers. Spain financed the expansion by exploiting mineral wealth, enslaving, or forcing indigenous peoples to labor in mines. It established encomiendas for raising livestock, thereby displacing the local people. The indigenous peoples of the North-Eastern quadrant of New Spain (Nueva España) proved particularly resistant to colonial pressures. The Chichimec, Apache, and other tribes resisted conversion to Christianity and avoided being impressed as laborers or slaves on Spanish ranches and in mines. The Spanish believed such peoples made the frontier (frontera) a lawless region. Luis Carvajal y de la Cueva, a royal accountant, was a Portuguese New Christian. He received a royal charter from the Spanish Crown to settle Nuevo León, a large expanse of land in the hostile frontier. Because of the dangers and difficulties of this region, Carvajal y de la Cueva received an exemption in his charter from the usual requirement that he prove that all new settlers were "Old Christians" (of at least three generations) rather than recently converted Jews or Muslims. This exemption allowed people to go to Nuevo León who were legally barred from entering New Spain elsewhere. Carvajal was authorized to bring 100 soldiers and 60 laborers to New Spain; many have been documented as crypto-Jews. With Carvajal as governor, Monterrey was established as the center (now in the state of Nuevo León). Within a few years, some people reported to authorities in Mexico City that Jewish rites were being performed in the Northern Province and efforts to convert heathen indigenous peoples were lax. The principal economic activity of Carvajal and his associates seems to have been capturing Indians and selling them into slavery. Carvajal's Lieutenant Governor, Gaspar Castaño de Sosa, led a large expedition to New Mexico in 1591 in an effort to establish a colony. Castaño was arrested for this unauthorized expedition and sentenced to exile in the Philippines. The sentence was later reversed, but he had already been killed in the Molucca Islands when the Chinese slaves on his ship mutinied. Governor Carvajal, his immediate family members, and others of his entourage were called to appear before the Inquisition in Mexico City. They were arrested and jailed. The governor subsequently died in jail, prior to a sentence of exile. His niece Anna Carvajal had been tortured and implicated all the family in so-called charges. They were all executed by burning at the stake for relapsing into Judaism, except for one nephew who escaped arrest. The governor's nephews changed their surname to Lumbroso. One of these was Joseph Lumbroso, also known as Luis de Carvajal el Mozo, who is said to have circumcised himself in the desert to conform to Jewish law. He committed suicide to avoid being burned at the stake. His memoirs, letters and inquisition record were preserved and are held in the archive. Two other nephews also changed their names to Lumbroso and migrated to Italy, where they became noted rabbis. When Carvajal was in office, the city of Monterrey became a destination for other crypto-Jews who wanted to escape the Mexican Inquisition in the south of the territory. Thus, Nuevo León and the founding of Monterrey are significant as they attracted crypto-Jewish migrants from all parts of New Spain. They created one of the earliest Jewish-related communities in Mexico. (The Jewish communities in modern Mexico, which practice their Judaism openly, were not established until the late 19th and early 20th centuries, after considerable immigration of Ashkenazi Jews from eastern Europe, and Mizrahi Jews from Turkey and Syria.) Former New Spain territories in the United States, 17th–18th centuries Due to the Inquisition activities in Nuevo León, many crypto-Jewish descendants migrated to frontier colonies further west, using the trade routes passing through the towns of the Sierra Madre Occidental and Chihuahua, Hermosillo and Cananea, and to the north on the trade route to Paso del Norte and Santa Fe (both cities in the colonial Santa Fe de Nuevo Mexico). Some even traveled to Alta California on the Pacific Coast. In the late 20th century, in modern-day Southwestern United States specifically New Mexico, which was a former territory of New Spain, several Hispanos of New Mexico have stated a belief that they are descended from crypto-Jews of the colonial period. While most maintain their Roman Catholic and Christian faiths, they often cite as evidence memories of older relatives practicing Jewish traditions. Since the 1990s, the crypto-Jews of New Mexico have been extensively studied and documented by several research scholars, including Stanley M. Hordes, Janet Liebman Jacobs, Schulamith Halevy, and Seth D. Kunin, who calls them Hispanos. Kunin noted that most of this group in New Mexico has not formally embraced Judaism nor joined the organized Jewish community. Though some have been sceptical, such as Folklorist Judith Neulander arguing that people could be referring to traditions of modern Ashkenazi Jews migrants and Evangelical Protestant Christians who purposely acquired and employed Jewish traditions. More recently, Evangelical Protestant Christians have opened missionary groups aimed at cultivating evangelical doctrine in Southwestern American communities where crypto-Judaism had survived. The highly influential Hordes has been charged with "single-minded speculation based on largely ephemeral or highly ambiguous evidence" for his conclusion that modern-day Hispanos who claim crypto-Jewish roots are heirs to an unbroken chain of transmission. Kunin responded to some of this criticism in his book Juggling Identities: Identity and Authenticity Among the Crypto-Jews, in the response Kunin iterated that these scholars were misunderstanding New Mexican identity which, while authentically tied to Christian and Pueblo historicity, is in line with other Spanish converso histories. Peru In Peru, conversos arrived at the time of the Spanish Conquest. At first, they had lived without restrictions because the Inquisition was not active there at the beginning of the Viceroyalty. With the advent of the Inquisition, New Christians began to be persecuted, and in some cases executed. The descendants of these colonial Sephardic Jewish descent converts to Christianity settled mainly in the north of the Andes and of the high jungle of Peru, where they married local women and became assimilated. Colombia In the department of Antioquia, Colombia, as well as in the greater Paisa region, some families also hold traditions and oral accounts of Jewish descent. In this population, Y-DNA genetic analysis has shown an origin of male founders predominantly from "southern Spain but also suggest that a fraction came from northern Iberia and that some possibly had a Sephardic origin". Medellín has a tradition of the marranada, where a pig is slaughtered, butchered and consumed on the streets of every neighborhood each Christmas. This custom has been interpreted as an annual affirmation of the rejection of Jewish law. Bolivia A safe haven destination for Sephardic Conversos during the Spanish colonial era was Santa Cruz de la Sierra. In 1557 many crypto-Jews joined Ñuflo de Chávez and were among the pioneers who founded the city. During the 16th century more crypto-Jews that faced persecution from the Inquisition and local authorities in nearby Potosí, La Paz and La Plata moved to Santa Cruz, as it was the most isolated urban settlement and because the Inquisition did not bother the Conversos there; Some settled in the city of Santa Cruz and its adjacent towns, including Vallegrande, Postrervalle, Portachuelo, Terevinto, Pucará, and Cotoca. Several of the oldest Catholic families in Santa Cruz are of Jewish ancestry; some families still practice certain traditions of Judaism. As recently as the 1920s, several families preserved seven-branched candlesticks and served dishes cooked with kosher practices. It is still customary among certain old families to light candles on Friday at sunset and to mourn the deaths of close relatives by sitting on the floor. After almost five centuries, some of the descendants of these families acknowledge having some Jewish ancestry, but practice Catholicism. Costa Rica Some crypto-Jews established themselves in the outskirts of San José, Costa Rica in the 16th century. They passed as Catholics in public and practiced their Jewish rituals in privacy. In the town of Itzkazú (modern day Escazú), some crypto-Jewish families did not maintain secrecy. Locals started to associate their rituals and unintelligible prayers in Hebrew with witchcraft. Since then, Escazú has been known in Costa Rican folklore as the "city of the witches". Elsewhere in Latin America In addition to these communities, Roman Catholic-professing communities descended from male and female crypto-Jews are said to exist in the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico and in various other countries of South America, such as Brazil(see Synagogue Kahal Zur Israel in Recife), Argentina, Uruguay, Venezuela, Chile, Peru and Ecuador. From these communities comes the proverb, "Catholic by faith, Jewish by blood". Notable crypto-Jews Antonio Fernandez Carvajal was a Portuguese merchant in London; "like other Marranos in London, Carvajal prayed at the Catholic chapel of the Spanish ambassador, while simultaneously playing a leading role in the secret Jewish community, which met at the clandestine synagogue at Creechurch Lane." Isaac Cardoso was a Jewish physician, philosopher, and polemic writer, who was born in Portugal but ultimately settled in Italy. For a time he went by the name Fernando to evade the Inquisition. After finding safe haven in Verona he openly embraced Judaism becoming a leading scholar in Italy. Benjamin Melendez was a Nuyorican activist, musician and gang leader. He is best known for brokering the New York City gang truce in 1971, while President of the South Bronx gang (and musical group) the Ghetto Brothers See also Allahdad Anusim Beta Abraham Chala Conversos Crypto-Christianity Crypto-Paganism Crypto-Hinduism Doctrine of mental reservation Domus Conversorum Dönmeh Hidden Armenians Jewish history Judaizers Limpieza de sangre Marrano Morisco New Christian Relapso Sephardic Jews in India Who Is A Jew? Kakure Kirishitan Further reading Acevedo-Field, Rafaela. "Denunciation of Faith and Family: Crypto-Jews and the Inquisition in Seventeenth-Century Mexico." PhD diss. University of California, Santa Barbara 2012. Alberro, Solange. Inquisición y sociedad en México, 1571–1700. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica 1993. Alberro, Solange. "Crypto-Jews and the Mexican Holy Office in the Seventeenth Century," in The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450–1800, eds. Paolo Bernardini and Norman Fiering. New York: Berghahn Books, 2001. Arbell, Mordechai. The Jewish Nation of the Caribbean: The Spanish-Portuguese Jewish Settlements in the Caribbean and the Guianas. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2002. Beinart, Haim. Conversos ante la inquisición. Jerusalem: Hebrew University 1965. Bocanegra, Matias de and Seymour Liebman, Jews and the Inquisition of Mexico: The Great Auto de Fe of 1649. Lawrence, Kansas: Coronado Press 1974. Bodian, Miriam. Dying the Law of Moses: Crypto-Jewish Martyrdom in the Iberian World. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007. Böhm, Günter. "Crypto-Jews and New Christians in Colonial Peru and Chile." In The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450–1800, edited by Paolo Bernardini and Norman Fiering, 203–212. New York: Berghahn Books, 2001. Cohen, Martin A. "The Letters and Last Will and Testament of Luis De Carvajal, the Younger." American Jewish Historical Quarterly, vol. 55, no. 4, 1966, pp. 451–520. . Cohen, Martin A. "The Autobiography of Luis De Carvajal, the Younger." American Jewish Historical Quarterly, vol. 55, no. 3, 1966, pp. 277–318., . Cohen, Martin A. The Martyr Luis de Carvajal: A Secret Jew in Sixteenth-century Mexico. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press Cohen, Martin A. "Antonio Díaz De Cáceres: Marrano Adventurer in Colonial Mexico." American Jewish Historical Quarterly, vol. 60, no. 2, 1970, pp. 169–184. . Cohen, Martin A. "Some Misconceptions about the Crypto-Jews in Colonial Mexico." American Jewish Historical Quarterly 61 (1972): 277–293. . Chuchiak, John F. IV. The Inquisition in New Spain, 1536–1820: A Documentary History. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press 2012. Cohen, Martin A. "Antonio Díaz De Cáceres: Marrano Adventurer in Colonial Mexico." American Jewish Historical Quarterly, vol. 60, no. 2, 1970, pp. 169–184., . Corteguera, Luis R. Death by Effigy: A Case from the Mexican Inquisition. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 2012. Giles, Mary E. Women in the Inquisition: Spain and the New World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press 1999. Gitlitz, David. Secrecy and Deceit: The Religion of the Crypto-Jews, Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 2002 Gojman Goldberg, Alicia. Los conversos en la Nueva España. Mexico City: Enep-Acatlan, UNAM 1984. Gojman de Backal, Alicia. "Conversos" in Encyclopedia of Mexico, vol. 1, pp. 340–344. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997. Greenleaf, Richard E. The Mexican Inquisition in the Sixteenth Century. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1969. Hordes, Stanley M. "The Inquisition as Economic and Political Agent: The Campaign of the Mexican Holy Office Against the Crypto-Jews in the Mid-Seventeenth Century." The Americas 39 no. 1 (1982) 2–38. . Hordes, Stanley. To the End of the Earth: A History of the Crypto-Jews of New Mexico. New York: Columbia University Press 2005. Israel, Jonathan I. Diasporas within a Diaspora: Jews, Crypto-Jews and the World Empires (1540–1740). Leiden: Brill, 2002. Kagan Richard L., and Abigail Dyer, eds. Inquisitorial Inquiries: Brief Lives of Secret Jews and Other Heretics [2004]. 2nd ed. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011. Kagan, Richard L., and Philip D. Morgan, "Preface." In Atlantic Diasporas: Jews, Conversos, and Crypto-Jews in the Age of Mercantilism, 1500–1800, edited by Richard L. Kagan and Philip D. Morgan, vii–xvii. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009. Kamen, Henry. The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997. Kamen, Henry. The Spanish Inquisition. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson 1965. Lafaye, Jacques. Cruzadas y Utopias: El judeocristianismo en las sociedades Ibéricas. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica 1984. Lanning, John Tate. "Legitimacy and Limpieza de Sangre in the Practice of Medicine in the Spanish Empire." Jahrbuch für Geschicte 4 (1967) Lea, Henry Charles. The Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies: Sicily, Naples, Sardinia, Milan, the Canaries, Mexico, Peru, and New Granada. New York: Macmillan 1908. Lewin, Boleslao. Los criptojudíos: Un fenómeno religioso y social. Buenos Aires: Milá, 1987. Liebman, Seymour. The Jews in New Spain: Faith, Flame, and the Inquisition. Coral Gables, FL: University of Miami Press 1970. Liebman, Seymour B. "The Jews of Colonial Mexico." The Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 43, no. 1, 1963, pp. 95–108. . Liebman, Seymour. Los Judíos en México y en América Central. Mexico city: Siglo XXI 1971. Martínez, Maria Elena. "Limpieza de Sangre" in Encyclopedia of Mexico, vol. 1, pp. 749–752. chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997. Martínez, Maria Elena. "Interrogating Blood Line: 'Purity of Blood,' the Inquisition, and Casta Categories" in Religion in New Spain, Susan Schroeder and Stafford Poole, eds. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2007. Martínez, Maria Elena. Genealogical Fictions: Limpieza de sangre, religion, and gender in colonial Mexico. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press 2008. Medina, José Toribio, Historia del Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisicion de Cartagena de las Indias. Santiago: Imprenta Elzeviriana, 1899. Medina, José Toribio. Historia del tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición en México. 2nd edition. Mexico City 1954. Parello, Vincent. "Inquisition and Crypto-Judaism: The 'Complicity' of the Mora Family of Quintanar de la Orden (1588–1592)." In The Conversos and Moriscos in Late Medieval Spain and Beyond, Volume One: Departures and Change, edited by Kevin Ingram, 187–199. Leiden: Brill, 2009. Perelis, Ronnie. These Indians Are Jews!': Lost Tribes, Crypto-Jews, and Jewish Self-Fashioning in Antonio de Montezinos's Relación of 1644." In Atlantic Diasporas: Jews, Conversos, and Crypto-Jews in the Age of Mercantilism, edited by Richard L. Kagan and Philip D. Morgan, 195–211. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009. Schaposchnik, Ana E. The Lima Inquisition: The Plight of the Crypto-Jews in Seventeenth- Century Peru. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2015. Schorsch, Jonathan. Swimming the Christian Atlantic: Judeoconversos, Afroiberians, and Amerindians in the Seventeenth Century, 2 vols. Leiden: Brill, 2009. Seed, Patricia. To Love, Honor, and Obey in Colonial Mexico: Conflicts over Marriage Choices, 1574–1821. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1988. Sicroff, Albert A. Los estatutos de limpieza de sangre. Translated by Mauro Armiño. Madrid: Tauros 1985. Studnicki-Gizbert, Daviken. A Nation upon the Ocean Sea: Portugal’s Atlantic Diaspora and the Crisis of the Spanish Empire, 1492–1640. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007. Ushmany, Eva Alexandra. La vida entre el judismo y el cristianismo en la Nueva España, 1580–1606. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económico 1992. Ushmany, Eva Alexandra. "The Participation of New Christians and Crypto-Jews in the Conquest, Colonization, and Trade of Spanish America, 1521–1660," in The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450–1800, Paolo Bernardini and Norman Fiering, eds. New York: Berghahn Books 1991. Uchmany, Eva Alexandra. La vida entre el judaísmo y el cristianísmo en la Nueva España, 1580–1606. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1992. Warshawsky, Matthew D. "Inquisitorial Prosecution of Tomás Treviño de Sobremontes, a Crypto-Jew in Colonial Mexico." Colonial Latin American Review 17, no 1 (2008) pp. 101–23. . Wiznitzer, Arnold. "Crypto-Jews in Mexico during the Sixteenth Century." American Jewish Historical Quarterly'', vol. 51, no. 3, 1962, pp. 168–214. . References External links Resources > Medieval Jewish History > Expulsion from Spain and The Anusim The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Donagraciaproject.org The Story of Secret and Forcibly Converted Jews Luis Carvajal's 400th Yartzheit Society for Crypto Judaic Studies History of the Jews in Greece Crypto Jews/Anusim Resources Shavei Israel – a group that helps our lost brethren return Beth HaDerech – Returning to Judaism Chavura Zohar Yisrael-Crypto Jewish Outreach Crypto Jewish Education 3= New Christians and Old Christians in Portugal, written by António Nunes Ribeiro Sanches, in 1748, in Portuguese A history of the Marranos, by Cecil Roth Dramatic episodes of the Portuguese Inquisition, volume 1, by Antonio Baião, in Portuguese Dramatic episodes of the Portuguese Inquisition, volume 2, by Antonio Baião, in Portuguese Trial of Gabriel de Granada by the Inquisition in Mexico, 1642–1645, according to Cecil Roth, 'it gives a remarkably graphic impression of a typical Inquisitional case' Who Are the Crypto-Jews? by Dr. Henry Abramson 14th century in Al-Andalus 15th century in Al-Andalus Converts to Roman Catholicism from Judaism History of the conversos History of the Jews in South America Jewish Mexican history Jewish Spanish history Judaism in Spain Puerto Rican Jews Sephardi Jews topics Spanish Inquisition Passing (sociology)	[ 0.7349187135696411, 0.7121419310569763, -0.8399666547775269, -0.0011742787901312113, -0.38407281041145325, -0.16093598306179047, 0.9326483011245728, 0.208391472697258, 0.47196078300476074, 0.2841367721557617, -0.5321183800697327, 0.19515278935432434, -0.3296133577823639, 0.2370641976594925, -0.36228057742118835, 0.0029347101226449013, 0.6418832540512085, 0.7448895573616028, 0.1908959150314331, -0.27908608317375183, -0.3104482889175415, 0.040510393679142, -0.20418581366539001, -0.024183599278330803, -0.1719721555709839, -0.23040252923965454, 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213521	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lick%20Observatory	Lick Observatory	The Lick Observatory is an astronomical observatory owned and operated by the University of California. It is on the summit of Mount Hamilton, in the Diablo Range just east of San Jose, California, United States. The observatory is managed by the University of California Observatories, with headquarters on the University of California, Santa Cruz campus, where its scientific staff moved in the mid-1960s. It is named after James Lick. The first new moon of Jupiter to be identified since the time of Galileo was discovered at this observatory; Amalthea, the planet's fifth moon, was discovered at this observatory in 1892. Early history Lick Observatory is the world's first permanently occupied mountain-top observatory. The observatory, in a Classical Revival style structure, was constructed between 1876 and 1887, from a bequest from James Lick (1796 – 1876) of $700,000 (approximately $22 million in 2014 dollars). Lick, originally a carpenter and piano maker, chose the site atop Mount Hamilton and was buried there in 1887 under the future site of the telescope, with a brass tablet bearing the inscription, "Here lies the body of James Lick". Lick additionally requested that Santa Clara County construct a "first-class road" to the summit, completed in 1876. Lick chose John Wright, of San Francisco's Wright & Sanders firm of architects, to design both the Observatory and the Astronomer's House. All of the construction materials had to be brought to the site by horse and mule-drawn wagons, which could not negotiate a steep grade. To keep the grade below 6.5%, the road had to take a very winding and sinuous path, which the modern-day road (California State Route 130) still follows. Tradition maintains that this road has exactly 365 turns (This is approximately correct, although uncertainty as to what should count as a turn makes precise verification impossible). The road is closed when there is snow at Lick Observatory. The first telescope installed at the observatory was a refractor made by Alvan Clark. Astronomer E. E. Barnard used the telescope to make "exquisite photographs of comets and nebulae", according to D. J. Warner of Warner & Swasey Company. The refracting telescope on Mt. Hamilton was Earth's largest refracting telescope during the period from when it saw first light on January 3, 1888, until the construction of Yerkes Observatory in 1897. Warner & Swasey designed and built the telescope mounting, with the lens manufactured by one of the Clark sons, Alvan Graham. E. E. Barnard used the telescope in 1892 to discover a fifth moon of Jupiter, Amalthea. This was the first addition to Jupiter's known moons since Galileo observed the planet through his parchment tube and spectacle lens. The telescope provided spectra for W. W. Campbell's work on the radial velocities of stars. In 1905 (Jan. 5 and Feb. 27), Charles Dillon Perrine discovered the sixth and seventh moons of Jupiter (Elara and Himalia) on photographs taken with the 36-inch Crossley reflecting telescope which he had recently rebuilt. In May 1888, the observatory was turned over to the Regents of the University of California, and it became the first permanently occupied mountain-top observatory in the world. Edward Singleton Holden was the first director. The location provided excellent viewing performance because of lack of ambient light and pollution; additionally, the night air at the top of Mt. Hamilton is extremely calm. Often a layer of low coastal clouds invades the valley below, especially on nights from late-spring to mid-summer, a phenomenon known in California as the June Gloom. On nights when the observatory remains above that layer, light pollution can be greatly reduced. In 1928, Donald C. Shane studied Carbon stars, and was able to distinguish them into spectral classes R0–R9 and N0–N7 (on this scale N7 is the reddest and R0 the bluest). This was an expansion of Annie Jump Cannon of Harvard's work on Carbon stars that had divided them into R and N types. The N stars have more cyanogen and the R stars have more carbon. On May 21, 1939, during a nighttime fog that engulfed the summit, a U.S. Army Air Force Northrop A-17 two-seater attack plane crashed into the main building. Because a scientific meeting was being held elsewhere, the only staff member present was Nicholas Mayall. Nothing caught fire and the two individuals in the building were unharmed. The pilot of the plane, Lt. Richard F. Lorenz, and passenger Private W. E. Scott were killed instantly. The telephone line was broken by the crash, so no help could be called for at first. Eventually help arrived together with numerous reporters and photographers, who kept arriving almost all night long. Evidence of their numbers could be seen the next day by the litter of flash bulbs carpeting the parking lot. The press widely covered the accident and many reports emphasized the luck in not losing a large cabinet of spectrograms which was knocked over by the crash coming through an astronomer's office window. There was no damage to the telescope dome. In 1950, the California state legislature appropriated funds for a reflector telescope, which was completed in 1959. The observatory additionally has a Cassegrain reflector dedicated to photoelectric measurements of star brightness, and received a pair of astrographs from the Carnegie Corporation. Time-signal service In 1886, Lick Observatory begins supplying Railroad Standard Time to the Southern Pacific Railroad, and to other businesses, over telegraph lines. The signal was generated by a clock manufactured by E. Howard & Co. specifically for the Observatory, and which included an electric apparatus for transmitting the time signal over telegraph lines. While most of the nation's railroads received their time signal from the U.S. Naval Observatory time signal via Western Union's telegraph lines, the Lick Observatory Time-Signal was used by railroads from the West coast all the way to Colorado. 21st century With the growth of San Jose, and the rest of Silicon Valley, light pollution became a problem for the observatory. In the 1970s, a site in the Santa Lucia Mountains at Junípero Serra Peak, southeast of Monterey, was evaluated for possible relocation of many of the telescopes. However, funding for the move was not available, and in 1980 San Jose began a program to reduce the effects of lighting, most notably replacing all streetlamps with low pressure sodium lamps. The result is that the Mount Hamilton site remains a viable location for a major working observatory. The International Astronomical Union named Asteroid 6216 San Jose to honor the city's efforts toward reducing light pollution. In 2006, there were 23 families in residence, plus typically between two and ten visiting astronomers from the University of California campuses, who stay in dormitories while working at the observatory. The little town of Mount Hamilton atop the mountain has its own police and a post office, and until 2005 had a one-room K-8 school. In 2008, there were 38 people residing on the mountain; the chef and commons dinner were decommissioned. By 2013, with continuing budget and staff cuts there remain only about nineteen residents and it is common for the observers to work from remote observing stations rather than make the drive, partly as a result of the business office raising the cost to stay in the dorms. The swimming pool has been closed. In 2013, one of Lick Observatory's key funding sources was scheduled for elimination in 2018, which many worried would result in the closing of the entire observatory. In November 2014, the University of California announced its intention to continue support of Lick Observatory. Telescopes at Lick Observatory are used by researchers from many campuses of the University of California system. Current topics of research carried out at Lick include exoplanets, supernovae, active galactic nuclei, planetary science, and development of new adaptive optics technologies. In 2015, Google donated $1 million to the observatory over two years. In August 2020, the observatory was in danger of being destroyed by the rapidly growing SCU Lightning Complex fires. Firefighters were on standby at Lick Observatory to defend the buildings if necessary. As of the evening of August 19, 2020, the fire was on observatory property and moving quickly. While the residences on Mt. Hamilton sustained some damage during the following night, the telescopes and domes survived. Significant discoveries The following astronomical objects were discovered at Lick Observatory: Measurement of the size of the major moons of Jupiter by A. A. Michelson in 1891 Several moons of Jupiter Amalthea Elara Himalia Sinope Near-Earth asteroid (29075) 1950 DA Several extrasolar planets Quintuple planet system 55 Cancri Triple planet system Upsilon Andromedae (with Whipple Observatory) Double planet systems HD 38529 (with Keck Observatory) HD 12661 (with Keck) Gliese 876 (with Keck) 47 Ursae Majoris The first detection of emission lines in the spectrum of an active galaxy The jet emerging from the active nucleus in Messier 87 The hidden active galactic nucleus in NGC 1068, detected using spectropolarimetry In addition to observations of natural phenomena, Lick was also the location of the first laser range-finding observation of the Apollo 11 reflector, although this was only for confirmation purposes and no ongoing range-finding work was performed. Equipment Below is a list of the nine telescopes operating at the observatory: The C. Donald Shane telescope reflector (Shane Dome, Tycho Brahe Peak). Its instrumentation includes: The Hamilton spectrometer The Kast double spectrograph The ShaneAO adaptive optics system with laser guide star The Automated Planet Finder reflector. First light was originally scheduled for 2006. The telescope finally came into regular use in 2013. The Anna L. Nickel reflector (North (small) Dome, Main Building) The Great Lick refractor (South Dome, Main Building, Observatory Peak) The Crossley reflector (Crossley Dome, Ptolemy Peak) The Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope (KAIT) reflector (24-inch Dome, Kepler Peak) The Coudé Auxiliary Telescope (Inside of Shane Dome, South wall, Tycho Brahe Peak) The Tauchmann reflector (Tauchmann Dome atop the water tank, Huygens Peak) The Carnegie twin refractor (Double Astrograph Dome, Tycho Brahe Peak) Below is a list of equipment that formerly operated at the observatory: CCD Comet Camera Nikon camera lens ("The Outhouse" Southwest of the Shane Dome, Tycho Brahe Peak) See also Charles Dillon Perrine Harland Epps List of astronomical observatories List of largest optical refracting telescopes References Citations Sources Vasilevskis, S. and Osterbrock, D. E. (1989) "Charles Donald Shane" Biographical Memoirs, Volume 58 pp. 489–512, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, . Further reading External links Lick Observatory Lick Observatory Archive at UC Santa Cruz Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive, from the UC Santa Cruz Library's Digital Collections Photographs (1884) from the Paris Observatory Digital library The University of California Observatories Astronomical observatories in California Buildings and structures in Santa Clara County, California Diablo Range University of California, Santa Cruz buildings and structures Astronomy institutes and departments Research institutes in the San Francisco Bay Area History of Santa Clara County, California University of California Tourist attractions in Santa Clara County, California Neoclassical architecture in California 1887 establishments in California	[ 0.12824971973896027, 0.17002257704734802, 0.3263884484767914, -0.2400674968957901, 0.5481523871421814, -0.15342313051223755, 0.542549729347229, 0.5471241474151611, -0.2661999464035034, -0.3993552029132843, -0.43550315499305725, -0.07324080169200897, 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213522	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babson%20task	Babson task	The Babson task is a particular type of chess problem—namely, a directmate with the following properties: White makes the only move that forces checkmate in the stipulated number of moves. Black's defences include the promotion of a certain pawn, to either a knight, a bishop, a rook, or a queen. (Black may have other defences as well.) If Black promotes, then White must promote a pawn to the same piece that Black just promoted to—this is the only way to force checkmate within the stipulated number of moves. The task is named after the first person to speculate about the existence of such a chess problem, , in 1884. It is regarded as one of the greatest challenges for a composer of chess problems to devise a satisfying Babson task problem, and for almost a century, it was unknown whether the task was possible. The Babson task is a special form of Allumwandlung, a chess problem in which the solution contains promotions to each of the four possible pieces. Such problems were already known when Babson formulated his task. Forerunners of the Babson task This 1912 problem by Wolfgang Pauly is, as it were, a three-quarter Babson task—three of Black's promotions are matched by White. White to move and mate in four: The key is 1.b3, after which there are the following lines: This is not a full Babson, however, because 1...a1=B 2.f8=B does not work – White must instead play 2.f8=Q, with similar play to above. Selfmate Babsons The earliest Babson tasks are all in the form of a selfmate – this is where White, moving first, must force Black to mate him against his will within a specified number of moves. In 1914, Babson himself published a selfmate which achieved the task, although three different white pawns shared the promotions. The first problem in which a single black and single white pawn were involved in the promotions was by Henry Wald Bettmann, and won 1st prize in the Babson Task Tourney 1925–26. The key move in Bettmann's problem (left) is 1.a8=B, after which the play goes: A number of other selfmate Babson tasks with one pawn of each colour doing all the promotions followed this one. Directmate Babsons Composing a Babson task problem in directmate form (where White moves first, and must checkmate Black against any defence within a stipulated number of moves) was thought so difficult that very little effort was put into solving it until the 1960s, when Pierre Drumare began his work on the problem which occupied him for the next twenty years or so. He managed to compose a Babson task problem using nightriders (a fairy piece which moves like a knight, but can make any number of knight-like moves in the same direction in one go) instead of knights, but found it hard to devise one using normal pieces – because of their limited range, it is difficult to justify White promoting to a knight because of Black promoting to one way over the other side of the board. When Drumare did eventually succeed using conventional pieces in 1980, the result was regarded as highly unsatisfactory, even by Drumare himself. It is a mate in five (first published Memorial Seneca, 1980): The key is 1.Rf2, after which Black captures on b1 are answered by white captures on g8. Efficiency in chess problems is considered a great boon, but Drumare's attempt is very inefficient—no fewer than 30 pieces are on the board. It also has six promoted pieces in the initial position (even a single promoted piece is considered something of a "cheat" in chess problems), which is in any case illegal—it could not be reached in the course of a game (one of the white f-pawns must have made a capture, and the white and black b- and c-pawns must have made two captures between them, making three in total, yet only two units are missing from the board). Despite all these flaws, it is the first complete Babson task. In 1982, two years after composing this problem, Drumare gave up, saying that the Babson task would never be satisfactorily solved. The following year, Leonid Yarosh, a football coach from Kazan then virtually unknown as a problem composer, came up with a much better Babson task problem than Drumare's – the position is legal, it is much simpler than Drumare's problem, and there are no promoted pieces on board. First published in March 1983 in the famous Russian chess magazine Shakhmaty v SSSR, this is generally thought of as the first satisfactory solution of the Babson task. Drumare himself had high praise for the problem. It is a mate in four: The key is 1.Rxh4, and the main lines are: Black has more options for its first move, of course, but these are not part of the Babson theme. They also result in checkmate on the fourth move. However, Yarosh's problem has a small flaw – the key is a capture, something which is generally frowned upon in problems. Also, when first presented the black piece at h4 was a pawn, but a computer discovered an additional solution by 1.axb8=N hxg3+ 2.Kh3 Bxb8 3.Qxc2 and mate next move. Yarosh then substituted a knight is on that square; now 1.axb8=N fails to 1...Nf3+ 2.Bxf3 Bxb8 3.Qxc2 Bxg3+ and White is too late. Nevertheless, when Dutch author Tim Krabbé saw this version in the Soviet publication 64, he records that the realisation that somebody had at last solved the Babson task had the effect upon him as if he had "... opened a newspaper and seen the headline 'Purpose Of Life Discovered'." Yarosh continued to work on the problem and in August 1983 his improved version with a non-capturing key appeared in Shakhmaty v SSSR. It is generally considered one of the greatest chess problems ever composed. Again, mate in four: The key here is non-capturing and also thematic (that is, it is logically related to the rest of the solution): 1.a7. The variations are largely the same as in the original: Yarosh composed a completely different Babson task problem later in 1983 and another in 1986. Several other Babsons have since been composed by other authors. The cyclic Babson In the August 2003 issue of the German problem magazine Die Schwalbe, the problem to the right, a mate in four by Peter Hoffmann appeared. Hoffmann had previously published a number of conventional directmate Babsons, but this one is significant as it is the first cyclic Babson: rather than black promotions being matched by White, they are related in cyclic form: Black promoting to a queen means White must promote to a bishop, Black promoting to a bishop means White must promote to a rook, Black promoting to a rook means White must promote to a knight, and Black promoting to a knight means White must promote to a queen. The key is 1.Nxe6, threatening 2.hxg8=Q and 3.Qf7#. The thematic defences are: 1...d1=Q 2.hxg8=B (2.hxg8=Q? Qd7+ 3.Bxd7 stalemate; 2.hxg8=N+? Kxe6 and no mate), threatening 3.c4+ Q-moves 4.BxQ# 2...Qd7+ 3.Bxd7 Kxg6 4.Rxh6# 2...Qxc1 3.Rxg5 (threat: 4.Rf5#) hxg5 4.Qh8# 1...d1=B 2.hxg8=R (2.hxg8=Q? stalemate; 2.hxg8=N+? Kxe6 and no mate) Kxe6 3.Rd8 3.Kf6 Rd6# 1...d1=R 2.hxg8=N (2.hxg8=Q? Rd4+ 3.c4 stalemate) Kxe6 3.Qxe2+ K-moves 4.Qe5# 1...d1=N 2.hxg8=Q (2.hxg8=N+? Kxe6 3.Qxe2+ Ne3! and no mate) Nxb2+ 3.Kb5(Bxb2) and 4.Qf7# There are also a number of sidelines. As with Drumare's original Babson task, the problem uses promoted pieces and has a capturing key, but it is nonetheless remarkable for being the first published cyclic Babson. In the September 2005 issue of , the first cyclic Babson without promoted pieces in the initial position was published. Again, the composer was Peter Hoffmann. The key is 1.Nxb6. The thematic defences are: 1...d1=Q 2.exf8=B (2.exf8=Q? Qd4+ 3.Bxd4 stalemate; 2.exf8=N+? Kd6 3.Be5+ Kc5 and no mate) 2...Qd4+ 3.exd4 Kxf6 4.d5# 1...d1=B 2.exf8=R (2.exf8=Q? stalemate; 2.exf8=N+? Kd6 3.Be5+ Kc5 and no mate) 2...Kd6 3.Qd2+ with mate after any move by black 1...d1=R 2.exf8=N+ (2.exf8=Q? Rd4+ 3.Bxd4 stalemate; 2.exf8=B? Rd7 3.c8=Q(B) stalemate) 2...Kd6 3.Be5+ Kc5 4.Qxc2# 1...d1=N 2.exf8=Q (2.exf8=N+? Kd6 3.Be5+ Kc5 and no mate) 2...Nxc3+ 3.Kxa5 Ne4 4.c8=Q# References Bibliography Further reading Jeremy Morse, Chess Problems Tasks and Records (Faber and Faber, 1995, revised edition 2001) – contains a chapter on the Babson task External links (a detailed analysis of Yarosh's second Babson) (lists Babsons published later) (mentions two forerunners of the Babson task) Chess problems	[ -0.4597163200378418, 0.12420867383480072, -0.5990414023399353, -0.28350284695625305, -0.4367040991783142, 0.25402915477752686, -0.07009211927652359, -0.4207049608230591, -0.276480108499527, -0.15099550783634186, -0.48761868476867676, 0.2458535134792328, -0.6185287833213806, 0.18869958817958832, -0.032384537160396576, 0.5415817499160767, 0.8769959211349487, -0.28746968507766724, -0.015303193591535091, -1.047291874885559, 0.3434484302997589, 0.36362940073013306, -0.18320250511169434, 0.211918443441391, 0.41942861676216125, -0.15230236947536469, 0.1914970576763153, -0.09909765422344208, -0.24359944462776184, 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213525	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow%20motion	Slow motion	Slow motion (commonly abbreviated as slo-mo or slow-mo) is an effect in film-making whereby time appears to be slowed down. It was invented by the Austrian priest August Musger in the early 20th century. This can be accomplished through the use of high-speed cameras and then playing the footage produced by such cameras at a normal rate like 30 fps, or in post production through the use of software. Typically this style is achieved when each film frame is captured at a rate much faster than it will be played back. When replayed at normal speed, time appears to be moving more slowly. A term for creating slow motion film is overcranking which refers to hand cranking an early camera at a faster rate than normal (i.e. faster than 24 frames per second). Slow motion can also be achieved by playing normally recorded footage at a slower speed. This technique is more often applied to video subjected to instant replay than to film. A third technique that is becoming common using current computer software post-processing is to fabricate digitally interpolated frames to smoothly transition between the frames that were actually shot. Motion can be slowed further by combining techniques, such as for example by interpolating between overcranked frames. The traditional method for achieving super-slow motion is through high-speed photography, a more sophisticated technique that uses specialized equipment to record fast phenomena, usually for scientific applications. Slow motion is ubiquitous in modern filmmaking. It is used by a diverse range of directors to achieve diverse effects. Some classic subjects of slow-motion include: Athletic activities of all kinds, to demonstrate skill and style. To recapture a key moment in an athletic game, typically shown as a replay. Natural phenomena, such as a drop of water hitting a glass. Slow motion can also be used for artistic effect, to create a romantic or suspenseful aura or to stress a moment in time. Vsevolod Pudovkin, for instance, used slow motion in a suicide scene in his 1933 film The Deserter, in which a man jumping into a river seems sucked down by the slowly splashing waves. Another example is Face/Off, in which John Woo used the same technique in the movements of a flock of flying pigeons. The Matrix made a distinct success in applying the effect into action scenes through the use of multiple cameras, as well as mixing slow-motion with live action in other scenes. Japanese director Akira Kurosawa was a pioneer using this technique in his 1954 movie Seven Samurai. American director Sam Peckinpah was another classic lover of the use of slow motion. The technique is especially associated with explosion effect shots and underwater footage. The opposite of slow motion is fast motion. Cinematographers refer to fast motion as undercranking since it was originally achieved by cranking a handcranked camera slower than normal. It is often used for comic, or occasional stylistic effect. Extreme fast motion is known as time lapse photography; a frame of, say, a growing plant is taken every few hours; when the frames are played back at normal speed, the plant is seen to grow before the viewer's eyes. The concept of slow motion may have existed before the invention of the motion picture: the Japanese theatrical form Noh employs very slow movements. How slow motion works There are two ways in which slow motion can be achieved in modern cinematography. Both involve a camera and a projector. A projector refers to a classical film projector in a movie theater, but the same basic rules apply to a television screen and any other device that displays consecutive images at a constant frame rate. Overcranking For purposes of making the above illustration readable, a projection speed of 10 frames per second (fps) has been selected (the 24fps film standard makes slow overcranking rare but nevertheless available on professional equipment). Time stretching The second type of slow motion is achieved during post production. This is known as time-stretching or digital slow motion. This type of slow motion is achieved by inserting new frames in between frames that have actually been photographed. The effect is similar to overcranking as the actual motion occurs over a longer time. Since the necessary frames were never photographed, new frames must be fabricated. Sometimes the new frames are simply repeats of the preceding frames but more often they are created by interpolating between frames. (Often this motion interpolation is, effectively, a short dissolve between still frames). Many complicated algorithms exist that can track motion between frames and generate intermediate frames within that scene. It is similar to half-speed, and is not true slow-motion but merely a longer display of each frame. In action films Slow motion is used widely in action films for dramatic effect, as well as the famous bullet-dodging effect, popularized by The Matrix. Formally, this effect is referred to as and is a process whereby the capture frame rate of the camera changes over time. For example, if in the course of 10 seconds of capture, the capture frame rate is adjusted from 60 frames per second to 24 frames per second, when played back at the standard film rate of 24 frames per second, a unique time-manipulation effect is achieved. For example, someone pushing a door open and walking out into the street would appear to start off in slow motion, but in a few seconds later within the same shot the person would appear to walk in "realtime" (everyday speed). The opposite speed-ramping is done in The Matrix when Neo re-enters the Matrix for the first time to see the Oracle. As he comes out of the warehouse "load-point", the camera zooms into Neo at normal speed but as it gets closer to Neo's face, time seems to slow down, perhaps visually accentuating Neo pausing and reflecting a moment, and perhaps alluding to future manipulation of time itself within the Matrix later on in the movie. In broadcasting Slow-motion is widely used in sport broadcasting and its origins in this domain extend back to the earliest days of television, one example being the European Heavyweight Title in 1939 where Max Schmeling knocked out Adolf Heuser in 71 seconds. In instant replays, slow motion reviews are now commonly used to show in detail some action (photo finish, goal, ...). Generally, they are made with video servers and special controllers. The first TV slo-mo was the Ampex HS-100 disk record-player. After the HS-100, Type C videotape VTRs with a slow-motion option were used. There were a few special high frame rate TV systems (300 fps) made to give higher quality slow-motion for TV. 300 fps can be converted to both 50 and 60 fps transmission formats without major issues. Scientific use In scientific and technical applications it is often necessary to slow motion by a very large factor, for example to examine the details of a nuclear explosion. Examples are sometimes published showing, for example, a bullet bursting a balloon. Video file recording methods Usually, digital camcorders (including: bridge cameras, DSLM, higher-end compact cameras and mobile phones) historically had two ways of storing slow motion video (or: high framerate video) into the video file: the real-time method and the menial method. Real-time method The real time method treats the video as a normal video while encoding it. The output video file contains the same framerate as the image sensor output framerate. The duration of the video in the output file also matches the real-life recording duration. And the output video also contains an audio track, like usual videos. This method is used by all GoPro cameras, Sony RX10/RX100 series cameras (except in the time-limited "super-slow-motion" High Frame Rate (HFR) mode), Apple iPhones with high framerate (slow motion) video recording functionality (starting with the iPhone 5s in late 2013), Sony Xperia flagships since 2014 (Xperia Z2, first Sony flagship with precluded 120fps video recording), LG V series mobile phones and every Samsung Galaxy flagship phone since 2015 (Galaxy S6) for videos with 120 fps or higher. Every video camera that is able to record at 60 fps (e.g. Asus PadFone 2 (late 2012: 720p@60 fps) and Samsung Mobile starting at the Galaxy Note 3 (late 2013) with 1080p at 60 fps, labelled "smooth motion"), recorded it using the real-time method. Advantages Video editing software (e.g. Sony Vegas, Kdenlive and included software in mobile phones) and video playback software (e.g. VLC media player) allow treating such videos as both usual videos and slow-motion videos. During video editing and video playback, the indicated playback speed matches real life. Metadata viewing software (e.g. MediaInfo) shows a framerate and a time that matches the real-life conditions during the video recording progression. Video framerate and duration matches real life. Includes audio track, like normal framerate videos. These advantages make the real-time method the more useful method for power users. Menial method The menial method saves recorded video files in a stretched way, and also without audio track. The framerate in the output file does not match the original sensor output framerate, but the former is lower. The real-life timespan of the recording (while holding the camera) does not match the length of the video in the output file, but the latter is longer. The opposite is the case for time-lapse videos, where the effectively saved framerate is lower than for normal videos This means that the action visible inside the video runs at slower speeds than in real life, despite the indicated playback speed of ×1. This encoding method is used by the camera software of the following devices (incomplete list): Panasonic Lumix DMC-FZ1000 (2014; 1080p@120fps; 1/4×) Samsung Omnia 2 GT-i8000 (2009; QVGA 320×240@120fps; 1/4×) Sony FDR-AX100 (2014; 720p@120fps; 1/4×) Sony RX100 IV, V, VI and VII: High Frame Rate (HFR) mode records at 240 fps up to 1,000 fps for 3–7 seconds. This is saved at 24 - 60 fps, i.e. from 1/4x down to 1/40x speed. All Samsung Galaxy flagship devices starting from late 2012 to late 2014: 2012: Galaxy Note 2: 720×480@120fps 2013 H1: Galaxy S4 (800×450@120fps) 2013 H1: S4 Zoom (720×480@120fps) 2013 H2: Galaxy Note 3 (1280×720@120fps) 2014 H1: Galaxy S5, Galaxy K Zoom, H2: Note 4 (1280×720@120fps) Earlier OnePlus flagship devices (1280×720@120fps). OnePlus One Advantages The output video file is directly playable as slow motion in video players that do not support adjusting the playback speed (e.g. on a Galaxy S3 Mini). The output video file is directly playable in video players and/or on devices that can only handle limited framerates (e.g. on a Galaxy S3 Mini). Comparison Example A 120FPS video whose real-life recording duration is 00h:00m:10s can be encoded in the following methods seen in the table on the Samsung Galaxy Note 2, S4, Note 3, S5 and Note 4 (example devices that use the menial method for 120fps video recording). In this example, the real-time-method recording device can be an iPhone 5s, a Galaxy S6 (including variants), a Galaxy Note 5, a Sony Xperia Z2, Xperia Z3 or Xperia Z5. This table also includes references from other video recording types (normal, low-framerate, time-lapse) to facilitate understanding for novice people. Notes See also Motion picture terminology High-speed camera Time-lapse photography Bullet time Video server Multicam (LSM) Temporal posterization References External links Videos Sorprendentes en Slow Motion / Cámara Lenta Interesting High-speed Video Clips Create Slow Motion Videos JackCabbage: Overcrank on the EX-1 JackCabbage: Overcrank and Undercrank on the HVX Cinematic techniques Articles containing video clips Austrian inventions	[ 0.3135828971862793, -0.35059496760368347, 0.24252447485923767, 0.4264686703681946, 0.1563960760831833, -0.06804168969392776, -0.023142613470554352, 0.29486942291259766, -0.470767080783844, -0.020876210182905197, -0.4571011960506439, 0.2947993874549866, -0.338758260011673, 0.005489357281476259, 0.08940452337265015, 0.271346777677536, 0.35850417613983154, 0.1712956428527832, 0.014759299345314503, 0.08668995648622513, -0.16109667718410492, 0.32837578654289246, 0.41081905364990234, -0.627150297164917, -0.6060212850570679, -0.3574378192424774, 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213529	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B4te%20d%27Azur%20Observatory	Côte d'Azur Observatory	The Côte d'Azur Observatory (, OCA) is a network of astronomical observatories throughout southern France. It originated in 1988 with the merger of two observatories: Nice Observatory Centre de recherches en géodynamique et astrométrie (CERGA) Cote d'Azure Observatory tested beam combining technology at CHARA array. Astronomers developed a theory about M-Type asteroids, that may be tested by the planned spacecraft Psyche. See also List of astronomical observatories Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment OCA-DLR Asteroid Survey References External links Côte d'Azur Observatory official website (English version) Grand Interferometre a 2 Telescopes (GI2T REGAIN ) Astronomical observatories in France	[ 0.10104496031999588, 0.6778193712234497, -0.0441078282892704, -0.5987598896026611, 0.09338609874248505, 0.16659456491470337, 0.24443264305591583, 0.4944482445716858, -0.6667927503585815, -0.49563363194465637, -0.43242377042770386, 0.4378248453140259, -0.18277068436145782, 0.29731079936027527, -0.13143883645534515, 0.5148279070854187, 0.7744233012199402, -0.09172102808952332, -0.0010323853930458426, -0.629336416721344, -0.1023181676864624, 0.09818936139345169, 0.08404404670000076, -0.29190725088119507, -0.570300817489624, -0.2892390191555023, -0.1238829717040062, 0.6101837754249573, 0.35558152198791504, -0.039249587804079056, -0.04206368699669838, 0.838516116142273, -0.345406711101532, -0.6401070952415466, 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213530	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapata%20Espinoza	Zapata Espinoza	Zapata "Zap" Espinoza (born March 12, 1960, in Hollywood, CA) is a journalist and current editor-in-chief of Road Bike Action Magazine a Hi-Torque Publication. He was formerly editor of two American mountain biking magazines, including Mountain Bike Magazine. Zapata was inducted into the Mountain Bike Hall of Fame in 1995. He began his writing career working for LA Weekly in the early 1980s, writing on local politics. In 1985 he began working for Hi-Torque Publications writing for Motocross Action Magazine. He was the editor of Mountain Bike Action Magazine from 1986 to 1993, when he moved to Rodale's Mountain Bike magazine, until he was fired in 2004. From there, Espinoza became a brand manager for Trek Bicycle Corporation, where he worked until October 2006 until he left to return to Hi-Torque. He then got a job at Hi-Torque to work as a feature editor for Motocross Action Magazine, Mountain Bike Magazine, and Road Bike Action Magazine, becoming editor-in-chief of Road Bike Action Magazine in 2010. He is best known for pushing motorcycle and cycling trends from gear, to riding styles, to fashion, to the loud, abrasive hubris of the scene, in mountain biking. References External links Mountain Bike Hall of Fame page People from Hollywood, Los Angeles American magazine editors Mountain biking journalists Living people 1960 births 20th-century American journalists American male journalists	[ 0.29131168127059937, 0.22442373633384705, 0.04778548330068588, 0.23515105247497559, -0.15399326384067535, 0.09780965000391006, 0.06529653072357178, 0.3157397210597992, 0.16207031905651093, 0.3109261393547058, 0.017207089811563492, 0.8445287346839905, 0.20720049738883972, -0.34279292821884155, -0.13622090220451355, 0.04943537712097168, -0.45305290818214417, 0.22543896734714508, -0.3804253339767456, 0.005657966248691082, 0.08187182992696762, -0.4882873296737671, 0.5226835012435913, 0.2392243891954422, -0.5068206191062927, 0.3683003783226013, -0.16041727364063263, 0.3435373902320862, -0.6856443881988525, 0.5328565835952759, 0.3550080358982086, 0.44266846776008606, 0.45141756534576416, 0.025947172194719315, -0.3854857385158539, 0.2776624262332916, 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213531	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richmal%20Crompton	Richmal Crompton	Richmal Crompton Lamburn (15 November 1890 – 11 January 1969) was a popular English writer, best known for her Just William series of books, humorous short stories, and to a lesser extent adult fiction books. Life Richmal Crompton Lamburn was born in Bury, Lancashire, the second child of the Rev. Edward John Sewell Lamburn, a Classics master at Bury Grammar School and his wife Clara (née Crompton). Her brother, John Battersby Crompton Lamburn, also became a writer, remembered under the name John Lambourne for his fantasy novel The Kingdom That Was (1931) and under the name "John Crompton" for his books on natural history. Richmal Crompton attended St Elphin's Boarding School for the daughters of the clergy, originally based in Warrington, Lancashire. She later moved with the school to a new location in Darley Dale, near Matlock, Derbyshire in 1904. In order to further her chosen career as a schoolteacher, she won a scholarship to Royal Holloway College, part of the University of London in Englefield Green, Surrey. Crompton graduated in 1914 with a BA honours degree in Classics (II class). She took part in the Women's Suffrage movement. In 1914, she returned to St Elphin's as a Classics mistress and later, at age 27, moved to Bromley High School in southeast London where she began her writing in earnest. Cadogan (1993) shows that she was an excellent and committed teacher at both schools. Having contracted poliomyelitis in 1923 she was left without the use of her right leg. She gave up her teaching career and began to write full-time. Later in her forties, she suffered from breast cancer and had a mastectomy. She never married and had no children; she was an aunt and a great-aunt. Her William stories and her other literature were extremely successful and, three years after she retired from teaching, Crompton was able to afford to have a house (The Glebe) built in Bromley Common for herself and her mother, Clara. In spite of her disabilities, during the Second World War she volunteered for the Fire Service. Crompton died in 1969 at the age of 78, after a heart attack, in Farnborough Hospital. Crompton had fallen ill on the drive home from visiting her niece's home in Chelsfield, Kent. After feeling unwell during the night, Crompton telephoned friends the next morning and died within an hour of being taken to hospital. Crompton left the copyright of all her books to her niece, Mrs Richmal C. L. Ashbee of Chelsfield, Kent; along with £57,623. Work Crompton's best known books are the William stories, about a mischievous 11-year-old schoolboy and his band of friends, known as "The Outlaws". Her first published short story featuring William was "Rice Mould Pudding", published in Home Magazine in 1919. (She had written "The Outlaws" in 1917, but it was not published until later.) In 1922, the first collection, entitled Just William, was published. She wrote 38 other William books throughout her life. The last, William the Lawless, was published posthumously in 1970. The William books sold over twelve million copies in the United Kingdom alone. They have been adapted for films, stage-plays, and numerous radio and television series. Illustrations by Thomas Henry contributed to their success. Crompton saw her real work as writing adult fiction. Starting with The Innermost Room (1923), she wrote 41 novels for adults and published nine collections of short stories. Their focus was generally village life in the Home Counties. Though these novels have the same inventiveness and lack of sentimentality as the 'William' books, after the Second World War, such literature had an increasingly limited appeal. Even William was originally created for a grown-up audience, as she saw Just William as a potboiler (Cadogan, 1993). She was pleased by its success, but seemed frustrated that her other novels and short stories did not receive the same recognition. Her first published tale was published in The Girl's Own Paper in 1918, concerning a little boy named Thomas, a forerunner of William who reacts against authority. Crompton tried several times to reformulate William for other audiences. Jimmy (1949) was aimed at younger children, and Enter – Patricia (1927) at girls. Crompton wrote two more Jimmy books, but no more Patricia, and neither was as successful as William. As for the source of inspiration of the main character William, Crompton never disclosed it and therefore different opinions exist. Presumably it was the result of mixing observations of children she worked with or knew with her own imagination. According to the actor John Teed, whose family lived next door to Crompton, the model for William was Crompton's nephew Tommy: As a boy I knew Miss Richmal Crompton Lamburn well. She lived quietly with her mother in Cherry Orchard Road, Bromley Common. My family lived next door. In those days it was a small rural village. Miss Lamburn was a delightful unassuming young woman and I used to play with her young nephew Tommy. He used to get up to all sorts of tricks and he was always presumed to be the inspiration for William by all of us. Having contracted polio she was severely crippled and confined to a wheelchair. Owing to her restricted movements she took her setting from her immediate surroundings which contained many of the features described, such as unspoilt woods and wide streams and Biggin Hill Aerodrome, very active in the Twenties. Crompton's fiction centres around family and social life, dwelling on the constraints that they place on individuals while also nurturing them. This is best seen in her depiction of children as puzzled onlookers of society's ways. Nevertheless, the children, particularly William and his Outlaws, almost always emerge triumphant. The William books have been translated into nine languages. List of published works The publication dates are for the UK. Just William short story collections Just William, 1922 More William, 1922 William Again, 1923 William the Fourth, 1924 Still William, 1925 William The Conqueror, 1926 William the Outlaw, 1927 William in Trouble, 1927 William the Good, 1928 William, 1929 William the Bad, 1930 William's Happy Days, 1930 William's Crowded Hours, 1931 William the Pirate, 1932 William the Rebel, 1933 William the Gangster, 1934 William the Detective, 1935 Sweet William, 1936 William the Showman, 1937 William the Dictator, 1938 William and Air Raid Precautions, 1939 (also published as William's Bad Resolution, 1956) William and the Evacuees, 1940 (also published as William and the Film Star, 1956) William Does His Bit, 1941 William Carries On, 1942 William and The Brains Trust, 1945 Just William's Luck, 1948 William the Bold, 1950 William and the Tramp, 1952 William and the Moon Rocket, 1954 William and the Artist's Model, 1956 William and the Space Animal, 1956 William's Television Show, 1958 William the Explorer, 1960 William's Treasure Trove, 1962 William and the Witch, 1964 William and the Pop Singers, 1965 William and the Masked Ranger, 1966 William the Superman, 1968 William the Lawless, 1970 Just William plays William and the Artist's Model, 1956 William the Terrible, BBC Radio Plays volume 1, 2008, published by David Schutte William the Lionheart, BBC Radio Plays volume 2, 2008, published by David Schutte William the Peacemaker, BBC Radio Plays volume 3, 2009, published by David Schutte William the Avenger, BBC Radio Plays volume 4, 2009, published by David Schutte William the Smuggler, BBC Radio Plays volume 5, 2010, published by David Schutte William's Secret Society, BBC Radio Plays volume 6, 2010, published by David Schutte William-like books Enter – Patricia, 1927 Jimmy, 1949 Jimmy Again, 1951 Jimmy the Third, a compilation of stories from Jimmy and Jimmy Again, 1965 Others The Innermost Room, 1923 The Hidden Light, 1924 Anne Morrison, 1925 The Wildings, 1925 David Wilding, 1926 The House, 1926 (also published as Dread Dwelling) Kathleen and I, and, of Course, Veronica, 1926 (short stories) Millicent Dorrington, 1927 A Monstrous Regiment, 1927 (short stories) Leadon Hill, 1927 The Thorn Bush, 1928 Roofs Off!, 1928 The Middle Things, 1928 (short stories) Felicity Stands By, 1928 (short stories) Sugar and Spice and Other Stories, 1928 (short stories) Mist and Other Stories, 1928 (short stories), republished in May 2015 by Sundial Press as "MIST And Other Ghost Stories" The Four Graces, 1929 Abbot's End, 1929 Ladies First, 1929 (short stories) Blue Flames, 1930 Naomi Godstone, 1930 The Silver Birch and Other Stories, 1931 (short stories) Portrait of a Family, 1931 The Odyssey of Euphemia Tracy, 1932 Marriage of Hermione, 1932 The Holiday, 1933 Chedsy Place, 1934 The Old Man's Birthday, 1934 Quartet, 1935 Caroline, 1936 The First Morning, 1936 (short stories) There Are Four Seasons, 1937 Journeying Wave, 1938 Merlin Bay, 1939 Steffan Green, 1940 Narcissa, 1941 Mrs Frensham Describes a Circle, 1942 Weatherly Parade, 1944 Westover, 1946 The Ridleys, 1947 Family Roundabout, 1948, republished in 2001 by Persephone Books Frost at Morning, 1950 Linden Rise, 1952 The Gypsy's Baby, 1954 Four in Exile, 1954 Matty and the Dearingroydes, 1956 Blind Man's Buff, 1957 Wiseman's Folly, 1959 The Inheritor, 1960 Legacy Richmal Crompton's archives are held at Roehampton University, London and at Wat Tyler Country Park, Pitsea, where some members of her family lived. A public house in Bromley is named in her honour and contains framed prints and texts from the William series. The novel and TV series Good Omens by Neil Gaiman and Terry Pratchett was inspired by Just William, with the premise being the Antichrist in the place of William, and his gang ("The Them") in place of "The Outlaws". The initial working title for the novel was "William the Antichrist". Another of Pratchett's works, the Johnny Maxwell series, was also inspired by Just William, Pratchett stating that it was based very loosely on an idea of what Just William would be like in a 1990s setting. References Sources and further reading Manchester Authors, Writers and Poets Page at the Papillon Graphics' Virtual Encyclopaedia of Greater Manchester. Biography at Just William website. External links 1890 births 1969 deaths 20th-century British short story writers 20th-century English novelists 20th-century English women writers Alumni of Royal Holloway, University of London English children's writers English short story writers English women novelists Just William People associated with the University of Roehampton People from the Borough of Basildon People from Bury, Greater Manchester People from Chislehurst People with polio	[ -0.024403059855103493, -0.22424080967903137, 0.0825711041688919, -0.14537128806114197, -0.249623641371727, 0.7002578973770142, 0.753233015537262, -0.10486021637916565, -0.8083472847938538, 0.34934476017951965, -0.08530087023973465, 0.4476834237575531, -0.009206587448716164, 0.05280942842364311, 0.22534391283988953, 0.05716695263981819, -0.24643868207931519, 0.12689761817455292, -0.5883622765541077, -0.48170971870422363, -0.1914309412240982, -0.45913955569267273, 0.4950926899909973, -0.625593364238739, 0.16667629778385162, 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213532	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nice%20Observatory	Nice Observatory	The Nice Observatory () is an astronomical observatory located in Nice, France on the summit of Mount Gros. The observatory was founded in 1879, by the banker Raphaël Bischoffsheim. The architect was Charles Garnier, and Gustave Eiffel designed the main dome. In 1886 the largest refracting (i.e., with an objective lens rather than a mirror) telescope in the World made its debut at Nice Observatory, the Grand Lunette. Description The refractor telescope made by Henry and Gautier became operational around 1886–1887, was the largest in a privately funded observatory, and the first at such high altitude ( above sea level). It was slightly bigger in aperture, several metres longer, and located at a higher altitude than the new (1895) at Pulkovo observatory in the Russian Empire, and the at Vienna Observatory (completed early 1880s). In the records for the largest refracting telescopes all three were outperformed by the refractor installed at the Lick Observatory at 1,283 m altitude in 1889. As a scientific institution, the Nice Observatory no longer exists. It was merged with CERGA in 1988 to form the Côte d'Azur Observatory, which often is still referred to as "Nice Observatory". The Nice Observatory was featured in the unsuccessful 1999 film Simon Sez. It was also the setting for the title scene in the 2014 Woody Allen flick Magic in the Moonlight. Directors Henri Perrotin (1880–1904) General J. A. L. Bassot (1904–1917) Gaston Fayet (1917–1962) Jean-Claude Pecker (1962–1969) Philippe Delache (1969–1972) Jean-Paul Zahn (1972–1975) Philippe Delache (1975) Jean-Paul Zahn (1975–1981) Raymond Michard (1981-1989) Philippe Delache (1989–1994) José Pacheco (1994–1999) Jacques Colin (1999–2009) Farrokh Vakili (2009–2015) Thierry Lanz (since 2015) Gallery See also List of largest optical refracting telescopes List of largest optical reflecting telescopes List of astronomical observatories References External links Monographie de l'observatoire de Nice by Charles Garnier Astronomical observatories in France Observatory Second Empire architecture Great refractors Charles Garnier buildings	[ 0.044565193355083466, 0.12060049921274185, 0.33189502358436584, -0.13682760298252106, 0.10326255112886429, -0.026579106226563454, 0.6787815690040588, 0.24480612576007843, -0.7777761220932007, -0.7862027883529663, -0.6498408317565918, 0.3934639096260071, -0.2643429934978485, 0.5163103938102722, 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213538	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%20connector	N connector	The N connector (also, type-N connector) is a threaded, weatherproof, medium-size RF connector used to join coaxial cables. It was one of the first connectors capable of carrying microwave-frequency signals, and was invented in the 1940s by Paul Neill of Bell Labs, after whom the connector is named. Design The interface specifications for the N and many other connectors are referenced in MIL-STD-348. Originally, the connector was designed to carry signals at frequencies up to 1 GHz in military applications, but today's common Type N easily handles frequencies up to 11 GHz. More recent precision enhancements to the design by Julius Botka at Hewlett Packard have pushed this to 18 GHz. The male connector is hand-tightened (though versions with a hex nut are also available) and has an air gap between the center and outer conductors. The coupling has a 5/8-24 UNEF thread. Amphenol suggests tightening to a torque of , while Andrew Corporation suggest for their hex nut variant. As torque limit depends only on thread quality and cleanliness, whereas the main operational requirement is good RF contact without significant steps or gaps, these values should be seen as indicative rather than critical. Power rating The peak power rating of an N connector is determined by voltage breakdown/ionisation of the air near the center pin. The average power rating is determined by overheating of the centre contact due to resistive insertion loss, and thus is a function of frequency. Typical makers' curves for a new clean connector with a perfect load (VSWR=1.0) give limits of ≈5000 W at 20 MHz and ≈500 W at 2 GHz. This square root frequency derating law is expected from the skin depth decreasing with frequency. At lower frequencies the same maker recommends an upper bound of ≈1000 V RMS. To achieve reliable operation in practice over an extended period, a safety factor of 5 or more is not uncommon, particularly when generic parts may be substituted, or the operating environment is likely to lead to eventual tarnishing of the contacts. Impedance options The N connector follows MIL-STD-348, a standard defined by the US military, and comes in 50 and 75 ohm versions. The 50 ohm version is widely used in the infrastructure of land mobile, wireless data, paging and cellular systems. The 75 ohm version is primarily used in the infrastructure of cable television systems. Connecting these two different types of connectors to each other can lead to damage, and/or intermittent operation due to the difference in diameter of the center pin. Unfortunately, many type N connectors are not labeled, and it can be difficult to prevent this situation in a mixed impedance environment. The situation is further complicated by some makers of 75 ohm sockets designing them with enough spring yield to accept the larger 50 ohm pin without irreversible damage, while others do not. In general a 50 ohm socket is not damaged by a 75 ohm pin, but the loose fit means the contact quality is not guaranteed; this can cause poor or intermittent operation, with the thin 75 ohm male pin only barely mating with the larger 50 ohm socket in the female. The 50 ohm type N connector is favored in microwave applications and microwave instrumentation, such as spectrum analyzers. 50 Ω N connectors are also commonly used on amateur radio devices (e.g., transceivers) operating in UHF bands. Variations SnapN SnapN was originally designed by Rosenberger Hochfrequenztechnik in 2006 and is a quick locking replacement for the threaded interface of the widely applied Type N connector. Though part of the Quick Lock Formula Alliance (QLF), engineers at Rosenberger independently designed the SnapN in order to correct the performance problems of QLF’s version of the quick lock N connector, QN. This design achieves better electronic performance because, unlike the QN, this new version maintains the basic structural parameters of the original Type N in which the inner dimensions of the outer conductor are 7.00 mm, and the inner conductor’s outer dimensions are 3.04 mm. A male N-connector can plug into a female SnapN. Left Hand Thread The Left Hand Thread or (Reverse) Thread uses the same 5/8-24 UNEF thread size but threaded in the opposite direction. These are used for some Wireless LAN systems. Reverse Polarity N The Reverse Polarity connectors use the same outer shell, but change the gender of the inner pin. These are used for some Wireless LAN systems. HN The HN connector is slightly larger (3/4"-20 thread) and is designed for high-voltage applications. Applications Type N connectors find wide use in many lower frequency microwave systems, where ruggedness and/or low cost are needed. Many spectrum analyzers use such connectors for their inputs, and antennas which operate in the 0-11 GHz range often connect to a coaxial cable with type N connections. See also SMA connector, SMB connector, SMC connector UHF connector (aka PL-259 Connector) Optical fiber connector References RF connectors Computer connectors	[ 0.414442241191864, -0.30359920859336853, 0.47282323241233826, 0.07885032892227173, 0.24844098091125488, 0.12250693142414093, -0.5546253323554993, -0.0212237611413002, -0.242928609251976, -0.12959396839141846, -0.39375725388526917, 0.516618013381958, -0.5363876223564148, -0.04367056116461754, -0.15385152399539948, 0.6137506365776062, 0.6506755948066711, 0.16846738755702972, 0.07359328866004944, -0.5600460171699524, -0.22513751685619354, -0.4447099566459656, 0.3284016251564026, -0.12702524662017822, 0.27783823013305664, 0.12622354924678802, -0.18638864159584045, -0.06140982732176781, 0.49531620740890503, 0.46784496307373047, 0.652157723903656, 0.34614822268486023, -0.01546336431056261, -0.3718161880970001, 0.22499480843544006, 0.07192616909742355, -0.09108081459999084, -0.145132377743721, -0.12491246312856674, 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213541	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Louise%2C%20Alberta	Lake Louise, Alberta	Lake Louise is a hamlet within Banff National Park in Alberta, Canada. Named after Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll, it lies in Alberta's Rockies on the Bow River, northeast of the lake that shares its name. Initially settled in 1884 as an outpost for the Canadian Pacific Railway, Lake Louise sits at an elevation of , making it Canada's highest community. The nearby lake, framed by mountains, is one of the most famous mountain vistas in the world; the famous Chateau Lake Louise also overlooks the lake. History Prior to the arrival of Europeans, Indigenous peoples lived in the foothills and forests of the Rocky Mountains - including what is today Lake Louise, where they hunted bison and other big game animals. In the Stoney language of the Nakoda people the area is called , meaning "lake of the little fishes". During the 1870s, the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) started. The railway was planned to run through Bow Valley. A Nakoda guide took CPR workman Tom Wilson to the site in 1882, and Wilson named it Emerald Lake. The hamlet was later called Holt City, and then Laggan, before being renamed Lake Louise. A ca. 1890 CPR station was replaced in 1910 but continued to be used by the railway company for other purposes until it was donated in 1976 to Heritage Park Historical Village in Calgary. The depot was moved to the park and restored to the era when the Lake Louise village was called Laggan. The 1910 station was declared a heritage railway station by the federal government in 1991, and has been preserved and today operates as a restaurant. Lake Louise was added to Banff National Park in 1892, and has since become a tourist destination made accessible by its location off the Trans-Canada Highway. Geography The hamlet is located in Division No. 15, one of 19 census divisions of Alberta and the federal riding of Banff—Airdrie. It is located beside the Trans-Canada Highway (Highway 1), west of Calgary. The background of Lake Louise is filled with views of several snow-capped mountains, including Mount Temple, Mount Whyte, and Mount Niblock. Climate Lake Louise experiences a subarctic climate (Köppen climate classification Dfc). Annual snowfall averages and although winter temperatures can fall below in January and February the averages are and respectively. Summers consist of frosty mornings and crisp, cool days. Snow can occur in any month of the year. Since lower elevations on said latitude have humid continental climates instead, it may also be described as a subalpine climate. Because of its high diurnal air temperature variation and high altitude, the frost-free period averages only 14 days. Demographics Lake Louise recorded a population of 691 in the 2011 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada. Residents often change year to year, with workers in the service and tourism industries moving to the area for work. Attractions Lake Louise features a shopping centre named Samson Mall. Lake Louise Ski Resort, a downhill ski area, is located across Highway 1. Chateau Lake Louise is southwest of the community on the shores of the lake. Government Lake Louise is administered by Improvement District No. 9. Infrastructure The Trans-Canada Highway (Highway 1) runs adjacent to the community while Highway 1A begins at the entrance to the community. The southern terminus of the Icefields Parkway (Highway 93) is just north of the community. See also List of communities in Alberta List of hamlets in Alberta List of communities in Canada by elevation Bibliography Discover Lake Louise Lake Louise Britannica The Canadian Encyclopedia, Lake Louise The Canadian Encyclopedia, Chateau Lake Louise Banff, Lake Louise History The Rocky Mountaineer References Banff National Park Hamlets in Alberta	[ 0.06703408807516098, 0.808078944683075, 0.3462029695510864, 0.06040992587804794, -0.08208785206079483, 0.22584445774555206, 0.7268267869949341, 0.1677636355161667, -0.13036584854125977, -0.22221781313419342, 0.011883883737027645, -0.3766840100288391, 0.09460224211215973, 0.48090481758117676, -0.42516911029815674, 0.07569286972284317, -0.3123079538345337, 0.5772151947021484, 0.6241693496704102, -0.29251495003700256, 0.3197006285190582, -0.7178654074668884, 0.10458361357450485, 0.8079503178596497, 0.017717532813549042, 0.4656340181827545, 0.9432142972946167, 0.6146903038024902, 0.046246133744716644, 0.352524995803833, -0.23306874930858612, 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213546	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanocitta	Cyanocitta	Cyanocitta is a genus of birds in the family Corvidae, a family which contains the crows, jays and magpies. Established by Hugh Edwin Strickland in 1845, it contains the following species: The name Cyanocitta is a combination of the Greek words kuanos, meaning "dark blue", and kitta, meaning "jay". References External links Bird genera Taxa named by Hugh Edwin Strickland	[ 0.2534656226634979, -0.06118106096982956, -0.43578726053237915, -0.23732547461986542, -0.14000584185123444, 0.41936928033828735, 0.23113667964935303, 0.21007342636585236, -0.11952377110719681, -0.42771121859550476, -0.3554214537143707, 0.2593693435192108, -0.5447635054588318, -0.46566396951675415, -0.3561129868030548, 0.3491496741771698, 0.34643393754959106, 0.5148051381111145, 0.5095444321632385, -0.4319339096546173, -0.34109997749328613, -0.5160216093063354, 0.004806229844689369, -0.5590329170227051, 0.4019297957420349, 0.35625767707824707, -0.3308256268501282, 0.40919896960258484, 0.6841992735862732, 0.02796298824250698, -0.10187166184186935, 1.0714858770370483, 0.26402193307876587, 0.2685089111328125, 0.06632251292467117, 0.3850502371788025, 0.04691435024142265, -0.4143351912498474, 0.2642592489719391, -0.7877349257469177, 0.29138922691345215, -0.6263753175735474, 0.7235140204429626, -0.14215008914470673, 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213547	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thousand%20Islands%20National%20Park	Thousand Islands National Park	Thousand Islands National Park (established 1904), formerly known as the St. Lawrence Islands National Park, is located on the 1000 Islands Parkway in the Thousand Islands Region of the Saint Lawrence River. The islands are actually the worn-down tops of ancient mountains. This region, the Frontenac Axis, connects the Canadian Shield from Algonquin Park in Ontario to the Adirondack Mountains in New York. The park consists of 21 islands plus many smaller islets, 2 mainland properties and a visitor centre at Mallorytown, Ontario on the mainland. It is one of Canada's smallest national parks with a total area of . Much of the park is only accessible by boat. Trail systems can be found on the mainland along the 1000 Islands Parkway at Mallorytown Landing, Jones Creek and Landon Bay. There are picnic, camping and oTENTik facilities on several islands and at Mallorytown Landing. Mallorytown Landing is a day use area that offers a large parking, a boat ramp, several oTENTiks, picnic gazebos, play ground, animal exhibits, travelling exhibits, and interpreters. The Frontenac Arch Biosphere Reserve, in which the park is located, is known for being the most biodiverse region in Canada. History The first inhabitants of the park area are thought to have been hunting and fishing peoples who arrived following the last glacial period approximately 10,000 years ago. Many artifacts have been found in the park, including a 2500-year-old pot that was found by a diver in 1979. Pictographs are still visible on some shoreline cliffs. By the early 17th century, the Iroquois people had put up large summer encampments on the riverbanks from which they fished the rich waters. Around this time the area began to be visited by French explorers, fur traders, and missionaries following the St Lawrence river to seek their fortune in the new world. Following the American Revolution at the end of the 18th century, European settlers began moving into the area and the traditional fishing encampments were displaced. A few Iroquois still returned to fish, but by the 1860s fish stocks were greatly depleted. During the War of 1812, the area of today's National Park was visited by both British and American warships. A British gunboat was sunk nearby and the preserved hull was raised in 1967. It now resides at the park. Martello towers were built in the area to defend the British from American invasion. Inside the park, Cedar Island, a small island visible from downtown Kingston, Ontario, is the site of a Martello tower named Cathcart Tower. The park was established in 1904, the first Canadian national park east of the Rocky Mountains. It was called St. Lawrence Islands National Park until 2013, when it was renamed to Thousand Islands National Park to reflect the natural area in the name. In 1997, the park was named one of the national parks with the highest levels of ecological impairment. Fauna Animals that inhabit this national park are coyotes, deer, porcupines, beavers, foxes, skunks, raccoons, turkey vultures, rabbits, squirrels, chickadees, and weasels. See also National Parks of Canada List of National Parks of Canada List of Ontario parks References External links National parks in Ontario Thousand Islands Protected areas established in 1904 Protected areas of Leeds and Grenville United Counties	[ 0.44163379073143005, 0.02802360989153385, 0.1185523271560669, -0.25305241346359253, 0.07731528580188751, 0.21070468425750732, 0.8740079998970032, 0.08201929926872253, -0.8003979325294495, 0.01690288633108139, -0.15313775837421417, -0.045555707067251205, -0.3095039427280426, 0.7250484228134155, -0.4916090667247772, 0.5186423659324646, 0.3416387140750885, 0.368966668844223, 0.17589527368545532, -0.4479708671569824, -0.24504579603672028, -0.6499190926551819, 0.29203566908836365, -0.39739543199539185, 0.3842078447341919, -0.02698255144059658, 0.4716504216194153, 0.5980887413024902, 0.5086145997047424, 0.2886933386325836, -0.150826096534729, 0.19272597134113312, -0.48193269968032837, -0.088918037712574, 0.03829079121351242, 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213548	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montb%C3%A9liard	Montbéliard	Montbéliard (; traditional ) is a city in the Doubs department in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region in eastern France, about from the border with Switzerland. It is one of the two subprefectures of the department. History Montbéliard is mentioned as early as 983 as . The County of Montbéliard or Mömpelgard was a feudal county of the Holy Roman Empire from 1033 to 1796. In 1283, it was granted rights under charter by Count Reginald. Its charter guaranteed the county perpetual liberties and franchises which lasted until the French Revolution in 1789. Montbéliard's original municipal institutions included the Magistracy of the Nine Bourgeois, the Corp of the Eighteen and the Notables, a Mayor, and Procurator, and appointed "Chazes", all who participated in the administration of the county as provided by the charter. Also under the 1283 charter, the Count and the people of Montbéliard were required by law to defend Montbéliard, while citizens of Montbéliard were not required to fight in any wars outside of the county. Altogether, the charter lent to Montbéliard a democratic air remarkable for its time. In 1397 the county passed by marriage of Henriette, heiress of the county to Eberhard IV, Count of Württemberg, to the House of Württemberg . In 1520, Duke Ulrich of Württemberg was ousted from the duchy by the Swabian League, and retreated to Montbéliard, the only territory he still possessed. From there on, Ulrich used Montbéliard as a base of operations to raise troops to retake Württemberg, but, in dire need of funds, he decided to lease Montbéliard to his half-brother George. In 1534, still in need of funds, Ulrich simply sold Montbéliard to Francis I of France, though with right to repurchase, which Ulrich exercised after his restoration to Württemberg in 1536. Still governing Montbéliard as its count, George attempted to strengthen Lutheranism in the county, eventually succeeding in suppressing the other confessions fully. From 1598 to 1608, the architect Heinrich Schickhardt built several landmarks of the city, including St. Martin, a castle, a bridge, a college and several hotels. After the French Revolution, Montbéliard was briefly incorporated into the Rauracian Republic. In 1793 the town was annexed to France, which was confirmed in 1796 and by the German Mediatisation of 1806, when Württemberg was compensated with other areas, and became a kingdom. As a consequence of the former rule under the dukes of Württemberg, it has been for centuries one of the few Protestant enclaves in France. The Württemberg coat of arms from 1495 represents Montbéliard as two jumping fishes on a red field. For details of the local events of the Second World War, see Sochaux. Population As of 2017, Montbéliard proper has nearly 26,000 inhabitants, but it is at the center of a larger urban area (aire d'attraction d'une ville) with a population of 180,000. This urban area covers 137 communes, of which several in the adjacent departments of Haute-Saône (notably Héricourt) and Territoire de Belfort. Administration Economy Montbéliard and the surrounding region constitute an important manufacturing center mainly based upon metallurgy and car industry. The main manufacturing plant of the Peugeot automobile company is partly located in Montbéliard and has around 20,000 employees. In the area, the automotive industry accounts for 34,000 employees in more than 100 companies. The Peugeot company's museum is located in the adjacent commune of Sochaux. Montbéliard is the center of the 'Pays de Montbéliard', a metropolitan area of 132,000 inhabitants. Main sights The Château de Montbéliard, the castle of the Dukes of Württemberg. As the residence of the Counts of Montbéliard, the history of the castle is closely linked with the story of the families that reigned over the county for more than eight centuries. Built on a rocky promontory at the confluence of the Lizaine and Allan valleys, this stronghold, which already existed in the 10th century, was constantly transformed during the course of the centuries. Today, on the northern side of the edifice, one can admire the Henriette Tower (reconstructed by Countess Henriette in approximately 1424), the Frédéric Tower (1572 and 1595) and the main building dating back to the 18th century. The castle has become the Museum of the Castle of the Dukes of Württemberg, which includes a historical tour, an important archaeological department whose collections come mainly from excavations of local Gallo-Roman sites, the Cuvier natural history gallery and exhibits of paintings and sculptures of international renown. On the esplanade of the Castle, the Clock pavilion or Hôtel du Bailli (Bailli's quarters, also known as the gentlemen's quarters), built according to plans of the architect Schickhardt at the beginning of the 17th century, houses today the Academy of Music. The Museum of Art and History Beurnier Rossel. The Beurnier-Rossel mansion, located opposite St. Martin's church, near the Town Hall, stands as a witness to the life-style of the urban bourgeoisie during the 18h and 19th centuries. Today it houses the Museum of Art and History. The restored 18th century reception rooms on the first floor contain furniture, paintings, chandeliers and draperies which recreate the ambiance of a private residence. On the second floor, there is an exhibit of objects relating to the history of the town and local life (bibles, liturgical vessels, traditional headdresses etc.) and the collection of music boxes made by L'Épée is exhibited in the attic. Saint-Martin Protestant Church. Saint Martin Protestant Church was built between 1601 and 1607 and is the work of Heinrich Schickhardt, the architect of Frederic 1st Prince of Montbéliard, in its purest form. It is also the oldest church in France dedicated to the Reformation form of worship. Saint Maimboeuf Church. Built between 1850 and 1875 on the Cardinal Mathieu's request to assert the Catholic reconquest over Lutheranism, Saint Maimboeuf Church dominates the town. It includes rich façade adornments and a polychrome altarpiece. Climate Due to its interior position within France, Montbéliard features an oceanic climate (Cfb), bordering on a warm-summer humid continental climate (Dfb), under the Köppen system. This leads to cold, snowy winters and warm to hot, humid summers. Sport Montbeliard's most popular sports club is FCSM (Football Club Sochaux-Montbéliard). Founded in 1928, FC Sochaux-Montbéliard was a founder member of the French professional Football League. The club has played a record 62 seasons in Ligue 1, the most of any club in the French football league system. This consistency contributed to the fact that FCSM, though a small club, has won all the possible national trophies. FC Sochaux-Montbéliard honours: League Champions of France in 1935 and 1938 League runners-up in 1937, 1953 and 1980 Champions of the French Second Division in 1947 and 2001 French Cup winners in 1937 and 2007 French Cup runners-up in 1959, 1967 and 1988 League Cup winners in 2004 League Cup runners-up in 2003 Coupe Drago (former French League Cup) winners in 1953, 1963 and 1964 Seven times UEFA Cup participations, with the best result as semi-finalists in 1980/1981 Coupe Gambardella (National Youth Cup) winners 1983 and 2007 Third Division Champions in 1987 (Reserves) Personalities Montbéliard is the birthplace of: Nicolaus Taurellus (1547–1606), philosopher and theologian Nicolas Tournier (1590-ca. 1638), painter Wolf Christoph Zorn von Plobsheim (1655–1721), architect (:de:Wolf Christoph Zorn von Plobsheim) Georges Frédéric Parrot (1767–1852) First rector of the University of Dorpat, now University of Tartu. Georges Cuvier (1769–1832), naturalist and zoologist Alexander of Württemberg (1771–1833) Frédéric Cuvier (1773–1838), zoologist and physicist Henri Mouhot (1826–1861), naturalist René Besserve (1883–1959), painter François Tuefferd (1912–1996), photographer and curator René Thom (1923–2002), mathematician Dominique Voynet (1958–present), Green politician Frank Darabont (1959–present), American filmmaker Adrien Mörk (1979–present), golfer Pierre-Alain Frau (1980–present), footballer Éric Deloumeaux (1973–present), footballer Camel Meriem (1979–present), footballer Marc Mauillon (1980–present), tenor and baritone Ousame Sy (1988–present), footballer Florin Berenguer-Bohrer (1989–present), footballer Big Nose George (1834-1881), made into a pair of shoes. International relations Montbéliard is twinned with: Greensboro, North Carolina, USA Ludwigsburg, Germany See also Communes of the Doubs department Bourgogne-Franche-Comté Bleu de Gex Montbéliarde, local breed of cattle References External links City website History Atelier du patrimoine Official Web site Communes of Doubs Subprefectures in France County of Montbéliard	[ -0.4805009365081787, 0.04879070073366165, 0.029000788927078247, -0.28145864605903625, -0.15657183527946472, 0.45977041125297546, 0.1781015843153, 0.25882190465927124, -1.0321086645126343, -0.6012054085731506, -0.07657814025878906, 0.9097490906715393, 0.20479519665241241, 0.39204221963882446, -0.7801961302757263, 0.41786277294158936, 1.0216141939163208, -0.19492796063423157, 0.15067385137081146, -1.1095976829528809, -0.1829858422279358, -0.025024227797985077, -0.0034284708090126514, 0.1641976684331894, -0.05907575786113739, 0.4119320511817932, -0.0036708225961774588, 0.5513722896575928, 0.874131441116333, 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213555	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20updraft%20tower	Solar updraft tower	The solar updraft tower (SUT) is a design concept for a renewable-energy power plant for generating electricity from low temperature solar heat. Sunshine heats the air beneath a very wide greenhouse-like roofed collector structure surrounding the central base of a very tall chimney tower. The resulting convection causes a hot air updraft in the tower by the chimney effect. This airflow drives wind turbines, placed in the chimney updraft or around the chimney base, to produce electricity. As of mid 2018, although several prototype models have been built, no full-scale practical units are in operation. Scaled-up versions of demonstration models are planned to generate significant power. They may also allow development of other applications, such as to agriculture or horticulture, to water extraction or distillation, or to improvement of urban air pollution. Commercial investment may have been discouraged by the high initial cost of building a very large novel structure, the large land area required and by the risk of investment. A few prototypes have recently been built in Spain in 1981, in Iran in 2011, and in China in 2010 (see below), and projects were proposed for parts of Africa, the US and Australia. In 2014, National Geographic published a popular update, including an interview with an informed engineering proponent. A solar updraft tower power plant can generate electricity from the low temperature atmospheric heat gradient between ground or surface level and structurally reachable altitude. Functional or mechanical feasibility is now less of an issue than capitalisation. A comprehensive review of theoretical and experimental aspects of solar updraft tower power plant (SUTPP) development is available, recommending commercial development. Design Power output depends primarily on two factors: collector area and chimney height. A larger area collects and warms a greater volume of air to flow up the chimney; collector areas as large as in diameter have been discussed. A larger chimney height increases the pressure difference via the stack effect; chimneys as tall as have been discussed. Heat is stored inside the collector area allowing SUTs to operate 24 hours a day. The ground beneath the solar collector, water in bags or tubes, or a saltwater thermal sink in the collector could add thermal capacity and inertia to the collector. Humidity of the updraft and condensation in the chimney could increase the energy flux of the system. Turbines with a horizontal axis can be installed in a ring around the base of the tower, as once planned for an Australian project and seen in the diagram above; or—as in the prototype in Spain—a single vertical axis turbine can be installed inside the chimney. A nearly negligible amount of Carbon dioxide is produced as part of operations, while construction material manufacturing can create emissions. Net energy payback is estimated to be 2–3 years. Since solar collectors occupy significant amounts of land, deserts and other low-value sites are most likely. Improvements in the solar heat collection efficiency by using unglazed transpired collector can significantly reduce the land required for the solar array. A small-scale solar updraft tower may be an attractive option for remote regions in developing countries. The relatively low-tech approach could allow local resources and labour to be used for construction and maintenance. Locating a tower at high latitudes could produce up to 85 percent of the output of a similar plant located closer to the equator, if the collection area is sloped significantly toward the equator. The sloped collector field, which also functions as a chimney, is built on suitable mountainsides, with a short vertical chimney on the mountaintop to accommodate the vertical axis air turbine. The results showed that solar chimney power plants at high latitudes may have satisfactory thermal performance. History A chimney turbine was envisioned as a smoke jack, and illustrated 500 years ago by Leonardo da Vinci. An animal spitted above a fire or in an oven could be turned by a vertical axis turbine with four angled vanes in the chimney updraft. In 1896, Mr. Alfred Rosling Bennett published the first patent describing a "Convection Mill". Even if in the title of the Patent and in the claims the word "Toy" clearly appears and even if in the overall description made inside the Patent it is evident that the idea was to produce small devices, in page 3 at lines 49-54 Bennett envisions much larger devices for bigger scale applications. A model of this "convection mill", built in 1919 by Albert H. Holmes & Son (London) to demonstrate the phenomenon of convection currents, is on display in the Science Museum, London. In 1903, Isidoro Cabanyes, a colonel in the Spanish army, proposed a solar chimney power plant in the magazine La energía eléctrica. Another early description was published in 1931 by German author Hanns Günther. Beginning in 1975, Robert E. Lucier applied for patents on a solar chimney electric power generator; between 1978 and 1981 patents (since expired) were granted in Australia, Canada, Israel, and the US. In 1926 Prof Engineer Bernard Dubos proposed to the French Academy of Sciences the construction of a Solar Aero-Electric Power Plant in North Africa with its solar chimney on the slope of a large mountain. In 1982, a small-scale experimental model of a solar draft tower was built in Manzanares, Ciudad Real, 150 km south of Madrid, Spain at . The power plant operated for approximately eight years. The tower's guy-wires were not protected against corrosion and failed due to rust and storm winds. The tower blew over and was decommissioned in 1989. Inexpensive materials were used in order to evaluate their performance. The solar tower was built of iron plating only thick under the direction of a German engineer, Jörg Schlaich. The project was funded by the German government. The chimney had a height of and a diameter of with a collection area (greenhouse) of and a diameter of , obtaining a maximum power output of about 50 kW. Various materials were used for testing, such as single or double glazing or plastic (which turned out not to be durable enough). One section was used as an actual greenhouse. During its operation, 180 sensors measured inside and outside temperature, humidity and wind speed data was collected on a second-by-second basis. This experimental setup did not sell energy. In December 2010, a tower in Jinshawan in Inner Mongolia, China started operation, producing 200 kilowatts. The 1.38 billion RMB (USD 208 million) project was started in May 2009. It was intended to cover and produce 27.5 MW by 2013, but had to be scaled back. The solar chimney plant was expected to improve the climate by covering loose sand, restraining sandstorms. Critics have said that the 50m tall tower is too short to work properly and that it was a mistake to use glass in metal frames for the collector, as many of them cracked and shattered in the heat. A proposal to construct a solar updraft tower in Fuente el Fresno, Ciudad Real, Spain, entitled Ciudad Real Torre Solar would be the first of its kind in the European Union and would stand tall, covering an area of . It is expected to produce 40 MW. At that height, it would be nearly twice as tall as the Belmont TV Mast, which was once the tallest structure in the European Union, before being shortened by 24 meter. In 2001, EnviroMission proposed to build a solar updraft tower power generating plant known as Solar Tower Buronga near Buronga, New South Wales. The company did not complete the project. They have plans for a similar plant in Arizona, and most recently (December 2013) in Texas, but there is no sign of 'breaking ground' in any of Enviromission's proposals. In December 2011, Hyperion Energy, controlled by Western Australians Tony Sage and Dallas Dempster, was reported to be planning to build a 1-km-tall solar updraft tower near Meekatharra to supply power to Mid-West mining projects. Based on the need for plans for long-term energy strategies, Botswana's Ministry of Science and Technology designed and built a small-scale research tower. This experiment ran from 7 October to 22 November 2005. It had an inside diameter of and a height of , manufactured from glass-reinforced polyester, with an area of approximately . The roof was made of a 5 mm thick clear glass supported by a steel framework. In mid-2008, the Namibian government approved a proposal for the construction of a 400 MW solar chimney called the 'Greentower'. The tower is planned to be tall and in diameter, and the base will consist of a greenhouse in which cash crops can be grown. A model solar updraft tower was constructed in Turkey as a civil engineering project. Functionality and outcomes are obscure. A second solar updraft tower using a transpired collector is operating at Trakya University in Edirne Turkey and is being used to test various innovations in SUT designs including the ability to recover heat from photovoltaic (PV) arrays. A grade-school pupil's home do-it-yourself SUT demonstration for a school science fair was constructed and studied in 2012, in a suburban Connecticut setting. With a 7-metre stack and 100 square metre collector, this generated a daily average 6.34 mW, from a computer fan as a turbine. Insolation and wind were the major factors on variance (range from 0.12 to 21.78 mW) in output. In Xian, central China, a 60-metre urban chimney with surrounding collector has significantly reduced urban air pollution. This demonstration project was led by Cao Junji, a chemist at the Chinese Academy of Sciences' Key Laboratory of Aerosol Chemistry and Physics. Efficiency The traditional solar updraft tower has a power conversion rate considerably lower than many other designs in the (high temperature) solar thermal group of collectors. The low conversion rate is balanced to some extent by the lower cost per square metre of solar collection. Model calculations estimate that a 100 MW plant would require a 1,000 m tower and a greenhouse of . A 200 MW tower with the same tower would require a collector 7 kilometres in diameter (total area of about 38 km2). One 200MW power station will provide enough electricity for around 200,000 typical households and will abate over 900,000 tons of greenhouse producing gases from entering the environment annually. The glazed collector area is expected to extract about 0.5 percent, or 5 W/m2 of 1 kW/m2, of the solar energy that falls upon it. If a transpired solar collector is used in place of the glazed collector, the efficiency is doubled. Additional efficiency improvements are possible by modifying the turbine and chimney design to increase air speed using a venturi configuration. Concentrating thermal (CSP) or photovoltaic (CPV) solar power plants range between 20% to 31.25% efficiency (dish Stirling). Overall CSP/CPV efficiency is reduced because collectors do not cover the entire footprint. Without further tests, the accuracy of these calculations is uncertain. Most of the projections of efficiency, costs and yields are calculated theoretically, rather than empirically derived from demonstrations, and are seen in comparison with other collector or solar heat transducing technologies. An innovative concept recombining a thermal power plant dry cooling tower with a solar chimney was first introduced by Zandian and Ashjaee in 2013 to increase the efficiency of the solar updraft towers. This hybrid cooling-tower-solar-chimney (HCTSC) system was shown to be able to produce an over ten times increase in output power compared to the conventional solar chimney power plants like Manzanares, Ciudad Real, with similar geometrical dimensions. In addition, it was shown that with an increase in chimney diameter, the power generation can reach to MW-graded power output without the necessity of building huge individual solar chimney panels. The results showed a maximum of 3 MW power output from the HCTSC system which resulted in 0.37% increase in the thermal efficiency of a typical 250 MW fossil fuel power plant, with a chimney diameter of only . The new hybrid design made the solar updraft tower feasible again, and proved it to be economical in saving much construction cost and time. This concept also recaptures the heat of radiators that are thrown out into the atmosphere without efficient utilization, and prevents generation of excessive greenhouse gasses. The performance of an updraft tower may be degraded by factors such as atmospheric winds, by drag induced by the bracings used for supporting the chimney, and by reflection off the top of the greenhouse canopy. However, updraft may be enhanced by crosswind at the upper level - creating a low pressure vortex across the top of the chimney would increase updraft. Related ideas and adaptations Updraft The atmospheric vortex proposal replaces the physical chimney by a controlled or 'anchored' cyclonic updraft vortex. Depending on the column gradient of temperature and pressure, or buoyancy, and stability of the vortex, very high-altitude updraft may be achievable. As an alternative to a solar collector, industrial and urban waste-heat could be used to initiate and sustain the updraft in the vortex. Telescopic or retractable design may lower a very high chimney for maintenance, or to prevent storm damage. Hot-air balloon chimney suspension has also been proposed. A form of solar boiler technology placed directly above the turbine at the base of the tower might increase the up-draught. Moreno (2006) teaches in U.S. Patent #7,026,723 that a chimney can be economically placed on a hill or mountain slope. Klinkman (2014) in U.S. Patent #8,823,197 elaborates on constructing diagonal chimneys. A structure as simply built as a high hoop tunnel, but much longer in length and on a slope, can permanently generate an airflow for producing electricity. Changing the chimney's height differential from 200m (the Manzanares experiment) to 2000m (Charleston Peak in Nevada has a rise of over 2500m, for example) will transfer a factor of ten more of captured solar heat into electric power. Increasing the temperature differential between chimney air and outside air by a factor of ten increases the same chimney's power by one further factor of ten, assuming that the chimney's walls are engineered to take the extra heat. Concentrating solar heat is often done with reflection. An inflatable solar chimney power plant has been evaluated analytically and simulated by computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling. This idea has been registered as a patent, including the optimal shape of the collector and the analytical profile for the self standing inflatable tower. The CFD simulation has been evaluated by verification, validation, and uncertainty quantification (VVUQ) of computer simulations by American Society of Mechanical Engineers 2009 standards. Airtower is a proposal by architect Julian Breinersdorfer to better exploit the high initial capital outlay of building a very high structure by incorporating it into a high rise building core. The proximity of producer and consumer can also reduce transmission losses.> Collector A saltwater thermal sink in the collector could 'flatten' the diurnal variation in energy output, while airflow humidification in the collector and condensation in the updraft could increase the energy flux of the system. As with other solar technologies, some mechanism is required to mix its varying power output with other power sources. Heat can be stored in heat-absorbing material or saltwater ponds. Electricity can be cached in batteries or other technologies. A recent innovation has been the use of transpired collectors in place of the traditional glazing covers. Transpired collectors have efficiencies in the 60% to 80% range or three times the 25% efficiency measured with the greenhouse collectors. The large solar collector field can now be reduced to half or less making solar updraft towers much more cost effective. A patent has been granted on a solar tower system using transpired collectors. The Generator If the chimney updraft is an ionized vortex, then the electro-magnetic field could be tapped for electricity, using the airflow and chimney as a generator. Applications Release of humid ground-level air from an atmospheric vortex or solar chimney at altitude could form clouds or precipitation, potentially altering local hydrology. Local de-desertification, or afforestation could be achieved if a regional water cycle were established and sustained in an otherwise arid area. The solar cyclone distiller could extract atmospheric water by condensation in the updraft of the chimney. This solar cyclonic water distiller with a solar collector pond could adapt the solar collector-chimney system for large-scale desalination of collected brine, brackish- or waste-water pooled in the collector base. Fitted with a vortex chimney scrubber, the updraft could be cleaned of particulate air pollution. An experimental tower is cleaning the air in China with little external energy input. Alternately, particulate air pollution caught in the updraft could serve as a nucleation stimulus for precipitation either in the chimney, or at release altitude as cloud seeds. Removal of urban air pollution raised and dispersed at altitude could reflect insolation, reducing ground-level solar warming. Energy production, water desalination or simple atmospheric water extraction could be used to support carbon-fixing or food-producing local agriculture, and for intensive aquaculture and horticulture under the solar collector as a greenhouse. A balloon-suspended lightweight extensible chimney anchored from an urban tether, raised from ground level through low warm air to higher altitude could remove low lying air pollution without the need for a broad collector at the base, given adequate height of release. This might improve air quality in highly polluted megacities without the burden and cost of major fixed construction. Capitalisation A solar updraft power station would require a large initial capital outlay, but would have relatively low operating cost. Capital outlays would be roughly the same as next-generation nuclear plants such as the AP-1000 at roughly $5 per Watt of capacity. As with other renewable power sources, towers have no need for fuel. Overall costs are largely determined by interest rates and years of operation, varying from 5 eurocent per kWh for 4% and 20 years to 15 eurocent per kWh for 12% and 40 years. Estimates of total costs range from 7 (for a 200 MW plant) and 21 (for a 5 MW plant) euro cents per kWh to 25–35 cents per kWh. The levelized cost of energy (LCOE) is approximately 3 Euro cents per KWh for a 100 MW wind or natural gas plant. No actual data are available for a utility scale power plant. See also Energy tower (downdraft) Solar pond Vortex engine References External links Schlaich Bergermann Solar Hyperion project, Western Australia video link Spanish solar updraft tower video link Australian tower proposal Solar Nozzle CNN money article 2006-10-26 University of Stellenbosch study U.S. Department of Energy's Solar Energy Technologies program Atmospheric Vortex alternative to Solar Chimney 2nd International Conference on Solar Chimney Power Technology 3rd International Conference on Solar Updraft Tower Power Technology Energy conversion Power station technology Solar power Sustainable energy	[ 0.11453436315059662, -0.27166011929512024, 0.6126409769058228, -0.1641724556684494, -0.1041666716337204, 0.014211568050086498, 0.001224420964717865, -0.4590098261833191, -0.41649192571640015, -0.37765324115753174, -0.6619802117347717, 0.10257309675216675, -0.32668158411979675, 0.08635469526052475, -0.18437987565994263, 0.08333828300237656, 0.6822617053985596, 0.23212091624736786, 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213563	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20de%20la%20Rose	Roman de la Rose	Le Roman de la Rose (The Romance of the Rose) is a medieval poem written in Old French and presented as an allegorical dream vision. As poetry, The Romance of the Rose is a notable instance of courtly literature, purporting to provide a "mirror of love" in which the whole art of romantic love is disclosed. Its two authors conceived it as a psychological allegory; throughout the Lover's quest, the word Rose is used both as the name of the titular lady and as an abstract symbol of female sexuality. The names of the other characters function both as personal names and as metonyms illustrating the different factors that lead to and constitute a love affair. Its long-lasting influence is evident in the number of surviving manuscripts of the work, in the many translations and imitations it inspired, and in the praise and controversy it inspired. Authorship The Romance of the Rose was written in two stages by two authors. In the first stage of composition, circa 1230, Guillaume de Lorris wrote 4,058 verses describing a courtier's attempts at wooing his beloved woman. The first part of the poem's story is set in a walled garden, an example of a locus amoenus, a traditional literary topos in epic poetry and chivalric romance. Forty-five years later, circa 1275, in the second stage of composition, Jean de Meun or Jehan Clopinel wrote 17,724 additional lines, in which he expanded the roles of his predecessor's allegorical personages, such as Reason and Friend, and added new ones, such as Nature and Genius. They, in encyclopedic breadth, discuss the philosophy of love. Reception Early The Romance of the Rose was both popular and controversial. One of the most widely read works in France through the Renaissance, it was possibly the most read book in Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries. Its emphasis on sensual language and imagery, along with its supposed promulgation of misogyny, provoked attacks by Jean Gerson, Christine de Pizan, Pierre d'Ailly, and many other writers and moralists of the 14th and 15th centuries. The historian Johan Huizinga has written: "It is astonishing that the Church, which so rigorously repressed the slightest deviations from dogma of a speculative character, suffered the teaching of this breviary of the aristocracy (for the Roman de la Rose was nothing else) to be disseminated with impunity." Modern Later reactions suggested that it had a tenuous encyclopedic quality. The nineteenth-century scholar and writer Gaston Paris wrote that it was "an encyclopedia in disorder" and British author C. S. Lewis described it as having an "encyclopedic character". One historian wrote that while the Roman de la Rose is obviously not an encyclopedia, "it evokes one, represents one, dreams one, perhaps, with all its aspirations and limitations". Manuscripts and incunabula About 300 manuscripts are extant, one of the highest figures for a secular work. Many of these are illustrated, most with fewer than ten remaining illustrations, but there are a number with twenty or more illustrations, and the exceptional Burgundian British Library Harley MS 4425 has 92 large and high quality miniatures, despite a date around 1500; the text was copied by hand from a printed edition. These are by the artist known as the Master of the Prayer Books of around 1500, commissioned by Count Engelbert II of Nassau. The peak period of production was the 14th century, but manuscript versions continued to be produced until the advent of printing, and indeed afterwards – there are at least seven manuscripts dated after 1500. There are also seven incunabula – printed editions before 1500 – the first from Geneva in about 1481, followed by two from Lyons in the 1480s and four from Paris in the 1490s. An edition from Lyons in 1503 is illustrated with 140 woodcuts. Digital images of more than 140 of these manuscripts are available for study in the Roman de la Rose Digital Library. Translation and influence Part of the story was translated from its original Old French into Middle English as The Romaunt of the Rose, which had a great influence on English literature. Chaucer was familiar with the original French text, and a portion of the Middle English translation is thought to be his work. Critics suggest that the character of "La Vieille" acted as source material for Chaucer's Wife of Bath. There were several other early translations into languages including Middle Dutch (Heinrik van Aken, c. 1280). Il Fiore is a "reduction" of the poem into 232 Italian sonnets by a "ser Durante", sometimes thought to have been Dante, although this is generally thought unlikely. Dante never mentions the Roman, but is often said to have been highly conscious of it in his own work. In 1900, the pre-Raphaelite F. S. Ellis translated the whole of the poem into English verse, with the exception of a section describing a sexual encounter, which he included in an appendix in Old French with the note that he "believes that those who will read them will allow that he is justified in leaving them in the obscurity of the original". C. S. Lewis's 1936 study The Allegory of Love renewed interest in the poem. Gallery Editions Langlois, Ernest, ed. Le Roman de la Rose par Guillaume de Lorris et Jean de Meun. 5 vols. Société des Anciens Textes Français. Paris: Firmin Didot, 1914–24. Lecoy, Félix, ed. Le Roman de la Rose par Guillaume de Lorris et Jean de Meun. 3 vols. Classiques français du Moyen Âge. Paris: Champion, 1965–70. Strubel, Armand, ed., trans, and annot. Le Roman de la Rose. Lettres gothiques, 4533. Paris: Librairie Générale Française – Livre de Poche, 1992. English translations Robbins, Harry W., trans. The Romance of the Rose. New York: Dutton, 1962. Dahlberg, Charles, trans. The Romance of the Rose. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1971. Horgan, Frances, trans. and annot. The Romance of the Rose. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1999. See also Ars Amatoria - the 'art of love' Notes Further reading Arden, Heather M. The Roman de la Rose: An Annotated Bibliography. New York: Garland, 1993. Gunn, Alan M. F. The Mirror of Love: A Reinterpretation of "The Romance of the Rose". Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech P, 1951. Huot, Sylvia. The Romance of the Rose and Its Medieval Readers: Interpretation, Reception, Manuscript Transmission. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1993. Kelly, Douglas. Internal Difference and Meanings in the Roman de la rose. Madison, WI: U of Wisconsin P, 1995. McWebb, Christine, ed. Debating the Roman de la Rose: A Critical Anthology. Routledge Medieval Texts. New York: Routledge, 2007. Minnis, Alastair. Magister Amoris: The Roman de la Rose and Vernacular Hermeneutics. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2001. External links Full text from Project Gutenberg: Vol. 1, Vol. 2 Roman de la Rose Digital Library at Johns Hopkins University 12 Ms on Digital Scriptorium Roman de la rose at Somni Editions from the Library of Congress Le Rommant de la Rose [Lyons, Guillaume Le Roy, ca. 1487] Cest le Romant de la Rose. [Lyon, Imprime par G. Balsarin, 1503] 13th-century poems Medieval literature French poems Medieval French literature Visionary poems Allegory Types of illuminated manuscript Courtly love	[ -0.4540904462337494, -0.133083775639534, -0.03694777563214302, -0.2518707811832428, 0.11145883053541183, 0.7298873066902161, 0.5159397721290588, 0.21434567868709564, 0.1971813440322876, -0.46242985129356384, -0.27177584171295166, 0.2027096003293991, 0.20281751453876495, 0.4761805534362793, -0.2491493672132492, 0.10623131692409515, 0.48686936497688293, 0.270426869392395, 0.5847321152687073, -0.77278733253479, -0.7041725516319275, -0.02074703387916088, 0.6399708986282349, -0.21772469580173492, 1.0582906007766724, -0.2538490295410156, 0.16327054798603058, 0.3199325203895569, 0.4699579179286957, 0.48660871386528015, -0.1408313810825348, 0.3456253409385681, -0.29175055027008057, -0.8780125379562378, -0.473319411277771, -0.1578706055879593, -0.3165358304977417, -0.26346689462661743, -0.43290087580680847, -0.7080836892127991, 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213566	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Romaunt%20of%20the%20Rose	The Romaunt of the Rose	The Romaunt of the Rose (the Romaunt) is a partial translation into Middle English of the French allegorical poem, le Roman de la Rose (le Roman). Originally believed to be the work of Chaucer, the Romaunt inspired controversy among 19th-century scholars when parts of the text were found to differ in style from Chaucer's other works. Also the text was found to contain three distinct fragments of translation. Together, the fragments—A, B, and C—provide a translation of approximately one-third of Le Roman. There is little doubt that Chaucer did translate Le Roman de la Rose under the title The Romaunt of the Rose: in The Legend of Good Women, the narrator, Chaucer, states as much. The question is whether the surviving text is the same one that Chaucer wrote. The authorship question has been a topic of research and controversy. As such, scholarly discussion of the Romaunt has tended toward linguistic rather than literary analysis. Scholars today generally agree that only fragment A is attributable to Chaucer, although fragment C closely resembles Chaucer's style in language and manner. Fragment C differs mainly in the way that rhymes are constructed. And where fragments A and C adhere to a London dialect of the 1370s, Fragment B contains forms characteristic of a northern dialect. Source and early texts Le Roman de la Rose Guillaume de Lorris completed the first 4,058 lines of le Roman de la Rose circa 1230. Written in Old French, in octosyllabic, iambic tetrameter couplets, the poem was an allegory of what D. S. Brewer called fine amour. About 40 years later, Jean de Meun continued the poem with 17,724 additional lines. In contrasting the two poets, C. S. Lewis noted that Lorris' allegory focused on aspects of love and supplied a subjective element to the literature, but Meun's work was less allegory and more satire. Lewis believed that Meun provided little more than a lengthy series of digressions. The Romaunt of the Rose Geoffrey Chaucer began translating Le Roman into Middle English early in his career, perhaps in the 1360s. Chaucer may have selected this particular work because it was highly popular both among Parisians and among French-speaking nobles in England. He might have intended to introduce the poem to an English audience as a way of revising or extending written English. Moreover, Le Roman was controversial in its treatment of women and sex, especially in the verses written by Meun. Chaucer may even have believed that English literature would benefit from this variety of literature. Chaucer's experience in translating Le Roman helped to define much of his later work. It is a translation which shows his understanding of French language. Russell Peck noted that Chaucer not only drew upon the poem for subject matter, but that he trained himself in the poem's literary techniques and sensibilities. "Le Roman" enabled Chaucer to introduce a "stylish wit and literary manner" to his English audience and then to claim these attributes as his own. The Romaunt is written in octosyllabic, iambic tetrameter couplets in the same meter as le Roman. The translation is one of near-minimal change from the original. Raymond Preston noted that "a better poem in English would have meant a lesser translation." An early fifteenth-century manuscript of the Romaunt of the Rose was included in the library William Hunter donated to the University of Glasgow in 1807. In 1532, William Thynne published the first collected edition of Chaucer's work. Commissioned by Henry VIII to search for copies of Chaucer's manuscripts in the libraries and monasteries of England, Thynne printed a collection that included the Romaunt of the Rose. Analyses Henry Bradshaw and Bernard ten Brink By 1870, Henry Bradshaw had applied his method of studying rhymes to Chaucer's poetry. Working independently, Bradshaw and Dutch philologist Bernard ten Brink concluded that the existing version of the Romaunt was not Chaucer's translation of le Roman, and they placed the work on a list that included other disqualified poems no longer considered to have been written by Chaucer. Walter Skeat Citing research by both Linder and Kaluza, Walter Skeat, a nineteenth-century scholar, divided the Romaunt into the following three fragments that correspond to French text in le Roman: Le Roman continues another 9,510 lines without a corresponding English translation in the Romaunt. When the 5,547 untranslated lines between fragments B and C are included, the English translation is roughly one-third of the original French poem. Skeat subjected the Romaunt text to a number of tests, and he found that on average, fragment A required 101.6 lines of English poetry for every 100 lines of French poetry. Fragment C required 102.1 English lines for 100 French lines. But Fragment B required 117.5 English lines for 100 French lines. Skeat also found that a northern dialect was present in fragment B, where Chaucer almost exclusively used a London dialect. Fragment B also broke with Chaucer's rule in rhyming words that end in y. Finally, Skeat discovered that where Chaucer did not employ assonant rhymes, fragment B depended upon them. These discoveries led nineteenth-century scholars to conclude that fragment B was not written by Chaucer. Skeat found that Fragment C departs from Chaucer's usage, beginning again with words ending in y that the author rhymed with words ending in ye. Where Chaucer rhymed the words wors and curs in The Canterbury Tales, the author of fragment C rhymed hors and wors. In what Skeat said would be a "libellous" attribution to Chaucer, the author of fragment C rhymed paci-ence with venge-aunce and force with croce. Fragment C rhymes abstinaunce with penaunce and later abstinence with sentence. These and other differences between fragment C and the works of Chaucer led Skeat to disqualify fragment C. Later studies Further research in the 1890s determined that the existing version of the Romaunt was composed of three individual fragments—A, B, and C--and that they were translations of le Roman by three different translators. The discussion about the authorship of the Romaunt of the Rose is by no means ended. In a recent metrical analysis of text, Xingzhong Li concluded that fragment C was in fact written by Chaucer or at least "88% Chaucerian." Synopsis The story begins with an allegorical dream, in which the narrator receives advice from the god of love on gaining his lady's favor. Her love being symbolized by a rose, he is unable to get to the rose. The second fragment is a satire on the mores of the time, with respect to courting, religious order, and religious hypocrisy. In the second fragment, the narrator is able to kiss the rose, but then the allegorical character Jealousy builds a fortress encircling it so that the narrator does not have access to it. The third fragment of the translation takes up the poem 5,000 lines after the second fragment ends. At its beginning, the god of love is planning to attack the fortress of Jealousy with his barons. The rest of the fragment is a confession given by Fals-Semblant, or false-seeming, which is a treatise on the ways in which men are false to one another, especially the clergy to their parishioners. The third fragment ends with Fals-Semblant going to the fortress of Jealousy in the disguise of a religious pilgrim. He speaks with Wikked-Tunge that is holding one of the gates of the fortress and convinces him to repent his sins. The poem ends with Fals-Semblant absolving Wikked-Tunge of his sins. See also Courtly love Chivalry The Allegory of Love Middle English literature Medieval literature References Further reading Rosalyn Rossignol, Critical Companion to Chaucer: A Literary Reference to His Life and Work (Infobase Publishing, 2006) Christopher Canon, The Making of Chaucer's English: A Study of Words (Cambridge University Press, 1998) External links Fragment A at Bartleby Pickering edition, 1845 at Google Books Skeat's analysis of the text at Project Gutenberg Hunterian Museum. The manuscript collection at the University of Glasgow, including the pre-typographic copy of the Romaunt of the Rose. Romaunt of the Rose a free translation and retelling in modern English prose of the Romaunt of the Rose, a Middle English translation of the Old French Roman de la rose (by Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meun) of which the first seventeen hundred lines were by Geoffrey Chaucer. 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213567	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hastings%20Banda	Hastings Banda	Hastings Kamuzu Banda (c. 1898 or 1906/1907 – 25 November 1997) was the prime minister and later president of Malawi from 1964 to 1994 (for the first year of his rule as it achieved independence in 1964, Malawi was the British protectorate of Nyasaland). In 1966, the country became a republic and he became president. His rule has been characterized as a "highly repressive autocracy." After receiving much of his education in ethnography, linguistics, history, and medicine overseas, Banda returned to Nyasaland to speak against colonialism and advocate independence from the United Kingdom. He was formally appointed Prime Minister of Nyasaland, and led the country to independence in 1964. Two years later, he proclaimed Malawi a republic with himself as president. He consolidated power and later declared Malawi a one-party state under the Malawi Congress Party (MCP). In 1970, the MCP made him the party's President for Life. In 1971, he became President for Life of Malawi itself. A renowned anti-communist leader in Africa, he received support from the Western Bloc during the Cold War. He generally supported women's rights, improved the country's infrastructure and maintained a good educational system relative to other African countries. However, he presided over one of the most repressive regimes in Africa, an era that saw political opponents regularly tortured and murdered. Human rights groups estimate that at least 6,000 people were killed, tortured and jailed without trial. As many as 18,000 people were killed during his rule, according to one estimate. He received criticism for maintaining full diplomatic relations with the apartheid government in South Africa. By 1993, amid increasing domestic and international pressure, he agreed to hold a referendum which ended the one-party system. Soon afterwards, a special assembly ended his life-term presidency and stripped him of most of his powers. Banda ran for president in the democratic elections that followed and he was defeated. He died in South Africa on 25 November 1997. Early life Kamuzu Banda was born Akim Kamnkhwala Mtunthama Banda near Kasungu in Malawi (then British Central Africa) to Mphonongo Banda and Akupingamnyama Phiri. His date of birth is unknown, as it took place when there was no birth registration documentation but Banda himself often gave his date of birth as 14 May 1906. Later, when presented with evidence of certain tribal customs by a friend, Dr Donal Brody, Banda said: "No one knows the hour, the date, the month or the year in which I was born, although I now accept the evidence that you give me – March or April 1898." He left his village school near Mtunthama for his maternal grandparents' home and attended Chayamba Primary School in Chikondwa. In 1908, he moved to Chilanga mission station and was baptized in 1910. The name Kamnkhwala, meaning "little medicine", was replaced with Kamuzu, which means "little root". The name Kamuzu was given to him because he was conceived after his mother had been given root herbs by a medicine man to cure infertility. He took the Christian name of Hastings after being baptised into the Church of Scotland by Dr George Prentice, a Scot, in 1910, naming himself after John Hastings, a Scottish missionary working near his village whom he admired. The prefix "doctor" was earned through his education. Around 1915–16 Banda left home on foot with Hanock Msokera Phiri, an uncle who had been a teacher at the nearby Livingstonia mission school, for Hartley, Southern Rhodesia (now Chegutu, Zimbabwe). He apparently wanted to enroll at the famous Scottish Presbyterian Lovedale Missionary Institute in South Africa but completed his Standard 8 education without studying there. In 1917 he left on foot for Johannesburg in South Africa. He worked at the Witwatersrand Deep Mine on the Transvaal Reef for several years. During this time, he met Bishop William Tecumseh Vernon of the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) who offered to pay his tuition fee at a Methodist school in the United States if he could pay his own passage. In 1925, he left for New York. Life abroad (1925–1958) United States Banda studied in the high school section of Wilberforce Institute, an African American AME college (a member of AME), now known as Central State University, in Wilberforce, Ohio, and graduated in 1928 with a diploma. With his financial support now ended, Banda earned some money on speaking engagements arranged by the Ghanaian educationalist Kweyir Aggrey, whom he had met in South Africa. Speaking at a Kiwanis club meeting he met Dr Herald, with whose help he enrolled as a pre-medical student at Indiana University, where he lodged with Mrs W. N. Culmer. At Bloomington he wrote several essays about his native Chewa tribe for the folklorist Stith Thompson, who introduced him to Edward Sapir, an anthropologist at the University of Chicago, to which, after four semesters, he transferred. During his period there he collaborated with the Afro-American anthropologist and linguist Mark Hanna Watkins, providing information on his native Chewa language. This led to the publication of a grammar book of the language. In Chicago he lodged with an African-American, Corinna Saunders. He majored in history, graduating with a B.Phil. degree in 1931. During this time he enjoyed financial support from Mrs Smith, whose husband, Douglas Smith, had made fortunes from patent medicines and Pepsodent toothpaste and as a member of the Eastman Kodak board. He then, still with financial support from these and other benefactors (including Walter B. Stephenson of the Delta Electric Company), studied medicine at Meharry Medical College in Tennessee, from which he obtained an M.D. degree in 1937. Banda became the second Malawian person to receive a medical degree, following Daniel Sharpe Malekebu. United Kingdom To practise medicine in territories of the British Empire, however, Banda was apparently required to get a second medical degree; he attended the University of Edinburgh and was subsequently awarded a Scottish triple conjoint diploma (with post-nominals LRCP(Edin), LRCS(Edin) and LRCPSG) in 1941. His studies were funded by stipends of £300 per year from the government of Nyasaland (to facilitate his return there as a doctor) and from the Church of Scotland; neither of these benefactors was aware of the other. (There are conflicting accounts of this. He might still have been funded by Mrs Smith.) When he enrolled for courses in tropical diseases in Liverpool, the Nyasaland government terminated his stipend. He was forced to leave Liverpool when he refused on conscientious grounds to be conscripted as an Army doctor. He also became an elder of a parish in the Church of Scotland. Between 1941 and 1945 he worked as a doctor in North Shields, near Newcastle upon Tyne. He was a tenant of Mrs Amy Walton at this time in Alma Place in North Shields and sent a Christmas card to her every year right up until her death in the late-1960s.. In 1944, he met Merene French, the daughter-in-law of one of his patients, and began a relationship with her. \| After World War II, he established a practice at the London suburb of Kilburn and became politically active by joining the Labour Party and Fabian Colonial Bureau, which was founded in 1940. Banda moved to London in 1945, two months after the armistice, buying a practice in the North London suburb of Harlesden. Initially, he stayed at Mrs French's house, with Mr. French joining them in October 1945. Later, he bought his own house in Brondesbury Park. Mrs French moved in as his housekeeper, together with her husband. According to other accounts, he lodged in a hotel, The Conway Court, in Paddington run by Mrs Janet Evans. Reportedly, he avoided returning to Nyasaland for fear that his new-found financial resources would be consumed by his extended family back home. In 1945, at the behest of Chief Mwase of Kasungu, whom he had met in England in 1939, and other politically active Malawians, he represented the Nyasaland African Congress at the Fifth Pan-African Congress in Manchester. From this time, he took an increasingly active interest in his native land, advising the Congress and providing it with some financial support. With help from sympathetic Britons, he also lobbied in London on behalf of the Congress. Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland and move to Ghana Banda was actively opposed to the efforts of Sir Roy Welensky, a politician in Northern Rhodesia, to form a federation between Southern and Northern Rhodesia with Nyasaland, a move which he feared would result in further deprivation of rights for the Nyasaland blacks. The (as he famously called it) "stupid" federation was formed in 1953. It was rumoured with some excitement that he would return to Nyasaland in 1951, but he moved instead to the Gold Coast in West Africa. He went there partly because of a scandal involving his receptionist in Harlesden, Merene French (Mrs French); despite reports that she became pregnant with his child, this has never been confirmed. Banda was cited as co-respondent in the divorce of Mr. French and accused of adultery with Mrs French. She followed Banda to West Africa, but he wanted nothing more to do with her. (She died in 1976.) Call to return home Several influential Congress leaders, including Henry Chipembere, Kanyama Chiume, Dunduzu Chisiza and T.D.T. Banda (no relation) pleaded with him to return to Nyasaland to take up leadership of their cause. A delegation sent to London met with Banda at the Port of Liverpool where he was making arrangements to return to Ghana. He agreed to return, but asked for some time to sort out a few private matters, probably seeking to clear his political name after the Mrs French debacle. The delegation returned without him and proceeded to make arrangements for his imminent return. After two false starts, including a fracas between the police and African crowds threatening to storm a BOAC aeroplane rumoured to be carrying Dr Banda at Chileka Airport, Banda finally made a showing on 6 July 1958 after an absence of about 42 years. In August, at Nkata Bay, he was acclaimed as the leader of the Congress. Return to Nyasaland He soon began touring the country, speaking against the Central African Federation (also known as the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland), and urging its citizens to become members of the party. Allegedly, he was so out of practice in his native Chichewa that he needed an interpreter, a role which was apparently performed by John Msonthi and later by John Tembo, who remained close to him for most of his career). He was received enthusiastically wherever he spoke, and resistance to imperialism among the Malawians became increasingly common. By February 1959, the situation had become serious enough that Rhodesian troops were flown in to help keep order, and a state of emergency was declared. On 3 March, Banda, along with hundreds of other Africans, was arrested in the course of "Operation Sunrise". He was imprisoned in Gwelo (now Gweru) in Southern Rhodesia, and leadership of the Malawi Congress Party (the Nyasaland African Congress under a new name) was temporarily assumed by Orton Chirwa, who was released from prison in August 1959. Release from prison and path to independence The mood in Britain, meanwhile, had long been moving towards decolonisation due to pressure from its colonies. Banda was released from prison in April 1960 and was almost immediately invited to London for talks aimed at bringing about independence. Elections were held in August 1961. While Banda was technically nominated as Minister of Land, Natural Resources and Local Government, he became de facto Prime Minister of Nyasaland – a title granted to him formally on 1 February 1963. He and his fellow MCP ministers quickly expanded secondary education, reformed the so-called Native Courts, ended certain colonial agricultural tariffs and made other reforms. In December 1962, R. A. Butler, British Secretary of State for African Affairs, essentially agreed to end the Federation. It was Banda himself who chose the name "Malawi" for the former Nyasaland; he had seen it on an old French map as the name of a "Lake Maravi" in the land of the Bororos, and liked the sound and appearance of the word as "Malawi". On 6 July 1964, exactly six years after Banda's return to the country, Nyasaland gained independence and renamed itself Malawi. Prime minister of Malawi 1964 cabinet crisis Barely a month after independence, Malawi suffered the Cabinet Crisis of 1964. Banda had already been accused of autocratic tendencies. Several of Banda's ministers presented him with proposals designed to limit his powers. Banda responded by dismissing four of the ministers. Other ministers resigned in sympathy. The dissidents fled the country. New constitution and consolidation of power Malawi adopted a new constitution on 6 July 1966, in which the country was declared a republic. Banda was elected the country's first president for a five-year term; he was the only candidate. The new document granted Banda wide executive and legislative powers, and also formally made the MCP the only legal party. However, the country had already been a de facto one-party state since independence. The new constitution effectively turned Banda's presidency into a legal dictatorship. In 1970, a congress of the MCP declared Banda its president for life. In 1971, the legislature declared Banda President for Life of Malawi as well. His official title was "His Excellency the Life President of the Republic of Malaŵi, Ngwazi Dr. Hastings Kamuzu Banda." The title Ngwazi means "chief of chiefs" (more literally, "great lion", or, some would say, "conqueror") in Chicheŵa. Banda was mostly viewed externally as a benign, albeit eccentric, leader, an image fostered by his English-style three-piece suits, matching handkerchiefs, walking stick and fly-whisk. In June 1967, he was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Massachusetts with the encomium " ... pediatrician to his infant nation". Banda portrayed himself as a caring headmaster to his people. However, this was a mask for a government that was rigidly authoritarian even by African standards of the time. Banda himself bluntly summed up his approach to ruling the country by saying, "Everything is my business. Everything. Anything I say is law...literally law." Within Malawi, views on him ranged from cult-like devotion to fear. Although the constitution guaranteed civil rights and liberties, they meant almost nothing in practice, and Malawi was essentially a police state. Mail was opened and often edited. Telephones were tapped, and calls were known to be cut off if anyone said a critical word about the government. Overt opposition was not tolerated. Banda actively encouraged the people to report those who criticised him, even if they were relatives. Opponents were often arrested, exiled (like Kanyama Chiume) or died suspiciously (like Dick Matenje or Dr Attati Mpakati). The Mwanza Four incident In 1983, three ministers – Dick Matenje, Twaibu Sangala, Aaron Gadama – and Member of Parliament David Chiwanga died in what was labelled officially as a "traffic accident". Banda had invited an "internal debate on pending multiparty democracy" in Malawi. During a cabinet meeting, the three ministers had voiced support for the multiparty idea, effectively challenging Banda's claim to life presidency. Angered, Banda promptly "dissolved cabinet" and announced that parliament would meet immediately. At the end of that sitting of parliament, everyone in the chambers was effectively stripped of their political status. The three men were then rounded up at the Zomba Parliament buildings for questioning. Chiwanga happened on them being tortured in a back room and had to be silenced too. The four were later bundled into Matenje's Peugeot 604 and driven to Thambani in Mwanza District, west of Blantyre, where the accident was staged: sources reported that their car had "overturned while the men had been attempting to escape into neighbouring Mozambique". Later, it was found out they had been killed by having tent pins hammered into their heads. Banda ordered a night burial and mandated that the caskets not be opened for a last viewing. Life in Banda's Malawi Party membership passcards All adult citizens were required to be members of the MCP. Party cards had to be carried at all times and presented at random police inspections. The cards were sold, often by Banda's Malawi Young Pioneers (MYP). In some cases, these youths even sold cards to unborn children. Malawi Young Pioneers The Malawi Young Pioneers were the notorious paramilitary wing of the MCP, used to intimidate and harass the public. The Pioneers bore arms, conducted espionage and intelligence operations, and were trusted bodyguards for Banda. They helped foster the culture of fear that prevailed during his rule. Cult of personality Banda was the subject of an extensive cult of personality. Every business building was required to have an official picture of him hanging on the wall, and no poster, clock or picture could be higher than his portrait. Before every film, a video of Banda waving to the people was shown while the anthem played. When Banda visited a city, a contingent of women were expected to greet him at the airport and dance for him. A special cloth, bearing the president's picture, was the required attire for these performances. Houses of worship required government approval to operate, and some faiths such as Jehovah's Witnesses were banned entirely. Censorship All films shown in cinemas were first viewed by the Malawi Censorship Board and edited for content. Nudity and other socially or politically unacceptable content were barred and movies could not even show couples kissing. Videotapes had to be sent to the Censorship Board to be viewed. Once edited, the film was given a sticker stating that it was now suitable for viewing and sent back to the owner. Items to be sold in bookshops were also edited. Pages, or parts of pages, were cut out of magazines like Newsweek and Time. Communist literature, erotic magazines, and Lonely Planet's Africa on a Shoestring were banned. The mass media–a single radio station, a single daily newspaper, and a single weekly newspaper–were tightly controlled and mainly served as outlets for government propaganda, while the government refused to introduce television. However, wealthier Malawians bought sets as monitors for their VCRs. Knowledge of pre-Banda history was discouraged, and many books on these subjects were burned. Banda allegedly persecuted some of the northern tribes (particularly the Tumbuka), banning their language and books as well as teachers from certain tribes. Foreigners who broke any of these rules were often declared Prohibited Immigrants and deported. Dress code and conservatism His government supervised the people's lives very closely. Early in his rule, Banda instituted a dress code rooted in his socially conservative predilections. Women were not allowed to wear see-through clothing, have visible cleavage, trousers, or wear skirts or dresses that went above the knee. The only exception to this was at vacation resorts and country clubs, where they could not be seen by the general public. Banda explained that these restrictions were not designed to oppress women, but instill respect and dignity for them. Men's hair had to be no longer than collar length, and foreign visitors at the airport were given mandatory haircuts if necessary. Any man who ventured into public with long hair could also be seized by police and subjected to an involuntary haircut. Even foreigners coming into Malawi were subject to Banda's dress code. In the 1970s, prospective visitors to the country were informed of the following requirement for obtaining visas: Female passengers will not be permitted to enter the country if wearing short dresses or trouser-suits, except in transit or at Lake Holiday resorts or National parks. Skirts and dresses must cover the knees to conform with Government regulations. The entry of 'hippies' and men with long hair and flared trousers is forbidden. Women's issues Banda founded Chitukuko Cha Amai m'Malawi (CCAM) to address the concerns, needs, rights and opportunities for women in Malawi. This institution motivated women to excel in education and government and encouraged them to play more active roles in their community, church and family. The foundation's National Advisor was Cecilia Tamanda Kadzamira, the official hostess for the former president. Infrastructure In 1964, after serving as a government minister in the colonial administration, Banda adopted a macroeconomic policy aimed at accelerating economic development for the betterment of Malawians. He settled on the Rostow model of "catch up" economics, wherein Malawi would vigorously pursue import substitution industrialisation (ISI). This entailed both a quest for "self-sufficiency" for Malawi – becoming less reliant on its former colonial master – and growth of an industrial base that could ensure Malawi was capable of producing its own goods and services. Such capacity would then be used to catch up and even overtake the West. An infrastructure development program was initiated under the Development Policies (DEVPOLs) documents that Malawi adopted from 1964 onwards. Much of this development was funded through the Agricultural Development and Marketing Corporation, a Government-owned corporation or parastatal formed to promote the Malawian economy by increasing the volume of agricultural exports and to develop new foreign markets for Malawian agricultural produce. At its foundation, ADMARC was given the power to finance the economic development of any public or private organisation. From its formation it was involved in the diversion of resources from smallholder farming to tobacco estates, often owned by members of the ruling elite. This led to corruption, abuse of office and inefficiency in ADMARC, The country's infrastructure benefited through massive road construction programs. With the decision to shift the capital city from Zomba to Lilongwe (against vociferous objections from the British preference for the economically healthy and well-developed Blantyre), a new road was built linking Blantyre and Zomba to Lilongwe. The Capital City Development Corporation (CCDC) in Lilongwe was itself a beehive of infrastructure development, supported by planning and funds from apartheid-era South Africa. The British refused to finance the move to Lilongwe. The CCDC became the sole development agent for Lilongwe; putting up roads, the government seat at Capital Hill, etc. Other infrastructure entities were added, such as Malawi Hotels Limited, which undertook massive projects such as the Mount Soche, Capital Hotel and Mzuzu Hotel. On the industrial side, Malawi Development Corporation (MDC) was tasked with setting up industries and other businesses. Meanwhile, Dr. Banda's own Press Corporation Limited and MYP's Spearhead Corporation embarked on business initiatives that lead to an economic boom during the mid- to late 1970s. However, by 1979–80, the bubble had burst due to the global economic crisis set in motion by the Yom Kippur War between Israel and the Arabs in 1973. Rising oil prices and falling global commodity prices combined to wreak havoc on a fragile and landlocked Malawian economy based on an insular and indefensible ISI macroeconomic strategy. Increasingly, the economy was rearranged into a political tool to serve the consumption needs of the emerging Malawian middle-class and thus render it less prone to revolution. Banda personally founded Kamuzu Academy, a school modeled on Eton, at which Malawian children were taught Latin and Greek by expatriate classics teachers, and disciplined if they were caught speaking Chichewa. Many of the school's alumni have assumed leadership roles in medicine, academia and business in Malawi and abroad. The school remains one of Banda's most lasting legacies and he said of it: "I did not wish my sons and daughters to have to travel abroad to obtain an education as I did." It is claimed, probably incorrectly and unfairly, that he spent almost all the country's education budget on this project, while increasingly ignoring the needs and welfare of the greater majority [80%] of Malawians toiling in the rural areas. The National Rural Development Program and Rural Growth Centers were tentative and belated policies aimed at diverting rural populations from moving to the few urban areas which Banda's ISI macroeconomic policies had created and were now being battered by the arrival of more and more rural people seeking better opportunities. Eventually, with the collapse of the Cold War, the World Bank and International Monetary Fund arrived, imposing a series of Structural Adjustment Programs from 1987. Wealth It is believed that during his rule, Banda accumulated at least US$320 million in personal assets, thought to be invested in everything from agriculture to mining interests in South Africa. Foreign policy Anti-communism During Banda's presidency, Malawi initially refused to establish diplomatic relations with any of the communist governments of Eastern Europe or Asia (however, relations were later established with North Korea in 1982 and with Romania and Albania in 1985). Banda was one of the few African leaders to support the United States in the Vietnam War, a position he adopted in part due to his hatred of communism. Relations with African countries While many southern African nations traded with apartheid-era South Africa out of economic necessity, Malawi was the only African nation that recognised South Africa and established diplomatic relations with it, including a trade treaty which angered other African leaders. They threatened to expel Malawi from the Organization of African Unity until Banda left power. Banda responded by accusing other African countries of hypocrisy, saying in a public speech to his parliament: "There is no terror, Cassius, in your threats" (Julius Caesar). He told them to concentrate on convincing the South African government that apartheid was unnecessary. Furthermore, he added that "[African leaders] practice disunity, not unity, while posing as the liberators of Africa. While they play in the orchestra of Pan Africanism, their own Romes are burning". Relations with South Africa Banda was the only African ruler to establish diplomatic ties with South Africa during apartheid as well as the Portuguese regime in Mozambique. After the cabinet crisis in 1964, Banda became increasingly isolated in African politics. On the other hand, his antipathy for Roy Welensky and what he denounced as the "stupid federation" was a smokescreen he used to reject the proposed Bangula Hydro-electric dam – proposed to be bigger than the Gezira Dam in Khartoum – that Welensky's Federation had sought and obtained funding for from the British government. Banda went on to blame everything including snails (likely to cause widespread Bilharzia) to abort the project. In turn, the British denied Banda the funding and budgetary support he needed to build his pet dream of a new capital city at Lilongwe, in his home region. Hence he turned to South Africa – itself playing geo-political games in the region – which gave him a soft loan of 300 million rand. The quid pro quo was that Banda had to support South Africa's apartheid policies among fellow African leaders. Hence, on one occasion he paid a state visit to South Africa where he met his South African counterparts at Stellenbosch. Banda once noted that, "It is only contact like this [between South Africa and Malawi] that can reveal to your people that there are civilized people other than white..." Banda's staunch anticommunism also influenced his decision to seek warm relations with South Africa. After the apartheid era ended and the ANC came to dominate South African politics during the 1990s, relations between Malawi and South Africa threatened to take a downward turn, but a Malawian task force spearheaded by Malawian diplomatic envoys to South Africa including SP Kachipande, and representatives in Malawi, including former diplomat, Mr. Phiri, arranged for a meeting between the two governments which resulted in Nelson Mandela's first official visit to Malawi as president of the ANC in the early 1990s. He met with John Tembo and the president. The relations between the two governments continued to be cordial after it was revealed that Banda was secretly helping the ANC during the apartheid era. The Malawi government and South African government continued diplomatic relations. Involvement in Mozambique Banda's involvement in Mozambique dated back to Portuguese colonial days in Mozambique when Banda supported the Portuguese colonial government and guerrilla forces that worked for it. Following independence in Malawi, Banda strengthened his relationship with the Portuguese colonial government by appointing Jorge Jardim as Malawi's Honorary Consul in Mozambique in September 1964. He also worked against Liberation Front of Mozambique (FRELIMO) forces in Malawi in continued support of the Portuguese colonial forces. The Organization of African Unity had designated Malawi as one of the Frontline States to help independence movements in Mozambique. By the 1980s, Banda supported both the government and the guerrilla movement during the Mozambique civil war. He successfully gave the Malawi Army and Malawi Young Pioneers opposing missions in Mozambique from 1987 to 1992. He had the Malawi Army support the Mozambican government, controlled by FRELIMO after the country's independence in 1975, to defend Malawi's interests in Mozambique. This was done formally through an agreement in 1984 with Samora Machel. Simultaneously, Banda used the MYP as couriers and active supporters of the Mozambican National Resistance (RENAMO), which had been fighting against Machel's government since the late 1970s. Malawi was used to channel foreign aid from South Africa's apartheid government. Machel issued a dossier to Frontline States with evidence that Banda was still supporting the insurgents in spite of the 1984 agreement to stop. By September 1986, Machel, Robert Mugabe, and Kenneth Kaunda visited Banda to persuade him to stop supporting RENAMO. Machel's successor, Joaquim Chissano, continued to complain of Malawi's lack of willingness to stop supporting RENAMO. Banda however was trying to keep Malawian interests in the Port of Nacala in Mozambique and did not want to rely on Tanzania and South Africa ports for its imports and exports due to the expense. Mozambique and Malawi came to an agreement to place troops from both countries in Nayuchi near the port. Incidents of Malawi Army members being killed over the course of four years angered the Army because MYP members were involved with the insurgents, essentially pitting the two against each other. Political demise The end of the Cold War sounded the death knell for Banda's naked autocracy. Western leaders and international aid donors no longer had any use for authoritarian anti-Communist regimes in the Third World, all of which came under mounting pressure to democratize. Donors told Banda that he had to implement reforms aimed at making his government transparent and accountable to the people and the international community as a condition for further aid. The British government also stopped their financial support. In March 1992, Catholic bishops in Malawi issued a Lenten pastoral letter that criticized Banda and his government. Students of the University of Malawi at Chancellor College and the Polytechnic joined protests and demonstrations to support the bishops, forcing authorities to close the campuses. In April 1992, Chakufwa Chihana, a labour unionist, openly called for a national referendum on the political future of Malawi. He was arrested before he finished his speech at Lilongwe International Airport. By October 1992, this mounting pressure from within and from the international community forced Banda to concede to hold a referendum on whether to maintain the one-party state. The referendum was held on 14 June 1993, resulting in an overwhelming vote (64 percent) in favour of multiparty democracy. After this, political parties besides the MCP were formed and preparation for the general elections began. Banda worked with the newly forming parties and the church, and made no protest when a special assembly stripped him of his title of President for Life, along with most of his powers. The transition from one of the most repressive regimes in Africa to democracy was fairly peaceful. Operation Bwezani was a Malawi Army operation to disarm the Malawi Young Pioneers at the height of the political transition in December 1993. Bwezani means "give back." The MYP had a strong network of spies and supporters countrywide at all levels in society. They were Banda's personal security bodyguards and were all trained and indoctrinated in Kamuzuism and military training. The Malawi Army did not infiltrate this group before receiving encouragement by protests by the people. After some questions about his health, Banda ran in Malawi's first truly democratic presidential election in 1994. He was roundly defeated by Bakili Muluzi, a Yao from the southern region of the country. Banda quickly conceded defeat. ″I wish to congratulate him wholeheartedly and offer him [Muluzi] my full support and cooperation,″ he said on state radio, marking an end to Malawi's 30 years of one-party rule. The party Banda led since taking over from Orton Chirwa in 1960, the Malawi Congress Party, remains a major force in Malawian politics. Mwanza trials In 1995, Banda was arrested and charged with the murder, ten years previously, of former cabinet colleagues. He was acquitted due to lack of evidence. Banda remained quite unrepentant in his opinion of Malawians, calling them "children in politics" and saying they would miss his iron-fisted rule (see Big Men, Little People by Alec Russell). A statement of apology was issued on 4 January 1996 in the name of H. Kamuzu Banda to the people of his nation shortly after being acquitted in the Mwanza Trials. The statement was met with controversy, suspicion and disdain. It was also questioned whether Banda wrote the statement himself or if someone wrote it on his behalf. In it, he noted that: Systems of government are dynamic and they are bound to change in accordance with the wishes of and aspirations of the people...During my term of office, I selflessly dedicated myself to the good cause of Mother Malawi in the fight against Poverty, Ignorance and Disease among many other issues; but if within the process, those who worked in my government or through false pretence in my name or indeed unknowingly by me, pain and suffering was caused to anybody in this country in the name of nationhood, I offer my sincere apologies. I also appeal for a spirit of reconciliation and forgiveness amongst us all...Our beautiful country has been nicknamed `The Warm Heart of Africa' and we have been admired for our warmth and spirit of hardwork. This admiration calls not only for a need for us to look at our past and present and draw lessons from it, but there is even a greater need for us to look forward to the future in our endeavours to reconstruct and reconcile if we have to move forward at all. Death Banda died at the Garden City Clinic in Johannesburg, South Africa on 25 November 1997, from respiratory failure. Although the clinic recorded his age as 99, Government officials state it was more likely he was aged around 90. Although he was buried with pomp, in the decade after his death there were calls for a more substantial memorial for the country's first president. Construction of a mausoleum with provision for a library and a dancing arena was begun in 2005. Completed in 2009 - at a cost of US$600,000 - the mausoleum is made out of marble and granite. Its four main pillars bear the initials of Banda's key principles – unity, loyalty, obedience and discipline. In 2009 a bronze statue of Banda was erected. From 10 April 1995, when former India Prime Minister Morarji Desai died, Banda was the world's oldest living former head of government until his own death in 1997. Family Banda had no known heirs but had a vast fortune that is run by his family. He was unmarried when he died. Cecilia Kadzamira was the official hostess or first lady of Malawi. She essentially ruled the country with her uncle, John Tembo, during Banda's last years. His affair and relationship with Merene French remains largely a mystery. He had rejected companionship and marriage and turned his back on the Englishwoman who extramaritally bore his son. In 2010, Jumani Johansson (1973–2019) claimed to be the son of the late president and was seeking DNA testing through the courts of Malawi. Grand niece Jane Dzanjalimodzi was the former executrix of his estate. See also President of Malawi Similar protests under his rule: 1992–1993 Malawian protests that led to his departure in 1994 References Bibliography Hulec, Otakar and Jaroslav Olša, Jr. (2008). Dějiny Zimbabwe, Zambie a Malawi (in Czech, translation of title: History of Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi), Nakladatelství Lidové noviny. Lwanda, John Lloyd, (1993). Kamuzu Banda of Malawi: A Study in Promise, Power, and Paralysis, Dudu Nsomba Publications. Meredith, Martin (2005). The Fate of Africa: From the Hopes of Freedom to the Heart of Despair, Public Affairs. Mgawi, KJ (2005). Tracing the Footsteps of Dr. Hastings Kamuzu Banda. Dzuka Publications, Blantyre. Muluzi, Bakili (with Yusuf M. Juwayeyi, Mercy Makhambera, Desmond D. Phiri), (1999). Democracy with a Price: The History of Malawi since 1900. Jhango Heinemann, Blantyre. Mwakikagile, Godfrey, (2006). Africa After Independence: Realities of Nationhood. Johannesburg, South Africa: Continental Press. Ross, Andrew C. (2009). Colonialism to cabinet crisis: a political history of Malawi, African Books Collective, 2009 . This gives extensive biographical detail on Hastings Banda. Rotberg, Robert I, (1965). The Rise of Nationalism in Central Africa. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. van Donge, Jan Kees (1995). Kamuzu's legacy: the democratisation of Malawi. African Affairs, Vol 94, No 375. Williams, T. David (1978). Malawi, the Politics of Despair. Cornell University Press. External links Information on Banda's fortune Official Biography of Kamuzu Banda Kamuzu Banda: The Control Freak Presidents of Malawi Malawian anti-colonialists Malawian diplomats Banda, Hastings 1997 deaths Age controversies Malawian activists Malawian anti-communists Malawian centenarians Men centenarians Presidents for life Malawian general practitioners Malawian Presbyterians Malawi Congress Party politicians Male feminists Nyasaland African Congress politicians Prisoners and detainees of Rhodesia Malawian prisoners and detainees University of Edinburgh Medical School alumni Central State University alumni Meharry Medical College alumni University of Chicago alumni People from Kasungu District Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath 1960s in Nyasaland 1960s in Malawi 1970s in Malawi 1980s in Malawi 1990s in Malawi 20th-century Malawian politicians 20th-century rulers in Africa Heads of government who were later imprisoned	[ -0.09376576542854309, -0.3270958662033081, 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213568	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laccadive%20Islands	Laccadive Islands	The Laccadive or Cannanore Islands are one of the three island subgroups in the Union Territory of Lakshadweep, India. It is the central subgroup of the Lakshadweep, separated from the Amindivi Islands subgroup roughly by the 11th parallel north and from the atoll of Minicoy (Maliku)—far to the south—by the 9 Degree or Mamala Channel. Formerly the Union Territory of Lakshadweep was known as Laccadive, Minicoy, and Amindivi Islands, a name that was changed to Lakshadweep by an act of Parliament in 1973. The Laccadive subgroup had been known earlier as the "Cannanore Islands" after the coastal town of Cannanore (Kannur). The name originated in the fact that while the northern group of Amindivi had stopped in 1784 being a vassal state of the Kannur Kingdom (Arakkal) in exchange for fealty to Tippu Sultan's Kingdom of Mysore, the southern group remained loyal to Kannur. Geography The Laccadive subgroup includes the island of Agatti, with Agatti Aerodrome, the only airport in Lakshadweep, as well as Bangaram Atoll which has a tourist resort in Bangaram, its largest island. The Laccadive group forms two talukas or subdivisions: Androth, with a population of 15,048 and Kavaratti with 17,193. The islands of Agatti, Androth, Kavaratti and Kalpeni are inhabited. Islam is the main religion of the islanders. The Laccadive Islands subgroup consists mostly of atolls with islands, as well as part of one submerged bank. The Amindivi and the Laccadive subgroups have a submarine connection between them through Pitti Bank, a largely sunken atoll. History In the same manner as the Amindivi Islands further north, the islands of the Laccadive subgroup were settled from ancient times by people of nearby Kerala to which were added later people of Arab descent. Vasco da Gama visited these islands around 1498. In the mid 16th century all the inhabited islands of the Lakshadweep put themselves under the rule of the Arakkal kingdom in order to obtain protection from the Portuguese. In 1697, the notorious pirate Captain Kidd and his crew brought their ship, the Adventure Galley, to the Laccadive Islands. The undisciplined crew chopped up the local boats for firewood, and raped the local women. When the men retaliated by killing the ship's cooper, the pirates attacked the village and beat up the people who lived there. Almost 100 years later—in 1784—the Amindivi group of islands rejected the protection of Cannanore and became a vassal state of the Kingdom of Mysore. The southern group, however, remained loyal to the rule of Cannanore. Following the defeat of Tipu Sultan and the 1792 treaty of Srirangapatam, the southern subgroup was permitted by the East India Company to remain under the rule of the Cannanore Kingdom in exchange for a yearly tribute of 15,000 Rs. Since the tributary payments were often in arrears, the islands were put under direct rule of the British Government, first between 1855 and 1860, and then finally were annexed in 1877 by virtue of the doctrine of lapse, becoming attached to the Malabar District. Bibliography R. H. Ellis, A Short Account of the Laccadive Islands and Minicoy. Government Press, Madras. 1924 References External links Full text of "Laccadive Islands And Minicoy" Report on the Laccadive Islands The imperial gazetteer of India (Volume 8) Landforms of Lakshadweep Archipelagoes of India	[ 0.10969408601522446, -0.16113680601119995, 0.02027406170964241, -0.0358639732003212, 0.6592549681663513, -0.05676603689789772, -0.06139223650097847, 0.33339035511016846, -0.43934890627861023, -0.29301899671554565, -0.27722352743148804, 0.36810100078582764, -0.7784513235092163, 0.6068548560142517, -0.12899258732795715, 0.44762563705444336, 0.5573523044586182, 0.3332490921020508, 0.8073030114173889, -0.34647563099861145, -0.0065554967150092125, 0.39397796988487244, 0.2659722864627838, 0.33506596088409424, 0.313610702753067, 0.5212316513061523, 0.42294615507125854, 0.4373656213283539, 0.7750243544578552, -0.30532777309417725, 0.07301285117864609, 0.7182441353797913, 0.01217429619282484, -0.10484134405851364, 0.34254053235054016, -0.26041674613952637, 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213570	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parszowice	Parszowice	Parszowice () is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Ścinawa, within Lubin County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, in south-western Poland. Prior to 1945 it was in Germany. It lies approximately south-west of Ścinawa, east of Lubin, and north-west of the regional capital Wrocław. The village has a population of 450. 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213571	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project%20Coast	Project Coast	Project Coast was a 1980s top-secret chemical and biological weapons (CBW) program instituted by the apartheid-era government of South Africa. Project Coast was the successor to a limited post-war CBW program which mainly produced the lethal agents CX powder and mustard gas; as well as non-lethal tear gas for riot control purposes. The program was headed by Wouter Basson, a cardiologist who was the personal physician of the then South African Prime Minister P. W. Botha. History From 1975 onwards, the South African Defence Force (SADF) found itself embroiled in conventional battles in Angola as a result of the South African Border War. The perception that its enemies had access to battlefield chemical and biological weapons led South Africa to begin expanding its own programme, initially as a defensive measure and to carry out research on vaccines. As the years went on, research was carried out into offensive uses of the newly found capability. Finally, in 1981, then-president P. W. Botha ordered the SADF to develop the technology so that it could be used effectively against South Africa's enemies. In response, the head of the SADF's South African Medical Service (SAMS) division, responsible for defensive CBW capabilities, hired Dr Wouter Basson, a cardiologist, to visit other countries and report back on their respective CBW capabilities. He returned with the recommendation that South Africa's program be expanded, and in 1983, Project Coast was formed, with Dr Basson at its head. To hide the program, and to make the procurement of CBW-related substances, Project Coast lead to the formation of four front companies: Delta G Scientific Company, Roodeplaat Research Laboratories (RRL), Protechnik and Infladel. Progressively, Project Coast created a large variety of lethal offensive CBW toxins and biotoxins, in addition to the defensive measures. Initially, these were intended for use by the military in combat as a last resort. To this end Soviet techniques were being copied, and devices designed that looked like ordinary objects but had the capabilities to poison those targeted for assassination. Examples included umbrellas and walking sticks which fired pellets containing poison, syringes disguised as screwdrivers, and poisoned beer cans and envelopes. In the early 1990s, with the end of apartheid, South Africa's various weapons of mass destruction programs were stopped. Despite efforts to destroy equipment, stocks, and information from these programs, some still remain. This has led to fears that they may find their way into the hands of terrorist networks. In May 2002, Daan Goosen – the former head of South Africa's biological weapons program – contacted the US FBI and offered to exchange existing bacterial stocks from the program in return for US$5 million together with immigration permits for him plus 19 other associates and their family members. The offer was eventually refused, with the FBI claiming that the strains were obsolete and, therefore, no longer a threat. Unusual features The South African chemical weapons program investigated all the standard CW agents such as irritant riot control agents, lethal nerve agents and anticholinergic deliriants, which have been researched by virtually all countries that have carried out CW research. The South African program differed in its aims from the CBW programmes of many countries in that a major focus of the program was to develop non-lethal agents to help suppress internal dissent. This led to the investigation of unusual non-lethal agents, including illicit recreational drugs such as phencyclidine, MDMA, methaqualone and cocaine, as well as medicinal drugs such as diazepam, midazolam, ketamine, suxamethonium and tubocurarine, as potential incapacitating agents. According to the testimony given by Wouter Basson to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, analogues of these compounds were prepared and studied, and both methaqualone and MDMA (along with the deliriant BZ) were manufactured in large quantities and successfully weaponised into a fine dust or aerosol form that could be released over a crowd as a potential riot control agent. Basson was later found to have also been selling large quantities of MDMA and methaqualone as tablets on the black market, but the amount manufactured was far larger than what was sold and the court accepted that at least some genuine weaponisation and testing of these agents had been done. A black mamba and extracted venom were also part of the research, as were E. coli O157:H7 bacteria genetically modified to produce some of the toxins made by Clostridium perfringens bacteria. A list of purchases at RRL and other documents include references to such things as the snake, biological agents such as anthrax, brucellosis, cholera and salmonella among others, and chemicals including aluminium phosphide, thallium acetate, sodium azide, sodium cyanide, mercury oxycyanide, cantharides, colchicine, powerful anticoagulants such as brodifacoum, phenylsilatranes, strychnine, paraquat, "knockout drops", digoxin, acetylcholinesterase inhibitors such as aldicarb and paraoxon, and other poisons. Other plans referenced in the UN report included crowd control with pheromones, and discussion of the development of several novel compounds, including a locally produced variant of BZ, novel derivatives of CR gas including "...a compound which had a pyridine moiety in place of one of the benzene rings...[and] caused severe blisters on the skin", a new, more potent analogue of methaqualone, and a "dimethylketone-amphetamine" derivative of MDMA. Another unusual project attempted to develop a method of sterilising crowds using a known male sterilant, pyridine . This was to be sprayed onto the crowds from a gas cylinder pressurised with nitrogen gas, as pyridine is highly flammable. A subsequent industrial accident caused the death of a gas company employee when the experimental contaminated medical oxygen cylinder was returned to the gas supplier and filled with oxygen which exploded. Employment Project Coast claimed its first victims at the end of 1982, when "Operation Duel" was launched, which aimed to eliminate hundreds of SWAPO prisoners and SADF informants. Col. Johan Theron, counterintelligence officer in the Special Forces, testified at the Basson trial that he received muscle relaxant pills from Basson in December 1982, and killed approximately 200 SWAPO prisoners, then dumped their bodies from aeroplanes out to sea. In November 1983, Basson was allegedly involved in the use of CBW against regime opponents in Dukuduku in KwaZulu-Natal. There, he instructed South African agents to tie their intended victims to trees and smear a gel-like ointment on their bodies. When that failed to kill them, they were allegedly injected with an anaesthetic drug and then a muscle relaxant. After they had died, their bodies were thrown into the sea. In 1985, four SWAPO detainees held at Reconnaissance Regiment headquarters were allegedly given a sleeping drug in soft drinks, taken to Lanseria airport outside Johannesburg and injected with three toxic substances supplied by Basson. Their bodies were thrown into the Atlantic Ocean. Civil Cooperation Bureau operative Petrus Jacobus Botes (who claimed to have also directed bureau operations in Mozambique and Swaziland) asserted that he was ordered in May 1989, to contaminate the water supply at Dobra, a refugee camp located in Namibia, with cholera and yellow fever organisms. A South African Army doctor provided them to him. In late August 1989, he led an attempt to contaminate the water supply. The attempt failed because of the high chlorine content in the treated water at the camp. As a component of racial warfare Research on birth control methods to reduce the black birth rate was one such area. Daan Goosen, the managing director of Roodeplaat Research Laboratories between 1983 and 1986, told Tom Mangold of the BBC that Project Coast supported a project to develop a contraceptive that would have been applied clandestinely to blacks. Goosen reported that the project had developed a 'vaccine' for males and females and that the researchers were still searching for a means by which it could be delivered to make black people sterile without making them aware. Testimony given at the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) suggested that Project Coast researchers were also looking into putting birth control substances in water supplies. See also Eugenio Berríos Medical experimentation in Africa Unethical human experimentation Rhodesia and weapons of mass destruction South Africa and weapons of mass destruction Zulu (2013 film) Poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services Project MKUltra References Further reading Glenn Cross, Dirty War: Rhodesia and Chemical Biological Warfare, 1975–1980, Helion & Company, 2017 External links Chandré Gould, Peter I. Folb: Project Coast: Apartheid's Chemical and Biological Warfare Programme, United Nations Publications, 2002 on-line version of the book Helen E. Purkitt, Stephen F. Burgess: The Rollback of South Africa's Chemical and Biological Warfare Program, 2001 on-line version of the book Public Broadcasting Service special report: Plague War: What Happened in South Africa? Apartheid government sought germs to kill blacks Ecstasy Produced for "Riot Control" in South Africa Apartheid South Africa´s Chemical and Biological Warfare Program on-line article containing extensive documentation on Project Coast Project Coast Project Coast Project Coast Projcet Coast Abandoned military projects of South Africa Bioterrorism Chemical weapons by country Biological weapons by country Medical experimentation on prisoners South Africa and weapons of mass destruction Human subject research in South Africa	[ 0.29777443408966064, -0.09522400051355362, -0.7282969951629639, -0.01899174600839615, 0.46203792095184326, -0.15575289726257324, 0.5688766837120056, 0.03152436763048172, 0.02730715461075306, 0.12097220867872238, -0.3200758695602417, 0.07247651368379593, 0.1932552456855774, 0.3974262475967407, -0.1583765149116516, 0.29291826486587524, 0.7417545318603516, 0.2108605057001114, 0.4578498899936676, 0.04485803842544556, -0.13721437752246857, 0.07670509815216064, 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213572	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port%20Sudan	Port Sudan	Port Sudan () is a port city in eastern Sudan, and the capital of the state of Red Sea. , it has 489,725 residents. Port Sudan is located on the Red Sea, and it is recognized as Sudan's main seaport. History Port Sudan was built between 1905 and 1909 by the administration of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan to replace Suakin. An oil pipeline was built between the port and Khartoum in 1977. Economy The city has an oil refinery and handles the majority of the country's international trade. Major exports include oilseed, senna, and hides and skins. Imports include construction materials, heavy machinery, and vehicles. Transport The city has a modern container-port to handle imports and exports. The port is part of the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road that runs from the Chinese coast via the Suez Canal to the Mediterranean, there to the Upper Adriatic region of Trieste with its rail connections to Central and Eastern Europe. The main airport is Port Sudan New International Airport. There is now a tarred road linking Port Sudan to Khartoum via Atbara. Port Sudan also has a rail link with Khartoum. There is also an international ferry from Jeddah. Education The city is home to the Red Sea University, established in 1994. Places of worship Places of worship are predominantly Muslim mosques, but there are also Christian churches and temples including the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Khartoum (Catholic Church), Sudan Interior Church (Baptist World Alliance), and Presbyterian Church in Sudan (World Communion of Reformed Churches). Climate Port Sudan has a hot desert climate (Köppen: BWh) with extremely hot summers and moderately hot winters, requiring the acquisition of fresh water from Wadi Arba'at in the Red Sea Hills and from salt-evaporating pans. Temperatures can easily exceed in winter and in summer. Over 90% of the annual rainfall falls between October and January, mostly in November, with the wettest month on record being November 1947 with , whilst the wettest year was from July 1923 to June 1924 with . Average annual rainfall is , and no rainfall occurred between January 1983 and June 1984. The mean temperature year round (the average of all daily highs and nighttime lows) is . Demographics The population consists mainly of Sudanese Arabs, including the native Beja people, with small Asian and European minorities. Notable people Gawaher (Pop singer) Notes References Arckell, A. J., UNESCO General History of Africa, History of Darfur 1200-1700 A.D. SNR. Encyclopædia Britannica, "Port Sudan" (description), 2007, webpage: EB-PortSudan. External links Populated coastal places in Sudan Populated places in Red Sea (state) Port cities in Sudan Underwater diving sites of Sudan Port cities and towns of the Red Sea Populated places established in 1905 State capitals in Sudan 1905 establishments in the British Empire 1905 establishments in Africa	[ -0.1955014169216156, 0.25043749809265137, -0.27584564685821533, -0.5023889541625977, -0.07424885779619217, 0.5075846910476685, 0.10848729312419891, 0.3398538827896118, -0.5833480954170227, -0.3820047676563263, -0.8909109830856323, 0.31262826919555664, -0.22919757664203644, 0.9604874849319458, 0.3895057439804077, 0.6724334359169006, 0.3652457296848297, 0.4384081959724426, 0.3000406324863434, 0.07826489210128784, -0.592282772064209, -0.1900627166032791, -0.011452791281044483, 0.4947866201400757, 0.3863385319709778, -0.7753245234489441, 0.38709694147109985, 0.5098478198051453, -0.15698540210723877, -0.4672911763191223, 0.7179160118103027, 0.4268285930156708, -0.9090749025344849, 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213574	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secret%20Treaty%20of%20Dover	Secret Treaty of Dover	The Treaty of Dover, also known as the Secret Treaty of Dover, was a treaty between England and France signed at Dover on 1 June 1670. It required that Charles II of England would convert to the Roman Catholic Church at some future date and that he would assist Louis XIV with 60 warships and 4,000 soldiers to help in France's war of conquest against the Dutch Republic. In exchange, Charles would secretly receive a yearly pension of £230,000, as well as an extra sum of money when Charles informed the English people of his conversion, and France would send 6,000 French troops if there was ever a rebellion against Charles in England. The secret treaty was signed by Arlington, Arundell, Clifford, and Bellings for England and Colbert de Croissy for France. The two kings exchanged letters of ratification and kept secret the existence of the treaty. A public treaty of Dover was also negotiated, but it was a screen designed for propaganda purposes and to hide the religious dimension of the secret treaty. The Third Anglo-Dutch War was a direct consequence of this treaty. The actual treaty was published by historians a century later. Negotiation and provisions It is not known who first proposed an alliance between England and France, or when this possibility was first discussed. The two nations had secretly discussed the possibility of forming a closer relationship after The Restoration in 1660, and Charles had suggested an Anglo-French treaty at that time, but none was signed. Charles assumed that Louis would prefer an alliance with England to one with the Dutch, but this was mistaken: a treaty with England was not necessary for Louis's objectives in the Spanish Netherlands, but one with the Dutch Republic would avoid a war. A Franco-Dutch defensive treaty was signed in 1662. Relations between England and France continued to deteriorate, leading to a French declaration of war against England in January 1666, supporting the Dutch in the Second Anglo-Dutch War. France took a minor role in the war, as mutual suspicion grew between the Dutch and Louis. Following the peace Treaty of Breda (1667), Louis invaded the Spanish Netherlands later that year, beginning the War of Devolution. To oppose French expansion in the region, a Triple Alliance was formed between the Dutch Republic, England and Sweden during 1668, which immediately pressured Louis into signing a peace treaty with Spain. During 1669, friction among the members of the Triple Alliance convinced Louis that he could induce either England or the Dutch Republic to leave it. Following an unsuccessful attempt to negotiate with the Dutch, Louis was approached by Charles with the offer of an alliance, which was delivered secretly by Charles' sister. At this stage, the only participants in the talks were Louis XIV of France, Charles II of England, and Charles's sister Henrietta, duchesse d'Orléans. Louis was first cousin to Charles (through their grandfather Henry IV of France); Henrietta was also Louis's sister-in-law through her marriage to his only brother, Phillippe, duc d'Orléans. Charles's motives for secretly entering into negotiations with France, while England was still part of the Triple Alliance against France, have been debated among historians. Suggested motives include: a desire to gain the alliance of Europe's strongest state; to ensure Charles' political and financial independence from the English parliament; to put England in a position to receive a share of the Spanish Empire if it broke up (the infant Charles II of Spain had no clear heir); to gain the support of English Catholics (and possibly also Protestant dissenters) for the monarchy; or to seek revenge on the Dutch for the English defeat in the Second Anglo-Dutch War, particularly the humiliating Raid on the Medway. Charles initially attempted to form an alliance with France in 1668, without abandoning the Triple Alliance, so was not as consistent as Louis in opposing the Dutch. Louis was married to Maria Theresa, the eldest daughter of Philip IV of Spain (died 1665); Maria Theresa had renounced her inheritance rights, but Louis consistently manoeuvred to acquire Spanish territory adjacent to France and to promote his wife's potential claim to the Spanish throne. Louis rebuffed Charles's approach in 1668, as Charles was not willing to join a French attack on Spain. In the early part of 1669, Louis attempted to gain Dutch agreement to his acquiring all or most of the Spanish Netherlands, but the Dutch themselves were anxious to prevent a French army being stationed on or near their frontiers. During the same period, Charles attempted to preserve the Triple Alliance by settling outstanding overseas trade issues with the Dutch, with little success. Charles attempted simultaneously to restart negotiations for a French alliance, but Louis repeated the condition that Britain must join him in attacking the Netherlands. Charles remained unenthusiastic, but his failure to gain the security he sought by other diplomatic means forced him to accept this precondition, subject to substantial French financial assistance. The parties entered into more detailed discussions by December 1669. During the five months in which detailed terms were being agreed, both parties attempted to reach understandings with Spain: their realisation that Spain might cede the Spanish Netherlands to France in a territorial exchange or act in concert with the Triple Alliance was a strong incentive for Charles and Louis respectively to reach a final agreement. By the secret treaty, Charles was to abandon the Triple Alliance with Sweden and the Dutch Republic in favour of assisting Louis in conquering the Dutch Republic. Provided that the conquest was successfully completed, England was promised several very profitable ports along one of the major rivers that run through the Dutch Republic. The main components of the treaty can be paraphrased: By Article 7 of the treaty, Charles was able to secure only a vague promise that the rights and interests of his nephew, William, Prince of Orange, would be respected. The secret treaty did not become public until 1771 when the historian Sir John Dalrymple published its contents in his Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland. Had it been published in Charles II's lifetime, the results might have been drastic; considering the enormous effect of Titus Oates’s highly unreliable assertions of a Popish Plot, an even greater backlash might have followed had the English public learned that the King actually obliged himself to turn Catholic and that he was willing to rely on French troops to impose that conversion on his own subjects. The "cover" treaty The secret treaty was signed and sealed in June 1670. The Duke of Buckingham was then appointed to negotiate a treaty with the King of France. He was amazed by how smoothly it went. This treaty closely followed the secret treaty just concluded, but the clause by which King Charles was to declare himself a Roman Catholic as soon as the affairs of his kingdom permitted did not appear; neither, therefore, did the stipulation that the attack on the Netherlands would follow his declaration. This treaty was signed by all five members of the Cabal Ministry on 21 December 1670 and was made known to the public. However King Charles and the French knew it was a meaningless fake. Consequences Military preparations took some time; Louis declared war on the Dutch on 6 April 1672, and Charles followed suit the next day. On 14 April 1672 under the Treaty of Stockholm, France paid Sweden subsidies to remain neutral, while also promising Sweden military support if it were threatened by Brandenburg-Prussia. This Franco-Swedish alliance completed Louis’ diplomatic encirclement of the Republic.<ref>Roger Frost, The Northern Wars 1558–1721 p. 209.</ref> The Third Anglo-Dutch War started badly for the Dutch. The French strategy was to invade the Dutch Republic along the line of the River Rhine where Dutch defences were weakest, outflanking the main defences on the Dutch border with the Spanish Netherlands. Despite warnings about French intentions, the Dutch leader Johan de Witt mistakenly thought that the war against France and England would be decided at sea, and he prioritised equipping the Dutch fleet while neglecting the eastern frontier fortresses. This led to significant early French successes and a near-collapse of the Dutch army, which was forced to retreat behind the inundations of The Dutch Water Line and offer peace terms that were very favourable to France. The year 1672 is known to the Dutch as the Rampjaar or 'Year of disaster': the Orangists blamed de Witt whom they forced to resign, and they later brutally killed him and his brother.J. R. Jones, The Anglo-Dutch Wars of the Seventeenth Century, pp 193, 197-198, 220 The breathing space afforded by its retreat behind the inundations, followed by military reforms, recruitment of new troops and unofficial Spanish assistance, enabled the Dutch army, led by William III of Orange as its Captain-General, to hold the Dutch Water Line for the rest of 1672 and 1673. Louis was now involved in a war of attrition and faced growing opposition from other European powers. Charles was short of money, as the costs of deploying the English fleet were much greater than expected despite French subsidies, and he faced increasing domestic opposition to the war. Part of this opposition related to English perceptions that the French fleet had stood by while the English fleet bore the brunt of the fighting the Dutch. In the Battle of Solebay in 1672, d'Estrées, commanding the French squadron, avoided the main battle and only engaged a much smaller Dutch force at long-range, earning the condemnation of English, and of some French officers. The conduct of the French fleet in the two 1673 Battles of the Schooneveld was undistinguished and, in the final 1673 conflict, the Battle of the Texel, D'Estrées, either through poor seamanship, or because he had been ordered by Louis XIV to preserve the French fleet should England make peace with the Dutch, failed to engage the Dutch closely. In addition, Dutch privateers had been much more successful at capturing English merchant ships than English privateers attacking Dutch vessels in this war. Desperate for funds, Charles was forced to call Parliament into session for the first time in over two years. He had hoped to keep it prorogued in order to wage the war without its oversight. In 1674, largely because of the pressure put upon Charles by Parliament, England signed the Treaty of Westminster: this largely restored the pre-war status quo and ended the Third Anglo-Dutch War. The French would continue to fight for four more years. A peace conference was convened at Nijmegen in 1676, but this made little progress as the French insisted in retaining the Dutch fortress of Maastricht. However, the conclusion of an Anglo-Dutch defensive treaty in March 1678 convinced Louis to offer peace without the cession any Dutch territory, leading to the signing of the Treaty of Nijmegen. Although not unfavourable to the Dutch, and less favourable to France than the terms offered by the Dutch in 1672, France gained Franche-Comté and several towns in the Spanish Netherlands by this treaty, although relinquishing other conquests. More importantly, Louis achieved a diplomatic victory by breaking the European alliance against him. In 1672, Charles issued a Declaration of Indulgence which suspended the penal laws against nonconforming Protestants and also relaxed (but did not suspend) the penal laws applying to Roman Catholics. When Parliament reconvened that year, they denounced the Declaration and announced that the English monarch did not possess the power to issue proclamations that suspended penal laws passed by the Parliament. Furthermore, they refused to fund the ongoing Third Anglo-Dutch War until the declaration was withdrawn. Charles was forced to comply with Parliament's demands, thereby ending the chance offered by the treaty of reconciling England with the Roman Catholic Church. The treaty's reference to the possibility of "new rights to the Spanish monarchy reverting to the King of France" envisaged the possibility of Charles II of Spain dying childless, and of Louis then claiming the Spanish throne for the House of Bourbon through his wife. At the time of the treaty, the Spanish monarch was only nine years old, but his infirmity was already evident and well-known, casting doubt on his ever being able to beget children. However, Charles's promise to Louis was purely personal, and as the Spanish King outlived him, his promise had no effect. When, shortly after the conclusion of the Nine Years' War, the death of Charles II of Spain seemed imminent, the exhausted participants agreed by the First Partition Treaty of 1698, brokered by William III, that Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria would succeed to the Spanish throne, and that France and Austria would divide Spain's European possessions outside the Iberian Peninsula. After Joseph Ferdinand's death in 1699, the Second Partition Treaty of 1700, also sponsored by William III awarded Spain and its overseas possessions to Archduke Charles and most of Spain's European possessions to France. However, when the Spanish king died childless in 1700, William III's foreign policy initiative was nullified when Louis claimed the whole Spanish inheritance for his grandson, and French ambitions caused the War of Spanish Succession. Overall, Charles made a serious error of judgement in signing the Treaty of Dover. Firstly, he underestimated the political skill of Louis, who involved him in a war of little advantage to England but one that was greatly desired by Louis to further his objectives. Secondly, he also underestimated Dutch resilience and overestimated his influence on William, who gained power in the Netherlands without Charles's assistance. See also List of treaties References Bibliography . Black, Jeremy. "British Foreign Policy and International Affairs during Sir William Trumbull's Career." The British Library Journal 19.2 (1993): 199–217. Browning, Andrew, ed. English historical documents: 1660-1714 (Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1953), pp 863–67 for text. Bryant, Arthur. King Charles II (1955), pp. 154–68. Feiling, Keith. British Foreign Policy 1660-1672 (1930). excerpt 1968 reprint Howat, G.M.D. Stuart and Cromwellian Foreign Policy (1974) pp 95–138. Jones, J. R. Country and Court (1978), pp 64–73. Lodge, Richard. "English Foreign Policy, 1660–1715" History 15#60 (1931) pp 296–307. Miller, John. Popery and politics in England (Cambridge UP, 1973), pp. 108–14. Ogg, David. England in the Reign of Charles II (2nd ed. 2 vol 1936) Rommelse, Gijs, The Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665-1667): Raison D'état, Mercantilism and Maritime Strife'' (Verloren, 2006). External links Original French text of the treaty, at 1670 in England 1670 in France Anglo-Dutch Wars Dover Dover History of Dover, Kent Military history of Dover, Kent 1670 treaties Dover History of Catholicism in England	[ -0.6989208459854126, -0.17983703315258026, 0.2768127918243408, -0.27056989073753357, -0.0038158998358994722, -0.0041067576967179775, 0.4079280495643616, -0.23279480636119843, 0.20247194170951843, -0.0665065199136734, -0.2959539592266083, 0.2676493227481842, 0.12043049931526184, 0.268539160490036, -0.4339897930622101, -0.39157533645629883, 0.7640122175216675, 0.002890804084017873, 0.655886173248291, -0.14832429587841034, -0.20104777812957764, 0.6347411870956421, -0.2847743630409241, -0.02987760305404663, 0.13742221891880035, -0.3054017722606659, 0.17852167785167694, -0.4048309922218323, -0.20912030339241028, -0.4046781659126282, 0.9407821893692017, 0.39529722929000854, -0.4715898931026459, -0.536850094795227, -0.06385000795125961, 0.1650395691394806, 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213576	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plateau%20%28disambiguation%29	Plateau (disambiguation)	A plateau is an area of flat terrain that is raised significantly above the surrounding area. Plateau or plateaux or plateaus may also refer to: Earth science Dissected plateau, a highly eroded plateau which may have sharp relief Oceanic plateau, a submarine area higher that the normal sea floor depth People Joseph Plateau (1801–1883), Belgian mathematician Pierre Plateau (1924–2018), French Roman Catholic prelate Places Plateau Department, a department of Benin Plateau, Benin, an arrondissement in the Collines Department Plateau, a place name in Inverness County, Nova Scotia, Canada The Plateau, a neighbourhood in Montreal, Canada Plateau (Praia), on the island of Santiago, Cape Verde Plateaux Department (Congo) Plateaux Department (Gabon) Lasithi Plateau, a high plain on Crete, Greece Plateau, Ivory Coast, a district of Abidjan Plateau (state), a state in Nigeria Plateaux Region, Togo Mathematics Plateau's problem Plateau's laws Plateau (mathematics), a region where a function is constant Art and entertainment "Plateau" (song), by Meat Puppets, popularized by Nirvana PlatEAU (band), an electronic band "The Plateau" (Fringe), a television episode Plateau (game), an abstract strategy board game Plateau (museum), a defunct art gallery in Seoul, South Korea Other uses Plateau effect, a reduction in the effectiveness of once effective measures over time Plateau phase, in physiology and human sexuality, the second stage of sexual arousal in the Masters and Johnson model Plateau Systems, a provider of talent management systems See also	[ -0.12429250776767731, 0.08913281559944153, -0.4947740137577057, 0.03298916667699814, -0.25351452827453613, 0.014086139388382435, 0.5295313596725464, 0.5315558910369873, -0.3173370659351349, -0.8656242489814758, -0.7041729688644409, 0.4238071143627167, 0.19633546471595764, 0.32140979170799255, -0.08947078138589859, 0.898093044757843, 0.22442686557769775, 0.20276744663715363, -0.2931295931339264, 0.17051754891872406, 0.011983361095190048, -0.26561984419822693, -0.015313605777919292, -0.43563252687454224, 0.2593825161457062, 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213578	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20of%20Lancaster%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20Bedford	John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford	John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford KG (20 June 138914 September 1435) was a medieval English prince, general and statesman who commanded England's armies in France during a critical phase of the Hundred Years' War. Bedford was the third son of King Henry IV of England, brother to Henry V, and acted as regent of France for his nephew Henry VI. Despite his military and administrative talent, the situation in France had severely deteriorated by the time of his death. Bedford was a capable administrator and soldier, and his effective management of the war brought the English to the height of their power in France. However, difficulties mounted after the arrival of Joan of Arc, and his efforts were further thwarted by political divisions at home and the wavering of England's key ally, Duke Philip of Burgundy and his faction, the Burgundians. In the last years of Bedford's life, the conflict devolved into a war of attrition, and he became increasingly unable to gather the necessary funds to prosecute the conflict. Bedford died during the congress of Arras in 1435, just as Burgundy was preparing to abandon the English cause and conclude a separate peace with Charles VII of France. Birth and family John of Lancaster was born on 22 June 1389, to Henry Bolingbroke (later King of England) and his wife, Mary de Bohun. His birthplace is unknown but some historians speculate that he was born in Kenilworth Castle, Warwickshire. He was a grandson of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, a son of King Edward III. His father, Henry Bolingbroke, was exiled in 1399 by his cousin, Richard II, when his father participated in the revolt of the Lords Appellant in 1388, the year before his birth. Upon the death of John of Gaunt, Richard II did not allow Bolingbroke to inherit his father's duchy of Lancaster. That year Bolingbroke, with help from the nobility, was able to gather supporters and deposed Richard II, who was later killed in cold blood. Bolingbroke was crowned King of England, as Henry IV, on October 13, 1399. John's eldest sibling was Henry of Monmouth, later King of England as Henry V. John's other siblings were Thomas of Lancaster, Duke of Clarence; Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester; Philippa; and Blanche. After his father's accession to the throne of England as Henry IV in 1399, John began to accumulate lands and lucrative offices. He was knighted on 12 October 1399 at his father's coronation, and made a Knight of the Garter by 1402. Between 1403 and 1405, grants of the forfeited lands from the House of Percy and of the alien priory of Ogbourne, Wiltshire, considerably increased his income. He was appointed master of the mews and falcons in 1402, Constable of England in 1403 and Warden of the East March from 1403 to 1414. He was created Earl of Kendal, Earl of Richmond and Duke of Bedford in 1414 by his brother, King Henry V. Military campaigns His brother, Henry V, led a campaign against France in 1415. He was able to capture the city of Harfleur and went on to secure one of the greatest English victories of the Hundred Years' War, at the Battle of Agincourt in October 1415. In 1416, Henry placed John in command of a fleet taking supplies to Harfleur, which overcame a fleet of the Franco-Genoese navy. Henry was able to capture the cities of Rouen and Caen and soon most of France was under English control. John, Duke of Lancaster led English armies against the Kingdom of Scotland while his brother fought the French in mainland Europe. Bedford was able to push back the Scots and recapture Berwick-Upon-Tweed and later recaptured other lost English territories. After he secured a peace treaty, the port city of Berwick remained in English hands and likewise many other towns and cities such as Roxburgh. Regency When Henry V died in 1422, Bedford vied with his younger brother, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, for control of the Kingdom. Bedford was declared regent, but concentrated on the ongoing war in France, while Gloucester acted as Lord Protector of England during his absence. He became the guardian of Henry's infant son Henry VI and became regent on his behalf. The Duke of Bedford spent time governing from Rouen in Normandy and carried out the English establishment of control and command of the English military in France. Campaigns in France Bedford defeated the French several times, notably at the Battle of Verneuil, until the arrival of Joan of Arc rallied the opposition. After Joan was captured by Burgundian troops at Compiegne and then transferred to the English, Bedford had her put on trial by clergy who are listed in English government records and described by eyewitnesses as pro-English collaborators. She was executed at Rouen on 30 May 1431. Bedford then arranged a coronation for the young Henry VI at Paris. Bedford had been Governor in Normandy between 1422 and 1432, where the University of Caen was founded under his auspices. He was an important commissioner of illuminated manuscripts, both from Paris (from the "Bedford Master" and his workshop) and England. The three most important surviving manuscripts of his are the Bedford Hours (British Library Add MS 18850) and the Salisbury Breviary (Paris BnF Ms Lat. 17294), both made in Paris, and the Bedford Psalter and Hours of about 1420–23, which is English (British Library Add MS 42131). All are lavishly decorated and are good examples of the style of the period. Marriages John's first marriage was to Anne of Burgundy (d. 1432), daughter of John the Fearless, on 13 May 1423 in Troyes. The couple were happily married, despite being childless. Anne died of the plague in Paris in 1432. John's second marriage was to Jacquetta of Luxembourg, on 22 April 1433 at Thérouanne in northern France. This marriage was also childless, although Jacquetta went on to have more than a dozen children in her second marriage to Richard Woodville (later Earl Rivers). Her eldest child, Elizabeth Woodville, became Queen consort of England as the spouse of Edward IV in 1464. Succession John died in 1435 during the Congress of Arras at his Castle of Joyeux Repos in Rouen and was buried at Rouen Cathedral, near Henry the Young King. In 1562, his grave was destroyed by Calvinists. Today, a plaque marks its former location. He had no legitimate surviving issue. In literature He appears in William Shakespeare's plays Henry IV, Part 1, and Henry IV, Part 2, as John of Lancaster, and in Henry V and Henry VI, Part 1, as the Duke of Bedford. In the former play he is portrayed as being present at the Battle of Shrewsbury in 1403, when then aged 14, though no chroniclers of the time mention him. Georgette Heyer's novel My Lord John is the first part of a never-completed trilogy focused on him that deals with his life from when he was four to about twenty. Brenda Honeyman's novel Brother Bedford covers his life from Henry V's death to his own. In the 2011 Philippa Gregory novel, The Lady of the Rivers, John features in a minor role as the first husband of its main character Jacquetta of Luxembourg. Arms As a son of the sovereign, John bore the Royal arms of his father King Henry IV, differenced by a label of five points per pale ermine and France. In the Bedford Book of Hours, these arms are shown supported by an eagle collared with a crown and a sable yale all on a gold field sewn with gold "wood stocks" (cut tree stumps with roots), a heraldic badge of King Edward III, referring to Woodstock Palace. It is possible that the yale was painted in silver which has tarnished black. The shield is surrounded with a pair of banners gules which reverse in argent with the motto repeated four times: A vous entier (To you / yours entire[ly]). This may be a pun on the German Tier, i.e., beast, or on (English) tears —or 'tiers' of meaning, including tierce, referring to himself as third in line to his father's throne and by now rightful king but for the baby Henry VI. The Hours were supposedly produced as a courtship present from John to his first wife Anne. There is a Queen's Arms public house sign from Birmingham which uses these supporters reversed and with an argent yale uncollared on a shield showing the English royal arms at left and to the right six divisions representing Lorraine. John's second wife, Jacquetta of Luxembourg, was the mother of Elizabeth Woodville, who may be this queen. Elizabeth Woodville's right to inherit these armorial supporters would seem dubious if they belonged to her mother's first husband or to his first wife. Alternatively, though equally incorrect, the arms may be her mother's used in a flattering conceit. Ancestry References Further reading External links \|- \|- \|- \|- 1389 births 1435 deaths 14th-century English people 15th-century English Navy personnel 15th-century English politicians Peers created by Henry V 15th-century viceregal rulers Burials at Rouen Cathedral 101 Earls of Kendal John of Lancaster, Duke Of Bedford Governors of Jersey John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford Knights of the Garter Lord High Admirals of England Lords Protector of England Male Shakespearean characters People of the Hundred Years' War Regents of England Regents of France Sons of kings Children of Henry IV of England	[ -0.8790901303291321, -0.18628381192684174, -0.1581539809703827, 0.11162206530570984, -0.08035992085933685, 1.267020583152771, 0.5744393467903137, 0.12478826195001602, -0.3917107880115509, -0.7037274837493896, -0.1443093717098236, 0.10383378714323044, 0.09586268663406372, -0.16725432872772217, 0.20956072211265564, 0.19961102306842804, 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213579	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dread%20Zeppelin	Dread Zeppelin	Dread Zeppelin is an American reggae rock band. Formed in 1989 in Sierra Madre, California, the band combines hard rock and reggae styles with humor. They are best known for performing the songs of Led Zeppelin in a reggae style as sung by a Las Vegas Elvis impersonator. Over the years they have also performed songs originally by Elvis Presley, Bob Marley and The Yardbirds. The group toured extensively around the world during their tenure with I.R.S. Records. Career 1986-1989: The Prime Movers The nucleus of Dread Zeppelin, bassist Put-Mon (Gary Putman), drummer Cheese (Curt Lichter) and guitarist Jah Paul Jo (Joseph "Severs" Ramsey), were from a Pasadena, California group called The Prime Movers. Signed to Island Records in 1986, The Prime Movers had some success in the UK with singles "On The Trail" and "Dark Western Night". The late Stuart Adamson of Big Country contributed his trademark E-Bow guitar to "Dark Western Night" and another Prime Mover song, "Strong As I Am", was featured in Michael Mann's motion picture thriller, Manhunter. When The Prime Movers ended in 1989, Jah Paul Jo hatched the idea for a new group that would call itself "Dread Zeppelin". Aside from the three original members, the band recruited guitarist Carl Jah (Carl Haasis) and 300-pound Vegas-era Elvis impersonator Tortelvis (Greg Tortell). The band supposedly met Tortelvis when he rammed his milk float into the back of the band's car. Longtime graphic artist for The Prime Movers, Bryant Fernandez, was brought in as conga-man Ed Zeppelin. The concept for Dread Zeppelin may be less bizarre than it seems. Notably, Led Zeppelin did make a recording which reflected a prominent reggae influence, the 1973 song "D'yer Mak'er". Also, the band frequently performed Elvis Presley songs in concert, often presented as a medley which occasionally flirted with self-parody. (Led Zeppelin met Elvis briefly in 1974 after attending one of his concerts in Los Angeles.) 1989: Birdcage Records The first Dread Zeppelin recording was meant to be a goof on Led Zeppelin's 45 single "Immigrant Song" and its sought-after non-LP B-Side "Hey Hey What Can I Do". Produced by Jah Paul Jo and Rasta Li-Mon (Lee Manning) and released on their indie Birdcage Records label, the single sold amazingly well and represses featured the seven inch 45 RPM in a rasta rainbow of colors: red (original), green, yellow, blue, white and clear vinyl. All early Dread Zeppelin recordings and most of the band's first album Un-Led-Ed were recorded at the home studio of Dave Stewart of Eurythmics, where Rasta Li-Mon was a house engineer. After the success of "Immigrant Song", a second single, "Whole Lotta Love/Tour-telvis: A Bad Trip", was released on Birdcage Records. A third, "Your Time is Gonna Come/Woodstock (live)", was released not as a single but as part of a singles compilation entitled Komm Gib Mir Deine Zeppelin (a play on the title of the German version of The Beatles' song "I Want to Hold Your Hand"). There was also a live cassette issued by Birdcage, but only to members of The Dread Zeppelin fan club, called Live On Blueberry Cheesecake. 1990: I.R.S. years In 1990, Dread Zeppelin were signed to Miles Copeland III's IRS label. Their first album, Un-Led-Ed, consisted of more covers taken from Led Zeppelin and Led Zeppelin II, plus "Black Dog" from Led Zeppelin's untitled fourth album. Original drummer Cheese (Curt Lichter) left the band just after recording Un-Led-Ed. He was replaced by Fresh Cheese (Paul Maselli). Shortly before Un-Led-Ed was released, the original Ed Zeppelin (percussion and Reggae Dub) was replaced by his identical twin brother who was the former lead singer of local LA bands: Rampage, Blue Frontier and Public Eye. Un-Led-Ed was successful. In autumn 1990, Dread Zeppelin took a three-week break from touring and recorded their second album, 5,000,000* Tortelvis Fans Can't Be Wrong. In addition to the usual "Zeppelin in a reggae style", this album also featured a cover of Bob Marley's "Stir It Up" as well as three original songs. For the next album, the band had planned a rock opera, Albert, about a rock critic who wanted to be a star (based loosely on the real rock critic Albert Goldman), but this never materialized. The plan changed to an album of disco covers, It's Not Unusual. Both Ed Zeppelin and Fresh Cheese had left the band after 5,000,000 Tortelvis Fans Can't Be Wrong, and during rehearsals for the new album, Tortelvis also quit. Bassist Put-Mon (Gary Putman) took over the vocals, assuming the name Gary B.I.B.B. It's Not Unusual featured guest spots by both Screamin' Jay Hawkins and Randy Bachman. Whether it was the public's resistance to disco, or the lack of Dread's popular frontman, Tortelvis, sales of It's Not Unusual were disappointing. The band was dropped by IRS and for all intents and purposes, had dissolved. 1993: Hot & Spicy Beanburger Unknown to the band, Dread Zeppelin were being sought by Australian rock band INXS to be the support band on their US tour. INXS were fans of Dread Zeppelin. Tortelvis was persuaded to return to the band; however, without a recording contract, he could only perform at the May 8, 1993 show at The Barker Hangar in Santa Monica. Dread Zeppelin returned to the studio. With Jah Paul Jo and Rasta Li-Mon again producing, they recorded Hot & Spicy Beanburger, a 1993 release on Birdcage Records. In the spring of 1994, Dread Zeppelin appeared in the feature film National Lampoon's Last Resort and provided a song for the closing credits. Carl Jah (Carl Haasis) and Ed Zeppelin left the band shortly thereafter. With Put-Mon moving from bass to lead guitar and the addition of David Raven (drums), bassist Derf Nosna Haj (Freddie Johnson) and Fernandez (Pete Burke) on conga and toast, Dread Zeppelin recorded No Quarter Pounder. Released by Birdcage Records in 1995, No Quarter Pounder would be the band's final Birdcage CD as Jah Paul Jo left the group shortly after its release. 1996: Imago The remaining members of Dread Zeppelin signed onto Imago Records and released The Fun Sessions, a collection of classic rock covers. It was the first all non-Led Zeppelin cover recording with the exception of "BBWAGS (Butt-Boy's Wearin' a Girls' Shirt)" written by Gary Putman. This would be Derf Nosna Haj (Freddie Johnson) and Fernandez (Pete Burke) last recording with the band. After the Imago release, Carl Jah and Ed Zeppelin returned to the band. 1999: Cleopatra Dread then signed to Cleopatra Records and recorded De-jah Voodoo in 1999 produced by Bob Knarley (Howard Ulyate), the son of legendary trombone player Lloyd Ulyate. The recording was re-released by Cleopatra with a new cover and name Re-Led-Ed. 2000-present: Cash Cow In 1995 Dread Zeppelin had a new production company, Cash Cow, run by original members Gary Putman (Butt-Boy) and Greg Tortell (Tortelvis), which had produced the Fun Sessions. They released the live album Front Yard BarBQue in December 1996 and the all-original album Spam Bake in November 1997. All three were produced by Robert Incorvaia. Spam Bake was considered Gary Putman's "original music masterpiece" and a take off of the Elvis movie sound recordings of the 1960s. Also released on Cash Cow Records was the band's first full length Christmas recording Presents in 2002. Chicken and Ribs followed in 2004; both were produced by Bob Knarley. Other recordings were DVD media (Jah-La-Palooza 2004 and Live in Minne-Jah-Polis 2002) and bootlegs of shows, after a clamoring for such product from their loyal and long-time fanbase. In February 2008 the band released Bar Coda, produced by longtime band member Spice (Cris Boerin). During the recording of Bar Coda, Carl Jah left the group. His spot in the live show was taken by Spice who plays keyboards and percussion. Lead singer Tortelvis sang "The Star-Spangled Banner" at Bank One Ballpark, now known as Chase Field, in Phoenix, Arizona on May 27, 2005. He had been scheduled to sing the song at a Minnesota Twins game in 1992, but Roseanne Barr's notorious version (two days before his planned appearance) quashed that opportunity. Dread Zeppelin still tours and releases new material with original members Butt-Boy and Tortelvis, and longtime members Spice, Bob Knarley, Ziggy Knarley and Charlie Haj. Putman is the only member of Dread Zeppelin to have performed on every record and played every live show to date. Discography Studio albums Un-Led-Ed (1990), IRS Records 5,000,000 Tortelvis Fans Can't Be Wrong (1991), IRS Records Rock'n Roll (1991), JVC Records (Japan only) It's Not Unusual (1992), IRS Records Hot & Spicy Beanburger (1993), Birdcage Records The First No-Elvis (1994), Birdcage Records No Quarter Pounder (1995), Birdcage Records The Fun Sessions (1996), Imago Ruins (1996), Birdcage Records Spam Bake (1998) De-jah Voodoo (2000) (reissued in 2004 as Re-Led-Ed) Presents (2002) Chicken and Ribs (2004) Bar Coda (2007) Best of the IRS years (2009) Soso (2011) Live albums Front Yard BarB*Que (1996) The Song Remains Insane (1998), TWA Records (two-CD Australia-only set) Haunted Houses O' the Holy (1999) Live - Live at Larry's (2002) Live - Hots On for Fresno (2003) Singles "Immigrant Song" / "Hey Hey What Can I Do" (1989), Birdcage Records (7" clear, blue, green, red, white and yellow vinyl) "Whole Lotta Love" / "Tour-Telvis: A Bad Trip" (1989), Birdcage Records (7" black and pink vinyl) "Heartbreaker (At the End of Lonely Street)" (1990), IRS Records (UK CD single) "Your Time Is Gonna Come" (edit) (1990), IRS Records (UK CD single) "Stairway to Heaven" (1991), IRS Records (UK CD single) Extended plays Komm Gib Mir Deine Zeppelin (1989), Birdcage Records (six-track EP) Live on Blueberry Cheesecake (1992), Birdcage Records (seven-track fan club EP) DVD Live at the Cabooze in Minne-jah-polis (2003) Jah-La-Palooza (2004) Pure Inner-Tainment (2009) References External links Official site of the original band Official Carl Jah site The Prime Movers Elvis impersonators Led Zeppelin tribute bands Parody musicians Comedy rock musical groups Reggae rock groups Musical groups established in 1989 Cover bands	[ 0.26839837431907654, 0.4521416127681732, -0.4847734570503235, -0.1614607870578766, -0.4816184639930725, -0.07977347820997238, 0.2895291745662689, 0.18337373435497284, -0.6044320464134216, 0.1738061010837555, -0.08329014480113983, 0.17700016498565674, -0.5110735893249512, 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213581	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime%20reciprocal%20magic%20square	Prime reciprocal magic square	A prime reciprocal magic square is a magic square using the decimal digits of the reciprocal of a prime number. Consider a unit fraction, like 1/3 or 1/7. In base ten, the remainder, and so the digits, of 1/3 repeats at once: 0.3333... . However, the remainders of 1/7 repeat over six, or 7−1, digits: 1/7 = 0·142857142857142857... If you examine the multiples of 1/7, you can see that each is a cyclic permutation of these six digits: 1/7 = 0·1 4 2 8 5 7... 2/7 = 0·2 8 5 7 1 4... 3/7 = 0·4 2 8 5 7 1... 4/7 = 0·5 7 1 4 2 8... 5/7 = 0·7 1 4 2 8 5... 6/7 = 0·8 5 7 1 4 2... If the digits are laid out as a square, each row will sum to 1+4+2+8+5+7, or 27, and only slightly less obvious that each column will also do so, and consequently we have a magic square: 1 4 2 8 5 7 2 8 5 7 1 4 4 2 8 5 7 1 5 7 1 4 2 8 7 1 4 2 8 5 8 5 7 1 4 2 However, neither diagonal sums to 27, but all other prime reciprocals in base ten with maximum period of p−1 produce squares in which all rows and columns sum to the same total. Other properties of prime reciprocals: Midy's theorem The repeating pattern of an even number of digits [7-1, 11-1, 13-1, 17-1, 19-1, 23-1, 29-1, 47-1, 59-1, 61-1, 73-1, 89-1, 97-1, 101-1, ...] in the quotients when broken in half are the nines-complement of each half: 1/7 = 0.142,857,142,857 ... +0.857,142 --------- 0.999,999 1/11 = 0.09090,90909 ... +0.90909,09090 ----- 0.99999,99999 1/13 = 0.076,923 076,923 ... +0.923,076 --------- 0.999,999 1/17 = 0.05882352,94117647 +0.94117647,05882352 ------------------- 0.99999999,99999999 1/19 = 0.052631578,947368421 ... +0.947368421,052631578 ---------------------- 0.999999999,999999999 Ekidhikena Purvena From: Bharati Krishna Tirtha's Vedic mathematics#By one more than the one before Concerning the number of decimal places shifted in the quotient per multiple of 1/19: 01/19 = 0.052631578,947368421 02/19 = 0.1052631578,94736842 04/19 = 0.21052631578,9473684 08/19 = 0.421052631578,947368 16/19 = 0.8421052631578,94736 A factor of 2 in the numerator produces a shift of one decimal place to the right in the quotient. In the square from 1/19, with maximum period 18 and row-and-column total of 81, both diagonals also sum to 81, and this square is therefore fully magic: 01/19 = 0·0 5 2 6 3 1 5 7 8 9 4 7 3 6 8 4 2 1... 02/19 = 0·1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 7 8 9 4 7 3 6 8 4 2... 03/19 = 0·1 5 7 8 9 4 7 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3... 04/19 = 0·2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 7 8 9 4 7 3 6 8 4... 05/19 = 0·2 6 3 1 5 7 8 9 4 7 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5... 06/19 = 0·3 1 5 7 8 9 4 7 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6... 07/19 = 0·3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 7 8 9 4 7... 08/19 = 0·4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 7 8 9 4 7 3 6 8... 09/19 = 0·4 7 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 7 8 9... 10/19 = 0·5 2 6 3 1 5 7 8 9 4 7 3 6 8 4 2 1 0... 11/19 = 0·5 7 8 9 4 7 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1... 12/19 = 0·6 3 1 5 7 8 9 4 7 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2... 13/19 = 0·6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 7 8 9 4 7 3... 14/19 = 0·7 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 7 8 9 4... 15/19 = 0·7 8 9 4 7 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5... 16/19 = 0·8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 7 8 9 4 7 3 6... 17/19 = 0·8 9 4 7 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 7... 18/19 = 0·9 4 7 3 6 8 4 2 1 0 5 2 6 3 1 5 7 8... The same phenomenon occurs with other primes in other bases, and the following table lists some of them, giving the prime, base, and magic total (derived from the formula base−1 × prime−1 / 2): See also Cyclic number References Rademacher, H. and Toeplitz, O. The Enjoyment of Mathematics: Selections from Mathematics for the Amateur. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, pp. 158–160, 1957. Weisstein, Eric W. "Midy's Theorem." From MathWorld—A Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/MidysTheorem.html Recreational mathematics Magic squares	[ -0.057157665491104126, 0.25455039739608765, -0.035816043615341187, 0.03484265133738518, -0.502393901348114, 0.1614845246076584, -0.0795644074678421, -0.5871228575706482, 0.038305677473545074, -0.1959577351808548, -0.1387360692024231, 0.08672384917736053, -0.20744241774082184, 0.21402564644813538, -0.23588305711746216, 0.4458810091018677, 0.4249519109725952, 0.4159862697124481, -0.6147319674491882, -0.7101895213127136, 0.08524487167596817, 0.095745749771595, 0.28311172127723694, -0.685398519039154, -0.11386270821094513, 0.06006193533539772, 0.2623225748538971, -0.14533069729804993, -0.2555427551269531, 0.4968319833278656, -0.33036622405052185, 0.452647864818573, -0.10602393001317978, -0.2977680563926697, 0.5548986792564392, 0.3046354651451111, 0.5166325569152832, -0.2758618891239166, 0.4265725314617157, -0.10885864496231079, 0.870680570602417, 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213583	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount%20Wilson%20Observatory	Mount Wilson Observatory	The Mount Wilson Observatory (MWO) is an astronomical observatory in Los Angeles County, California, United States. The MWO is located on Mount Wilson, a peak in the San Gabriel Mountains near Pasadena, northeast of Los Angeles. The observatory contains two historically important telescopes: the Hooker telescope, which was the largest aperture telescope in the world from its completion in 1917 to 1949, and the 60-inch telescope which was the largest operational telescope in the world when it was completed in 1908. It also contains the Snow solar telescope completed in 1905, the 60 foot (18 m) solar tower completed in 1908, the 150 foot (46 m) solar tower completed in 1912, and the CHARA array, built by Georgia State University, which became fully operational in 2004 and was the largest optical interferometer in the world at its completion. Due to the inversion layer that traps warm air and smog over Los Angeles, Mount Wilson has steadier air than any other location in North America, making it ideal for astronomy and in particular for interferometry. The increasing light pollution due to the growth of greater Los Angeles has limited the ability of the observatory to engage in deep space astronomy, but it remains a productive center, with the CHARA Array continuing important stellar research. The initial efforts to mount a telescope to Mount Wilson occurred in the 1880s by one of the founders of University of Southern California, Edward Falles Spence, but he died without finishing the funding effort. The observatory was conceived and founded by George Ellery Hale, who had previously built the 1 meter telescope at the Yerkes Observatory, then the world's largest telescope. The Mount Wilson Solar Observatory was first funded by the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1904, leasing the land from the owners of the Mount Wilson Hotel in 1904. Among the conditions of the lease was that it allow public access. Solar telescopes There are three solar telescopes at Mount Wilson Observatory. Today, just one of these telescopes, the 60 foot Solar Tower, is still used for solar research. Snow Solar Telescope The Snow Solar Telescope was the first telescope installed at the fledgling Mount Wilson Solar Observatory. It was the world's first permanently mounted solar telescope. Solar telescopes had previously been portable so they could be taken to solar eclipses around the world. The telescope was donated to Yerkes Observatory by Helen Snow of Chicago. George Ellery Hale, then director of Yerkes, had the telescope brought to Mount Wilson to put it into service as a proper scientific instrument. Its primary mirror with a focal length, coupled with a spectrograph, did groundbreaking work on the spectra of sunspots, doppler shift of the rotating solar disc and daily solar images in several wavelengths. Stellar research soon followed as the brightest stars could have their spectra recorded with very long exposures on glass plates. Today the Snow solar telescope is mostly used by undergraduate students who get hands-on training in solar physics and spectroscopy. It was also used publicly for the May 9, 2016 transit of Mercury across the face of the sun. 60 foot Solar Tower The Solar Tower soon built on the work started at the Snow telescope. At its completion in 1908, the vertical tower design of the 60 foot focal length solar telescope allowed much higher resolution of the solar image and spectrum than the Snow telescope could achieve. The higher resolution came from situating the optics higher above the ground, thereby avoiding the distortion caused by the heating of the ground by the sun. On June 25, 1908, Hale would record Zeeman splitting in the spectrum of a sunspot, showing for the first time that magnetic fields existed somewhere besides the earth. A later discovery was of the reversed polarity in sunspots of the new solar cycle of 1912. The success of the 60 foot Tower prompted Hale to pursue yet another, taller tower telescope. In the 1960s, Robert Leighton discovered the sun had a 5-minute oscillation and the field of helioseismology was born. The 60 foot Tower is operated by the Department of Physics and Astronomy at University of Southern California. 150 foot Solar Tower The focal length solar tower expanded on the solar tower design with its tower-in-a-tower design. (The tower is actually tall.) An inner tower supports the optics above, while an outer tower, which completely surrounds the inner tower, supports the dome and floors around the optics. This design allowed complete isolation of the optics from the effect of wind swaying the tower. Two mirrors feed sunlight to a lens which focuses light down at the ground floor. It was first completed in 1910, but unsatisfactory optics caused a two-year delay before a suitable doublet lens was installed. Research included solar rotation, sunspot polarities, daily sunspot drawings, and many magnetic field studies. The solar telescope would be the world's largest for 50 years until the McMath-Pierce Solar telescope was completed at Kitt Peak in Arizona in 1962. In 1985, UCLA took over operation of the solar tower from the Carnegie Observatories after it was decided to stop funding the observatory. 60-inch telescope For the 60-inch telescope, George Ellery Hale received the mirror blank, cast by Saint-Gobain in France, in 1896 as a gift from his father, William Hale. It was a glass disk 19 cm thick and weighing 860 kg. However it was not until 1904 that Hale received funding from the Carnegie Institution to build an observatory. Grinding began in 1905 and took two years. The mounting and structure for the telescope was built in San Francisco and barely survived the 1906 earthquake. Transporting the pieces to the top of Mount Wilson was an enormous task. First light was December 8, 1908. It was, at the time, the largest operational telescope in the world. Lord Rosse's Leviathan of Parsonstown, a 72-inch (1.8-meter) telescope built in 1845, was, by the 1890s, out of commission. Although slightly smaller than the Leviathan, the 60-inch had many advantages including a far better site, a glass mirror instead of speculum metal, and a precision mount which could accurately track any direction in the sky, so the 60-inch was a major advance. The 60-inch telescope is a reflector telescope built for newtonian, cassegrain and coudé configurations. It is currently used in the bent Cassegrain configuration. It became one of the most productive and successful telescopes in astronomical history. Its design and light-gathering power allowed the pioneering of spectroscopic analysis, parallax measurements, nebula photography, and photometric photography. Though surpassed in size by the nine years later, the 60-inch telescope remained one of the largest in use for decades. In 1992, the 60-inch telescope was fitted with an early adaptive optics system, the Atmospheric Compensation Experiment (ACE). The 69-channel system improved the potential resolving power of the telescope from 0.5 to 1.0 arc sec to 0.07 arc sec. ACE was developed by DARPA for the Strategic Defense Initiative system, and the National Science Foundation funded the civilian conversion. Today, the telescope is used for public outreach. It is the second largest telescope in the world devoted to the general public. Custom made 10 cm eyepieces are fitted to its focus using the bent cassegrain configuration to provide views of the Moon, planetary, and deep-sky objects. Groups may book the telescope for an evening of observing. 100-inch Hooker telescope The Hooker telescope located at Mount Wilson Observatory, California, was completed in 1917, and was the world's largest telescope from 1917 to 1949. It is one of the most famous telescopes in observational astronomy of the 20th century. It was used by Edwin Hubble to make observations with which he produced two fundamental results which changed the scientific view of the Universe. Using observations he made in 1922–1923, Hubble was able to prove that the Universe extends beyond the Milky Way galaxy, and that several nebulae were millions of light-years away. He then showed that the universe was expanding. Construction Once the sixty-inch telescope project was well underway, Hale immediately set about creating a larger telescope. John D. Hooker provided crucial funding of $45,000 for the purchase and grinding of the mirror, while Andrew Carnegie provided funds to complete the telescope and dome. The Saint-Gobain factory was again chosen to cast a blank in 1906, which it completed in 1908. After considerable trouble over the blank (and potential replacements), the Hooker telescope was completed and saw "first light" on November 2, 1917. As with the sixty-inch telescope, the bearings are assisted by the use of mercury floats to support the 100 ton weight of the telescope. In 1919 the Hooker telescope was equipped with a special attachment, a 6-meter optical astronomical interferometer developed by Albert A. Michelson, much larger than the one he had used to measure Jupiter's satellites. Michelson was able to use the equipment to determine the precise diameter of stars, such as Betelgeuse, the first time the size of a star had ever been measured. Henry Norris Russell developed his star classification system based on observations using the Hooker. In 1935 the silver coating used since 1917 on the Hooker mirror was replaced with a more modern and longer lasting aluminum coating that reflected 50% more light than the older silver coating. The newer method of coating for the telescope mirrors was first tested on the older 1.5 meter mirror. Edwin Hubble performed many critical calculations from work on the Hooker telescope. In 1923, Hubble discovered the first Cepheid variable in the spiral nebula of Andromeda using the 2.5-meter telescope. This discovery allowed him to calculate the distance to the spiral nebula of Andromeda and show that it was actually a galaxy outside our own Milky Way. Hubble, assisted by Milton L. Humason, observed the magnitude of the redshift in many galaxies and published a paper in 1929 that showed the universe is expanding. The Hooker's reign of three decades as the largest telescope came to an end when the Caltech-Carnegie consortium completed its Hale telescope at Palomar Observatory, 144 km south, in San Diego County, California. The Hale telescope saw first light in January 1949. By the 1980s, the focus of astronomy research had turned to deep space observation, which required darker skies than what could be found in the Los Angeles area, due to the ever-increasing problem of light pollution. In 1989, the Carnegie Institution, which ran the observatory, handed it over to the non-profit Mount Wilson Institute. At that time, the 2.5-meter telescope was deactivated, but it was restarted in 1992 and in 1995 it was outfitted with a visible light adaptive optics system and later in 1997, it hosted the UnISIS, laser guide star adaptive optics system. As the use of the telescope for scientific work diminished again, a decision was made to convert it to use for visual observing. Because of the high position of the Cassegrain focus above the observing floor, a system of mirrors and lenses was developed to allow viewing from a position at the bottom of the telescope tube. With the conversion completed in 2014, the 2.5 meter telescope began its new life as the world's largest telescope dedicated to public use. Regularly scheduled observing began with the 2015 observing season. The telescope has a resolving power of 0.05 arcsecond. Interferometry Astronomical interferometry has a rich history at Mount Wilson. No fewer than seven interferometers have been located here. The reason for this is the extremely steady air over Mount Wilson is well suited to interferometry, the use of multiple viewing points to increase resolution enough to allow for the direct measurement of details such as star diameters. 20 foot Stellar Interferometer The first of these interferometers was the 20 foot Stellar Interferometer. In 1919 the 100 inch Hooker telescope was equipped with a special attachment, a 20-foot optical astronomical interferometer developed by Albert A. Michelson and Francis G. Pease. It was attached to the end of the 100 inch telescope and used the telescope as a guiding platform to maintain alignment with the stars being studied. By December 1920, Michelson and Pease were able to use the equipment to determine the precise diameter of a star, the red giant Betelgeuse, the first time the angular size of a star had ever been measured. In the next year, Michelson and Pease measured the diameters of 6 more red giants before reaching the resolution limit of the 20 foot beam interferometer. 50 foot Stellar Interferometer To expand on the work of the 20 foot interferometer, Pease, Michelson and George E. Hale designed a 50-foot interferometer which was installed at Mount Wilson Observatory in 1929. It successfully measured the diameter of Betelgeuse, but, other than beta Andromedae, could not measure any stars not already measured by the 20 foot interferometer. Optical interferometry reached the limit of the available technology and it took about thirty years for faster computing, electronic detectors and lasers to make larger interferometers possible again. Infrared Spatial Interferometer The Infrared Spatial Interferometer (ISI), run by an arm of the University of California, Berkeley, is an array of three 1.65 meter telescopes operating in the mid-infrared. The telescopes are fully mobile and their current site on Mount Wilson allows for placements as far as 70 meters apart, giving the resolution of a telescope of that diameter. The signals are converted to radio frequencies through heterodyne circuits and then combined electronically using techniques copied from radio astronomy. The longest, 70-meter baseline provides a resolution of 0.003 arcsec at a wavelength of 11 micrometers. On July 9, 2003, ISI recorded the first closure phase aperture synthesis measurements in the mid infrared. CHARA array The Center for High Angular Resolution Astronomy (CHARA), built and operated by Georgia State University, is an interferometer formed from six 1 meter telescopes arranged along three axes with a maximum separation of 330 m. The light beams travel through vacuum pipes and are delayed and combined optically, requiring a building 100 meters long with movable mirrors on carts to keep the light in phase as the earth rotates. CHARA began scientific use in 2002 and "routine operations" in early 2004. In the infrared, the integrated image can resolve down to 0.0005 arcseconds. Six telescopes are in regular use for scientific observations and as of late 2005 imaging results are routinely acquired. The array captured the first image of the surface of a main sequence star other than the Sun published in early 2007. Other telescopes A 61 cm telescope fitted with an infrared detector purchased from a military contractor was used by Eric Becklin in 1966 to determine the center of the Milky Way for the first time. In 1968, the first large-area near-IR (2.2 µm) survey of the sky was conducted by Gerry Neugebauer and Robert B. Leighton using a 157 cm reflecting dish they had built in the early 1960s. Known as the Caltech Infrared Telescope, it operated in an unguided drift scanning mode using a lead(II) sulfide (PbS) photomultiplier read out on paper charts. The telescope is now on display at the Udvar-Hazy Center, part of the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum. History Letters to the Mount Wilson Observatory are the subject of a permanent exhibition at the Museum of Jurassic Technology in Los Angeles, California. A small room is dedicated to a collection of unusual letters and theories received by the observatory circa 1915–1935. These letters were also collected in the book No One May Ever Have the Same Knowledge Again: Letters to Mt. Wilson Observatory 1915–1935 (). The historic monument came under threat during the August 2009 California wildfires. The English poet Alfred Noyes was present for the "first light" of the Hooker telescope on November 2, 1917. Noyes used this night as the setting in the opening of Watchers of the Sky, the first volume in his trilogy The Torchbearers, an epic poem about the history of science. According to his account of the night, the first object viewed in the telescope was Jupiter, and Noyes himself was the first to see one of the planet's moons through the telescope. In September 2020, the observatory was evacuated due to the Bobcat Fire. Flames approached within of the observatory on September 15, but the observatory was declared safe on September 19. In popular culture The Observatory was a filming location in a space themed episode of Check It Out! with Dr. Steve Brule. See also List of largest optical reflecting telescopes List of largest optical telescopes historically List of largest optical telescopes in the 20th century List of observatories Mount Wilson Toll Road References External links The 100-inch Hooker Telescope 150-Foot Solar Tower Webcam Image CHARA The ISI Array Mount Wilson Observatory Clear Sky Clock Letters to the MWO, 1915-1935 Image of the sixty inch telescope at the Mount Wilson Observatory, 1920-1939. Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles. 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213585	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newcastle-under-Lyme	Newcastle-under-Lyme	Newcastle-under-Lyme ( , ) is a large market town and the administrative centre of the Borough of Newcastle-under-Lyme in Staffordshire, England. Its 2011 census population was 75,082, covered by the borough had a population of 128,264 in 2016, up from 123,800 in the 2011 Census. History Etymology The "Newcastle" name derives from a new castle in the 12th century. "Lyme" could refer to the Lyme Brook or (as in the family name Lindhurst) the extensive Forest of Lyme covered with lime trees and elm trees in the Middle Ages. 12th–19th centuries Newcastle is not mentioned in the 1086 Domesday Book, as it grew up round a 12th-century castle, but it must have gained rapid importance, as a charter, known solely through a reference in another charter to Preston, was given to the town by Henry II in 1173. The new castle superseded an older fortress at Chesterton, about to the north, whose ruins were visible up to the end of the 16th century. In 1235 Henry III turned the town into a free borough, granting a guild and other privileges. In 1251 he leased it under a fee farm grant to the burgesses. In 1265 Newcastle was granted by the Crown to Simon de Montfort and later to Edmund Crouchback, through whom it passed to Henry IV. In John Leland's time the castle had disappeared "save one great Toure". Newcastle did not feature much in the English Civil War, except as a victim of Royalist plundering. However, it was the home town of Major General Thomas Harrison, a Cromwellian army officer and leader of the Fifth Monarchy Men. The governing charter in 1835, which created the Newcastle-under-Lyme Municipal Borough, absorbed the previous borough created by the charters of 1590 and 1664, under which the title of the corporation was the "mayor, bailiffs and burgesses of Newcastle-under-Lyme". Newcastle sent two members to Parliament from 1355 to 1885, then lost one of its seats. 20th century When Stoke-on-Trent was formed by the 1910 amalgamation of the "six towns" (Stoke, Hanley, Fenton, Longton, Burslem and Tunstall), Newcastle remained separate. Despite its close proximity, it was not directly involved in the pottery industry and it strongly opposed attempts to join the merger in 1930, with a postcard poll showing residents opposing the Stoke-on-Trent Extension Bill by a majority of 97.4 per cent. Although passed by the House of Commons, the bill was rejected by the House of Lords. After the Local Government Act 1972, Newcastle became the principal settlement of the Borough of Newcastle-under-Lyme. Economy Like neighbouring Stoke-on-Trent, Newcastle's early economy was based around the hatting trade, silk and cotton mills. Later coal mining, brick manufacture, iron casting and engineering rose to prominence. Fine red earthenware and soft-paste porcelain tableware (the first such production in Staffordshire) was produced in Newcastle at Samuel Bell's factory in Lower Street in 1724–1754, when production ceased. Except for a failed enterprise in 1790–1797, which then switched to brewing, there was no further commercial production of pottery within the town. Production of earthenware tiles, however, continued at several locations in the borough. Manufacture of fine bone china was re-established in the borough in 1963 by Mayfair Pottery at Chesterton. The manufacture in the borough of clay tobacco-smoking pipes started about 1637 and grew rapidly, until it was second only to hatting as an industry. Nationally, the town ranked with Chester, York and Hull as the four major pipe producers. The industry continued until the mid-19th century, when decline set in rapidly, so that by 1881 it had only one tobacco-pipe maker left. In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, the town had a flourishing felt hat manufacturing industry, probably at its peak locally in the 1820s, when a third of the town's population were involved in over 20 factories, but by 1892 there was only one still in production. In 1944, the Rolls-Royce Derwent engine for the Gloster Meteor fighter was made in the borough. Newcastle's 20th-century industries include: iron-working, construction materials, clothing (especially military, police and transport uniforms), computers, publishing, electric motors and machinery. Near the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, the town received major redevelopment to incorporate a new street (Castle Walk) into the town centre, providing Newcastle with a new bus station and bringing in more companies. Various business centres in the town provide offices for companies that operate in the service sector. The town was classed as a BID (Business Improvement District) in 2015, reiterated in 2021. Newcastle-Under-Lyme BID. This business-led vision of investment seeks "to build on... traditions by creating a safe, welcoming, forward thinking town for the whole community." Politicians The town has been the birthplace of several notable politicians and activists. Fanny Deakin was a campaigner for better nourishment for babies and young children and better maternity care for mothers. The former chairwoman of Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND), Janet Bloomfield (née Hood) is a peace and disarmament campaigner. Vera Brittain writer, feminist (and mother of Liberal Democrat Shirley Williams) was born in the town. There have been two particularly notable Members of Parliament (MPs). Josiah Wedgwood IV was a Liberal, Independent and Labour Party MP, who served as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in the cabinet of Ramsay MacDonald, in the first ever Labour government. He was an MP from 1909 to 1942. John Golding was elected a Labour MP for Newcastle-under-Lyme at a by-election in 1969. He served in the governments of Harold Wilson and Jim Callaghan, as PPS to Eric Varley as Minister of Technology, a Labour whip in opposition, and Minister for Employment, stepping down in 1986. The current MP is Aaron Bell. Transport The town was once served by the North Staffordshire Railway, its station being on a branch from Stoke-on-Trent via Newcastle, Silverdale and Keele, to Market Drayton in Shropshire. Newcastle-under-Lyme railway station opened in September 1852, after numerous construction difficulties involving the two tunnels of and at Hartshill. There were also two halts to the west of Newcastle railway station, located at Brampton and Liverpool Road. The section from Silverdale to Market Drayton closed to passengers in May 1956 and the rest of the line in March 1964. Only small sections remained from Madeley to Silverdale, and from Silverdale to Holditch, for coal traffic from the local collieries. The line from Newcastle Junction to Silverdale has been removed, and the site of Newcastle railway station and the Hartshill tunnels filled in. Newcastle was on the national canal network, but the Newcastle-under-Lyme Canal running from the Trent and Mersey Canal at Stoke-on-Trent to Sir Nigel Gresley's Canal has been disused since 1935 and mostly filled in. Today the town relies on buses for public transport. FirstGroup runs a network of services connecting Newcastle to the towns of the Potteries and to Stafford. Arriva buses run to Shrewsbury via Market Drayton Geography Situated in a valley alongside the Lyme Brook, the town is just west of the city of Stoke-on-Trent, its suburbs running together. Newcastle town centre is less than from Stoke-on-Trent City Centre and about north of the county town of Stafford. Green belt Newcastle and Stoke form the main urban area at the centre of the Stoke-on-Trent Green Belt, which is an environmental and planning area that regulates the rural space in Staffordshire, to prevent urban sprawl and minimise convergence with outlying settlements. First defined in 1967, most of the area extends into the wider borough, but some landscape features and places of interest within that are covered or surrounded. They include the Michelin Sports Facility, Newcastle golf course, Keele University, Apedale Winding Wheel, Watermills Chimney and Bignall Hill. The West Coast Main Line forms the western boundary of the green belt. Environment The gas hydrogen sulphide emanates from Walleys Quarry, managed by Red Industries Ltd. A "record number" of people have reported "nauseating" fumes to the Environment Agency, similar in smell to rotten eggs or a gas leak. Hydrogen sulphide fumes escaping from Walleys Quarry landfill can be smelt for miles around. The Environment Agency installed four air-quality monitors for three months from March 2021, at Silverdale Road, Galingale View, Silverdale Cemetery and Newcastle Community fire station. Data gathered between April and September 2021 was evaluated by Public Health England, which concluded that the concentrations of hydrogen sulphide were below the World Health Organization 24-hour health-acute-based guideline value. Values at two of the air monitoring stations were at times above the WHO's 30-minute annoyance guideline levels. The PHE conclusion is that the risk to health is minimal. Demography Of the 73,944 residents recorded in the 2001 census, 51.7 per cent (38,210) were female and 48.3 per cent (35,734) male. Of these, 78.2 per cent (57,819) stated that their religion was Christian, and 12.9 per cent (9,570) said they had no religion. Islam, Judaism, Buddhism and Sikhism each covered less than 1 per cent of the population. Racially, 97.8 per cent of the population defined themselves as white, with the balance being mixed race – 0.6 per cent), Indian – 0.4 per cent, Pakistani – 0.2 per cent, black – 0.2 per cent, Chinese – 0.2 per cent, and other ethnic groups – 0.4 per cent. In employment, 62.2 per cent (21,586) of the population work full-time and 19.4 per cent (6,746) part time. The largest employment types are manufacturing with 7,058 (21.5 per cent), wholesale and retail 6,157 (18.7 per cent), health and social work 4,097 (12.5 per cent) and finance, real estate and business activity 3,823 (11.6 per cent). Jewish residency of the area stretches back into the 19th century. In 1873 the community purchased an old Welsh chapel to be used as a synagogue. In 1923 a new synagogue was built in Hanley. This was closed in 2004 and the congregation moved to a smaller synagogue in Newcastle. Transport Newcastle-under-Lyme is served by the M6 motorway to the south and west of Newcastle and by the A500 road to the north and east. There are access points from the M6 at junctions 15 and 16, to the south and north respectively. The A34 trunk road runs through Newcastle from north to south and was the main road between Birmingham and Manchester until the M6 motorway opened. There is a large bus station in the town centre. Newcastle-under-Lyme railway station, which was not within the town but towards Water Street on the Stoke to Market Drayton Line, closed in 1964 under the Beeching cuts. The line from Silverdale to Pipe Gate remained open to serve Silverdale Colliery and a creamery at Pipe Gate until 1998, when the line closed to all stone and mineral traffic. It now forms part of a green way from Silverdale to Newcastle-Under-Lyme, with the station site being called "Station Walks". The nearest station to the town is Stoke-on-Trent railway station which is between the town centre of Newcastle and city centre of Stoke-on-Trent and serves the Potteries as a whole. Newcastle is the third-largest town in England (by population) to have no railway station. Most of the bus network is run by First Potteries Limited and D&G Bus. Education The town has an independent school: Newcastle-under-Lyme School, which was established in the 17th century, whose alumni includes T. E. Hulme, John Wain and William Watkiss Lloyd. It has a number of primary and secondary schools in the state-funded sector. The latter include Newcastle Community Academy, Clayton Hall Academy, St John Fisher Catholic College, Sir Thomas Boughey Academy and Orme Academy (formerly Wolstanton High School). There is a private Edenhurst Preparatory School, founded in 1961. The town's largest sixth-form college is Newcastle-under-Lyme College, which was established in 1966. Keele University main campus is situated from the centre of the town. Sites and attractions Parks and gardens Newcastle excels in the Royal Horticultural Society Britain in Bloom competition. In 2005 it was national winner in the "small city/large town" category (35K–100K). The town features several parks, including the Queen's Gardens at the east end of Ironmarket, which won the Britain in Bloom Judges' Award for Horticultural Excellence in 2003. Queens Gardens contains a statue of Queen Victoria funded by Sir Alfred Seale Haslam and unveiled by Grand Duke Michael Mikhailovich of Russia on 5 November 1903. It is the only park within the ring road. Grosvenor Gardens is in the centre of one of the town's roundabouts, but hidden away below road level. Queen Elizabeth Garden is located outside the town centre and was due for refurbishment using National Lottery Heritage Fund money. To the north-west of the town centre is Brampton Park, home to a museum and art gallery. Traditional market Dating back to 1173 Newcastle's market, known as the Stones, operates on the High Street. The market was originally held on Sunday; in the reign of John it was changed to Saturday; by the charter of Elizabeth it was fixed on Monday. Grants of fairs were given by Edward I, Edward III and Henry VI. Today the market is open six days a week and has over 80 stalls. Mondays, Wednesdays, Fridays and Saturdays have a general market, Tuesdays an antiques market and Thursdays a sale of bric-a-brac. A cattle and livestock market was held on Mondays until the early 1990s; the site of it is now a branch of Morrison's supermarket. The Guildhall The current Guildhall was built in 1713 and has undergone a number of changes. Originally the ground floor was open and was used for markets, until the Market Hall was built in 1854. In 1860, to provide more space, the ground floor arches were bricked up and a clock tower with four clocks added. The top rooms in the Guildhall were used for meetings by the Borough council. It is now a grade II listed building. The Barracks The Italian-style Militia Barracks were built in 1855 of red brick. They were the headquarters of the 3rd King's Own Staffordshire Rifle Regiment until 1880. In 1882 W. H. Dalton bought the Barracks and settled them in trust for use by the Rifle Volunteers of Newcastle, which became the Territorial Force in 1907. In 2002 the Barracks were let to small businesses. Culture The New Vic Theatre was Europe's first purpose-built theatre in the round. Just outside the town centre, it offers a programme that includes modern and classic plays and concert performances. The Borough Museum and Art Gallery (Brampton Museum) depicts the civic history of the Borough and an authentic, life-size Victorian street-scene. The art gallery hosts work by local and national artists, and travelling exhibitions. Notable residents who contributed to the arts and entertainment include Philip Astley, founder of the modern circus. Jackie Trent, the singer and songwriter, was born in the town. Arnold Bennett, the novelist, playwright, and essayist, completed his schooling at the Middle School, and called the town Oldcastle in his Clayhanger trilogy of novels. Dinah Maria Mulock, who wrote under her married name of Mrs Craik, lived in the town (in Lower Street and Mount Pleasant) and attended Brampton House Academy. E. S. Turner, social commentator, was educated in the town. Newcastle was home to Dr Philip Willoughby-Higson (1933–2012), poet, translator, historian, and author of 33 books. He founded and was president (1974–1992) of the Chester Poets, the oldest poetry group in the North-West. He was also President of the Baudelaire Society of France from 1992 to 2012 – the only Englishman ever to hold that position. Sport The sports clubs and associations include Newcastle Town F.C., playing association football in the Northern Premier League Division One South East. Rugby is represented by Newcastle Staffs Rugby Union Club. Cycle Staffordshire organises local cycling events, as does the Newcastle Track Cycling Association. The town has a velodrome used by the Lyme Racing Club, Newcastle Athletic Club is based at the Ashfield Road track next to Newcastle College. This ash track was constructed in 1964. The club competes in the North Staffs XC League and the Local, National and Heart of England League 3. The town is home to a nationally prominent volleyball club: Newcastle (Staffs) Volleyball Club. Founded in 1980, it has teams in the National Volleyball League, producing numerous England and Great Britain international players over the years. Newcastle under Lyme College is home to Castle Korfball Club, one of the nation's older such clubs. The town has a swimming club; Newcastle (Staffs) Swimming Club, which was founded in 1908. There are golf courses at Kidsgrove, Wolstanton, Keele and Westlands. Keele University is home to one of the UK's first quidditch teams, the Keele Squirrels. It hosted the first ever quidditch game in the UK in 2011 against the Leicester Thestrals. Religion The town was the birthplace of John James Blunt, a divine and Anglican priest. Josiah Wedgwood was a Unitarian and he and his family attended meetings at the Old Meeting House, adjacent to St Giles' Church, which is still in use for the purpose. The town has a number of Anglican churches, including St Giles, a medieval parish church dating from 1290. There are several Catholic churches, notably Holy Trinity, whose style is Gothic in blue engineering bricks, described as "the finest modern specimen of ornamental brickwork in the kingdom" at the time. In the 18th century John Wesley made repeated visits to the area, which was becoming industrialised, and recruited many residents to Methodism. This is reflected in a number of Methodist churches. There is a Baptist church in Clayton. Of interest is the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), across from Brampton Park, which serves as the "Stake Centre" for the church in the region and has an on-site Family History Centre, where the public can research their ancestry at little or no charge. International network The town is part of a worldwide network of towns and cities with the name Newcastle. These include well-known Newcastle upon Tyne (also in England), Neuburg an der Donau (Germany), Neuchâtel (Switzerland), Neufchâteau (France), New Castle, Indiana (US), New Castle, Pennsylvania (US), New Castle, Delaware (US), Newcastle, KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) and Shinshiro (Japan). This small international network of eight towns, formed in 1998, is designed to encourage friendship and cooperation between them. Accordingly, a school in the South African town benefited in 2004 from gifts of computing equipment surplus to Newcastle-under-Lyme's needs. The annual Newcastles of the World Summit was held in Newcastle-under-Lyme for six days from 17 June 2006. Neuburg an der Donau, Germany Neuchâtel, Switzerland Neufchâteau, France New Castle, Delaware, United States New Castle, Indiana, United States New Castle, Pennsylvania, United States Newcastle upon Tyne, England Newcastle, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa Shinshiro, Japan Notable people 17th and 18th centuries Humphrey Wollrich (1633–1707), Quaker writer Philip Astley (1742–1814), equestrian, inventor and father of the modern circus Silvester Harding (1745–1809), artist and publisher, who joined a company of strolling actors at age 14 John James Blunt (1794–1855), Anglican priest who wrote studies of the early Church. 19th century Henry Moseley (1801–1872), churchman, mathematician and scientist Joseph Mayer (1803–1886), goldsmith, antiquary and collector Emma Darwin (née Wedgwood) (1808–1896), granddaughter of Josiah Wedgwood and wife of Charles Darwin Hungerford Crewe, 3rd Baron Crewe FSA, FRS (1812–1894), landowner and peer, inherited the Jacobean Crewe Hall and failed to prevent the construction of a Silverdale and Madeley Railway Company line Sir Oliver Lodge (1851–1940), physicist, inventor and writer Arthur Howard Heath TD (1856–1930), industrialist, cricketer, Rugby Union international and local Conservative MP Sir Joseph Cook, GCMG, PC (1860 in Silverdale – 1947), worked in the local coalmines before emigrating in 1885; Prime Minister of Australia, 1913–1914 Grand Duke Michael Mikhailovich of Russia, (1861–1929), lived in Keele Hall in 1900–1909. Arnold Bennett (1867–1931), writer, went to school in Newcastle Ada Nield Chew (1870–1945), suffragist and social activist Fanny Deakin (1883–1968), local politician born in Silverdale, campaigned for child nourishment and maternity care. Vera Brittain (1893–1970), author, reformer and pacifist, and mother of Shirley Williams Reginald Mitchell (1895–1937), designer of the Spitfire fighter plane Robert W. Tebbs (1875–1945), architectural photographer 20th century E. S. Turner (1909–2006), journalist and author, went to school in the town. Fred Kite (1921–1993), only Second World War British soldier to receive the Military Medal three times Freddie Garrity (1936–2006), singer, lived in the town near the end of his life. Jackie Trent (1940–2015), singer, songwriter and actress Neil Baldwin (born 1946), clown, Stoke City kit-man and honorary graduate of Keele University Kevin John Dunn (1950–2008), twelfth Roman Catholic Bishop of Hexham and Newcastle Professor Alan Sinclair (born 1952), clinical scientist and diabetes specialist Janet Bloomfield (1953–2007), peace and disarmament campaigner. Fran Unsworth (born 1957), journalist, head of BBC News since January 2018 Andrew Van Buren (living), illusionist, showman, co-founder of the Philip Astley Project Hugh Dancy, (born 1975), actor played Will Graham in Hannibal (TV series) Charlotte Salt, (born 1985), actress as Sam Nicholls in Casualty (TV series)Dan Croll (born 1991), singer-songwriter. Politics Robert Needham, 2nd Viscount Kilmorey (1587/88–1653), supporter of Charles I; MP for Newcastle-under-Lyme in the Addled Parliament in 1614. Sir Richard Leveson (1598–1661), MP for Newcastle in the Long Parliament, rebuilt Trentham Hall 1630-1638 Samuel Terrick (1602–1675), local politician. In 1658 he went bankrupt for £20,000. Major-General Thomas Harrison (1606–1660) sided with Parliament in the English Civil War. In 1649 he signed the death warrant of Charles I and in 1660, after the Restoration, was found guilty of regicide and hanged, drawn and quartered. Sir Alfred Seale Haslam (1844–1927) engineer, three times Mayor of Newcastle, MP for Newcastle, 1900–1906 Josiah Wedgwood, 1st Baron Wedgwood (1872–1943), Josiah Wedgwood IV'', great-great-grandson of Josiah Wedgwood and Liberal MP for Newcastle-under-Lyme, 1906–1919, then its Labour MP, 1919–1942 Sir Oswald Mosley (1896–1980), founder of British Union of Fascists, lived in Apedale Hall in early 1900s Stephen Swingler (1915–1969) Labour MP for Stafford, 1945–1950, and for Newcastle-under-Lyme 1951–1969 John Golding (1931–1999), Labour MP for Newcastle-under-Lyme 1969–1986 Llin Golding, Baroness Golding (born 1933), Labour MP for Newcastle-under-Lyme 1986–2001 Jeremy Lefroy (born 1959) Westlands councillor, MP for Stafford 2010–2019 Paul Farrelly (born 1962), MP for Newcastle-under-Lyme 2001–2017, journalist Karen Bradley (born 1970), MP for Staffordshire Moorlands Aaron Bell (born 1980) politician, MP for Newcastle-under-Lyme since 2019 Sport Dick Ray (1876–1952) professional footballer and manager with Port Vale and Manchester City, 239 club caps Frederick Bailey (1919–1985), left-handed English cricketer Don Ratcliffe (1934–2014), footballer with Stoke City, 438 club caps Mike Pejic (born 1950), footballer with Stoke City and Everton, 360 club caps Ian Moores (1954–1998) footballer with Stoke City and Tottenham Hotspur, 359 club caps Robbie Earle (born 1965), footballer with Port Vale and Wimbledon, 578 club caps Graham Shaw (born 1967) footballer with Stoke City, 284 club caps, now a solicitor Dominic Cork, (born 1971) cricketer Simon Wakefield (born 1974), professional golfer Alan Richardson (born 1975), cricketer Lizzie Neave (born 1987), slalom canoeist in women's kayak, competed in 2012 Summer Olympics Oliver Sadler (born 1987), first-class cricketer Peter Wilshaw (born 1987), cricketer Eddie Hall (born 1988), professional strongman Danielle Wyatt (born 1991), professional England cricketer Curtis Nelson (born 1993), footballer for Plymouth Argyle F.C., 387 club caps See also Listed buildings in Newcastle-under-Lyme References Bibliography External links Newcastle-under-Lyme borough council Towns in Staffordshire Market towns in Staffordshire Unparished areas in Staffordshire Borough of Newcastle-under-Lyme	[ -0.43973347544670105, 0.535619854927063, 0.5461776852607727, -1.2703684568405151, 0.34965917468070984, 0.7168310880661011, 0.1998165398836136, 0.13064377009868622, -0.8163295984268188, -0.13525190949440002, -0.35907047986984253, 0.2687489688396454, -0.3727683126926422, 0.45192810893058777, 0.21197263896465302, -0.0649217739701271, 0.3804151117801666, 0.3622215688228607, -0.26724207401275635, -0.2688051462173462, 0.1976880580186844, -0.08099353313446045, -0.10559457540512085, 0.49254199862480164, 0.7760913372039795, -0.7940040826797485, 0.26222991943359375, 0.04344891011714935, 0.22214742004871368, 0.12418904900550842, 0.41650667786598206, 0.6900670528411865, -0.437274694442749, -0.5187406539916992, 0.14104272425174713, 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213589	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pretzel	Pretzel	A pretzel (), from dialectal German pronunciation, standard ( and French / Alsatian: Bretzel) is a type of baked pastry made from dough that is commonly shaped into a knot. The traditional pretzel shape is a distinctive symmetrical form, with the ends of a long strip of dough intertwined and then twisted back onto itself in a particular way (a pretzel loop or pretzel bow). Today, pretzels come in a wide range of shapes. Salt is the most common seasoning for pretzels, complementing the washing soda or lye treatment that gives pretzels their traditional skin and flavor acquired through the Maillard reaction. Other seasonings are mustard, cheeses, sugar, chocolate, cinnamon, sweet glazing, seeds, and nuts. Varieties of pretzels include soft pretzels, which should be eaten shortly after preparation, and hard-baked pretzels, which have a long shelf life. History There are numerous unreliable accounts regarding the origin of pretzels, as well as the origin of the name; most assume that they have Christian backgrounds and were invented by European monks. According to legend, as cited by several sources, including The History of Science and Technology, by Bryan Bunch and Alexander Hellemans, in 610 AD "... [a]n Italian monk invents pretzels as a reward to children who learn their prayers. He calls the strips of baked dough, folded to resemble arms crossing the chest, 'pretiola' ('little reward[s]')". Another source locates the invention in a monastery in southern France. In Germany, there are stories that pretzels were the invention of desperate bakers held hostage by local dignitaries. Food historian William Woys Weaver (only) traces the origin of the pretzel to Celtic harvest knots and the worship of the Celtic goddess Sirona; however this association does not appear in any of the other rare mentions of this goddess. The German name "Brezel" may derive also from Latin bracellus (a medieval term for 'bracelet'), or bracchiola ('little arms'). The pretzel has been in use as an emblem of bakers and formerly their guilds in southern German areas since at least the 12th century. A 12th century illustration in the Hortus deliciarum from the Alsace region (today France) may contain the earliest depiction of a pretzel. Within the Christian Church, pretzels were regarded as having religious significance for both ingredients and shape. Pretzels made with a simple recipe using only flour and water could be eaten during Lent when Christians were forbidden to eat eggs, lard, or dairy products such as milk and butter. As time passed, pretzels became associated with both Lent and Easter. Pretzels were hidden on Easter morning just as eggs are hidden today, and are particularly associated with Lent, fasting and prayers before Easter. Like the holes in the hubs of round Finnish flat bread, ruisreikäleipä, which let them be hung on poles suspended just below the kitchen ceiling, the loops in pretzels may have served a practical purpose: bakers could hang them on sticks, for instance, projecting upwards from a central column, as shown in a painting by Job Berckheyde (1630–93) from around 1681. Emblem of the Bakers' Guild Geography Upper German-speaking regions Pretzel baking has most firmly taken root in the region of Franconia and adjoining Upper German-speaking areas, and pretzels have been an integral part of German baking traditions for centuries. Lye pretzels are popular in southern Germany, Alsace, Austria, and German-speaking Switzerland as a variety of bread, a side dish or a snack, and come in many local varieties. Examples for pretzel names in various Upper-German dialects are Breze, Brezn, Bretzel, Brezzl, Brezgen, Bretzga, Bretzet, Bretschl, Kringel, Silserli, and Sülzerli. Baked for consumption on the same day, they are sold in every bakery and in special booths or stands in downtown streets. Often, they are sliced horizontally, buttered, and sold as Butterbrezel, or come with slices of cold meats or cheese. Butter-filled pretzels are also commonly sold under this name. Sesame, poppy, sunflower, pumpkin, or caraway seeds, melted cheese, and bacon bits are other popular toppings. Some bakeries offer pretzels made of different flours, such as whole wheat, rye or spelt. In Bavaria, lye pretzels accompany a main dish, such as Weisswurst sausage. The same dough and baking procedure with lye and salt is used to make other kinds of "lye pastry" (Laugengebäck): lye rolls, buns, croissants, and even loaves (Laugenbrötchen, Laugenstangen, Laugencroissants, Laugenbrot). Yet, in some parts of Bavaria, especially in lower Bavaria, unglazed "white" pretzels, sprinkled with salt and caraway seeds are still popular. Basically, with the same ingredients, lye pretzels come in numerous local varieties. Sizes are usually similar; the main differences are the thickness of the dough, the content of fat and the degree of baking. Typical Swabian pretzels, for example, have very thin "arms" and a "fat belly" with a split, and a higher fat content. The thicker part makes it easier to slice them for the use of sandwiches. In Bavarian pretzels, the arms are left thicker so they do not bake to a crisp and contain very little fat. Oversized pretzels are often sold at fairs or beer festivals. The pretzel shape is used for a variety of sweet pastries made of different types of dough (flaky, brittle, soft, crispy) with a variety of toppings (icing, nuts, seeds, cinnamon). Around Christmas, they can be made of soft gingerbread (Lebkuchen) with chocolate coating. In southern Germany and adjoining German-speaking areas, pretzels have retained their original religious meanings and are still used in various traditions and festivals. In some areas, on 1 January, people give each other lightly sweetened yeast pretzels for good luck and good fortune. These "New Year's pretzels" are made in different sizes and can have a width of and more. Sometimes children visit their godparents to fetch their New Years pretzel. On 1 May, love-struck boys used to paint a pretzel on the doors of the adored. On the other hand, an upside-down pretzel would have been a sign of disgrace. Especially Catholic areas, such as Austria, Bavaria, or some parts of Swabia, the "Palm pretzel" is made for Palm Sunday celebrations. Sizes can range from up to and they can weigh up to . An old tradition on Palm Sunday dating back to 1533 is the outdoor pretzel market (Brezgenmarkt) in the Hungerbrunnen Valley near Heldenfingen. In the Rhineland region, sweet pretzels are made with pudding-filled loops (pudding pretzels). On Laetare Sunday in Luxembourg, the fourth Sunday in Lent, there is a festival called "Pretzel Sunday". Boys give their girlfriends pretzels or cakes in pretzel form. The size symbolizes how much he likes her. In return, if a girl wants to increase his attention, she will give him a decorated egg on Easter. The pretzel custom is reversed on Pretzel Sunday during leap years. This custom also still exists in some areas of the Swabian Alb. On the same occasion in Rhenish Hesse and the Palatinate, people have parades carrying big pretzels mounted on colourful decorated poles. During Lent in Biberach, "Lent pretzels" are popular. These are briefly boiled in water before baking and then sprinkled with salt. Schloss Burg is renowned for a 200-year-old specialty, the "Burger pretzel". Its texture and flavour resemble rusk or zwieback. A local story says that the recipe came from a grateful Napoleonic soldier in 1795, whose wounds were treated by a baker's family in the little town of Burg. The cultural importance of the pretzel for Burg is expressed by a monument in honour of the pretzel bakers, and by an 18 km hiking trail nearby called "Pretzel Hiking Trail". A variety typical for Upper Franconia is the "anise pretzel". The town of Weidenberg celebrates the "Pretzel weeks" during the carnival season when anise flavored pretzels are served with special dishes such as cooked meat with horseradish or roast. In the city of Lübeck, the 500-year-old guild of boatmen on the Stecknitz Canal call their annual meetings in January Kringelhöge (Pretzelfun). The elaborate affair, with about 200 participants, is celebrated as a breakfast with beer and includes Mass in the Lübeck Cathedral and a presentation of songs by a children's choir. In earlier times, the children were very poor, coming from an orphanage, and each received a Kringel (pretzel) as a reward. Hence, the name "Pretzelfun" was adopted, because this gift was considered a highlight. Today, the children come from schools, but they still get the pretzels. The city of Osnabrück celebrates the anniversary of the Peace of Westphalia (1648) and organizes an annual hobby horse race for grade-four children. On finishing the race, they are presented with a sweet pretzel. In heraldry, the city seal of Nörten dates from around 1550 and depicts two facing lions holding a pretzel at the center. The lye pretzel is the theme for a number of festivals in Germany. The city of Speyer prides itself to be the "pretzel town", and around the second weekend of July, from Friday to Tuesday, it holds an annual funfair and festival called "Brezelfest", which is the largest beer festival in the Upper Rhine region, and attracts around 300,000 visitors. The festival includes a parade with over 100 bands, floats, and clubs participating from the whole region, and 22,000 pretzels are thrown among the crowds. On the market square of Speyer, there is a fountain with a statue of a boy selling pretzels. The pretzel booths on the main street are permanently installed and were specially designed when the whole downtown area was redone for the 2000th anniversary. One-day pretzel fests and markets in other German towns are in Kirchhellen, a borough of Bottrop, or in Kornwestheim. In 2003 and 2004, "Peace Pretzels" were baked for a UNICEF charity event and other charity purposes in Munich. Instead of the typical pretzel loop, they were made in the similar shape of a peace symbol. United States In the late 18th century, southern German and Swiss German immigrants introduced the pretzel to North America. The immigrants became known as the Pennsylvania Dutch, and in time, many handmade pretzel bakeries populated the central Pennsylvania countryside, and the pretzel's popularity spread. In the 20th century, soft pretzels became popular in other regions of the United States. Cities such as Philadelphia, Chicago, and New York became renowned for their soft pretzels. The key to success was the introduction of the new mass production methods of the industrialized age, which increased the availability and quantity, and the opening up of multiple points of distribution at schools, convenience and grocery stores, and entertainment venues such as movie theaters, arenas, concert halls, and sport stadiums. Prior to that, street vendors used to sell pretzels on street corners in wooden glass-enclosed cases. Pennsylvania In particular, the S-shaped soft pretzel, often served with brown mustard, became very popular in Philadelphia and was established as a part of Philadelphia's cuisine for snacking at school, work, or home, and considered by most to be a quick meal. The average Philadelphian today consumes about twelve times as many pretzels as the national average. Wormelysburg, Pennsylvania is the center of American pretzel production for both the hard-crispy and the soft-bread types of pretzels. Southeastern Pennsylvania, with its large population of German background, is considered the birthplace of the American pretzel industry, and many pretzel bakers are still located in the area. Pennsylvania produces 80% of the nation's pretzels. In Altoona, Pennsylvania, the Benzel's pretzel company calls them "bretzels", both for the alliteration and as a nod to their German heritage. The annual United States pretzel industry is worth over $1.2 billion. The average American consumes about of pretzels per year. The privately run "Pretzel Museum" opened in Philadelphia in 1993, but is now defunct. In 2003, Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell declared 26 April "National Pretzel Day" to acknowledge the importance of the pretzel to the state's history and economy. Philly Pretzel Factory stores offer a free pretzel to each customer on this day. Hard pretzels originated in the United States, where, in 1850, the Sturgis bakery in Lititz, Pennsylvania, became the first commercial hard pretzel bakery. Snack food hard pretzels are made in the form of loops, braids, letters, little pretzels, or sticks around thick and long; they have become a popular snack in many countries around the world. A thicker variety of sticks can be thick; in the U. S. these are called Bavarian pretzels or pretzel rods. Unlike the soft pretzels, these were durable when kept in an airtight environment and marketable in a variety of convenience stores. Large-scale production began in the first half of the 1900s, more so during 1930 to 1950. A prime example was in 1949, when highly innovative American Machine and Foundry Co., of New York City, developed the "pretzel bender": a new automatic crispy-styled baked pretzel-twisting machine that rolled and tied them at the rate of 50 a minute—more than twice as fast as skilled hand twisters could make them—and conveyed them through the baking and salting process. In Europe, snack-food pretzels are usually sprinkled with salt, but also with sesame seed, poppy seed, or cheese. In the U.S., they come in many varieties of flavors and coatings, such as yogurt, chocolate, strawberry, mustard, cinnamon sugar, cheese and others, and chocolate-covered hard pretzels are popular around Christmas time and given as gifts. The variety of shapes and sizes became contest of imagination in the marketing of the pretzels taste. During the 1900s, people in Philadelphia would use the small slender pretzel stick as a common accompaniment to ice cream or would crumble pretzels as a topping. This combination of cold sweet and salty taste was very popular for many years. Eventually, this led to the development of an ice cream cone tasting like a pretzel. More recently Mars, Incorporated manufactures M&M's with a small spherical pretzel covered in milk chocolate and candy coated in all of the standard M&M's colors, called "Pretzel M&M's". Soft pretzels are frequently sold in shopping malls, with notable chains including Auntie Anne's and Pretzelmaker/Pretzel Time. Pennsylvania milestones timeline 1800s Southern German and Swiss German immigrants who became known as the Pennsylvania Dutch introduced soft shaped pretzels with different shapes and pretzel bakery businesses. 1861 Sturgis Pretzel House in Lititz, Pennsylvania, becomes the first commercial hard pretzel bakery in the United States. 1889 The Anderson Pretzel Factory in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, is founded. Today, it calls itself the world's largest, producing 65 tons of hard pretzels daily. 1935 The Reading Pretzel Machinery Company in Reading, Pennsylvania, introduced the first automatic hard pretzel twisting machine. 1963 The largest soft pretzel of its time, weighing 40 pounds and measuring 5 feet across, is baked by Joseph Nacchio of the Federal Pretzel Baking Company for the film It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World. 1978 The first machine-produced stamped cut soft pretzel was innovated at Federal Pretzel Baking Company. 1993 The first Pretzel Museum of soft pretzels is opened in Philadelphia. A 7-minute film, demonstration of championship hand twisting at 57 per minute and tasting were highlights. 2003 Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell declares 26 April as National Pretzel Day to acknowledge the importance of the pretzel to the state's history and economy. Other regions Freeport, Illinois, which sits about 100 miles outside of Chicago, is another city known for its rich pretzel history. In 1869, a German immigrant named John Billerbeck established the first Billerbeck Bakery which was known for selling German style pretzels to complement the large number of breweries that existed in Freeport during this time. Prohibition eventually shut down the breweries which led to the decline of pretzel sales in Freeport, but the city never lost its pretzel pride. For more than 100 years, Freeport has been known as "Pretzel City, USA." Their high school athletic mascot is the Pretzel and the football stadium has been appropriately named "Pretzel Field." In 2003, local citizens launched Freeport's first Pretzel Festival which is a large community event where residents get together to celebrate the city's pretzel history. Contestants are chosen to be crowned Pretzel Prince and Princess and a festival mascot by the name of "Pretzel Bill" (stemming from the Billerbeck Bakery name) dresses as a 6-foot tall walking talking pretzel who hands out pretzels from floats and takes photos with the local festival goers. Other countries Although not as popular as among German speakers and Americans, the looped pretzel is known in other European countries and in other countries around the world, including many European countries. The Dutch favor sweet variants. In Romania, the pretzel is known as a variety of covrigi; it is a very popular fast food in urban areas and also popular as a holiday gift. In popular culture The pretzel has become an element in popular culture, both as a food staple, and its unique knotted twist shape which has inspired ideas, perspectives, attitudes, memes, images, and other phenomena. Although historically, the pretzel has influenced culture, it has recently been heavily influenced by mass media. Landscape architecture and sculpture memorialized the strong identity that the city of Philadelphia had with pretzel cuisine of local bakers and popularity in Philadelphia. The Philadelphia Recreation Department renamed in 2004 a facility formerly identified as Manayunk Park, located on the 4300 block of Silverwood Street as "Pretzel Park." The re-designed park includes pretzel-like looped pathways and a public art statue in the shape of a pretzel sculpted by Warren C. Holzman. Municipal government adopts pretzel logo as trademark by the City of Freeport, Illinois, also known as "Pretzel City USA". Dance steps developed in swing dancing became the "pretzel dance move", which dates back to the 1920s. Fashion-inspired sling bikini is a pretzel bathing suit design emerging in the early 1990s, as a new fashion product of Spandex. It is a bikini variant, haltered maillot that crisscrosses the front and fastens to the waistline. With the advent of the 1990s fabric known as Lycra, these bikinis first emerged and became most popular on the beaches of Europe, including Saint-Tropez, Marbella, Mykonos, and Ibiza. A circulating internet video shows a press conference of US president George W. Bush from January 2002, in which he recalls choking on a pretzel: "When you're eating pretzels, chew before you swallow. Listen to your mother." Google celebrated the Pretzel with a Google Doodle on 21 September 2019. See also Allerheiligenstriezel Bagel Bublik Covrigi Cracker Kalach (food) Maillard reaction Simit Taralli Twist bread List of pretzel companies References Further reading "Machine Speeds Pretzel Bending", August 1949, Popular Science photo article on automation of making pretzels Alsatian cuisine Austrian cuisine Baden cuisine Bavarian cuisine Breads Cuisine of Philadelphia French cuisine German-American culture in Philadelphia German breads German cuisine German pastries Italian cuisine Snack foods Convenience foods Street food Types of food Swabian cuisine Swiss cuisine World cuisine Hungarian cuisine	[ -0.16834847629070282, -0.3294903635978699, 0.025587892159819603, -0.0729738399386406, 0.008822344243526459, 1.077860713005066, 0.23617559671401978, 0.6339343786239624, -0.17220419645309448, -0.7537094354629517, -0.8367973566055298, 0.05542193353176117, 0.1832890808582306, 0.3678162097930908, -0.6370850801467896, -0.05146205797791481, 0.5763292908668518, 0.08070635795593262, 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213594	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transverse	Transverse	Transverse may refer to: Transverse engine, an engine in which the crankshaft is oriented side-to-side relative to the wheels of the vehicle Transverse flute, a flute that is held horizontally Transverse force (or Euler force), the tangential force that is felt in reaction to any angular acceleration Transverse mass, a particle physics quantity Transverse plane, the plane orthogonal to the anteroposterior or oral-aboral axis Transverse rotors, a type of rotorcraft in which there are two rotors mounted side by side Transverse wave, a wave that causes a disturbance in the medium perpendicular to the direction it advances Transverse Island, an island on the east side of Stefansson Bay, off the coast of Enderby Land See also Transversal (disambiguation) Transversality (disambiguation)	[ -0.1288817822933197, 0.10291283577680588, 0.7157691121101379, 0.5333409309387207, -0.5154238939285278, 0.6587648391723633, -0.17321617901325226, 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213595	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldose	Aldose	An aldose is a monosaccharide (a simple sugar) with a carbon backbone chain with a carbonyl group on the endmost carbon atom, making it an aldehyde, and hydroxyl groups connected to all the other carbon atoms. Aldoses can be distinguished from ketoses, which have the carbonyl group away from the end of the molecule, and are therefore ketones. Structure Like most carbohydrates, simple aldoses have the general chemical formula Cn(H2O)n. Because formaldehyde (n=1) and glycolaldehyde (n=2) are not generally considered to be carbohydrates, the simplest possible aldose is the triose glyceraldehyde, which only contains three carbon atoms. Because they have at least one asymmetric carbon center, all aldoses exhibit stereoisomerism. Aldoses can exist in either a - form or - form. The determination is made based on the chirality of the asymmetric carbon furthest from the aldehyde end, namely the second-last carbon in the chain. Aldoses with alcohol groups on the right of the Fischer projection are -aldoses, and those with alcohols on the left are -aldoses. -aldoses are more common than -aldoses in nature. Examples of aldoses include glyceraldehyde, erythrose, ribose, glucose and galactose. Ketoses and aldoses can be chemically differentiated through Seliwanoff's test, where the sample is heated with acid and resorcinol. The test relies on the dehydration reaction which occurs more quickly in ketoses, so that while aldoses react slowly, producing a light pink color, ketoses react more quickly and strongly to produce a dark red color. Aldoses can isomerize to ketoses through the Lobry-de Bruyn-van Ekenstein transformation. Nomenclature and common aldoses Aldoses are differentiated by the number of carbons in the main chain. The minimum number of carbons in a backbone needed to form a molecule that is still considered a carbohydrate is 3, and carbohydrates with three carbons are called trioses. The only aldotriose is glyceraldehyde, which has one chiral stereocenter with 2 possible enantiomers, - and -glyceraldehyde. Some common aldoses are: Triose: glyceraldehyde Tetroses: erythrose, threose Pentoses: ribose, arabinose, xylose, lyxose Hexoses: Glucose The most commonly discussed category of aldoses are those with 6 carbons, aldohexoses. Some aldohexoses that are widely called by common names are: -(+)-Allose -(+)-Altrose -(+)-Glucose -(+)-Mannose -(−)-Gulose -(+)-Idose -(+)-Galactose -(+)-Talose Stereochemistry Aldoses are commonly referred to by names specific to one stereoisomer of the compound. This distinction is especially vital in Biochemistry, as many systems can only use one enantiomer of the carbohydrate and not the other. However, aldoses are not locked into any one conformation: they can and do fluctuate between different forms. Aldoses can tautomerize to ketoses in a dynamic process with an enol intermediate (more specifically, an enediol). This process is reversible, so aldoses and ketoses can be thought of as being in equilibrium with each other. However, aldehydes and ketones are almost always more stable than the corresponding enol forms, so the aldo- and keto- forms normally predominate. This process, with its enol intermediate, also allows stereoisomerization. Basic solutions accelerate the interconversion of isomers. Carbohydrates with more than 4 carbons exist in an equilibrium between the closed ring, or cyclic form, and the open-chain form. Cyclic aldoses are usually drawn as Haworth projections, and open chain forms are commonly drawn as Fischer projections, both of which represent important stereochemical information about the forms they depict. References Aldols	[ -0.37222784757614136, 0.4273790717124939, -0.19962626695632935, -0.2980356812477112, -0.35421741008758545, -0.5533119440078735, 0.15572489798069, -0.3497561812400818, 0.3017841875553131, -0.2732941806316376, -0.5157997012138367, 0.4567679762840271, -0.7802797555923462, 0.22930635511875153, -0.12199327349662781, 0.6809394955635071, 0.7629474997520447, 0.6635708212852478, -0.5188707113265991, -0.6762917041778564, -0.16370025277137756, 0.16530783474445343, 0.30673301219940186, -0.11021313816308975, 0.9759541749954224, -0.3708736002445221, -0.02991013042628765, 0.003559393808245659, 0.3841705918312073, -0.14609375596046448, 0.06993597000837326, 0.06957386434078217, 0.5330938100814819, -0.022388171404600143, 0.19050079584121704, 0.5816028714179993, -0.4042505919933319, -0.3678513467311859, -0.11827019602060318, -0.4276443123817444, -0.5244339108467102, 0.02894560992717743, 0.12467717379331589, 0.6280444264411926, -0.6029684543609619, 0.5971258878707886, 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213597	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic%20star	Magic star	An n-pointed magic star is a star polygon with Schläfli symbol {n/2} in which numbers are placed at each of the n vertices and n intersections, such that the four numbers on each line sum to the same magic constant. A normal magic star contains the integers from 1 to 2n with no numbers repeated. The magic constant of an n-pointed normal magic star is M = 4n + 2. No star polygons with fewer than 5 points exist, and the construction of a normal 5-pointed magic star turns out to be impossible. It can be proven that there exists no 4-pointed star that will satisfy the conditions here. The smallest examples of normal magic stars are therefore 6-pointed. Some examples are given below. Notice that for specific values of n, the n-pointed magic stars are also known as magic hexagram etc. See also Magic square References External links Marian Trenkler's Magic Stars Gianni Sarcone's Magic Star Magic squares Star symbols	[ -0.3832889795303345, 0.16439120471477509, 0.23781709372997284, 0.043076030910015106, -0.2711367905139923, 0.17730821669101715, 0.2188873589038849, -0.10698536783456802, -0.21144407987594604, -0.1573396474123001, -0.22347626090049744, -0.054723311215639114, -0.35819438099861145, 0.4607790410518646, 0.0891558900475502, 0.6361539959907532, 0.611240565776825, 0.6410906314849854, -0.5877103209495544, -0.5928434729576111, 0.04162625968456268, -0.02375996857881546, 0.3879906237125397, -0.5267725586891174, 0.22830352187156677, 0.022815801203250885, -0.11520688980817795, -0.08760153502225876, 0.16838404536247253, 0.6087955832481384, -0.2121892124414444, 0.4802168607711792, -0.16391529142856598, -0.13712956011295319, 0.39512601494789124, -0.021739982068538666, 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213600	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ffestiniog%20Railway	Ffestiniog Railway	The Ffestiniog Railway () is a narrow-gauge heritage railway, located in Gwynedd, Wales. It is a major tourist attraction located mainly within the Snowdonia National Park. The railway is roughly long and runs from the harbour at Porthmadog to the slate mining town of Blaenau Ffestiniog, travelling through forested and mountainous scenery. The line is single track throughout with four intermediate passing places. The first mile of the line out of Porthmadog runs atop an embankment called the Cob, which is the dyke of the Traeth Mawr polder. The Festiniog Railway Company, which owns the railway, is the oldest surviving railway company in the world. It also owns the Welsh Highland Railway, which was re-opened fully in 2011. The two railways share the same track gauge and meet at Porthmadog station, with occasional trains working the entire route from Blaenau Ffestiniog to Caernarfon. History The railway company is properly known as the "Festiniog Railway Company". The single F spelling is in the official title of the company in the local act (2 & 3 Will. 4 c.xlviii) that created the railway. It is the oldest surviving railway company in the world (although not the oldest working railway – a record that goes to the Middleton Railway, in West Yorkshire), having been founded by the Act of Parliament on 23 May 1832 with capital mostly raised in Dublin by Henry Archer, the company's first secretary and managing director. Most British railways were amalgamated into four large groups in 1921 and then into British Railways in 1948 but the Festiniog Railway Company, like most narrow-gauge railways, remained independent. In 1921, this was due to political influence, whereas in 1947 it was left out of British Railways because it was closed for traffic, despite vigorous local lobbying for it to be included. Various important developments in the railway's early history were celebrated by the firing of rock cannon at various points along the line. Cannon were fired, for instance, to mark the laying of the first stone at Creuau in 1833, the railway's opening in 1836, and the opening of the Moelwyn Tunnel in 1842. The passing of a later Act for the railway also saw cannon celebrations, but on this occasion a fitter at Boston Lodge, who was assisting with firing, lost the fingers of one hand in an accident. Horse and gravity operation The line was constructed between 1833 and 1836 to transport slate from the quarries around the inland town of Blaenau Ffestiniog to the coastal town of Porthmadog where it was loaded onto ships. The railway was graded so that loaded wagons could be run by gravity downhill all the way from Blaenau Ffestiniog to the port. The empty wagons were hauled back up by horses, which travelled down in special 'dandy' wagons. To achieve this continuous grade (about 1 in 80 for much of the way), the line followed natural contours and employed cuttings and embankments built of stone and slate blocks without mortar. Prior to the completion in 1842 of a long tunnel through a spur in the Moelwyn Mountain, the slate trains were worked over the top via inclines (designed by Robert Stephenson), the site of which can still be seen although there are few visible remnants. Up to six trains daily were operated in each direction and a printed timetable was published on 16 September 1856 by Charles Easton Spooner who, following his father, served as Manager and Clerk for 30 years. It shows departures from the Quarry Terminus (later referred to as Dinas, sometimes as Rhiwbryfdir or Rhiw) at 7:30, 9:28, 11:16, 1:14, 3:12 and 5:10. Trains waited ten minutes at the intermediate stations called Tunnel Halt, Hafod y Llyn and Rhiw Goch. The fastest journey time from Quarry Terminus to Boston Lodge was 1 hour 32 minutes, including three stops. From Boston Lodge, the slate wagons were hauled to and from Porthmadog harbour by horses. Up trains took nearly six hours from Boston Lodge to the Quarry Terminus and each train ran in up to four sections, each hauled by a horse and comprising eight empty slate wagons plus a horse dandy. This timetable gave a maximum annual capacity of 70,000 tons of dressed slate. Two brakesmen travelled on each down train, controlling the speed by the application of brakes as needed. At passing loops, trains passed on the right and this continues to be a feature of Ffestiniog Railway operation. There is evidence for tourist passengers being carried as early as 1850 without the blessing of the Board of Trade, but these journeys would also observe the timetable. Hafod y Llyn was replaced by Tan y Bwlch around 1872. Dinas (Rhiw) Station and much of that branch is now all but buried under slate waste; the rest of the Dinas branch line was removed about 1954–55. Occasional confusion arises because places named Hafod y Llyn Isaf and Dinas also exist on the Welsh Highland Railway, albeit or more to the northwest of those on the FR. Police force The railway employed just one police officer. Board of Trade returns for 1884 show a police inspector was based at the company's head office. In more recent times the British Transport Police made friendly overtures and were politely informed that the FR had powers to swear its own constables. Steam and gravity operation During the late 1850s it became clear that the line was reaching its operational capacity, while the output of the Blaenau Ffestiniog slate quarries continued to rise. In 1860, the board of the company began to investigate the possibility of introducing steam locomotives to increase the carrying capacity of the railway. Although narrow-gauge steam locomotives had been tried before this, very few had been built to so narrow a gauge. In 1862 the company advertised for manufacturers to tender to build the line's first locomotives. In February 1863, the bid of George England and Co. was accepted and production of the first locomotives was begun. The first of these locomotives, Mountaineer''' was delivered to Porthmadog on 18 July 1863, followed a few days later by The Princess. After a number of trials and some modifications (notably the addition of domes) to the locomotive, the first official train ran on 23 October 1863. These steam locomotives of the 0-4-0 type allowed much longer slate trains to be run and this also enabled the official introduction of passenger trains in 1865: the Ffestiniog was the first narrow-gauge railway in Britain to carry passengers. In 1869, the line's first double Fairlie articulated locomotive was introduced and these double-ended machines have since become one of the most widely recognised features of the railway. Down trains continued to run entirely by gravity but faster up journeys and longer trains increased line capacity. A new timetable dated October 1863 shows six departures daily from each terminus at two-hour intervals, starting at 7:00 am and taking 1 hour 50 minutes including stops (totalling 20 minutes) at Tanygrisiau, Hafod-y-Llyn and Penrhyn. Trains passed only at Hafod-y-Llyn (from 1872 Tan-y-Bwlch). When passenger services started, the usual practice was for locomotive-hauled up trains to consist of loaded general goods and mineral wagons, followed by passenger carriages, followed by empty slate wagons with brakesmen. Down trains were run in up to four separate (uncoupled) portions: loaded slate wagons, goods wagons, passenger carriages and the locomotive running light. This unusual and labour-intensive method of operation was highly dangerous, at least as far as passengers were concerned; consequently, the down passenger and goods portions were combined into a single train headed by the locomotive. The loaded slate trains continued to operate by gravity until the end of passenger services in 1939. Slate trains eventually became very long – trains of less than eighty slate wagons carried two brakesmen but over eighty wagons (and this became common) required three brakesmen. About one wagon in every six was equipped with a brake, the others being unbraked. Trains continued to pass at Tan-y-Bwlch and, to a lesser extent, at Minffordd. The Summer timetable for 1900 had nine trains daily in each direction and trains had been accelerated to one hour from Porthmadog to including stops at Minffordd, Penrhyn, Tan-y-Bwlch, Dduallt (request), Tanygrisiau, Blaenau (LNWR) and Blaenau (GWR). Speeds in excess of were then normal. The original passenger coaches (some of which survive) were small four-wheeled vehicles with a very low centre of gravity, which led to them being nicknamed 'bug boxes'. In 1872, the FR introduced the first bogie carriages to operate in Britain, Nos 15 and 16, which were also the first iron-framed bogie coaches in the world and are still in service. The continuous vacuum brake was installed in 1893. The line was fully signalled with electric telegraph and staff and ticket working. Electric Train Staff instruments were introduced in 1912 and they continue in use to the present day. Decline of slate and development of tourism By the 1920s, the demand for slate as a roofing material dropped owing to the advent of newer materials and to the loss of the overseas trade during World War I. As a result, the railway suffered a gradual decline in traffic. In 1921, the Aluminium Corporation at Dolgarrog in the Conwy Valley bought for £40,000 (£ in ), a controlling interest in the FR and Henry Jack became Chairman, the FR company's financial administration moving to Dolgarrog. Jack was also chairman of the new Welsh Highland Railway. He was instrumental in getting government backing for its completion on the understanding that the FR and the WHR would be jointly managed from Porthmadog, with maintenance undertaken at Boston Lodge and with other economies of scale. In 1923, the FR line was joined to the WHR line at a station called "Portmadoc New". The Welsh Highland line was almost totally dependent on tourism, but this proved slow to develop for several reasons: two slumps in the early 1920s and early 1930s; the rise of road traffic including charabancs; and the unreliability of the railway with its (even then) ancient carriages and increasingly decrepit locomotives. Light railway operation was being introduced on the FR and WHR to cut operating overheads. In 1923, to gain additional expertise in this, Colonel H. F. Stephens was appointed as part-time engineer to both companies. Stephens became Chairman and Managing Director of both companies in 1924. When the WHR was taken into receivership in 1927, Colonel Stephens was appointed as Receiver for the WHR and financial administration of both companies moved to Tonbridge in Kent. The fortunes of the WHR, despite great efforts, failed to improve and it became bankrupt in 1933. To protect their investments, the joint owners of both companies arranged for the WHR to be leased by the FR. However the WHR losses continued with the loss of the Moel Tryfan slate traffic in 1935, and it closed to passengers at the end of the 1936 season and to goods in 1937. The FR continued to operate its slate traffic, a workmen's train on weekdays throughout the year and a summer tourist passenger service. Ordinary passenger services ceased on the FR on 15 September 1939, shortly after the outbreak of World War II. The workmen's passenger service ran for the last time on Saturday, 16 September 1939. Slate trains were from then onwards operated three days each week but gravity operation was discontinued. Slate traffic ceased on 1 August 1946, apart from the section from Duffws to the North Western yard through Blaenau Ffestiniog town centre, which was leased on 7 October 1946 to the quarry owners. This provided the railway company, which retained the services of a resident manager at Porthmadog, with a small income throughout the moribund years. The original Act of Parliament which permitted the building of the line made no specific provision for its closure or abandonment. Although the main line had ceased functioning, the company could not dismantle the railway, so the track and infrastructure were left in place. An amending Act of Parliament could have been sought to repeal the old one, but the Company did not have the money. However, without maintenance, the line soon became overgrown and unusable. Restoration From 1949, various groups of rail enthusiasts attempted to revitalise the railway. In 1951, railway enthusiast Alan Pegler was approached by friends to buy and clear the outstanding debt on the derelict Ffestiniog Railway, to enable its purchase. Lent £3,000 by his father, he and the volunteers obtained control of the company on 24 June 1954. Pegler was appointed the new company's first Chairman, with the objective to operate the railway as a tourist attraction and gradually restore the line to working order. The first meeting of the revivalists was held at a Bristol college on 8 September. Amongst the twelve in attendance were Allan Garraway, Harold Holcroft and Vic Mitchell. Mitchell would later be appointed a director of the company. Pegler later released complete control of the company without any personal financial gain to Ffestiniog Railway Trust, which still owns and runs the railway today. The restoration of the complete railway was not helped by the decision by the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB) in 1954 to build the Ffestiniog Pumped Storage Scheme, including the creation of Tanygrisiau reservoir (Llyn Ystradau), which flooded part of the northern end of the line. The Festiniog Railway Company was able to obtain compensation in 1972, after the second-longest legal battle in British legal history, having taken eighteen years and two months. Two years later, as a result of the case, the British Parliament passed the Land Compensation Act 1973. On 18 August 1954, prior to commencing the restoration, in an inspection, the first of many, Colonel McMullen of the Ministry of Transport, Railways Inspectorate, accompanied by Pegler, several directors and other supporters, walked the line from Blaenau Ffestiniog to Porthmadog. The work of restoration began on 20 September 1954 when Morris Jones, the foreman fitter who had last worked for the railway in March 1947, rejoined the staff to complete the rebuilding of the locomotive 'Prince' on which he had been engaged when the works closed. He was joined at Boston Lodge works by two volunteers, Bill Harvey and Allan Garraway. The completion of sixty years service with the FR by Robert Evans (for almost 25 years as Manager) was marked on 6 November 1954 and a special train was run (with difficulty) from Minffordd to Porthmadog to celebrate the occasion and convey Mr Evans, his wife, Alan Pegler (Company Chairman) and guests en route to a clock presentation ceremony. Mr Evans continued in service as Manager until his retirement on 1 June 1955 when Allan Garraway was appointed as Manager. The first public passenger train from Porthmadog to Boston Lodge ran on 23 July 1955. Prince returned to service on 3 August 1955 and, following extensive boiler repairs, Taliesin, then the latest of the FR Fairlie articulated engines, returned to service on 4 September 1956. The passenger service was extended to Minffordd on 19 May 1956, to Penrhyn on 5 June 1957 and to Tan-y-Bwlch on 5 April 1958. Increasing traffic was putting severe demands on the track – over had been reopened in four years. A long period of consolidation, rolling stock restoration and track renewal followed before the extension to Dduallt on 6 April 1968. Extension to Dduallt was celebrated on 28 May 1968 by the re-introduction of the Ffestiniog Railway Letter Service. The Llyn Ystradau Deviation Between 1965 and 1978, the Ffestiniog Railway Deviation, a long diversionary route, was constructed between Dduallt and Tanygrisiau in order to avoid the Ffestiniog hydro-electric power station and its reservoir (Llyn Ystradau). The Deviation (this is the conventional name for such railway works) was built mostly by volunteers. At the southern end is the spectacular Dduallt spiral formation (unique on a public railway in the United Kingdom). Including a bridge, it was constructed entirely by volunteers, and gains an initial height rise of in order (after a further of new volunteer-built railway and a new tunnel) to clear the flooded track bed north of the former Moelwyn tunnel, which is plugged near its usually-submerged northern end. Between Dduallt and the old tunnel, parts of the old railway formation can be clearly seen below the new route. The new tunnel was constructed between 1975 and 1977 by three Cornish tin mining engineers with a small team of employees. It had to be blasted through a granite spur of the Moelwyn mountain. The tunnel plant included stone crushing and grading equipment, which produced track ballast and other aggregates from the spoil for use on the railway. Before it opened to rail traffic, the new tunnel had to be lined throughout its length with liquid cement reinforced with steel mesh in a process called 'shotcreting'. From 26 May 1975, and over two summers, a pull and push service, officially called The Shuttle, powered by diesel locomotive Moel Hebog with carriage 110, was operated from Dduallt to Gelliwiog, to enable tourists to experience the Deviation route before the new Moelwyn Tunnel was opened. North of the new tunnel is a long stretch of track along the west bank of the new reservoir. On 25 June 1977, full-length passenger trains first ran from Dduallt through the new tunnel to a now-dismantled temporary terminus known as 'Llyn Ystradau'. That station was alongside the Tanygrisiau reservoir but, because it was on Central Electricity Generating Board land without public access, passengers could not leave the station other than by train. The remaining section included some specialised engineering work at its summit () where the new line passes over the power station pipelines. This was followed by two public road crossings with automatic signalling, on the FR's only reverse or down gradient, to rejoin the old route in Tanygrisiau station (), which was reopened on 24 June 1978. The largely volunteer group building the Deviation was officially called the Civil Engineering Group, but its members were popularly known (and are still remembered) as the Deviationists, who completed an enormous task over 13 years. Project Blaenau The completion of the railway through to Tanygrisiau (height ) left the FR with just to go to its goal of Blaenau Ffestiniog (height ) but the complexities of reconstructing that unique but rather derelict urban section of narrow-gauge railway took a further four years. As well as of new track and its formation, which was the responsibility of the FR permanent way department and its volunteers, much other work needed to be done. Most of the work, like the deviation itself, was undertaken by volunteers who, in many cases, assumed full responsibility for the design as well as the execution of discrete projects, each under a volunteer project leader. There were four decrepit footbridges each needing to be demolished and rebuilt to the new FR loading gauge. The decrepit steel bridge across the Afon Barlwyd required total replacement, with timber (Karri) beams using the original abutments and piers. The new deck is formed of old rails. Walls and fences throughout had to be repaired or replaced. These and the many other varied tasks formed Project Blaenau. One major task near Tanygrisiau was the responsibility of Gwynedd County Council, which had at some time after 1955 taken advantage of the absence of trains to demolish what was probably Britain's lowest road under railway bridge. In early 1980, therefore, they replaced Dolrhedyn bridge and even managed to give it a few inches extra headroom for road vehicles. Civil engineering contractors were employed in conjunction with British Rail and Gwynedd County Council for the new route with its bridges and roadworks and the new joint station on the former Great Western Railway station site. British Rail commenced using the new station on 22 March 1982. Ffestiniog trains returned to Blaenau on Tuesday, 25 May 1982, thus marking the 150th Anniversary of Royal Assent to the Festiniog Railway Act of 1832. The new joint station with British Rail at Blaenau Ffestiniog was officially opened on 30 April 1983 by George Thomas, Speaker of the House of Commons, who unveiled a plaque that records his visit. With the major project of track restoration to Blaenau finally complete, attention could be turned to other matters. More Fairlie locomotives were built or restored and new carriages were built. At Minffordd, a new hostel was built for volunteers who support the permanent staff by working in every department of the railway. Stations were given new buildings, canopies and platforms, often replacing the previous temporary structures and improving the image of the railway for the future. After fully reopening in 1982 and carrying 200,000 passengers annually, the railway became the second largest Welsh tourist attraction after Caernarfon Castle. Many saw this as the result of Pegler's drive and ability to inspire others with his unquenchable enthusiasm to fulfil his dream. Pegler, who remained fully involved with the railway until his death in 2012 as President, was appointed OBE in the 2006 New Year Honours in recognition of his contribution. Welsh Highland Railway In 1988, the Festiniog Railway Company was involved in a controversial plan to stop the neighbouring Welsh Highland Railway (WHR) being rebuilt, as it was concerned at the effect a nearby heritage railway competitor could have on the FR business. The initial plan would have involved the FR Company buying the original track bed of the WHR from the old company's receiver and giving it to Gwynedd County Council, provided no railway-related developments were allowed on the land. This was greeted with dismay by the WHR (1964) Company, which had been attempting to preserve the line since the 1960s. This action may have delayed the start of rebuilding of the Welsh Highland Railway, although the alternative plan was dependent on the continued co-operation of Gwynedd County Council to ensure that the track bed was used solely for railway purposes. This was not guaranteed, as pressure from various groups who objected to the rebuilding of the railway was significant and it was the stated intention of the council to apply for an abandonment order on gaining the track bed. This would have left the track bed open for seizure by adverse possession ('squatters' rights') by farmers, use in other ways such as footpaths, road improvement schemes etc., as the statutory designation of the track bed as a railway would have been discontinued. Over the years, the presence of plans for footpaths and roads had indeed made it difficult for anyone wishing to rebuild the line. This led a group to form 'Trackbed Consolidation Limited' (TCL) and, after some detective work, TCL managed to trace and purchase shares and debentures in the original WHR company. They felt that an alternative plan was available, one where the original company could be brought out of receivership. It was originally the intent of TCL to provide the track bed to the WHR (1964) Company to rebuild the line, but they refused the offer. TCL were introduced to the FR and decided that the aims and objectives of TCL and the FR were similar thus, since 1988, the FR company has been totally committed to the reopening of the Welsh Highland Railway. All TCL-owned shares/debentures were transferred to the FR on the condition that they would be returned if the railway was not built. The next few years were marked by protracted legal procedures before the assets of the old company could be transferred and before final consent to rebuild the railway was given. The first section from Caernarfon to Dinas, the Caernarfon Light Railway, was opened and operated by the FR from 11 October 1997. This section was not hampered by these extended legal procedures and was built as a Light Railway Order, as it was not part of the original Welsh Highland Railway route; the site of Dinas station had been sold off and thus was not part of the assets of the old WHR company. Other powers under a Transport & Works Order enabled restoration to Waunfawr in 2000 and to Rhyd Ddu in 2003. Hafod y Llyn was reached in 2009 and Pont Croesor in 2010. By 2010, the tracks of the WHR and Ffestiniog Railway had been reconnected at Harbour Station, linking Caernarfon to Porthmadog and passenger services started in 2011. The completed Welsh Highland Railway or Rheilffordd Eryri (its Welsh name) comprises parts of the former London and North Western Railway (1867), North Wales Narrow Gauge Railways (1877–81), Portmadoc, Beddgelert and South Snowdon Railway and Welsh Highland (1922-3) Railway. The FR also links with the WHR (Porthmadog) at Pen-y-Mount Station, north of Porthmadog. Rails Rails increased in weight and strength as traffic changed. 16 lb/yd Original rails for Horse drawn operation 30 lb/yd Rails for early steam locomotive operation found to be too light. 48.66 lb/yd Rails for later steam operation Tourism and heritage One of the earliest references to tourism is in the LNWR Tourist Guide for 1876, which waxed lyrical about the Ffestiniog Railway, which it illustrated with a drawing of a lady in Welsh National Dress (then still in regular local use) travelling on an FR up train (since many empty slate wagons – with two standing brakesmen – were attached at the rear) with the caption "On the Ffestiniog Railway". The guide uses the "double F" spelling throughout. It was, however, in the inter-war years from 1919 to 1939 that tourism, though always valued, came to acquire a major importance. Since restoration commenced in 1954, tourism has been the only significant source of income. The role of the Ffestiniog Railway in the promotion and fulfilment of tourism and in preserving railway heritage has been recognised many times, and notable mentions have included: 1964 Wales Tourist Board certificate for conspicuous service to Welsh tourism. 1972 Wales Tourist Board lists the FR as fifth most popular tourist site in Wales, after Caernarfon Castle, the Swallow Falls, the National Museum of Wales at Cardiff and Conwy Castle. 1979 The FR was one of only six sites in Wales to receive the British Tourist Authority's Golden Jubilee Award. 1987 The FR was the outright winner of the Independent Railway of the Year award. 2004 The "Talking Train" (an internal audio guide) was awarded the Heritage Railway Association 'interpretation' Award. Recognition of the railway's importance to tourism and heritage has been increasingly marked by financial assistance given to the company towards capital expenditure. Prior to September 1987, the FR had received £1,273,127 in gifts and grants. Of this: £450,476 was Gifts from the FR Society and FR Trust and other supporters; £379,335 from Wales Tourist Board; £134,320 from EEC Grants and £308,996 from other public sources. Major grants received subsequently have been: In 1989 a grant of £430,000 (£ in ), mainly from The EEC (National Programme of Community Interest for the promoting of tourism in Dyfed, Gwynedd and Powys); in 1995 a grant of £500,000 (£ in ), to promote work in Blaenau Ffestiniog and in 1998 a Heritage Lottery Fund grant of £375,000 (£ in ), for the construction of workshops to facilitate the restoration of historic vehicles. Today the railway is promoted as one of The Great Little Trains of Wales, a joint marketing scheme launched in 1970 that encompasses ten narrow-gauge railways in the country, mostly found in north and mid Wales. Rolling stock Stations and halts At Porthmadog, the original line came via the streets and across the Britannia bridge from the 1836 terminus at the northernmost end of the Welsh Slate Company's Wharf where the FR officially started. This was the second datum point for all pre-1954 mileage calculations. (the first being in Blaenau Ffestiniog). The line over the bridge also connected with the Gorseddau and Croesor Tramways and was later used by Welsh Highland Railway passenger trains from 1923 to 1936. The line over the bridge was last used in 1958 and then dismantled. It was reopened as part of the WHR in 2011. The Cob Between Porthmadog Harbour station and Boston Lodge, the railway runs on the Cob, the dyke of the Traeth Mawr polder. The Cob was built between 1807 and 1811 by William Madocks and, in addition to its land reclamation function in conjunction with sluice gates at the Britannia bridge, it serves also as a roadway (which, since 1836, has been at a lower level on the landward side) and as a bridge across the Afon Glaslyn. Tolls were charged with a tollgate at Boston Lodge until 2003, when the rights were purchased by the National Assembly for Wales. The higher, original, section of the Cob carries, in addition to the railway, a public footpath throughout virtually its entire length. There is no fencing between the footpath and the railway, because the railway does not own the top of the Cob, but used a wayleave under the local Act of Parliament passed in 1821 (1 & 2 Geo. IV c.cxv.) for improving Porthmadog Harbour. This act was repealed by the Porthmadog Harbour Revision Order 1998 (SI 1998/683) and is no longer in force. Quarries served by the railway The Ffestiniog Railway was built primarily to connect the slate quarries in the mountains around what is now Blaenau Ffestiniog with the harbour at Porthmadog. In all at least 23 quarries were directly or indirectly connected to the railway, often by inclines. They sent their finished products over the railway in slate waggons to be transferred onto ships or, later, onto the standard-gauge railway at Minfordd. Train operation since 1955 Infrastructure As the line was extended, passing loops were brought into operation at Minffordd, Penrhyn and Tan-y-Bwlch. Due to the restrictions to the length of trains that could be passed at Penrhyn, Rhiw Goch was opened on 14 May 1975. Penrhyn loop remained in service for several more years before it was closed. By the end of the 1970s, the passing loops were at Minffordd, Rhiw Goch, Tan-y-Bwlch and Dduallt, and an intensive service was run in the peak summer seasons (although there were empty "slots" in the timetable which could be used by works trains). From the early 1980s, the peak summer timetable had three train sets in operation, generally passing at Rhiw Goch and Dduallt. Automatic signalling was installed at Tan-y-Bwlch in 1986. By the 1988 season, in part due to the challenges in maintenance of the top end points at Dduallt and the planned automation of Minffordd, the loops at Dduallt and Rhiw Goch had been taken out of service for crossing trains. At the end of May 1988, Dduallt ceased to be a token station and Dduallt loop was taken out of service altogether and became a siding. Rhiw Goch ceased to be used except on odd occasions and was taken out of use as a means to cross passenger trains in 1989. The short section token instruments and the signal heads were removed, although the loop could still be used as a refuge for Engineers' trains. Minffordd and Tan-y-Bwlch therefore became the usual passing loops, both automated. In the late 1990s, Rhiw Goch was recommissioned as a passing loop. From the 2005 season, the box has been regularly manned during the summer to provide additional operational flexibility. In 2006, an appeal was launched, through the FR Society, for funds to replace the life-expired signal box with a building of more traditional appearance. Fundraising went well and work was completed during the closed season of 2006/7. Elsewhere, Tanygrisiau had been provided with a run-round loop whilst it had been the terminus between June 1978 and May 1982. This loop was removed when the line was reopened to Blaenau Ffestiniog. In the mid-1990s, a project was launched to install a fully signalled passing loop. This proceeded as a volunteer project, including the building of a signal box. However, prior to commissioning, the project was abandoned in 2001. The trackwork (apart for the siding off the Up Loop) remained in situ. In June 2002, the loop was once again used to run trains around as part of the 2002 Gala to celebrate the twentieth anniversary of the restoration of services to Blaenau Ffestiniog. The intended platform starter signals (posts, brackets and arms) have been recovered and some are now in use on the Isle of Man Railway, whilst others are destined for the resignalling of Harbour Station. In 2004, with new disc starter signals and spring-loaded points installed, Tanygrisiau became a passing loop for the first time. Train control and regulation The Ffestiniog Railway operates on the electric token system (ETS) using a mixture of miniature and large train staffs, under the overall control of the duty controller based at Porthmadog. Miniature train staffs are provided for:- Porthmadog to Minffordd (Intermediate Instrument at Boston Lodge) Minffordd to Tanybwlch – Long Section (Intermediate Instrument at Rhiw Goch) Tanybwlch to Tanygrisiau (Intermediate Instrument at Dduallt) Tanygrisiau to Blaenau Ffestiniog (Intermediate Instrument at Glan-y-Pwll) Large train staffs are provided for:- Minffordd to Rhiw Goch – Short Section Rhiw Goch to Tanybwlch – Short Section The Short Section train staffs are brought into service by opening Rhiw Goch Signalbox, hence trapping the Minffordd to Tanybwlch Long Section Miniature train staff in the lever frame, when the signal box is opened and manned by a signalman. The signalling and ETS equipment is primarily designed for train crew operation. To obtain permission to withdraw a train staff to enter a single line section, Control has to be contacted. The Control Office regulates train running, giving permission for trains to enter the single line sections, recording train movements on the Train Graph, ensuring trains are formed of an appropriate number of carriages (depending on the expected train loadings), acting as the single point of contact in the rare event of a failure occurring with rolling stock, and making station announcements at Porthmadog The Control Office is also responsible for the Train Operation on the Welsh Highland Railway and it also regulates trains from the Welsh Highland Railway Limited, including the interface with the Network Rail ERTMS signaller (in Shrewsbury) to clear the WHR route where it crosses the main Cambrian Coast (standard gauge) line at grade between Pont Croesor and Porthmadog. This is possibly the only narrow-gauge/standard-gauge level crossing in the UK, and an interface between 19th century signalling and 21st century signalling systems. See also British narrow-gauge railways Conwy Valley line Gloddfa Ganol Llechwedd Slate Caverns Notes References Bibliography Ove Arup & Partners; Report on a Rock Fall at Penlan, Ffestiniog Railway, 1979 E. Beazley; Madocks and the Wonder of Wales, 1967 R. F. Bleasdale; Spooner Album, 1887, also repub. with commentary by A. Gray, 2003 D. Blenkinsop; Linda & Blanche 1993 J. I. C. Boyd; Narrow Gauge Rails to Portmadoc, 1949 J. I. C. Boyd; On the Welsh Narrow Gauge, no date (1970s) J. Buck; Discovering Narrow Gauge Railways, 1972 D. J. Charlton; FR Spotter's Guide; 2001 C. F. Cliffe; Book of North Wales, 1850 W. J. K. Davies; Narrow Gauge Railways, 1962 R. Edwards & P. Moss (eds); Festiniog Railway Historic Drawings, 1997 R. F. Fairlie; Battle of the Gauges renewed, 1872 R. F. Fairlie; Locomotive Engines, what they are and what they should be, 1881, reprint 1969 Festiniog Railway Co.; Share prospectus, Traveller's Guides, Stock Books, Guide Books (about 40 in all), 1957–2005 Festiniog Railway Society; Newsletters 1954-7; Festiniog Railway Society; FR Magazine, quarterly since 1958 – Ffestiniog since 1994 A. Gray; The Spooner Album, 2003. See also Bleasdale. N. F. Gurley; Narrow Gauge Steam out of Portmadoc, 1980 L. Heath-Humphrys; letter to Railway Gazette, 27 July 1951 G. T. Heavyside; Narrow Gauge into the 80s, 1980 B. Hollingsworth; Ffestiniog Adventure, 1981 F. H. Howson; Narrow Gauge Railways of Britain, 1948 P. N. Jarvis; Adeiladu Muriau Cerrig Sych – dry stone walling on the Ffestiniog Railway, 1993, revised edn 1995 P. Johnson & C.M. Whitehouse; Ffestiniog mewn lliw, 1995 J. R. Jones & A. Pritchard; Great Little Steam Railways of Wales, 1991 F. Jux; British Narrow gauge Steam, 1960 R. W. Kidner; Narrow Gauge Railways of Wales, 1947 M. Kington; Steaming through Britain, 1990 C. E. Lee; Narrow Gauge Railways in North Wales, 1945 M. J. T. Lewis; How Ffestiniog got its Railway, 1965, revised edn 1968 J. C. V. Mitchell & A.G.W. Garraway; Festiniog in the Fifties, 1997 J. C. V. Mitchell & A.G.W. Garraway; Festiniog in the Sixties, 1997 J. C. V. Mitchell & A.G.W. Garraway; Return to Blaenau 1970–82, 2001 J. C. V. Mitchell, Smith, Seymour, Gray; Branch lines around Porthmadog, 2 vols, 1993 F. H. Pole (ed); Welsh Mountain Railways, 1924, reprint 1985 J. D. C. A. Prideaux; Welsh Narrow Gauge Railway, 1976 P. J. G. Ransom; Narrow Gauge Steam, 1996 P. J. G. Ransom; Locomotion, 2001 A. Roberts; Gossiping Guide to North Wales, 1879 (the 5/- version is much superior to the 6d edition) L. J. Roberts; Festiniog & Welsh Highland Holiday book, 1923 H. R. Schwabe; Mit Volldampf nach Ffestiniog, 1978 C. E. Spooner; Narrow Gauge Railways, 1871, revised edn 1879 H. Stretton; Past & Present Companion; Ffestiniog Railway, 1998 M. J. Stretton; Festiniog Railway in Camera, 1971-1971, revised edn 1999 'Taliesin' (C. R. Weaver et al.); Festiniog Railway locomotives, 1988 J. Timpson; Little Trains of Britain, 1992 E. Vignes; Étude technique sur le chemin de fer Festiniog, 1878, English translation by Don Boreham 1986 F. T. Wayne; "When Accounts become misleading Nonsense", Accountancy, November 1961 C. Winchester & C.J. Allen,(eds.); Railway Wonders of the World, Vol 2, pp. 1224–28. c. 1938. J. Winton; Little Wonder'', 1975, revised edn 1986 External links The Ffestiniog Railway's website The Ffestiniog Railway Society Ffestiniog Railway Timetables The Festiniog Railway Heritage Group The Festiniog Railway Heritage Group's Wiki Ffestiniog Llanfrothen Maentwrog Penrhyndeudraeth Porthmadog Heritage railways in Snowdonia Narrow gauge railways in Snowdonia HF Stephens Railway inclines in Wales	[ 0.0006213899469003081, 0.2787002921104431, -0.08636191487312317, -0.8395896553993225, 0.47793659567832947, 0.17794324457645416, 0.5451254844665527, 0.5988878607749939, -0.24829860031604767, -0.18552164733409882, -0.07575426250696182, 0.11420455574989319, -0.21884527802467346, 0.9594375491142273, -0.39197683334350586, 0.3883332312107086, -0.42276525497436523, 0.2684290111064911, 0.2843897342681885, -0.3439766466617584, 0.09169942885637283, -0.5560258626937866, 0.1043279841542244, 0.17066019773483276, -0.3331174850463867, -0.6850878596305847, 0.352570503950119, 0.08247295022010803, 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213602	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stand%20by%20Me	Stand by Me	Stand by Me may refer to: Film and television Stand by Me (film), a 1986 American drama film directed by Rob Reiner, based on the novella The Body by Stephen King Stand by Me Doraemon, a 2014 Japanese 3D CGI-animated film based on the manga series Doraemon by Fujiko Fujio Stand by Me (TV series), a 1998 Singaporean Mandarin drama series "Stand by Me" (Grey's Anatomy), a television episode "Stand by Me" (My Little Pony Tales), a television episode Literature Stand by Me, a 2010 novel by Sheila O'Flanagan Stand by Me, an autobiography by John Kirwan Music Albums Stand by Me (Ernest Tubb album), 1966 Stand by Me (Whatcha See Is Whatcha Get), by Bernard Purdie, 1971 Stand by Me: The Ultimate Collection, by Ben E. King, 1987 Stand by Me, by Ernie Haase & Signature Sound, 2002 Stand by Me, by the Kingdom Choir, 2018 Stand by Me, by Ray Brown Jr., 2007 Songs "Stand by Me" (Atomic Rooster song), 1972 "Stand by Me", a 1972 song recorded by Golden Earring "Stand by Me" (Ben E. King song), 1961 "Stand by Me" (The Brilliant Green song), 2007 "Stand by Me" (Charles Albert Tindley song), 1905 "Stand by Me" (John Newman song), 2020 "Stand by Me" (Oasis song), 1997 "Stand by Me" (Shayne Ward song), 2006 "Train in Vain" ("Train in Vain (Stand by Me)" in the US), by the Clash, 1980 "Stand by Me", by SHINee from the Boys Over Flowers soundtrack, 2009 See also Stand By (disambiguation)	[ 0.4557504653930664, 0.3132769763469696, 0.2951183319091797, -0.19717289507389069, -0.5177626609802246, 0.22969140112400055, 0.5010796189308167, -0.6494176387786865, -0.21176375448703766, 0.1499793529510498, 0.27744585275650024, 0.46317651867866516, 0.31855297088623047, -0.11717525869607925, 0.015899816527962685, 0.8119630217552185, 1.0750162601470947, 0.682106077671051, -0.14824466407299042, -0.6727839112281799, 0.005633985623717308, -0.29622721672058105, 0.45438647270202637, -0.9178364872932434, -0.1507815718650818, 0.7696454524993896, 0.15050119161605835, 0.4575478732585907, 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213605	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethylaniline	Dimethylaniline	N,N-Dimethylaniline (DMA) is an organic chemical compound, a substituted derivative of aniline. It consists of a tertiary amine, featuring dimethylamino group attached to a phenyl group. This oily liquid is colourless when pure, but commercial samples are often yellow. It is an important precursor to dyes such as crystal violet. Preparation and reactions DMA was first reported in 1850 by the German chemist A. W. Hofmann, who prepared it by heating aniline and iodomethane: C6H5NH2 + 2 CH3I → C6H5N(CH3)2 + 2 HI DMA is produced industrially by alkylation of aniline with methanol in the presence of an acid catalyst: C6H5NH2 + 2 CH3OH → C6H5N(CH3)2 + 2 H2O Similarly, it is also prepared using dimethyl ether as the methylating agent. Dimethylaniline undergoes many of the reactions expected for an aniline, being weakly basic and reactive toward electrophiles. For example, it is nitrated to produce tetryl, a derivative with four nitro groups which was once used as explosive. It is lithiated with butyllithium. Methylating agents attack the amine to give the quaternary ammonium salt: C6H5N(CH3)2 + (CH3O)2SO2 → C6H5N(CH3)3CH3OSO3 Applications DMA is a key precursor to commercially important triarylmethane dyes such as malachite green and crystal violet. DMA serves as a promoter in the curing of polyester and vinyl ester resins. DMA is also used as a precursor to other organic compounds. A study of the in vitro metabolism of N,N-dimethylaniline using guinea pig and rabbit preparations and GLC techniques has confirmed N-demethylation and N-oxidation as metabolic pathways, and has also established ring hydroxylation as a metabolic route. Its derivative 2,4-dimethylaniline is a recalcitrant degradant of the pesticide amitraz and is also an industrial pollutant which is genotoxic, teratogenic and carcinogenic. References Anilines Dimethylamino compounds	[ 0.3428155481815338, -0.13307783007621765, -0.2872057557106018, -0.2761812210083008, -0.3713340163230896, -0.1613982766866684, 0.08320165425539017, -0.2635566294193268, 0.09439224749803543, 0.03359445184469223, -0.39867204427719116, 0.4266078472137451, -0.5402234196662903, 0.46795031428337097, 0.04658909887075424, 1.2692967653274536, 0.5514267683029175, 0.6354977488517761, 0.09603094309568405, -0.370469868183136, -0.16068647801876068, -0.04276213049888611, 0.37913522124290466, -0.4313446283340454, 0.40551042556762695, -0.08152806758880615, 0.6839035153388977, 0.5258784294128418, 0.5165858268737793, -0.029797472059726715, 0.23052313923835754, 0.4501693546772003, 0.3397753834724426, 0.17902807891368866, 0.8660653233528137, 0.661441445350647, -0.40301012992858887, -0.18741169571876526, -0.3848017454147339, -0.40013083815574646, -0.5494282841682434, -0.0832580104470253, 0.2684865891933441, 0.5590047240257263, -0.40720269083976746, 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213607	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20telescope	History of the telescope	The history of the telescope can be traced to before the invention of the earliest known telescope, which appeared in 1608 in the Netherlands, when a patent was submitted by Hans Lippershey, an eyeglass maker. Although Lippershey did not receive his patent, news of the invention soon spread across Europe. The design of these early refracting telescopes consisted of a convex objective lens and a concave eyepiece. Galileo improved on this design the following year and applied it to astronomy. In 1611, Johannes Kepler described how a far more useful telescope could be made with a convex objective lens and a convex eyepiece lens. By 1655, astronomers such as Christiaan Huygens were building powerful but unwieldy Keplerian telescopes with compound eyepieces. Isaac Newton is credited with building the first reflector in 1668 with a design that incorporated a small flat diagonal mirror to reflect the light to an eyepiece mounted on the side of the telescope. Laurent Cassegrain in 1672 described the design of a reflector with a small convex secondary mirror to reflect light through a central hole in the main mirror. The achromatic lens, which greatly reduced color aberrations in objective lenses and allowed for shorter and more functional telescopes, first appeared in a 1733 telescope made by Chester Moore Hall, who did not publicize it. John Dollond learned of Hall's invention and began producing telescopes using it in commercial quantities, starting in 1758. Important developments in reflecting telescopes were John Hadley's production of larger paraboloidal mirrors in 1721; the process of silvering glass mirrors introduced by Léon Foucault in 1857; and the adoption of long-lasting aluminized coatings on reflector mirrors in 1932. The Ritchey-Chretien variant of Cassegrain reflector was invented around 1910, but not widely adopted until after 1950; many modern telescopes including the Hubble Space Telescope use this design, which gives a wider field of view than a classic Cassegrain. During the period 1850–1900, reflectors suffered from problems with speculum metal mirrors, and a considerable number of "Great Refractors" were built from 60 cm to 1 metre aperture, culminating in the Yerkes Observatory refractor in 1897; however, starting from the early 1900s a series of ever-larger reflectors with glass mirrors were built, including the Mount Wilson 60-inch (1.5 metre), the 100-inch (2.5 metre) Hooker Telescope (1917) and the 200-inch (5 metre) Hale telescope (1948); essentially all major research telescopes since 1900 have been reflectors. A number of 4-metre class (160 inch) telescopes were built on superior higher altitude sites including Hawaii and the Chilean desert in the 1975–1985 era. The development of the computer-controlled alt-azimuth mount in the 1970s and active optics in the 1980s enabled a new generation of even larger telescopes, starting with the 10-metre (400 inch) Keck telescopes in 1993/1996, and a number of 8-metre telescopes including the ESO Very Large Telescope, Gemini Observatory and Subaru Telescope. The era of radio telescopes (along with radio astronomy) was born with Karl Guthe Jansky's serendipitous discovery of an astronomical radio source in 1931. Many types of telescopes were developed in the 20th century for a wide range of wavelengths from radio to gamma-rays. The development of space observatories after 1960 allowed access to several bands impossible to observe from the ground, including X-rays and longer wavelength infrared bands. Optical telescopes Optical foundations Objects resembling lenses date back 4000 years although it is unknown if they were used for their optical properties or just as decoration. Greek accounts of the optical properties of water filled spheres (5th century BC) followed by many centuries of writings on optics, including Ptolemy (2nd century) in his Optics, who wrote about the properties of light including reflection, refraction, and color, followed by Ibn Sahl (10th century) and Ibn Al-Haytham (11th century). Actual use of lenses dates back to the widespread manufacture and use of eyeglasses in Northern Italy beginning in the late 13th century.<ref>galileo.rice.edu The Galileo Project > Science > The Telescope by Al Van Helden ]</ref> The invention of the use of concave lenses to correct near-sightedness is ascribed to Nicholas of Cusa in 1451. Invention The first record of a telescope comes from the Netherlands in 1608. It is in a patent filed by Middelburg spectacle-maker Hans Lippershey with the States General of the Netherlands on 2 October 1608 for his instrument "for seeing things far away as if they were nearby". A few weeks later another Dutch instrument-maker, Jacob Metius also applied for a patent. The States General did not award a patent since the knowledge of the device already seemed to be ubiquitous"The Hague discussed the patent applications first of Hans Lipperhey of Middelburg, and then of Jacob Metius of Alkmaar... another citizen of Middelburg galileo.rice.edu The Galileo Project > Science > The Telescope by Al Van Helden but the Dutch government awarded Lippershey with a contract for copies of his design. The original Dutch telescopes were composed of a convex and a concave lens—telescopes that are constructed this way do not invert the image. Lippershey's original design had only 3x magnification. Telescopes seem to have been made in the Netherlands in considerable numbers soon after this date of "invention", and rapidly found their way all over Europe. Claims of prior invention In 1655 Dutch diplomat William de Boreel tried to solve the mystery of who invented the telescope. He had a local magistrate in Middelburg follow up on Boreel's childhood and early adult recollections of a spectacle maker named "Hans" who he remembered as the inventor of the telescope. The magistrate was contacted by a then unknown claimant, Middelburg spectacle maker Johannes Zachariassen, who testified that his father, Zacharias Janssen invented the telescope and the microscope as early as 1590. This testimony seemed convincing to Boreel, who now recollected that Zacharias and his father, Hans Martens, must have been who he remembered. Boreel's conclusion that Zacharias Janssen invented the telescope a little ahead of another spectacle maker, Hans Lippershey, was adopted by Pierre Borel in his 1656 book De vero telescopii inventore. Discrepancies in Boreel's investigation and Zachariassen's testimony (including Zachariassen misrepresenting his date of birth and role in the invention) has led some historians to consider this claim dubious. The "Janssen" claim would continue over the years and be added on to with Zacharias Snijder in 1841 presenting 4 iron tubes with lenses in them claimed to be 1590 examples of Janssen's telescope and historian Cornelis de Waard's 1906 claim that the man who tried to sell a broken telescope to astronomer Simon Marius at the 1608 Frankfurt Book Fair must have been Janssen. In 1682, the minutes of the Royal Society in London Robert Hooke noted Thomas Digges' 1571 Pantometria, (a book on measurement, partially based on his father Leonard Digges' notes and observations) seemed to support an English claim to the invention of the telescope, describing Leonard as having a fare seeing glass in the mid 1500s based on an idea by Roger Bacon.Biographia Britannica: Or, The Lives of the Most Eminent Persons who Have Flourished in Great Britain and Ireland, from the Earliest Ages, Down to the Present Times, Volume 5, W. Innys - 1760, page 3130 Thomas described it as "by proportional Glasses duly situate in convenient angles, not only discovered things far off, read letters, numbered pieces of money with the very coin and superscription thereof, cast by some of his friends of purpose upon downs in open fields, but also seven miles off declared what hath been done at that instant in private places." Comments on the use of proportional or "perspective glass" are also made in the writings of John Dee (1575) and William Bourne (1585). Bourne was asked in 1580 to investigate the Diggs device by Queen Elizabeth I's chief advisor Lord Burghley. Bourne's is the best description of it, and from his writing it seemed to consist of peering into a large curved mirror that reflected the image produced by a large lens. The idea of an "Elizabethan Telescope" has been expanded over the years, including astronomer and historian Colin Ronan concluding in the 1990s that this reflecting/refracting telescope was built by Leonard Digges between 1540 and 1559. This "backwards" reflecting telescope would have been unwieldy, it needed very large mirrors and lens to work, the observer had to stand backwards to look at an upside down view, and Bourne noted it had a very narrow field of view making it unsuitable for military purposes. The optical performance required to see the details of coins lying about in fields, or private activities seven miles away, seems to be far beyond the technology of the time and it could be the "perspective glass" being described was a far simpler idea, originating with Bacon, of using a single lens held in front of the eye to magnify a distant view. Translations of the notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci and Girolamo Fracastoro shows both using water filled crystals or a combination of lenses to magnify the Moon, although the descriptions are too sketchy to determine if they were arranged like a telescope.The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci, Litres, 2019, page 856 A 1959 research paper by Simon de Guilleuma claimed that evidence he had uncovered pointed to the French born spectacle maker Juan Roget (died before 1624) as another possible builder of an early telescope that predated Hans Lippershey's patent application. Spread of the invention Lippershey's application for a patent was mentioned at the end of a diplomatic report on an embassy to Holland from the Kingdom of Siam sent by the Siamese king Ekathotsarot: Ambassades du Roy de Siam envoyé à l'Excellence du Prince Maurice, arrivé à La Haye le 10 Septemb. 1608 (Embassy of the King of Siam sent to his Excellency Prince Maurice, arrived at The Hague on 10 September 1608). This report was issued in October 1608 and distributed across Europe, leading to experiments by other scientists, such as the Italian Paolo Sarpi, who received the report in November, and the English mathematician and astronomer Thomas Harriot, who used a six-powered telescope by the summer of 1609 to observe features on the moon. The Italian polymath Galileo Galilei was in Venice in June 1609 and there heard of the "Dutch perspective glass", a military spyglass, by means of which distant objects appeared nearer and larger. Galileo states that he solved the problem of the construction of a telescope the first night after his return to Padua from Venice and made his first telescope the next day by using a convex objective lens in one extremity of a leaden tube and a concave eyepiece lens in the other end, an arrangement that came to be called a Galilean telescope. A few days afterwards, having succeeded in making a better telescope than the first, he took it to Venice where he communicated the details of his invention to the public and presented the instrument itself to the doge Leonardo Donato, who was sitting in full council. The senate in return settled him for life in his lectureship at Padua and doubled his salary. Galileo spent his time to improving the telescope, producing telescopes of increased power. His first telescope had a 3x magnification, but he soon made instruments which magnified 8x and finally, one nearly a meter long with a 37mm objective (which he would stop down to 16mm or 12mm) and a 23x magnification. With this last instrument he began a series of astronomical observations in October or November 1609, discovering the satellites of Jupiter, hills and valleys on the Moon, the phases of Venus and observed spots on the sun (using the projection method rather than direct observation). Galileo noted that the revolution of the satellites of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, rotation of the Sun and the tilted path its spots followed for part of the year pointed to the validity of the sun-centered Copernican system over other Earth-centered systems such as the one proposed by Ptolemy. Galileo's instrument was the first to be given the name "telescope". The name was invented by the Greek poet/theologian Giovanni Demisiani at a banquet held on April 14, 1611 by Prince Federico Cesi to make Galileo Galilei a member of the Accademia dei Lincei. The word was created from the Greek tele = 'far' and skopein = 'to look or see'; teleskopos = 'far-seeing'. By 1626 knowledge of the telescope had spread to China when German Jesuit and astronomer Johann Adam Schall von Bell published Yuan jing shuo, (Explanation of the Telescope) in Chinese and Latin. Further refinements Refracting telescopes Johannes Kepler first explained the theory and some of the practical advantages of a telescope constructed of two convex lenses in his Catoptrics (1611). The first person who actually constructed a telescope of this form was the Jesuit Christoph Scheiner who gives a description of it in his Rosa Ursina (1630). William Gascoigne was the first who commanded a chief advantage of the form of telescope suggested by Kepler: that a small material object could be placed at the common focal plane of the objective and the eyepiece. This led to his invention of the micrometer, and his application of telescopic sights to precision astronomical instruments. It was not till about the middle of the 17th century that Kepler's telescope came into general use: not so much because of the advantages pointed out by Gascoigne, but because its field of view was much larger than in the Galilean telescope. The first powerful telescopes of Keplerian construction were made by Christiaan Huygens after much labor—in which his brother assisted him. With one of these: an objective diameter of and a focal length, he discovered the brightest of Saturn's satellites (Titan) in 1655; in 1659, he published his "Systema Saturnium" which, for the first time, gave a true explanation of Saturn's ring—founded on observations made with the same instrument. Long focal length refractors The sharpness of the image in Kepler's telescope was limited by the chromatic aberration introduced by the non-uniform refractive properties of the objective lens. The only way to overcome this limitation at high magnifying powers was to create objectives with very long focal lengths. Giovanni Cassini discovered Saturn's fifth satellite (Rhea) in 1672 with a telescope long. Astronomers such as Johannes Hevelius were constructing telescopes with focal lengths as long as . Besides having really long tubes these telescopes needed scaffolding or long masts and cranes to hold them up. Their value as research tools was minimal since the telescope's frame "tube" flexed and vibrated in the slightest breeze and sometimes collapsed altogether. Aerial telescopes In some of the very long refracting telescopes constructed after 1675, no tube was employed at all. The objective was mounted on a swiveling ball-joint on top of a pole, tree, or any available tall structure and aimed by means of string or connecting rod. The eyepiece was handheld or mounted on a stand at the focus, and the image was found by trial and error. These were consequently termed aerial telescopes. and have been attributed to Christiaan Huygens and his brother Constantijn Huygens, Jr. although it is not clear that they invented it. Christiaan Huygens and his brother made objectives up to diameter and focal length and others such as Adrien Auzout made telescopes with focal lengths up to . Telescopes of such great length were naturally difficult to use and must have taxed to the utmost the skill and patience of the observers. Aerial telescopes were employed by several other astronomers. Cassini discovered Saturn's third and fourth satellites in 1684 with aerial telescope objectives made by Giuseppe Campani that were in focal length. Reflecting telescopes The ability of a curved mirror to form an image may have been known since the time of Euclid and had been extensively studied by Alhazen in the 11th century. Galileo, Giovanni Francesco Sagredo, and others, spurred on by their knowledge that curved mirrors had similar properties to lenses, discussed the idea of building a telescope using a mirror as the image forming objective. Niccolò Zucchi, an Italian Jesuit astronomer and physicist, wrote in his book Optica philosophia of 1652 that he tried replacing the lens of a refracting telescope with a bronze concave mirror in 1616. Zucchi tried looking into the mirror with a hand held concave lens but did not get a satisfactory image, possibly due to the poor quality of the mirror, the angle it was tilted at, or the fact that his head partially obstructed the image. In 1636 Marin Mersenne proposed a telescope consisting of a paraboloidal primary mirror and a paraboloidal secondary mirror bouncing the image through a hole in the primary, solving the problem of viewing the image. James Gregory went into further detail in his book Optica Promota (1663), pointing out that a reflecting telescope with a mirror that was shaped like the part of a conic section, would correct spherical aberration as well as the chromatic aberration seen in refractors. The design he came up with bears his name: the "Gregorian telescope"; but according to his own confession, Gregory had no practical skill and he could find no optician capable of realizing his ideas and after some fruitless attempts, was obliged to abandon all hope of bringing his telescope into practical use. In 1666 Isaac Newton, based on his theories of refraction and color, perceived that the faults of the refracting telescope were due more to a lens's varying refraction of light of different colors than to a lens's imperfect shape. He concluded that light could not be refracted through a lens without causing chromatic aberrations, although he incorrectly concluded from some rough experiments that all refracting substances would diverge the prismatic colors in a constant proportion to their mean refraction. From these experiments Newton concluded that no improvement could be made in the refracting telescope. Newton's experiments with mirrors showed that they did not suffer from the chromatic errors of lenses, for all colors of light the angle of incidence reflected in a mirror was equal to the angle of reflection, so as a proof to his theories Newton set out to build a reflecting telescope. Newton completed his first telescope in 1668 and it is the earliest known functional reflecting telescope. After much experiment, he chose an alloy (speculum metal) of tin and copper as the most suitable material for his objective mirror. He later devised means for grinding and polishing them, but chose a spherical shape for his mirror instead of a parabola to simplify construction. He added to his reflector what is the hallmark of the design of a "Newtonian telescope", a secondary "diagonal" mirror near the primary mirror's focus to reflect the image at 90° angle to an eyepiece mounted on the side of the telescope. This unique addition allowed the image to be viewed with minimal obstruction of the objective mirror. He also made all the tube, mount, and fittings. Newton's first compact reflecting telescope had a mirror diameter of 1.3 inches and a focal ratio of f/5. With it he found that he could see the four Galilean moons of Jupiter and the crescent phase of the planet Venus. Encouraged by this success, he made a second telescope with a magnifying power of 38x which he presented to the Royal Society of London in December 1672. This type of telescope is still called a Newtonian telescope. A third form of reflecting telescope, the "Cassegrain reflector" was devised in 1672 by Laurent Cassegrain. The telescope had a small convex hyperboloidal secondary mirror placed near the prime focus to reflect light through a central hole in the main mirror. No further practical advance appears to have been made in the design or construction of the reflecting telescopes for another 50 years until John Hadley (best known as the inventor of the octant) developed ways to make precision aspheric and parabolic speculum metal mirrors. In 1721 he showed the first parabolic Newtonian reflector to the Royal Society. It had a diameter, focal length speculum metal objective mirror. The instrument was examined by James Pound and James Bradley. After remarking that Newton's telescope had lain neglected for fifty years, they stated that Hadley had sufficiently shown that the invention did not consist in bare theory. They compared its performance with that of a diameter aerial telescope originally presented to the Royal Society by Constantijn Huygens, Jr. and found that Hadley's reflector, "will bear such a charge as to make it magnify the object as many times as the latter with its due charge", and that it represents objects as distinct, though not altogether so clear and bright. Bradley and Samuel Molyneux, having been instructed by Hadley in his methods of polishing speculum metal, succeeded in producing large reflecting telescopes of their own, one of which had a focal length of . These methods of fabricating mirrors were passed on by Molyneux to two London opticians —Scarlet and Hearn— who started a business manufacturing telescopes. The British mathematician, optician James Short began experimenting with building telescopes based on Gregory's designs in the 1730s. He first tried making his mirrors out of glass as suggested by Gregory, but he later switched to speculum metal mirrors creating Gregorian telescopes with original designers parabolic and elliptic figures. Short then adopted telescope-making as his profession which he practised first in Edinburgh, and afterward in London. All Short's telescopes were of the Gregorian form. Short died in London in 1768, having made a considerable fortune selling telescopes. Since speculum metal mirror secondaries or diagonal mirrors greatly reduced the light that reached the eyepiece, several reflecting telescope designers tried to do away with them. In 1762 Mikhail Lomonosov presented a reflecting telescope before the Russian Academy of Sciences forum. It had its primary mirror tilted at four degrees to telescope's axis so the image could be viewed via an eyepiece mounted at the front of the telescope tube without the observer's head blocking the incoming light. This innovation was not published until 1827, so this type came to be called the Herschelian telescope after a similar design by William Herschel. About the year 1774 William Herschel (then a teacher of music in Bath, England) began to occupy his leisure hours with the construction of reflector telescope mirrors, finally devoted himself entirely to their construction and use in astronomical research. In 1778, he selected a reflector mirror (the best of some 400 telescope mirrors which he had made) and with it, built a focal length telescope. Using this telescope, he made his early brilliant astronomical discoveries. In 1783, Herschel completed a reflector of approximately in diameter and focal length. He observed the heavens with this telescope for some twenty years, replacing the mirror several times. In 1789 Herschel finished building his largest reflecting telescope with a mirror of and a focal length of , (commonly known as his 40-foot telescope) at his new home, at Observatory House in Slough, England. To cut down on the light loss from the poor reflectivity of the speculum mirrors of that day, Herschel eliminated the small diagonal mirror from his design and tilted his primary mirror so he could view the formed image directly. This design has come to be called the Herschelian telescope. He discovered Saturn's sixth known moon, Enceladus, the first night he used it (August 28, 1789), and on September 17, its seventh known moon, Mimas. This telescope was world's largest telescope for over 50 years. However, this large scope was difficult to handle and thus less used than his favorite 18.7-inch reflector. In 1845 William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse built his Newtonian reflector called the "Leviathan of Parsonstown" with which he discovered the spiral form of galaxies. All of these larger reflectors suffered from the poor reflectivity and fast tarnishing nature of their speculum metal mirrors. This meant they need more than one mirror per telescope since mirrors had to be frequently removed and re-polished. This was time-consuming since the polishing process could change the curve of the mirror, so it usually had to be "re-figured" to the correct shape. Achromatic refracting telescopes From the time of the invention of the first refracting telescopes it was generally supposed that chromatic errors seen in lenses simply arose from errors in the spherical figure of their surfaces. Opticians tried to construct lenses of varying forms of curvature to correct these errors. Isaac Newton discovered in 1666 that chromatic colors actually arose from the un-even refraction of light as it passed through the glass medium. This led opticians to experiment with lenses constructed of more than one type of glass in an attempt to canceling the errors produced by each type of glass. It was hoped that this would create an "achromatic lens"; a lens that would focus all colors to a single point, and produce instruments of much shorter focal length. The first person who succeeded in making a practical achromatic refracting telescope was Chester Moore Hall from Essex, England. He argued that the different humours of the human eye refract rays of light to produce an image on the retina which is free from color, and he reasonably argued that it might be possible to produce a like result by combining lenses composed of different refracting media. After devoting some time to the inquiry he found that by combining two lenses formed of different kinds of glass, he could make an achromatic lens where the effects of the unequal refractions of two colors of light (red and blue) was corrected. In 1733, he succeeded in constructing telescope lenses which exhibited much reduced chromatic aberration. One of his instruments had an objective measuring with a relatively short focal length of . Hall was a man of independent means and seems to have been careless of fame; at least he took no trouble to communicate his invention to the world. At a trial in Westminster Hall about the patent rights granted to John Dollond (Watkin v. Dollond), Hall was admitted to be the first inventor of the achromatic telescope. However, it was ruled by Lord Mansfield that it was not the original inventor who ought to profit from such invention, but the one who brought it forth for the benefit of mankind. In 1747, Leonhard Euler sent to the Prussian Academy of Sciences a paper in which he tried to prove the possibility of correcting both the chromatic and the spherical aberration of a lens. Like Gregory and Hall, he argued that since the various humours of the human eye were so combined as to produce a perfect image, it should be possible by suitable combinations of lenses of different refracting media to construct a perfect telescope objective. Adopting a hypothetical law of the dispersion of differently colored rays of light, he proved analytically the possibility of constructing an achromatic objective composed of lenses of glass and water. All of Euler's efforts to produce an actual objective of this construction were fruitless—a failure which he attributed solely to the difficulty of procuring lenses that worked precisely to the requisite curves. John Dollond agreed with the accuracy of Euler's analysis, but disputed his hypothesis on the grounds that it was purely a theoretical assumption: that the theory was opposed to the results of Newton's experiments on the refraction of light, and that it was impossible to determine a physical law from analytical reasoning alone. In 1754, Euler sent to the Berlin Academy a further paper in which starting from the hypothesis that light consists of vibrations excited in an elastic fluid by luminous bodies—and that the difference of color of light is due to the greater or lesser frequency of these vibrations in a given time— he deduced his previous results. He did not doubt the accuracy of Newton's experiments quoted by Dollond. Dollond did not reply to this, but soon afterwards he received an abstract of a paper by the Swedish mathematician and astronomer, Samuel Klingenstierna, which led him to doubt the accuracy of the results deduced by Newton on the dispersion of refracted light. Klingenstierna showed from purely geometrical considerations (fully appreciated by Dollond) that the results of Newton's experiments could not be brought into harmony with other universally accepted facts of refraction. As a practical man, Dollond at once put his doubts to the test of experiment: he confirmed the conclusions of Klingenstierna, discovered a difference far beyond his hopes in the refractive qualities of different kinds of glass with respect to the divergence of colors, and was thus rapidly led to the construction of lenses in which first the chromatic aberration—and afterwards—the spherical aberration were corrected. Dollond was aware of the conditions necessary for the attainment of achromatism in refracting telescopes, but relied on the accuracy of experiments made by Newton. His writings show that with the exception of his bravado, he would have arrived sooner at a discovery for which his mind was fully prepared. Dollond's paper recounts the successive steps by which he arrived at his discovery independently of Hall's earlier invention—and the logical processes by which these steps were suggested to his mind. In 1765 Peter Dollond (son of John Dollond) introduced the triple objective, which consisted of a combination of two convex lenses of crown glass with a concave flint lens between them. He made many telescopes of this kind. The difficulty of procuring disks of glass (especially of flint glass) of suitable purity and homogeneity limited the diameter and light gathering power of the lenses found in the achromatic telescope. It was in vain that the French Academy of Sciences offered prizes for large perfect disks of optical flint glass. The difficulties with the impractical metal mirrors of reflecting telescopes led to the construction of large refracting telescopes. By 1866 refracting telescopes had reached in aperture with many larger "Great refractors" being built in the mid to late 19th century. In 1897, the refractor reached its maximum practical limit in a research telescope with the construction of the Yerkes Observatorys' refractor (although a larger refractor Great Paris Exhibition Telescope of 1900 with an objective of diameter was temporarily exhibited at the Paris 1900 Exposition). No larger refractors could be built because of gravity's effect on the lens. Since a lens can only be held in place by its edge, the center of a large lens will sag due to gravity, distorting the image it produces. Large reflecting telescopes In 1856–57, Karl August von Steinheil and Léon Foucault introduced a process of depositing a layer of silver on glass telescope mirrors. The silver layer was not only much more reflective and longer lasting than the finish on speculum mirrors, it had the advantage of being able to be removed and re-deposited without changing the shape of the glass substrate. Towards the end of the 19th century very large silver on glass mirror reflecting telescopes were built. The beginning of the 20th century saw construction of the first of the "modern" large research reflectors, designed for precision photographic imaging and located at remote high altitude clear sky locations such as the 60-inch Hale telescope of 1908, and the Hooker telescope in 1917, both located at Mount Wilson Observatory. These and other telescopes of this size had to have provisions to allow for the removal of their main mirrors for re-silvering every few months. John Donavan Strong, a young physicist at the California Institute of Technology, developed a technique for coating a mirror with a much longer lasting aluminum coating using thermal vacuum evaporation. In 1932, he became the first person to "aluminize" a mirror; three years later the and telescopes became the first large astronomical telescopes to have their mirrors aluminized. 1948 saw the completion of the Hale reflector at Mount Palomar which was the largest telescope in the world up until the completion of the massive BTA-6 in Russia twenty-seven years later. The Hale reflector introduced several technical innovations used in future telescopes, including hydrostatic bearings for very low friction, the Serrurier truss for equal deflections of the two mirrors as the tube sags under gravity, and the use of Pyrex low-expansion glass for the mirrors. The arrival of substantially larger telescopes had to await the introduction of methods other than the rigidity of glass to maintain the proper shape of the mirror. Active and adaptive optics The 1980s saw the introduction of two new technologies for building larger telescopes and improving image quality, known as active optics and adaptive optics. In active optics, an image analyser senses the aberrations of a star image a few times per minute, and a computer adjusts many support forces on the primary mirror and the location of the secondary mirror to maintain the optics in optimal shape and alignment. This is too slow to correct for atmospheric blurring effects, but enables the use of thin single mirrors up to 8 m diameter, or even larger segmented mirrors. This method was pioneered by the ESO New Technology Telescope in the late 1980s. The 1990s saw a new generation of giant telescopes appear using active optics, beginning with the construction of the first of the two Keck telescopes in 1993. Other giant telescopes built since then include: the two Gemini telescopes, the four separate telescopes of the Very Large Telescope, and the Large Binocular Telescope. Adaptive optics uses a similar principle, but applying corrections several hundred times per second to compensate the effects of rapidly changing optical distortion due to the motion of turbulence in the Earth's atmosphere. Adaptive optics works by measuring the distortions in a wavefront and then compensating for them by rapid changes of actuators applied to a small deformable mirror or with a liquid crystal array filter. AO was first envisioned by Horace W. Babcock in 1953, but did not come into common usage in astronomical telescopes until advances in computer and detector technology during the 1990s made it possible to calculate the compensation needed in real time. In adaptive optics, the high-speed corrections needed mean that a fairly bright star is needed very close to the target of interest (or an artificial star is created by a laser). Also, with a single star or laser the corrections are only effective over a very narrow field (tens of arcsec), and current systems operating on several 8-10m telescopes work mainly in near-infrared wavelengths for single-object observations. Developments of adaptive optics include systems with multiple lasers over a wider corrected field, and/or working above kiloHertz rates for good correction at visible wavelengths; these are currently in progress but not yet in routine operation as of 2015. Other wavelengths The twentieth century saw the construction of telescopes which could produce images using wavelengths other than visible light starting in 1931 when Karl Jansky discovered astronomical objects gave off radio emissions; this prompted a new era of observational astronomy after World War II, with telescopes being developed for other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum from radio to gamma-rays. Radio telescopes Radio astronomy began in 1931 when Karl Jansky discovered that the Milky Way was a source of radio emission while doing research on terrestrial static with a direction antenna. Building on Jansky's work, Grote Reber built a more sophisticated purpose-built radio telescope in 1937, with a dish; using this, he discovered various unexplained radio sources in the sky. Interest in radio astronomy grew after the Second World War when much larger dishes were built including: the Jodrell bank telescope (1957), the Green Bank Telescope (1962), and the Effelsberg telescope (1971). The huge Arecibo telescope (1963) was so large that it was fixed into a natural depression in the ground; the central antenna could be steered to allow the telescope to study objects up to twenty degrees from the zenith. However, not every radio telescope is of the dish type. For example, the Mills Cross Telescope (1954) was an early example of an array which used two perpendicular lines of antennae in length to survey the sky. High-energy radio waves are known as microwaves and this has been an important area of astronomy ever since the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964. Many ground-based radio telescopes can study microwaves. Short wavelength microwaves are best studied from space because water vapor (even at high altitudes) strongly weakens the signal. The Cosmic Background Explorer (1989) revolutionized the study of the microwave background radiation. Because radio telescopes have low resolution, they were the first instruments to use interferometry allowing two or more widely separated instruments to simultaneously observe the same source. Very long baseline interferometry extended the technique over thousands of kilometers and allowed resolutions down to a few milli-arcseconds. A telescope like the Large Millimeter Telescope (active since 2006) observes from , bridging between the far-infrared/submillimeter telescopes and longer wavelength radio telescopes including the microwave band from about to in wavelength. Infrared telescopes (700 nm/ 0.7 µm – 1000 µm/1 mm) Although most infrared radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere, infrared astronomy at certain wavelengths can be conducted on high mountains where there is little absorption by atmospheric water vapor. Ever since suitable detectors became available, most optical telescopes at high-altitudes have been able to image at infrared wavelengths. Some telescopes such as the UKIRT, and the IRTF — both on Mauna Kea — are dedicated infrared telescopes. The launch of the IRAS satellite in 1983 revolutionized infrared astronomy from space. This reflecting telescope which had a mirror, operated for nine months until its supply of coolant (liquid helium) ran out. It surveyed the entire sky detecting 245,000 infrared sources—more than 100 times the number previously known. Ultra-violet telescopes (10 nm – 400 nm) Although optical telescopes can image the near ultraviolet, the ozone layer in the stratosphere absorbs ultraviolet radiation shorter than 300 nm so most ultra-violet astronomy is conducted with satellites. Ultraviolet telescopes resemble optical telescopes, but conventional aluminium-coated mirrors cannot be used and alternative coatings such as magnesium fluoride or lithium fluoride are used instead. The Orbiting Solar Observatory satellite carried out observations in the ultra-violet as early as 1962. The International Ultraviolet Explorer (1978) systematically surveyed the sky for eighteen years, using a aperture telescope with two spectroscopes. Extreme-ultraviolet astronomy (10–100 nm) is a discipline in its own right and involves many of the techniques of X-ray astronomy; the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (1992) was a satellite operating at these wavelengths. X-ray telescopes (0.01 nm – 10 nm) X-rays from space do not reach the Earth's surface so X-ray astronomy has to be conducted above the Earth's atmosphere. The first X-ray experiments were conducted on sub-orbital rocket flights which enabled the first detection of X-rays from the Sun (1948) and the first galactic X-ray sources: Scorpius X-1 (June 1962) and the Crab Nebula (October 1962). Since then, X-ray telescopes (Wolter telescopes) have been built using nested grazing-incidence mirrors which deflect X-rays to a detector. Some of the OAO satellites conducted X-ray astronomy in the late 1960s, but the first dedicated X-ray satellite was the Uhuru (1970) which discovered 300 sources. More recent X-ray satellites include: the EXOSAT (1983), ROSAT (1990), Chandra (1999), and Newton (1999). Gamma-ray telescopes (less than 0.01 nm) Gamma rays are absorbed high in the Earth's atmosphere so most gamma-ray astronomy is conducted with satellites. Gamma-ray telescopes use scintillation counters, spark chambers and more recently, solid-state detectors. The angular resolution of these devices is typically very poor. There were balloon-borne experiments in the early 1960s, but gamma-ray astronomy really began with the launch of the OSO 3 satellite in 1967; the first dedicated gamma-ray satellites were SAS B (1972) and Cos B (1975). The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (1991) was a big improvement on previous surveys. Very high-energy gamma-rays (above 200 GeV) can be detected from the ground via the Cerenkov radiation produced by the passage of the gamma-rays in the Earth's atmosphere. Several Cerenkov imaging telescopes have been built around the world including: the HEGRA (1987), STACEE (2001), HESS (2003), and MAGIC (2004). Interferometric telescopes In 1868, Fizeau noted that the purpose of the arrangement of mirrors or glass lenses in a conventional telescope was simply to provide an approximation to a Fourier transform of the optical wave field entering the telescope. As this mathematical transformation was well understood and could be performed mathematically on paper, he noted that by using an array of small instruments it would be possible to measure the diameter of a star with the same precision as a single telescope which was as large as the whole array— a technique which later became known as astronomical interferometry. It was not until 1891 that Albert A. Michelson successfully used this technique for the measurement of astronomical angular diameters: the diameters of Jupiter's satellites (Michelson 1891). Thirty years later, a direct interferometric measurement of a stellar diameter was finally realized by Michelson & Francis G. Pease (1921) which was applied by their 20 ft (6.1 m) interferometer mounted on the 100 inch Hooker Telescope on Mount Wilson. The next major development came in 1946 when Ryle and Vonberg (Ryle and Vonberg 1946) located a number of new cosmic radio sources by constructing a radio analogue of the Michelson interferometer. The signals from two radio antennas were added electronically to produce interference. Ryle and Vonberg's telescope used the rotation of the Earth to scan the sky in one dimension. With the development of larger arrays and of computers which could rapidly perform the necessary Fourier transforms, the first aperture synthesis imaging instruments were soon developed which could obtain high resolution images without the need of a giant parabolic reflector to perform the Fourier transform. This technique is now used in most radio astronomy observations. Radio astronomers soon developed the mathematical methods to perform aperture synthesis Fourier imaging using much larger arrays of telescopes —often spread across more than one continent. In the 1980s, the aperture synthesis technique was extended to visible light as well as infrared astronomy, providing the first very high resolution optical and infrared images of nearby stars. In 1995 this imaging technique was demonstrated on an array of separate optical telescopes for the first time, allowing a further improvement in resolution, and also allowing even higher resolution imaging of stellar surfaces. The same techniques have now been applied at a number of other astronomical telescope arrays including: the Navy Prototype Optical Interferometer, the CHARA array, and the IOTA array. A detailed description of the development of astronomical optical interferometry can be found here [https://www.webcitation.org/5kmngkBFy?url=http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/2309/page1.html In 2008, Max Tegmark and Matias Zaldarriaga proposed a "Fast Fourier Transform Telescope" design in which the lenses and mirrors could be dispensed with altogether when computers become fast enough to perform all the necessary transforms. See also References Sources Fizeau, H. 1868 C. R. Hebd. Seanc. Acad. Sci. Paris 66, 932 Lindberg, D. C. (1976), Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler, Chicago: University of Chicago Press Michelson, A. A. 1891 Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 3, 274 Michelson, A. A. & Pease, F. G. 1921 Astrophys. J. 53, 249 Ryle, M. & Vonberg, D., 1946 Solar radiation on 175Mc/s, Nature 158 pp 339 Van Helden, Albert (1977), "The Invention of the Telescope", Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 67, No. 4 – reprinted with corrections in 2008 Van Helden, Albert; Dupré, Sven; van Gent, Rob & Zuidervaart, Huib, eds. (2010), The Origins of the Telescope, Amsterdam: KNAW Press [= History of Science and Scholarship in the Netherlands'', vol. 12 pdf link External links History of optics articles Best Idea; Eyes Wide Open History of telescope articles The Galileo Project – The Telescope by Al Van Helden 400th Anniversary of the Invention of the Telescope Articles on the history of the telescope and related subjects The Prehistory of the Invention of the Telescope A Brief History of the Telescope and Ideas for Use in the High School Physics Classroom A History Of The Telescope Physics 1040 – Beginning Astronomy – The Telescope An early history of the telescope – From 3500 B.C. until about 1900 A.D. Reflecting telescopes Historical Introduction – The Early Period (1608–1672) Other media Eyes on the Skies - documentary available online about the history and future of the telescope Other possible telescope inventors Leonard Digges (1520–1559) Did the reflecting telescope have English origins? Leonard and Thomas Digges by Colin A Ronan, M.Sc., F.R.A.S. - originally published in the Journal of the British Astronomical Association, 101, 6, 1991 Juan Roget (died before 1624) – Historian Nick Pelling says Juan Roget, a Burgundian spectacle maker who died between 1617 and 1624 could have invented an early telescope. Controversy over telescope origin – BBC News 16 September 2008 Telescopes Telescope Telescope Copernican Revolution Astronomy in the Dutch Republic Science and technology in the Dutch Republic History of science and technology in the Netherlands	[ 0.032426852732896805, 0.4054636061191559, 0.05341362953186035, 0.4170674979686737, 0.08074582368135452, 0.6693302392959595, 0.42118287086486816, 0.11796513944864273, -0.4166259169578552, -0.6843831539154053, 0.03197118639945984, 0.5852880477905273, -0.04661659523844719, 0.7414715886116028, -0.547083854675293, 0.04923924431204796, 0.6769600510597229, -0.2621750235557556, -0.44362401962280273, 0.07063227891921997, -0.22841143608093262, 0.11528131365776062, 0.29240483045578003, -0.23393714427947998, -0.37726011872291565, -0.249185711145401, -0.07506720721721649, 0.3424963653087616, 0.5717913508415222, 0.06246160343289375, 0.6867467761039734, -0.004708312451839447, -0.2632446587085724, -0.5959855318069458, -0.3616434633731842, 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213614	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional%20distillation	Fractional distillation	Fractional distillation is the separation of a mixture into its component parts, or fractions. Chemical compounds are separated by heating them to a temperature at which one or more fractions of the mixture will vaporize. It uses distillation to fractionate. Generally the component parts have boiling points that differ by less than 25 °C (45 °F) from each other under a pressure of one atmosphere. If the difference in boiling points is greater than 25 °C, a simple distillation is typically used. Discussion As an example, consider the distillation of a mixture of water and ethanol. Ethanol boils at while water boils at . So, by heating the mixture, the most volatile component (ethanol) will concentrate to a greater degree in the vapor leaving the liquid. Some mixtures form azeotropes, where the mixture boils at a lower temperature than either component. In this example, a mixture of ethanol and water boils at ; the mixture is more volatile than pure ethanol. For this reason, ethanol cannot be completely purified by direct fractional distillation of ethanol-water mixtures. The apparatus is assembled as in the diagram. (The diagram represents a batch apparatus as opposed to a continuous apparatus.) The mixture is put into the round bottomed flask along with a few anti-bumping granules (or a Teflon coated magnetic stirrer bar if using magnetic stirring), and the fractionating column is fitted into the top. The fractional distillation column is set up with the heat source at the bottom on the still pot. As the distance from the stillpot increases, a temperature gradient is formed in the column; it is coolest at the top and hottest at the bottom. As the mixed vapor ascends the temperature gradient, some of the vapor condenses and revaporizes along the temperature gradient. Each time the vapor condenses and vaporizes, the composition of the more volatile component in the vapor increases. This distills the vapor along the length of the column, and eventually the vapor is composed solely of the more volatile component (or an azeotrope). The vapor condenses on the glass platforms, known as trays, inside the column, and runs back down into the liquid below, refluxing distillate. The efficiency in terms of the amount of heating and time required to get fractionation can be improved by insulating the outside of the column in an insulator such as wool, aluminium foil or preferably a vacuum jacket. The hottest tray is at the bottom and the coolest is at the top. At steady state conditions, the vapor and liquid on each tray are at equilibrium. The most volatile component of the mixture exits as a gas at the top of the column. The vapor at the top of the column then passes into the condenser, which cools it down until it liquefies. The separation is more pure with the addition of more trays (to a practical limitation of heat, flow, etc.) Initially, the condensate will be close to the azeotropic composition, but when much of the ethanol has been drawn off, the condensate becomes gradually richer in water. The process continues until all the ethanol boils out of the mixture. This point can be recognized by the sharp rise in temperature shown on the thermometer. The above explanation reflects the theoretical way fractionation works. Normal laboratory fractionation columns will be simple glass tubes (often vacuum-jacketed, and sometimes internally silvered) filled with a packing, often small glass helices of diameter. Such a column can be calibrated by the distillation of a known mixture system to quantify the column in terms of number of theoretical trays. To improve fractionation the apparatus is set up to return condensate to the column by the use of some sort of reflux splitter (reflux wire, gago, Magnetic swinging bucket, etc.) - a typical careful fractionation would employ a reflux ratio of around 4:1 (4 parts returned condensate to 1 part condensate take off). In laboratory distillation, several types of condensers are commonly found. The Liebig condenser is simply a straight tube within a water jacket, and is the simplest (and relatively least expensive) form of condenser. The Graham condenser is a spiral tube within a water jacket, and the Allihn condenser has a series of large and small constrictions on the inside tube, each increasing the surface area upon which the vapor constituents may condense. Alternate set-ups may use a multi–outlet distillation receiver flask (referred to as a "cow" or "pig") to connect three or four receiving flasks to the condenser. By turning the cow or pig, the distillates can be channeled into any chosen receiver. Because the receiver does not have to be removed and replaced during the distillation process, this type of apparatus is useful when distilling under an inert atmosphere for air-sensitive chemicals or at reduced pressure. A Perkin triangle is an alternative apparatus often used in these situations because it allows isolation of the receiver from the rest of the system, but does require removing and reattaching a single receiver for each fraction. Vacuum distillation systems operate at reduced pressure, thereby lowering the boiling points of the materials. Anti-bumping granules, however, become ineffective at reduced pressures. Industrial distillation Fractional distillation is the most common form of separation technology used in petroleum refineries, petrochemical and chemical plants, natural gas processing and cryogenic air separation plants. In most cases, the distillation is operated at a continuous steady state. New feed is always being added to the distillation column and products are always being removed. Unless the process is disturbed due to changes in feed, heat, ambient temperature, or condensing, the amount of feed being added and the amount of product being removed are normally equal. This is known as continuous, steady-state fractional distillation. Industrial distillation is typically performed in large, vertical cylindrical columns known as "distillation or fractionation towers" or "distillation columns" with diameters ranging from about and heights ranging from about or more. The distillation towers have liquid outlets at intervals up the column which allow for the withdrawal of different fractions or products having different boiling points or boiling ranges. By increasing the temperature of the product inside the columns, the different products are separated. The "lightest" products (those with the lowest boiling point) exit from the top of the columns and the "heaviest" products (those with the highest boiling point) exit from the bottom of the column. For example, fractional distillation is used in oil refineries to separate crude oil into useful substances (or fractions) having different hydrocarbons of different boiling points. The crude oil fractions with higher boiling points: have more carbon atoms have higher molecular weights are less branched chain alkanes are darker in color are more viscous are more difficult to ignite and to burn Large-scale industrial towers use reflux to achieve a more complete separation of products. Reflux refers to the portion of the condensed overhead liquid product from a distillation or fractionation tower that is returned to the upper part of the tower as shown in the schematic diagram of a typical, large-scale industrial distillation tower. Inside the tower, the reflux liquid flowing downwards provides the cooling needed to condense the vapors flowing upwards, thereby increasing the effectiveness of the distillation tower. The more reflux is provided for a given number of theoretical plates, the better the tower's separation of lower boiling materials from higher boiling materials. Alternatively, the more reflux provided for a given desired separation, the fewer theoretical plates are required. Fractional distillation is also used in air separation, producing liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen, and highly concentrated argon. Distillation of chlorosilanes also enable the production of high-purity silicon for use as a semiconductor. In industrial uses, sometimes a packing material is used in the column instead of trays, especially when low pressure drops across the column are required, as when operating under vacuum. This packing material can either be random dumped packing ( wide) such as Raschig rings or structured sheet metal. Typical manufacturers are Koch, Sulzer and other companies. Liquids tend to wet the surface of the packing and the vapors pass across this wetted surface, where mass transfer takes place. Unlike conventional tray distillation in which every tray represents a separate point of vapor liquid equilibrium the vapor liquid equilibrium curve in a packed column is continuous. However, when modeling packed columns it is useful to compute a number of "theoretical plates" to denote the separation efficiency of the packed column with respect to more traditional trays. Differently shaped packings have different surface areas and porosity. Both of these factors affect packing performance. Design of industrial distillation columns Design and operation of a distillation column depends on the feed and desired products. Given a simple, binary component feed, analytical methods such as the McCabe–Thiele method or the Fenske equation can be used. For a multi-component feed, simulation models are used both for design and operation. Moreover, the efficiencies of the vapor–liquid contact devices (referred to as plates or trays) used in distillation columns are typically lower than that of a theoretical efficient equilibrium stage. Hence, a distillation column needs more plates than the number of theoretical vapor–liquid equilibrium stages. Reflux refers to the portion of the condensed overhead product that is returned to the tower. The reflux flowing downwards provides the cooling required for condensing the vapours flowing upwards. The reflux ratio, which is the ratio of the (internal) reflux to the overhead product, is conversely related to the theoretical number of stages required for efficient separation of the distillation products. Fractional distillation towers or columns are designed to achieve the required separation efficiently. The design of fractionation columns is normally made in two steps; a process design, followed by a mechanical design. The purpose of the process design is to calculate the number of required theoretical stages and stream flows including the reflux ratio, heat reflux and other heat duties. The purpose of the mechanical design, on the other hand, is to select the tower internals, column diameter and height. In most cases, the mechanical design of fractionation towers is not straightforward. For the efficient selection of tower internals and the accurate calculation of column height and diameter, many factors must be taken into account. Some of the factors involved in design calculations include feed load size and properties and the type of distillation column used. The two major types of distillation columns used are tray and packing columns. Packing columns are normally used for smaller towers and loads that are corrosive or temperature sensitive or for vacuum service where pressure drop is important. Tray columns, on the other hand, are used for larger columns with high liquid loads. They first appeared on the scene in the 1820s. In most oil refinery operations, tray columns are mainly used for the separation of petroleum fractions at different stages of oil refining. In the oil refining industry, the design and operation of fractionation towers is still largely accomplished on an empirical basis. The calculations involved in the design of petroleum fractionation columns require in the usual practice the use of numerable charts, tables and complex empirical equations. In recent years, however, a considerable amount of work has been done to develop efficient and reliable computer-aided design procedures for fractional distillation. History The fractional distillation of organic substances played an important role in the 9th-century works attributed to the Islamic alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, as for example in the ('The Book of Seventy'), translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona (c. 1114–1187) under the title . The Jabirian experiments with fractional distillation of animal and vegetable substances, and to a lesser degree also of mineral substances, formed the main topic of the , an originally Arabic work falsely attributed to Avicenna that was translated into Latin and would go on to form the most important alchemical source for Roger Bacon (). 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213616	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steller%27s%20jay	Steller's jay	Steller's jay (Cyanocitta stelleri) is a bird native to western North America and the mountains of Central America, closely related to the blue jay found in eastern North America. It is also known as the long-crested jay, mountain jay, and pine jay. It is the only crested jay west of the Rocky Mountains. It is also sometimes colloquially called a "blue jay" in the Pacific Northwest, but is distinct from the blue jay (C. cristata) of eastern North America. The species inhabits pine-oak and coniferous forests. Description Steller's jay is about long and weighs about . Steller's jay shows a great deal of regional variation throughout its range. Blackish-brown-headed birds from the north gradually become bluer-headed farther south. The Steller's jay has a more slender bill and longer legs than the blue jay and, in northern populations, has a much more pronounced crest. It is also somewhat larger. The head is blackish-brown, black, or dark blue, depending on the subspecies of the bird, with lighter streaks on the forehead. This dark coloring gives way from the shoulders and lower breast to silvery blue. The primaries and tail are a rich blue with darker barring. Birds in the eastern part of its range along the Great Divide have white markings on the head, especially over the eyes; birds further west have light blue markers and birds in the far west along the Pacific Coast have small, very faint, or no white or light markings at all. Phylogeny Steller's jay (Cyanocitta stelleri) is one of two species in the genus Cyanocitta, the other species being the blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata); because the two species sometimes interbreed naturally where their ranges overlap in the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains, their status as distinct species has been contested. There are 18 subspecies of Steller's jays ranging from Alaska to Nicaragua, with nine found north of Mexico, often with areas of low or non-existent presence of the species separating the subspecies. At least some of the variation in the species is due to different degrees of hybridization between Steller's jays (C. stelleri) and blue jays (C. cristata). The genus Cyanocitta is part of the passerine family Corvidae, which consists of the crows, ravens, rooks, jackdaws, jays, magpies, treepies, choughs, and nutcrackers. Habitat Steller's jay occurs in most of the forested areas of western North America as far east as the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains from southern Alaska in the north to northern Nicaragua in the south completely replacing the blue jay prevalent on the rest of the continent in those areas. Its density is lower in the central Rocky Mountain region (Montana, Idaho, Wyoming and eastern Utah) plus the desert or scrubland areas of the Great Basin (e.g. Nevada, western Utah, southern Arizona and parts of California). Some hybridization with the blue jay in eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains, especially Colorado, has been reported. It is also found in Mexico occurring through the interior highlands in northwestern Mexico as well as patchy populations in the rest of Mexico. In the northern end of its range it appears to be spreading from coastal Southeast Alaska across the Coast Mountains into southern Yukon Territory. Steller's jay is also found in Mexico's interior highlands from Chihuahua and Sonora in the northwest southward to Jalisco, as well as other patchy populations found throughout Mexico. It is also found in south-central Guatemala, northern El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua. Although Steller's jay primarily lives in coniferous forests, it can be found in other types of forests as well. They can be found from low to moderate elevations, and on rare occasions to as high as the tree line. Steller's jays are common in residential and agricultural areas with nearby forests. Diet Steller's jays are omnivores; their diet is about two-thirds plant matter and one-third animal matter. They gather food both from the ground and from trees. Steller's jay's diet includes a wide range of seeds, nuts, berries and other fruit. They also eat many types of invertebrates, small rodents, eggs, and nestlings such as those of the marbled murrelet. There are some accounts of them eating small reptiles, both snakes and lizards. Acorns and conifer seeds are staples during the non-breeding season; these are often cached in the ground or in trees for later consumption. They exploit human-provided food sources, frequently scavenging picnics and campsites, where it competes with the Canada jay. Steller's jays will visit feeders and prefer black-oil sunflower seeds, white striped sunflower seeds, cracked corn, shelled raw peanuts, and are especially attracted to whole raw peanuts. Suet is also consumed but mostly in the winter season. Breeding Steller's jays breed in monogamous pairs. The clutch is usually incubated entirely by the female for about 16 days. The male feeds the female during this time. Though they are known to be loud both day and night, during nesting they are quiet in order to not attract attention. The nest is usually in a conifer, but is sometimes built in a hollow in a tree or beneath the awning of a house or other structure. Similar in construction to the blue jay's nest, it tends to be a bit larger (), using a number of natural materials or scavenged trash, often mixed with mud. Between two and six eggs are laid during breeding season. The eggs are oval in shape with a somewhat glossy surface. The background colour of the egg shell tends to be pale variations of greenish-blue with brown- or olive-coloured speckles. Vocalizations Like other jays, the Steller's jay has numerous and variable vocalizations. One common call is a harsh "SHACK-Sheck-sheck-sheck-sheck-sheck" series; another "skreeka! skreeka!" call sounds almost exactly like an old-fashioned pump handle; yet another is a soft, breathy "hoodle hoodle" whistle. Its alarm call is a harsh, nasal "wah". Some calls are sex-specific: females produce a rattling sound, while males make a high-pitched "gleep gleep". The Steller's jay is also a noted mimic: it can imitate the vocalizations of many species of birds, other animals, and sounds of non-animal origin. It often will imitate the calls from birds of prey such as the red-tailed hawk, red-shouldered hawk, and osprey as a warning of danger to others or territorial behavior, causing other birds to seek cover and flee feeding areas. Steller's Jays have the ability to assess risk using different predator detection cues. They have many alarm calls that are dependent on their interaction between predator identity and cue type. Steller's Jays respond to Sharp Shinned Hawks with a longer latency to return to feeding whether they are both seen or heard. In contrast the Steller's Jays Sharp Skinned Hawks responded to Northern Goshawks with a longer latency to resume feeding if they were seen in comparison to heard. The difference in reactions suggest that this is a distinct risk of assessment being conducted by the Steller's Jays. Steller's Jays will then vary the production of their "wah", "wek", and mimic red-tailed hawk calls in response to different detection cues. Etymology This bird is named after the German naturalist Georg Wilhelm Steller, the first European to record them, in 1741. Johann Friedrich Gmelin formally named the species after Steller in the 13th edition of Systema Naturae (first published in 1788). Provincial bird The Steller's jay is the provincial bird of the Canadian province of British Columbia. References Further reading External links Steller's jay Native birds of Alaska Native birds of Western Canada Provincial symbols of British Columbia Native birds of the Western United States Fauna of the California chaparral and woodlands Fauna of the San Francisco Bay Area Birds of the Rio Grande valleys Birds of Mexico Birds of the Sierra Madre Occidental Birds of the Sierra Madre del Sur Steller's jay Taxa named by Johann Friedrich Gmelin	[ -0.08941687643527985, 0.31020283699035645, -0.6415426135063171, -0.14235158264636993, -0.22181227803230286, 0.41200289130210876, 0.6736471056938171, 0.6712486743927002, -0.3683827817440033, -0.24600422382354736, 0.0018775246571749449, -0.059396419674158096, -0.3465781509876251, -0.16362085938453674, -0.2299746423959732, 0.5364810824394226, 0.005842396058142185, 0.48030826449394226, 0.5395151972770691, -0.18584690988063812, -0.354209840297699, -0.8939176201820374, -0.04961606115102768, -0.23652242124080658, 0.43176254630088806, 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213617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%26T	Y&T	Y&T (originally known as Yesterday & Today) is an American hard rock/heavy metal band formed in 1972 in Oakland, California, with the line up that would record the first album cementing in 1974. The band released two studio albums on London Records as Yesterday & Today in the 1970s, before shortening their name to Y&T and releasing several albums on A&M Records beginning in 1981, plus albums on Geffen Records, Avex Records, and others. The band was originally co-managed by Herbie Herbert (who also managed Journey) and Louis "Lou" Bramy. The band has sold over 4 million albums worldwide to date, output summarised as 18 albums, three greatest hits collections and a boxed set. Biography Early years (1972–1983) Leonard Haze, Bob Gardner, and Wayne Stitzer had an unnamed band in Oakland, California that jammed only cover tunes. Dave Meniketti joined as guitar player in 1972. Soon after, the band received a call for their first gig, but they needed a name. According to Meniketti and Haze, Haze chose the name of the album that was playing on his turntable at that moment – Yesterday and Today – a studio album by the Beatles. The first lineup – which only played covers of songs by other artists – consisted of Haze on drums, Stitzer on piano, Gardner on bass, and Meniketti on lead vocals and lead guitar. After Stitzer quit the group, Gardner switched from bass to rhythm guitar and piano, and Phil Kennemore was brought in to play bass. In 1973, Gardner left the group and was replaced by Joey Alves in January 1974. It was this 1974 lineup change when the band began writing original material. The band did shows with Journey and other acts including Queen, and during a show as part of the latter's Night at the Opera tour, Y&T were seen by the president of London Records (who had been invited), and were subsequently signed to the label. London released first two studio albums, self-titled debut and Struck Down, in 1976 and 1978 respectively. While finishing their second album, London disclosed they would be getting rid of all their rock artists, and Meniketti has since commented that this essentially meant that Struck Down "would go nowhere." The band continued to tour extensively, building up to headliners while they opened for bands such as Wild Cherry, AC/DC, and Kiss. As Meniketti has said in numerous radio, television, and magazine interviews over the past four decades, a new record deal ("which took forever" [to secure]) in 1980 with A&M Records prompted the band to shorten their name to simply Y&T, as influenced by their encores where fans would chant "Y&T, Y&T, Y&T." The band's first two studio albums under A&M, Earthshaker (1981) and Black Tiger (1982), did not gain mainstream exposure. Songs off these two albums still make up a significant part of the band's live shows. Black Tiger was recorded at Ridge Farm, in Dorking, County of Surrey, England and produced by Max Norman. The classic Y&T logo made its first appearance on the cover of this album. Part-way through recording Black Tiger, the band did their first shows outside the US; Netherlands followed by the UK. By 1983, in spite of their lack of notable success, Y&T were starting to play at larger venues such as arenas, stadiums and amphitheaters across America and Europe, with a variety of acts including AC/DC, Alice Cooper, Blackfoot, Dio, Iron Maiden, Marillion, Mötley Crüe, Ozzy Osbourne, Twisted Sister and ZZ Top, garnering far more mainstream recognition in Europe and Japan than they did in their native America. With their third A&M release, Mean Streak (1983), radio airplay and exposure had increased in the US despite poor promotion from the record company. Commercial success and hiatus (1984–1991) Y&T's sixth studio album, In Rock We Trust, released in 1984, became the band's highest-charting and selling album, reaching No. 46 on the Billboard 200. The album produced Y&T's first big radio hit "Don't Stop Runnin'". Dr Pepper acquired the rights to use "She's a Liar" in a radio ad campaign. To date, In Rock We Trust has sold over 450,000 copies. This album was the only Y&T album to chart in Canada, reaching No. 77 on the RPM chart. The label brought in writer Geoffrey Leib for the album, the first time an external writer had been used. The success of In Rock We Trust, which saw the band continuing to perform at arenas and stadiums (including opening for Rush and Dio on their tours for Grace Under Pressure and The Last in Line respectively, as well as playing with Whitesnake, Twisted Sister, Ratt, Dokken and Night Ranger), and participating in the 1984 edition of Monsters of Rock at Donington Park in England, gave Y&T better exposure than they had before. The band's 1985 hit "Summertime Girls", initially featured as the sole studio track on the band's first live album, Open Fire, and later also featured on their seventh (studio) album Down for the Count released later the same year, became the band's highest-charting hit to date, reaching No. 55 on the Billboard Hot 100 and No. 16 on the Mainstream Rock songs chart. It received airplay worldwide, played frequently in the Baywatch television series, featured in several feature films (including Real Genius), received heavy rotation on MTV as well as MTV's top video playlists, and continues to get regular airplay today on classic rock radio stations throughout the United States. Down for the Count would be the band's last album for A&M, the band increasingly frustrated with the levels of promotion from the label within the US. Despite successful tours with Mötley Crüe and Aerosmith and the chart success of "Summertime Girls", the label declined to release a follow-up single. On his recollection of Down for the Count, Meniketti said in an interview for Metal Express Radio: "...it ended up being a sort of wasted record... ...it was out right when a record company didn't care about us." The band still play tracks from the album in their live shows. In 1986, the band changed record labels to Geffen, and in that same year, Haze was fired for drug abuse issues (as Haze, band, and management discuss in the documentary "Y&T: On With the Show"), and was replaced by Jimmy DeGrasso; decades later when interviewed for the documentary Y&T: On With the Show, Haze said, "I would've fired me too." In 1987 the eighth album Contagious was released. In 1989, Alves was also fired for drug abuse and was replaced by Stef Burns. DeGrasso and Burns later played together with Alice Cooper in the 1990s. Y&T's next studio album Ten was released in 1990. The album features ballads such as "Don't Be Afraid of the Dark" (the first and only single from the album), "Ten Lovers", and "Come in from the Rain", together with a few straightforward hard rock songs, including "Hard Times", "City", "Surrender", and the fastest track Y&T ever recorded, "Goin' Off the Deep End". According to Meneketti, the video for "Don't Be Afraid of the Dark" was probably the best video they ever made, but with the onset of grunge he never once saw it on MTV. With the record company opting not to release any further singles from the Ten album, the band decided to do seven more shows in California and discontinue in 1991, concluding with the live album Yesterday & Today Live. Shortly after the 1991 split Meneketti declined an opportunity to form a proposed 'super group' with Peter Frampton. Reunion (1995–present) In 1995, Y&T returned with the same lineup of Meniketti, Burns, Kennemore, and DeGrasso, releasing Musically Incorrect in 1995 and Endangered Species in 1997. The band performed sporadically during the mid to late 1990s. Y&T officially reunited in 2001 with virtually the same lineup, but with Haze returning on drums. At the time, Burns was in three bands: Y&T, Huey Lewis and the News, and Italy's biggest rock star, Vasco Rossi; scheduling conflicts forced Burns to drop one of the three bands, and so in 2003, he left Y&T. He was replaced by rhythm guitarist/backing vocalist John Nymann, who was a childhood friend of the band, and who previously toured on the In Rock We Trust tour as a background vocalist and Rock the Robot, and he sang backing vocals on Down for the Count. Y&T resumed touring the world in 2003. In 2006, Haze was asked to step down and was replaced by Mike Vanderhule on drums. In 2009, Y&T inked a deal with the Italian label Frontiers Records for the release of the band's twelfth studio album, released in May 2010. Titled Facemelter; it was their first proper studio album in thirteen years (since 1997's Endangered Species). In June 2010, Y&T toured the world in support of Facemelter, performing the big European summer festivals, such as Sweden Rock, Download Festival at Donington Park, UK, and Hellfest in Clisson, France. During this world tour, bassist Kennemore was diagnosed with stage IV lung cancer. Upon receiving doctor's orders to leave the tour and begin treatment, Kennemore urged Meniketti to find a replacement and continue touring. In July 2010, Brad Lang, bass player from the band Jet Red, stepped in to play live for the band as they promoted 'Facemelter', as Kennemore wanted the tour to carry on during his fight with cancer. On January 7, 2011, bassist Kennemore died at the age of 57 after a short battle with lung cancer. Kennemore and Meniketti had been the only constant members of the band since 1974. After Kennemore's passing, Lang was asked to become an official member of the band. On October 19, 2013, in Bellagio, Italy, Burns joined the band onstage for four songs (Black Tiger, Dirty Girl, Midnight In Tokyo, and Hurricane) in a reunion of sorts since Burns had been playing with Huey Lewis and the News and Vasco Rossi. This one-time reunion was very well received by the fans, as one would expect. In April 2016, Lang left the band to properly address his alcohol dependency; his last show with the band was on April 2, 2016, at the Fillmore in San Francisco. Lang's friend Aaron Leigh (Frank Hannon Band) stepped in with his first show on April 14 at the Canyon Club in Agoura Hills, CA. On June 29, 2016, Y&T and Lang announced separately on their own Facebook feeds that they had mutually and amicably parted ways, confirming that Leigh would remain as the band's bassist. Songwriter and original drummer Haze died on September 11, 2016, at the age of 61 after a long battle with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Original guitarist Alves died on March 12, 2017, at the age of 63 from ulcerative colitis and inflammatory bowel disease. Alves' death left Meniketti as the last surviving member from the band's original and classic 1974-1986 lineup. In January 2018, Y&T released their first-ever acoustic EP titled Acoustic Classix Vol. 1. In June 2018, Meinketti said that the band might release more acoustic EPs in the future. On November 26, 2019, the long-awaited, fan-backed (on Kickstarter) documentary Y&T: On With the Show was released. Legacy "Summertime Girls" has been the band's most widely recognized song, along with fan favorites such as "Mean Streak", "Contagious", "Rescue Me", "Forever". Music videos for songs such as "Summertime Girls", "Mean Streak", "Lipstick & Leather", "Don't Stop Runnin'", "Don't Be Afraid of the Dark", and "Contagious" are still featured on VH1 Classic. Y&T's 2010 music video for "I'm Coming Home" marks the band's most-viewed video on YouTube with over 1.7 million views. In the movie Anvil! The Story of Anvil, in the bonus feature interview Lars Ulrich of Metallica talks at length about seeing one of his favorite bands Y&T for the first time at a club in Hollywood in December 1980. Ulrich credits Y&T as the reason he decided to become a musician, saying: "That was the turning point for me wanting to play music. . . . You could tell that they loved what they were doing." Band members Current members Dave Meniketti – lead guitar, lead vocals (1974–1991, 1995–present) John Nymann – rhythm guitar, backing vocals (2003–present) Mike Vanderhule – drums, backing vocals (2006–present) Aaron Leigh – bass, backing vocals (2016–present) Former members Leonard Haze – drums, backing and lead vocals (1974–1986, 2001–2006; died 2016) Phil Kennemore – bass, keyboards, backing and lead vocals (1974–1991, 1995–2011; his death) Joey Alves – rhythm guitar, backing vocals (1974–1989; died 2017) Jimmy DeGrasso – drums (1986–1991, 1995–2001) Stef Burns – rhythm guitar, backing vocals (1989–1991, 1995–2003) Brad Lang – bass, backing vocals (2010–2016) Session members Robert Russ – piano on Struck Down (1978) Cherie Currie – backing vocals on Struck Down (1978) Galen Cook – organ on Struck Down (1978) Randy Nichols – keyboards on Down for the Count (1985) Steffen Presley – keyboards on Down for the Count (1985) and Contagious (1987) Claude Schnell – keyboards on Down for the Count (1985) Adam Day – rhythm guitar on Down for the Count (1985) Bill Costa – backing vocals on Down for the Count (1985) Steve Smith – drums on "Hard Times", "Lucy", "Don't Be Afraid of the Dark", "Girl Crazy", "Come in from the Rain", "Red Hot & Ready", "Let It Out", "Ten Lovers", and "Surrender" from Ten (1990) Loren Gold – keyboards on Facemelter (2010) Ross McEwen - guitar for Ramblin' Man Fair and Rock and Blues Custom Show Festivals, (July 28 & 29, 2017) Timeline Discography Studio albums Yesterday and Today (1976) Struck Down (1978) Earthshaker (1981) Black Tiger (1982) Mean Streak (1983) (US#103) In Rock We Trust (1984) (US#45) Down for the Count (1985) (US#91) Contagious (1987) (US#78) Ten (1990) Musically Incorrect (1995) Endangered Species (1997) Facemelter (2010) Extended plays Acoustic Classix Vol. 1 (2018) Live albums In Concert (1984) (BBC Transcription Services - Copyright recording for radio broadcast only) Open Fire (1985) (US #70) Yesterday & Today Live (1991) Live on the Friday Rock Show (1998) (recorded 1982 and 1984, reissued in 2000 as BBC Live in Concert) Live at the Mystic (2012) Compilation albums Forever - Best of Y&T (1987) (Japan only) Anthology (1989) (UK only) Best of '81 to '85 (1990) Ultimate Collection (2001) Unearthed Vol. 1 - Demos & Unreleased Recordings from 1974 Through 2003 (2003) Unearthed Vol. 2 - Demos & Unreleased Recordings from 1974 Through 1989 (2004) Earthquake - The A&M Years 1981-1985 (2013) (4-CD box set) Singles Contributions Hear 'n Aid (1986) Videography Videos Live at the San Francisco Civic (1985) DVDs One Hot Night (DVD) (2007) Documentary - Y&T: On With the Show (DVD) (2019) Official promo videos "Mean Streak" (from the album Mean Streak, 1983) "Don't Stop Runnin'" (from the album In Rock We Trust, 1984) "All American Boy" (from the album Down For The Count, 1985) "Summertime Girls" (from the album Open Fire, 1985) "Lipstick & Leather" (from the album In Rock We Trust, 1984 with Video footage of Live at the San Francisco Civic, 1985) "Contagious" (from the album Contagious, 1987) "Don't Be Afraid Of The Dark" (from the album Ten, 1990) "I'm Coming Home" (from the album Facemelter, 2010) References External links Official website A&M Records artist page Photographs from a Y&T concert in Madrid Dutch Y&T Fan Club Y&T Facemelting Fanpages Sweden 1974 establishments in California A&M Records artists American glam metal musical groups Hard rock musical groups from California Heavy metal musical groups from California London Records artists Musical groups from Oakland, California Musical groups established in 1974 Musical groups disestablished in 1991 Musical groups reestablished in 1995 Musical groups disestablished in 1997 Musical groups reestablished in 2001 Musical quartets	[ 0.7727153301239014, 0.2128499299287796, 0.07248106598854065, 0.24214711785316467, 0.45399442315101624, 0.27215775847435, 0.08243100345134735, 0.35268884897232056, 0.29044854640960693, -0.35472846031188965, 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213618	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yesterday%20%26%20Today	Yesterday & Today	Yesterday & Today may refer to: Yesterday and Today, a 1966 album by The Beatles Yesterday & Today (band), later Y&T, an American rock band "Yesterday & Today" (song), a 2000 song by Do As Infinity Yesterday & Today (Tokio album) "Yesterday & Today" (Yes song), a song by the british band Yes from their self-titled debut album Yesterday and Today (The Field album) Yesterday & Today (Y&T album) See also Yesterday (disambiguation) Today (disambiguation)	[ 0.21052424609661102, -0.05849800258874893, -0.29180392622947693, 0.013735022395849228, 0.1064089685678482, 0.13076919317245483, 0.1899656057357788, 0.11477118730545044, -0.25505852699279785, -0.5047017931938171, -0.11681655794382095, 0.8808537721633911, 0.047588955610990524, 0.1467241793870926, -0.4810601472854614, 0.5702389478683472, 0.0790327787399292, 0.21020162105560303, -0.3179006576538086, -0.14441744983196259, 0.14879892766475677, 0.301310658454895, 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213620	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Struck%20Down	Struck Down	Struck Down is the second studio album by American hard rock/heavy metal band Yesterday and Today, released in 1978. It was one of the last rock albums to be released by London Records. The album was brought back into print in 2009 when it was made available on the band's official website together with the self-titled debut on a single CD. The band would change their name to Y&T for their next studio album, Earthshaker. Track listing Side one "Struck Down" (Dave Meniketti, Leonard Haze) – 4:33 "Pleasure in My Heart" (Meniketti, Haze) – 4:44 "Road" (Meniketti, Haze) – 2:58 "Nasty Sadie" (Haze, Joey Alves, Meniketti) – 3:48 Side two "Dreams of Egypt" (Haze, Meniketti) – 4:14 "Tried to Show You" (Meniketti) – 3:43 "I'm Lost" (Meniketti, Phil Kennemore, Haze) – 2:59 "Stargazer (Round & Round)" (Kennemore) – 4:36 Personnel Dave Meniketti – vocals, guitar Joey Alves – guitar, vocals Phil Kennemore – bass, vocals Leonard Haze – percussion, drums, vocals Robert Russ – piano Cherie Currie – backing vocals Galen Cook – organ References External links Official Y&T website Y&T albums London Records albums 1978 albums	[ -0.4133017957210541, 0.11744577437639236, -0.3615676462650299, 0.3506835997104645, -0.28510385751724243, 0.7433750629425049, 0.25315073132514954, 0.032823629677295685, -0.032612815499305725, -0.23720405995845795, 0.7866293787956238, 0.763312578201294, -0.39884036779403687, 0.18077689409255981, 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213623	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yesterday%20and%20Today%20%28Yesterday%20and%20Today%20album%29	Yesterday and Today (Yesterday and Today album)	Yesterday and Today is the self-titled debut studio album by American hard rock/heavy metal band Yesterday and Today, released in 1976 through London Records. Long out of print, in 2009 it was made available on the band's official website together with the follow-up, Struck Down, on a single CD. Track listing Side one "Animal Woman" (Joey Alves, Phil Kennemore, Dave Meniketti) – 3:40 "25 Hours a Day" (Alves, Meniketti, Leonard Haze) – 3:39 "Game Playing Woman" (Meniketti, Kennemore, Haze) – 5:23 "Come on Over" (Meniketti, Alves, Haze) – 3:08 "My Heart Plays Too" (Meniketti) – 6:37 Side two "Earthshaker" (Meniketti, Haze) – 3:19 "Fast Ladies (Very Slow Gin)" (Meniketti, Haze) – 4:29 "Alcohol" (Meniketti, Alves, Haze) – 4:30 "Beautiful Dreamer" (Meniketti, Haze) – 5:31 Personnel Dave Meniketti – lead guitar, lead (1-7, 9) and backing vocals Joey Alves – rhythm guitar, backing vocals Phil Kennemore – bass, backing and co-lead (1) vocals Leonard Haze – drums, backing and lead (8) vocals Y&T albums London Records albums 1976 debut albums	[ 0.08394232392311096, 0.30516672134399414, -0.8157117962837219, 0.25184157490730286, 0.025279659777879715, 0.151677668094635, 0.2108919471502304, -0.07431132346391678, 0.23354612290859222, -0.5694542527198792, 0.5495909452438354, 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213625	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois%20Boziz%C3%A9	François Bozizé	François Bozizé Yangouvonda (born 14 October 1946) is a Central African politician who was President of the Central African Republic from 2003 to 2013. Bozizé rose to become a high-ranking army officer in the 1970s, under the rule of Jean-Bédel Bokassa. After Bokassa was ousted, Bozizé served in the government as Minister of Defense from 1979 to 1981 and as Minister of Information from 1981 to 1982. He participated in a failed 1982 coup attempt against President André Kolingba and subsequently fled the country. Years later, he served as Army Chief of Staff under President Ange-Félix Patassé, but he began a rebellion against Patassé in 2001. Bozizé's forces captured the capital, Bangui, in March 2003, while Patassé was outside the country, and Bozizé took power, ushering in a transitional period of government. He won the March–May 2005 presidential election in a second round of voting, and he was re-elected in the January 2011 presidential election, winning the vote in the first round. In December 2012, the CAR was plunged into an uprising by rebel forces who condemned the Bozizé government for not honoring peace agreements after the Central African Republic Bush War in 2007. On 24 March 2013, Bozizé fled to Cameroon via the Democratic Republic of the Congo after the rebel forces attacked Bangui and took control of the presidential palace. There, he was housed by Paul Biya, president of Cameroon. On 29 May 2013, an international arrest warrant was issued against Bozizé by the Central African Justice. Early life and Kolingba's rule Bozizé was born in the present-day nation of Gabon, a member of the Gbaya people, and attended a military officers' training college in the Central African province of Bouar. He became a second lieutenant in 1969 and a captain in 1975. He was appointed Brigadier General by the Emperor of Central Africa Bokassa I (Jean-Bédel Bokassa) in 1978, after he beat a French noncommissioned officer who had been disrespectful to the Emperor. With General Josyhat Mayomokala, Bozizé ordered military personnel to attack young demonstrators who were asking for their parents' arrears. After Bokassa was ousted by David Dacko in 1979, Bozizé was appointed Minister of Defense after an operation that the French army used to overthrow Bokassa (Operation Barracuda). Following Dacko's ouster by André Kolingba in September 1981, Bozizé was appointed Minister of Information, but fled to the north of the country with 100 soldiers after his involvement in a failed coup attempt led by Ange-Félix Patassé on 3 March 1982, in which he accused Kolingba of treason and proclaimed the change of power on Radio Bangui. He then obtained refuge in France. Bozizé was arrested in Cotonou, Benin in July 1989, and imprisoned and tortured. He was put on trial by Kolingba on charges of helping the coup d'état in May but was acquitted on 24 September 1991 and released from prison on 1 December. He then sought refuge in France, where he remained for nearly two years. Under pressure to democratize the government during the 1980s, Kolingba had formed a political party and held a referendum, in which he was elected to a six-year term in office as president. After the fall of the Berlin Wall, internal and external pressures eventually forced Kolingba to adopt the beginnings of a democratic approach. In March 1991, he named Édouard Frank Prime Minister but allowed him virtually no power. He also established a commission to revise the constitution in order to promote pluralism. As a result, the donor community severely restricted aid flows pending movement towards democracy putting the country into a vicious cycle in which it could not obtain the resources to pay for an election which would legitimize it suffiently to obtain a flow of aid. When he was pressured by the international community, via a group of locally represented international donors called GIBAFOR (France, USA, Germany, Japan, EU, World Bank and UN), including a very vocal and eloquent US ambassador to the Central African Republic, Daniel H. Simpson, to hold fair elections. They were assisted by the UN Electoral Assistance Unit and monitored by international observers in 1992 but a lot of the resources came from France. Kolingba had the 1992 election sabotaged as he discovered he was not expected to win the vote and so declared the election invalid getting the Constitutional Council cancel it. Under continued pressure from the donor group the election was rescheduled for September 1993. In the 1993 election, Bozizé ran for the presidency as an independent, receiving 12,159 votes, 1.5% of the total votes cast. Patassé, Abel Goumba and Kolingba received 37.32%, 21.68% and 12.10% of the vote, respectively, but since none of the candidates obtained a majority, a run-off election between the top two candidates — Patassé and Goumba — was held. Patassé defeated Goumba by a 53.49%–46.51% vote and was elected president of the Central African Republic. Supporting Patassé For many years Bozizé was considered a supporter of Patassé and helped him suppress army mutinies in 1996 and 1997. Bozizé was named the Armed Forces Chief of Staff. Bozizé showed no activity against Patassé and frequently crushed revolts against the president. Against Patassé On 28 May 2001, a coup was attempted against Patassé and defeated with the help of Libyan troops and Congolese rebels of the Movement for the Liberation of Congo. Afterwards, Bozizé's loyalty was questioned, and in late October 2001 he was dismissed as Army Chief of Staff. Fighting erupted when the government tried to arrest Bozizé on 3 November; after five days of this, government forces aided by Libyan troops captured the barracks where Bozizé was based, and Bozizé fled north to Chad. Fighting between government forces and Bozizé's rebels continued during 2002. From 25 to 31 October, his forces unsuccessfully attacked on the capital, Bangui; soldiers of the Congolese MLC, which again came to Patassé's aid, were accused of looting and rape. This period was marked by tensions between Chad and Patassé's government. Patassé's ruling party accused Chadian president Idriss Déby of destabilizing the Central African Republic by supporting Bozizé with men and equipment. 2003 coup, 2005 presidential election and rule On 15 March 2003, Bozizé finally succeeded in seizing power, with his forces entering Bangui unopposed. Patassé was returning from a meeting in Niger at the time, but could not land because Bozizé's forces controlled the airport. Patassé took refuge in Cameroon and then Togo the next year. On 23 March, Bozizé appointed Abel Goumba as Prime Minister. In December, he made Goumba Vice-President and appointed Célestin Gaombalet in his place as Prime Minister. Bozizé also suspended the country's 1995 constitution after seizing power, and a new constitution, reportedly similar to the old one, was approved by voters in a referendum on 5 December 2004. After seizing power, Bozizé initially said he would not run in a planned future presidential election, but after the successful constitutional referendum, he announced his intention to stand as a candidate on 11 December: After thinking thoroughly, and being deeply convinced and keeping in mind the nation's interest, I grasped the deep sense of my people's calls. As a citizen, I'll take my responsibility. I'll contest the election to achieve the task of rebuilding the country, which is dear to me and according to your wish. After Bozizé seized power, the Central African Republic Bush War began with the rebellion by the Union of Democratic Forces for Unity (UFDR), led by Michel Djotodia. This quickly escalated into major fighting during 2004. The UFDR rebel forces consisted of five allies, the Groupe d'action patriotique pour la liberation de Centrafrique (GAPLC), the Convention of Patriots for Justice and Peace (CPJP), the People's Army for the Restoration of Democracy (APRD), the Movement of Central African Liberators for Justice (MLCJ), and the Front démocratique Centrafricain (FDC). On 30 December 2004, Bozizé was one of five candidates approved to run in the presidential election scheduled for early 2005. On 4 January 2005, Bozizé announced that three initially excluded candidates would also be allowed to run, although former president Patassé was not included in either group. In late January, it was announced that more candidates would be permitted to run in the election, bringing the total to 11 and leaving only Patassé barred. The elections were also delayed by one month from the previously scheduled date of 13 February to 13 March. Bozizé placed first in the 13 March election, taking just under 43% of the vote according to official results. He faced Patassé's last prime minister, Martin Ziguélé, in a second round of voting; this was held on 8 May and according to official results announced on 24 May, he won with 64.6% of the vote. He was sworn in on 11 June. The National Assembly authorized Bozizé to rule by decree for three months, from 1 January to 31 March 2006; his Prime Minister, Élie Doté, said that this period of rule by decree was successful, enabling Bozizé to take measures to streamline the civil service. In addition to being president, Bozizé has been Minister of National Defense since taking power. At the end of the transitional period, he retained the defense portfolio when he appointed a new government under Doté in June 2005, and he also kept it in a September 2006 cabinet reshuffle. In early 2006, Bozizé's government appeared stable. However, Patassé, who was living in exile in Togo, could not be ruled out as a leader of a future uprising. His supporters reportedly were joining or were prepared to join rebel movements in belief that their leader was still the rightful head of state of the country. Further, members of Kolingba's Yakoma tribe in the south posed a potential threat to Bozizé's government because of their widespread boycott of the second round of the legislative elections. Members of the Yakoma dominate the army. On 13 April 2007, a peace agreement between the government and the UFDR was signed in Birao. The agreement provided for an amnesty for the UFDR, its recognition as a political party, and the integration of its fighters into the army. Further negotiations resulted in an agreement in 2008 for reconciliation, a unity government, and local elections in 2009 and parliamentary and presidential elections in 2010. The new unity government that resulted was formed in January 2009. Facing a general strike over wage arrears for civil servants in January 2008, Bozizé appointed a new government headed by Faustin-Archange Touadéra, an academic figure who was politically unknown. In that government he kept the defense portfolio, while also appointing his son Francis Bozizé to work under him as Minister-Delegate. Bozizé's sister, Yvonne M'Boïssona, who had been Minister of Tourism, was reappointed to the government as Minister of Water, Forests, Hunting, Fishing, and the Environment. His nephew, Sylvain Ndoutingai, served as Minister of State of Mines, Energy, and Water Resources. In February 2010, Kolingba died in France. In early March, Bozizé presided over his burial ceremony in Bangui. The same week, Bozizé signed a presidential decree setting the date for the next presidential election which was to be held on 25 April 2010. The elections were first postponed to 16 May, and then indefinitely. The parliament was asked to pass a change to the constitution allowing the President to continue its mandate until elections could be organized. Some sources saw the delay in elections as a constitutional coup, and did not expect elections to take place anytime soon. However, elections were held in January and March 2011. Bozizé and his party both won in the elections. 2012–13 conflict On 10 December 2012, the Séléka CPSK-CPJP-UFDR (Séléka means coalition) seized the towns of N'Délé, Sam Ouandja and Ouadda. Rebels fought with government and allied CPJP troops for over an hour before securing the town of N'Délé. On 27 December, Bozizé requested international assistance to help with the rebellion, in particular from France and the United States. French President François Hollande rejected the plea, saying that the 250 French troops stationed at Bangui M'Poko International Airport are there "in no way to intervene in the internal affairs". On 11 January 2013, a ceasefire agreement was signed in Libreville, Gabon. The rebels dropped their demand for Bozizé to resign, but he had to appoint a new prime minister from the opposition party by 18 January 2013. On 13 January, Bozizé signed a decree that removed Prime Minister Touadéra from power, as part of the agreement with the rebel coalition. On 17 January, Nicolas Tiangaye was appointed Prime Minister. By 22 March, however, the rebels had renewed their advance, accusing Bozizé of failing to honor the January ceasefire agreement. They took towns throughout the Central African Republic, including Damara and Bossangoa. They advanced to within 22 kilometers of Bangui, but were halted with an aerial assault from an attack helicopter. However, Nelson N'Djadder, presumed spokesman for the rebels, claimed that they shot down the helicopter. On 24 March, rebel forces heavily attacked Bangui and took control of major structures, including the presidential palace. Bozizé's family fled across the river to the Democratic Republic of the Congo and then to Yaoundé, the capital of Cameroon, where he was granted temporary refuge. Subsequently, he requested that Benin grant him political asylum. Kwa Na Kwa announced on 10 August 2015 that Bozizé would return to the country and stand as a candidate in the October 2015 presidential election. On 8 December 2015, the Constitutional Court announced the list of approved presidential candidacies. Bozizé, who was still in exile, was barred from standing. Officially, he was excluded on the grounds that he was not registered on the voter list and because he had agreed not to run again as part of the peace agreement in January 2013. Gunfire was subsequently reported in parts of Bangui, as his supporters reacted angrily to the news. The KNK said that Bozizé's exclusion was "the result of internal and external pressure", with many of his supporters alleging that the French government was involved in the decision. 2019–2020 At the end of 2019 Bozizé returned to CAR and announced his presidential candidacy for upcoming elections. However, on 3 December 2020 the Constitutional Court of CAR ruled that Bozize did not satisfy the “good morality” requirement for candidates because of an international warrant and United Nations sanctions against him for alleged assassinations, torture and other crimes. Then the government accused Bozizé of plotting a coup that evolved into fullscale civil war. Notes References Aractingi, Jean-Marc (2006), La Politique à mes trousses (Politics at my heels), Paris: Editions l'Harmattan, Central Africa Chapter, Heads of state of the Central African Republic Leaders who took power by coup Leaders ousted by a coup Defense ministers of the Central African Republic Central African Republic exiles Central African Republic people imprisoned abroad Central African Republic torture victims 1946 births Living people Central African Republic Bush War People of the Central African Republic Civil War Central African Republic Pentecostals Prisoners and detainees of Benin People from Ngounié Province Heads of government who were later imprisoned	[ -0.40526849031448364, 0.4437669515609741, -0.6505148410797119, -0.1964072734117508, -0.1705198436975479, 0.39201298356056213, -0.03235768899321556, 0.34838998317718506, -0.744983434677124, -0.22252535820007324, 0.19321665167808533, 0.3670046925544739, -0.4331059753894806, 0.8552910685539246, 0.00033360777888447046, 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213626	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20Fire%20%28Y%26T%20album%29	Open Fire (Y&T album)	Open Fire is the first live album released by American hard rock/heavy metal band Y&T, released in 1985 by A&M Records, produced by Scott Boorey and the band. The live material on the album was recorded at various venues in Greater London in early 1985, and during April 5–6, 1985, at the Keystone club in Palo Alto, California. The Keystone songs – "Go For the Throat" and "Open Fire" – were recorded by Guy Charbonneau in Le Mobile, a mobile recording studio. All of the live tracks were remixed at A&M Studios. The song "Summertime Girls" is a studio recording, produced and engineered separately by Kevin Beamish at Sound City Studios in Van Nuys. Reception Open Fire would prove to be a success, spending 17 weeks on the Billboard 200, and peaking at Number 70. The album introduced the song "Summertime Girls" which would go on to become the band's biggest hit, peaking at Number 16 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Chart. The song also appeared on the band's next proper studio album, Down for the Count, which was released in November 1985. Despite this, Open Fire would go on to become on the hardest albums to find by the band until Hip-O Records (a subsidiary of Universal that specializes in reissuing previously out-of-print albums and themed music compilations) reissued it with two bonus tracks in 2005. The bonus material consisted of live renditions of "Black Tiger" (which was previously unreleased) and "Summertime Girls." The live version of "Summertime Girls" also appeared as the B-side of the studio cut when it was released as a single. In the same year, Majestic Rock Records also released the album on CD using the track list of the vinyl release. It featured a different front cover, but the back cover was the same as the original A&M release, as well as the Hip-O reissue. Track listing Personnel Dave Meniketti – vocals, guitar Joey Alves – guitar, vocals Phil Kennemore – bass, vocals Leonard Haze – drums, percussion Additional personal John Nymann, Bill Costa – backing vocals Production Scott Boorey, Y&T – producers Adam Day, Pete Deanda – technicians Nigel James – production management Kevin Beamish – producer on track 5 Niko Bolas – remixing at A&M Studios, Los Angeles, California, US Bill Traut, Scott Boorey, Quadrangle management – management Chuck Beeson – art direction Chart References Y&T albums 1985 live albums A&M Records live albums Albums produced by Kevin Beamish	[ 0.5420903563499451, 0.4481426477432251, -0.255515456199646, 0.15585657954216003, -0.2602631151676178, -0.017905140295624733, 0.37195977568626404, -0.1342216581106186, 0.18770308792591095, -0.02625436894595623, 0.2959427833557129, 0.9782785773277283, -0.4843985438346863, -0.26848554611206055, 0.1405845582485199, 0.3843742609024048, 0.3645055294036865, -0.11303935199975967, 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213629	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azriel%20Hildesheimer	Azriel Hildesheimer	Azriel Hildesheimer (also Esriel and Israel, ; 11 May 1820 – 12 July 1899) was a German rabbi and leader of Orthodox Judaism. He is regarded as a pioneering moderniser of Orthodox Judaism in Germany and as a founder of Modern Orthodox Judaism. Biography Hildesheimer was born in Halberstadt, Province of Saxony, Kingdom of Prussia, the son of Rabbi Löb Glee Hildesheimer, a native of Hildesheim, Electorate of Hanover, a city near Hanover. He attended the Hasharat Zvi school in Halberstadt, and, from age seventeen, the Yeshiva of Rabbi Jacob Ettlinger in Altona; Chacham Isaac Bernays was one of his teachers and his model as a preacher. While studying in yeshiva Hildesheimer also studied classical languages. In 1840 he returned to Halberstadt, took his diploma at the public Königliches Dom-Gymnasium, and entered the University of Berlin; he became a disciple of the dominant Hegelian school. He studied Semitic languages and mathematics, and continued his study in Talmud. In 1842 he went to Halle upon Saale where he earned his doctorate from the University of Halle-Wittenberg in 1844 under Wilhelm Gesenius and Emil Rödiger (, English: On the Right Kind of Bible Interpretation). He then returned to Halberstadt, where he married Henrietta Hirsch, whose dowry made them financially independent. In 1851 he became Rabbi of Eisenstadt (Kis Marton), Hungary (now located in Austria); the principal city of the Siebengemeinden or Sheva kehillot. His first notable act there was to found a parochial school, where correct German was used, and modern principles of pedagogy were adopted in teaching secular, as well as Jewish, subjects. Hildesheimer initially introduced limited secular studies in the elementary school; the older students received a secular education as well, but with a focus on mathematics and other subjects that would enhance their understanding of gemara. Next, Hildesheimer established a Yeshiva. The Yeshiva was unusual in that it was the only Orthodox institution where students were required to have a significant secular education before they were admitted. Also, the curriculum devoted time to studying Tanach and the Hebrew language. Despite this approach, within a few years the Yeshiva attracted a large number of pupils. After beginning with six students in 1851, the seminary had 128 students in 1868, including one from the United States. His son, Hirsch Hildesheimer, was a professor there. In 1869 the Orthodox minority in Berlin was granted government permission to found a separate Orthodox synagogal congregation, the Israelitische Synagogen-Gemeinde Adass Jisroel zu Berlin (Israelite Synagogal Congregation of Adass Yisroel [עדת ישראל] in Berlin; extant from 1869 to 1939, and again since 1989), then comprising about 200 families. They were dissatisfied with Rabbi Joseph Aub, appointed in 1867 by the Jüdische Gemeinde zu Berlin (till 1869 the only Jewish congregation in Berlin). Adass Jisroel chose Hildesheimer to represent them as an "Orthodox rabbi of standing". Here, he similarly established a religious school and a yeshiva (Rabbinerseminar für das orthodoxe Judenthum in Berlin 1873–1880, then the name was shortened to Rabbiner-Seminar zu Berlin, known as the Hildesheimer Rabbinical Seminary), which immediately attracted thirty former pupils. Hildesheimer was thus the real intellectual founder and leader of the Adass Jisroel congregation. Aided by Mayer Lehmann, the editor of Israelit in Mainz (Mayence), Hildesheimer "exerted his whole energy" in the fight against Reform Judaism. In 1861 he took his stand against Abraham Geiger by criticising Geiger, Die Geiger'sche Broschüre Notwendigkeit und Maass einer Reform des jüdischen Gottesdienstes (under the name variant Israel Hildesheimer, Mayence: Verlag der Le Roux'schen Hofbuchhandlung, 1861). (In fact, as early as 1847—as the representative of the communities in the Magdeburg district—he had energetically opposed the Reform attempts of Ludwig Philippson.) Hildesheimer was "simple in his habits and fearless"; he had an unusual capacity for work; and his great Talmudic learning "was joined to practical administrative ability". He was financially independent, and never accepted remuneration for his rabbinical activity. He was frequently engaged in philanthropic activities connected with his own congregation, but additionally, "no labor was too great and no journey too long for him" in the service of the Jews of Germany, Austria, Russia, and even Abyssinia and Persia, so that he came to be known as the "international schnorrer". Hildesheimer also took a special interest in the welfare of the Jews of Palestine. In 1860, when the missionary society of Palestine provided seventy free dwellings for homeless Jews, Hildesheimer himself built houses in Jerusalem for the free use of Jewish pilgrims and for the poor. Hildesheimer died in Berlin on 12 July 1899. His grave is preserved in the Cemetery of the Synagogal Congregation of Adass Jisroel on Wittlicher Straße, Berlin-Weißensee. In Israel the moshav Azri'el is named after him, as well as streets in Jerusalem and Tel Aviv. Writings Hildesheimer contributed articles to various journals and newspapers: the Jüdische Presse, Ha-Lebanon, He-Chalutz and Archives Israélites. During his lifetime he wrote his name in his books usually as Israel Hildesheimer. His son, Hirsch was editor of the Jüdische Presse. Other writings include: "Materialien zur Beurtheilung der Septuaginta", in: Literaturblatt des Orients, 1848, Nos. 30 et seq.; Die Epitaphien der Grabsteine auf dem Hiesigen [of Halberstadt] Jüdischen Friedhofe, 1846; Verwaltung der Jüdischen Gemeinde Halberstadt, Halberstadt: Dölle, 1849. Offener Brief an den Redacteur der Monatsschrift "Ben-Chananja", Leopold Löv, Vienna, 1858; ספר מנחה טהורה: כולל דינים מהלכות מליחה נדה חלה והדלקה / Minchah Tehorah, Solomon ben Moses Bonhard, Hildesheimer (ed.) Pressburg: 1860; Halachoth gedoloth: nach dem Texte der Handschrift der Vaticana /הלכות גדולות : על פי כתב יד רומי, with Simeon Ḳayara, Berlin: Itzkowski, 1888. Hukkat HaPesach On the celebration of his seventieth birthday, in 1890, his friends and pupils published a literary Jubelschrift zum siebzigsten Geburtstag des Dr. Israel Hildesheimer, Rabbiner und Rector des Rabbiner-Seminars zu Berlin: Gewidmet von Freunden und Schülern / (Berlin: H. Engel, 1890). Modernisation within Orthodoxy Hildesheimer is regarded as a pioneering "Moderniser" of Orthodox Judaism in Germany. He was insistent that for Orthodox Jews living in the West, there was no possibility to segregate oneself behind ghetto walls. On the contrary, he felt that modern Jewish education must teach Jews how best to confront and deal with modernity in all of its aspects . His firm conviction that traditional Judaism need have no fear of the light of European culture determined his attitude and his activity in Hungary and Germany from the start, and gave him a definite aim. In an address delivered at his rabbinical seminary and defining his position he said: He thus undertook a variety of actions which render him a "modern" activist and institution-builder. The most important of these, as discussed above, are: Jewish education for males and females which included both religious and secular studies. The seminary which incorporated not only secular studies but academic scholarship. Maintaining traditional Jewish attachments to the Land of Israel and working with the non-Orthodox on its behalf. Working with communal leaders, even non-Orthodox ones, on issues that affected the community, such as anti-Semitism and ritual slaughtering. Orthodox opposition The introduction into the Eisenstadt School of modern methods of education and of secular learning was resented by the Orthodox. Hildesheimer's "liberal tendencies and sympathy with modern culture" soon changed this resentment "to positive antipathy". Eventually his Yeshiva was denounced before the representatives of the government at Oedenburg, the result being that the Hungarian government ordered the school closed within twenty-four hours and the pupils removed from the city. Soon afterward (in 1858), however, Hildesheimer succeeded in obtaining state recognition for the Yeshiva. Interestingly, the Yeshiva also had opponents on the left: Reform saw it as a threat because its graduates would be equipped to defend Orthodoxy against Reform's inroads. In 1860, the “zealot” Akiva Yosef Schlesinger placed Hildesheimer under a ban as "not truly a sincere Jew" ("emessdiger Jüd"). Hildesheimer, however, seems to have cared little for the ban. At the Hungarian Jewish Congress of 14 December 1868, Hildesheimer at first endeavored to associate himself with the existing Orthodox party. When the impossibility of this union became evident, he formed a separate group, with thirty-five followers, which has been described as "Cultured Orthodox". In the Hungarian Jewish Congress held at Budapest in 1869 he defined this party as representing a "faithful adherence to traditional teachings combined with an effective effort to keep in touch with the spirit of progress". See also Modern Orthodox Judaism Samson Raphael Hirsch Torah im Derech Eretz Torah Umadda References Further reading External links Hildesheimer, Israel (Azriel), jewishencyclopedia.com Rabbi Dr. Esriel Hildesheimer z"l: part 1; part 2, hamaayan Azriel Hildesheimer, jewishhistory.org.il Rabbi Esriel Hildesheimer's Program of Torah u-Madda, Marc B. Shapiro Dilemmas of modern orthodoxy: sociological and philosophical, Prof. Chaim I. Waxman Guide to the Esriel Hildesheimer Collection at the Leo Baeck Institute, New York Die Jüdische Presse, (B219), a digitized periodical founded by Hildesheimer, at the Leo Baeck Institute, New York 1820 births 1899 deaths People from Halberstadt Modern Orthodox rabbis German Orthodox rabbis People from the Province of Saxony	[ -0.20855094492435455, 1.0356483459472656, -0.8152233958244324, -0.5464248657226562, -0.6378956437110901, 0.5312761664390564, 1.157406210899353, -0.07328255474567413, 0.41416239738464355, -0.4843650758266449, -0.3456812798976898, -0.24117933213710785, -0.07128440588712692, 0.5973132848739624, -0.24888727068901062, 0.2652831971645355, -0.2669934928417206, -0.1143016591668129, -0.8008759617805481, 0.09733173251152039, -0.048787739127874374, -0.4036361277103424, 0.5177733302116394, 0.3266257345676422, -0.16135819256305695, -0.40421006083488464, -0.015122431330382824, -0.24902719259262085, -0.06167232617735863, 0.16065509617328644, -0.07047748565673828, 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213635	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing%20P-26%20Peashooter	Boeing P-26 Peashooter	The Boeing P-26 "Peashooter" was the first American production all-metal fighter aircraft and the first pursuit monoplane to enter squadron service with the United States Army Air Corps. Designed and built by Boeing, the prototype first flew in 1932, and the type was still in use with the U.S. Army Air Corps as late as 1941 in the Philippines. There are two surviving Peashooters, but there are three reproductions on display with two more under construction. Design and development The project funded by Boeing to produce the Boeing Model 248 began in September 1931, with the US Army Air Corps supplying the engines and the instruments. The open cockpit, fixed landing gear, externally braced wing design was the last such design procured by the USAAC as a fighter. The Model 248 had a high landing speed, which caused a number of accidents. To remedy this, flaps were fitted to reduce the landing speed. The Army Air Corps ordered three prototypes, designated XP-936, which first flew on 20 March 1932. The Boeing XP-936's headrest offered little protection should it flip onto its back, risking injuring the pilot. As a result, production Model 266s (P-26As) had a taller headrest installed to provide protection. Two fighters were completed as P-26Bs with fuel-injected Pratt & Whitney R-1340-33 engines. These were followed by twenty-three P-26Cs, with carburated R-1340-33s and modified fuel systems. Both the Spanish Air Force (one aircraft) and the Republic of China Air Force (eleven aircraft) ordered examples of the Boeing Model 281, an export version comparable to the P-26C, in 1936. The "Peashooter", as it was known by service pilots, was faster than previous American combat aircraft. Nonetheless, rapid progress in aviation led to it quickly becoming an anachronism, with wire-braced wings, fixed landing gear and an open cockpit. The cantilever-wing Dewoitine D.500 flew the same year as the P-26 and two years afterwards the Soviet I-16 was flying with retractable landing gear. By 1935, just three years after the P-26, the Curtiss P-36, Messerschmitt Bf 109 and Hawker Hurricane were all flying with enclosed cockpits, retractable landing gear and cantilever wings. However, some P-26s remained in service until after the United States entered World War II in December 1941. Operational history U.S. Army Air Corps Deliveries to USAAC pursuit squadrons began in December 1933 with the last production P-26C aircraft coming off the assembly line in 1936. Ultimately, 22 squadrons flew the Peashooter, with peak service being six squadrons, in 1936. P-26s were the frontline fighters of the USAAC until 1938, when Seversky P-35s and Curtiss P-36s began to replace them. A total of twenty P-26s were lost in accidents between 1934 and America's entry into World War II on 7 December 1941, but only five of them were before 1940. Air Corps units using the P-26 were the: 1st Pursuit Group (17th, 27th, and 94th PS), Selfridge Field, Michigan; 4th Composite Group (3d, 17th, and 20th PS), Nichols and Clark fields, Philippine Department. 8th Pursuit Group (33rd, 35th, and 36th PS), Langley Field, Virginia; 16th Pursuit Group (24th and 78th PS), Albrook Field, Panama Canal Zone; 17th Pursuit Group (34th, 73d, and 95th PS), March Field, California 18th Pursuit Group (6th and 19th PS), Wheeler Field, Hawaii; and 20th Pursuit Group (55th, 77th, and 79th PS), Barksdale Field, Louisiana. Overseas deployments Between 1938 and 1940, P-26s were assigned overseas to supplement Seversky P-35s in two defense units based at Wheeler Field, Territory of Hawaii: 18th Pursuit Group (6th, 19th, 73d, and 78th PS) 15th Pursuit Group (45th and 47th PS). The 17th PG became the 17th Attack Group in 1935, and its P-26s were transferred in 1938 to the 16th Pursuit Group (24th, 29th, and 78th PS) at Albrook Field in the Panama Canal Zone. These P-26s were transferred in 1940 to the 37th Pursuit Group (28th, 30th, and 31st PS) which flew them until they were replaced by P-40s in May 1941. Some continued service with the 32d Pursuit Group (51st and 53rd PS), but only nine P-26s remained operational in Central America at the start of World War II. P-26As were also flown by the 3d PS of the 4th Composite Group, based in the Philippines. Between 1937 and 1941, 31 were sold to the fledgling Philippine Army Air Corps. Combat service The first examples to see combat were Chinese Model 281s. On 15 August 1937, eight 281s from the Chinese Nationalist Air Force 3rd Pursuit Group, 17th Squadron, based at Chuyung airfield, engaged eight of twenty Mitsubishi G3M Nell medium bombers from the Kisarazu Air Group attacking Nanking. Four of the Chinese fighters shot down three of the fourteen Japanese bombers destroyed that day without suffering any losses, while Chinese Hawk IIs, Hawk IIIs and Fiat CR.32s claimed the other eleven. Subsequent engagements between the Chinese 281 pilots and Japanese Navy Mitsubishi A5Ms were the first aerial dogfights and kills between all-metal monoplane fighter aircraft. Chinese-American volunteer pilots who joined the Chinese Air Force in the mid-1930s include aces John "Buffalo" Huang and John Wong Pan-yang, both of whom successfully fought the Japanese in the 281. John Wong Pan-yang scored two shared kills over A5Ms on 22 September 1937 and a solo kill over an A5M on 12 October 1937 over Nanking while in his Boeing 281. The Spanish Republican Air Force operated a single Model 281 during the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939, but no kills were made with it before it was shot down in 1936. By December 1941, U.S. fighter strength in the Philippines included 28 P-26s, 12 of which were operational with the 6th Pursuit Squadron of the Philippine Army Air Corps. Captain Jesus A. Villamor and his squadron of P-26s engaged Japanese Mitsubishi A6M Zeros above Zablan and Batangas Fields, and despite being outclassed Villamor and his squadron claimed four kills – one Mitsubishi G3M bomber and three Zeros, two by Villamor himself. For these actions, Villamor was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross and an Oak Leaf Cluster. The P-26s were burnt to prevent their capture by advancing Imperial Japanese Army forces on 24 December 1941. Nine P-26s remained airworthy with the United States Army Air Forces (as the USAAC had been renamed in June 1941) in the Panama Canal Zone. During 1942–1943, the Guatemalan Air Force acquired seven P-26s, which the United States Government delivered to Guatemala as "Boeing PT-26A" trainers to circumvent restrictions on sales of fighters to Latin American countries. The P-26's last combat operation was with the Guatemalan Air Force during the 1954 coup d'état. The final pair of P-26s still flying in military service in the world would be replaced with North American P-51 Mustangs two years later in 1956. Although Boeing produced the prototype XF8B in 1944 and the X-32 entry in the Joint Strike Fighter contest in 2000, the P-26 was the last Boeing Company fighter aircraft to enter service until Boeing acquired McDonnell-Douglas and took over its production and continuing support contracts for the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet in 2002. Variants XP-936 Model 266, prototypes powered by a Pratt & Whitney R-1340-21 Wasp radial engine, three built. P-26A Single-seat fighter aircraft, powered by a R-1340-27. 111 built. P-26B Single-seat fighter, powered by a fuel-injected R-1340-33. two built. P-26C Single-seat fighter, with a carburated R-1340-33 and a modified fuel system. 23 built. Model 281 Export version of the P-26C; 11 built for China and one for Spain. Operators U.S. Army Air Corps Republic of China Air Force – (11 aircraft in the 1930s) Fuerza Aérea Guatemalteca – (7 aircraft operated 1942 to 1956) Philippine Army Air Corps – (12 operated in late 1941) Spain Fuerzas Aéreas de la República Española – (1 demonstrator used briefly) Surviving aircraft P-26A c/n 1899 serial number 33-123 is on display at the Planes of Fame Museum in Chino, California. This aircraft was sold to the Guatemalan Air Force on 11 May 1943, and it flew as FAG 0672 until it was retired in 1957. Flown regularly with the registration N3378G, the museum placed it on static display in the mid-1980s to protect it. In 2004, the decision was made to again fly the P-26, and it made its first public flight during the museum's air show in May 2006. The aircraft was shipped across the Atlantic and flown and displayed at Duxford Aerodrome in England in July 2014 during the type's first post-World War II visit to Europe. P-26A c/n 1911 serial number 33-135 is with the Smithsonian Institution′s National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. This aircraft was assigned to the 94th Pursuit Squadron at Selfridge Field, Michigan, until being sent to the Panama Canal Zone. It was sold to the Guatemalan Air Force on 11 May 1943, and it was flown as FAG 0816 until retired in 1957 when it was donated to the Smithsonian. This aircraft was restored by the USAF, and was displayed at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in 34th Attack Squadron markings until 1975, when it was returned to the National Air and Space Museum in 1976. Replicas A P-26A reproduction is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB in Dayton, Ohio. It is painted as the commander's aircraft of the 19th PS / 18th PG, stationed at Wheeler Field, Oahu, Territory of Hawaii, in 1938. The San Diego Air and Space Museum has made a reproduction of an early model to Boeing's plans with the original design's "streamlined tailwheel" and without flaps and the crossover exhaust that were later additions. P-26D: A flying replica completed in 2006 is in the collection of the Military Aviation Museum, Virginia Beach, Virginia. Mayocraft Inc., completed the final assembly in September 2006, and it went on display in June, 2011 after nearly 12 years of construction. Retrieved: 17 March 2007. P-26A: Two flyable reproduction aircraft using original blueprints are currently being constructed by Golden Age Aeroplane Works in Brownstown, Indiana. Specifications (P-26A) See also Notes References Bibliography Angelucci, Enzo and Peter M. Bowers. The American Fighter. Sparkford, Somerset, UK: Haynes Publishing Group, 1987. . Bowers, Peter M. Boeing Aircraft since 1916. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1989. . Bowers, Peter M. Boeing P-26 Variants (Aerofax Minigraph 8). Arlington, Texas: Aerofax Inc., 1985. . Bowers, Peter M. "The Boeing P-26A". Aircraft in Profile, Volume One, Part 2. Windsor, UK/Garden City, NY: Profile Publications/Doubleday, revised 4th edition, 1976. . Crosby, Francis. "Boeing P-26." Fighter Aircraft. London: Lorenz Books, 2002. . Davis, Larry. P-26 (Mini in Action number 2). Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1994. . Dorr, Robert F. "Boeing P-26 Peashooter". Air International, Vol. 48, No. 4, 1995, p. 239. Fitzsimons, Bernard, ed. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of 20th Century Weapons and Warfare (Volume 19). London: Purnell & Son Ltd, 1978, First edition 1971. No ISBN. Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. "Boeing's Fighter Finale... The Peashooter Chronicle". Air Enthusiast, Fourteen, December 1980 – March 1981, pp. 1–12, 73–75. Maloney, Edward T. Boeing P-26 "Peashooter" (Aero Series 22). Fallbrook, California: Aero Publishers Inc., 1973. . Maloney, Edward T. and Frank Ryan. P-26: History of the Famous Boeing P-26 "Peashooter" (Air Museum Historical Series). Hollywood, California: Challenge Publications, Inc., 1965. Pedigree of Champions: Boeing Since 1916, Third Edition. Seattle, Washington: The Boeing Company, 1969. Shores, Christopher, Brian Cull and Yasuho Izawa. Bloody Shambles: Volume one: The Drift to War to the Fall of Singapore. London: Grub Street, 1992. . Wagner, Ray. American Combat Planes – Second Edition. Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Company, 1968. . External links P-26 entry on historynet The Peashooter’s legacy, by Michael Lombardi Project for two Peashooter reproduction aircraft P-26 Peashooter at the Military Aviation Museum, Virginia Beach, Virginia "High Speed Changes in Flying," Popular Mechanics, May 1935, pp. 706–708 Boeing P-26 P-26 Peashooter Single-engined tractor aircraft Aircraft first flown in 1932 Conventional landing gear World War II Chinese fighter aircraft	[ 0.031151792034506798, 0.6041791439056396, -0.5238772034645081, 0.31578224897384644, -0.3881138265132904, -0.15364572405815125, 0.28938621282577515, -0.7312421202659607, -0.05104982107877731, -0.20336827635765076, -0.37003621459007263, 0.3451424241065979, -0.3476514220237732, -0.015706103295087814, -0.11646720767021179, -0.1728748381137848, 0.4178905189037323, -0.14254306256771088, 0.3673391342163086, -0.3249768316745758, -0.6839052438735962, -0.28299614787101746, 0.011129671707749367, 0.030177297070622444, -0.15236879885196686, 0.14123694598674774, 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213636	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bath%20Iron%20Works	Bath Iron Works	Bath Iron Works (BIW) is a major United States shipyard located on the Kennebec River in Bath, Maine, founded in 1884 as Bath Iron Works, Limited. BIW has built private, commercial, and military vessels, most of which have been ordered by the United States Navy. The shipyard has built and sometimes designed battleships, frigates, cruisers, and destroyers, including the which are currently among the world's most advanced surface warships. Since 1995, Bath Iron Works has been a subsidiary of General Dynamics. It is the fifth-largest defense contractor in the world as of 2008. During World War II, ships built at BIW were considered to be of superior toughness by sailors and Navy officials, giving rise to the phrase "Bath-built is best-built." History Bath Iron Works was incorporated in 1884 by General Thomas W. Hyde, a native of Bath who served in the American Civil War. After the war, he bought a shop that made windlasses and other iron hardware for the wooden ships built in Bath's many shipyards. He expanded the business by improving its practices, entering new markets, and acquiring other local businesses. By 1882, Hyde Windlass was eyeing the new and growing business of iron shipbuilding, and it incorporated as Bath Iron Works in 1884. On February 28, 1890, BIW won its first contract for complete vessels: two iron gunboats for the Navy. One of these ships was the , the first ship launched by the company. In 1892, the yard won its first commercial contract for the 2,500-ton steel passenger steamer . In the 1890s, the company built several yachts for wealthy sailors. In 1899, Hyde was suffering from Bright's Disease and resigned from management of the shipyard, leaving his sons Edward and John in charge. The shipyard began construction of that same year, the only battleship ever built in Bath. It dominated the yard for five years until its launching in 1904, and was at times the only ship under construction. The yard faced numerous challenges because of the weight of armor and weapons. In sea trials, Georgia averaged for four hours, making her the fastest ship in her class and the fastest battleship in the United States Navy at the time. The company continued to rely on Navy contracts, which provided 86-percent of the value of new contracts between 1905 and 1917. The yard also produced fishing trawlers, freighters, and yachts throughout the first half of the century. These included Vanda, Hi-Esmaro, Aras I and Aras II, Caroline, and Corsair IV, which later served as a cruise ship before sinking off Acapulco, Mexico in 1949. The shipyard was at peak production during World War II (1943–1944) and launched a destroyer every 17 days. Bath Iron Works ranked 50th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts. In 1981, Falcon Transport ordered two tankers, the last commercial vessels built by BIW. was commissioned at Bath in 1986, and it survived a mine explosion which tore a hole in its engine room and flooded two compartments. Over the next two years, BIW repaired the ship in unique fashion. The guided missile frigate was towed to the company's dry dock in Portland, Maine, and put up on blocks, where the damaged engine room was cut out of the ship. Meanwhile, workers in Bath built a 315-ton replacement, and the module was floated south to Portland, placed on the dry dock, slid into place under the frigate, jacked up, and welded into place. In 1995, Bath Iron Works was bought by General Dynamics. In 2001, the company wrapped up a four-year effort to build the Land Level Transfer Facility, an enormous concrete platform for final assembly of its ships, instead of building them on a sloping way so that they could slide into the Kennebec at launch. Hulls are now moved by rail from the platform horizontally onto a moveable dry dock, which greatly reduced the work involved in building and launching the ships. The , 28,000-ton dry dock was built by China's Jiangdu Yuchai Shipbuilding Company for $27 million. In 2015, Bath Iron Works signed contracts with US Navy to build new Arleigh Burke-class destroyers, as well as to conduct maintenance sustainment support of Independence-class littoral combat ships built by competitor Austal USA. The shipyard delivered and and is working on and . The DDG block buy for Bath also includes , , and . On March 27, Bath received a $610.4 million contract modification to build John Basilone. This ship was funded in the 2015 defense appropriations act. In 2020, 4,300 workers, all members of the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers, voted to go on strike following the failure to agree to new labor contracts between the company and union members. Notable ships built Yachts Aphrodite completed for Oliver Hazard Payne 1899, the largest American built steam yacht at the time Ranger, successful America's Cup defender Aras II, Presidential Yacht known as USS Williamsburg Corsair IV, large yacht built for J. P. Morgan Jr. Lightvessels Diamond Shoal Lightship No. 71 (LV-71) Nantucket Lightship 66 Nantucket Lightship 106 Gunboat USS Machias, Spanish-American War and World War I Naval ram Monitor protected cruiser World War I , launched in 1904 World War I s World War I World War I s World War I – Rum Patrol World War I World War I – Rum Patrol World War I – Rum Patrol World War I s World War I – Rum Patrol World War I – Rum Patrol World War I – Rum Patrol World War I s World War I – Rum Patrol World War I – Attack on Pearl Harbor World War I – Guadalcanal Campaign – Operation Flintlock – Battle of Saipan – Philippines campaign (1944-45) s World War I – Destroyers for Bases Agreement World War I – Destroyers for Bases Agreement World War I Destroyers for Bases Agreement Destroyers for Bases Agreement – St. Nazaire Raid Destroyers for Bases Agreement Destroyers for Bases Agreement Destroyers for Bases Agreement s Attack on Pearl Harbor – Guadalcanal Campaign Attack on Pearl Harbor – Battle of Empress Augusta Bay Attack on Pearl Harbor sank U-352 sank U-157 Farragut-class destroyers (1934) Attack on Pearl Harbor – Battle of the Coral Sea – Battle of Midway – Guadalcanal Campaign – Battle of the Eastern Solomons – Battle of the Philippine Sea The J-class yacht Ranger, 1936 s Battle of Tassafaronga Philippines campaign (1944-45) Battle of Tassafaronga - Philippines campaign (1944-45) – sunk in test Able of Operation Crossroads s Invasion of Normandy s Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Midway – Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands – Naval Battle of Guadalcanal – Philippines campaign (1944-45) s invasions of Sicily, Italy and Southern France invasions of Sicily, Italy and Southern France invasions of North Africa and Southern France invasions of North Africa and Southern France invasions of North Africa, Sicily and Italy invasions of North Africa, Sicily, Italy and Southern France invasions of North Africa, Normandy, Southern France and Okinawa invasions of North Africa, Southern France and Okinawa Guadalcanal campaign – Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Korean War – Vietnam War Naval Battle of Guadalcanal Guadalcanal campaign – Naval Battle of Vella Lavella – Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Korean War – Vietnam War Guadalcanal campaign – Naval Battle of Vella Lavella Guadalcanal campaign Guadalcanal campaign – Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Korean War – Vietnam War Guadalcanal campaign Guadalcanal campaign – Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Korean War Guadalcanal campaign – Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Battle of Surigao Strait – Korean War Guadalcanal campaign – Battle of Empress Augusta Bay Battle of Cape St. George – Battle of the Philippine Sea - Philippines campaign (1944-45) Guadalcanal campaign – Philippines campaign (1944-45) Guadalcanal campaign – Battle of Empress Augusta Bay - Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Battle of Okinawa Guadalcanal campaign – Battle of Empress Augusta Bay - Battle of Cape St. George - Battle of the Philippine Sea - Philippines campaign (1944-45) Guadalcanal campaign – Battle of the Philippine Sea - Battle of Iwo Jima Guadalcanal campaign – Battle of Empress Augusta Bay - Battle of the Philippine Sea - Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Battle of Okinawa Guadalcanal campaign – Battle of the Philippine Sea - Battle of Okinawa Guadalcanal campaign – Battle of the Philippine Sea - Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Battle of Okinawa Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Battle of Okinawa – Korean War – Vietnam War Philippines campaign (1944-45) Battle of the Philippine Sea - Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Battle of Okinawa Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Battle of Okinawa – Korean War Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Battle of Okinawa Guadalcanal campaign – Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Battle of Surigao Strait Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Battle of Okinawa – Korean War Battle of the Philippine Sea - Philippines campaign (1944-45) Battle of the Philippine Sea - Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Vietnam War Mariana and Palau Islands Campaign – Philippines campaign (1944-45) - Battle of Okinawa – Vietnam War Battle of the Philippine Sea - Philippines campaign (1944-45) Battle of Saipan – Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Battle of Surigao Strait – Battle of Okinawa Battle of Saipan Battle of Saipan Philippines campaign (1944-45) s Invasion of Normandy – Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Korean War Invasion of Normandy – Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Battle of Okinawa – Korean War – Vietnam War Invasion of Normandy – Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Battle of Okinawa – Korean War – preserved National Historic Landmark in Charleston, South Carolina Invasion of Normandy – Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Korean War – Vietnam War Invasion of Normandy Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Battle of Okinawa – Korean War Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Korean War – Vietnam War Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Battle of Okinawa – Korean War – Vietnam War Philippines campaign (1944-45) – Korean War Battle of Okinawa – Korean War – Gulf of Tonkin Incident – Vietnam War Battle of Okinawa – Korean War Battle of Okinawa Battle of Okinawa – Korean War Battle of Okinawa Battle of Okinawa Battle of Okinawa Battle of Okinawa Battle of Okinawa Battle of Okinawa Battle of Okinawa s World War II – Korean War – Vietnam War World War II – Korean War – Vietnam War Korean War World War II – Korean War – Vietnam War – Battle of Dong Hoi World War II – Vietnam War Vietnam War Korean War – Vietnam War (Experimental ship completed with aluminum superstructure and high-horsepower engines) Vietnam War Vietnam War Korean War – Vietnam War Korean War – Vietnam War Vietnam War Korean War – Vietnam War Vietnam War Korean War Vietnam War Recovered astronaut John Glenn in Friendship 7 on 20 February 1962 Korean War – Vietnam War Vietnam War Korean War – Vietnam War Korean War – Vietnam War Vietnam War (no overseas deployments – used exclusively for ASW research) Vietnam War s s Vietnam War s Vietnam War Vietnam War Vietnam War Vietnam War Vietnam War Vietnam War s D185 D186 D187 Farragut-class destroyers (1958) Vietnam War s Vietnam War s Vietnam War Vietnam War Vietnam War s s , launched August 31, 1984. One of four U.S. Navy ships in commission to have sunk an enemy vessel with shipboard weaponry, the others being the , , and , , launched in 1984 and repaired after being punctured by a mine in 1988 s , 21 Feb 2008 shot down the errant USA 193 satellite with a modified SM3 missile. s , commissioned July 4, 1991. , launched in 2005 , launched in 2006 USS Daniel Inouye (DDG-118) USS Carl M. Levin (DDG-120) USS John Basilone (DDG-122) USS Harvey C. Barnum Jr. (DDG-124) USS Louis H. Wilson Jr. (DDG-126) USS Patrick Gallagher (DDG-127) USS William Charette (DDG-130) s References Further reading (First general history of BIW.) (Describes the construction of a Perry-class guided missile frigate, the training of its precommissioning crew at BIW, and the complex repair job that returned it to duty.) (Describes the construction of at BIW.) (The definitive work on BIW from 1884 to 1987.) (Historic and contemporary photos of BIW.) External links Bath Iron Works website USS Samuel B. Roberts (FFG-58) under repair at BIW's Portland dry dock Shipbuilding companies of the United States Shipyards of the United States Manufacturing companies based in Maine Manufacturing plants in the United States Companies based in Sagadahoc County, Maine Bath, Maine Kennebec River American companies established in 1884 Manufacturing companies established in 1884 1880s establishments in Maine America's Cup yacht builders General Dynamics 1995 mergers and acquisitions Industrial buildings and structures in Maine	[ 0.5425782203674316, 0.14936070144176483, -0.30493617057800293, -0.5391044616699219, 0.44130802154541016, 0.4779675006866455, 0.2859155237674713, 0.06691743433475494, -0.12300073355436325, -0.4920159876346588, 0.21158140897750854, 0.2876393795013428, -0.3688347637653351, 1.0868704319000244, -0.48890069127082825, 0.281210720539093, 0.2556641399860382, 0.10951792448759079, 0.35566994547843933, -0.21873942017555237, -0.04171271622180939, -0.036246158182621, 0.633365273475647, 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213639	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold%20Sommerfeld	Arnold Sommerfeld	Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld, (; 5 December 1868 – 26 April 1951) was a German theoretical physicist who pioneered developments in atomic and quantum physics, and also educated and mentored many students for the new era of theoretical physics. He served as doctoral supervisor for many Nobel Prize winners in physics and chemistry (only J. J. Thomson's record of mentorship is comparable to his). He introduced the second quantum number (azimuthal quantum number) and the third quantum number (magnetic quantum number). He also introduced the fine-structure constant and pioneered X-ray wave theory. Early life and education Sommerfeld studied mathematics and physical sciences at the Albertina University of his native city, Königsberg, East Prussia. His dissertation advisor was the mathematician Ferdinand von Lindemann, and he also benefited from classes with mathematicians Adolf Hurwitz and David Hilbert and physicist Emil Wiechert. His participation in the student fraternity Deutsche Burschenschaft resulted in a dueling scar on his face. He received his Ph.D. on 24 October 1891 (age 22). After receiving his doctorate, Sommerfeld remained at Königsberg to work on his teaching diploma. He passed the national exam in 1892 and then began a year of military service, which was done with the reserve regiment in Königsberg. He completed his obligatory military service in September 1893, and for the next eight years continued voluntary eight-week military service. With his turned up moustache, his physical build, his Prussian bearing, and the fencing scar on his face, he gave the impression of being a colonel in the hussars. Career Göttingen In October 1893, Sommerfeld went to the University of Göttingen, which was the center of mathematics in Germany. There, he became assistant to Theodor Liebisch, at the Mineralogical Institute, through a fortunate personal contact – Liebisch had been a professor at the University of Königsberg and a friend of the Sommerfeld family. In September 1894, Sommerfeld became Felix Klein's assistant, which included taking comprehensive notes during Klein's lectures and writing them up for the Mathematics Reading Room, as well as managing the reading room. Sommerfeld's Habilitationsschrift was completed under Klein, in 1895, which allowed Sommerfeld to become a Privatdozent at Göttingen. As a Privatdozent, Sommerfeld lectured on a wide range of mathematical and mathematical physics topics. His lectures on partial differential equations were first offered at Göttingen, and they evolved over his teaching career to become Volume VI of his textbook series Lectures on Theoretical Physics, under the title Partial Differential Equations in Physics. Lectures by Klein in 1895 and 1896 on rotating bodies led Klein and Sommerfeld to write a four-volume text Die Theorie des Kreisels – a 13-year collaboration, 1897–1910. The first two volumes were on theory, and the latter two were on applications in geophysics, astronomy, and technology. The association Sommerfeld had with Klein influenced Sommerfeld's turn of mind to be applied mathematics and in the art of lecturing. While at Göttingen, Sommerfeld met Johanna Höpfner, daughter of Ernst Höpfner, curator at Göttingen. In October 1897 Sommerfeld began the appointment to the Chair of Mathematics at the Bergakademie in Clausthal-Zellerfeld; he was successor to Wilhelm Wien. This appointment provided enough income to eventually marry Johanna. At Klein's request, Sommerfeld took on the position of editor of Volume V of Enzyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften; it was a major undertaking which lasted from 1898 to 1926. Aachen In 1900, Sommerfeld started his appointment to the Chair of Applied Mechanics at the Königliche Technische Hochschule Aachen (later RWTH Aachen University) as extraordinarius professor, which was arranged through Klein's efforts. At Aachen, he developed the theory of hydrodynamics, which would retain his interest for a long time. Later, at the University of Munich, Sommerfeld's students Ludwig Hopf and Werner Heisenberg would write their Ph.D. theses on this topic. For his contributions to the understanding of journal bearing lubrication during his time at Aachen, he was named as one of the 23 "Men of Tribology" by Duncan Dowson. Munich From 1906 Sommerfeld established himself as ordinarius professor of physics and director of the new Theoretical Physics Institute at the University of Munich. He was selected for these positions by Wilhelm Röntgen, Director of the Physics Institute at Munich, which was looked upon by Sommerfeld as being called to a "privileged sphere of action." Up until the late 19th century and early 20th century, experimental physics in Germany was considered as having a higher status within the community. However, in the early 20th century, theorists, such as Sommerfeld at Munich and Max Born at the University of Göttingen, with their early training in mathematics, turned this around so that mathematical physics, i.e., theoretical physics, became the prime mover, and experimental physics was used to verify or advance theory. After getting their doctorates with Sommerfeld, Wolfgang Pauli, Werner Heisenberg, and Walter Heitler became Born's assistants and made significant contributions to the development of quantum mechanics, which was then in very rapid development. Over his 32 years of teaching at Munich, Sommerfeld taught general and specialized courses, as well as holding seminars and colloquia. The general courses were on mechanics, mechanics of deformable bodies, electrodynamics, optics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, and partial differential equations in physics. They were held four hours per week, 13 weeks in the winter and 11 weeks in the summer, and were for students who had taken experimental physics courses from Röntgen and later by Wilhelm Wien. There was also a two-hour weekly presentation for the discussion of problems. The specialized courses were of topical interest and based on Sommerfeld's research interests; material from these courses appeared later in the scientific literature publications of Sommerfeld. The objective of these special lectures was to grapple with current issues in theoretical physics and for Sommerfeld and the students to garner a systematic comprehension of the issue, independent of whether or not they were successful in solving the problem posed by the current issue. For the seminar and colloquium periods, students were assigned papers from the current literature and they then prepared an oral presentation. From 1942 to 1951, Sommerfeld worked on putting his lecture notes in order for publication. They were published as the six-volume Lectures on Theoretical Physics. For a list of students, please see the list organized by type. Four of Sommerfeld's doctoral students, Werner Heisenberg, Wolfgang Pauli, Peter Debye, and Hans Bethe went on to win Nobel Prizes, while others, most notably, Walter Heitler, Rudolf Peierls, Karl Bechert, Hermann Brück, Paul Peter Ewald, Eugene Feenberg, Herbert Fröhlich, Erwin Fues, Ernst Guillemin, Helmut Hönl, Ludwig Hopf, Adolf Kratzer, Otto Laporte, Wilhelm Lenz, Karl Meissner, Rudolf Seeliger, Ernst C. Stückelberg, Heinrich Welker, Gregor Wentzel, Alfred Landé, and Léon Brillouin became famous in their own right. Three of Sommerfeld's postdoctoral students, Linus Pauling, Isidor I. Rabi and Max von Laue, won Nobel Prizes, and ten others, William Allis, Edward Condon, Carl Eckart, Edwin C. Kemble, William V. Houston, Karl Herzfeld, Walther Kossel, Philip M. Morse, Howard Robertson, and Wojciech Rubinowicz went on to become famous in their own right. Walter Rogowski, an undergraduate student of Sommerfeld at RWTH Aachen, also went on to become famous in his own right. Max Born believed Sommerfeld's abilities included the "discovery and development of talents." Albert Einstein told Sommerfeld: "What I especially admire about you is that you have, as it were, pounded out of the soil such a large number of young talents." Sommerfeld's style as a professor and institute director did not put distance between him and his colleagues and students. He invited collaboration from them, and their ideas often influenced his own views in physics. He entertained them in his home and met with them in cafes before and after seminars and colloquia. Sommerfeld owned an alpine ski hut to which students were often invited for discussions of physics as demanding as the sport. While at Munich, Sommerfeld came in contact with the special theory of relativity by Albert Einstein, which was not yet widely accepted at that time. His mathematical contributions to the theory helped its acceptance by the skeptics. In 1914 he worked with Léon Brillouin on the propagation of electromagnetic waves in dispersive media. He became one of the founders of quantum mechanics; some of his contributions included co-discovery of the Sommerfeld–Wilson quantization rules (1915), a generalization of Bohr's atomic model, introduction of the Sommerfeld fine-structure constant (1916), co-discovery with Walther Kossel of the Sommerfeld–Kossel displacement law (1919), and publishing Atombau und Spektrallinien (1919), which became the "bible" of atomic theory for the new generation of physicists who developed atomic and quantum physics. In 1918, Sommerfeld succeeded Einstein as chair of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft (DPG). One of his accomplishments was the founding of a new journal. The scientific papers published in DPG journals became so voluminous, a committee of the DPG, in 1919, recommended the establishment of Zeitschrift für Physik for publication of original research articles, which commenced in 1920. Since any reputable scientist could have their article published without refereeing, time between submission and publication was very rapid – as fast as two weeks time. This greatly stimulated the scientific theoretical developments, especially that of quantum mechanics in Germany at that time, as this journal was the preferred publication vehicle for the new generation of quantum theorists with avant-garde views. In the winter semester of 1922/1923, Sommerfeld gave the Carl Schurz Memorial Professor of Physics lectures at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. In 1927 Sommerfeld applied Fermi–Dirac statistics to the Drude model of electrons in metals – a model put forth by Paul Drude. The new theory solved many of the problems predicting thermal properties the original model had and became known as the Drude–Sommerfeld model. In 1928/1929, Sommerfeld traveled around the world with major stops in India, China, Japan, and the United States. Sommerfeld was a great theoretician, and besides his invaluable contributions to the quantum theory, he worked in other fields of physics, such as the classical theory of electromagnetism. For example, he proposed a solution to the problem of a radiating hertzian dipole over a conducting earth, which over the years led to many applications. His Sommerfeld identity and Sommerfeld integrals are still to the present day the most common way to solve this kind of problem. Also, as a mark of the prowess of Sommerfeld's school of theoretical physics and the rise of theoretical physics in the early 1900s, as of 1928, nearly one-third of the ordinarius professors of theoretical physics in the German-speaking world were students of Sommerfeld. On 1 April 1935 Sommerfeld achieved emeritus status, however, he stayed on as his own temporary replacement during the selection process for his successor, which took until 1 December 1939. The process was lengthy due to academic and political differences between the Munich Faculty's selection and that of both the Reichserziehungsministerium (REM; Reich Education Ministry) and the supporters of Deutsche Physik, which was anti-Semitic and had a bias against theoretical physics, especially including quantum mechanics. The appointment of Wilhelm Müller – who was not a theoretical physicist, had not published in a physics journal, and was not a member of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft – as a replacement for Sommerfeld, was considered such a travesty and detrimental to educating a new generation of physicists that both Ludwig Prandtl, director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institut für Strömungsforschung (Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Flow Research), and Carl Ramsauer, director of the research division of the Allgemeine Elektrizitäts-Gesellschaft (General Electric Company) and president of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, made reference to this in their correspondence to officials in the Reich. In an attachment to Prandtl's 28 April 1941 letter to Reich Marshal Hermann Göring, Prandtl referred to the appointment as "sabotage" of necessary theoretical physics instruction. In an attachment to Ramsauer's 20 January 1942 letter to Reich Minister Bernhard Rust, Ramsauer concluded that the appointment amounted to the "destruction of the Munich theoretical physics tradition". As for Sommerfeld’s once patriotic views, he wrote to Einstein shortly after Hitler took power: "I can assure you that the misuse of the word ‘national’ by our rulers has thoroughly broken me of the habit of national feelings that was so pronounced in my case. I would now be willing to see Germany disappear as a power and merge into a pacified Europe." Sommerfeld was awarded many honors in his lifetime, such as the Lorentz Medal, the Max-Planck Medal, the Oersted Medal, election to the Royal Society of London, the United States National Academy of Sciences, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Indian Academy of Sciences, and other academies including those in Berlin, Munich, Göttingen, and Vienna, as well as having conferred on him numerous honorary degrees from universities including Rostock, Aachen, Calcutta, and Athens. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize 84 times, more than any other physicist (including Otto Stern, who got nominated 82 times), but he never received the award. Sommerfeld died in 1951 in Munich from injuries after a traffic accident while walking with his grandchildren. In 2004, the center for theoretical physics at the University of Munich was named after him. Works Articles Arnold Sommerfeld, "Mathematische Theorie der Diffraction" (The Mathematical Theory of Diffraction), Math. Ann. 47(2–3), pp.317–374. (1896). . Translated by Raymond J. Nagem, Mario Zampolli, and Guido Sandri in Mathematical Theory of Diffraction (Birkhäuser Boston, 2003), Arnold Sommerfeld, "Uber die Ausbreitung der Wellen in der Drahtlosen Telegraphie" (The Propagation of Waves in Wireless Telegraphy), Ann. Physik [4] 28, 665 (1909); 62, 95 (1920); 81, 1135 (1926). Arnold Sommerfeld, "Some Reminiscences of My Teaching Career", American Journal of Physics Volume 17, Number 5, 315–316 (1949). Address upon receipt of the 1948 Oersted Medal. Books Arnold Sommerfeld, Atombau und Spektrallinien (Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn, Braunschweig, 1919) Arnold Sommerfeld, translated from the third German edition by Henry L. Brose Atomic Structure and Spectral Lines (Methuen, 1923) Arnold Sommerfeld, Three Lectures on Atomic Physics (London: Methuen, 1926) Arnold Sommerfeld, Atombau und Spektrallinien, Wellenmechanischer Ergänzungband (Vieweg, Braunschweig, 1929) Arnold Sommerfeld, translated by Henry L. Brose Wave-Mechanics: Supplementary Volume to Atomic Structure and Spectral Lines (Dutton, 1929) Arnold Sommerfeld, Lectures on Wave Mechanics Delivered before the Calcutta University (Calcutta University, 1929) Arnold Sommerfeld and Hans Bethe, Elektronentheorie der Metalle, in H. Geiger and K. Scheel, editors Handbuch der Physik Volume 24, Part 2, 333–622 (Springer, 1933). This nearly 300-page chapter was later published as a separate book: Elektronentheorie der Metalle (Springer, 1967). Arnold Sommerfeld, Mechanik – Vorlesungen über theoretische Physik Band 1 (Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Becker & Erler, 1943) Arnold Sommerfeld, translated from the fourth German edition by Martin O. Stern, Mechanics – Lectures on Theoretical Physics Volume I (Academic Press, 1964) Arnold Sommerfeld, Mechanik der deformierbaren Medien – Vorlesungen über theoretische Physik Band 2 (Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Becker & Erler, 1945) Arnold Sommerfeld, translated from the second German edition by G. Kuerti, Mechanics of Deformable Bodies – Lectures on Theoretical Physics Volume II (Academic Press, 1964) Arnold Sommerfeld, Elektrodynamik – Vorlesungen über theoretische Physik Band 3 (Klemm Verlag, Erscheinungsort, 1948) Arnold Sommerfeld, translated from the German by Edward G. Ramberg Electrodynamics – Lectures on Theoretical Physics Volume III (Academic Press, 1964) Arnold Sommerfeld, Optik – Vorlesungen über theoretische Physik Band 4 (Dieterich'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1950) Arnold Sommerfeld, translated from the first German edition by Otto Laporte and Peter A. Moldauer Optics – Lectures on Theoretical Physics Volume IV (Academic Press, 1964) Arnold Sommerfeld, Thermodynamik und Statistik – Vorlesungen über theoretische Physik Band 5 Herausgegeben von Fritz Bopp und Josef Meixner. (Diederich sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1952) Arnold Sommerfeld, edited by F. Bopp and J. Meixner, and translated by J. Kestin, Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics – Lectures on Theoretical Physics Volume V (Academic Press, 1964) Arnold Sommerfeld, Partielle Differentialgleichungen der Physik – Vorlesungen über theoretische Physik Band 6 (Dieterich'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1947) Arnold Sommerfeld, translated by Ernest G. Straus, Partial Differential Equations in Physics – Lectures on Theoretical Physics Volume VI (Academic Press, first printing 1949, second printing 1953; also as n°1 of AP pure and applied mathematics collection) Felix Klein and Arnold Sommerfeld, Über die Theorie des Kreisels [4 volumes] (Teubner, 1897) See also List of things named after Arnold Sommerfeld References Further reading Benz, Ulrich, Arnold Sommerfeld. Lehrer und Forscher an der Schwelle zum Atomzeitalter 1868–1951 (Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft, 1975) Beyerchen, Alan D., Scientists Under Hitler: Politics and the Physics Community in the Third Reich (Yale, 1977) Born, Max, Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld, 1868–1951, Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society Volume 8, Number 21, pp. 274–296 (1952) Cassidy, David C., Uncertainty: The Life and Science of Werner Heisenberg (W. H. Freeman and Company, 1992), (Since Werner Heisenberg was one of Sommerfeld's Ph.D. students, this is an indirect source of information on Sommerfeld, but the information on him is rather extensive and well documented.) Eckert, Michael, Arnold Sommerfeld: Atomphysiker und Kulturbote 1868–1951. Eine Biografie (Deutsches Museum, Wallstein Verlag, 2013) Eckert, Michael, trans. Tom Artin, Arnold Sommerfeld: Science, Life and Turbulent Times, 1868–1951 (Springer, 2013) Eckert, Michael, Propaganda in science: Sommerfeld and the spread of the electron theory of metals, Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences Volume 17, Number 2, pp. 191–233 (1987) Eckert, Michael, Mathematics, Experiments, and Theoretical Physics: The Early Days of the Sommerfeld School, Physics in Perspective Volume 1, Number 3, pp. 238–252 (1999) Hentschel, Klaus (Editor) and Ann M. Hentschel (Editorial Assistant and Translator), Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources (Birkhäuser, 1996) Jungnickel, Christa and Russell McCormmach. Intellectual Mastery of Nature: Theoretical Physics from Ohm to Einstein, Volume 1: The Torch of Mathematics, 1800 to 1870. University of Chicago Press, paper cover, 1990a. Jungnickel, Christa and Russell McCormmach. Intellectual Mastery of Nature. Theoretical Physics from Ohm to Einstein, Volume 2: The Now Mighty Theoretical Physics, 1870 to 1925. University of Chicago Press, Paper cover, 1990b. Kant, Horst, Arnold Sommerfeld – Kommunikation und Schulenbildung in Fuchs-Kittowski, Klaus; Laitko, Hubert; Parthey, Heinrich; Umstätter, Walther (editors), Wissenschaft und Digitale Bibliothek: Wissenschaftsforschung Jahrbuch 1998 135–152 (Verlag der Gesellschaft für Wissenschaftsforschung, 2000) Kirkpatrick, Paul, Address of Recommendation by Professor Paul Kirkpatrick, Chairman of the Committee on Awards, American Journal of Physics Volume 17, Number 5, pp. 312–314 (1949). Address preceding award to Arnold Sommerfeld, recipient of the 1948 Oersted Medal for Notable Contributions to the Teaching of Physics, 28 January 1949. Kragh, Helge, Quantum Generations: A History of Physics in the Twentieth Century (Princeton University Press, fifth printing and first paperback printing, 2002), Kuhn, Thomas S., John L. Heilbron, Paul Forman, and Lini Allen, Sources for History of Quantum Physics (American Philosophical Society, 1967) Mehra, Jagdish, and Helmut Rechenberg, The Historical Development of Quantum Theory. Volume 1, Part 1, The Quantum Theory of Planck, Einstein, Bohr and Sommerfeld 1900–1925: Its Foundation and the Rise of Its Difficulties. (Springer, 1982), Pauling, Linus, Arnold Sommerfeld: 1868–1951, Science Volume 114, Number 2963, pp. 383–384 (1951) Singh, Rajinder, "Arnold Sommerfeld – The Supporter of Indian Physics in Germany" Current Science 81 No. 11, 10 December 2001, pp. 1489–1494 Walker, Mark, Nazi Science: Myth, Truth, and the German Atomic Bomb (Persius, 1995), External links Annotated bibliography for Arnold Sommerfeld from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues Arnold Sommerfeld Biography – American Philosophical Society (includes information on his students.) Arnold Sommerfeld Biography – Zurich ETH-Bibliothek Karin Reich (1995) Die Rolle Arnold Sommerfeld bei der Diskussion um die Vektorrechnung Arnold Sommerfeld's Students – The Mathematics Genealogy Project N. Mukunda (2015) Arnold Sommerfeld: Physicist and Teacher Beyond Compare from Indian Academy of Sciences Michael Eckert (Video): Sommerfeld's Munich Quantum School – 3rd Conference on the History of Quantum Physics (June 2011) Together with: Presentation, including many historical pictures Hans Bethe talking about his time as Sommerfeld's Student on Peoples Archive Relativitätstheorie – Sommerfeld's 1921 introduction to special and general relativity for general audiences (German) () Sommerfeld-Project – Leibniz-Rechenzentrum der Wissenschaften A collection of digitized materials related to Sommerfeld's and Linus Pauling's structural chemistry research. 1868 births 1951 deaths 19th-century German physicists 20th-century German physicists Fluid dynamicists Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences Foreign Members of the Royal Society Foreign Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences Lorentz Medal winners Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich faculty Optical physicists Scientists from Königsberg People from the Province of Prussia Quantum physicists Road incident deaths in Germany RWTH Aachen University faculty University of Göttingen faculty University of Königsberg alumni Winners of the Max Planck Medal Tribologists Recipients of the Matteucci Medal	[ -0.16141106188297272, 0.7677816152572632, -0.6126209497451782, 0.05413731187582016, -0.2265755832195282, 0.48570579290390015, 0.728486180305481, -0.6133680939674377, 0.2060236930847168, 0.008091381751000881, -0.35041147470474243, 0.12864458560943604, 0.10544239729642868, 0.5582787394523621, 0.09766671061515808, -0.09285858273506165, 0.10920178145170212, -0.6008462905883789, -0.4924018383026123, 0.04315983131527901, -0.1912672370672226, -0.2682408094406128, 0.3341154456138611, 0.14773701131343842, -0.06298225373029709, -0.01589963026344776, 0.07661259919404984, -0.31609028577804565, 0.3223573863506317, 0.08507677167654037, -0.05354577302932739, 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213641	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%B1upiat	Iñupiat	The Iñupiat (or Inupiat, Iñupiaq or Inupiaq;) are a group of Alaska Natives, whose traditional territory roughly spans northeast from Norton Sound on the Bering Sea to the northernmost part of the Canada–United States border and often claim to be the first people of the Kauwerak. Their current communities include 34 villages across Iñupiat Nunaŋat (Iñupiaq lands) including seven Alaskan villages in the North Slope Borough, affiliated with the Arctic Slope Regional Corporation; eleven villages in Northwest Arctic Borough; and sixteen villages affiliated with the Bering Straits Regional Corporation. Name Iñupiat () is the plural form of the name for the people. The singular form is Iñupiaq (), which also sometimes refers to the language. Iñupiak () is the dual form. The roots are iñuk "person" and -piaq "real", i.e., an endonym meaning "real people". Groups Ethnic groups The Iñupiat people are made up of the following communities Bering Strait Inupiat Nunamiut Kotzebue Sound Inupiat North Alaska Coast Inupiat (Taġiuġmiut, people of the sea, or Siḷaliñiġmiut) Regional corporations In 1971, the Alaskan Native Claims Settlement Act established thirteen Alaskan Native Regional Corporations. The purpose of the regional corporations were to create institutions in which Native Alaskans would generate venues to provide services for its members, who were incorporated as "shareholders". Alaskan Native Regional Corporations pose many challenges as participation in extractive capitalism is often in conflict with Native Alaskans subsistence lifestyles that require the health of the ecosystems. Three regional corporations are located in the lands of the Iñupiat. These are the following. Arctic Slope Regional Corporation Bering Straits Native Corporation NANA Regional Corporation. Tribal Governments Prior to colonization, Iñupiat, like all Indigenous Peoples, exercised sovereignty based on complex social structures and order. Despite the transfer of land from Russia to the U.S. and eventual annexation of Alaska, Iñupiat sovereignty continues to be articulated in various ways. A limited form of this sovereignty has been recognized by Federal Indian Law, which outlines the relationship between the federal government and American Indians. The Federal Indian Law recognized Tribal governments as having limited self-determination. In 1993, the federal government extended federal recognition to Alaskan Natives tribes. Tribal governments created avenues for tribes to contract with the federal government to manage programs that directly benefit Native peoples. Throughout Iñupiat lands, there are various regional and village tribal governments. The tribal governments vary in structure and services provided, but often are related to the social wellbeing of the communities. Services included but are not limited to education, housing, tribal services, and supporting healthy families and cultural connection to place and community. Languages Inuit, the language and the people, extend borders and dialects across the Circumpolar North. Inuit are the Native inhabitants of Northern Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. Inuit languages have differing names depending on the region it is spoken in. In Northern Alaskan, the Inuit language is called Iñupiat. Within Alaskan Iñupiat, there are four major dialects: North Slope, Malimiut, Bering Straits, and Qawiaraq. Prior to western contact, the Iñupiat dialects flourished. Due to harsh assimilation efforts in Native American boarding schools, Natives were punished for speaking their language. Now only 2,000 of the approximately 24,500 Iñupiat people can speak their Native tongue. Revitalization efforts have focused on Alaskan Native languages and ways of life. Located in Kotzebue, Alaska, an Iñupiat language immersion school called Nikaitchuat Ilisagviat was established in 1998. The immersion school's mission is to "instill the knowledge of Iñupiaq identity, dignity, respect and to cultivate a love of lifelong learning". June Nelson Elementary school is another school in Kotzebue that is working to include more content into their curriculum about Iñupiat language and culture. Nome Elementary School in Nome, Alaska has also put in place plans to incororate an Iñupiaq language immersion program. There are many courses being offered at the various campuses a part of the University of Alaska system. University of Alaska Fairbanks offers an online course called Beginning Iñupiaq Eskimo, an introductory course to the Iñupiaq language open to both speakers and non-speakers of Iñupiaq. University of Alaska Anchorage offers multiple levels of Elementary Iñupiaq Language and Alaskan Native language apprenticeship and fluency intensive courses. Since 2017, a grassroots group of Iñupiat language learners organized Iḷisaqativut, a two-week Iñupiaq language intensive that is held throughout communities in the Iñupiat region. The first gathering was held in Utqiaġvik in 2017, Siqnasuaq (Nome) in 2018, and Qikiqtaġruk (Kotzebue) in 2019. Kawerak, a nonprofit organization from the Bering Strait region, has created a language glossary that features terms from Iñupiaq, as well as terms from English, Yup'ik, and St. Lawrence Island Yupik. Several Inupiat people developed pictographic writing systems in the early twentieth century. It is known as Alaskan Picture Writing. History Along with other Inuit groups, the Iñupiaq originate from the Thule culture. Circa 300 B.C., the Thule migrated from islands in the Bering Sea to what now is Alaska. Iñupiaq groups, in common with Inuit-speaking groups, often have a name ending in "miut," which means 'a people of'. One example is the Nunamiut, a generic term for inland Iñupiaq caribou hunters. During a period of starvation and an influenza epidemic (likely introduced by American and European whaling crews,) most of these people moved to the coast or other parts of Alaska between 1890 and 1910. A number of Nunamiut returned to the mountains in the 1930s. By 1950, most Nunamiut groups, such as the Killikmiut, had coalesced in Anaktuvuk Pass, a village in north-central Alaska. Some of the Nunamiut remained nomadic until the 1950s. The Iditarod Trail's antecedents were the native trails of the Dena'ina and Deg Hit'an Athabaskan Indians and the Inupiaq Eskimos. Subsistence Iñupiat people are hunter-gatherers, as are most Arctic peoples. Iñupiat people continue to rely heavily on subsistence hunting and fishing. Depending on their location, they harvest walrus, seal, whale, polar bears, caribou, and fish. Both the inland (Nunamiut) and coastal (Taġiumiut, i.e. Tikiġaġmiut) Iñupiat depend greatly on fish. Throughout the seasons, when they are available, food staples also include ducks, geese, rabbits, berries, roots, and shoots. The inland Iñupiat also hunt caribou, Dall sheep, grizzly bear, and moose. The coastal Iñupiat hunt walrus, seals, beluga whales, and bowhead whales. Cautiously, polar bear also is hunted. The capture of a whale benefits each member of an Iñupiat community, as the animal is butchered and its meat and blubber are allocated according to a traditional formula. Even city-dwelling relatives, thousands of miles away, are entitled to a share of each whale killed by the hunters of their ancestral village. Maktak, which is the skin and blubber of bowhead and other whales, is rich in vitamins A and C. The vitamin C content of meats is destroyed by cooking, so consumption of raw meats and these vitamin-rich foods contributes to good health in a population with limited access to fruits and vegetables. A major value within subsistence hunting is the utilization of the whole catch or animal. This is demonstrated in the utilization of the hides to turn into clothing, as seen with seal skin, moose and caribou hides, polar bear hides. Fur from rabbits, beaver, marten, otter, and squirrels are also utilized to adorn clothing for warmth. These hides and furs are used to make parkas, mukluks, hats, gloves, and slippers. Qiviut is also gathered as Muskox shed their underlayer of fur and it is spun into wool to make scarves, hats, and gloves. The use of the animal's hides and fur have kept Iñupiat warm throughout the harsh conditions of their homelands, as many of the materials provide natural waterproof or windproof qualities. Other animal parts that have been utilized are the walrus intestines that are made into dance drums and qayaq or umiaq, traditional skin boats. The walrus tusks of ivory and the baleen of bowhead whales are also utilized as Native expressions of art. The use of these sensitive materials are inline with the practice of utilizing the gifts from the animals that are subsisted. There are protective policies on the harvesting of walrus and whales. The harvest of walrus solely for the use of ivory is highly looked down upon as well as prohibited by federal law with lengthy and costly punishments. Since the 1970s, oil and other resources have been an important revenue source for the Iñupiat. The Alaska Pipeline connects the Prudhoe Bay wells with the port of Valdez in south-central Alaska. Because of the oil drilling in Alaska's arid north, however, the traditional way of whaling is coming into conflict with one of the modern world's most pressing demands: finding more oil. The Iñupiat eat a variety of berries and when mixed with tallow, make a traditional dessert. They also mix the berries with rosehips and highbush cranberries and boil them into a syrup. Culture Traditionally, some Iñupiat people lived in sedentary communities, while others were nomadic. Some villages in the area have been occupied by indigenous groups for more than 10,000 years. The Nalukataq is a spring whaling festival among Iñupiat. The festival celebrates traditional whale hunting and honors the whale's spirit as it gave its physical body to feed entire villages. The whale's spirit is honored by dance groups from across the North performing songs and dances. The Iñupiat Ilitqusiat is a list of values that define Iñupiat people. It was created by elders in Kotzebue, Alaska, yet the values resonate with and have been articulated similarly by other Iñupiat communities. These values include: respect for elders, hard work, hunter's success, family roles, humor, respect for nature, knowledge of family tree, respect for others, sharing, love for children, cooperation, avoid conflict, responsibility to tribe, humility, and spirituality. These values serve as guideposts of how Iñupiat are to live their lives. They inform and can be derived from Iñupiat subsistence practices. There is one Iñupiat culture-oriented institute of higher education, Iḷisaġvik College, located in Utqiaġvik. Current issues Iñupiat people have grown more concerned in recent years that climate change is threatening their traditional lifestyle. The warming trend in the Arctic affects their lifestyle in numerous ways, for example: thinning sea ice makes it more difficult to harvest bowhead whales, seals, walrus, and other traditional foods as it changes the migration patterns of marine mammals that rely on iceflows and the thinning sea ice can result in people falling through the ice; warmer winters make travel more dangerous and less predictable as more storms form; later-forming sea ice contributes to increased flooding and erosion along the coast as there is an increase in fall storms, directly imperiling many coastal villages. The Inuit Circumpolar Council, a group representing indigenous peoples of the Arctic, has made the case that climate change represents a threat to their human rights. As of the 2000 U.S. Census, the Iñupiat population in the United States numbered more than 19,000. Most of them live in Alaska. Iñupiat Nunaŋat (Iñupiat territories) North Slope Borough: Anaktuvuk Pass (Anaqtuuvak, Naqsraq), Atqasuk (Atqasuk), Utqiaġvik (Utqiaġvik, Ukpiaġvik), Kaktovik (Qaaktuġvik), Nuiqsut (Nuiqsat), Point Hope (Tikiġaq), Point Lay (Kali), Wainwright (Ulġuniq) Northwest Arctic Borough: Ambler (Ivisaappaat), Buckland (Nunatchiaq, Kaŋiq), Deering (Ipnatchiaq), Kiana (Katyaak, Katyaaq), Kivalina (Kivalliñiq), Kobuk (Laugviik), Kotzebue (Qikiqtaġruk), Noatak (Nuataaq ), Noorvik (Nuurvik), Selawik (Siilvik, Akuligaq ), Shungnak (Isiŋnaq, Nuurviuraq) Nome Census Area: Brevig Mission (Sitaisaq, Sinauraq), Diomede (Iŋalik), Golovin (Siŋik), Koyuk (Kuuyuk), Nome (Siqnazuaq, Sitŋasuaq), Shaktoolik (Saqtuliq), Shishmaref (Qigiqtaq), Teller (Tala, Iġaluŋniaġvik), Wales (Kiŋigin), White Mountain (Natchirsvik), Unalakleet (Uŋalaqłiq) Notable Iñupiat William L. Iggiagruk Hensley (b. June 17, 1941) advocate for Native Alaskan rights and U.S. politician Ada Blackjack (née Delutuk; 1898 – May 29, 1983) was an Iñupiat woman who lived for two years as a castaway on uninhabited Wrangel Island north of Siberia. Edna Ahgeak MacLean (b. 1944), Inupiaq linguist, anthropologist and educator Eileen MacLean (1949–1996), Alaska state legislator and educator Andrew Okpeaha MacLean, writer, director and filmmaker, known for On the Ice Eddie Ahyakak (b. 1977), Iñupiaq marathon runner and expert mountaineer on Season Two on Ultimate Survival Alaska. Irene Bedard (b. 1967), actress Ticasuk Brown (1904–1982), educator, poet and writer Charles "Etok" Edwardsen, Jr. (1943—2015), Alaska Native land settlement activist Ronald Senungetuk (1933—2020), sculptor, silversmith, educator Joseph E. Senungetuk (b. 1940), writer and artist, author of Give or Take a Century: An Eskimo Chronicle William Oquilluk (1896-1972) author of People of Kauwerak- Legends of the Northern Eskimo, storyteller Allison Akootchook Warden (b. 1971) is an internationally celebrated new genre artist Kenneth Utuayuk Toovak (1923—2009) Ice scientist, Iñupiat spiritualist and scientist Sonya Kelliher-Combs (b.1969) is a mixed media artist of Inupiaq, Athabascan, German and Irish heritage. Agnes Hailstone, profiled in the National Geographic documentary television series Life Below Zero Sadie Neakok, first female magistrate in Alaska Ray Mala (1906-1952), actor Joan Kane, poet dg nanouk okpik, poet James Dommek Jr., writer and musician, author of Midnight Son Alice Qannik Glenn (b.1989), podcaster and producer Howard Rock (1911-1976), advocate for Alaska Native land claims, writer, and founder of the Tundra Times Tara Sweeney, 13th Assistant Secretary of the Interior for Indian Affairs Ariel Tweto (b. 1987), TV personality, producer and actress, known for her roles on Flying Wild Alaska and Native Shorts, a talk show supported by the Sundance Institute and FNX \| First Nations Experience. John Baker (musher), dog musher, pilot and motivational speaker Shirley Reilly, Team USA athlete, 4-time medalist in the Paralympic Games Eben Hopson, American politician and founder of the Inuit Circumpolar Council Josiah Patkotak, American politician, member of the Alaska House of Representatives See also Baleen basketry Eskimo yo-yo Kivgiq, Messenger Feast Maniilaq Never Alone – a video game featuring Iñupiaq folklore Qargi, men's community house References Further reading Heinrich, Albert Carl. A Summary of Kinship Forms and Terminologies Found Among the Inupiaq Speaking People of Alaska. 1950. Sprott, Julie E. Raising Young Children in an Alaskan Iñupiaq Village; The Family, Cultural, and Village Environment of Rearing. West, CT: Bergin & Garvey, 2002. Chance, Norman A. The Eskimo of North Alaska. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966. Chance, Norman A. The Inupiat and Arctic Alaska: An Ethnology of Development. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1990. Chance, N.A. and Yelena Andreeva. "Sustainability, Equity, and Natural Resource Development in Northwest Siberia and Arctic Alaska." Human Ecology. 1995, vol 23 (2) [June] External links Iñupiat of Arctic Alaska Indigenous peoples in the Arctic Alaska Native ethnic groups Chukchi Sea Inuit groups	[ -0.3234207034111023, 0.4581608474254608, -0.27374181151390076, -0.28833436965942383, 0.10573229938745499, 0.529498815536499, 0.8023386597633362, 0.8127329349517822, -0.13770504295825958, -0.7237499952316284, -0.31968867778778076, -0.1273440271615982, -0.25533926486968994, -0.016095492988824844, -0.5133641958236694, 0.45993945002555847, -0.1231292113661766, 0.5860929489135742, 0.03421276435256004, 0.050680972635746, -0.10827755928039551, -0.5300596952438354, 0.3617870509624481, -0.059607841074466705, 0.9033719301223755, 0.14101828634738922, 0.6882650256156921, 0.11274658888578415, -0.2569243311882019, 0.12202750146389008, -0.4231417179107666, 0.4913564920425415, -0.29025381803512573, -0.7736075520515442, 0.35080140829086304, 0.1554282158613205, -0.35265907645225525, -0.18777655065059662, -0.08068226277828217, 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213645	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Major%20League%20Baseball%20progressive%20career%20home%20runs%20leaders	List of Major League Baseball progressive career home runs leaders	The following is a chronology of the top ten leaders in lifetime home runs in Major League Baseball. This includes any home runs hit by a player during official regular season games (i.e., excluding playoffs or exhibition games) in the National Association (1871–1875), National League (since 1876), the American Association (1882–1891), the Union Association (1884), the Players' League (1890), the American League (since 1901), and the Federal League (1914–1915). The list helps contextualize the evolution of one of the most prized achievements in United States sports. In the early 1930s, Babe Ruth had almost 400 more home runs than the next player, his longtime teammate Lou Gehrig; when Joe DiMaggio retired in 1951, he was fifth on the all-time list. Career home run leaders by year Statistics updated through -09-28. Leadership dates Starting with Harry Stovey passing Charley Jones in August 1885, there have been seven changes of the career home run leader. Stovey held the title twice, having lost it to Dan Brouthers in June 1887 and then regaining it from Brouthers in August 1889. In the modern era—since the formation of the American League in 1901—there have only been four players who have held the title. indicates the player hit additional home runs after being passed. source material is unclear of Stovey's home run count when passing Brouthers See also Baseball statistics List of Major League Baseball annual home run leaders List of Major League Baseball progressive single-season home run leaders 500 home run club List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders List of Major League Baseball career total bases leaders List of Major League Baseball career doubles leaders List of Major League Baseball career triples leaders The Year Babe Ruth Hit 104 Home Runs Further reading References Major League Baseball records Major League Baseball lists Baseball record progressions	[ -0.5575101375579834, 0.19215574860572815, -0.10497691482305527, -0.2252909392118454, -0.6474431157112122, 0.11783371865749359, 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213650	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order%20topology	Order topology	In mathematics, an order topology is a certain topology that can be defined on any totally ordered set. It is a natural generalization of the topology of the real numbers to arbitrary totally ordered sets. If X is a totally ordered set, the order topology on X is generated by the subbase of "open rays" for all a, b in X. Provided X has at least two elements, this is equivalent to saying that the open intervals together with the above rays form a base for the order topology. The open sets in X are the sets that are a union of (possibly infinitely many) such open intervals and rays. A topological space X is called orderable if there exists a total order on its elements such that the order topology induced by that order and the given topology on X coincide. The order topology makes X into a completely normal Hausdorff space. The standard topologies on R, Q, Z, and N are the order topologies. Induced order topology If Y is a subset of X, X a totally ordered set, then Y inherits a total order from X. The set Y therefore has an order topology, the induced order topology. As a subset of X, Y also has a subspace topology. The subspace topology is always at least as fine as the induced order topology, but they are not in general the same. For example, consider the subset Y = {–1} ∪ {1/n}n∈N in the rationals. Under the subspace topology, the singleton set {–1} is open in Y, but under the induced order topology, any open set containing –1 must contain all but finitely many members of the space. An example of a subspace of a linearly ordered space whose topology is not an order topology Though the subspace topology of Y = {–1} ∪ {1/n}n∈N in the section above is shown to be not generated by the induced order on Y, it is nonetheless an order topology on Y; indeed, in the subspace topology every point is isolated (i.e., singleton {y} is open in Y for every y in Y), so the subspace topology is the discrete topology on Y (the topology in which every subset of Y is an open set), and the discrete topology on any set is an order topology. To define a total order on Y that generates the discrete topology on Y, simply modify the induced order on Y by defining -1 to be the greatest element of Y and otherwise keeping the same order for the other points, so that in this new order (call it say <1) we have 1/n <1 –1 for all n ∈ N. Then, in the order topology on Y generated by <1, every point of Y is isolated in Y. We wish to define here a subset Z of a linearly ordered topological space X such that no total order on Z generates the subspace topology on Z, so that the subspace topology will not be an order topology even though it is the subspace topology of a space whose topology is an order topology. Let in the real line. The same argument as before shows that the subspace topology on Z is not equal to the induced order topology on Z, but one can show that the subspace topology on Z cannot be equal to any order topology on Z. An argument follows. Suppose by way of contradiction that there is some strict total order < on Z such that the order topology generated by < is equal to the subspace topology on Z (note that we are not assuming that < is the induced order on Z, but rather an arbitrarily given total order on Z that generates the subspace topology). In the following, interval notation should be interpreted relative to the < relation. Also, if A and B are sets, shall mean that for each a in A and b in B. Let M = Z \ {-1}, the unit interval. M is connected. If m, n ∈ M and m < -1 < n, then and separate M, a contradiction. Thus, M < {-1} or {-1} < M. Assume without loss of generality that {-1} < M. Since {-1} is open in Z, there is some point p in M such that the interval (-1, p) is empty. Since {-1} < M, we know -1 is the only element of Z that is less than p, so p is the minimum of M. Then M \ {p} = A ∪ B, where A and B are nonempty open and disjoint connected subsets of M (removing a point from an open interval yields two open intervals). By connectedness, no point of Z\B can lie between two points of B, and no point of Z\A can lie between two points of A. Therefore, either A < B or B < A. Assume without loss of generality that A < B. If a is any point in A, then p < a and (p,a) A. Then (-1,a)=[p,a), so [p,a) is open. {p}∪A=[p,a)∪A, so {p}∪A is an open subset of M and hence M = ({p}∪A) ∪ B is the union of two disjoint open subsets of M so M is not connected, a contradiction. Left and right order topologies Several variants of the order topology can be given: The right order topology on X is the topology having as a base all intervals of the form , together with the set X. The left order topology on X is the topology having as a base all intervals of the form , together with the set X. The left and right order topologies can be used to give counterexamples in general topology. For example, the left or right order topology on a bounded set provides an example of a compact space that is not Hausdorff. The left order topology is the standard topology used for many set-theoretic purposes on a Boolean algebra. Ordinal space For any ordinal number λ one can consider the spaces of ordinal numbers together with the natural order topology. These spaces are called ordinal spaces. (Note that in the usual set-theoretic construction of ordinal numbers we have λ = [0,λ) and λ + 1 = [0,λ]). Obviously, these spaces are mostly of interest when λ is an infinite ordinal; otherwise (for finite ordinals), the order topology is simply the discrete topology. When λ = ω (the first infinite ordinal), the space [0,ω) is just N with the usual (still discrete) topology, while [0,ω] is the one-point compactification of N. Of particular interest is the case when λ = ω1, the set of all countable ordinals, and the first uncountable ordinal. The element ω1 is a limit point of the subset [0,ω1) even though no sequence of elements in [0,ω1) has the element ω1 as its limit. In particular, [0,ω1] is not first-countable. The subspace [0,ω1) is first-countable however, since the only point in [0,ω1] without a countable local base is ω1. Some further properties include neither [0,ω1) or [0,ω1] is separable or second-countable [0,ω1] is compact, while [0,ω1) is sequentially compact and countably compact, but not compact or paracompact Topology and ordinals Ordinals as topological spaces Any ordinal number can be made into a topological space by endowing it with the order topology (since, being well-ordered, an ordinal is in particular totally ordered): in the absence of indication to the contrary, it is always that order topology that is meant when an ordinal is thought of as a topological space. (Note that if we are willing to accept a proper class as a topological space, then the class of all ordinals is also a topological space for the order topology.) The set of limit points of an ordinal α is precisely the set of limit ordinals less than α. Successor ordinals (and zero) less than α are isolated points in α. In particular, the finite ordinals and ω are discrete topological spaces, and no ordinal beyond that is discrete. The ordinal α is compact as a topological space if and only if α is a successor ordinal. The closed sets of a limit ordinal α are just the closed sets in the sense that we have already defined, namely, those that contain a limit ordinal whenever they contain all sufficiently large ordinals below it. Any ordinal is, of course, an open subset of any further ordinal. We can also define the topology on the ordinals in the following inductive way: 0 is the empty topological space, α+1 is obtained by taking the one-point compactification of α, and for δ a limit ordinal, δ is equipped with the inductive limit topology. Note that if α is a successor ordinal, then α is compact, in which case its one-point compactification α+1 is the disjoint union of α and a point. As topological spaces, all the ordinals are Hausdorff and even normal. They are also totally disconnected (connected components are points), scattered (every non-empty subspace has an isolated point; in this case, just take the smallest element), zero-dimensional (the topology has a clopen basis: here, write an open interval (β,γ) as the union of the clopen intervals (β,γ'+1)=[β+1,γ'] for γ'<γ). However, they are not extremally disconnected in general (there are open sets, for example the even numbers from ω, whose closure is not open). The topological spaces ω1 and its successor ω1+1 are frequently used as text-book examples of non-countable topological spaces. For example, in the topological space ω1+1, the element ω1 is in the closure of the subset ω1 even though no sequence of elements in ω1 has the element ω1 as its limit: an element in ω1 is a countable set; for any sequence of such sets, the union of these sets is the union of countably many countable sets, so still countable; this union is an upper bound of the elements of the sequence, and therefore of the limit of the sequence, if it has one. The space ω1 is first-countable, but not second-countable, and ω1+1 has neither of these two properties, despite being compact. It is also worthy of note that any continuous function from ω1 to R (the real line) is eventually constant: so the Stone–Čech compactification of ω1 is ω1+1, just as its one-point compactification (in sharp contrast to ω, whose Stone–Čech compactification is much larger than ω). Ordinal-indexed sequences If α is a limit ordinal and X is a set, an α-indexed sequence of elements of X merely means a function from α to X. This concept, a transfinite sequence or ordinal-indexed sequence, is a generalization of the concept of a sequence. An ordinary sequence corresponds to the case α = ω. If X is a topological space, we say that an α-indexed sequence of elements of X converges to a limit x when it converges as a net, in other words, when given any neighborhood U of x there is an ordinal β<α such that xι is in U for all ι≥β. Ordinal-indexed sequences are more powerful than ordinary (ω-indexed) sequences to determine limits in topology: for example, ω1 (omega-one, the set of all countable ordinal numbers, and the smallest uncountable ordinal number), is a limit point of ω1+1 (because it is a limit ordinal), and, indeed, it is the limit of the ω1-indexed sequence which maps any ordinal less than ω1 to itself: however, it is not the limit of any ordinary (ω-indexed) sequence in ω1, since any such limit is less than or equal to the union of its elements, which is a countable union of countable sets, hence itself countable. However, ordinal-indexed sequences are not powerful enough to replace nets (or filters) in general: for example, on the Tychonoff plank (the product space ), the corner point is a limit point (it is in the closure) of the open subset , but it is not the limit of an ordinal-indexed sequence. See also List of topologies Lower limit topology Long line (topology) Linear continuum Order topology (functional analysis) Partially ordered space Notes References Steen, Lynn A. and Seebach, J. Arthur Jr.; Counterexamples in Topology, Holt, Rinehart and Winston (1970). . Stephen Willard, General Topology, (1970) Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading Massachusetts. 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213654	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shipyard	Shipyard	A shipyard (also called a dockyard) is a place where ships are built and repaired. These can be yachts, military vessels, cruise liners or other cargo or passenger ships. Dockyards are sometimes more associated with maintenance and basing activities than shipyards, which are sometimes associated more with initial construction. The terms are routinely used interchangeably, in part because the evolution of dockyards and shipyards has often caused them to change or merge roles. Countries with large shipbuilding industries include Australia, Brazil, China, Croatia, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, India, Ireland, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, the Philippines, Poland, Romania, Russia, Singapore, South Korea, Sweden, Taiwan, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, the United States and Vietnam. The shipbuilding industry is more fragmented in Europe than in Asia where countries tend to have fewer, larger companies. Many naval vessels are built or maintained in shipyards owned or operated by the national government or navy. Shipyards are constructed near the sea or tidal rivers to allow easy access for their ships. The United Kingdom, for example, has shipyards on many of its rivers. The site of a large shipyard will contain many specialised cranes, dry docks, slipways, dust-free warehouses, painting facilities and extremely large areas for fabrication of the ships. After a ship's useful life is over, it makes its final voyage to a shipbreaking yard, often on a beach in South Asia. Historically shipbreaking was carried on in drydock in developed countries, but high wages and environmental regulations have resulted in movement of the industry to developing regions. History The world's earliest known dockyards were built in the Harappan port city of Lothal circa 2400 BC in Gujarat, India. Lothal's dockyards connected to an ancient course of the Sabarmati river on the trade route between Harappan cities in Sindh and the peninsula of Saurashtra when the surrounding Kutch desert was a part of the Arabian Sea. Lothal engineers accorded high priority to the creation of a dockyard and a warehouse to serve the purposes of naval trade. The dock was built on the eastern flank of the town, and is regarded by archaeologists as an engineering feat of the highest order. It was located away from the main current of the river to avoid silting, but provided access to ships in high tide as well. The name of the ancient Greek city of Naupactus means "shipyard" (combination of the Greek words ναύς naus ship, boat and πήγνυμι pêgnumi, pegnymi builder, fixer). Naupactus' reputation in this field extends to the time of legend, where it is depicted as the place where the Heraclidae built a fleet to invade the Peloponnesus. In the Spanish city of Barcelona, the Drassanes shipyards were active from at least the mid-13th century until the 18th century, although it at times served as a barracks for troops as well as an arsenal. During its time of operation it was continuously changed, rebuilt and modified, but two original towers and part of the original eight construction naves remain today. It is currently a maritime museum. Ships were the first items to be manufactured in a factory, several hundred years before the Industrial Revolution, in the Venice Arsenal, Venice, Italy. The Arsenal apparently mass-produced nearly one ship every day using pre-manufactured parts, and assembly lines and, at its height, employed 16,000 people. Historic shipyards Lothal in Gujarat, India circa 2400 BC to 1900 BC Naupactus Roman shipyard of Stifone (Narni) Blackwall Yard 1614 to 1987 Scotts Shipbuilding and Engineering Company, Greenock, Scotland, 1711–1984 Kraljevica Shipyard established on 28 April 1729 and still operating yard Thames Ironworks and Shipbuilding Co. Ltd 1837 to 1912 William Denny and Brothers, Dumbarton, Scotland 1840 to 1963 John Brown & Company, Clydebank, Scotland 1851 to 1972 Gdańsk Shipyard the birthplace of Solidarity Movement – (still a working yard) Swan Hunter – (closed in April 2006 and sold to Bharati Shipyards, India's second largest private sector shipbuilder) Harland and Wolff – (still a working yard) Cammell Laird – (still a working repair yard) Blohm + Voss, where Bismarck was constructed (still a major yard) Havana, long the only dockyard in the Caribbean during the colonial period, the Santísima Trinidad, largest warship of its time, was built there in 1769. Royal Naval Dockyards in the UK (including Woolwich, Deptford, Chatham, Portsmouth and Devonport), Gibraltar, Bombay, Bermuda, Hong Kong and elsewhere worldwide Charlestown Navy Yard, later Boston Navy Yard, Boston, Massachusetts 1800 to 1974 Ulstein Verft, Norway, established in 1917 (still a working yard under the Ulstein Group) Navy Island, Ontario, Canada – French in the 18th century, then British 1763 to War of 1812 Mare Island Naval Shipyard, Mare Island, California, 1854 to 1996 New York Naval Shipyard (NYNSY), also known as the Brooklyn Navy Yard, the New York Navy Yard, and United States Navy Yard, New York 1801 to 1966 Philadelphia Naval Shipyard 1799 to 1995, at two locations San Francisco Naval Shipyard, later Hunters Point Naval Shipyard, then Treasure Island Naval Station Hunters Point Annex, 1941 to 1994 Colonna's Shipyard 1875 to present- just 10 years after the War Between the States ended. Long Beach Naval Shipyard, 1943 to 1997 Portsmouth Naval Shipyard, located on Maine-New Hampshire border; Operational: 1800 to present, making it the oldest continuously-operating shipyard of the US Navy. Chantiers de l'Atlantique (STX France) – established in 1861 (still a working yard) Nantes-Indret, France – Establish in 1771 it built ships for the American Revolution including the Deane. 3. Maj – One of the largest shipyard in Mediterranean, established in 1892 in Rijeka (still a working yard) SLKB Komarno (Komárno) – Slovak Shipyard Komárno – European shipyard on Danube, established in 1898 Jean Street Shipyard 1843–present – The oldest continually operated shipyard in the U.S. Located on the Hillsborough River in Tampa, Florida. Gloucester Marine Railways 1859–present – Oldest working shipyard in New England. Located on Rocky Neck in Gloucester, Massachusetts. Prominent dockyards and shipyards Africa Alexandria shipyard, the oldest shipyard in Africa founded in 1831 located in Alexandria, Egypt. African Marine General Engineering & Company ltd, oldest & Biggest Dry dock in East Africa (Mombasa, Kenya) Founded in 1930. North America Newport News Shipbuilding, (formerly Northrop Grumman Newport News) is the largest private ship builder in the US and the one best known for its unique capacity to build the s. Ingalls Shipbuilding, part of Huntington Ingalls Industries, located in Pascagoula, Mississippi repaired the USS Cole and builds offshore drilling rigs, cruise ships and naval vessels. National Steel and Shipbuilding Company (NASSCO) shipyard in San Diego, California, part of General Dynamics; is the primary shipbuilding location on the west coast of the United States. Norfolk Naval Shipyard in Portsmouth, Virginia, is one of the largest shipyards in the world; specializing in repairing, overhauling and modernizing naval ships and submarines. It's the oldest and largest industrial facility that belongs to the United States Navy Electric Boat Division (EBDiv) of General Dynamics in Groton, Connecticut with an accessory facility in Quonset Point, Rhode Island, builder of many Naval submarines over the past 100 years, with some types built only here. Bath Iron Works (BIW), subsidiary of General Dynamics, is a major American shipyard located on the Kennebec River in Bath, Maine. Puget Sound Naval Shipyard in Bremerton, Washington, is also owned by the U.S. Navy. It services ships and submarines from the West Coast. The Portland, Oregon shipyard, operated by Cascade General Ship Repair (which is owned by Vigor Industrial) is the largest such facility on the United States West Coast. Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard and Intermediate Maintenance Facility is operated by the US Navy. It services surface ships and submarines from the Pacific region. The Louisiana Port is along the Mississippi river. It involves the Bollinger company in St. Rose. Talleres Navales del Golfo (TNG) at the Port of Veracruz, Mexico. Member of the Hutchison Port Holdings Group South America The DIANCA shipyard in Puerto Cabello, Venezuela. SCRA (Construction Refurbishment and Armament Service) with two dry docks, ready for naval and general vessel works. Punta de Lobos (Wolves Point) in west Montevideo, established in 1874. Punta Maua (Maua Point) in east Montevideo, established in 1872. Tsakos Industrias Navales S.A. Cotecmar shipyard in Cartagena, Colombia. Enseada Industria Naval S.A., Bahia and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil The SIMA shipyard in Callao, Peru. ASMAR shipyards in Valparaiso, Talcahuano and Punta Arenas, Chile. Europe Imperial Arsenal is in Istanbul, Turkey. Founded in 1454, it is still operated today under the name Haliç Shipyard. Riga Shipyard is in Riga, Latvia. Established in 1913 and revived after both world wars, it remains one of the largest shipyards in the Baltic region. Ferguson Shipbuilders is in Port Glasgow in inverclyde Scotland on the River Clyde. The Ferguson yard has been building ships for over a 110 years BAE Systems Surface Ships operates three shipbuilding yards in the United Kingdom; Portsmouth, England and Scotstoun and Govan on the River Clyde in Glasgow, Scotland. Major projects include the Type 45 destroyer and the s. BAE Systems Submarine Solutions operates a major shipyard at Barrow-in-Furness in Cumbria, England. It is one of the few yards in the world capable of building nuclear submarines such as the Royal Navy's . Preceding companies such as Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering have constructed hundreds of surface ships and civilian vessels in Barrow since the late 19th century. Fincantieri – Cantieri Navali Italiani S.p.A. is an Italian shipbuilding company based in Trieste, Italy. It was formed in 1959 and is the largest shipbuilder in Europe, and one of the largest in the world. The company has built both commercial and military vessels during its history. Lürssen (or Lürssen Werft) is a German shipbuilding company based in Bremen-Vegesack. Lürssen designs and constructs yachts, naval ships and special vessels. Trading as Lürssen Yachts, it is one of the leading builders of custom superyachts. Chantiers de l'Atlantique in Saint-Nazaire Odense lindø Shipyard Finland STX Russian shipyards in Vyborg, Kronstadt NovoAdmirality, Admiralty, Baltic Verf, Severnaja Verf, Sevmash, Kaliningrad Baltic Verf, Murmansk areas, Zvezda and Vostok Raffles near Vladivostok along Dalzavod, Azovskaja SudoVerf and Zaliv, More, Sevastopol SMZ are some of the main shipyards included the largest ones. Kiel HDW Amsterdam Shipyards Hamburg Shipyards Emden Shipyard The Meyer Werft GmbH is one of the major German shipyards, headquartered in Papenburg at the river Ems. Founded in 1795 and starting with small wooden vessels, today Meyer Werft is one of world's leading builders of luxury passenger ships. Altogether about 700 ships of different types have been built at the yard. Navantia: major public Spanish shipbuilding firm, which offers its services to both military and civil sector in three industrial areas: Cartagena / Cádiz / Ferrol (headquarters: Madrid) and with recent important projects as program and submarine program Construcciones Navales del Norte LaNaval, Sestao (Bilbao) Cernaval Lisnave: repair facilities in Setúbal (Lisbon, Portugal) Devonport Dockyard, located in the city of Plymouth, England in the county of Devon is the largest naval base in Western Europe. It has 15 dry docks, of waterfront, 25 tidal berths, five basins and covers 650 acres (2.6 km2). It is the main refitting base for Royal Navy nuclear submarines and also handles work on frigates. It is the base for seven of the Trafalgar-class nuclear-powered hunter-killer submarines and many frigates, exploiting its convenient access to the Atlantic Ocean. It supports the Vanguard-class Trident missile nuclear ballistic missile submarines in a custom-built refitting dock. It houses , a nuclear-powered submarine used in the Falklands War and open to the general public. Facilities in the local area also include a major naval training establishment and a base for the Royal Marines. Chatham Dockyard, located on the River Medway in Kent, was established as a royal dockyard by Queen Elizabeth I in 1567. For 414 years, the Dockyard provided over 500 ships for the Royal Navy, and was forefront of shipbuilding, industrial and architectural technology. At its height, it employed over 10,000 skilled artisans and covered 400 acres (1.6 km2). The dockyard closed in 1984, and most of the Georgian dockyard is now managed as a visitor attraction by the Chatham Historic Dockyard Trust. Sobrena in Brest, France. It operates three drydocks, up to . Sunderland, County Durham a town once hailed as the "Largest Shipbuilding Town in the World". ships were built on the at Sunderland Docks from at least 1346 and by the mid-18th century Sunderland was one of the chief shipbuilding towns in the country. Constanţa Shipyard in Romania on the shores of the Black Sea Basin. Mangalia Shipyard again in Romania, south of the port of Constanța. Galați shipyard Galați is the largest naval shipyard on the Danube, given its strategic positioning inland but with access to the sea through either Sulina or Danube-Black Sea canal its output ranges from large tankers to research vessels, yachts and small coast guard patrol boats. The yard is known for taking on specialty projects and under Damen has completed over such 250 vessels since 1999. East Asia Kawasaki Shipbuilding Corporation's Kobe Shipyard & Machinery Works in Japan builds oil tankers, LNG carriers, bulk carriers, container ships, Ro/Ro vessels, jetfoils and warships for the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding's Tamano Works builds bulk carriers, ore carriers, crude oil tankers, oil product carriers, LNG carriers, LPG carriers, reefers, container ships, pure car carriers, cargo ships, patrol vessels, ocean surveillance ships, training vessels, fishery patrol boats and fishing boats Mitsubishi Heavy Industries's Nagasaki Shipyard & Machinery Works primarily produces specialized commercial vessels, including LNG carriers, oil tankers and passenger cruise ships Hyundai Heavy Industries Ulsan Shipyard & Gunsan shipyard, in South Korea, is currently the largest in the world and has the capability to build a variety of vessels including Commercial Cargo, FPSO offshore, container ship, LNG Carrier, Car carriers, Tankers like VLCC & ULCC, Iron ore carrier and Naval vessels like Aegis destroyers & submarines. Hyundai Samho Heavy Industries Samho shipyard near Mokpo 4th largest South Korean shipyard for VLCC Oil tankers, container ships & LNG, Offshore, Subsidiary of Hyundai heavy industries. Hyundai Mipo dockyard, Ulsan bay shipyard chemical ships, LPG carriers, Special ships. Subsidiary of Hyundai Heavy Industries CSBC Corporation, Taiwan, in Taiwan, is a private company that produces ships for civilian and military use. It was a state-owned enterprise of Taiwan (Republic of China) but transitioned to private ownership via an IPO in 2008. It is headquartered in Kaohsiung and shipyards in Kaohsiung and Keelung. Yantai Raffles Shipyard, in Yantai, China, is that country's largest offshore builder. It employs the 20,000 ton crane Taisun, the holder of the Heavy Lift World Record. Yantai Raffles' portfolio includes offshore platforms, pipe lay and other specialized vessels. Jiangnan Shipyard, in Shanghai, China, is a subsidiary of China State Shipbuilding Corporation that produces both military and civilian ships. Its headquarters and main shipyard are based in Shanghai, with subsidiary shipyards in Shanghai and Chongqing. Bohai Shipyard, in Huludao, China, is a subsidiary of China Shipbuilding Industry Corporation that produces military (including nuclear powered vessels) and civilian ships. South East Asia Keppel Shipyard (Singapore) Kinabalu North Shipyard & Maritime (Sabah, Malaysia) ST Engineering Marine (Singapore) Jurong Shipyard Pte Ltd (Singapore) Penguin Shipyard International, a subsidiary of Penguin International Limited (Singapore) Hanjin shipyard in Subic, Zambales, Philippines Selat Melaka Shipbuilding Corporation (Malaysia) PT Surya Prima Bahtera Heavy Industries, in Batam, Indonesia. The Bangkok Dock Company Sattahip, Thailand Marsun Company Limited (MCL) Samutprakarn, Thailand Marine Acme Thai Dockyard (MAT) Samutprakarn, Thailand Bason Shipyard, in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, is a long-standing builder that was established by the French government in April, 1863 to repair warships and merchant vessels. Aside from its main function of building and repairing naval vessels, Bason also offers service to local and foreign customers from Southeast Asia and Europe. PT. Dok Duasatu Nusantara in Jakarta, Indonesia. PT Kim Seah Shipyard Indonesia in Batam, Indonesia, a subsidiary of Penguin International Limited. PT Karyasindo Samudra Biru Shipyard in Batam, Indonesia, a well-established steel and aluminium shipbuilder in the region. South Asia and the Middle East Haque Dockyard, situated in the capital Dhaka, one of the oldest and trusted name in shipbuilding sector of Bangladesh. FMC Dockyard is one of the largest shipyard of Bangladesh, located in Eastern Bank of the Karnaphuli river in Chittagong. The dockyard has its own forward and backward linkage. Syncrolift and side transfer system. Western Marine Shipyard, a leading shipyard in Bangladesh based in Chittagong. The shipyard has been exporting ships and vessels to a number of European, Asian and African countries. Khulna Shipyard is the oldest shipyard in Bangladesh, situated in Khulna. It mainly produces warships for Bangladesh Navy. Recently it also started to build commercial vessels like cargo ship, container, oil tanker for local buyers. Ananda Shipyard and Shipways, one of the largest shipyards in Bangladesh, located in Narayanganj. It is a 100% export oriented shipyard. Pipavav Shipyard in Gujarat, India, is the leading, modern and largest engineering facility in the business of ships and offshore platforms construction, repair and conversion, heavy engineering and offshore engineering in South Asia. Colombo Dockyard in Colombo, Sri Lanka, is the largest engineering facility in the business of ship repair, shipbuilding, heavy engineering and offshore engineering in Sri Lanka. NorthStar Shipbuilding Pvt Limited in New Mumbai, India, is one of the leading shipyard in India for small and mid-size ships. Sulkha Shipyard builds a wide variety of ships. It has been in operation for 500 years. Cochin Shipyard in Kochi, India, is that country's largest shipyard. It is building the . Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers is located in India. It is owned by the Government of India and is constructing the s for the Indian Navy. Karachi Shipyard and Naval Dockyard in Karachi, Pakistan, is that country's first and oldest yard. It constructs cargo ships, tugboats, support vessels, and warships. Mazagaon Dockyard, operated by state-owned Mazagaon Dock Limited, is one of India's largest shipyards. It constructs a variety of ships both for the defence and civilian sector. The dockyard is known for constructing Britain's . Currently the shipyard is building three s and three s for the Indian Navy. The beach at Alang in the Indian state of Gujarat is the site of a large complex of shipbreaking yards. In 2010, the yard dismantled 357 ships; on average the yard processes 28–30 ships a month. The Jebel Ali and Dubai ports in the UAE are capable of handling, constructing and repairing large ships. They also provide dry dock facilities. The gate 7 of Shuwaikh port in the Kuwait has facility for repairing ships. They also provide dry dock facilities. Lavgan Dockyard Pvt. Ltd. India's newest ship repair facility (operational from June 2014). Syncrolift and side transfer system. MOC Shipyards Private Limited, originating from Australia but relocated to Goa, India. Specialising in the construction of landing craft, work vessels and passenger transportation vessels, 100% export markets only and run under Australian Management and Ownership. See also List of shipbuilders and shipyards Shipbuilding Shipyard transporter References External links Shipbuilding History – extensive collection of information about North American shipyards, including over 500 pages of US shipyard construction records Shipyards United States – from GlobalSecurity.org Yard Coastal construction	[ 0.81851726770401, 0.17618589103221893, -0.3043983578681946, -0.014611523598432541, 0.4848986566066742, 0.6252053380012512, -0.058537375181913376, 0.39819076657295227, -0.835142970085144, -0.6111819744110107, -0.747033953666687, 0.3708597421646118, 0.11651521921157837, 0.5371215343475342, -0.5303739905357361, 0.31842532753944397, 0.14421449601650238, 0.18990813195705414, 0.053603772073984146, 0.19936539232730865, -0.6011712551116943, -0.17989657819271088, 0.11144755035638809, -0.22880403697490692, -0.09266279637813568, -0.536231279373169, 0.308007150888443, 0.16024427115917206, -0.3042788803577423, 0.124595507979393, 0.27605140209198, -0.21455302834510803, 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213660	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Short%20%28mathematician%29	James Short (mathematician)	James Short FRS (10 June O.S. (21 June N.S.) 1710 – 14 June 1768) was a Scottish mathematician and manufacturer of optical instruments, principally telescopes. During his 35-year career as a telescope-maker he produced approximately 1,360 scientific instruments. Early life and education Short was born in Edinburgh in 1710 to Margaret Grierson and William Short, a carpenter. When he was orphaned at about the age of 10, he was accepted into the Heriot's Hospital, an orphanage, and at 12 transferred to the Royal High School where he excelled in the study of the classics. In 1726 he entered the University of Edinburgh to study divinity however after being inspired by lectures given by professor of mathematics Colin Maclaurin, he transferred to astronomy and mathematics. Telescope manufacture In 1732 Maclaurin gave Short access to use his rooms in the university to work on for experiments in the construction of telescopes. Such was the quality of Short's instruments that in recognition of his skill he was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society on 24 March 1737. In Short's first telescopes the specula were made of glass, as suggested by James Gregory, however later he used metallic specula only, and thus succeeded in giving them true parabolic and elliptic shapes. Short then adopted telescope-making as his profession, which he practised first in Edinburgh up until 1738, after which he transferred to London. Almost all of Short's telescopes were of the Gregorian form, and some of them even today retain their original high polish and sharp definition. In 1736 Queen Caroline requested him to instruct her second son, William, in mathematics. In March 1737 Short was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and in 1758 became a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He was a founder member of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce in 1754. Short died in Newington Butts, London in 1768, having made a considerable fortune from his profession. See also List of astronomical instrument makers List of largest optical telescopes historically List of largest optical telescopes in the 18th century References James Short's Reflecting Telescopes, Reflecting Telescopes, National Museums Scotland 1710 births 1768 deaths People associated with astronomy Scientists from Edinburgh Telescope manufacturers People educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh Businesspeople from Edinburgh British scientific instrument makers Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Fellows of the Royal Society	[ -0.03171633556485176, 0.596169114112854, -0.3208952248096466, -0.3169806897640228, -0.2962810695171356, 0.5469658374786377, 0.8717528581619263, 0.7559614181518555, -0.43092969059944153, -0.1675594300031662, -0.45376113057136536, -0.4179990291595459, -0.25102388858795166, 0.5930745005607605, 0.4908998906612396, 0.1106681153178215, -0.2334250956773758, 0.4267039895057678, 0.00906890258193016, -0.4772949516773224, -0.017467474564909935, 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213665	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enthalpy%20of%20neutralization	Enthalpy of neutralization	The enthalpy of neutralization (ΔHn) is the change in enthalpy that occurs when one equivalent of an acid and a base undergo a neutralization reaction to form water and a salt. It is a special case of the enthalpy of reaction. It is defined as the energy released with the formation of 1 mole of water. When a reaction is carried out under standard conditions at the temperature of 298 K (25 degrees Celsius) and 1 atm of pressure and one mole of water is formed it is called the standard enthalpy of neutralization (ΔHn⊖). The heat (Q) released during a reaction is where m is the mass of the solution, cp is the specific heat capacity of the solution, and ∆T is the temperature change observed during the reaction. From this, the standard enthalpy change (∆H) is obtained by division with the amount of substance (in moles) involved. When a strong acid, HA, reacts with a strong base, BOH, the reaction that occurs is H+ + OH^- -> H2O as the acid and the base are fully dissociated and neither the cation B+ nor the anion A− are involved in the neutralization reaction. The enthalpy change for this reaction is -57.62 kJ/mol at 25 °C. For weak acids or bases, the heat of neutralization is pH-dependent. In the absence of any added mineral acid or alkali some heat is required for complete dissociation. The total heat evolved during neutralization will be smaller. e.g. at 25°C The heat of ionization for this reaction is equal to (–12 + 57.3) = 45.3 kJ/mol at 25 °C. References Enthalpy Thermochemistry Acid–base chemistry	[ -0.25932759046554565, 0.05538073927164078, 0.09156037122011185, -0.1748676598072052, -0.42985954880714417, -0.30795788764953613, 0.019545553252100945, -0.4939274191856384, 0.30627840757369995, -0.7358722686767578, -0.1489308923482895, 0.36394599080085754, -0.37694668769836426, 0.6901580095291138, 0.672845184803009, 0.7827684283256531, 0.767997145652771, 0.760006308555603, -0.3744146525859833, -0.125362828373909, 0.0681229755282402, -0.1772228330373764, 0.11560337245464325, -0.308462917804718, 0.3974248170852661, -0.2959044873714447, 0.1598530262708664, -0.023393303155899048, 0.204375758767128, 0.04272943735122681, -0.11644717305898666, 0.7337802648544312, -0.24196533858776093, 0.13230420649051666, 0.11354734003543854, 0.45150622725486755, 0.11753034591674805, 0.0942387580871582, -0.061262886971235275, -0.1953674852848053, -0.8366730809211731, -0.17935916781425476, 0.14412051439285278, 0.47136083245277405, -0.9113549590110779, 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213666	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nord-du-Qu%C3%A9bec	Nord-du-Québec	Nord-du-Québec (; ) is the largest, but the least populous, of the seventeen administrative regions of Quebec, Canada. With nearly of land area, and very extensive lakes and rivers, it covers much of the Labrador Peninsula and about 55% of the total land surface area of Quebec, while containing a little more than 0.5% of the population. Before 1912, the northernmost part of this region was part of the Ungava District of the Northwest Territories, and until 1987 it was referred to as Nouveau-Québec, or New Quebec. It is bordered by Hudson Bay and James Bay in the west, Hudson Strait and Ungava Bay in the north, Labrador in the northeast, and the administrative regions of Abitibi-Témiscamingue, Mauricie, Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean, and Côte-Nord in the south and southeast. The Nord-du-Québec region is part of the territory covered by the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement of 1975; other regions covered (in part) by this Agreement include Côte-Nord, Mauricie and Abitibi-Témiscamingue administrative regions. Geography Nord-du-Québec region is divided for statistical and other purposes into three territories equivalent to a regional county municipality (TEs): Kativik (or Nunavik) north of the 55th parallel, predominantly Inuit Eeyou Istchee non-contiguously enclaved within Jamésie (with one community in Kativik), predominately Cree Jamésie south of the 55th parallel From the Canada 2011 Census, Eeyou Istchee has a land area of 5,586.25 km2 and a population of 16,350; Jamésie has a land area of 298,202.78 km2 and a population of 14,139; Kativik has a land area of 443,372.20 km2 and a population of 12,090. However, when the Grand Council of the Crees speaks of "Eeyou Istchee", they refer to a much larger and contiguous traditional territory and homeland that covers much of Jamésie. The most populous community overall is the city of Chibougamau, which is in Jamésie. The most populous community in Eeyou Istchee is Chisasibi. And the most populous community in Kativik is Kuujjuaq. Jamésie, extending from the eastern shore of James Bay to the Otish Mountains of the Laurentian Plateau, is mainly boreal forest. Eeyou Istchee is largely enclaved within Jamésie, although one of its communities is slightly to the north of the 55th parallel and geographically enclaved within Kativik. Kativik has some boreal forest in its southern portion but is mainly tundra which covers the entire Ungava Peninsula. Population and local government The 44,561 inhabitants of Nord-du-Québec at the 2016 census included about 16,000 Cree and about 12,000 Inuit. The remaining population, concentrated in the south, are mainly of European descent. The administrative structure of Nord-du-Québec is divided between three equivalent territories to a regional municipality: Kativik, Eeyou Istchee, and Jamésie. At the local level exists five municipalities: The towns of Chibougamau (the largest town in this region), Chapais, Lebel-sur-Quévillon, and Matagami, and the special municipality of Eeyou Istchee James Bay Territory, which was formerly the local municipality of Baie-James before a 2012 restructure of the government. Kativik offers regional services to its 14 northern villages and associated Inuit reserved lands as well as the Naskapi village municipality of Kawawachikamach. Eeyou Istchee offers regional services to its 9 Cree village municipalities and their associated Cree reserved lands. The four towns of Jamésie are not covered by a regional government, and supply their own services. The special local municipality of Eeyou Istchee James Bay Territory is governed jointly by the Eeyou Istchee James Bay Regional Government, which consists of 11 representatives from Eeyou Istche and 11 representatives from Jamésie. The region is linguistically diverse. According to the 2011 Census of Canada, the most common mother tongues were French (34.7%), Cree (34.3%), Inuktitut (25.0%), and English (4.3%). 50.9% of residents reported being able to speak French, the official language of the province, and 63.3% could speak English. Transportation and access There is a limited network of roads in the Jamésie region which reaches most of the few, small communities. Most were constructed as part of the James Bay Project. The "main road" of the region is the long James Bay Road, a paved (albeit remote) extension of Route 109 from Matagami to Radisson. The long gravel Route du Nord connects the James Bay Road to Route 167 near Chibougamau. The gravel Trans-Taiga Road branches off the James Bay Road to Caniapiscau, the northernmost connecting road in eastern North America. The few provincial routes are concentrated in the far south of the region, including Route 109 to Matagami, Route 113, which ends near Chibougamau, and Route 167 to Mistissini. There are no roads to Nunavik from the south. There are isolated roads in and around villages, as well as an isolated road running from Raglan Mine to Deception Bay, connecting to Salluit. Access is limited to air travel, sea travel to coastal areas, or hiking great distances. All villages have their own airport, with the Kuujjuaq Airport functioning as a regional hub. Geographic hierarchy of census division In the rightmost column, the total area adds up to 747161.23 rather than the correct 747161.22 due to rounding error. Subdivisions Regional Government Kativik Territory Eeyou Istchee James Bay Territory Independent Cities Chapais Chibougamau Lebel-sur-Quévillon Matagami Cree Villages Chisasibi Eastmain Mistissini Nemaska Oujé-Bougoumou Waskaganish Waswanipi Wemindji Whapmagoostui Native Reserve Lac-John Major communities Chapais Chibougamau Chisasibi Inukjuak Kuujjuaq Lebel-sur-Quévillon MatagamiMistissini Puvirnituq Roggan River Sakami Salluit Waskaganish Waswanipi Wemindji See also Northern Canada References Further reading Dana, Leo Paul 2010, "Nunavik, Arctic Quebec: Where Co-operatives Supplement Entrepreneurship,” Global Business and Economics Review, 12 (1/2), January 2010, pp. 42–71. Landry, Michel K., et al. Équation Nord: formule gagnante pour des affaires prospères dans le nord du Québec. [Toronto, Ont.]: Deloitte, [2013]. Without ISBN External links Nord-du-Québec (at website of the Ministère des Affaires municipales, des Régions et de l'Occupation du territoire) Official site of the Nord-du-Québec administrative region (archived) Official site of the Kativik Regional Government (Nunavik) Officiel site of the Grand Council of the Crees (Eeyou Istchee) Census divisions of Quebec	[ -0.525165319442749, -0.024785349145531654, 0.20962543785572052, -0.13209106028079987, -0.5044942498207092, 0.44744840264320374, 0.1786530315876007, 0.9245970249176025, -0.11156819015741348, -0.9134045839309692, -0.37804409861564636, 0.0035567483864724636, 0.04612698778510094, 0.2275112122297287, 0.06082140654325485, 1.1688097715377808, -0.1425217241048813, 0.4113808572292328, -0.06097352132201195, -1.0727262496948242, -0.44707170128822327, -0.4137703478336334, -0.005601111799478531, 0.2557637095451355, 0.6594467759132385, 0.1547621190547943, 0.7452800273895264, 0.13890592753887177, -0.40513259172439575, 0.47242259979248047, 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213668	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick%20William%20II%20of%20Prussia	Frederick William II of Prussia	Frederick William II (; 25 September 1744 – 16 November 1797) was King of Prussia from 1786 until his death in 1797. He was in personal union the Prince-elector of Brandenburg and (via the Orange-Nassau inheritance of his grandfather) sovereign prince of the Canton of Neuchâtel. Pleasure-loving and indolent, he is seen as the antithesis to his predecessor, Frederick the Great. (Frederick II). Under his reign, Prussia was weakened internally and externally, and he failed to deal adequately with the challenges to the existing order posed by the French Revolution. His religious policies were directed against the Enlightenment and aimed at restoring a traditional Protestantism. However, he was a patron of the arts and responsible for the construction of some notable buildings, among them the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin. Early life Frederick William was born in Berlin, the son of Prince Augustus William of Prussia (the second son of King Frederick William I of Prussia) and Duchess Luise of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. His mother's elder sister, Elisabeth, was the wife of Augustus William's brother King Frederick II ("Frederick the Great"). Frederick William became heir-presumptive to the throne of Prussia on his father's death in 1758, since Frederick II had no children. The boy was of an easy-going and pleasure-loving disposition, averse to sustained effort of any kind, and sensual by nature. His marriage with Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Crown Princess of Prussia, daughter of Charles I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, contracted 14 July 1765 in Charlottenburg, was dissolved in 1769. He then married Frederica Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt, daughter of Ludwig IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt on 14 July 1769 also in Charlottenburg. Although he had seven children by his second wife, he had an ongoing relationship with his mistress, Wilhelmine Enke (created Countess Wilhelmine von Lichtenau in 1796), a woman of strong intellect and much ambition, and had five children by her—the first when she was still in her teens. Frederick William, before the corpulence of his middle age, was a man of singularly handsome presence, not without mental qualities of a high order; he was devoted to the arts – Boccherini, Mozart and the young Beethoven enjoyed his patronage, and his private orchestra had a Europe-wide reputation. He also was a talented cellist. But an artistic temperament was hardly what was required of a king of Prussia on the eve of the French Revolution, and Frederick the Great, who had employed him in various services (notably in an abortive confidential mission to the court of Russia in 1780), openly expressed his misgivings as to the character of the prince and his surroundings. For his part, Frederick William, who had never been properly introduced to diplomacy and the business of rulership, resented his uncle for not taking him seriously. Reign The misgivings of Frederick II appear justified in retrospect. Frederick William's accession to the throne (17 August 1786) was, indeed, followed by a series of measures for lightening the burdens of the people, reforming the oppressive French system of tax-collecting introduced by Frederick, and encouraging trade by the diminution of customs dues and the making of roads and canals. This gave the new king much popularity with the masses; the educated classes were pleased by Frederick Williams's reversal of his uncle's preference for the French language and the promotion of the German language, with the admission of German writers to the Prussian Academy, and by the active encouragement given to schools and universities. Frederick William also terminated his predecessor's state monopolies for coffee and tobacco and the sugar monopoly. Under his reign the codification known as Allgemeines Preußisches Landrecht, initiated by Frederick II, continued and was completed in 1794. Mysticism and religious policies In 1781 Frederick William, then prince of Prussia, inclined to mysticism, had joined the Rosicrucians, and had fallen under the influence of Johann Christoph von Wöllner and Johann Rudolf von Bischoffswerder. On 26 August 1786 Wöllner was appointed privy councillor for finance (Geheimer Oberfinanzrath), and on 2 October 1786 was ennobled. Though not in name, he in fact became prime minister; in all internal affairs it was he who decided; and the fiscal and economic reforms of the new reign were the application of his theories. Bischoffswerder, too, still a simple major, was called into the king's counsels; by 1789 he was already an adjutant-general. The opposition to Wöllner was, indeed, at the outset strong enough to prevent his being entrusted with the department of religion; but this too in time was overcome, and on 3 July 1788 he was appointed active privy councillor of state and of justice and head of the spiritual department for Lutheran and Catholic affairs. From this position Wöllner pursued long lasting reforms concerning religion in the Prussian state. The king proved eager to aid Wöllner's crusade. On 9 July 1788 a religious edict was issued forbidding Evangelical ministers from teaching anything not contained in the letter of their official books, proclaimed the necessity of protecting the Christian religion against the "enlighteners" (Aufklärer), and placed educational establishments under the supervision of the orthodox clergy. On 18 December 1788 a new censorship law was issued to secure the orthodoxy of all published books. This forced major Berlin journals like Christoph Friedrich Nicolai's Allgemeine Deutsche Bibliothek and Johann Erich Biester's Berliner Monatsschrift to publish only outside the Prussian borders. Moreover, people like Immanuel Kant were forbidden to speak in public on the topic of religion. Finally, in 1791, a Protestant commission was established at Berlin (Immediate-Examinationscommission) to watch over all ecclesiastical and scholastic appointments. Although Wöllner's religious edict had many critics, it was an important measure that, in fact, proved an important stabilizing factor for the Prussian state. Aimed at protecting the multi-confessional rights enshrined in the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, the provisions of Wöllner's edict were intended to safeguard against religious strife by imposing a system of state sponsored limits. The edict was also a notable step forward regarding the rights of Jews, Mennonites, and Herrnhut brethren, who now received full state protection. Given the confessional divides within Prussian society, primarily between Calvinists and Lutherans but increasingly Catholics as well, such a policy was important for maintaining a stable civil society. In his zeal for establishing Prussia as a paragon of stable Christian statehood, Frederick William outstripped his minister; he even blamed Wöllner's "idleness and vanity" for the inevitable failure of the attempt to regulate opinion from above, and in 1794 deprived him of one of his secular offices in order that he might have more time "to devote himself to the things of God"; in edict after edict the king continued to the end of his reign to make regulations "in order to maintain in his states a true and active Christianity, as the path to genuine fear of God". Foreign policies The attitude of Frederick William II towards the army and foreign policy proved fateful for Prussia. The army was the very foundation of the Prussian state, as both Frederick William I and Frederick the Great had fully realised. The army had been their first care, and its efficiency had been maintained by their constant personal supervision. Frederick William II had no taste for military matters and put his authority as "Warlord" (Kriegsherr) into commission under a supreme college of war (Oberkriegs-Collegium) under the Duke of Brunswick and General Wichard Joachim Heinrich von Möllendorf. It was the beginning of the process that ended in 1806 at the disastrous Battle of Jena. Although the Prussian army reached its highest peacetime level of manpower under Frederick William II (189,000 infantry and 48,000 cavalry), under his reign the Prussian state treasury incurred a substantial debt, and the quality of the troops' training deteriorated. Under the circumstances, Frederick William's interventions in European affairs were of little benefit to Prussia. The Dutch campaign of 1787, entered into for purely family reasons, was indeed successful, but Prussia received not even the cost of her intervention. An attempt to intervene in the war of Russia and Austria against the Ottoman Empire failed to achieve its objective; Prussia did not succeed in obtaining any concessions of territory, and the dismissal of minister Hertzberg (5 July 1791) marked the final abandonment of the anti-Austrian tradition of Frederick the Great. Meanwhile, the French Revolution alarmed the ruling monarchs of Europe, and in August 1791 Frederick William, at the meeting at Pillnitz Castle, agreed with Emperor Leopold II to join in supporting the cause of King Louis XVI of France. However the king's character and the confusion of the Prussian finances could not sustain effective action in this regard. A formal alliance was indeed signed on 7 February 1792, and Frederick William took part personally in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793, but the king was hampered by want of funds, and his counsels were distracted by the affairs of a deteriorating Poland, which promised a richer booty than was likely to be gained by the anti-revolutionary crusade into France. A subsidy treaty with the sea powers (Great Britain and the Netherlands, signed at The Hague, 19 April 1794) filled Prussia's coffers, but at the cost of a promise to supply 64,000 land troops to the coalition. The insurrection in Poland that followed the partition of 1793, and the threat of unilateral intervention by Russia, drove Frederick William into the separate Treaty of Basel with the French Republic (5 April 1795), which was regarded by the other great monarchies as a betrayal, and left Prussia morally isolated in the struggle between the monarchical principle and the new republican creed of the Revolution. Although the land area of the Prussian state reached a new peak under his rule after the third partition of Poland in 1795, the new territories included parts of Poland such as Warsaw that had virtually no German population, severely straining administrative resources due to various pro-Polish revolts; it also removed the last remaining buffer state between Prussia and Russia. Personal life and patronage of the arts Frederick William's first marriage, to Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick (his first cousin) had ended after four years during which both spouses had been unfaithful. Their uncle, Frederick II, granted a divorce reluctantly, as he was more fond of Elisabeth than of Frederick William. His second marriage lasted until his death, but he continued his relationship with Wilhelmine Enke. In 1794–1797 he had a castle built for her on the Pfaueninsel. Moreover, he was involved in two more (bigamist) morganatic marriages: with Elisabeth Amalie, Gräfin von Voß, Gräfin von Ingenheim in 1787 and (after her death in 1789) with Sophie Juliane Gräfin von Dönhoff. He had another seven children with those two women, which explains why his people also called him der Vielgeliebte ("the much loved") and der dicke Lüderjahn ("the fat scallywag"). His favourite son—with Wilhelmine Enke—was Graf Alexander von der Mark. His daughter from Sophie Juliane, Countess Julie of Brandenburg (4 January 1793, Neuchâtel – 29 January 1848, Vienna), married to Frederick Ferdinand, Duke of Anhalt-Köthen. Other buildings constructed under his reign were the Marmorpalais in Potsdam and the world-famous Brandenburger Tor in Berlin. On 16 November 1797, Frederick William II died in Potsdam. He was succeeded by his son, Frederick William III, who had resented his father's lifestyle and acted swiftly to deal with what he considered the immoral state of the court. Frederick William II is buried in the Berliner Dom. Ancestry Children Frederick William II had the following children: By Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Lüneburg: Frederica Charlotte (1767–1820), who became Duchess of York by her marriage to Frederick, Duke of York By Frederica Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt: Frederick William III of Prussia (1770–1840) Christine (1772–73) Louis Charles (1773–96), married Frederica of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, had issue Frederica Louisa Wilhelmina (1774–1837), wife of William of Orange, afterwards King William I of the Netherlands Augusta (1780–1841), wife of William II, Elector of Hesse Henry (1781–1846), never married. William (1783–1851), married Marie Anna of Hesse-Homburg, had issue References 1744 births 1797 deaths 18th-century Kings of Prussia People from Berlin Kings of Prussia Prince-electors of Brandenburg Princes of Neuchâtel House of Hohenzollern German Calvinist and Reformed Christians People of the Patriottentijd Burials at Berlin Cathedral Rosicrucians 18th-century German people Prussian people of the Kościuszko Uprising Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences Conservatism in Germany Brandenburgian nobility	[ -0.48997005820274353, 0.09095149487257004, 0.248735710978508, 0.595259964466095, -0.5630484223365784, 0.427958607673645, 0.9180242419242859, -0.27174514532089233, -0.2919125258922577, -0.6091282963752747, -0.28515177965164185, -0.45616212487220764, -0.16465698182582855, 0.8430739045143127, -0.07382526248693466, 0.30207812786102295, 0.25721684098243713, 0.3402320444583893, -0.5530476570129395, -0.44310852885246277, 0.044040482491254807, 0.06915866583585739, 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213670	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungle%20music	Jungle music	Jungle is a genre of dance music that developed out of the UK rave scene and sound system culture in the 1990s. Emerging from breakbeat hardcore, the style is characterised by rapid breakbeats, heavily syncopated percussive loops, samples, and synthesised effects, combined with the deep basslines, melodies, and vocal samples found in dub, reggae and dancehall, as well as hip hop and funk. Many producers frequently sampled the "Amen break" or other breakbeats from funk and jazz recordings. Jungle was a direct precursor to the drum and bass genre which emerged in the mid-1990s. Origin The breakbeat hardcore scene of the early 1990s was beginning to fragment by 1992/1993, with different influences becoming less common together in tracks. The piano and uplifting vocal style that was prevalent in breakbeat hardcore started to lay down the foundations of 4-beat/happy hardcore, whilst tracks with dark-themed samples and industrial style stabs had emerged from late 1992 and named darkcore. Reggae samples and reggae influenced tracks had been a feature of many breakbeat hardcore tracks since 1990 particularly from producers such as Shut Up and Dance, however Ibiza Records, and the Rebel MC were arguably the first to bring the sound system influence solidly into releases. The track "We Are I.E." by Lennie De-Ice is often credited as being the track that laid down the foundations for jungle with its ragga bassline. During 1992 and 1993, the phrases "jungle techno" and "hardcore jungle" proliferated to describe that shift of the music from breakbeat hardcore to jungle. The sound was championed at clubs such as A.W.O.L., Roast, and Telepathy, by DJs such as DJ Ron, DJ Hype, Mickey Finn, DJ Rap, DJ Dextrous, and Kenny Ken, record labels Moving Shadow, V Recordings, Suburban Base, and Renk, and on pirate radio stations such as Kool FM (regarded as being the most instrumental station in the development of jungle) but also Don FM, Rush, and Rude FM. Tracks would span breakbeat styles, particularly with darkcore, with notable releases including "Darkage" by DJ Solo, "Valley of the Shadows" by Origin Unknown, "Set Me Free" by Potential Bad Boy, "28 Gun Bad Boy" by A Guy Called Gerald, "Crackman" by DJ Ron, "A London Sumtin" by Code 071, "Learning from My Brother" by Family of Intelligence, "Lion of Judah" by X Project, and "Be Free" by Noise Factory. Techniques and styles could be traced to such a vast group of influencers, each adding their own little elements. According to Simon Reynolds, jungle was like: "Britain's very own equivalent to US hip-hop. That said, you could equally make the case that jungle is a raved-up, digitised offshoot of Jamaican reggae. Musically, Jungle's spatialised production, bass quake pressure and battery of extreme sonic effects, make it a sort of postmodern dub music on steroids." This is an example of the effects of the sonic diaspora and the wide influence musical genres have; Jungle is where these different Black Atlantic genres converge. Reynolds noted the audience of the genre evolved alongside the music itself; going from a "sweaty, shirtless white teenager, grinning and gurning" to a "head nodding, stylishly dressed black twenty something with hooded-eyes, holding a spliff in one hand and a bottle of champagne in the other." Jungle also served as "a site for a battle between contesting notions of blackness". Rise and popularity Jungle reached the peak of its popularity in 1994/1995. At this stage, the genre was spawning a number of UK top 40 hits, most notably "Incredible" by M-Beat featuring General Levy, and spawned a series of CD compilations such as Jungle Mania and Jungle Hits. A controversy raged over the success of "Incredible" when Levy reportedly made comments in the media that he was "running jungle at the moment". Although Levy always argued that his comments were misinterpreted, this did not fail to stop a boycott of the single amongst a group of DJs that were dubbed as the "Jungle Committee". Labels such as Ibiza, 3rd Party and Kemet were prolific in their releases. Having previously been confined to pirate radio, legal stations woke up to jungle from 1994. London's Kiss 100 launched its Givin' It Up show in early 1994 and featured DJs such as Kenny Ken, Jumpin Jack Frost, DJ Rap, and Mickey Finn. A year later, the UK's nationwide broadcaster BBC Radio 1 finally gave jungle a platform on its One in the Jungle weekly show. Major labels such as Sony and BMG were signing deals with artists including A Guy Called Gerald, Kemet, and DJ Ron. Of these, Roni Size and 4hero would achieve wider commercial success as drum and bass artists, but continued to release more underground jungle tracks - the latter adopting the alias Tom & Jerry to continue to release rare groove sampling dancefloor-oriented jungle. The underground classic "Burial" by Leviticus would see a major release on FFRR Records. Jungle music, as a scene, was unable to decide whether it wanted to be recognised in the mainstream or if it wanted to avoid misrepresentation. This manifested in the cooperation of jungle artists and small record labels. Small record labels worked to provide more autonomy to the music artists in return for their business and jungle music was proliferated by pirate stations in underground networks and clubs. Whilst the media would in part feed off jungle music success, it also perpetuated negative stereotypes about the scene as being violent. The seminal 1994 documentary A London Some 'Ting Dis, chronicled the growing jungle scene and interviewed producers, DJs, and ravers to counter this perception. 1996 and 1997 saw a less reggae-influenced sound and a darker, grittier, and more sinister soundscape. Hip-hop and jazz-influenced tracks dominated the clubs in this period. Dillinja, Roni Size, Die, Hype, Zinc, Alex Reece and Krust were instrumental in the transition of the jungle sound to drum and bass. By the end of 1998, the genre's sound had changed forms significantly from the sound heard earlier in the decade. Popular subgenres Ragga jungle Ragga jungle would become a major subgenre during 1994 and 1995, with popular tracks such as "Incredible" by M-Beat featuring General Levy, "Original Gangster / Nuttah" by Shy FX, "Sound Murderer / RIP" by Remarc, "Limb by Limb" by Hitman featuring Cutty Ranks, and "Code Red / Champion DJ" by Conquering Lion. Jump-up In 1995, jump-up would also become a popular subgenre which came out of hardstep, with influences of various kinds of sound experiments, most importantly the bass line. Popular tracks of this subgenre include "Dred Bass" by Dead Dred, "Super Sharp Shooter" by DJ Zinc, "This Style" by Shy FX, "R.I.P" (DJ Hype Remix) by Remarc and DJ Zinc's remix of the Fugees' "Ready or Not". The genre would later regain popularity in the early 2000s with new productions by artists such as Shimon & Andy C, Bad Company, DJ Hazard, Pendulum and Moving Fusion. Sociocultural context Jungle was a form of cultural expression for London's lower class urban youth. The post-Thatcherite United Kingdom of the early 1990s had left many young people disenfranchised and disillusioned with a seemingly crumbling societal structure. Jungle reflected these feelings; it was a notably more dark, less euphoric style of music than many of the other styles popular at raves. The music was much more popular with black British youths than other rave styles, such as techno, even though it was heavily influenced by these other rave styles, including those that emerged from the United States. Jungle was also seen as "England's answer to hip-hop", with the goal of breaking down racial boundaries and promoting unification through its multiculturalism—drawing from different cultures and attracting mixed crowds at raves. Jungle's rhythm-as-melody style overturned the dominance of melody-over-rhythm in the hierarchy of Western music, adding to its radical nature. Moreover, the greater accessibility to sampling technology allowed young people to inform music with their own sampling and experiences. Sampling technology was much more inexpensive and accessible allowing young people to work on their music in their homes rather than needing a grand recording studio. Gangsta Jungle reflects how young people were able to inform their own music. Gangsta Jungle reflects the reality of violence young Black Britons were facing. Gangsta Jungle served as an escape and as a revolutionary symbol for young Black Britains coming of age story. Characterised by the breakbeats and multi-tiered rhythms, Jungle drew support from British b-boys who got swept up into the rave scene, but also from reggae, dancehall, electro and rap fans alike. Reynolds described it as causing fear and “for many ravers, too funky to dance” yet the club scene enjoyed every second. Etymology The origin of the word jungle is one of discussion. Rebel MC is often noted for having popularised the term, and in Simon Reynolds' book Energy Flash, MC Navigator is quoted as attributing the word to him. Others such as MC Five-O attribute it to MC Moose, whilst Rob Playford (of Moving Shadow) attributes it to MC Mad P (of Top Buzz). Some thought of this term as empowering, an assertion of the blackness of the music and its subculture, inverting the racist history of the term "jungle music". Notable releases Notable releases include: "Burial" by Leviticus, "Dangerous" by DJ Ron, "Lover to Lover / Maximum Style" by Tom & Jerry, "Original Nuttah" by Shy FX, "All the Crew Big Up" by Roni Size & DJ Die, "Incredible / Sweet Love" by M-Beat, "The Helicopter Tune" by Deep Blue, "Super Sharp Shooter" by DJ Zinc, "Sovereign Melody / Lion Heart" by Dillinja, "Everyman" by Kenny Ken, "The Victory / Lovable" by DJ Dextrous, "Bad Ass" by Aphrodite, "The Lighter" by DJ SS, and "Tiger Style" by DJ Hype.<ref>{{cite web\|url=https://www.dummymag.com/10-best/10-best-jungle-general-levy/\|title=The 10 Best Jungle Tracks of All Time, according to General Levy\|work=Dummymag\|date=19 March 2019}}</ref> Crossover with drum and bass The term "jungle" is often used as a synonym for drum and bass, particularly in the United States. More commonly, jungle is viewed as the originating point for drum and bass, with the progressive changes brought by artists in the late 1990s serving as the point of diversion (some examples being Trace & Ed Rush, LTJ Bukem, Photek, Jack Smooth, Digital, Total Science, Goldie and Optical). Re-emergent jungle scene A thriving underground movement producing and developing tracks in the style of the 1990s and some original (though mostly mainstream drum and bass) jungle producers have noticed this new enthusiasm for the original sound. Shy FX, for example, launched the Digital Soundboy label in 2005 to put out more jungle. The early to mid-2000s saw a jungle revival in the emerging drum-funk subgenre, with labels such as Scientific Wax, Bassbin Records and Paradox Music pushing for a more breaks orientated sound. The ragga-jungle revival of 2001 in the US saw many new names emerge to carry the torch. Krinjah, RCola, and Chopstick Dubplate pushed things forward with junglised remixes of classic reggae tunes often produced with re-voicing done by the original singers. Canadian imprint JungleXpeditions features songs with the structure and production values of modern drum & bass mixed with ragga vocals, including reggae and oldskool elements from an international roster of nu-skool producers. In the UK, artists such as Tim Reaper, Dead Man's Chest and Sully have also released new jungle material. One of the scenes originators, Congo Natty, continued to release jungle music throughout the 2000s, culminating in the 2013 album Jungle Revolution. In 2018, Chase & Status evoked the raw roots of jungle past in their album RTRN II JUNGLE. See also Drum and bass Breakbeat hardcore Darkcore References Further reading Simon Reynolds, Energy Flash: Energy Flash: A Journey Through Rave Music and Dance Culture, Picador, 1998. () Martin James, State of Bass: Jungle the story so far, Boxtree, 1997. () Brian Belle-Fortune, All Crews: Journeys Through Jungle/Drum and Bass Culture'', Vision, 2004. 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213671	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runge%E2%80%93Kutta%20methods	Runge–Kutta methods	In numerical analysis, the Runge–Kutta methods ( ) are a family of implicit and explicit iterative methods, which include the well-known routine called the Euler method, used in temporal discretization for the approximate solutions of ordinary differential equations. These methods were developed around 1900 by the German mathematicians Carl Runge and Wilhelm Kutta. The Runge–Kutta method The most widely known member of the Runge–Kutta family is generally referred to as "RK4", the "classic Runge–Kutta method" or simply as "the Runge–Kutta method". Let an initial value problem be specified as follows: Here is an unknown function (scalar or vector) of time , which we would like to approximate; we are told that , the rate at which changes, is a function of and of itself. At the initial time the corresponding value is . The function and the initial conditions , are given. Now pick a step-size h > 0 and define for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., using (Note: the above equations have different but equivalent definitions in different texts). Here is the RK4 approximation of , and the next value () is determined by the present value () plus the weighted average of four increments, where each increment is the product of the size of the interval, h, and an estimated slope specified by function f on the right-hand side of the differential equation. is the slope at the beginning of the interval, using (Euler's method); is the slope at the midpoint of the interval, using and ; is again the slope at the midpoint, but now using and ; is the slope at the end of the interval, using and . In averaging the four slopes, greater weight is given to the slopes at the midpoint. If is independent of , so that the differential equation is equivalent to a simple integral, then RK4 is Simpson's rule. The RK4 method is a fourth-order method, meaning that the local truncation error is on the order of , while the total accumulated error is on the order of . In many practical applications the function is independent of (so called autonomous system, or time-invariant system, especially in physics), and their increments are not computed at all and not passed to function , with only the final formula for used. Explicit Runge–Kutta methods The family of explicit Runge–Kutta methods is a generalization of the RK4 method mentioned above. It is given by where (Note: the above equations may have different but equivalent definitions in some texts). To specify a particular method, one needs to provide the integer s (the number of stages), and the coefficients aij (for 1 ≤ j < i ≤ s), bi (for i = 1, 2, ..., s) and ci (for i = 2, 3, ..., s). The matrix [aij] is called the Runge–Kutta matrix, while the bi and ci are known as the weights and the nodes. These data are usually arranged in a mnemonic device, known as a Butcher tableau (after John C. Butcher): {\| style="text-align: center" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" \| style="border-right:1px solid;" \| \|- \| style="border-right:1px solid;" \| \|\| \|- \| style="border-right:1px solid;" \| \|\| \|\| \|- \| style="border-right:1px solid;" \| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| style="border-right:1px solid; border-bottom:1px solid;" \| \| style="border-bottom:1px solid;" \| \| style="border-bottom:1px solid;" \| \| style="border-bottom:1px solid;" \| \| style="border-bottom:1px solid;" \| \|\| style="border-bottom:1px solid;" \| \|- \| style="border-right:1px solid;" \| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|} A Taylor series expansion shows that the Runge–Kutta method is consistent if and only if There are also accompanying requirements if one requires the method to have a certain order p, meaning that the local truncation error is O(hp+1). These can be derived from the definition of the truncation error itself. For example, a two-stage method has order 2 if b1 + b2 = 1, b2c2 = 1/2, and b2a21 = 1/2. Note that a popular condition for determining coefficients is This condition alone, however, is neither sufficient, nor necessary for consistency. In general, if an explicit -stage Runge–Kutta method has order , then it can be proven that the number of stages must satisfy , and if , then . However, it is not known whether these bounds are sharp in all cases; for example, all known methods of order 8 have at least 11 stages, though it is possible that there are methods with fewer stages. (The bound above suggests that there could be a method with 9 stages; but it could also be that the bound is simply not sharp.) Indeed, it is an open problem what the precise minimum number of stages is for an explicit Runge–Kutta method to have order in those cases where no methods have yet been discovered that satisfy the bounds above with equality. Some values which are known are: The provable bounds above then imply that we can not find methods of orders that require fewer stages than the methods we already know for these orders. However, it is conceivable that we might find a method of order that has only 8 stages, whereas the only ones known today have at least 9 stages as shown in the table. Examples The RK4 method falls in this framework. Its tableau is {\| style="text-align: center" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" \| style="border-right:1px solid;" \| 0 \|- \| style="border-right:1px solid;" \| 1/2 \|\| 1/2 \|- \| style="border-right:1px solid;" \| 1/2 \|\| 0 \|\| 1/2 \|- \| style="border-right:1px solid; border-bottom:1px solid;" \| 1 \|\| style="border-bottom:1px solid;" \| 0 \| style="border-bottom:1px solid;" \| 0 \|\| style="border-bottom:1px solid;" \| 1 \| style="border-bottom:1px solid;" \| \|- \| style="border-right:1px solid;" \| \|\| 1/6 \|\| 1/3 \|\| 1/3 \|\| 1/6 \|} A slight variation of "the" Runge–Kutta method is also due to Kutta in 1901 and is called the 3/8-rule. The primary advantage this method has is that almost all of the error coefficients are smaller than in the popular method, but it requires slightly more FLOPs (floating-point operations) per time step. Its Butcher tableau is {\| style="text-align: center" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" \| style="border-right:1px solid;" \| 0 \|- \| style="border-right:1px solid;" \| 1/3 \|\| 1/3 \|- \| style="border-right:1px solid;" \| 2/3 \|\| -1/3 \|\| 1 \|- \| style="border-right:1px solid; border-bottom:1px solid;" \| 1 \|\| style="border-bottom:1px solid;" \| 1 \| style="border-bottom:1px solid;" \| −1 \|\| style="border-bottom:1px solid;" \| 1 \| style="border-bottom:1px solid;" \| \|- \| style="border-right:1px solid;" \| \|\| 1/8 \|\| 3/8 \|\| 3/8 \|\| 1/8 \|} However, the simplest Runge–Kutta method is the (forward) Euler method, given by the formula . This is the only consistent explicit Runge–Kutta method with one stage. The corresponding tableau is {\| style="text-align: center" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" \| width="10" style="border-right:1px solid; border-bottom:1px solid;" \| 0 \| width="10" style="border-bottom:1px solid;" \| \|- \| style="border-right:1px solid;" \| \|\| 1 \|} Second-order methods with two stages An example of a second-order method with two stages is provided by the midpoint method: The corresponding tableau is {\| style="text-align: center" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" \| style="border-right:1px solid;" \| 0 \|- \| style="border-right:1px solid; border-bottom:1px solid;" \| 1/2 \|\| style="border-bottom:1px solid;" \| 1/2 \|\| style="border-bottom:1px solid;" \| \|- \| style="border-right:1px solid;" \| \|\| 0 \|\| 1 \|} The midpoint method is not the only second-order Runge–Kutta method with two stages; there is a family of such methods, parameterized by α and given by the formula Its Butcher tableau is {\| style="text-align: center" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="8" \| style="border-right:1px solid;" \| 0 \|- \| style="border-right:1px solid; border-bottom:1px solid;" \| \|\| style="border-bottom:1px solid; text-align: center;" \| \|\| style="border-bottom:1px solid;" \| \|- \| style="border-right:1px solid;" \| \|\| \|\| \|} In this family, gives the midpoint method, and is Heun's method. Use As an example, consider the two-stage second-order Runge–Kutta method with α = 2/3, also known as Ralston method. It is given by the tableau with the corresponding equations This method is used to solve the initial-value problem with step size h = 0.025, so the method needs to take four steps. The method proceeds as follows: The numerical solutions correspond to the underlined values. Adaptive Runge–Kutta methods Adaptive methods are designed to produce an estimate of the local truncation error of a single Runge–Kutta step. This is done by having two methods, one with order and one with order . These methods are interwoven, i.e., they have common intermediate steps. Thanks to this, estimating the error has little or negligible computational cost compared to a step with the higher-order method. During the integration, the step size is adapted such that the estimated error stays below a user-defined threshold: If the error is too high, a step is repeated with a lower step size; if the error is much smaller, the step size is increased to save time. This results in an (almost) optimal step size, which saves computation time. Moreover, the user does not have to spend time on finding an appropriate step size. The lower-order step is given by where are the same as for the higher-order method. Then the error is which is . The Butcher tableau for this kind of method is extended to give the values of : The Runge–Kutta–Fehlberg method has two methods of orders 5 and 4. Its extended Butcher tableau is: However, the simplest adaptive Runge–Kutta method involves combining Heun's method, which is order 2, with the Euler method, which is order 1. Its extended Butcher tableau is: Other adaptive Runge–Kutta methods are the Bogacki–Shampine method (orders 3 and 2), the Cash–Karp method and the Dormand–Prince method (both with orders 5 and 4). Nonconfluent Runge–Kutta methods A Runge–Kutta method is said to be nonconfluent if all the are distinct. Runge–Kutta–Nyström methods Runge–Kutta–Nyström methods are specialized Runge-Kutta methods that are optimized for second-order differential equations of the following form: Implicit Runge–Kutta methods All Runge–Kutta methods mentioned up to now are explicit methods. Explicit Runge–Kutta methods are generally unsuitable for the solution of stiff equations because their region of absolute stability is small; in particular, it is bounded. This issue is especially important in the solution of partial differential equations. The instability of explicit Runge–Kutta methods motivates the development of implicit methods. An implicit Runge–Kutta method has the form where The difference with an explicit method is that in an explicit method, the sum over j only goes up to i − 1. This also shows up in the Butcher tableau: the coefficient matrix of an explicit method is lower triangular. In an implicit method, the sum over j goes up to s and the coefficient matrix is not triangular, yielding a Butcher tableau of the form See Adaptive Runge-Kutta methods above for the explanation of the row. The consequence of this difference is that at every step, a system of algebraic equations has to be solved. This increases the computational cost considerably. If a method with s stages is used to solve a differential equation with m components, then the system of algebraic equations has ms components. This can be contrasted with implicit linear multistep methods (the other big family of methods for ODEs): an implicit s-step linear multistep method needs to solve a system of algebraic equations with only m components, so the size of the system does not increase as the number of steps increases. Examples The simplest example of an implicit Runge–Kutta method is the backward Euler method: The Butcher tableau for this is simply: This Butcher tableau corresponds to the formulae which can be re-arranged to get the formula for the backward Euler method listed above. Another example for an implicit Runge–Kutta method is the trapezoidal rule. Its Butcher tableau is: The trapezoidal rule is a collocation method (as discussed in that article). All collocation methods are implicit Runge–Kutta methods, but not all implicit Runge–Kutta methods are collocation methods. The Gauss–Legendre methods form a family of collocation methods based on Gauss quadrature. A Gauss–Legendre method with s stages has order 2s (thus, methods with arbitrarily high order can be constructed). The method with two stages (and thus order four) has Butcher tableau: Stability The advantage of implicit Runge–Kutta methods over explicit ones is their greater stability, especially when applied to stiff equations. Consider the linear test equation . A Runge–Kutta method applied to this equation reduces to the iteration , with r given by where e stands for the vector of ones. The function r is called the stability function. It follows from the formula that r is the quotient of two polynomials of degree s if the method has s stages. Explicit methods have a strictly lower triangular matrix A, which implies that det(I − zA) = 1 and that the stability function is a polynomial. The numerical solution to the linear test equation decays to zero if \| r(z) \| < 1 with z = hλ. The set of such z is called the domain of absolute stability. In particular, the method is said to be absolute stable if all z with Re(z) < 0 are in the domain of absolute stability. The stability function of an explicit Runge–Kutta method is a polynomial, so explicit Runge–Kutta methods can never be A-stable. If the method has order p, then the stability function satisfies as . Thus, it is of interest to study quotients of polynomials of given degrees that approximate the exponential function the best. These are known as Padé approximants. A Padé approximant with numerator of degree m and denominator of degree n is A-stable if and only if m ≤ n ≤ m + 2. The Gauss–Legendre method with s stages has order 2s, so its stability function is the Padé approximant with m = n = s. It follows that the method is A-stable. This shows that A-stable Runge–Kutta can have arbitrarily high order. In contrast, the order of A-stable linear multistep methods cannot exceed two. B-stability The A-stability concept for the solution of differential equations is related to the linear autonomous equation . Dahlquist proposed the investigation of stability of numerical schemes when applied to nonlinear systems that satisfy a monotonicity condition. The corresponding concepts were defined as G-stability for multistep methods (and the related one-leg methods) and B-stability (Butcher, 1975) for Runge–Kutta methods. A Runge–Kutta method applied to the non-linear system , which verifies , is called B-stable, if this condition implies for two numerical solutions. Let , and be three matrices defined by A Runge–Kutta method is said to be algebraically stable if the matrices and are both non-negative definite. A sufficient condition for B-stability is: and are non-negative definite. Derivation of the Runge–Kutta fourth-order method In general a Runge–Kutta method of order can be written as: where: are increments obtained evaluating the derivatives of at the -th order. We develop the derivation for the Runge–Kutta fourth-order method using the general formula with evaluated, as explained above, at the starting point, the midpoint and the end point of any interval ; thus, we choose: and otherwise. We begin by defining the following quantities: where and . If we define: and for the previous relations we can show that the following equalities hold up to : where: is the total derivative of with respect to time. If we now express the general formula using what we just derived we obtain: and comparing this with the Taylor series of around : we obtain a system of constraints on the coefficients: which when solved gives as stated above. See also Euler's method List of Runge–Kutta methods Numerical methods for ordinary differential equations Runge–Kutta method (SDE) General linear methods Lie group integrator Notes References . . . . . . . . . (see Chapter 6). . . . . . Also, Section 17.2. Adaptive Stepsize Control for Runge-Kutta. . . . advance discrete maths ignou reference book (code- mcs033) John C. Butcher: "B-Series : Algebraic Analysis of Numerical Methods", Springer（SSCM, volume 55), (April, 2021). External links Runge–Kutta 4th-Order Method Tracker Component Library Implementation in Matlab — Implements 32 embedded Runge Kutta algorithms in RungeKStep, 24 embedded Runge-Kutta Nyström algorithms in RungeKNystroemSStep and 4 general Runge-Kutta Nyström algorithms in RungeKNystroemGStep. 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213673	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockne%20S.%20O%27Bannon	Rockne S. O'Bannon	Rockne S. O'Bannon is an American television writer, screenwriter and producer, working primarily in the science fiction genre. O'Bannon has created five original television series (Farscape, seaQuest DSV, Defiance, Cult, and Alien Nation). O'Bannon made his writing debut selling spec material to NBC's Amazing Stories (1985) and CBS's The Twilight Zone (1985), but first garnered critical attention for his film Alien Nation (1988) and its subsequent spinoff television show. His next notable achievement was his original series seaQuest DSV (1993) which ran for three seasons. O'Bannon's most critically acclaimed success was the space epic Farscape on the Sci-Fi Channel (1999–2003) which ran for four seasons and spun off into a mini-series as well as a comic book series. Since Farscape, he's created the TV show Defiance (2013) and The CW's Cult (2013), the miniseries The Triangle (2005), as well as an uncredited rewrite on the pilot for Warehouse 13 (2009). He has also served as Executive Producer and writer on Constantine, Revolution, V, and Evil (on CBS) among others. O'Bannon has been credited with creating original series "that push the boundaries of speculative television in ways that put him in the rare company of writers like Rod Serling." He's won multiple Saturn Awards (including best series for Farscape) and been nominated for other awards such as a Hugo Award and a WGA Award. Career 1980s O'Bannon's career got its start with a couple of spec scripts he had written for submission to ABC's Darkroom. However, the show was canceled before his material could be produced. He followed it up by submitting those scripts to both the CBS revival of The Twilight Zone and NBC's new anthology series Amazing Stories, receiving positive reaction from both shows. Based on his pitches for some additional stories, The Twilight Zone producers hired him as Story Editor. During his time on The Twilight Zone, he wrote and rewrote several episodes, including more original episodes than anyone else. Among his original episodes was "Wordplay", starring Robert Klein, his first, and "The Storyteller" which was nominated for that year's Writer's Guild Award. After the cancellation of The Twilight Zone, O'Bannon turned his efforts to a new project: Alien Nation (1988), his first feature film. The film and subsequent television series developed a strong fan following which has resulted in a television series, five television films, comic books, and novels. He made his directorial debut on the suspense thriller Fear, a Showtime original that premiered on July 15, 1990. 1990s O'Bannon's biggest success was his cult classic and fan favorite Farscape. Originally sold to the Sci-Fi Channel, the head of the network told O'Bannon "Just make it as weird as you can, because I just don't want a kids' show." In an interview with the Huffington Post, O'Bannon said: "The greatest words I've ever heard were, 'Just make it as weird as you can.' It took all the restraints off! And it was their decision to shoot in Australia that made Farscape a classic. Australians are just incredibly creative and they embraced the insanity of the show." 2000s O'Bannon began the new millennium continuing work on Farscape. After a four-season run, the show was caught in a business conflict when The Henson Company was sold to foreign investors, and ended without an already-ordered fifth season. Fans were wildly upset and began campaigning en masse to the Sci-Fi Channel. The Sci-Fi Channel then committed to making the three-hour mini-series Farscape: The Peacekeeper Wars to wrap up the show. Brian Henson directed the mini-series with O'Bannon and his friend David Kemper writing and executive producing. The cancellation of Farscape has been lamented and noted as a blunder for the Sci-Fi Channel. O'Bannon almost immediately then sold The Triangle to the Sci-Fi Channel which he wrote and executive produced with Bryan Singer and Dean Devlin. The Triangle aired to stellar ratings and was a critical success. He then sold his pilot Cult to The WB, but the series didn't proceed at that time when The WB was merged with UPN to become The CW. Around this time the Sci-Fi Channel asked O'Bannon to rewrite the pilot script for Warehouse 13, ending up with a series order. 2010s In 2010, O'Bannon was asked to help out on ABC's reboot of V which was struggling in its second season. Early in 2011, Syfy approached O'Bannon to create and showrun their project Defiance. Defiances concept included combining a TV series with a massively multiplayer online game that was developed concurrently by Trion Worlds Online. With Defiance up and running, O'Bannon moved on to Warner Bros. Television when it was announced the CW had placed a pilot order to make Cult in January 2012 nearly seven years after the network's predecessor had bought it. With both of his projects slated to go on the air, O'Bannon chose to follow his longtime passion project. O'Bannon originally wrote Cult in the aftermath of Farscape and watching the legions of fans mobilize to save the show. "I saw this phenomenon with fans rallying around the show. Okay, what if there wasn't this wonderfully warm sci-fi adventure show, but it was something a little bit darker and edgier? What kind of fans would that bring in? That's what started me down the path of creating Cult." When asked about leaving Defiance for Cult, Rockne responded: "It was a difficult transition for me because I really did and do love 'Defiance', but 'Cult' is really my baby." Cult went into production shortly after in February 2012, and a season order was placed May 11, 2012. Cult was a unique viewer experience designed to break the fourth wall. Rockne explained the appeal of the show, "The show, itself, is kind of invading your space, because it's not letting you just passively watch it. I'm watching a show called Cult about people watching a show called Cult... Cult was really an attempt to break down the fourth wall, to break the glass between you and the TV show." O'Bannon next began work as executive producer on the second season of Revolution. Despite praise for the revamped and grittier season, NBC declined to add a third season and canceled the show after 42 episodes. After Revolution, O'Bannon was asked by Warner Bros. Television and NBC to consult on their fledgling horror series Constantine. As of 2019, O'Bannon is an executive producer on Evil on CBS. Filmography Film Television The numbers in directing and writing credits refer to the number of episodes. References External links 1964 births Television producers from California American male screenwriters American television writers Film producers from California Living people Farscape Businesspeople from Los Angeles American male television writers Film directors from Los Angeles Screenwriters from California 20th-century American screenwriters 20th-century American male writers 21st-century American screenwriters 21st-century American male writers Writers from Los Angeles	[ -0.39255470037460327, 1.091233730316162, -0.5958402156829834, -1.0283702611923218, -0.43395674228668213, 0.08655975759029388, 0.6511296629905701, 0.4508246183395386, -0.24994716048240662, -0.42412489652633667, -0.10392653197050095, 0.0832512304186821, -0.26285287737846375, 0.8251513242721558, 0.12302394956350327, 0.22038589417934418, 0.38029614090919495, 1.1989915370941162, 0.36194267868995667, -1.0580718517303467, 0.13967406749725342, -0.504351019859314, 0.4779790937900543, -0.15087586641311646, 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213675	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten%20%28Y%26T%20album%29	Ten (Y&T album)	Ten is the ninth studio album by American heavy metal band Y&T, released in 1990 through Geffen Records. It was recorded in 1989 and is the last Y&T album released before they disbanded in 1991. Joey Alves had left the band in 1989 and was replaced on rhythm guitar by Stef Burns, while Steve Smith recorded the majority of the drum tracks in place of Jimmy DeGrasso. Track listing Side one "Hard Times" - 5:14 "Lucy" - 4:43 "Don't Be Afraid of the Dark" - 4:51 "Girl Crazy" - 4:01 "City" - 5:37 "Come in from the Rain" - 6:03 Side two "Red Hot & Ready" - 4:18 "She's Gone" - 4:17 "Let It Out" - 4:46 "Ten Lovers" - 6:06 "Goin' Off the Deep End" - 4:32 "Surrender" - 5:22 Personnel Dave Meniketti - vocals, guitar Stef Burns - guitar, vocals Phil Kennemore - bass, vocals Jimmy DeGrasso - drums on "City", "She's Gone" & "Goin' Off the Deep End" Steve Smith - drums on all tracks except "City", "She's Gone" and "Goin' Off the Deep End" Additional personal Jeff Paris - Keyboards, vocals Production Mixed at Record Plant, Los Angeles Kav Deluxe - co-producer Bill Merryfield - co-producer Dave Donnelly - supervision John Kalodner - A&R, Direction Scott Boorey - management Kurt DeMunbrun - artwork Charts References Y&T albums Geffen Records albums 1990 albums Glam metal albums	[ 0.0007333845132961869, -0.06602539867162704, -0.2750597894191742, 0.4877820909023285, 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213676	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten%20%28Pearl%20Jam%20album%29	Ten (Pearl Jam album)	Ten is the debut studio album by American rock band Pearl Jam, released on August 27, 1991, through Epic Records. Following the dissolution of their previous band Mother Love Bone in 1990, bassist Jeff Ament and guitarist Stone Gossard began rehearsing with new guitarist Mike McCready. The group recorded a five-song instrumental demo tape with Matt Cameron on drums. Copies of the demo were eventually given to drummer Dave Krusen and vocalist Eddie Vedder, both of whom were invited to audition for the band in Seattle. Many of the songs on Ten were instrumental jams or reworked Mother Love Bone songs for which Vedder composed new melodies and lyrics. Despite its reputation as a quintessential grunge album, Ten is often noted for displaying a stronger classic rock influence than other contemporary grunge releases. In a review for AllMusic, Steve Huey asserts that the band's "intricately arranged guitar textures and expansive harmonic vocabulary... especially recalled Jimi Hendrix and Led Zeppelin" and characterizes the album as having an "anthemic" and "warm, rich sound". Huey also praises Vedder for the "highly distinctive timbre" of his vocals and for the "passionate commitment of his delivery". Ten was not an immediate success, but by late 1992 it had reached number two on the Billboard 200. The album produced three hit singles: "Alive", "Even Flow", and "Jeremy". "Jeremy" became one of Pearl Jam's best-known songs, and received nominations for Best Rock Song and Best Hard Rock Performance at the 35th Grammy Awards. The video for "Jeremy" was heavily rotated by MTV, and received four awards at the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards, including Video of the Year and Best Group Video. Beyond its role in consolidating the mainstream success of grunge rock in the early 1990s, Ten is generally considered to have been instrumental in the rise and dominance of alternative rock throughout the decade. The album has since been ranked by several publications as one of the greatest albums of all time. By February 2013, it had sold 13 million copies in the US, becoming the 22nd record to do so in the Nielsen SoundScan era and has been certified 13× Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Ten remains Pearl Jam's most commercially successful album. Background Guitarist Stone Gossard and bassist Jeff Ament had played together in the pioneering grunge band Green River. Following Green River's dissolution in 1987, Ament and Gossard played together in Mother Love Bone during the late 1980s. Mother Love Bone's career was cut short when vocalist Andrew Wood died of a drug overdose in 1990, shortly before the release of the group's debut album, Apple. Devastated, it took months before Gossard and Ament agreed to play together again. Gossard spent his time afterwards writing material that was harder-edged than what he had been doing previously. After a few months, Gossard started practicing with fellow Seattle guitarist Mike McCready, whose band Shadow had broken up; McCready in turn encouraged Gossard to reconnect with Ament. The three then went into the studio for separate sessions with Soundgarden drummer Matt Cameron and former Shadow drummer Chris Friel to record some instrumental demos. Five of the songs recorded—"Dollar Short", "Agytian Crave", "Footsteps", "Richard's E", and "E Ballad"—were compiled onto a tape called Stone Gossard Demos '91 that was circulated in the hopes of finding a singer and drummer for the trio. San Diego musician Eddie Vedder acquired a copy of the demo in September 1990, when it was given to him by former Red Hot Chili Peppers drummer Jack Irons. Vedder listened to the demo, went surfing, and wrote lyrics the next day for "Dollar Short", "Agytian Crave", and "Footsteps". "Dollar Short" and "Agytian Crave" were later retitled "Alive" and "Once", respectively. Gossard and Ament heard the demo with Vedder's vocals and lyrics, and were impressed enough to fly Vedder out to Seattle for an audition. Meanwhile, Vedder had written lyrics for "E Ballad", retitled "Black". Vedder arrived on October 13, 1990 and rehearsed with the band (now joined by drummer Dave Krusen) for a week, writing eleven songs in the process. Vedder was soon hired as the band's singer, and the group signed to Epic Records shortly thereafter. Recording The band, then named Mookie Blaylock, entered London Bridge Studios in Seattle, Washington in March 1991 with producer Rick Parashar to record its debut album. After working with Parashar on Temple of the Dog, Stone and Ament asked him to co-produce and engineer Ten. Parashar also contributed piano, Fender Rhodes, percussion, co-wrote vocal harmonies and co-wrote the intro/outro of the album. A few tracks were previously recorded at London Bridge in January, but only "Alive" was carried over from that session. The album sessions were quick and lasted only a month, mainly due to the band having already written most of the material for the record. "Porch", "Deep", "Why Go", and "Garden" were first recorded during the album sessions; everything else had been previously recorded during demo sessions at some point. McCready said that "Ten was mostly Stone and Jeff; me and Eddie were along for the ride at that time." Ament stated, "We knew we were still a long way from being a real band at that point." The recording sessions for Ten were completed in May 1991. Krusen left the band once the sessions were completed, checking himself into rehab. According to Krusen, he was suffering from personal problems at the time. Krusen said, "It was a great experience. I felt from the beginning of that band that it was something special," and added, "They had to let me go. I couldn't stop drinking, and it was causing problems. They gave me many chances, but I couldn't get it together." In June, the band joined Tim Palmer in England for mixing. Palmer decided to mix the album at Ridge Farm Studios in Dorking, a converted farm that according to Palmer was "about as far away from an L.A. or New York studio as you can get." Palmer made a few additions to the already-recorded songs, including having McCready finish up the guitar solo on "Alive" and tweaking the intro to "Black". Palmer overdubbed a pepper shaker and a fire extinguisher as percussion on "Oceans". In subsequent years, band members have expressed dissatisfaction with the way the album's mixing turned out. In 2001, Ament said, "I'd love to remix Ten. Ed, for sure, would agree with me. It wouldn't be like changing performances; just pull some of the reverb off it." In 2002, Gossard said, "It was 'over-rocked', we were novices in the studio and spent too long recording, doing different takes, and killing the vibe and overdubbing tons of guitar. There's a lot of reverb on the record." In 2006, Vedder said, "I can listen to the early records [except] the first record...it's just the sound of the record. It was kind of mixed in a way that was...it was kind of produced." Music and lyrics Ten has been described as a grunge, alternative rock, and hard rock album. Several of the songs on the album started as instrumental compositions that Vedder added lyrics to after he joined the band. Regarding the lyrics, Vedder said, "All I really believe in is this fucking moment, like right now. And that, actually, is what the whole album talks about." Vedder's lyrics for Ten deal with subjects like depression, suicide, loneliness, and murder. The album also tackles social concerns such as homelessness ("Even Flow") and the use of psychiatric hospitals ("Why Go"). The song "Jeremy" and its accompanying video were inspired by a true story in which a high school student shot himself in front of his classmates. Many listeners interpreted "Alive" as an inspirational anthem due to its decidedly uplifting instrumentals and chorus. Vedder has since revealed that the song tells the semi-autobiographical tale of a son discovering that his father is actually his stepfather (his real father having died long ago), while his mother's grief turns her to sexually embrace her son, who strongly resembles the biological father. "Alive" and "Once" formed part of a song cycle in what Vedder later described as a "mini-opera" entitled Momma-Son (the third song, "Footsteps", appeared as a B-side on the "Jeremy" single). Vedder explained that the lyrics told the story of a young man whose father dies ("Alive"), causing him to go on a killing spree ("Once") which leads to his capture and execution ("Footsteps"). It was later revealed that Vedder's lyrics were inspired by his long-held hurt in discovering at age 17 that the man he thought was his father was not, and that his real father had already died. While Ten deals with dark subject matter, it has generally been seen as a high-water mark of the early 1990s alternative rock sound, with Vedder's unusually deep and strong (and later much-imitated) voice alternating between solidity and vibrato against the unrestrained, guitar-heavy, hard rock sound that drew influence from Led Zeppelin and other rock bands of the 1970s. Ten's musical style, influenced by classic rock, combined an "expansive harmonic vocabulary" with an anthemic sound. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic stated that the songs on the album fused "the riff-heavy stadium rock of the 1970s with the grit and anger of '80s post-punk, without ever neglecting hooks and choruses." Ten features a two-part track entitled "Master/Slave" that both opens and closes the album. The first part begins the album, before "Once" starts, and the second part closes the album, after "Release". It begins about ten seconds after the album's closer "Release" as a hidden track, but both count as one track on the CD. The song is entirely instrumental (except for random unintelligible words Vedder utters throughout) with a dominant fretless bass line making up the core of the song (which Ament referred to in a 1994 Bass Player magazine interview as "my tribute to (fretless bass instrumentalist) Mick Karn"), along with some guitar and sounds that seem to come from the drums. Producer Rick Parashar stated in 2002, "As I recall, I think Jeff had, like, a bass line...I heard the bass line and then we kind of were collaborating on that in the control room, and then I just started programming on the keyboard all this stuff; he was jamming with it and it just kind of came about like that." Outtakes The album's singles featured two B-sides from the Ten recording sessions which were not included on the album, "Wash" and "Yellow Ledbetter". The former was a B-side on the "Alive" single while the latter was featured on the "Jeremy" single and eventually became a radio hit in 1994. Both songs were included on the 2003 Lost Dogs collection of rarities, although the included version of "Wash" is an alternate take. The song "Alone" was also originally recorded for Ten; a 1992 re-recorded version of the song is on the "Go" single. Another version of "Alone", with re-recorded vocals, appears on Lost Dogs. According to McCready, "Alone" was cut from Ten because the band already had enough mid-tempo songs for the album. The song "Dirty Frank", which was released as a B-side on the "Even Flow" single and often thought to be a Ten outtake, was recorded after Ten was released. Thus, "Dirty Frank" is not from the Ten recording sessions. The song "Footsteps" began as an instrumental demo and was compiled onto the Stone Gossard Demos '91 tape. Vedder added vocals to this version after he received the demo tape. The music for "Footsteps" was also used for Temple of the Dog's "Times of Trouble". "Footsteps" was featured as a B-side on the "Jeremy" single, however this version is taken from a 1992 appearance on the radio show Rockline. This version of "Footsteps" is also featured on Lost Dogs, however a harmonica intro has been overdubbed on to the recording. Other songs rejected from the album but later included on Lost Dogs are "Hold On" and "Brother", the latter of which was turned into an instrumental for Lost Dogs. "Brother" was cut because Gossard was no longer interested in playing the song, a decision which Ament objected to and almost caused him to quit the band. The version of "Brother" with vocals appears on the 2009 Ten reissue and became a radio hit that same year. Both "Breath" and "State of Love and Trust" were recorded with the intention of the two songs possibly appearing in the film Singles. The versions heard in the film and on its soundtrack were recorded a year later in 1992. The versions from the Ten sessions appear on the 2009 Ten reissue. Other songs rejected from the album but included on the 2009 Ten reissue are "Just a Girl", "2,000 Mile Blues", and "Evil Little Goat". Release and promotion Packaging The album's cover art features the members of the band at the time of recording in a group pose and standing in front of a wood cut-out of the name "Pearl Jam", with their hands risen high and holding one another's. The wood cut-out was constructed by Ament. Ament said, "The original concept was about really being together as a group and entering into the world of music as a true band...a sort of all-for-one deal." Ament is credited for the album's artwork and art direction, Lance Mercer receives credit for photography, and both Lisa Sparagano and Risa Zaitschek are credited for design. Ament stated, "There was a bit of headbutting going on with the Sony art department at that time. The version that everybody got to know as the Ten album cover was pink and it was originally intended to be more of a burgundy color and the picture of the band was supposed to be black and white." Pearl Jam's original name was taken from the professional basketball player Mookie Blaylock. It was changed after the band signed to Epic Records, as record executives were concerned about intellectual property and naming rights following Blaylock's inking of an endorsement deal with Nike. In commemoration of the band's original name, the band titled its first album Ten after Blaylock's jersey number. In some versions, the cover is in gatefold form, folded in such a way that only the bandmembers' hands are visible. Tour Ament stated that "essentially Ten was just an excuse to tour", adding, "We told the record company, 'We know we can be a great band, so let's just get the opportunity to get out and play.'" Pearl Jam faced a relentless touring schedule for Ten. Drummer Dave Abbruzzese joined the band for Pearl Jam's live shows supporting the album. Halfway through its own planned North American tour, Pearl Jam cancelled the remaining dates in order to take a slot opening for the Red Hot Chili Peppers on the band's Blood Sugar Sex Magik tour in the fall of 1991 in North America. The spot was arranged by Jack Irons, who had called his former band asking for them to get an opportunity to his friend Vedder. The Smashing Pumpkins and Nirvana were also supporting acts. Nirvana was initially brought in because the tour promoters decided that Pearl Jam should be replaced with a more successful act, but the departure of The Smashing Pumpkins still kept the group in the concert bill. Epic executive Michael Goldstone observed that "the band did such an amazing job opening the Chili Peppers tour that it opened doors at radio." In 1992, the band embarked on its first ever European tour. On March 13, 1992, at the Munich, Germany show at Nachtwerk, Pearl Jam played Ten in its entirety in order midway through its set. The band would only do this again in 2016 at Philadelphia's Wells Fargo Center, as the arena management homaged the band's tenth straight sellout concert in the city. Following the European leg, Pearl Jam did another tour of North America. Goldstone noted that the band's audience expanded, saying that unlike before, "everyone came." The band's manager, Kelly Curtis, stated, "Once people came and saw them live, this lightbulb would go on. During their first tour, you kind of knew it was happening and there was no stopping it. To play in the Midwest and be selling out these 500 seat clubs. Eddie could say he wanted to talk to Brett, the sound guy, and they'd carry him out there on their hands. You hadn't really seen that reaction from a crowd before..." When Pearl Jam came back for a second go-around in Europe the band appeared at the Pinkpop Festival and the Roskilde Festival in June 1992. The band cancelled its remaining European dates in the summer of 1992 after the Roskilde Festival due to a confrontation with security at that event as well as exhaustion from touring. Ament said, "We'd been on the road over 10 months. I think there just came a point about half way through that tour it was just starting to get pretty intense. I mean just being away from home, being on the road all the time and being lonely or being depressed or whatever." The band would go on to play the 1992 Lollapalooza tour with the Red Hot Chili Peppers, Soundgarden, Ministry and Ice Cube, among others. 2009 re-release On March 24, 2009, Ten was reissued in four editions (Legacy, Deluxe, Vinyl, and Super Deluxe). It was the first reissue in a planned re-release of Pearl Jam's entire catalogue that led up to the band's 20th anniversary in 2011. The extras on the four editions include a remastering and remix of the entire album by producer Brendan O'Brien, re-designed packaging, six bonus tracks ("Brother", "Just a Girl", "Breath and a Scream", "State of Love and Trust", "2,000 Mile Blues", and "Evil Little Goat"), a DVD of the band's 1992 appearance on MTV Unplugged (including a bonus performance of "Oceans", which along with "Rockin' in the Free World" was originally excluded from the broadcast version), vinyl versions of the album, an LP of the band's September 20, 1992 concert at Magnuson Park in Seattle (also known as Drop in the Park), a replica of the original Momma-Son demo cassette, and a replica of Vedder's composition notebook containing personal notes and mementos. Regarding his remix of the album, O'Brien stated, "The band loved the original mix of Ten, but were also interested in what it would sound like if I were to deconstruct and remix it...The original Ten sound is what millions of people bought, dug and loved, so I was initially hesitant to mess around with that. After years of persistent nudging from the band, I was able to wrap my head around the idea of offering it as a companion piece to the original—giving a fresh take on it, a more direct sound." The Ten reissue sold 60,000 copies in its first week, the second biggest selling week for the album since Christmas 1993. Since Billboard considers the Ten reissue a catalog item, Ten did not appear on the Billboard 200, Top Modern Rock/Alternative, or Top Rock Albums, since those charts do not include catalog items. Had it been included on the Billboard 200, the 60,000 copies sold of the Ten reissue would have placed it at number five. The reissue also re-entered the Australian Albums Chart at number 11, giving it a new peak chart position in Australia and its highest chart placing since June 14, 1992. Tying in with the re-release of the album, in March 2009, the entire album was made available as downloadable content for the Rock Band series of video games. In addition, three Ten-era bonus tracks were made available for the Rock Band video game for those who purchased the Ten re-release through Best Buy: "Brother", "Alive", and "State of Love and Trust", the latter two as live versions taken from the band's September 20, 1992 concert. Critical reception In a contemporary review for Rolling Stone, music critic David Fricke gave the album a favorable review, saying that Pearl Jam "hurtles into the mystic at warp speed." He also added that Pearl Jam "wring a lot of drama out of a few declarative power chords swimming in echo." Allan Jones of Melody Maker suggested in his review of Ten that it is Vedder that "provides Pearl Jam with such a uniquely compelling focus." AllMusic staff writer Steve Huey called it a "flawlessly crafted hard rock masterpiece" and felt that Vedder's "impressionistic lyrics" are more effective through his passionate vocal delivery rather than their "concrete meaning." Q called it "raucous modern rock, spiked with infectious guitar motifs and powered with driving bass and drums," and said it "may well be the face of the 90's metal." Stereo Review said that "the band sounds larger than life, producing a towering inferno of roaring guitars, monumental bass and drums, and from-the-gut vocals." Don Kaye of Kerrang! defined the album "introspective and charged with a quiet emotional force". Greg Kot wrote in the Chicago Tribune, "Occasionally overwrought and unrelentingly humorless, the music nonetheless exerts a hypnotic power at its best." In a less enthusiastic review for Entertainment Weekly, David Browne found Pearl Jam to be derivative of "fellow Northwestern rockers like Soundgarden, Alice in Chains, and the defunct Mother Love Bone", and felt that it "goes to show that just about anything can be harnessed and packaged." NME accused Pearl Jam of "trying to steal money from young alternative kids' pockets." Nirvana's Kurt Cobain angrily attacked Pearl Jam, claiming the band were commercial sellouts, and argued Ten was not a true alternative album because it had so many prominent guitar leads. Robert Christgau, writing in The Village Voice, gave the album a "B-" and viewed it as another in a "slew of Seattle albums" that "modulate the same misguided ethos", which he said was "hippie" rather than "punk". Christgau described it as "San Francisco ballroom music" whose "distinguishing characteristics" could only be discerned by listeners if they "take the right drugs". He later gave Ten a two-star honorable mention, citing "Once" and "Even Flow" as highlights, and quipped, "in life, abuse justifies melodrama; in music, riffs work better". Charles R. Cross wrote in The Rolling Stone Album Guide (2004) that Ten sounded less original and more self-important than Nirvana's Nevermind, but it also showcases the band's intricate guitar style and Vedder's distinctive singing. Accolades Defined by Kerrang!'s George Garner as "arguably the greatest rock debut record of all time", Ten, in 2003, was ranked number 207 on Rolling Stones list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, and 209 in a 2012 revised list. In 2020 it was raised to the 160th position on the list. Readers of Q voted Ten as the 42nd greatest album ever; however, three years later the album was listed lower at 59th. In 2003, VH1 placed it at number 83 on their list of the 100 greatest albums of rock and roll. In 2006, British Hit Singles & Albums and NME organised a poll of which, 40,000 people worldwide voted for the 100 best albums ever and Ten was placed at number 66 on the list. It was also ranked number 15 in the October 2006 issue of Guitar World on the magazine's list of the 100 greatest guitar albums of all time. In 2007, the album was included at number 11 on the list of the "Definitive 200" albums of all time developed by the National Association of Recording Merchandisers. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. In December 2020, the album was announced as one of many inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame as part of the 2021 class. Commercial performance Ten initially sold slowly upon its release, but by the second half of 1992 it became a breakthrough success, attaining an RIAA gold certification. Almost a year after its release, the album finally broke into the top ten of the Billboard 200 album chart on May 30, 1992, reaching number eight. Ten would eventually peak at number two for four weeks. It was held off the top spot by the Billy Ray Cyrus album, Some Gave All. The album spent a total of 264 weeks on the Billboard charts, making it one of the top 15 charting albums ever. By February 1993, American sales of Ten surpassed those of Nevermind, the breakthrough album by fellow grunge band Nirvana. Ten continued to sell well two years after its release; in 1993 it was the eighth best-selling album in the United States, outselling Pearl Jam's second album, Vs. As of February 2013, Ten has sold 13 million copies in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan, and has been certified 13× platinum by the RIAA. Ten produced three hit singles, "Alive", "Even Flow", and "Jeremy", all of which had accompanying music videos (The "Oceans" video was released only outside of the U.S.). The singles all placed on the Mainstream Rock and Modern Rock charts. The song "Black" reached number three on the Mainstream Rock chart, despite never being released as a single. The video for "Alive" was nominated for the MTV Video Music Award for Best Alternative Video in 1992. "Jeremy" became one of Pearl Jam's best-known songs, and received nominations for Best Rock Song and Best Hard Rock Performance at the 1993 Grammy awards. The video for "Jeremy", directed by Mark Pellington, was put into heavy rotation by MTV and became a huge hit, receiving five nominations at the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards, of which it won four, including Video of the Year and Best Group Video. Track listing Original release Note "Release" contains the hidden track "Master/Slave" at 5:18. Note *Recorded live on August 3, 1991 at RKCNDY in Seattle, Washington. Note Live tracks recorded on December 31, 1992 at The Academy Theater in New York, New York. Reissue bonus material MTV Unplugged DVD "Oceans" "State of Love and Trust" "Alive" "Black" "Jeremy" "Even Flow" "Porch" Momma-Son cassette Drop in the Park LP Personnel Pearl Jam Jeff Ament – bass guitar, art direction/concept, background vocals on "Why Go" Stone Gossard – rhythm guitar, background vocals on "Why Go" Dave Krusen – drums, timpani Mike McCready – lead guitar Eddie Vedder – vocals, additional art Additional musicians and production Dave Hillis – engineer Don Gilmore, Adrian Moore – additional engineering Walter Gray – cello Bob Ludwig – mastering Lance Mercer – photos Tim Palmer – fire extinguisher and pepper shaker on "Oceans", mixing Rick Parashar – production, piano, organ, percussion Pearl Jam – production Steve Pitstick – additional art Lisa Sparagano, Risa Zaitschek – design Kelly Curtis – management Charts Original release 2009 re-release Year-end charts Decade-end charts Singles Certifications See also List of best-selling albums in the United States References 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213682	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal%20depolymerization	Thermal depolymerization	Thermal depolymerization (TDP) is the process of converting a polymer into a monomer or a mixture of monomers, by predominately thermal means. It may be catalysed or un-catalysed and is distinct from other forms of depolymerisation which may rely on the use of chemicals or biological action. This process is associated with an increase in entropy. For most polymers thermal depolymerisation is chaotic process, giving a mixture of volatile compounds. Materials may be depolymerised in this way during waste management, with the volatile components produced being burnt as a form of synthetic fuel in a waste-to-energy process. For other polymers thermal depolymerisation is an ordered process giving a single product, or limited range of products, these transformations are usually more valuable and form the basis of some plastic recycling technologies. Disordered depolymerisation For most polymeric materials thermal depolymerisation proceeds in a disordered manner, with random chain scission giving a mixture of volatile compounds. The result is broadly akin to pyrolysis, although at higher temperatures gasification takes place. These reactions can be seen during waste management, with the products being burnt as synthetic fuel in a waste-to-energy process. In comparison to simply incinerating the starting polymer, depolymerisation gives a material with a higher heating value which can be burnt more efficiently and may also be sold. Incineration can also produce harmful dioxins and dioxin-like compounds. As the depolymerisation step is energy-consuming the ultimate balance of energy efficiency compared to straight incineration can be very tight and has been the subject of criticism. Biomass Many agricultural and animal wastes can be processed, but these are often already used as fertilizer, animal feed, and, in some cases, as feedstocks for paper mills or as low-quality boiler fuel. Thermal depolymerisation can convert these into more economically valuable materials. Numerous biomass to liquid technologies have been developed. In general, biochemicals contain oxygen atoms which are retained during pyrolysis, giving liquid products rich in phenols and furans. These can be viewed as partially oxidised and make for low-grade fuels. Hydrothermal liquefaction technologies dehydrate the biomass during thermal processing to produce a more energy rich product stream. Similarly, gasification produces hydrogen, a very high energy fuel. Plastics Plastic waste consists mostly of commodity plastics and may be actively sorted from municipal waste. Pyrolysis of mixed plastics can give a fairly broad mix of chemical products (between about 1 and 15 carbon atoms) including gases and aromatic liquids. Catalysts can give a better defined product with a higher value. Likewise, hydrocracking can be employed to give LPG products. The presence of PVC can be problematic, as its thermal depolymerisation generates large amounts of HCl, which can corrode equipment and cause undesirable chlorination of the products. It must be either excluded or compensated for by installing dichlorination technologies. Polyethylene and polypropylene account for just less than half of global plastic production and being pure hydrocarbons have a higher potential for conversion to fuel. Plastic-to-fuel technologies have historically struggled to be economically viable due to the costs of collecting and sorting the plastic and the relatively low value of the fuel produced. Large plants are seen as being more economical than smaller ones, but require more investment to build. The approach can however, lead to a mild net-decrease in greenhouse gas emissions. In tire waste management, tire pyrolysis is also an option. Oil derived from tire rubber pyrolysis contains high sulfur content, which gives it high potential as a pollutant and requires hydrodesulfurization before use. The area faces legislative, economic, and marketing obstacles. In most cases tires are simply incinerated as tire-derived fuel. Municipal waste Thermal treatment of municipal waste can involve the depolymerisation of a very wide range of compounds, including plastics and biomass. Technologies can include simple incineration as well as pyrolysis, gasification and plasma gasification. All of these are able to accommodate mixed and contaminated feedstocks. The main advantage is the reduction in volume of the waste, particularly in densely populated area lacking suitable sites for new landfills. In many countries incineration with energy recovery remains the most common method, with more advanced technologies being hindered by technical and cost hurdles. Ordered depolymerisation Some materials thermally decompose in an ordered manner to give a single or limited range of products. By virtue of being pure materials they are usually more valuable than the mixtures produced by disordered thermal depolymerisation. For plastics this is usually the starting monomer and when this is recycled back into fresh polymer it is called feedstock recycling. In practice, not all depolymerisation reactions are completely efficient and some competitive pyrolysis is often observed. Biomass Biorefineries convert low-value agricultural and animal waste into useful chemicals. The industrial production of furfural by the acid catalysed thermal treatment of hemicellulose has been in operation for over a century. Lignin has been the subject of significant research for the potential production of BTX and other aromatics compounds, although such processes have not yet been commercialised with any lasting success. Plastics Certain polymers like PTFE, Nylon 6, polystyrene and PMMA undergo depolymerization to give their starting monomers. These can be converted back into new plastic, a process called chemical or feedstock recycling. In theory this offers infinite recyclability but it is also more expensive and has a higher carbon footprint than other forms of plastic recycling. Related processes Although rarely employed today, coal gasification has historically been performed on a large scale. Thermal depolymerisation is similar to other processes which use superheated water as a major step to produce fuels, such as direct hydrothermal liquefaction. These are distinct from processes using dry materials to depolymerize, such as pyrolysis. The term Thermochemical Conversion (TCC) has also been used for conversion of biomass to oils, using superheated water, although it is more usually applied to fuel production via pyrolysis. A demonstration plant due to start up in The Netherlands is said to be capable of processing 64 tons of biomass (dry basis) per day into oil. Thermal depolymerisation differs in that it contains a hydrous process followed by an anhydrous cracking / distillation process. Condensation polymers baring cleavable groups such as esters and amides can also be completely depolymerised by hydrolysis or solvolysis, this can be a purely chemical process but may also be promoted by enzymes. Such technologies are less well developed than those of thermal depolymerisation but have the potential for lower energy costs. Thus far polyethylene terephthalate has been the most heavily studied polymer. It has been suggested that waste plastic could be converted into other valuable chemicals (not necessarily monomers) by microbial action, such technology is still in its infancy. 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213685	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Second%20Jungle%20Book	The Second Jungle Book	The Second Jungle Book is a sequel to The Jungle Book by Rudyard Kipling. First published in 1895, it features five stories about Mowgli and three unrelated stories, all but one set in India, most of which Kipling wrote while living in Vermont. All of the stories were previously published in magazines in 18945, often under different titles. The 1994 film The Jungle Book used it as a source. Contents Each story is followed by a related poem: "How Fear Came": This story takes place before Mowgli fights Shere Khan. During a drought, Mowgli and the animals gather at a shrunken Wainganga River for a Water Truce" where the display of the blue-colored Peace Rock prevents anyone from hunting at its riverbanks. After Shere Khan was driven away by him for nearly defiling the Peace Rock, Hathi the elephant tells Mowgli the story of how the first tiger got his stripes when fear first came to the jungle. This story can be seen as a forerunner of the Just So Stories. "The Law of the Jungle" (poem) "The Miracle of Purun Bhagat": An influential Indian politician abandons his worldly goods to become an ascetic holy man. Later, he must save a village from a landslide with the help of the local animals whom he has befriended. "A Song of Kabir" (poem) "Letting in the Jungle": Mowgli has been driven out of the human village for witchcraft, and the superstitious villagers are preparing to kill his adopted parents Messua and her unnamed husband. Mowgli rescues them and then prepares to take revenge. "Mowgli's Song Against People" (poem) "The Undertakers": A mugger crocodile, a jackal and a Greater adjutant stork, three of the most unpleasant characters on the river, spend an afternoon bickering with each other until some Englishmen arrive to settle some unfinished business with the crocodile. "A Ripple Song" (poem) "The King's Ankus": Mowgli discovers a jewelled object beneath the Cold Lairs, which he later discards carelessly, not realising that men will kill each other to possess it. Note: the first edition of The Second Jungle Book inadvertently omits the final 500 words of this story, in which Mowgli returns the treasure to its hiding-place to prevent further killings. Although the error was corrected in later printings, it was picked up by some later editions. "The Song of the Little Hunter" (poem) "Quiquern": A teenaged Inuit boy and girl set out across the arctic ice on a desperate hunt for food to save their tribe from starvation, guided by the mysterious animal-spirit Quiquern. However, Quiquern is not what he seems. "Angutivaun Taina" (poem) "Red Dog": Mowgli's wolfpack is threatened by a pack of rampaging dholes. Mowgli asks Kaa the python to help him formulate a plan to defeat them. "Chil's Song" (poem) "The Spring Running": Mowgli, now almost seventeen years old, is growing restless for reasons he cannot understand. On an aimless run through the jungle he stumbles across the village where his adopted mother Messua is now living with her two-year-old son, and is torn between staying with her and returning to the jungle. "The Outsong" (poem) Characters Mowgli – A young human boy of Indian ancestry who has been raised by wolves since infancy Father Wolf – An Indian wolf who is Raksha's mate Raksha – An Indian wolf Mang – A bat Bagheera – A black panther and the one who discovered the infant Mowgli and entrusted him to the wolves Baloo – A bear Kaa – An Indian python Tabaqui – A golden jackal Akela – An Indian wolf Jacala – A mugger crocodile The Red Dogs – dholes Ikki – An Indian crested porcupine Hathi – An Indian elephant Grey Brother – One of Mother and Father Wolf's cubs. In a later Mowgli story written by Kipling titled "In the Rukh", Grey Brother is depicted as still living with Mowgli even after Mowgli has grown up, watching over his infant son. Ko – A carrion crow Derivative sequels The Third Jungle Book, 1992 book by Pamela Jekel, consisting of new Mowgli stories, in an imitation of Kipling's style. The Second Jungle Book: Mowgli & Baloo, 1997 film starring Jamie Williams as Mowgli, but the film's story has little or no connection with the stories in Rudyard Kipling's The Second Jungle Book. See also Works of Rudyard Kipling Feral children in mythology and fiction External links The Jungle Book Collection: a website demonstrating the variety of merchandise related to the book and film versions of The Jungle Books 1895 short story collections Short story collections by Rudyard Kipling 19th-century British children's literature The Jungle Book Macmillan Publishers books British children's books Children's short story collections Animal tales 1890s children's books Sequels	[ -0.25999268889427185, -0.41337186098098755, -0.7287063002586365, 0.08377649635076523, -0.471670001745224, 0.2540968060493469, 0.45013371109962463, 0.035397984087467194, -0.3387795686721802, -0.7727875709533691, -0.056871093809604645, 0.265943318605423, -0.7253749966621399, -0.4505116641521454, 0.5838993787765503, 0.06770522892475128, 0.6565524935722351, 0.28853994607925415, -0.39038223028182983, -0.8707107901573181, -0.3746460974216461, 0.1795065701007843, 0.1526365578174591, -0.06366779655218124, 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213692	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zemsky%20Sobor	Zemsky Sobor	The Zemsky Sobor () was a parliament of the Tsardom of Russia's Estates of the realm active during the 16th and 17th centuries. The assembly represented Russia's feudal classes in three categories: Nobility and the high bureaucracy, the Holy Sobor of the Orthodox clergy, and representatives of "commoners" including merchants and townspeople. Assemblies could be summoned either by the Tsar, the Patriarch, or the Boyar Duma, to decide current agenda, controversial issues or enact major pieces of legislation. Tsardom of Russia In the 16th century Tsar Ivan the Terrible held the first Zemsky Sobor in 1549, holding several assemblies primarily as a rubber stamp but also to address initiatives taken by the lower nobility and townspeople. Times of Troubles The Time of Troubles saw the Zemsky Sobor elect Boris Godunov as Tsar in 1598 during the succession crisis after the end of the Rurik Dynasty. Assemblies were held annually after Mikhail Romanov was elected Tsar in 1613, but lost influence as the Romanov dynasty became more established, with the assembly to ratify the Treaty of Pereyaslav in 1654 the last for thirty years. The last Zemsky Sobors were held in the 1680s to abolish the mestnichestvo system and to ratify the "Eternal Peace" with Poland. 1922 Zemsky Sobor The Zemsky Sobor of Amur region (Приамурский Земский Собор) of the Provisional Priamurye Government was convened in Vladivostok on July 23, 1922, by Mikhail Diterikhs during the Russian Civil War. Diterikhs was a general of the White Army in the Russian Far East and convened the assembly four years after the execution of the Romanov family to proclaim a new monarchy, naming Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich as the Tsar of Russia, with Patriarch Tikhon as the honorary chairman of the Zemsky Sobor. Neither Nikolai or Tikhon were present at the assembly, and the plan was cancelled when the region fell to the Bolsheviks two months later. Further reading S.L. Avaliani, "Литературная история земских соборов" [Literary History of the Zemsky Sabors]. Odessa: 1916. John Keep, "The Decline of the Zemsky Sobor," in Power and the People: Essays on Russian History. Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1995; pp. 51–72. 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213693	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absalom%2C%20Absalom%21	Absalom, Absalom!	Absalom, Absalom! is a novel by the American author William Faulkner, first published in 1936. Taking place before, during, and after the American Civil War, it is a story about three families of the American South, with a focus on the life of Thomas Sutpen. Plot summary Absalom, Absalom! details the rise and fall of Thomas Sutpen, a white man born into poverty in western Virginia who moves to Mississippi with the dual aims of gaining wealth and becoming a powerful family patriarch. The story is told entirely in flashbacks narrated mostly by Quentin Compson to his roommate at Harvard College, Shreve, who frequently contributes his own suggestions and surmises. The narration of Rosa Coldfield, and Quentin's father and grandfather, are also included and re-interpreted by Shreve and Quentin, with the total events of the story unfolding in nonchronological order and often with differing details. This results in a peeling-back-the-onion revelation of the true story of the Sutpens. Rosa initially narrates the story, with long digressions and a biased memory, to Quentin Compson, whose grandfather was a friend of Sutpen's. Quentin's father then fills in some of the details to Quentin. Finally, Quentin relates the story to his roommate Shreve, and in each retelling, the reader receives more details as the parties flesh out the story by adding layers. The final effect leaves the reader more certain about the attitudes and biases of the characters than about the facts of Sutpen's story. Thomas Sutpen arrives in Jefferson, Mississippi, with some slaves and a French architect who has been somehow forced into working for him. Sutpen obtains one hundred square miles of land from a local Native American tribe and immediately begins building a large plantation called Sutpen's Hundred, including an ostentatious mansion. All he needs to complete his plan is a wife to bear him a few children (particularly a son to be his heir), so he ingratiates himself with a local merchant and marries the man's daughter, Ellen Coldfield. Ellen bears Sutpen two children, a son named Henry and a daughter named Judith, both of whom are destined for tragedy. Henry goes to the University of Mississippi and meets fellow student Charles Bon, who is ten years his senior. Henry brings Charles home for Christmas, and Charles and Judith begin a quiet romance that leads to a presumed engagement. However, Thomas Sutpen realizes that Charles Bon is his son from an earlier marriage and moves to stop the proposed union. Sutpen had worked on a plantation in the French West Indies as overseer and, after subduing a slave uprising, was offered the hand of the plantation owner's daughter, Eulalia Bon. She bore him a son, Charles. Sutpen did not know that Eulalia was of mixed race until after the marriage and birth of Charles, but when he discovered that he had been deceived, he renounced the marriage as void and left his wife and child (though leaving them his fortune as part of his own moral recompense). The reader also later learns of Sutpen's childhood, when young Thomas learned that society could base human worth on material worth. It is this episode that sets into motion Thomas' plan to start a dynasty. When Sutpen tells Henry that Charles is his half-brother and that Judith must not be allowed to marry him, Henry refuses to believe it, repudiates his birthright, and accompanies Charles to his home in New Orleans. They then return to Mississippi to enlist in their University company, joining the Confederate Army to fight in the Civil War. During the war, Henry wrestles with his conscience until he presumably resolves to allow the marriage of half-brother and sister; this resolution changes, however, when Sutpen reveals to Henry that Charles is part black. At the conclusion of the war, Henry enforces his father's interdiction of marriage between Charles and Judith, killing Charles at the gates to the mansion and then fleeing into self-exile. Thomas Sutpen returns from the war and begins to repair his dynasty and his home, whose hundred square miles have been reduced by carpetbaggers and punitive northern action to one square mile. He proposes to Rosa Coldfield, his dead wife's younger sister, and she accepts. However, Sutpen insults Rosa by demanding that she bear him a son before the wedding takes place, prompting her to leave Sutpen's Hundred. Sutpen then begins an affair with Milly, the 15-year-old granddaughter of Wash Jones, a squatter who lives on the Sutpen property. The affair continues until Milly becomes pregnant and gives birth to a daughter. Sutpen is terribly disappointed, because the last hope of repairing his Sutpen dynasty rested on Milly giving birth to a son. Sutpen casts Milly and the child aside, telling them that they are not worthy of sleeping in the stables with his horse, who had just sired a male. An enraged Wash Jones kills Thomas, Milly, Milly's newborn daughter, and finally himself by resisting arrest. The story of Thomas Sutpen's legacy ends with Quentin taking Rosa back to the seemingly abandoned Sutpen's Hundred plantation, where they find Henry Sutpen and Clytemnestra (Clytie), the daughter of Thomas Sutpen by a slave woman. Henry has returned to the estate to die. Three months later, when Rosa returns with medical help for Henry, Clytie mistakes them for law enforcement and starts a fire that consumes the plantation and kills Henry and herself. The only remaining Sutpen is Jim Bond, Charles Bon's black grandson, a young man with severe mental handicaps, who remains on Sutpen's Hundred. Analysis Like other Faulkner novels, Absalom, Absalom! allegorizes Southern history; the title itself is an allusion to the Biblical story of King David and Absalom, a wayward son fighting the empire his father built. The history of Thomas Sutpen mirrors the rise and fall of Southern plantation culture. Sutpen's failures necessarily reflect the weaknesses of an idealistic South. Rigidly committed to his "design", Sutpen proves unwilling to honor his marriage to a part-black woman, setting in motion his own destruction. Discussing Absalom, Absalom!, Faulkner stated that the curse under which the South labors is slavery, and that Thomas Sutpen's personal curse, or flaw, was his belief that he was too strong to need to be a part of the human family. Absalom, Absalom! juxtaposes ostensible fact, informed guesswork, and outright speculation—with the implication that reconstructions of the past remain irretrievable and therefore imaginative. Faulkner stated that, although none of the narrators got the facts right since "no one individual can look at truth", a truth exists and that the reader can ultimately know it. Most critics have tried to reconstruct this truth behind the shifting narratives, or to show that such a reconstruction cannot be done with certainty or even to prove that there are factual and logical inconsistencies that cannot be overcome. But some critics have stated that, fictional truth being an oxymoron, it is best to take the story as a given, and regard it on the level of myth and archetype, a fable that allows us to glimpse the deepest levels of the unconscious and thus better understand the people who accept (and are ruled by) that myth—Southerners in general and Quentin Compson in particular. By using various narrators expressing their interpretations, the novel alludes to the historical cultural zeitgeist of Faulkner's South, where the past is always present and constantly in states of revision by the people who tell and retell the story over time; it thus also explores the process of myth-making and the questioning of truth. The use of Quentin Compson as the primary perspective (if not exactly the focus) of the novel makes it something of a companion piece to Faulkner's earlier work The Sound and the Fury, which tells the story of the Compson Family, with Quentin as a main character. Although the action of that novel is never explicitly referenced, the Sutpen family's struggle with dynasty, downfall, and potential incest parallel the familial events and obsessions that drive Quentin and Miss Rosa Coldfield to witness the burning of Sutpen's Hundred. Influence and significance Absalom, Absalom!, along with The Sound and the Fury, helped Faulkner win the Nobel Prize in Literature for the year 1949. In 2009, a panel of judges called Absalom, Absalom! the best Southern novel of all time. The title refers to the Biblical story of Absalom, a son of David who rebelled against his father (then King of the Kingdom of Israel) and was killed by David's general Joab in violation of David's order to deal gently with his son, thus causing heartbreak to David. The 1983 Guinness Book of World Records says the "Longest Sentence in Literature" is a sentence from Absalom, Absalom! containing 1,288 words. The sentence can be found in Chapter 6; it begins with the words "Just exactly like father", and ends with "the eye could not see from any point". The passage is entirely italicized and incomplete. The final lyric of Distant Early Warning, a single released by the Canadian rock band Rush, is the word 'Absalom' repeated three times. Drummer Neil Peart, the band's lyricist, said he "loved the sound of" the title of Faulkner's novel and was inspired to look up the Biblical story of Absalom after reading the novel. "Since one of the main themes of the song was compassion, it occurred to me that the Biblical story was applicable." See also Circumlocution Rashomon effect Unreliable narrator Notes External links Absalom, Absalom! at Digital Yoknapatawpha 1936 American novels American gothic novels American historical novels Modernist novels Novels about American slavery Novels about racism Novels based on the Bible Novels by William Faulkner Random House books Southern Gothic novels	[ -0.1437854915857315, 0.9551022052764893, -0.7034200429916382, -0.9560844302177429, -0.2668547034263611, 0.524897575378418, 1.0445725917816162, -0.26419535279273987, -0.10881659388542175, -0.3144749402999878, -0.43815135955810547, 0.37666556239128113, -0.8322668671607971, -0.035168807953596115, 0.3036530017852783, -0.02653212659060955, 0.48087525367736816, 0.4347075819969177, -0.3268287181854248, 0.10412444919347763, -0.04655587673187256, -0.1682492196559906, 0.39094457030296326, -0.19456835091114044, 0.5402402281761169, 0.28107836842536926, 0.6122952699661255, -0.3903462588787079, -0.49039384722709656, 0.15358076989650726, 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213694	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doula	Doula	A doula () is a trained companion who is not a healthcare professional and who supports another person (the doula's client) through a significant health-related experience, such as childbirth, miscarriage, induced abortion or stillbirth, or non-reproductive experiences such as dying. A doula may also provide support to the client's partner, family, and friends. The doula's goal, and role, is to help the client feel safe and comfortable, complementing the role of the healthcare professionals who provide the client's medical care. Unlike a physician, midwife, or nurse, a doula cannot administer medication or other medical treatment or give medical advice. An individual may need to complete training to work as a doula, although trainings and certification processes vary throughout the world. Some doulas work as volunteers; others are paid for their services by their client, medical institutions, or other private and public organizations. Doulas receive varying amounts of training, and their professionalization also varies. The contributions of doulas during reproductive experiences and end-of-life care have been studied and have been shown to benefit their clients. For example, a birth doula providing support during childbirth may increase likelihood of vaginal birth (rather than cesarean delivery), decrease the need for pain medication during labor, and improve the perception of the birthing experience. The benefits of a doula providing other types of support have been less well studied, but might improve a client's experience with medical care or help an individual cope with health transitions. History and etymology The concept of having a companion providing support to the birthing woman dates back to prehistoric times, evidenced by archeological findings of stone carvings and statues and anthropological studies. However, the contemporary role of "doula" first emerged from the grassroots natural birth movement in the United States in the 1960s when women began desiring unmedicated, low-intervention births and began to have friends and others with formal or practical knowledge about childbirth provide them with support during pregnancy. The term doula was first used in a 1969 anthropological study conducted by Dana Raphael, a protégée of Margaret Mead, with whom she co-founded the Human Lactation Center in Westport, Conn. in the 1970s. Raphael suggested it was a widespread practice that a female of the same species be part of childbirth, and in human societies this was traditionally a role occupied by a family member or friend whose presence contributed to successful long-term breastfeeding. Raphael derived the term from modern Greek (, doúla (), "slave"), as told to her by an elderly Greek woman, Eleni Rassias, and described it as coming from "Aristotle's time," an Ancient Greek word meaning "female slave". Two physician-researchers, Marshall Klaus and John Kennell, who conducted clinical trials on the medical outcomes of doula-attended births, adopted the term to refer to a person providing labor support. In 1992, Doulas of North America (later DONA International) was co-founded by Klaus, Kennell, Phyllis Klaus, Penny Simkin, and Annie Kennedy, becoming the first organization to train and certify doulas. The organization with the backing of the research of Klaus and Kennell helped lend credibility and professionalize doulas. Due to the lobbying efforts of DONA International, the term doula was accepted into the American Heritage Dictionary and Oxford Dictionary in 2003, followed by Merriam Webster Dictionary in 2004. Alternative names to this role include "childbirth assistant" and "monitrice," but they did not catch on as "doula" had. In 2008, activists in New York City began the Doula Project, to expand the role of the doula to other reproductive experiences beyond birth, grounded in reproductive justice framework. The participants began working as abortion doulas and coined the term "full-spectrum doula" who support all pregnancy experiences and outcomes such as pregnancy termination, miscarriage and fetal loss. Full spectrum doula groups may be found in major cities in the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom, but prevalence elsewhere in the world is not well documented. Types of support Birth Role A doula focused on birth is also known as birth companion, birth coach or post-birth supporter, by providing continuous care before, during, or after in the form of information, advocacy, physical support, and emotional support. A birth doula is also called a labor doula. A birth doula may accompany a pregnant woman during labor and birth in place of or in addition to a partner, family member or friend. Unlike these other birth companions, a doula has formal training in labor support. The kinds of support provided during childbirth may include physical assistance and comfort (massage, maintaining a supporting posture or providing water), emotional support (providing company, encouragement or simply talking in a soothing tone of voice), acting as an advocate during childbirth (supporting the birthing woman's right to make decisions about their own body and baby to the medical team) and informational support (provide information about the birthing process and non-medication based forms of pain relief, and facilitating communication between their client and health providers). Most doula-client relationships begin a few months before the baby is due. Before the labor, the doula and the family can develop a relationship where the pregnant woman and their support person (for example the father of the baby) feel free to ask questions and express fears and concerns, and discuss birth preferences. Benefits and limitations Continuous support during labor provided by doulas has been associated with improved outcomes for both birthing women and babies, including shorter delivery, fewer caesarean sections and complications, the use of fewer medications and fetal extraction tools, less time in neonatal intensive care units, positive psychological benefits, more satisfying birth experiences, and increased breastfeeding. Cross-country research on the effects of doulas on childbirth and postnatal care is complicated by the variety of settings, cultures and medical systems of individual countries and characteristics of patients. These benefits appear to be contingent on the doula providing continuous rather than intermittent assistance and having knowledge about the specific social and cultural setting within which their services are provided. Doula care can help reduce health disparities of those with the greatest need including those with less education, lower incomes, less preparation for childbirth and those lacking social support. Research also supports the effectiveness of female friends or relatives, after minimal training, as a low-cost alternative to professional doulas. In March 2014, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) put out a Consensus Statement titled "Safe Prevention of Primary Cesarean Delivery" in which it said, "Increasing [a woman's] access to non-medical interventions during labor, such as continuous labor support, also has been shown to reduce cesarean birth rates." As more research has become available on the positive benefits of trained labor support provided by someone not employed by the hospital, in 2017 ACOG officially announced the need for all birthing individuals to have access to continuous labor support outside hospital staff, and said, "Evidence suggests that, in addition to regular nursing care, continuous one-to-one emotional support provided by support personnel, such as a doula, is associated with improved outcomes." The official committee opinion put out by ACOG also offers other recommendations that allow birthing women more choice and access to more supportive care. Doulas could be utilized to help achieve many of these recommendations as they move towards better collaboration. In 2017 the United Kingdom's Royal College of Midwives published a position statement on doulas, which supports the choice of the individual to hire a doula for their birth as long as the doula does not provide medical care. A 2018 study examined women's perceptions of doulas in several different countries, including Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Malawi, Sweden, Nepal, Russia, Canada, and the United States of America and found that having continuous support from a companion such as a doula was highly appreciated by most women. However, perceptions may vary from country to country due to cultural factors, such as an emphasis on modesty and privacy, which may affect what kind of support a woman prefers. A 2018 study examined news media discourse in China noted that Chinese doulas needed to register with official departments or organizations and are closely linked with midwifery. The doula profession was introduced in 1996 to mainland China and demand of their services increased since then, with women citing a dissatisfaction of medical care. After China's implementation of the Second-Child Policy, doula care was strongly linked to doula support in regards to family planning. Tensions between doctors, nurses and doulas have sometimes been described as a "turf battle," though it is also recognized that doulas and nurses can occupy complementary roles that provide opportunities for mutual learning and assistance. Some hospitals have created internal doula training programs to reduce conflict between doulas and medical staff. Training and certification There is no law requiring doulas to become certified, however certification can benefit professional doulas by providing structured education prior to entry into the field, access to a mentor, opportunities for networking, and client confidence. In North America, training generally takes the form of a two- to three-day seminar, and some experience with childbirth. Trainees may have hands-on practice with various techniques used during childbirth, including maternal positions and movements, relaxation and breathing exercises and other measures that could be used for comfort. Certification can occur through organizations at various levels (local, national or international) and some require positive evaluations from medical professionals. Certification may also require, in addition to attending a training course, time spent working or learning about maternity care and childbirth classes and possibly a written exam. Some doulas train through distance education. There is a movement to encourage certification, and provide documentation of it on consumer websites such as DoulaMatch where an individual can find certified doulas, childbirth educators, yoga instructors, and other birth-related professionals. Doulas not trained by a formal organization can be controversial within medical settings due to a lack of formal medical education when a discussion regarding medical interventions in labor versus pursuing natural childbirth without an epidural or caesarean section arises. Major doula organizations that offer certification programs include Birth Arts International, Birth Works, Birthing from Within, Childbirth and Postpartum Professional Association (CAPPA), DONA International, Hypnobirthing, International Childbirth Education Association (ICEA), and ProDoula. Because of the lack of standardization, doula organizations provide different courses with varying requirements and anyone can refer to themselves as a doula. Doulamatch.net, an online referral page for doulas, has offered a list of items that students should look for as they begin looking for training. Amy Gilliland, a researcher on doula care and culture, also lists some qualities a training program should have. Some theorists have stated that it may take college-level work or more in-depth online education in order to provide some of the communication skills that may be necessary. Motivations and challenges In 2010, a survey of professional Canadian doulas found that the common motivations for doula work include "desire to support women in childbirth, personal interest, and a wish to share their own positive birth experience with others" but did not see the work as a means to create steady income. Doulas of color also found motivation in providing care for their racial, ethnic and cultural communities so as to provide culturally competent care. Volunteer doulas often saw doula work as a way to "help others, to establish a practice as an employed doula, and to have a route into nursing or midwifery." A 2004 study of North American doulas identified challenges to doula work such as lack of support from clinicians, balancing doula work with family and other work obligations, and being on call. Volunteer doulas also found challenges in individuals' poor understanding of the doula's role, lack of clear boundaries, and complex socio-economic issues. Additionally, doulas often are challenged with the task to navigate their role in medicalized (hospital) births. Due to the social hierarchy and privilege that medical professionals have in medical settings doulas are often subordinate to doctors and physicians. Doulas have to negotiate the power dynamics between the patient and medical provider, while also establishing their legitimacy and role in the process of childbirth. They, therefore, have to be cognizant of the medical environment in which their client chooses to give birth in order to effectively advocate for their clients needs. Antepartum An antepartum doula provides help and support to someone who has been put on bed rest or is experiencing a high-risk pregnancy. Emotional, physical and practical support can be provided by an antepartum doula in these circumstance. Postpartum Postpartum doulas provide educational support and practical support in the home in the first weeks and months after childbirth or after adding an infant to the family. The same doula often provides both birth and postpartum services. Their services include a mixture of emotional support and practical help, such as infant care, breastfeeding support, information, advocacy and referral, partner support, sibling care, and household organization/work as the family adjusts to the addition of a new baby. There is some evidence that postpartum doula support can increase breastfeeding and decrease postpartum depression. Other workers overlap in some of these services, such as maternity nurses, health visitors, newborn care specialists, lactation consultants, and, historically, monthly nurses. Full-spectrum Full-spectrum doulas extend the role of a birth attendant and provide support for all reproductive experiences which connect the role to the larger reproductive justice movement. This can include support for abortion, miscarriage, stillbirth, queer family planning, adoption, and fertility as well as extending services to women, men, transgender and gender non-conforming individuals. Abortion doulas focus on providing support to clients having an induced abortion. They provide emotional, physical, and informational support virtually or in person. Full-spectrum doulas often identify as activists as well as service providers and emphasize the human rights of their clients in the hopes of ending social stereotypes. End-of-life and critical care End-of-life or death doulas care for critically ill adults in geriatric care, and during death. While some doulas may work independently or on a volunteer basis, others may work in association with a health care service, such as a palliative care service. The roles of an end-of-life doula include not only physical tasks, such as assisting with posture or making the bed comfortable, but also emotional and psychological tasks, such as providing guidance and support. Integration of doulas into formal medical care Birth doulas In the United States, doulas may be found in hospital, community-based programs as well as private practice or doula agencies and may be reimbursed by insurance companies or out-of-pocket by clients. Because insurance companies typically do not cover the cost of hiring a doula, they are more popular among middle- and upper-class parents. Since doula care has the potential to lower maternity costs and reduce health disparities, there is a push to cover doula services through Medicaid reimbursement programs. Three states, Oregon, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, have currently implemented reimbursement programs. In 2019, New York State launched a doula pilot program for Medicaid reimbursement in Erie and Kings Counties. Also that year, New York State passed a bill to certify doulas to lend legitimacy to the profession and to pave the way for Medicaid reimbursement from the federal government, becoming the first state to do so. Doulas in New York however have taken issue with the bill, having not been involved with the bill's writing, citing that state certification would make doulas more beholden to the formal medical system, be a hit to business if certification programs are not approved by the state, and hurt community doulas from working with low-income individuals. In the UK, the National Health Service and promotion of midwifery for low-risk pregnancies provide a continuity of care not available to North American pregnant individuals, but still are seeing an upswing in doulas. This pattern has been suggested to be a result of the lack of midwives available and a move to provide doulas to individuals at greater risk for poor outcomes. A 2019 study reviewed perceptions of labor companionship across mostly high income countries and found barriers that prevent doula care from being universally implemented. These challenges are due to a multitude of factors dealing with perception (providers not understanding the benefits or roles, other medical aspects being seen as more important) and logistics (gaps in policy, difficulty of integration, lack of training). Community-based doulas Community-based doulas work with underserved communities of which they are often members of to provide a sense of cultural humility that fosters trust and strengthens relationships between the doula and their client. The services provided are often low cost, and expand in the amount of support offered compared to traditional doulas and consider physical, social spiritual and emotional needs. Services include an increased amount of home visits, preparation for the birthing experience, education, guidance navigating health care systems, language support, screening for mental health, and food security needs. Additionally, community-based doula models provide insight in the creation of policies that will support those families and underserved communities. These doulas also actively engage policy makers by recommendations on certification and Medicaid coverage, integration into medical care, and participating on advisory boards. Prison doulas Since the 1980s, women incarcerated in the US has increased nearly 800 percent, of which an estimated 12,000 pregnant women are incarcerated annually. Pregnant prisoners are allowed to be shackled in more than 20 states and are forced to return to jail within 24 hours without their infants. The environmental factors of the penal system are shown to increase the risks associated with poor perinatal outcomes and have long-term health risks for the women and their children. The implementation of prison doulas rose out of the movement to end shackling for pregnant and laboring women from the prison abolition, human rights, reproductive justice, and birth justice movements in the early 2000s. Prison doula organizations work with those incarcerated to provide prenatal care, childbirth education, birth attendance, and breast feeding support. By providing doula services to jails, prisons, recovery centers, and county hospitals, doulas work to improve birth experiences and bonding as well as to challenge the dehumanizing penal environment. In studies of women who received doula services while incarcerated, the women reported increased happiness around their pregnancy; greater feelings of empowerment; a sense of normalcy around birth; and support during separation from their infant. While well-received, prison doula support is not widespread in the United States and most programs are local due to the lack of an established federal standard of medical care for pregnant incarcerated individuals. In 2018, Washington was the first state to provide access to midwifery and doula services for incarcerated women for prenatal care, delivery, and postpartum care. However, the bill does not establish means of funding the services, and does not establish guidelines for care. References Further reading External links Video on doulas from the University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health Childbirth Natural childbirth 1969 neologisms	[ 0.3967263996601105, 0.14301227033138275, -0.18433475494384766, 0.10849718004465103, 0.5264769196510315, 0.6674051284790039, 0.01090511865913868, 0.08640167862176895, 0.23183679580688477, -0.011777754873037338, -0.411227822303772, 0.45607835054397583, -0.01168582122772932, -0.056436218321323395, -0.7623383402824402, 0.04161244258284569, 0.6858065724372864, 0.49324050545692444, 0.2719613015651703, -0.4798238277435303, -0.4666409194469452, -0.25850191712379456, -0.22633881866931915, -0.24140650033950806, 0.03644542023539543, 0.1762848049402237, 0.31094497442245483, 0.15138107538223267, -0.49724626541137695, -0.41923433542251587, 0.35269543528556824, 0.1418876349925995, 0.28249117732048035, -0.45778629183769226, 0.22561636567115784, 0.6787546873092651, 0.21504278481006622, -0.48777103424072266, -0.3261565566062927, 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213709	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Radishchev	Alexander Radishchev	Alexander Nikolayevich Radishchev (; – ) was a Russian author and social critic who was arrested and exiled under Catherine the Great. He brought the tradition of radicalism in Russian literature to prominence with his 1790 novel Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow. His depiction of socio-economic conditions in Russia resulted in his exile to Siberia until 1797. He was the grandfather of painter Alexey Bogolyubov. Biography Radishchev was born on an estate just outside Moscow, into a minor noble family of Tatar descent, tracing its roots back to defeated princes who entered into the service of Ivan the Terrible after the conquest of Kazan in 1552, the Tsar offering them, in exchange of baptism, to work for him and being allotted lands of some twenty-two thousand acres, a number their descendants will keep upgrading by serving the Tsars over the generations. His father, Nicholas Afanasevich Radischev, a prominent landowner in Moscow, had a reputation for treating his 3000-plus serfs humanely. Until he was 8 years old he lived on his father's estate in Verkhni Oblyazovo (then part of the Saratov Governorate, today in Penza Oblast), one hundred miles west of the Volga river with a nurse and tutor. He then went to live with a relative in Moscow, where he was allowed to spend time at the newly established Moscow University. In 1765 his family connections provided him with an opportunity to serve as a page in Catherine's court, which he nonetheless regarded with suspicion for its "contempt for the Orthodox faith, and a desire to deliver the homeland into foreign (German) hands". Because of his exceptional academic promise, Radishchev was chosen as of one of a dozen young students to be sent abroad to acquire Western learning. For several years he studied at the University of Leipzig. His foreign education influenced his approach to Russian society, and upon his return he hoped to incorporate Enlightenment philosophies such as natural law and the social contract into Russian conditions. Even as he served as a Titular Councillor, drafting legal protocols, in Catherine's civil service, he lauded revolutionaries like George Washington, praised the early stages of the French Revolution, and found himself enamored of the Russian Freemason, Nicholas Ivanovich Novikov, whose publication The Drone offered the first public critiques of the government, particularly with regards to serfdom. Novikov's sharp satire and indignation inspired Radischev's most famous work – Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow – in which he emulates Novikov's harsh and passionate style. He too was especially critical of serfdom and of the limits to personal freedom imposed by the autocracy. The Empress Catherine the Great read the work, viewed Radishchev's calls for reform as evidence of Jacobin-style radicalism, and ordered copies of the text confiscated and destroyed. Out of the 650 copies originally printed, only 17 had survived by the time the work was reprinted in England fifty years later. In 1790 Radischev was arrested and condemned to death. He humbly begged forgiveness of Catherine, publicly disowning his book, and his sentence was commuted to exile to the small town of Ilimsk in Siberia. En route the writer was treated like a common convict, shackled at the ankles and forced to endure the Russian cold from which he eventually fell ill. His friend, Count Alexander Vorontsov, who held sway with Catherine, interceded and managed to secure Radischev more appropriate accommodations, allowing him to return to Moscow to recover and restart his journey with dignity and comfort. Beginning in October, 1790, Radischev's two-year trip took him through Siberia, stopping in the towns of Ekaterinberg, Tobolsk, and Irkutsk before reaching Ilimsk in 1792. Along the way, he began writing a biography of Yermak, the Cossack conqueror of Siberia, and pursuing an interest in geology and nature. Settling in Ilimsk for five years with his second wife, Elizabeth Vasilievna Rubanovsky, and his two children, Radischev, as the only educated man in the area, became the local doctor and saved several lives. He also wrote a long treatise, On Man, His Mortality, His Immortality, revered as one of the few great philosophical works of Russia. In it he addresses man's belief in the afterlife, the corporality of the soul, the ultimate redemption of sinners and the faults of materialism. After Catherine's death (1796) her successor Tsar Paul recalled Radishchev from Siberia and confined him to his own estate; the writer again attempted to push for reforms in Russia's government. When Alexander I became Emperor (1801), Radishchev was briefly employed to help revise Russian law, a realization of his lifelong dream. Unfortunately, his tenure in this administrative role proved short and unsuccessful. In 1802 a despondent Radishchev - possibly rebuked in a friendly manner, for expressing radical ideas, by Count Zavadovsky who in his reproof spoke of another exile to Siberia - committed suicide by drinking poison. Legacy During the author's last years, his Moscow apartment became the center of several literary circles who extolled similar views and most outspokenly mourned his death. The Russian autocracy, however, managed to prevent A Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow from being published until 1905, during which time it circulated through radical groups and was translated into several languages. Alexander Pushkin, sympathetic to Radischev's views and passion, undertook to write a sequel to his inflammatory book, which was unfortunately never finished and early on faced pressure from the censors. Following the 1905 and 1917 revolutions, however, Radischev was accepted into the radical canon and became widely read throughout Russia and Europe. Despite the discrepancies between the author's ideal and the Soviet reality, authorities managed to paint him as "a materialist, an active fighter against autocratic tyranny, and a veritable forefather of Bolshevism." Views As a true student of the Enlightenment, Radischev held views that favored the freedom of the individual, Humanism, and patriotism. These values are best summed up by “equality of all classes before the law, abolition of the Table of Ranks, trial by jury, religious toleration, freedom of the press, emancipation of manorial serfs, habeas corpus, and freedom of trade”. Upon his return from Leipzig in 1771, Radischev saw with fresh eyes the stark contrast between life under liberal Western states like England and Switzerland and that under Russia's autocracy. Echoing the sentiments of Catherine herself, he advocated education for all classes, a system he had the fortune to witness in a school in Irkutsk. A more educated populace would provide the foundation for an eventual republican or parliamentary system. Of all of Russia's social ills, Radischev especially despised the inequality and prolongation of serfdom, rooted in a traditional social system that enforced a strict hierarchy and permitted abuses and exploitation. Ironically, under Catherine's enlightened reign, serfdom was intensified and spread to newly conquered territories. While in Siberia, Radischev's economic thought developed, not only in terms of decreasing dependence on serfdom but denouncing international trade. Though influenced by Adam Smith, Radischev maintained protectionist views, condemning unnecessary international trade and proposing stronger domestic production. In the debate over Sino-Russian trade relations, he believed Russia's own resources were enough to support it. Criticizing the history of arbitrary rule in Russia, Radischev called autocracy the system of governance "most contrary to human nature". Under this system, government was better positioned to breach its social contract with the governed, creating an unjust and oppressed society. He extends this system to master-serf relations as well, noting that seeking unlimited power is a natural human vice. Radischev does not sweepingly criticize all autocrats, but only tyrants, praising, in fact, Lycurgus, the philosopher king of Sparta who promoted equality and civil rights. Radischev, however, did not believe in, or desire, bloody revolution and instead hoped for a reforming autocrat who would abolish serfdom and "maintain equality in society, protect the widow and the orphan and save the innocent from harm". As a member of the ruling class, he didn’t seek to overturn autocracy but to persuade his countrymen and superiors to give up some of their vested power. In no way an idealist, the writer acknowledged that “where there was more enlightenment, where there was more social life, there was more corruption, so inseparable are good and evil on the earth.” Radischev's religious and philosophical views were incredibly liberal for his time. Denying the belief that sensory experience is primary, Radischev, in On Man, His Mortality, His Immortality, speaks in favor of man's higher virtues as the main elements in complex human thought. He believed that man's hereditary faculties have as much influence on his development as the external environment. He also points out, however, that there are common, innate traits that bind all people, particularly the belief in a higher power. The belief in immortality remains particularly potent for him, both as a factor of faith and as a solace amidst the difficulties of life. English translations A Journey From St. Petersburg to Moscow, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1958. Translated by Leo Wiener. Edited with an introduction and notes by Roderick Page Thaler. A Journey From St. Petersburg to Moscow, Columbia University Press, 2020 (The Russian Library). Translated by Andrew Kahn and Irina Reyfman. See also Nikolay Novikov The Decembrists References Russian political writers Age of Enlightenment Leipzig University alumni 1749 births 1802 deaths 18th-century Russian writers 18th-century male writers 19th-century Russian writers 18th-century Russian novelists Social critics Writers from Moscow Russian people of Tatar descent Enlightenment philosophers Russian exiles in the Russian Empire Suicides in Russia 1800s suicides 18th-century journalists	[ 0.01671711914241314, 0.47844570875167847, -0.738517165184021, -0.09471265971660614, -0.3836095333099365, 0.8781963586807251, 0.9389758706092834, -0.34250569343566895, -0.44534823298454285, -0.07958350330591202, -0.21217553317546844, 0.34245043992996216, -0.9772368669509888, 0.36448243260383606, -0.34325888752937317, 0.1051555871963501, 0.03575282543897629, -0.1899925321340561, -0.6560303568840027, -0.264688640832901, -0.04573960602283478, -0.045463211834430695, -0.0011140432907268405, -0.10407810658216476, -0.1893111914396286, 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213720	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffy	Buffy	Buffy is a pet form of the female given name Elizabeth. Buffy or Buffie may also refer to: People Given name Buffie Carruth (born 1977), American model and fitness instructor Buffy Tyler (born 1978), Playboy playmate Buffy Wicks (born 1977), California State Assemblymember Nickname Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon (1900–2002), the queen consort of Great Britain, who had the nickname Buffy as a child Darren Robinson (rapper) (1967–1995), also called Buffy, a member of the rap trio The Fat Boys Buffy Sainte-Marie (born 1941), indigenous Canadian-American musician, artist, and activist Dorothy Buffum Chandler (1901–1997), a Los Angeles cultural leader, was nicknamed Buffy or Buffie or Buff Elizabeth Williams (Rhondda politician) (born 1976), Welsh politician and Member of the Senedd, known as Buffy Stage name Buffy (rapper) (born Kim Ju-hyeon, 1995) member of South Korean band MADTOWN Fictional characters Buffy Summers, the title character in the 1997 TV series Buffy the Vampire Slayer Buffy Driscoll, a main character and Andi's best friend on Disney Channel's Andi Mack Buffy Gilmore, a main character in Scary Movie Buffy, the sister-in-law of Mike Motley in the 1976–2000 comic strip Motley's Crew Buffy Patterson Davis, the twin sister to Jody on the 1966 TV series Family Affair Other uses Buffy (album), a 1974 album by Buffy Sainte-Marie for MCA Records Buffy (color), a color often used in description of birds Buffy (dog), Russian President Vladimir Putin's dog Buffy coat, a component of blood The Buffy EP, 1999 EP by Velvet Chain , trans-Neptunian object, nicknamed Buffy See also Buffy the Vampire Slayer (disambiguation), various media and the character	[ -0.33948227763175964, -0.07980455458164215, -0.704052746295929, -0.10218176990747452, -0.1825290471315384, 0.6270936727523804, 0.9708619117736816, 0.29277169704437256, 0.20169401168823242, -0.3728509843349457, -0.36201977729797363, -0.27278074622154236, 0.08687606453895569, 0.41900572180747986, -0.5160939693450928, 0.11587746441364288, 0.34311503171920776, 1.0787814855575562, 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213724	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail%20Speransky	Mikhail Speransky	Count Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky (; 12 January 1772 – 23 February 1839) was a Russian reformist during the reign of Alexander I of Russia, to whom he was a close advisor. He later served under Tsar Nicholas I of Russia. Speransky is referred to as the father of Russian liberalism. The main sources for studying the activities of Speransky are materials and documents that belonged to him. These are acts, decrees, regulations and other official documents drawn up by him, as well as drafts, preparatory materials, letters to the emperor, family, friends. For example, correspondence with a daughter and friends helps to determine how the views of the reformer were formed, how he perceived the events, the conditions of his activities. Official correspondence reveals Speransky’s attitude to state issues. Some of these documents were published- in Leningrad in 1962 was published the catalog of documents of the fund M.M. Speransky. Most of the sources were published in the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire, Collections of the Russian Historical Society, magazines, thematic publications, and in appendices to works M.A. Korfa, etc. Personal life Speransky was born on 12 January 1772 in Cherkutino, Vladimir Governorate (now Vladimir Oblast), Russia. Speransky was the son of Mikhail Tretyakov, a village priest. He studied at the religious seminaries in Vladimir and St Petersburg, where he acquired the surname of Speransky, from the Latin verb “to hope” (sperare). Later, in the ecclesiastical seminary in St. Petersburg, he became a professor of mathematics and physics. His skills led him to become the secretary to Prince Kurakin and a competent imperial official. Details of his marriage are sketchy, but he is believed to have married Elizabeth Jane Stephens, an Englishwoman, in 1798; she died the following year of tuberculosis after giving birth to a daughter. This daughter, Elizaveta Mikhailovna Speranskaya, was married to Alexander Frolov-Bagreyev, one of the first governors of the Chernigov Governorate of Ukraine in Chernihiv Both father and daughter were named as minor characters in Tolstoy's novel War and Peace. In January 1839, he was awarded the title of Count. His granddaughter, Mariya, was permitted by special Imperial decree to carry the title into her marriage in the princely Cantacuzène family; the title was combined with that of the Cantacuzène. Mariya was, in turn, the grandmother of famed Russian general Prince Mikhail Cantacuzène. Speransky died in St. Petersburg on 23 February 1839. He is buried at the Tikhvinskoe (Tikhvin) Cemetery at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery; his tombstone was designed by Alexander Brullov. Reforms In 1808, Emperor Alexander I took Speransky to the Congress of Erfurt and introduced him to Napoleon. Speransky and Napoleon discussed a possible Russian administrative reform. In his projects of reform, Speransky envisaged a constitutional system based on a series of dumas – the cantonal assembly (volost) electing the duma of the district, the dumas of the districts electing that of the province or government and these electing the Duma of the empire. As a mediating power between the autocrat and the Duma, there was to be a nominated council of state. From this plan, the council of the empire came into existence in January 1810. The council dominated the constitutional history of Russia in the 19th century and the early years of the 20th. The Duma of the empire, created in 1905, and the institution of local self-government, (the zemstvo) created in 1864, were two of the reforms proposed by him. Speransky's plan also contributed to the constitutions granted by Alexander to Finland and Poland. Downfall under Alexander I From 1809 to 1812, Speransky was all-powerful in Russia. He replaced the earlier members of the unofficial committee and practically became the sole minister. All concerns were discussed and decided upon by Speransky and the emperor. Even the once all-powerful war-minister Count Arakcheyev was thrust into the background. However, powerful though he was, Speransky did not use his immense influence for personal means; his idealism did not permit this but in not seeking political allies, Speransky made himself vulnerable. The Emperor Alexander was also an idealist, but with a more selfish attitude; he dismissed talents that overshadowed his own. He believed himself to be a potent instrument for the attainment of the ideal objective of a regenerated Russia, which was his minister's sole preoccupation. In 1810, Speransky was still in high favor and was the confidant of the emperor in the secret diplomacy which preceded the breach of Russia with Napoleon. He is depicted at this period in Tolstoy's novel War and Peace (he can be found in the second book; third part). Speransky then committed a serious mistake – he conceived the idea of reorganizing the masonic order in Russia to educate and elevate the Orthodox clergy. The emperor agreed to the first steps being taken, namely, the suppression of existing lodges, but he was naturally suspicious of secret societies even when ostensibly admitted to their secrets. Speransky's abortive plan only resulted in adding the clergy to the number of his enemies. On the eve of the struggle with Napoleon, Alexander made Speransky his scape-goat. Alexander appeased Old Russian sentiment, the strongest supporters of the autocratic Tsar against revolutionary France. Speransky's indiscretions gave the final impulse to his downfall. He was surrounded by spies who reported none too accurately the minister's somewhat sharp criticisms of the emperor's acts. Speransky presumed to advise Alexander not to take the chief command in the coming campaign. A number of persons in the entourage of the emperor were motivated to involve Speransky on a charge of treason, including the Grand Duchess Catherine, Fessler, Karamzin, Rostopchin, the Finnish general Count Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt and the Minister State Secretary of the Grand Duchess of Finland in St Petersburg. Alexander did not credit the charge but he made Speransky responsible for the unpopularity incurred by him in consequence of the hated reforms, and the still more hated French policy, and on the 17/29 March 1812 dismissed him from office. From 1810 to 1812, Speransky was the Chancellor of the Imperial Alexander University in Turku, Finland. Later career under Nicholas I Through the intercession of Count Alexei Arakcheyev, Speransky was appointed governor of Penza in 1816 and governor-general of Siberia in 1819. In 1821, he was returned to St Petersburg and made a member of the State Council under Alexander I of Russia. After the Decembrist Revolt of 1825 at the beginning of the reign of Nicholas I of Russia, Speransky sat on the special court of investigation and passed the sentences. In 1826, Speransky was appointed by Nicholas I to head the Second Section of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery, a committee formed to codify Russian law. Under his leadership, the committee produced a publication of the complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire, containing 35,993 enactments. This codification called the "Full Collection of Laws" (Polnoye Sobraniye Zakonov) was presented to Nicholas I, and formed the basis for the "Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire" (Svod Zakonov Rossiskoy Imperii), the positive law valid for the Russian Empire. Speransky's liberal ideas were subsequently scrutinized and elaborated by Konstantin Kavelin and Boris Chicherin. For his efforts in codifying Russian law, Speransky was awarded the Order of St Andrew and, in January 1839, the title of count by Tsar Nicholas I. References Further reading Jenkins, Michael, "Mikhail Speransky," History Today (June 1970), Vol. 20 Issue 6, p404-409, online. Lukovskaya, Dzhenevra, et al. "The Role of Mikhail Speransky in the Financial System Reform." Journal of Advanced Research in Law and Economics 7.6 (20) (2016): 1442-1449. External links Extensive Russian biography Politicians of the Russian Empire Members of the State Council (Russian Empire) Members of the Russian Academy Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences 1772 births 1839 deaths Liberals of the Russian Empire Burials at Tikhvin Cemetery Russian Freemasons Governors of Penza Governorate	[ -0.18151070177555084, 0.4253174066543579, -0.4297293722629547, 0.28030502796173096, -0.22049695253372192, 0.8256908655166626, 0.8778793811798096, -0.5258932113647461, -0.3349311947822571, -0.11232195794582367, -0.14220857620239258, 0.2500910460948944, -0.5666096210479736, 0.32893529534339905, -0.5397533774375916, 0.24462705850601196, 0.1175977811217308, 0.12295961380004883, -0.5958020687103271, 0.043352480977773666, -0.025894638150930405, 0.16478699445724487, 0.1855957806110382, 0.2545236647129059, -0.22368334233760834, -0.05631725490093231, 0.5440656542778015, -0.15311376750469208, -0.14047980308532715, 0.22492022812366486, 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213728	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Marsters	James Marsters	James Wesley Marsters (born August 20, 1962) is an American actor, musician and comic book writer. He is best known for his role as the British vampire Spike in The WB series Buffy the Vampire Slayer and its spin-off, Angel. Since then, he has played the alien supervillain Brainiac on the Superman-inspired series Smallville, Captain John Hart on Torchwood and terrorist Barnabas Greeley in Syfy's Caprica. He appeared in a supporting role in the film P.S. I Love You, as Victor Hesse in the 2010 Hawaii Five-0 reboot, and Victor Stein in the Marvel series Runaways. He also portrayed King Piccolo in the live-action anime adaptation Dragonball Evolution. Early life Marsters was born in Greenville, California, the son of a United Methodist minister and social worker. He grew up with his brother, Paul, and sister, Susan, in Modesto, California. Dreaming about becoming an actor since he played Eeyore in Winnie the Pooh in fourth grade, Marsters joined the theater group at Grace M. Davis High School and acted in many plays, including musicals. After graduation in 1980, Marsters studied at the Pacific Conservatory of the Performing Arts at Allan Hancock College in Santa Maria, California. In 1982, he moved to New York City to attend the Juilliard School, but was expelled from the program after two years. Acting career Early roles Marsters moved to Chicago, where his first professional acting role was Ferdinand in The Tempest at the Goodman Theatre in 1987. In this production, he was rolled onto the stage strapped naked to a wheel. He talks about this experience and his other theatrical roles at length in a 2020 interview with Michael Rosenbaum on the podcast 'Inside of You'. He also appeared with well-known Chicago companies such as the Northlight and the Bailiwick and with his own group, the Genesis Theatre Company. Marsters was nominated for a Joseph Jefferson Award for his performance of the lead role of Robespierre in the six-hour drama Incorruptible: The Life, Death and Dreams of Maximilian de Robespierre in 1989. In 1990, Marsters moved to Seattle and, with Liane Davidson and Greg Musick, formed the New Mercury Theatre. In this and other companies, Marsters was involved in a wide range of plays, including Teechers (a British play by John Godber), Anouilh's Antigone, an original work based on the Dr. Seuss books, and Shaw's Misalliance. In 1992, Marsters got his first TV acting job on Northern Exposure, in which he appeared for two episodes as a bellboy and a church minister. He has made guest appearances on television series such as Andromeda, as well as the independent films Chance (2002), Winding Roads (1999), and the USA Network movie Cool Money (2005). In 1999, he had a small role in the remake of House on Haunted Hill as a TV cameraman. Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel He attracted the attention of the general public for his appearance as villain (and later anti-hero) Spike on the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer (first appearing in season 2). For the role, he put on a London accent and he received informal coaching from English co-star Anthony Head. Spike had been intended as a short role by creator Joss Whedon, who initially resisted Spike's popularity. "He made it very clear he did not want the show to be taken over by another romantic vampire," Marsters told 411Mania, adding: "to Joss, vampires were supposed to be ugly, evil, and quick to be killed... when I was cast Joss did not imagine me to be popular; Spike was supposed to be dirty and evil, punk rock, and then dead." The massive fan response prevented his character from being killed off, allowing him a presence throughout the second season. There were no plans to bring him back as a regular until the character Cordelia Chase was moved to the spin-off show, Angel, and, as Marsters told 411Mania, "they needed someone to tell Buffy she was stupid and about to die, and they decided to bring me back". He thought he would not last as, being a vampire, he was restricted to night-time scenes and could not feasibly interact with the characters as often as Cordelia. Instead, Spike would last until the very end of the show and become a romantic partner for Buffy. After the conclusion of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Marsters carried Spike over to its spinoff, Angel, as a series regular in the fifth and final season of the show. Marsters was asked to keep quiet about this, as his return was intended to be a surprise, but the network promoted Spike's return as soon as it could in order to attract advertising. In April 2004, following the end of Angel, Marsters had Spike's trademark bleached hair shaved off for charity live on television during an episode of On Air with Ryan Seacrest. When the show was cancelled, there were plans for several TV movies. Talk of a Spike movie began in 2004 and Whedon still had plans into 2006, before it was formally abandoned. Marsters had said he would only return to play Spike if the project took place within five years, feeling he would become too old to play the character (an immortal) after that: Aside from playing the character, Marsters co-wrote a comic book one-shot for Dark Horse Comics, Buffy the Vampire Slayer: Spike and Dru. After both Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel ended, Marsters became active with the canonical comic book series of both shows on stories centering around his character. A canonical graphic novel set during the seventh season of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Spike: Into the Light, written by Marsters himself, was released by Dark Horse Comics on July 16, 2014. Other work Marsters has narrated the audiobooks for The Dresden Files, a series of detective novels with a supernatural bent and the side short story collection in the same universe, Side Jobs, were also recorded by Marsters. He did not originally record the Dresden book Ghost Story due to a scheduling conflict, leaving fellow Smallville alumnus John Glover to record it; this caused a fairly noteworthy public outcry by audiobook listeners. He returned for the following book Cold Days. On March 24, 2015, Jim Butcher announced that a new version of the Ghost Story audiobook was to be released on April 21, 2015, with Marsters returning as narrator in response to fan demands. In 2005, Marsters filmed a thriller, Shadow Puppets, with Jolene Blalock. Late that year, Marsters appeared on the television series Smallville playing Dr. Milton Fine—the popular Superman villain Brainiac—in eight episodes throughout the show's fifth season. He reprised his role as Brainiac in a four-episode arc in the seventh season, and did a cameo voice-over in season eight. He returned for one episode in the show's final season. On October 29, 2005, Marsters presented two performances of his own abridged adaptation of Shakespeare's Macbeth with American actress Cheryl Puente as Lady Macbeth, followed by question and answer sessions with the audience and acoustic concerts in London. In September 2006, Marsters' interpretation of Godber's Teechers was performed on the Queen Mary with two other actors in Los Angeles. This is a play he had received critical acclaim for as a stage actor prior to his television work. Marsters co-starred in the 2007 cinematic release of P.S. I Love You alongside Kathy Bates, Hilary Swank, and Gerard Butler. Released in September 2007, Marsters starred in the direct-to-DVD animated movie, Superman: Doomsday, providing the voice of iconic villain Lex Luthor. The film received mostly positive reviews. In 2008, he guest-starred in Torchwood, a spin-off of the popular British science fiction television series Doctor Who, first appearing in the episode "Kiss Kiss, Bang Bang", as the nefarious omnisexual time traveller Captain John Hart. He reprised the role in the last two episodes of the second season. He portrayed "Piccolo Daimao" in the live-action film adaptation of the popular Dragon Ball manga and anime, directed by James Wong and produced by Stephen Chow, which was released worldwide on April 10, 2009. On July 20, 2009, the film Moonshot aired on the History Channel in celebration of the 40th Anniversary of the 1969 moon landing. In this film, Marsters portrays Buzz Aldrin. On August 19, 2009, it was announced that he signed on for a role in Caprica as the terrorist leader Barnabas Greeley. Also in August 2009, Marsters' science fiction western, High Plains Invaders aired on the Syfy Channel. In this alien invasion flick, Marsters portrays Sam Danville. It was announced in August 2010 that Marsters would be joining the cast of Syfy Channel series Three Inches as a series regular portraying Troy Hamilton, a former government agent who now leads a team of superheroes. On June 24, 2011, Marsters appeared in an L.A. Theatre Works radio production of The Importance of Being Earnest, in the part of Sir John Worthing, which aired on June 25, 2011. He has appeared on Supernatural in the episode "Shut Up, Dr. Phil", which aired October 21, 2011, alongside fellow Buffyverse co-star Charisma Carpenter. He also appeared in Warehouse 13 as Bennett Sutton, which aired in 2013. In 2018, some sources speculated that Marsters is the voice actor of Dragon Ball Super character Zamasu. In October 2021, at Fan Expo Canada, both Marsters and Dragon Ball Super voice director Christopher Sabat publicly confirmed that he voiced Zamasu under the pseudonym of David Gray. As a fan of the Dragon Ball franchise, Marsters agreed to play the role of Zamasu in Dragon Ball Super at the suggestion of Sabat himself and Sean Schemmel when they met during a convention. Marsters did so entirely for free in order to "redeem himself with the Dragon Ball Z community" after his appearance in the critically-panned film Dragon Ball: Evolution. Musical career Marsters had played in bands and solo in bars and clubs for many years and enjoyed several successful sell-out solo gigs at Los Angeles clubs before forming a band. For these solo gigs he mainly performed covers of classic folk and rock musicians such as Tom Waits, Neil Young, James Taylor, and Bruce Springsteen. He sang in "Once More, with Feeling", a musical episode of Buffy: solo parts in "Walk Through the Fire" and "Something To Sing About", and "Rest in Peace" completely on his own. In 2003–04, Marsters was the lead singer for the rock band Ghost of the Robot. Their debut album Mad Brilliant was released on February 2, 2003. The band played its first gigs in Los Angeles and Paris. They went on to play successful dates in and around Los Angeles and two sold-out tours of Europe in 2003 and 2004. In addition to Mad Brilliant, they released three singles ("Valerie", "David Letterman" and "New Man") and one mid-length EP, It's Nothing. All these releases carried tracks written and co-written by Marsters. Several of Ghost of the Robot's earlier songs were loosely based on the Buffy the Vampire Slayer characters Buffy, Dawn, and Faith. Marsters' solo musical career was launched in October 2004, in London. His solo acoustic tour of the United Kingdom in April 2005 sold out. A new solo album "Civilized Man" produced by Chris Rhyne and Andrew Rosenthal was released on April 15, 2005. It includes several new songs as well as the popular "Katie" and "Smile". He has played songs from the album live in Detroit, Houston, and Sacramento. Ten of the eleven songs are written by Marsters. New solo songs not included on the album but sung at live solo concerts include "Birth of the Blues", "Finer than Gold", "Louise", and "London City". "Finer than Gold", "London City", and "Louise" were composed while on tour in the UK in April 2005. "Birth of the Blues" was composed by Marsters in Amsterdam in 2004 while touring with his now-defunct band. During his October 2005 mini-tour of the UK, Marsters introduced other new songs to his sets: "Button Down Vandals", "Up On Me", and "All That She Wanted". These songs were available only as part of his recently released Words and Music DVD, which has his abridged version of Macbeth as well as a full-length solo music performance. During his September 2006 convention, James Marsters & Friends, he debuted several new songs including "The Truth Is Heavy", "Fall of Night", "Jealous Man", and "Not A Millionaire". All these songs reflect his new blues music and folk sound. He also performed a cover version of Keb Mo's classic "Baby Blue". In 2007, he performed live several times in the UK and debuted two new songs written in Cardiff. "Layabout" and "Looking at You" reflect a more upbeat light folk move in Marsters' music. These songs as well as some of his previously unrecorded work were released on Marsters' second solo album, formally launched in Los Angeles and Cardiff in October and November 2007 respectively. This album, Like A Waterfall, includes twelve songs, all written by Marsters. Most had been performed and recorded live but not in the studio. An exception is "When I Was A Baby", a song never previously performed in public. Like A Waterfall was produced by Ryan Shore and features several other musicians including Blair Sinta, who has drummed for Alanis Morissette, and Five for Fighting bass player Curt Schneider. In 2008, Marsters' Waterfall Tour came to the UK. He played three dates across London and performed for three consecutive days in Milton Keynes. The concert at the packed Union Chapel in Islington was an acoustic set featuring material from his album—Like A Waterfall. On May 1, 2009, he returned to the Union Chapel, followed by a "Marstersclass" event at The Drill Hall, in London on May 2. The sell-out event included a concert, Q&A session plus opportunities to get autographs and photos. On May 3, 2009, he performed at London's 100 Club. In 2010 James' music career continued when the band Ghost of the Robot reformed: they have since released the album B-Sider which is available on iTunes. Afterwards, in 2011, the album Murphy's Law was released which is also available for download in iTunes. There are also multiple other EPs available on the iTunes Store. Personal life Marsters is divorced from Liane Davidson, with whom he has one son, born May 1996. Since 2002, Marsters agreed to raise his niece and regards her as his daughter. In an interview in 2020, Marsters said that his daughter declines to be mentioned in his interviews, and that she has no interest in acting or show business. He stated that she is undertaking a PhD in Mathematics and that he is very proud of her. It was announced on May 21, 2010, that Marsters had proposed to girlfriend Patricia Rahman in Trier, Germany. On January 14, 2011, they married in a private civil ceremony in Los Angeles. In February 2021, the couple filed for divorce after 10 years of marriage. Discography As a solo artist: Civilized Man (2005) Like a Waterfall (2007) With Ghost of the Robot: Mad Brilliant (2003) B-Sider (2011) Murphy's Law (2011) Bourgeois Faux Pas (2015) Filmography Film Television Video games Audiobooks Awards and nominations References External links 411Mania interview (March 3, 2012) Gavin Schmitt interview (February 25, 2016) 1962 births Living people American baritones American comics writers American male film actors American male television actors American male video game actors American male voice actors Juilliard School alumni Male actors from Modesto, California Musicians from Modesto, California Pacific Conservatory of the Performing Arts alumni People from the San Francisco Bay Area 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American male actors	[ -0.28884899616241455, -0.1504058986902237, -0.3231176435947418, -0.2250625342130661, 0.6929510235786438, 0.6052191853523254, 0.5081818699836731, 0.477507621049881, -0.05054057389497757, 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213731	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophallaxis	Trophallaxis	Trophallaxis () is the transfer of food or other fluids among members of a community through mouth-to-mouth (stomodeal) or anus-to-mouth (proctodeal) feeding. Along with nutrients, trophallaxis can involve the transfer of molecules such as pheromones, organisms such as symbionts, and information to serve as a form of communication. Trophallaxis is used by some birds, gray wolves, vampire bats, and is most highly developed in social insects such as ants, wasps, bees, and termites. Etymology Tropho- (prefix or suffix) is derived from the Greek trophé, meaning 'nourishment'. The Greek 'allaxis' means 'exchange'. The word was introduced by the entomologist William Morton Wheeler in 1918. Evolutionary significance Trophallaxis was used in the past to support theories on the origin of sociality in insects. The Swiss psychologist and entomologist Auguste Forel also believed that food sharing was key to ant society and he used an illustration of it as the frontispiece for his book The Social World of the Ants Compared with that of Man. Proctodeal trophallaxis allowed termites to transfer cellulolytic flagellates that made the digestion of wood possible and efficient. Besides sociality, trophallaxis has evolved within many species as a method of nourishment for adults and/ or juveniles, kin survival, transfer of symbionts, transfer of immunity, colony recognition and foraging communication. Trophallaxis has even evolved as a parasitic strategy in some species to obtain food from their host. Trophallaxis can also result in the spreading of chemicals, such as pheromones, throughout a colony; which is significant in social colony functioning. Species have evolved anatomy to allow them to participate in trophallaxis, such as the proventriculus in the crops of Formica fusca ants. This structure acts as a valve to enhance food storage capacity. Likewise, the honey bee Apis mellifera is able to protrude their proboscis and sip nectar from the open mandibles of the donor bee. Certain mechanisms have also evolved to initiate food sharing, such as the sensory exploitation strategy that has evolved in the common cuckoo brood parasites. These birds have evolved brightly coloured gapes that stimulate the host to transfer food. Invertebrates Trophallaxis is a form of social feeding in many insects that contributes to the formation of social bonds. Trophallaxis serves as a means of communication, at least in bees, like M. genalis, and ants. Trophallaxis in M. genalis is part of a social exchange system, where dominant bees are usually the recipients of food. It increases longevity of bees that have less access to food and decreases aggression between nest mates. In the red fire ant, colony members store food in their crops and regularly exchange this food with other colony members and larvae to form a sort of "communal stomach" for the colony. This is also true for certain species of Lasioglossum, such as the sweat bee Lasioglossum hemichalceum. L. hemichalceum will often exchange food with other members regardless of whether they are nestmates or not. This is because cooperation among non-relatives offers more benefit than cost to the group. Many wasps, like Protopolybia exigua and Belonogaster petiolata, exhibit foraging behavior where adults perform trophallaxis with adults and between adults and larvae. P. exigua carry nectar, wood pulp and macerated prey in its crop from the field to the nest for transfer; for larvae survival they carry amounts of prey proportional to the amount of larvae in the nest. Voluntary trophallaxis in Xylocopa pubescens bees has led to the nest guarding behavior that the species is known for. This bee species allows one adult to forage and bring nectar back for the rest of the nest population as a way to continually defend the nest while obtaining nutrients for all members of the colony. In termites, proctodeal trophallaxis is crucial for replacing the gut endosymbionts that are lost after every molt. Gut symbionts are also transferred by anal trophallaxis in wood-eating termites and cockroaches. Transfer of gut symbionts in these species is essential to digest wood as their food source. Carpenter ants transfer immunity through trophallaxis by the direct transfer of antimicrobial substances, increasing disease resistance and social immunity of the colony. In some species of ants, it may play a role in spreading the colony odour that identifies members. Honey bee foragers use trophallaxis in associative learning to form long-term olfactory memories, in order to teach nest mates foraging behavior and where to search for food. In addition, Vespula austriaca wasps also engage in trophallaxis as a form of parasitism with its host to obtain nutrients. V. austriaca is an obligate parasite species that invades the nests of host species and obtains food by constraining the host with their legs and forcing trophallaxis. Vertebrates Vertebrates such as some bird species, gray wolves, and vampire bats also feed their young through regurgitation of food as a form of trophallaxis. Food sharing in vertebrates is a form of reciprocity demonstrated by many social vertebrates. Wild wolves transport food in their stomach to pups and/or breeding females and share it by regurgitation, as a form of trophallaxis. The recipient wolves often lick or sniff the donor wolf's muzzle to activate regurgitation and receive nutrients. Vampire bats share blood with kin by regurgitation as a means of increasing their fitness through kin selection. Birds regurgitate food and directly transfer it into the mouths of their offspring as a part of parental care, such as the "crop milk" that is transferred by mother ring doves into the mouths of their young. The cuckoo brood parasite is another bird species that engages in trophallaxis. The cuckoo bird uses mimicry, such as mimicking the eggshell colors and patterns of the host's eggs, to place their young in the nest of host species where they will be fed and reared at no expense to the cuckoo mother. The cuckoo young can often mimic the begging call of an entire nest of the host species' young and have evolved intensely colored gaits; both of which act as supernormal stimuli, inducing the host bird to deliver food to them over their own young via trophallaxis. 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213733	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergei%20Witte	Sergei Witte	Count Sergei Yulyevich Witte (; ), also known as Sergius Witte, was a Russian statesman who served as the first "Prime Minister" of the Russian Empire, replacing the Tsar as head of the government. Neither a liberal nor a conservative, he attracted foreign capital to boost Russia's industrialization. Witte's strategy was to avoid the danger of wars. Witte served under the last two emperors of Russia, Alexander III () and Nicholas II (). During the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78), he had risen to a position in which he controlled all the traffic passing to the front along the lines of the Odessa Railways. As Minister of Finance from 1892 to 1903 Witte presided over extensive industrialization and achieved government monopoly control over an expanded system of railroad lines. Following months of civil unrest and outbreaks of violence in what became known as the 1905 Russian Revolution, Witte framed on the 17th the October Manifesto and the accompanying government communication to establish constitutional government. However, he was not convinced it would solve Russia's problems with the Tsarist autocracy. On 20 October 1905 Witte was appointed as the first Chairman of the Russian Council of Ministers (effectively Prime Minister). Assisted by his Council, he designed Russia's first constitution. But within a few months Witte fell into disgrace as a reformer because of continuing court opposition to these changes. He resigned before the First Duma assembled on . Witte was fully confident that he had resolved the main problem: providing political stability to the regime, but according to him, the "peasant problem" would further determine the character of the Duma's activity. He is widely considered to have been one of the key figures in Russian politics at the end of 19th and at the beginning of the 20th century. Orlando Figes has described Witte as the 'great reforming finance minister of the 1890s', 'one of Nicholas's most enlightened ministers', and as the architect of Russia's new parliamentary order in 1905. Family and early life Witte's father Julius Christoph Heinrich Georg Witte was from a Lutheran Baltic German family of Dutch origin. He converted to Russian Orthodoxy upon marriage with Yekaterina Fadeyeva. His father was made a member of the knighthood in Pskov, but moved as a civil servant to Saratov and Tiflis (present-day Tbilisi, Georgia). Sergei was raised on the estate of his mother's parents. His grandfather was Andrei Mikhailovich Fadeyev, a Governor of Saratov and Privy Councillor of the Caucasus, his grandmother was Princess Helene Dolgoruki. Sergei had two brothers (Alexander and Boris) and two sisters (Olga and Sophia). Helena Blavatsky, noted as a mystic, was their first cousin. Witte studied at a Tiflis gymnasium, but he took more interest in music, fencing and riding than in academics. He finished Gymnasium I in Kishinev and began studying Physico-Mathematical Sciences at the Novorossiysk University in Odessa in 1866, graduating top of his class in 1870. After completing his studies he devoted some time to journalism in close relations with the Slavophiles and Mikhail Katkov. Witte had initially planned to pursue a career in academia, intending to become a professor in Theoretical Mathematics. His relatives took a dim view of this career path as it was considered unsuitable for a noble or aristocrat at the time. He was instead persuaded by Count Vladimir Pavlovich Machabelovy, then Minister of Ways and Communication, to pursue a career in the railroads. At the direction of the Count, Witte undertook six months of training in a variety of positions on the Odessa Railways in order to gain a practical understanding of Ukrainian railways operations. At the end of this period, he was appointed as chief of the traffic office. After a wreck on the Odessa Railways in late 1875 cost many lives, Witte was arrested and sentenced to four months in prison. However, while still contesting the case in court, Witte directed the Odessa Railways in achieving extraordinary efforts towards the transport of troops and war materials in the Russo-Turkish War, and attracted the attention of Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich, who commuted his prison sentence to two weeks. Witte had devised a novel system of double-shift operations in his efforts to overcome delays on the rail lines. In 1879, Witte accepted a post in St. Petersburg, where he would meet his future wife. He moved to Kiev the following year. In 1883, he published a paper on "Principles of Railway Tariffs for Cargo Transportation", in which he also discussed social issues and the role of the monarchy. Witte gained popularity in the government. In 1886, he was appointed manager of the privately held Southwestern Railways, based in Kiev, and was noted for increasing its efficiency and profitability. Around this time, he met Tsar Alexander III. But he had conflict with the Tsar's aides when he warned of the danger in their practice of using two powerful freight locomotives to achieve high speeds for the Royal Train. His warnings were proven in the October 1888 Borki train disaster; afterward, Witte was appointed as Director of State Railways. Political career Railways Witte worked in railroad management for twenty years, after having begun as a ticket clerk. He caught the attention of Finance Minister Ivan Vyshnegradsky who appointed him as Russian Director of Railway Affairs within the Finance Ministry, where he served from 1889 to 1891; and during this period, he oversaw an ambitious program of railway construction. Until then less than one-fourth of the small railway systems was under direct state control, but Witte set about expanding the rail lines and getting the railway service under control as a State monopoly. Witte also obtained the right to assign employees based on their performance, or merit, rather than for patronage, that is, political or familial connections. In 1889, he published a paper titled "National Savings and Friedrich List", which cited the economic theories of Friedrich List and justified the need for a strong domestic industry, protected from foreign competition by customs barriers. A new customs law for Russia was passed in 1891, spurring an increase in industrialization by the turn of the 20th century. At the same time that Witte worked to achieve industrialization, he also fought for practical education. He said that railways operated by the state would be useless "unless it does its utmost for spreading technical education..." Tsar Alexander III appointed Witte in 1892 as acting Minister of Ways and Communications. This gave him both control of the railroads in Russia and the authority to impose a reform on the tariffs charged. "Russian railroads gradually became perhaps the most economically operated railroads of the world.". Profits were high: over 100 million gold rubles a year to the government (exact amount unknown due to accounting defects). In 1892 Witte became acquainted with Matilda Ivanovna (Isaakovna) Lisanevich in a theater. Witte began to seek her favour, urging her to divorce her gambling husband and marry him. The marriage was a scandal, not only because Matilda was a divorcee, but also because she was a converted Jew. It cost Witte many of his connections with the upper nobility, but the Tsar protected him. Minister of Finance In August 1892, Witte was appointed to the post of Minister of Finance, a post which he held for the next eleven years, during which time he nearly doubled the revenues of the empire. (Until 1905 matters pertaining to industry and commerce were within the province of the Ministry of Finance.) During his tenure, he greatly accelerated the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway. He also emphasized creation of an educational system to train personnel for industry, in particular, the establishment of new "commercial" schools. He was known for appointing subordinates by their academic credentials or merit, rather than because of patronage political connections. In 1894, he concluded a 10-year commercial treaty with the German Empire on favorable terms for Russia. When Alexander III died, he told his son on his deathbed to listen well to Witte, his most capable minister. In 1895, on a crusade against the evils of drunkenness, Witte established a state monopoly on alcohol, which became a major source of revenue for the Russian government. In 1896, he concluded the Li–Lobanov Treaty with Li Hongzhang of the Qing dynasty. One of the rights secured for Russia was the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway across northeast China, which greatly shortened the route of the Trans-Siberian Railway to its projected eastern terminus at Vladivostok. However, following the Triple Intervention, Witte strongly opposed the Russian occupation of Liaodong Peninsula and the construction of the naval base at Port Arthur in the Russia–Qing Convention of 1898. Gold standard In 1896, Witte undertook a major currency reform to place the Russian ruble on the gold standard. This resulted in increased investment activity and an increase in the inflow of foreign capital. Witte also enacted a law in 1897 limiting working hours in enterprises, and in 1898 reformed commercial and industrial taxes. In 1899 the Petrograd Polytechnical Institute was founded on his initiative. In summer 1898 he addressed a memorandum to the Tsar calling for an agricultural conference on the reform of the peasant community. This resulted in three years of talks about laws to abolish collective responsibility and facilitate the resettlement of farmers onto lands on the outskirts of the Empire. Many of his ideas were later adopted by Pyotr Stolypin. In 1902 Witte's supporter, Dmitry Sipyagin, the Minister of Home Affairs, was assassinated. In an attempt to keep up the modernization of the Russian economy, Witte called and oversaw the Special Conference on the Needs of the Rural Industry. This conference was to provide recommendations for future reforms and compile the data to justify those reforms. By 1900 the growth in the manufacturing industry had been four times faster than in the preceding five-year period and six times faster than in the decade before that. External trade in industrial goods was equal to that of Belgium. In 1904 the Union of Liberation was formed, which demanded economic and political reform. Worsening relations with Japan in 1890s Witte controlled East Asian policy in the 1890s. His goal was peaceful expansion of trade with Japan and China. Japan, with its greatly expanded and modernized military, easily defeated the antiquated Chinese forces in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95). Russia had to confront collaborating with Japan (with which relations had been fairly good for some years) or acting as protector of China against Japan. Witte chose the second policy and, in 1894, Russia, Germany and France forced Japan to soften the peace terms it imposed on China. Japan was forced to cede the Liaodong Peninsula and Port Arthur back to China (both territories were located in south-eastern Manchuria, a Chinese province). This new Russian role angered Tokyo, which decided Russia was the main enemy in its quest to control Manchuria, Korea, and China. Witte underestimated Japan's growing economic and military power while exaggerating Russia's military prowess. Russia concluded an alliance with China (in 1896 by the Li–Lobanov Treaty), which led in 1898 to Russian occupation and administration (by its own personnel and police) of the entire Liaodong Peninsula. Russia also fortified the ice-free Port Arthur, and completed the Russian-owned Chinese Eastern Railway, which was to cross northern Manchuria from west to east, linking Siberia with Vladivostok. In 1899 the Boxer Rebellion broke out, and the Chinese attacked all foreigners. A large coalition of the major Western powers and Japan sent armed forces to relieve their diplomatic missions in Peking. The Russian government used this as an opportunity to bring a substantial army into Manchuria. As a consequence, by 1900 Manchuria was a fully incorporated outpost of the Russian Empire, and Japan prepared to fight Russia. Loss of power Witte, in a memorandum, tried to turn the reports of the zemstvo presidents into a condemnation of the Home Office. In a political conflict on land reform, Vyacheslav von Plehve accused him of being part of a Jewish-Masonic conspiracy. According to Vasily Gurko, Witte had dominated the irresolute Tsar, and his opponents decided this was the moment to get rid of him. Witte was appointed on 16 August 1903 (O.S.) as chairman of the Committee of Ministers, a position he held until October 1905. While officially a promotion, the post had no real power. Witte's removal from the influential post of Minister of Finance was engineered under the pressure of the landed gentry and his political enemies within the government and at the court. But historians Nicholas V. Riasanovsky and Robert K. Massie say that Witte's opposition to Russian designs on Korea resulted in his resigning from the government in 1903. Diplomatic career Witte was brought back into the governmental decision-making process to help deal with growing civil unrest. Confronted with increasing opposition and, after consulting with Witte and Prince Sviatopolk-Mirsky, the Tsar issued a reform ukase on December 25, 1904 with vague promises. After the Bloody Sunday riots of 1905, Witte supplied 500 rubles, the equivalent of 250 dollars, to Father Gapon in order for the leader of the demonstration to leave the country. Witte recommended that the government issue a manifesto related to the people's demands. Schemes of reform would be elaborated by Goremykin and a committee consisting of elected representatives of the zemstva and municipal councils under the presidency of Witte. On 3 March the Tsar condemned the revolutionaries. The government issued a strongly worded prohibition of any further agitation in favor of a constitution. By spring a new political system was beginning to form in Russia. A petition campaign was conducted seeking a wide variety of proposed changes, such as ending the war with Japan, which lasted from February to July 1905. In June mutiny broke out on the Russian battleship Potemkin. The Tsar called upon Witte to negotiate an end to the Russo-Japanese War. He was sent to the United States for the talks, as the Russian Emperor's plenipotentiary titled "his Secretary of State and President of the Committee of Ministers of the Emperor of Russia," along with Baron Roman Rosen, Master of the Imperial Court of Russia. The peace talks were held in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Witte is credited with negotiating brilliantly on Russia's behalf during these Treaty of Portsmouth discussions. Russia lost little in the final settlement. But the loss of the war with Japan is believed to have marked the beginning of the end of Imperial Russia. For his efforts, he was made a () following his service to the government in negotiations over the end of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. After this diplomatic success, Witte wrote to the Tsar stressing the urgent need for political reforms at home. He was dissatisfied with proposals by Bulygin, the successor of Sviatopolk-Mirsky. A 6 August (O.S.) manifesto created a Duma as a consultative body only. Elections of its representatives would not be direct but would be held in four stages, and qualifications for class and property would exclude much of the intelligentsia and all of the working classes from suffrage. The proposal was greeted by numerous protests and strikes across the country, which became known as the Russian Revolution of 1905. During this period, imperial troops were sent out 2,000 times to suppress violence. The Tsar remained quiet, impassive and indulgent; he spent most of that autumn hunting. Witte told Nicholas II, "that the country was at the verge of a cataclysmic revolution". Trepov was ordered to take drastic measures to stop the revolutionary activity. The Tsar asked his cousin Grand Duke Nicholas to assume the role of dictator, but the Grand Duke threatened to shoot himself if the Tsar refused to endorse Witte's memorandum. Nicholas II had no choice but to take a number of steps in the constitutional liberal direction. The Tsar accepted the draft, hurriedly outlined by Aleksei D. Obolensky. It was known as the October Manifesto. This promised to grant civil liberties such as freedom of conscience, speech, and association; constitutional order, representative government, and the establishment of an Imperial Duma. As the Duma was only a consultative body, the Council of Ministers or the Tsar still had the right to block certain proposals. Many Russians felt that this reform did not go far enough; and it did not achieve universal suffrage for men. Chairman of the Council of Ministers Witte described the regime's usual "incompetence and obstinacy" in response to the crisis of 1904–1905 as a "mixture of cowardice, blindness and stupidity". On 8 January 1905, Witte and Sviatopolk-Mirsky had been approached by a delegation of intellectuals led by Maxim Gorky, who begged them to negotiate with demonstrators. After the government's postings of warnings of 'resolute measures' against street gatherings led by Father Gapon, they worried about violent confrontation, which did take place. They were unsuccessful as the government had believed they could control Fr. Gapon. Leaving his visiting cards with Witte and Mirsky, Gorky was arrested, along with the other members of the deputations. In later 1905 Witte was approached by the Tsar's advisers, in an effort to save the country from complete collapse, and on 9 October 1905, he went to the Winter Palace for a meeting. Here he told the Tsar 'with brutal frankness' that the country was on the verge of a catastrophic revolution, which he said 'would sweep away a thousand years of history'. He presented the Tsar with two choices: either appoint a military dictator, or agree to broad and major reforms. In a memorandum arguing for a manifesto, Witte outlined the reforms needed to appease the masses. He argued for the following reforms: creation of a legislative parliament (Imperial Duma) elected via a democratic franchise; granting of civil liberties; establishing a cabinet government and a 'constitutional order'. These demands, which basically comprised the political programme of the Liberation Movement, were an attempt to isolate the political Left by pacifying the liberals. Witte emphasised that repression would be only a temporary solution to the problem, and a risky one, because he believed the armed forces — whose loyalty was now in question — could collapse if they were to be used against the masses. Most of the military advisers to the Tsar agreed with Witte, as did the Governor of Saint Petersburg, Alexander Trepov, who wielded considerable influence at court. Only when Nicholas II's cousin Grand Duke Nikolai threatened to shoot himself if he did not agree to Witte's demands, following the Tsar's request for him to accept appointment as dictator, did the Tsar agree. He was embarrassed to have been forced by a former "railway clerk", a man who was a bureaucrat and "businessman," to relinquish his autocratic rule. Witte later said that the Tsar's court were ready to use the Manifesto as a temporary concession, and later return to autocracy "when the revolutionary tide subsided". In October Witte was charged with the task of assembling the nation's first cabinet government, and he offered the liberals several portfolios: Ministry of Agriculture to Ivan Shipov; Ministry of Trade and Industry to Alexander Guchkov; Ministry of Justice to Anatoly Koni and the Ministry of Education to Evgenii Troubetzkoy. Pavel Milyukov and Prince Georgy Lvov were also offered ministerial posts. None of these liberals agreed to join the government, though. Witte had to form his cabinet from 'tsarist bureaucrats and appointees lacking public confidence'. The Kadets doubted that Witte could deliver on the promises made by the Tsar in October, knowing the Tsar's staunch opposition to reform. Witte argued that the Tsarist regime could be saved from a revolution only by the transformation of Russia to a 'modern industrial society', in which 'personal and public initiatives' were encouraged by a rechtsstaat who guaranteed civil liberties. In the two weeks following the October Manifesto, several pogroms took place against Jews, especially in St. Petersburg and Odessa. Witte ordered an official investigation, where it was revealed that the police in the former city had organised, armed and gave vodka to the anti-semitic crowds, and even participated in the attacks. Witte demanded the prosecution of the chief of police in St. Petersburg], who was involved in the printing of anti-semitic pamphlets, but the Tsar intervened and protected him. Witte believed that anti-semitism was 'considered fashionable' among the elite. In the aftermath of the Kishinev pogrom in 1903, Witte had said that if Jews 'comprise about fifty percent of the membership in the revolutionary parties', it was 'the fault of our government. The Jews are too oppressed'. Milyukov once confronted Witte, asking why he would not commit himself to a constitution; Witte replied that he couldn't 'because the Tsar does not wish it'. Witte was worried that the court were only using him, which emerged in talks with members of the Kadet Party. After his skillful diplomacy Witte was appointed as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, the equivalent of Prime Minister, and formed Sergei Witte's Cabinet, not belonging to any party, as there were none. No longer was the Tsar the head of the government. "Immediately upon my nomination as President of the Imperial Council I made it clear that the Procurator of the Most Holy Synod Konstantin Pobedonostsev, could not remain in office, for he definitely represented the past." He was replaced by Prince Alexey D. Obolensky. Trepov and Bulygin were dismissed and, after many discussions, Pyotr Nikolayevich Durnovo was appointed as Minister of Interior on 1 January 1906; his appointment is considered one of the greatest errors Witte made during his administration. According to Harold Williams: "That government was almost paralyzed from the beginning. Witte acted immediately by urging the release of political prisoners and the lifting of censorship laws." Alexander Guchkov and Dmitry Shipov refused to work with the reactionary Durnovo and to support the government. On 26 October (O.S.) the Tsar appointed Trepov as Master of the Palace without consulting Witte, and had daily contact with the Emperor; his influence at court was paramount. "In addition mass violence broke out in the days following the issuance of the October Manifesto. The major source of the unrest was unrelated to the October Manifesto. It took the form of attacks by gangs in the cities on the Jews. In general, the authorities ignored the attacks. On 8 November the sailors in Kronstadt mutinied. In the same month the border provinces were clearly taking advantage of the weakening of Central Russia to show their teeth. Witte later wrote in his Memoirs about the empire's ethnic minorities: On 10 November Russian Poland was placed under martial law. Witte's position was not well established. The Liberals remained obdurate and refused to be cajoled. The Peasants' Union asked the Russian people to refuse to make redemption payments to the government and withdraw their deposits from banks that might be subject to government action. He promised an eight-hour working day and tried to secure vital loans from France to keep the "regime" from bankruptcy. Witte sent his envoy to the Rothschild bank; they responded that "they would willingly render full assistance to the loan, but that they would not be in a position to do so until the Russian Government had enacted legal measures tending to improve the conditions of the Jews in Russia. As I deemed it beneath our dignity to connect the solution of our Jewish question with the loan, I decided to give up my intention of securing the participation of the Rothschilds."On 24 November by Imperial decree provisional regulations on the censorship of magazines and newspaper was released. On 16 December Trotsky and the rest of the executive committee of the St. Petersburg Soviet were arrested. The Minister of Agriculture Nikolai Kutler resigned in February 1906; Witte refused to appoint Alexander Krivoshein. In the next few weeks, changes and additions to the Russian Constitution of 1906 were made, so that the Emperor was confirmed as the dictator of foreign policies and the supreme commander of the army and navy. The ministers remained responsible solely to Nicholas II, not to the Duma. The "peasant question" or land reforms was a hot issue; the influence of the "Duma of Public Anger" had to be limited, according to Goremykin and Dmitri Trepov. The Bolsheviks boycotted the coming election. When Witte discovered that Nicholas never intended to honour these concessions, he resigned as Chairman of the Council of Ministers. The position and influence of General Trepov, Grand Duke Nicholas, the Black Hundreds, and overwhelming victories by the Kadets in the 1906 Russian legislative election, forced Witte on 14th to resign, which was announced 22 April 1906 (O.S.). Witte confessed to Polovtsov in April 1906 that the success of the repressions in the wake of the Moscow uprising in 1905 had resulted in his losing all influence over the Tsar. Despite Witte's protests, Durnovo was allowed to 'carry out a brutal and excessive, and often totally unjustified, series of repressive measures.' In 1906 Father Gapon returned to Russia from exile and supported Witte's government. On 30 April 1905 Witte proposed the Law of Religious Toleration, followed by the edict of 30 October 1906 giving legal status to schismatics and sectarians of the Russian Orthodox Church (ROC), the established state church. Witte argued that ending discrimination against religious rivals of the Orthodox Church 'would not harm the church, provided it embraced the reforms that would revive its religious life'. Although the Church's 'senior hierarchs' may for some time have played with the thought of self-government, Witte's demand that this would come at the cost of religious toleration 'guaranteed to drive them back into the arms of reaction'. Witte had made this demand (self-government in exchange for religious toleration) in the hope of 'wooing' the important commercial groups of the ethnic minorities of Jewish and Old-Believer communities. Member of the State Council According to Dmitry Filosofov, Witte was the only talented person in the government, but he brought many troubles to Russia. He destroyed the Autocracy not from the outside, as revolutionaries do, but from the inside. Witte failed to retain the confidence of the Emperor, but continued in Russian politics as a member of the State Council but he was never again appointed to an administrative role in the government. He was ostracized by the Russian establishment. In January 1907 a bomb was found planted in his home. The investigator Pavel Alexandrovich Alexandrov proved that the Okhrana, the tsarist secret police, had been involved. During the winter season, Witte lived in Biarritz and started writing his Memoirs, but he returned to St Petersburg in 1908. During the July Crisis in 1914, Grigori Rasputin and Witte desperately urged the Tsar to avoid the conflict and warned that Europe faced calamity if Russia became involved. The advice went unheeded; the French ambassador Maurice Paléologue complained to the Minister of Foreign Affairs Sazonov. Death Witte died in February 1915 at his home in St. Petersburg; his quick death was attributed to meningitis or a brain tumor. His third-class funeral was held at the Alexander Nevsky Lavra. On the black granite slab, in addition to the usual dates of birth and death, another date was carved: 17 October, 1905, the date he presented the Manifesto. Witte had no children, but he had adopted his wife's by her first marriage. According to Edvard Radzinsky, Witte asked in vain for the title of count to be given to his grandson L.K. Naryshkin (1905-1963). Witte's reputation was burnished in the West after his secret memoirs were published in translation in 1921. They had been completed in 1912 and kept in a bank in Bayonne, France. He had left orders that they could not be published during the lifetimes of him and his contemporaries. The original manuscript of his memoirs are now held in Columbia University Library's Bakhmeteff Archive of Russian and East European History and Culture. Honours The Sergei Witte University of Moscow, with campuses in Ryazan, Krasnodar and Nizhny Novgorod is named in his honour (a private institution accredited by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Russia) in 1997) Russian orders and decorations Knight of St. Stanislaus, 1st Class, 1890 Knight of St. Anna, 1st Class, 1894 Commemorative Medal of the Reign of Emperor Alexander III, 1896 Emperor Nicholas II Coronation Medal, 1896 Medal "For Works on the First General Population Census", 1897 Knight of the White Eagle, 1904 Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky, in Diamonds, 1906 Red Cross Medal "In Commemoration of the Russo-Japanese War", 1906 Commemorative Medal of the Romanov Tricentenary, 1913 Knight of St. Vladimir, 1st Class, 1913 Foreign orders and decorations Popular culture depictions Witte was portrayed by Laurence Olivier in the film Nicholas and Alexandra (1971). He was portrayed by Freddie Jones in the British BBC series Fall of Eagles (1974). See also History of the Russian Far East History of Sino-Russian relations Footnotes References Bibliography Ananich, B. V. and S. A. Lebedev, "Sergei Witte and the Russo-Japanese War." International Journal of Korean History 7.1 (2005): 109-131. Online Boublikoff, A.A. "A suggestion for railroad reform". In: Buehler, E.C. (editor) "Government ownership of railroads", Annual Debater's Help Book (vol. VI), New York, Noble and Noble, 1939; pp. 309–318. Original in journal North American Review, vol. 237, pp. 346+. (This issue is 90% about Russian railways.) Davis, Richard Harding, and Alfred Thayer Mahan. (1905). [https://books.google.com/books?id=z_dyHgAACAAJ&dq=Russo-Japanese+War:+A+Photographic+and+Descriptive+Review+of+the+Great+Conflict+in+the+Far+East.&client=firefox-a The Russo-Japanese war; a photographic and descriptive review of the great conflict in the Far East, gathered from the reports, records, cable despatches, photographs, etc., etc., of Collier's war correspondents] New York: P. F. Collier & Son. OCLC: 21581015 Harcave, Sidney. (2004). Count Sergei Witte and the Twilight of Imperial Russia: A Biography. Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe. Kochan, Lionel. "Sergei Witte: The Last Statesman of Imperial Russia" History Today'' (Feb 1968), Vol. 18 Issue 2, pp 102–108, online. Kokovtsov, Vladamir. (1935). Out of My Past (translator, Laura Matveev). Stanford: Stanford University Press. Korostovetz, J.J. (1920). Pre-War Diplomacy The Russo-Japanese Problem. London: British Periodicals Limited. Theodore H. von Laue (1963) Sergei Witte and the Industrialization of Russia Witte, Sergei. (1921). The Memoirs of Count Witte (translator, Abraham Yarmolinsky). New York: Doubleday. online free External links Portsmouth Peace Treaty, 1905-2005 Memoirs of Count Witte, 1921 English translation, available in full online at Internet Archive The Museum Meiji Mura—peace treaty table on display 1849 births 1915 deaths Politicians from Tbilisi People from Tiflis Governorate Politicians of the Russian Empire Heads of government of the Russian Empire Members of the State Council (Russian Empire) Baltic German people of the Russian Empire People of the Russian Empire of Dutch descent Russian people of the Russo-Japanese War Deaths from brain tumor People of the 1905 Russian Revolution Russian people of Dutch descent Southwestern Railways Committee of Ministers of the Russian Empire Burials at Lazarevskoe Cemetery (Saint Petersburg) Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 1st class Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Russia) Recipients of the Order of St. Vladimir, 1st class Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur Grand Crosses of the Order of the 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213735	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas%20Brendon	Nicholas Brendon	Nicholas Brendon Schultz (born April 12, 1971), known professionally as Nicholas Brendon, is an American actor and writer. He is best known for playing Xander Harris in the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997–2003) and Kevin Lynch in Criminal Minds (2007–2014). Brendon played Xander Harris for seven years and appeared in all but one of 144 episodes. For his role as Xander, Brendon was nominated for Saturn Award in 1998 and 1999 for Best Genre TV Actor and in 2000 for the Supporting Actor. He continues to regularly attend comic conventions and sci-fi conventions. He has been involved in development of Xander's character in follow-up comic books, and has been credited as a writer for several issues. Although Brendon has continued to work as an actor, with regular recurring parts in TV series and starring roles in limited release films such as Coherence and Big Gay Love, his struggles with substance misuse and depression have overshadowed his professional career. Brendon has attracted public attention for his multiple arrests and convictions on a variety of charges since 2010. Early life Nicholas Brendon was born Nicholas Brendon Schultz on April 12, 1971 in Los Angeles, three minutes after his identical twin brother, Kelly Donovan. He was born the second of four boys, with two younger brothers. As a child, he aspired to become a professional baseball player, but he "lost the passion for it" at 20. Instead, he decided to pursue acting to help manage his stutter, which had first become apparent at age seven or eight, and had made him so fearful of speaking or interacting with strangers that he did not begin dating until 21 or 22. Brendon comments, "Every day I still have to remind myself to slow down and concentrate. Constant repetition of tongue-twisters was like lifting weights for me, but patience and persistence have paid off." Brendon has done work for the Stuttering Foundation of America, which approached him around 2001, and made him its honorary chairperson for its National Stuttering Awareness Week in May 2001. He gave up acting after two years because he "couldn't stand the politics in Hollywood". Brendon returned to school to study medicine, which didn't work out; he also tried his hand at a variety of odd jobs, including plumber's assistant, veterinary janitor, day care counselor, waiter, and production assistant for the television show Dave's World. Career Breakout role as Xander Harris At the age of 25, Brendon had hit "rock bottom": his girlfriend had left him, he was working as a waiter and could barely afford his rent, and had almost given up on getting good work. After buying the wrong kind of Pop Tarts for his co-workers, his boss fired him and told him "You should be acting." Brendon was attracted to the pilot script for Buffy because of how much he had hated high school. Brendon recognised that Xander was based on Joss Whedon when he had attended high school, accounting for why Xander "gets all the good lines". He signed with a manager and obtained the role of Xander Harris on Buffy the Vampire Slayer three months later. Buffy Summers (played by Sarah Michelle Gellar) is the "Slayer", one in a long line of young women chosen by fate to battle evil forces. This mystical calling grants her powers that dramatically increase physical strength, endurance, agility, accelerated healing, intuition, and a limited degree of precognition. In contrast, Brendon's character, Xander is the only character without supernatural abilities, and provides comic relief and a grounded perspective. It is Xander who often provides the heart to the series, and in season six, becomes the hero in place of Buffy who defeats the "Big Bad". Buffy and Willow are the only characters who appear in all 144 episodes; Xander is missing in only one. Brendon played Xander in all but one of the 144 episodes in the series, and even shared the screen with his twin, Kelly Donovan, when his character was split in two in the fifth-season episode "The Replacement". For his role as Xander, Brendon was nominated for Saturn Award in 1998 and 1999 for Best Genre TV Actor and in 2000 for the Supporting Actor. At least one later critique of Xander's character regarded him less sympathetically as a "Nice Guy™". In 2014, Brendon was part of a summit for writers of Buffy the Vampire Slayer comics, which included Joss Whedon, Jane Espenson, Drew Greenberg, Andrew Chambliss and the then-incoming Buffy writer Christos Gage. He is currently involved with the show's canonical comic book series, Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Ten, on stories centering on his character. Brendon continues to be a regular fixture at comic conventions and sci-fi fan conventions, and has streamed videos of himself reading fanfiction starring his character Xander Harris on his Facebook page. After Buffy the Vampire Slayer After the series ended in 2003, Brendon joined the cast of the Fox television pilot The Pool at Maddy Breakers. The series was not picked up by the network. In 2004, he co-starred in his first ABC Family movie, Celeste in the City. The following year, he returned to Fox as part of the cast of Kitchen Confidential, based on the book by chef Anthony Bourdain. Thirteen episodes were made, but the series was canceled on December 9 of the same year after the fourth episode aired, due to low ratings. In 2006, he voiced Huntsboy #89 for season 2 of the animated series American Dragon: Jake Long. That same year, he reunited with his former Buffy the Vampire Slayer co-star Charisma Carpenter in the ABC Family TV movie Relative Chaos. From July 26 through August 30, 2006, Brendon co-starred with Noah Wyle in the play Lobster Alice at the Blank Theatre Company in Los Angeles. He subsequently appeared in the Blank Theatre's annual Young Playwrights Festival and its productions of The SantaLand Diaries (November 20 to December 20, 2009), and Why Torture Is Wrong, and the People Who Love Them. In 2007, Brendon began appearing on the TV series Criminal Minds in the recurring role of FBI technical analyst Kevin Lynch. He appeared in episodes in each subsequent season through the tenth season. In late 2010, he premiered his web comic Very Bad Koalas, co-created with animation director/producer Steve Loter. The comic follows the journey of two sheltered and innocent koalas experiencing a variety of people and places while on the run from the law in a 1958 Cadillac El Dorado. Also in 2010, Brendon began a four-episode arc on ABC's Private Practice playing Lee McHenry, a mentally disturbed man who assaults Charlotte King. Brendon currently has a recurring role in Untitled Web Series About a Space Traveler Who Can Also Travel Through Time along with Sylvester McCoy, Robert Picardo, Mayim Bialik, Chase Masterson, Rosearik Rikki Simons, Carrie Keranen. Personal life Brendon was married to actress Tressa DiFiglia from 2001 to 2006. He enjoys painting and photography and has sold his own original artwork. Brendon started to tour gallery shows of his artwork from 2019. He released a "Fall Art Collection" in 2020. Brendon has struggled for many years with depression and alcoholism, leading to many run-ins with the law and multiple arrests and several convictions for destruction of property, vandalism, theft and domestic violence. At a Buffy fan convention in Cleveland, Ohio, in 2004, he announced that he had voluntarily entered rehab for alcoholism.<ref>{{cite news \|author=Susman, Gary \|title=Buffy'''s Xander checks himself into rehab \|date=June 20, 2011 \|url=http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,631412,00.html \|newspaper=Entertainment Weekly}}</ref> Brendon was tased and arrested by Los Angeles police, who confronted him in response to a call about an intoxicated individual, in 2010. He allegedly swung his fists at the officers and attempted to run away, and was arrested for felony vandalism. Brendon was later charged with four misdemeanors, including one count of resisting arrest, two counts of battery against a police officer, and one count of vandalism. In May 2010, he again checked himself into rehab to address his addiction to alcohol and sleeping pills. Brendon pleaded no contest to all four charges in June 2010 and received a one-year suspended jail sentence, was placed on probation for 36 months, and was required to perform 10 days of community service. While participating in the Tree City Comic Con, Brendon was arrested on October 17, 2014 in a Boise, Idaho hotel lobby for misdemeanor charges of malicious injury to property and resisting or obstructing officers. Brendon subsequently made a public apology and stated that the incident was "embarrassing" and the result of drinking alcohol while taking pain medication for a knee problem. Brendon married Moonda Tee in Las Vegas in 2014, one week after proposing. Brendon announced their separation via social media five months later in February, 2015. Tee claimed in a video posted to social media that this was because Brendon had cheated on her. Brendon was arrested on suspicion of grand theft by Fort Lauderdale police in February 2015 after he reportedly trashed his hotel room and refused to pay the bill. He had been in Fort Lauderdale for a local comic convention. His spokesman released a statement shortly after the incident: "Nicholas is, unfortunately, battling a disease that many of us don't understand. ... he's sorry for his actions. ... we are aware that Nicholas' actions are of a much deeper origin—and we are working toward creating a healthy environment for him to thrive in. The past several months have been trying, and Nicholas' disease is damaging and consistently misunderstood. We are doing everything in our power at camp Nick to assure his recovery." Brendon was arrested again for destroying another hotel room after demanding an upgrade. In an interview the next day, he blamed his behaviour on a recent change in medication and said he would see a doctor to have it reviewed. Due to his arrest, Brendon missed the first day of the ALT*Con conference, apologising to fans. Brendon appeared on Dr. Phil to discuss his recent arrests and alcoholism in August 2015. However, he walked off the show soon after the interview began. Brendon later explained on his Facebook page that he had been drinking before the interview and had felt unprepared to "lay [out] the darkest parts of myself on national TV". Brendon returned to Dr. Phil in December that year to discuss his arrests and mental health struggles, including several suicide attempts. Brendon was arrested in Saratoga Springs, New York in October 2015 for choking his girlfriend in a hotel room. He was charged with felony third-degree robbery, criminal mischief and obstruction of breathing. He pleaded guilty to criminal mischief, a misdemeanor. As part of his plea deal, Brendon avoided a custodial sentence if he completed drug and alcohol counselling and one year of probation. Brendon subsequently entered a rehab facility in California for a 90-day residential treatment program. Brendon was arrested for assaulting another girlfriend at a hotel bar in Palm Springs, California in October 2017. He was charged with felony corporal injury to a spouse in April 2019 and pleaded not guilty a month later. Brendon subsequently agreed to a plea deal to avoid a potential four-year prison sentence for felony domestic violence and violation of active protective orders issued by two states, in which Brendon was allowed to be near the woman, but prohibited him from harassing, threatening, injuring or assaulting her. On February 28, 2020, he was sentenced to three years' probation and 20 hours of community service, and required to complete a 52-week domestic violence course. On February 15, 2021, Brendon revealed on Instagram that he was in the hospital undergoing a spinal surgery after slipping earlier that month. Several days later, during a Facebook Live stream from his hospital room, Brendon addressed the allegation that his former co-star Charisma Carpenter made against Joss Whedon, stating that “I love and support [her] very much and I know that story, and it’s not a kind story,” further stating that although he “love[s] both Carpenter and Whedon," he acknowledged that his relationship with Whedon hadn't been entirely friendly, ultimately saying that it was "kinda hard to give a statement" given his relationship with the people involved. Brendon was arrested in Terre Haute, Indiana in August 2021 for failure to identify and obtaining a prescription by fraud. He was pulled over while driving erratically and police found bags with crystal residue powder in them. A search by K9 dogs found secret compartments cut out of the floor of the car, and more bags with residue powder. This arrest is a violation of his current probation for domestic assault. Filmography Film Television Video games and web series Awards and nominations 1998 Saturn Award for Best Genre TV Actor – Buffy the Vampire Slayer; Nominated 1999 Saturn Award for Best Genre TV Actor – Buffy the Vampire Slayer; Nominated 2000 Saturn Award for Best Genre TV Supporting Actor" – Buffy the Vampire Slayer''; Nominated Named one of The Mighty's Mental Health Heroes of 2018 References External links Official Website Stuttering Foundation site 1971 births American comics writers American male television actors American male voice actors Identical twin male actors Living people Male actors from Los Angeles Twin people from the United States 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American male actors American male film actors	[ -0.62223219871521, -0.07470805943012238, -0.4738050401210785, -0.34440675377845764, 0.254835307598114, 0.6372612714767456, 0.3825521469116211, 0.20127010345458984, -0.031985923647880554, -0.3909772038459778, -0.26454177498817444, 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213736	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma%20Caulfield	Emma Caulfield	Emma Caulfield Ford is an American actress known for her role as Anya Jenkins on the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1998–2003), Susan Keats, a love interest of Brandon Walsh's, on the television series Beverly Hills, 90210, and as Sarah Proctor / "Dottie Jones" on the Disney+ series Wandavision. Her film roles include Darkness Falls (2003) and Timer (2009). Life and career Caulfield was born on April 8, 1973, in San Diego, California, to Denise and Rodney Chukker, and is of Luxembourgian, German, English and Portuguese descent. Caulfield's first notable role was as Brandon Walsh's girlfriend, Susan Keats, on Beverly Hills, 90210 in 1995. She appeared for thirty episodes in the series before departing in 1996. In 1998, Caulfield starred in her most famous role to date, as Anya Jenkins on the WB's hit show Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Originally, her character was only to appear for two episodes. However, audiences responded well to Anya, resulting in Buffy the Vampire Slayer creator Joss Whedon's decision to add her to the main cast. In 2003, Caulfield landed her first lead role in the horror movie Darkness Falls, which debuted at number one in the U.S. box office. In 2004, she appeared on Monk as Meredith Preminger in the episode "Mr. Monk and the Girl Who Cried Wolf". Caulfield also produced and starred in the satire Bandwagon, playing a fictionalized version of herself. The movie was written and directed by close friend and fellow actress Karri Bowman. It screened at various festivals, although it has not been picked up for distribution. Several members of Buffy the Vampire Slayer cast and crew have cameos in the film. In 2010, Caulfield posted the original Bandwagon to YouTube along with a 12-part webseries sequel set several years later. Caulfield is also the co-author of the webcomic Contropussy, which has been published by IDW Publishing. Caulfield starred in the independent feature film TiMER, released May 2009. She starred as the lead role in the FunnyOrDie short film, Don't Panic, It's Organic. In 2012, she received critical acclaim for her guest appearance on the ABC fantasy series Once Upon a Time, as the Blind Witch from the fairy tale Hansel & Gretel. She guest starred in the second season of the Jane Espenson scripted romantic comedy web series, Husbands. Personal life Caulfield was married to Cornelius Grobbelaar from 2006 to 2010. In 2016, Caulfield confirmed she was expecting a child with Mark Leslie Ford, which was later confirmed to be a girl; later that year, she gave birth to a daughter. Caulfield is a Christian. Filmography Film Television Awards and nominations Beverly Hills Film Festival 2007: Won, "Best Actress in a Short Film" – Hollow Satellite Awards 2003: Nominated, "Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Drama Series" – Buffy the Vampire Slayer Saturn Awards 2003: Won, "Cinescape Genre Face of the Future Award (Female)" – Darkness Falls & Buffy the Vampire Slayer Sydney Film Festival 2007: Won, "Best Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role" – Hollow References External links American expatriates in the United Kingdom American film actresses American soap opera actresses American television actresses American voice actresses American people of English descent American people of German descent American people of Luxembourgian descent American people of Portuguese descent Living people Actresses from San Diego People educated at the American School in England 20th-century American actresses 21st-century American actresses American Christians 1973 births	[ 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213737	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Charleston%20%28C-2%29	USS Charleston (C-2)	The second USS Charleston (C-2) was a United States Navy protected cruiser — the fourth US protected cruiser to be built. Lacking experience in building steel cruisers, the design was purchased from the British company Armstrong, Mitchell and Co. of Newcastle, the construction to be by an American shipyard. In design, she succeeded the "ABC" cruisers , , and with better protection, higher speed, and similar armament. She was launched on 19 July 1888 by Union Iron Works, San Francisco, California, sponsored by Mrs. A. S. Smith, and commissioned on 26 December 1889, Captain George C. Remey in command. Design and construction Charleston was built with plans purchased from Armstrong, a British manufacturer, which were similar to the Armstrong-built and launched in 1885. was also built to Armstrong plans. Building Charlestons propulsion machinery proved troublesome; apparently it was a combination of components of several different plants. Union Iron Works had to make costly changes in order to build the ship. Charleston was armed with two /35 caliber Mark 3 guns, one each in bow and stern barbettes, and six /30 caliber Mark 3 guns in sponsons along the sides. The 8-inch guns were initially unavailable, so from her commissioning in 1889 until a refit in 1891 they were replaced by four additional 6-inch guns. Secondary armament was four 6-pounder () guns, two 3-pounder () Hotchkiss revolving cannon, two 1-pounder () Hotchkiss revolving cannon, and two .45 caliber (11.4 mm) Gatling guns. Four torpedo tubes were included in the design but never mounted. Charleston had gun shields, barbettes, and a conning tower. The complete armored deck was up to on its sloped sides and in the middle. The engineering plant included six coal-fired cylindrical boilers producing steam for two horizontal compound engines totaling for a speed of on trials. Charleston was the last US Navy ship with the older compound engine design; later ships had more powerful and efficient triple expansion engines. Unlike some contemporary designs, no sails were fitted. Charleston carried 328 tons of coal for a range of at ; this could be increased to 682 tons for . Service history Pacific, 1890–96 Charleston cleared Mare Island Navy Yard on 10 April 1890 to join the Pacific Squadron as flagship, cruising in the eastern Pacific. She carried the remains of King David Kalakaua of Hawaii to Honolulu after his death in San Francisco, and between 8 May and 4 June 1891, took part in the search for the Chilean steamer Itata which had fled San Diego in violation of the American neutrality laws, enforced strictly during the 1891 Chilean Civil War. Between 19 August and 31 December 1891, Charleston cruised in the Far East as flagship of the Asiatic Squadron, rejoining the Pacific Squadron in 1892 until 7 October, when she departed for the east coast, calling at a number of South American ports en route. Charleston arrived in Hampton Roads on 23 February 1893. From here she sailed with other American and foreign ships to the International Naval Review conducted at New York City on 26 April 1893 as part of the Columbian Exposition. Taking the review was President Grover Cleveland in despatch vessel USS Dolphin. In the fall of 1893, Charleston turned south to join the strong force patrolling the east coast of South America to protect American interests and shipping from disturbance during the Brazilian Revolution. After a leisurely cruise from Montevideo, Uruguay, she arrived in San Francisco on 8 July 1894 to prepare for a return to the Asiatic Station. She cruised in the Far East until 6 June 1896, when she steamed from Yokohama for San Francisco where she was placed out of commission on 27 July 1896. Spanish–American War, 1898–99 Upon the outbreak of the Spanish–American War, Charleston was quickly made ready for service, and was recommissioned on 5 May 1898, Captain Henry Glass, Commanding. Sixteen days later, she sailed for Honolulu, where she was joined by three chartered steamers transporting troops, including City of Peking. Charleston was sent to raise the American flag over Guam, then a Spanish possession. At daybreak on 20 June, the little convoy arrived off the north end of Guam. Charleston investigated the harbor at Agana, then proceeded to Apra Harbor. Leaving the transports safely anchored outside, Charleston sailed boldly into the harbor, firing a challenge at Fort Santa Cruz. Almost at once, a boatload of Spanish authorities came out to apologize for having no gunpowder with which to return the presumed salute. They were astounded to learn that a state of war existed, and that the American ships had come to take the island. The next day the surrender was received by a landing party sent ashore from Charleston. With the Spanish governor and the island's garrison of 69 as prisoners in one of the transports, Charleston then sailed to join Admiral George Dewey's fleet in Manila Bay. She arrived Manila on 30 June 1898 to reinforce the victors of the previous month's great naval battle in their close blockade of the Bay. Charleston joined in the final bombardment of 13 August, which brought about the surrender of the city of Manila. She remained in the Philippines through 1898 and 1899, bombarding insurgent positions to aid Army forces advancing ashore, and taking part in the naval expedition that captured Subic Bay in September 1899. Loss by wrecking, November 1899 Charleston grounded on an uncharted reef near Camiguin Island north of Luzon on 2 November 1899. Wrecked beyond salvage, she was abandoned by all her crew, who made camp on a nearby island, later moving on to Camiguin while the ship's sailing launch was sent for help. On 12 November, gunboat arrived to rescue the shipwrecked men. Charleston was the first steel-hulled ship lost by the US Navy. See also Capture of Guam References The White Squadron. Toledo, Ohio: Woolson Spice Co., 1891. Bibliography Beach, Edward L. The United States Navy: 200 Years. New York: H. Holt, 1986. Burr, Lawrence. US Cruisers 1883–1904: The Birth of the Steel Navy. Oxford: Osprey, 2008. Mannix, Daniel P. The Old Navy. New York: Macmillan, 1983. Silverstone, Paul H. The New Navy, 1883–1922. New York: Routledge, 2006. Spears, John Randolph. The American Navy in the War with Spain . London: Bickers & Son, 1899. External links USS Charleston (C-2) photos at Naval History & Heritage Command U.S.S. 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213739	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry%20dock	Dry dock	A dry dock (sometimes drydock or dry-dock) is a narrow basin or vessel that can be flooded to allow a load to be floated in, then drained to allow that load to come to rest on a dry platform. Dry docks are used for the construction, maintenance, and repair of ships, boats, and other watercraft. History Greco-Roman world The Greek author Athenaeus of Naucratis (V 204c-d) reports something that may have been a dry dock in Ptolemaic Egypt in the reign of Ptolemy IV Philopator (221-204 BC) on the occasion of the launch of the enormous Tessarakonteres rowing ship. It has been calculated that a dock for a vessel of such a size might have had a volume of 750,000 gallons of water. In Roman times, a shipyard at Narni, which is still studied, may have served as a dry dock. Medieval China The use of dry docks in China goes at least as far back the 10th century A.D. In 1088, Song Dynasty scientist and statesman Shen Kuo (1031–1095) wrote in his Dream Pool Essays: Renaissance Europe The first early modern European and oldest surviving dry dock still in use was commissioned by Henry VII of England at HMNB Portsmouth in 1495 (see Tudor navy). This dry dock currently holds First World War monitor HMS M33. Possibly the earliest description of a floating dock comes from a small Italian book printed in Venice in 1560, called Descrittione dell'artifitiosa machina. In the booklet, an unknown author asks for the privilege of using a new method for the salvaging of a grounded ship and then proceeds to describe and illustrate his approach. The included woodcut shows a ship flanked by two large floating trestles, forming a roof above the vessel. The ship is pulled in an upright position by a number of ropes attached to the superstructure. Modern era The Saint-Nazaire's Chantiers de l'Atlantique owns one of the biggest in the world: . The Alfredo da Silva Dry Dock in Almada, Portugal, was closed in 2000. The largest roofed dry dock is at the German Meyer Werft Shipyard in Papenburg, Germany, it is 504 m long, 125 m wide and stands 75 m tall. Harland and Wolff Heavy Industries in Belfast, Northern Ireland, is the site of a large dry dock . The massive cranes are named after the Biblical figures Samson and Goliath. Dry Dock 12 at Newport News Shipbuilding at is the largest dry dock in the USA. The largest floating-dock in North America is named The Vigorous. It is operated by Vigor Industries in Portland, OR, in the Swan Island industrial area along the Willamette River. Types Graving A graving dock is the traditional form of dry dock. It is a narrow basin, usually made of earthen berms and concrete, closed by gates or by a caisson. A vessel is floated in with the gates open, then the gates are closed and the water is pumped out, leaving the craft supported on blocks. The keel blocks as well as the bilge block are placed on the floor of the dock in accordance with the "docking plan" of the ship. Routine use of dry docks is for the "graving" i.e. the cleaning, removal of barnacles and rust, and re-painting of ships' hulls. Some fine-tuning of the ship's position can be done by divers while there is still some water left to manoeuvre it about. It is extremely important that supporting blocks conform to the structural members so that the ship is not damaged when its weight is supported by the blocks. Some anti-submarine warfare warships have sonar domes protruding beneath the hull, requiring the hull to be supported several metres above the bottom of the drydock. Once the remainder of the water is pumped out, the ship can be freely inspected or serviced. When work on the ship is finished, the gates are opened to allow water in, and the ship is carefully refloated. Modern graving docks are box-shaped, to accommodate newer, boxier ships, whereas old dry docks are often shaped like the ships that are planned to be docked there. This shaping was advantageous because such a dock was easier to build, it was easier to side-support the ships, and less water had to be pumped away. Dry docks used for building Navy vessels may occasionally be built with a roof, to prevent spy satellites from taking pictures of the dry dock and any vessels that may be in it. During World War II, fortified dry docks were used by the Germans to protect their submarines from Allied air raids (see submarine pen). An advantage of covered dry docks is that work can take place in any weather; this is frequently used by modern shipyards for construction especially of complex, high-value vessels like cruise ships where delays would incur a high cost. Floating A floating dry dock is a type of pontoon for dry docking ships, possessing floodable buoyancy chambers and a "U"-shaped cross-section. The walls are used to give the dry dock stability when the floor or deck is below the surface of the water. When valves are opened, the chambers fill with water, causing the dry dock to float lower in the water. The deck becomes submerged and this allows a ship to be moved into position inside. When the water is pumped out of the chambers, the dry dock rises and the ship is lifted out of the water on the rising deck, allowing work to proceed on the ship's hull. A large floating dry dock involves multiple rectangular sections. These sections can be combined to handle ships of various lengths, and the sections themselves can come in different dimensions. Each section contains its own equipment for emptying the ballast and to provide the required services, and the addition of a bow section can facilitate the towing of the dry dock once assembled. For smaller boats, one-piece floating dry docks can be constructed, potentially coming with their own bow and steering mechanism. Shipyards operate floating dry docks as one method for hauling or docking vessels. Floating drydocks are important in locations where porous ground prevents the use of conventional drydocks, such as at the Royal Naval Dockyard on the limestone archipelago of Bermuda. Another advantage of floating dry docks is that they can be moved to wherever they are needed and can also be sold second-hand. During World War II, the U.S. Navy used such auxiliary floating drydocks extensively to provide maintenance in remote locations. Two examples of these were the 1,000-foot AFDB-1 and the 850-foot AFDB-3. The latter, an Advance Base Sectional Dock which saw action in Guam, was mothballed near Norfolk, Virginia, and was eventually towed to Portland, Maine, to become part of Bath Iron Works' repair facilities. A downside of floating dry docks is that unscheduled sinkings and off-design dives may take place, as with the Russian dock PD-50 in 2018. The "Hughes Mining Barge", or HMB-1, is a covered, floating drydock that is also submersible to support the secret transfer of a mechanical lifting device underneath the Glomar Explorer ship, as well as the development of the Sea Shadow stealth ship. The Great Balance Dock, built in New York City in 1854, was the largest floating drydock in the world when it was launched. It was long and could lift 8,000 tons, accommodating the largest ships of its day. Alternative dry dock systems Apart from graving docks and floating dry docks, ships can also be dry docked and launched by: Marine railway — For repair of larger ships up to about 3000 tons ship weight Shiplift — For repair as well as for new-building. From 800 to 25000 ton ship-weight Slipway, patent slip — For repair of smaller boats and the new-building launch of larger vessels Other uses Some dry docks are used during the construction of bridges, dams, and other large objects. For example, the dry dock on the artificial island of Neeltje-Jans was used for the construction of the Oosterscheldekering, a large dam in the Netherlands that consists of 65 concrete pillars weighing 18,000 tonnes each. The pillars were constructed in a drydock and towed to their final place on the seabed. A dry dock may also be used for the prefabrication of the elements of an immersed tube tunnel, before they are floated into position, as was done with Boston's Silver Line. Gallery See also — 1942 attack on a dry dock during World War II. References Sources External links Encyclopædia Britannica, dry-dock Carnival Liberty Cruise Ship in Dry Dock in Freeport, Grand Bahamas "Docks's Life". All about floating docks of shipbuilding firm "Almaz". St.-Petersburg. Russia. 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213740	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasht-i-Leili%20massacre	Dasht-i-Leili massacre	The Dasht-i-Leili massacre occurred in December 2001 during the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan when 250 to 2,000 Taliban prisoners were shot and/or suffocated to death in metal shipping containers while being transferred by Junbish-i Milli soldiers under the supervision of forces loyal to General Rashid Dostum from Kunduz to Sheberghan prison in Afghanistan. The site of the graves is believed to be in the Dasht-e Leili desert just west of Sheberghan, in the Jowzjan Province. Some of the prisoners were survivors of the Battle of Qala-i-Jangi in Mazar-i-Sharif. In 2009, Dostum denied the accusations. According to all sources, many of the prisoners died from suffocation inside the containers, and some witnesses claimed that those who survived were shot. The dead were buried in a mass grave under the authority of Commander Kamal. The allegations have been investigated since 2002 by Physicians for Human Rights (PHR). PHR conducted two forensic missions to the site under the auspices of the United Nations in 2002. In 2008, PHR reported that the grave had been tampered with. Controversy over responsibility and scale In late 2001, around 8,000 Taliban fighters, including Chechens, and Uzbeks as well as suspected members of al-Qaeda, surrendered to the Junbish-i Milli faction of Northern Alliance General Abdul Rashid Dostum, a U.S. ally in the war in Afghanistan, after the siege of Kunduz. Several hundred of the prisoners, among them American John Walker Lindh, came to be held in Qala-i-Jangi, a fort near Mazar-i-Sharif, where they staged a bloody uprising which took several days to quell. The remaining 7,500 were loaded onto containers for transport to Sheberghan prison, a journey that in some cases took several days. Human rights advocates say hundreds or thousands of them went missing. In late 2001, Carlotta Gall, Jamie Doran and Newsweek began reporting rumors that Dostum's forces, who were fighting the Taliban alongside the US Special Forces, intentionally suffocated as many as 2,000 Taliban prisoners in container trucks in an incident that has become known as the Dasht-i-Leili massacre. The first allegations that dozens of prisoners had suffocated in the containers appeared in a December 2001 article in The New York Times. A 2002 documentary named Afghan Massacre: The Convoy of Death by Jamie Doran produced testimony from eyewitnesses alleging hundreds or even thousands of prisoners had died, either during transport in the containers or being shot and dumped in the Dasht-i-Leili desert after arriving at the hopelessly overcrowded Sheberghan prison. Witnesses presented in the documentary also alleged that wounded and unconscious survivors of the container transports had been executed in the desert in the presence of U.S. soldiers. Doran's documentary, which was viewed by the European and German parliaments, caused widespread concern in Europe and among human rights advocates. It was not reported on in the United States mass media. Allegations of American involvement were disputed by Robert Young Pelton, who had been in the area reporting for National Geographic and CNN. Pelton also said the number of prisoners who suffocated in the containers was roughly 250, a far smaller number than alleged in Doran's documentary. He claims he saw US medics treating some of the prisoners. He says some of the bodies may be victims of the Taliban or of Malik's executions in the 1990s. In 2016, Dostum spoke to Ronan Farrow, reluctantly admitting that local commanders had loaded prisoners from the uprising at Qala-i-Jangi into multiple containers and that American forces had been present. Dostum denied that either he or the Americans murdered the prisoners and would not directly say whether he had ordered the commanders to do this nor whether witnesses were later killed. Subsequent investigations In 2002, Physicians for Human Rights (PHR) led an investigation of alleged mass gravesites at Mazar. A UN forensic team found fifteen recently deceased bodies in a six-yard trial trench dug at a grave site and performed an autopsy on three of them, concluding that they had been the victims of homicide, the cause of death being consistent with suffocation, as described by the eyewitness reports featured in Doran's film. A major Newsweek article on the massacre appeared in August 2002, raising questions about America's responsibility for the war crimes committed by its allies. It quoted Aziz ur Rahman Razekh, director of the Afghan Organization of Human Rights, asserting "with confidence" that "more than a thousand people died in the containers." The 2002 Newsweek article stated that "death by container" – locking prisoners in containers and leaving them to die in them – had been an established method of mass execution in Afghanistan for some years. As the containers were sealed, the prisoners began suffering from lack of air soon after being locked in them. According to witnesses in Doran's documentary, air holes were shot into the sides of some containers, killing several of those inside. Newsweek reported that drivers were punished for giving water to the prisoners, or punching holes into the containers. Survivors of the container transports, interviewed by Newsweek, recalled that after 24 hours the bound prisoners were so thirsty that they resorted to licking the sweat of each other's bodies. Some bit into the bodies of fellow prisoners. In the containers of these survivors, only 20 to 40 prisoners of an original 150 or more were still alive when the containers arrived at their destination. Further investigation of the mass grave sites were impeded by Rashid Dostum's continuing military control over the area and due to intimidation. Physicians for Human Rights have claimed that the Bush administration consistently refused to respond to PHR's calls for investigation. In 2008, the United States Defense Department and State Department released documentation per a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request by Raymond that indicated that 1500-2000 people were killed at Dasht-i-Leili. Ahmed Rashid wrote in 2008 that the prisoners were "stuffed in like sardines, 250 or more per container, so that the prisoners' knees were against their chests". According to Rashid, only a handful survived in each of the thirty containers and UN officials reported that just six out of an original 220 survived in one of the containers. The dead were buried by bulldozers in pits in the desert. Rashid called the massacre "the most outrageous and brutal human rights violation of the entire war", which had occurred "despite the presence of US SOF in the region." American probe On 10 July 2009, an article on the massacre by Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist James Risen appeared in The New York Times. Risen stated that human rights groups' estimates of the total number of victims "ranged from several hundred to several thousand" and that U.S. officials had "repeatedly discouraged efforts to investigate the episode". Questioned about the article by Anderson Cooper of CNN during a trip to Africa, United States President Barack Obama was reported to have "ordered national security officials to look into allegations that the Bush administration resisted efforts to investigate a CIA-backed Afghan warlord over the killings of hundreds of Taliban prisoners in 2001." Excerpts from Doran's documentary Afghan Massacre: The Convoy of Death were broadcast on Democracy Now! on 13 July 2009, with images from the documentary shown on the programme's website. The programme, which featured James Risen and Susannah Sirkin, Deputy Director of Physicians for Human Rights, claimed that "at least 2,000" prisoners of war had perished in the massacre. Sirkin confirmed the claims made in Afghan Massacre: The Convoy of Death that eyewitnesses who had come forward with information on the incident had been tortured and killed, and stated that a FOIA document showed that the "U.S. government and, apparently, intelligence agency – it's a three-letter word that’s redacted of an intelligence branch of the U.S. government in the FOIA – they knew and reported that eyewitnesses to this massacre had been killed and tortured." Risen commented in the programme that in writing his article he "tried not to get caught up in something that I think in the past has slowed down some of the efforts by journalists to look into this. I think in the past one of the mistakes some journalists made was to try and prove a direct involvement by the U.S. personnel in the massacre itself. I frankly don't believe that any U.S. military personnel were involved in the massacre. And, you know, U.S. Special Forces troops who were traveling with Dostum have long maintained that they knew nothing about this. And, you know, so I tried not to go down that road." He added that "the investigation should focus rather on what happened afterwards in the Bush administration." A New York Times editorial on 14 July 2009 called the Bush administration's refusal to investigate a "sordid legacy". Noting that Dostum was "on the C.I.A. payroll and his militia worked closely with United States Special Forces in the early days of the war", the editorial asked President Obama to "order a full investigation into the massacre. The site must be guarded and witnesses protected." Edward S. Herman, writing in Z Magazine, commented that this renewed interest by The New York Times in the massacre, after a 7-year silence on the matter, was rather late in coming and coincided with Dostum's restoration to a position of power in Afghanistan prior to the August 2009 elections, in a move that the U.S. administration disapproved of. Herman said that The New York Times had essentially looked whichever way the current U.S. administration had wanted it to look for the best part of a decade, and that this was also "part of the sordid legacy of the New York Times." On 17 July 2009, in an article published by Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, Dostum, recently reappointed to his government job by Afghan President Hamid Karzai, again described Doran's film as a "fake story", saying that the whole number of prisoners of war captured by his troops was less than the number Doran's film claimed had been killed, and denying there could have been any abuse of prisoners. Dostum's column was sharply criticised by human rights groups. In a rebuttal published by Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty in parallel to Dostum's piece, Sam Zarifi, the Asia-Pacific director for Amnesty International and a human rights investigator in Afghanistan in 2002, stated that "investigations carried out shortly after the alleged killings by highly experienced and respected forensic analysts from Physicians for Human Rights established the presence of recently deceased human remains at Dasht-e Leili and suggested that they were the victims of homicide." In December 2009 Physicians for Human Rights (PHR) renewed its call for the Obama administration’s Department of Justice to investigate why the Bush administration impeded an FBI criminal probe in the wake of the 10 July 2009 front-page article in The New York Times. On 26 December 2009, the Asian Tribune published the full transcript of a video interview given by the officials of Physicians for Human Rights, detailing nearly eight years of advocacy and investigation. See also Afghan Massacre: The Convoy of Death List of massacres in Afghanistan Notes External links United States Department of Defense. "Freedom of Information Act Release to Physicians for Human Rights Regarding Dasht-i-Leili" (4 August 2008). United States Department of State. "Freedom of Information Act Release to Physicians for Human Rights Regarding Dasht-i-Leili" (19 September 2008). Obama Calls for Probe into 2001 Massacre of at Least 2,000 Suspected Taliban POWs by US-Backed Afghan Warlord, Democracy Now! (2009-07-13) Afghan Massacre: The Convoy of Death by Jamie Doran Interview on the film with Jamie Doran, Democracy Now! (2003-05-26) , Physicians for Human Rights Afghanistan Mass Grave: The Dasht-e-Leili War Crimes Investigation Robert Young Pelton responds to Dasht-i-Leili story As possible Afghan war-crimes evidence removed, U.S. silent, by Tom Lasseter, McClatchy Newspapersb, 11 December 2008 Special Report: The Death Convoy Of Afghanistan, by Babak Dehghanpiseh, John Barry and Roy Gutman, Newsweek, 26 August 2002 Slow Death on the Jail Convoys of Misery, by Jim Rissman, Antiwar.com, 11 July 2002 Conflicts in 2001 2001 in Afghanistan Mass murder in 2001 War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) Massacres in Afghanistan Massacres committed by the United States History of Balkh Province December 2001 events in Asia 2001 crimes in Afghanistan 2001 murders in Asia 2000s murders in Afghanistan	[ 0.011726993136107922, 0.08828504383563995, -0.8052551746368408, -0.3968692123889923, -1.0170409679412842, 0.5661641955375671, 0.998129665851593, 0.31964951753616333, 0.04383861646056175, -0.17564205825328827, 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213741	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docudrama	Docudrama	Docudrama (or documentary drama) is a genre of television and film, which features dramatized re-enactments of actual events. Docudramas typically strive to adhere to known historical facts, while allowing some degree of dramatic license in peripheral details, such as when there are gaps in the historical record. Dialogue may, or may not, include the actual words of real-life people, as recorded in historical documents. Docudrama producers sometimes choose to film their reconstructed events in the actual locations in which the historical events occurred. A docudrama, in which historical fidelity is the keynote, is generally distinguished from a film merely "based on true events", a term which implies a greater degree of dramatic license; and from the concept of "historical drama", a broader category which may also encompass entirely fictionalized action taking place in historical settings or against the backdrop of historical events. As a portmanteau, docudrama is sometimes confused with docufiction. However, unlike docufiction—which is essentially a documentary filmed in real time, incorporating some fictional elements—docudrama is filmed at a time subsequent to the events portrayed. Characteristics The docudrama genre is a reenactment of actual historical events. However it makes no promise of being entirely accurate in its interpretation. It blends fact and fiction for its recreation and its quality depends on factors like budget and production time. The filmmaker Leslie Woodhead presents the docudrama dilemma in the following manner: Docudramas producers use literary and narrative techniques to flesh out the bare facts of an event in history to tell a story. Some degree of license is often taken with minor historical facts for the sake of enhancing the drama. Docudramas are distinct from historical fiction, in which the historical setting is a mere backdrop for a plot involving fictional characters. The scholar Steven N. Lipkin considers docudrama as a form of performance through recollection which in turn shapes our collective memory of past events. It is a mode of representation. History The impulse to incorporate historical material into literary texts has been an intermittent feature of literature in the west since its earliest days. Aristotle's theory of art is based on the use of putatively historical events and characters. Especially after the development of modern mass-produced literature, there have been genres that relied on history or then-current events for material. English Renaissance drama, for example, developed subgenres specifically devoted to dramatizing recent murders and notorious cases of witchcraft. However, docudrama as a separate category belongs to the second half of the twentieth century. Louis de Rochemont, creator of The March of Time, became a producer at 20th Century Fox in 1943. There he brought the newsreel aesthetic to films, producing a series of movies based upon real events using a realistic style that became known as semidocumentary. The films (The House on 92nd Street, Boomerang, 13 Rue Madeleine) were imitated, and the style soon became used even for completely-fictional stories, such as The Naked City. Perhaps the most significant of the semidocumentary films was He Walked by Night, based upon an actual case. Jack Webb had a supporting role in the movie and struck up a friendship with the LAPD consultant, Sergeant Marty Wynn. The film and his relationship with Wynn inspired Webb to create Dragnet, one of the most famous docudramas in history. The influence of New Journalism tended to create a license for authors to treat with literary techniques material that might in an earlier age have been approached in a purely journalistic way. Both Truman Capote and Norman Mailer were influenced by this movement, and Capote's In Cold Blood is arguably the most famous example of the genre. American television Some docudrama examples for American television include Brian's Song (1971), and Roots (1977). Brian's Song is the biography of Brian Piccolo, a Chicago Bears football player who died at a young age after battling cancer. Roots depicts the life of a slave and his family. Examples This list is ordered by release date. Radio The March of Time (1931–45) The Fifth Horseman (radio series) (1946) Film Television See also Docufiction Mockumentary Pseudo-documentary Semidocumentary Dramality Ethnofiction Fly on the wall Factual television Reality television Peter Watkins, a pioneer of docudrama List of historical drama films List of Asian historical drama films References Bibliography Further reading Goodwin, Andrew, et al. Drama-Documentary. London: British Film Institute, 1983. External links British Film Institute paper on British drama-documentary Docudrama: the real (his)tory by Çiçek Coşkun (Middle East Technical University, Department of Sociology): unpublished academic paper Docudrama at BookRags Documentary film genres Drama genres Film genres Non-fiction genres Television genres Docudrama	[ 0.8536306023597717, 0.06462996453046799, -0.2728300988674164, 0.4210413098335266, 0.2094048261642456, -0.13831989467144012, 0.3777107894420624, 0.46530500054359436, -0.20672017335891724, -0.07658612728118896, -0.7980203032493591, 0.588879406452179, 0.17681235074996948, 0.722226083278656, -0.21600323915481567, 0.3149191737174988, 0.34425637125968933, 0.2359759360551834, 0.29099559783935547, -0.4518422782421112, -0.7826308012008667, -0.3676633834838867, 0.08337590843439102, -0.1678319275379181, -0.565475583076477, 0.04469359666109085, -0.00002830274752341211, 0.18197554349899292, -0.3069007992744446, -0.16167187690734863, -0.1830984503030777, 0.13607552647590637, 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213745	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaghalkani-i-Takhta%20Pul%20massacres	Jaghalkani-i-Takhta Pul massacres	The Jaghalkani-i-Takhta Pul massacres took place near Mazari Sharif, Afghanistan in 1998, and involved hundreds of victims massacred by the Taliban. See also List of massacres in Afghanistan References 1998 in Afghanistan Massacres committed by the Taliban Massacres in Afghanistan History of Balkh Province Massacres in 1998 Afghan Civil War (1996–2001) 1998 crimes in Afghanistan 1998 murders in Asia 1990s murders in Afghanistan	[ -0.04050373658537865, 0.08722547441720963, -0.7608473300933838, -0.5974519848823547, -1.266180157661438, 0.5632931590080261, 0.7857399582862854, 0.1252116560935974, 0.0669546127319336, 0.1382107436656952, -0.5774827003479004, 0.09350398182868958, -0.8219797015190125, 0.828050434589386, -0.020428437739610672, 0.5808517932891846, 0.20083752274513245, -0.152105450630188, 0.2226019948720932, -0.4428071975708008, 0.2671358585357666, -0.4084278345108032, 0.4455515444278717, 0.4882080852985382, -0.08189672231674194, 0.5147852897644043, 0.5010232925415039, -0.11461112648248672, 0.35958370566368103, 0.3199669420719147, 0.12753382325172424, 0.9831051230430603, 0.0981951579451561, -0.34239909052848816, 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213749	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bia%C5%82owie%C5%BCa%20Forest	Białowieża Forest	Białowieża Forest is one of the last and largest remaining parts of the immense primeval forest that once stretched across the European Plain. The forest is home to 800 European bison, Europe's heaviest land animal. UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Programme designated the Polish Biosphere Reserve in 1976 and the Belarusian Biosphere Reserve in 1993. In 2015, the Belarusian Biosphere Reserve occupied the area of , subdivided into transition, buffer and core zones. The forest has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site and an EU Natura 2000 Special Area of Conservation. The World Heritage Committee by its decision of June 2014 approved the extension of the UNESCO World Heritage site "Belovezhskaya Pushcha/Białowieża Forest, Belarus, Poland", which became "Białowieża Forest, Belarus, Poland". It straddles the border between Poland (Podlaskie Voivodeship) and Belarus (Brest and Grodno s), and is north of Brest, Belarus and southeast of Białystok, Poland. The Białowieża Forest World Heritage site covers a total area of . Since the border between the two countries runs through the forest, there is a border crossing available for hikers and cyclists. Name The Białowieża Forest takes its name from the Polish village of Białowieża, which is located in the middle of the forest and was probably one of the first human settlements in the area. Białowieża means "White Tower" in Polish. The name stems from the white wooden hunting-manor established in the village by Władysław II Jagiełło, the King of Poland who ruled the country from 1386 until his death in 1434 and who enjoyed going on hunting trips in the forest. The modern Belarusian name for the forest is (), although both the Belarusian authorities and UNESCO use the official Russian name () from before the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union. Nature protection Białowieża National Park, Poland On the Polish side, part of the Białowieża Forest is protected as the Białowieża National Park (), with an area of about . There is also the Białowieża Glade (), with a complex of buildings once owned by the tsars of Russia during the Partitions of Poland. At present, a hotel and restaurant with a car park is located there. Guided tours into the strictly protected areas of the park can be arranged on foot, bike or by horse-drawn carriage. Approximately 120,000–150,000 tourists visit the Polish part of the forest annually (about 10,000 of them are from other countries). Among the attractions are birdwatching with local ornithologists, the chance to observe rare birds, pygmy owl observations, watching bison in their natural environment, and sledge as well as carriage rides, with a bonfire. Expert nature guides can also be found in the nearby urban centres. Tours are possible all year round. The popular village of Białowieża lies within the forest. means "the white tower" in Old Polish. Belavezhskaya Pushcha National Park, Belarus On the Belarusian side, the forest is protected as the Belavezhskaya Pushcha National Park with an area of . The core, strictly protected, area covers 38%, the zone of regulated use 26,1%, and the touristic zone and economic zone combined 36%; the National Park and World Heritage Site comprises . The headquarters at Kamieniuki include laboratory facilities and a zoo where European bison (reintroduced into the park in 1929), konik (a semi-wild horse), wild boar, Eurasian elk and other indigenous animals may be viewed in enclosures of their natural habitat. A new attraction there is a New Year's museum with Ded Moroz (the East Slavic counterpart of Father Christmas). History The entire area of northeastern Europe was originally covered by ancient woodland similar to that of the Białowieża Forest. Until about the 14th century, travel through the woodland was limited to river routes; roads and bridges appeared much later. Limited hunting rights were granted throughout the forest in the 14th century. In the 15th century the forest became a property of king Władysław II Jagiełło. A wooden manor in Białowieża became his refuge during a plague pandemic in 1426. The first recorded piece of legislation on the protection of the forest dates to 1538, when a document issued by Sigismund I instituted the death penalty for poaching a bison. The King also built a new wooden hunting manor in a village of Białowieża, which became the namesake for the whole complex. Since means the "white tower", the corresponding translates as the "forest of the white tower". The Tower of Kamyenyets on the Belarusian side, built of red brick, is also referred to as the White Tower () even though it was never white, perhaps taking the name from the . The forest was declared a hunting reserve in 1541 to protect bison. In 1557, the forest charter was issued, under which a special board was established to examine forest usage. In 1639, King Vladislaus IV issued the "Białowieża royal forest decree" (). The document freed all peasants living in the forest in exchange for their service as , or royal foresters. They were also freed of taxes in exchange for taking care of the forest. The forest was divided onto 12 triangular areas () with a centre in Białowieża. Until the reign of King John II Casimir, the forest was mostly unpopulated. However, in the late 17th century, several small villages were established for development of local iron-ore deposits and tar production. The villages were populated with settlers from Masovia and Podlaskie and many of them still exist. After the Partitions of Poland, Tsar Paul I turned all the foresters into serfs and handed them over to various Russian aristocrats and generals along with the parts of forest where they lived. Also, a large number of hunters were able to enter the forest, as all protection was abolished. Following this, the number of bison fell from more than 500 to fewer than 200 in 15 years. However, in 1801, Tsar Alexander I reintroduced the reserve and hired a small number of peasants to protect the animals, and by the 1830s there were 700 bison. However, most of the foresters (500 out of 502) took part in the November Uprising of 1830–31, and their posts were abolished, leading to a breakdown of protection. Tsar Alexander II visited the forest in 1860 and decided to re-establish the protection of bison. Following his orders, locals killed all predators: wolves, bears and lynx. Between 1888 and 1917, the Russian tsars owned all of primaeval forest, which became the royal hunting reserve. The tsars sent bison as gifts to various European capitals, while at the same time populating the forest with deer, elk and other animals imported from around the empire. The last major tsarist hunt took place in 1912. 20th-century wartime damage and restoration During World War I the forest suffered heavy losses. The German army seized the area in August 1915 and started to hunt the animals. During three years of German occupation, of railway tracks were laid in the forest to support the local industry. Three lumber mills were built, in Hajnówka, Białowieża and Gródek. Up to 25 September 1915, at least 200 bison were killed, and an order was issued forbidding hunting in the reserve. However, German soldiers, poachers and Soviet marauders continued the slaughter until February 1919 when the area was captured by the Polish army. The last bison had been killed just a month earlier. Thousands of deer and wild boar had also been shot. After the Polish–Soviet War in 1921, the core of the forest was declared a National Reserve. In 1923, Professor Józef Paczoski, a pioneer of the science of phytosociology, became a scientific manager of the forest reserves in the Białowieża Forest. He carried out detailed studies of the structure of forest vegetation there. In 1923 it was known that only 54 European bison survived in zoos all around the world, none of them in Poland. In 1929, a small herd of four was bought by the Polish state from various zoos and from the Western Caucasus (where the bison was to become extinct just a few years later). These animals were of the slightly different Caucasian subspecies (Bison bonasus caucasicus). To protect them, in 1932 most of the forest was declared a national park. The reintroduction proved successful, and by 1939 there were 16 bison in Białowieża National Park. Two of them, from the zoo in Pszczyna, were descendants of a pair from the forest given to the Duke of Pszczyna by Tsar Alexander II in 1865. In 1939 the local inhabitants of Polish ethnicity were deported to remote areas of the Soviet Union and replaced by Soviet forest workers. In 1941 the forest was occupied by Germans and the Russian Soviet inhabitants were also expelled. Hermann Göring planned to create the largest hunting reserve in the world there. After July 1941 the forest became a refuge for both Polish and Soviet partisans and Nazi authorities organised mass executions. A few graves of people who were killed by the Gestapo can still be seen in the forest. (Hermann Göring directed anti-partisan operations by Luftwaffe security battalions in the Białowieża Forest between 1942 and 1944 that resulted in the murder of thousands of Jews and Polish civilians.) In July 1944 the area was overtaken by the Red Army. Withdrawing Wehrmacht troops demolished the historic Białowieża hunting manor. After the war, part of the forest was divided between Poland and the Belarusian SSR of the Soviet Union. The Soviet part was put under public administration while Poland reopened the Białowieża National Park in 1947. was protected under Decision No. 657 of the Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union, 9 October 1944; Order No. 2252-P of the USSR Council of Ministers, 9 August 1957; and Decree No. 352 of the Byelorussian SSR Council of Ministers, 16 September 1991. In December 1991, the Belavezha Accords, the decision to dissolve the Soviet Union, were signed at a meeting in the Belarusian part of the reserve by the leaders of Ukraine, Russia and Belarus. Named oaks The forest contains a number of large, ancient pedunculate oaks (Quercus robur), some of which are individually named. Trunk circumferences are measured at breast height, above the ground. Great Mamamuszi. Circumference (2005), height . One of the thickest oaks in the forest, with a beautiful column-like trunk. The tree's name comes from Molière's The Bourgeois Gentleman, in which the main protagonist (Mr Jourdain) was appointed the Mamamouchi by a Turkish ambassador. Since 1989 the tree's circumference grew by . Of all the oaks in Białowieża Forest with a circumference above , it is in the best condition. The King of Nieznanowo. Circumference , height . This tree has one of the most columnar trunks among the oaks in Białowieża Forest. The first branches arise at the height of 18 m. It has been gradually dying since 1998. , only two small branches still have leaves. Since the mid-1960s its trunk circumference has grown by about . Emperor of the South. Circumference , height . The tree shows no clear signs of dying. Emperor of the North. Circumference , height . The tree has a very regular trunk and shows no clear signs of dying. Southern Cross. Circumference , height . At the base of the trunk it has a considerable lesion in the bark on the eastern side. From the mid-1960s its circumference has grown by . The name comes from the shape of its crown, whose main branches evoke a cross. The Guardian of Zwierzyniec. Circumference , height . This is one of the thickest oaks in the forest. The tree is largely bent down westwards, which most probably has contributed to the large circumference of the trunk at its base. All the branches are live, indicating that the tree is in good condition. Barrel Oak. Circumference , height over . This tree is named for its barrel-shaped trunk, and is the oak which reaches the greatest trunk circumference among the Białowieża oaks. The tree is dead and largely devoid of bark, and is estimated to be around 450 years old. Dominator Oak. Circumference , height over . One of the thickest oaks of the Białowieża, the tree has been dead since 1992 and its trunk is now largely devoid of bark. For many years it dominated the Białowieża Forest as far as size is concerned. Its age is estimated at 450 years. The Jagiełło Oak. Circumference (when growing) , height . It blew down in 1974, but is probably the most famous of the trees in the forest. It is said that King Władysław II Jagiełło rested beneath it before the Battle of Grunwald (Bitwa Pod Grunwaldem) in 1410, although the tree is believed to have been only 450 years old when it blew down. Tsar Oak (Polish) () of Poland. Circumference , height . The tree's volume has been estimated at . It died in 1984, and for over 20 years it has been standing dead on the edge of the valley of Leśna Prawa river. Today the trunk is totally devoid of bark and some of the branches have broken off and lie at the base of the trunk. Patriarch Oak (). One of the oldest oaks in the Belarusian National Park, standing tall, having a diameter in excess of , and being over 550 years of age. It stands from the estate of Ded Moroz. Logging Some 84% of the of Polish forest is outside the national park; almost half of all the wood in the forest is dead – 10 times more than in managed forests – with half the 12,000 species depend on decaying logs, including the near-threatened beetle Cucujus cinnaberinus. Traditional forest management would remove the dead wood, as a fire risk. In 2011, Zdzisław Szkiruć, director of the Białowieża National Park, said that cutting and replanting allows for re-establishment of the forest in 50 years, rather than the 300–400 years that nature would require; environmentalist Janusz Korbel argued that the unique nature of the primeval forest demands a lighter style of management. Andrzej Kraszewski, Poland's Environment Minister from February 2010 to November 2011, sought to increase protection over the whole forest, starting with a more modest expansion, against opposition from the local community and the Forestry Service. Environmentalists say that logging is threatening the flora and fauna in the forest, including species of rare birds, such as the white-backed woodpecker, who lost 30% of their population in forestry-managed areas in the 1990s and 2000s. Poland's state forestry board claims the logging is for protection and for ecological reasons, protecting against the European spruce bark beetle. In 2012, the amount of wood that can be extracted by foresters annually was briefly reduced from about to , approximately 20,000,000 board feet, most which is sold locally, mainly as firewood. On 25 March 2016, Jan Szyszko, Poland's Environment Minister, former forester and forestry academic, announced that he would approve a tripling of logging in the forest, from the 2012–21 limit of – almost exhausted at the time – to , offering the excuse of "combatting an infestation of the bark beetle". Robert Cyglicki, head of Greenpeace Polska, argued that logging to fight the bark beetle would "bring more damage than benefits", gathering more than 120,000 signatures to petition Prime Minister Beata Szydło to reverse Szyszko's move. Greenpeace also said the logging could trigger the EU to launch punitive procedures against Poland for violating its Natura 2000 programme, though Szyszko claims that the logging plans would not apply to strictly protected areas, and claims that, rather than being 8,000 years old, as scientists claim, parts of the forest had been created by an "enterprising hand of man" on lands that centuries ago included fields of wheat and millet. Large-scale logging started in 2017. 190,000 cubic metres of wood (160,000 to 180,000 trees) was felled, the largest volume of logging since 1988. The Polish government has ignored pleas from UNESCO to stop logging the old-growth parts of the forest, as well as a court order of the European Court of Justice to halt the logging activities. The final verdict fell on 17 April 2018, ruling that EU law has been infringed. In popular culture The forest is the subject of a Belarusian ballad , composed in 1975 by Aleksandra Pakhmutova, with lyrics by Nikolai Dobronravov, performed by Belarusian folk band Pesniary. Białowieża Forest is mentioned throughout Alan Weisman's book The World Without Us (2007), which investigates places that have been abandoned or left alone and imagines what they would be like if Earth's human population suddenly disappeared. British historian Simon Schama devotes several chapters of his book Landscape and Memory (1995) to the Białowieża Forest. In late 2017, Wojtek Voiteque Kowalik, a senior copy editor at the Polish advertising firm Ogilvy, decided to work with Greenpeace Poland to spread awareness of the Białowieża Forest and the logging threatening it. Kowalik decided to use the game Minecraft, as he wanted to capitalize on its playerbase of 87 million. Kowalik reasoned Minecraft was a form of social media, drawing parallels between the YouTube and Twitch communities dedicated to the game and the video arcades of his youth. Kowalik contacted Danish company GeoBoxers, who had previously recreated all of Denmark in Minecraft in 1:1 scale, and convinced them to do the same for Białowieża Forest. In return Ogilvy and Greenpeace provided reference material for Geoboxers in the form of a 3D topographical map of the forest made from hundreds of images and maps of Białowieża Forest that took six weeks to complete. The action of a role-playing video game Werewolf: The Apocalypse – Heart of the Forest developed by Different Tales and released on October 13, 2020 (for MS Windows, Linux and Mac OS) takes place in Białowieża Forest. The player takes the role of Maia Boroditch, an American woman of Polish descent, who has recurring nightmares about a forest and wolves, and travels to Białowieża in Poland to learn about her family history and discovers secrets of the primeval Białowieża Forest.</ref> The forest is mentioned in Upton Sinclair's seminal novel The Jungle (1906). It is the birthplace of protagonist Jurgis Rudkus. See also Tourism in Poland List of national parks of Belarus List of national parks of Poland List of old-growth forests Perućica, a primeval forest in Europe (Bosnia and Herzegovina) Virgin Komi Forests, the largest forest in Europe Western Caucasus, the largest bison (wisent) habitat Notes References External links The UNESCO official site Białowieża National Park Oaks from Bialowieza Trees of Białowieża National Park BBC radio documentary about the forest (2002) Biosphere reserves of Belarus Biosphere reserves of Poland Forests of Belarus Forests of Poland Old-growth forests National parks of Belarus National parks of Poland Geography of Brest Region Geography of Grodno Region Geography of Podlaskie Voivodeship Transboundary protected areas Natura 2000 in Poland Parks in Podlaskie Voivodeship Protected areas established in 1932 1932 establishments in Poland Tourist attractions in Brest Region World Heritage Sites in Belarus World Heritage Sites in Poland da:Białowieska 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213757	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Bourbon	USS Bourbon	USS Bourbon was a frigate in the Continental Navy, named for the House of Bourbon. During the American Revolutionary War, Bourbon was authorized as a 36-gun frigate by the Continental Congress 23 January 1777. Very little else is known about it, but it may have been built at Chatham, Connecticut. Due to the Congress's financial difficulties, it was not launched until 31 July 1783. In September 1783, still uncompleted, it was offered for sale and presumably sold. 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213763	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Chesapeake	USS Chesapeake	USS Chesapeake may refer to: , a 38-gun frigate in commission from 1800 to 1813 USS Chesapeake, a sloop renamed in 1799 while still under construction, launched in 1799, and sold in 1801 USS Chesapeake, a bark which served as a training ship from 1900 to 1910, was renamed in 1905, and served as a submarine tender from 1910 until decommissioned in 1916 , a salvage ship in commission from March to October 1919 , a transport tanker in service from 2000 to 2009 USS Chesapeake (FFG-64), a proposed Constellation class guided missile frigate United States Navy ship names	[ -0.1957007646560669, -0.35421013832092285, -0.3804130256175995, 0.1731622815132141, -0.25542718172073364, 0.3988867402076721, 0.00200590118765831, 0.01628096215426922, -0.8564965724945068, -0.18003429472446442, 0.18496926128864288, 0.35797151923179626, -0.11632063239812851, 0.5899128913879395, 0.11492567509412766, 0.4895147681236267, 0.5514319539070129, 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213765	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%BChrer	Führer	( ; , spelled when the umlaut is not available) is a German word meaning "leader" or "guide". As a political title, it is associated with the Nazi dictator Adolf Hitler. Nazi Germany cultivated the ("leader principle"), and Hitler was generally known as just ("the Leader"). In compound words, the use of "" remains common in German and is used in words such as (mountain guide) or (leader of the opposition). However, because of its strong association with Hitler, the isolated word itself usually has negative connotations when used with the meaning of "leader", especially in political contexts. The word has cognates in the Scandinavian languages, spelled fører in Danish and Norwegian which have the same meaning and use as the German word, but without necessarily having political connotations. History Origin of the title The first example of the political use of was with the Austrian Georg von Schönerer (1842–1921), a major exponent of pan-Germanism and German nationalism in Austria, whose followers commonly referred to him as the , and who also used the Roman salute – where the right arm and hand are held rigidly outstretched – which they called the "German greeting". According to historian Richard J. Evans, this use of "" by Schönerer's Pan-German Association, probably introduced the term to the German far-right, but its specific adoption by the Nazis may also have been influenced by the use in Italy of "", also meaning "leader", as an informal title for Benito Mussolini, the Fascist Prime Minister, and later (from 1922) dictator, of that country. Adolf Hitler took the title to denote his function as the head of the Nazi Party; he received it in 1921 when, infuriated over party founder Anton Drexler's plan to merge with another antisemitic far-right nationalist party, he resigned from the party. Drexler and the party's Executive Committee then acquiesced to Hitler's demand to be made the chairman of the party with "dictatorial powers" as the condition for his return. Within the Party's paramilitary organizations, the (SA) and its later much more powerful offshoot, the (SS), "" was the root word used in the names of their officer rankings, such as in , meaning "assault unit leader", equivalent to major, or , "senior leader", equivalent to colonel. Regional Nazi Party leaders were called , "" also meaning "leader". As a political office After Hitler's appointment as (Chancellor of the Reich), Hitler had Paul von Hindenburg sign the Reichstag Fire Decree under the pretense of a purported Communist uprising. This decree suspended most of the civil liberties enshrined in the Weimar Constitution. A month later, the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act, which allowed the cabinet to promulgate laws by decree for four years. In practice, Hitler himself issued such decrees. The Enabling Act had the effect of giving Hitler dictatorial powers. One day before Hindenburg's death, Hitler and his cabinet decreed the "Law Concerning the Highest State Office of the Reich," which stipulated that upon Hindenburg's death, the office of the president was to be merged with that of Chancellor. Thus, upon Hindenburg's death, Hitler became – although eventually was quietly dropped. Hitler therefore assumed the President's powers without assuming the office itself – ostensibly out of respect for Hindenburg's achievements as a heroic figure in World War I. Though this law was in breach of the Enabling Act, which specifically precluded any laws concerning the Presidential office, it was approved by a referendum on 19 August. Hitler saw himself as the sole source of power in Germany, similar to the Roman emperors and German medieval leaders. He used the title (Leader and Chancellor), highlighting the positions he already held in party and government, though in popular reception, the element was increasingly understood not just in reference to the Nazi Party, but also in reference to the German people and the German state. Soldiers had to swear allegiance to Hitler as "" (Leader of the German Reich and People). The title was changed on 28 July 1942 to "" (Leader of the Greater German Reich). In his political testament, Hitler also referred to himself as (Leader of the Nation). Hitler took great care to give his dictatorship the appearance of legal sanction. He issued thousands of decrees that were based explicitly on the Reichstag Fire Decree. That decree itself was based on Article 48 of the constitution, which gave the president the power to take measures deemed necessary to protect public order. The Enabling Act was renewed twice, in 1937 and 1941, though this was merely a formality with all other parties having been banned. One of the Nazis' most-repeated political slogans was – "One Nation, One Empire, One Leader". Bendersky says the slogan "left an indelible mark on the minds of most Germans who lived through the Nazi years. It appeared on countless posters and in publications; it was heard constantly in radio broadcasts and speeches." The slogan emphasized the absolute control of the party over practically every sector of German society and culture – with the churches being the most notable exception. Hitler's word was absolute, superseding even the Constitution. However, he had a narrow range of interest – mostly involving diplomacy and the military – and so his subordinates interpreted his will to fit their own interests. This led to vicious power wrangles that were immensely beneficial to Hitler in aiding him ensure that no one person held too much power to the extent of becoming a threat to his absolute rule. Military usage According to the Constitution of Weimar, the President was Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. Unlike "President", Hitler did take this title () for himself. When conscription was reintroduced in 1935, Hitler created the title of Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, a post held by the Minister for War. He retained the title of Supreme Commander for himself. Field Marshal Werner von Blomberg, then the Minister of War and one of those who created the Hitler oath, or the personal oath of loyalty of the military to Hitler, became the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces while Hitler remained Supreme Commander. Following the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair in 1938, Hitler assumed the commander-in-chief's post as well and took personal command of the armed forces. However, he continued using the older formally higher title of Supreme Commander, which was thus filled with a somewhat new meaning. Combining it with "Führer", he used the style (Leader and Supreme Commander of the ), yet a simple "Führer" since May 1942. Germanic Führer An additional title was adopted by Hitler on 23 June 1941 when he declared himself the "Germanic Führer" (), in addition to his duties as Führer of the German state and people. This was done to emphasize Hitler's professed leadership of what the Nazis described as the "Nordic-Germanic master race", which was considered to include peoples such as the Norwegians, Danes, Swedes, Dutch, and others in addition to the Germans, and the intent to annex these countries to the German Reich in 1933. Waffen-SS formations from these countries had to declare obedience to Hitler by addressing him in this fashion. On 12 December 1941 the Dutch fascist Anton Mussert also addressed him as such when he proclaimed his allegiance to Hitler during a visit to the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. He had wanted to address Hitler as ("Führer of all Germanics"), but Hitler personally decreed the former style. Historian Loe de Jong speculates on the difference between the two: implied a position separate from Hitler's role as ("Führer and Reich Chancellor of the Greater German Empire"), while served more as an attribute of that main function. As late as 1944, however, occasional propaganda publications continued to refer to him by this unofficial title. Military usage has been used as a military title (compare Latin Dux) in Germany since at least the 18th century. The usage of the term "Führer" in the context of a company-sized military subunit in the German Army referred to a commander lacking the qualifications for permanent command. For example, the commanding officer of a company was (and is) titled "Kompaniechef" (literally, Company Chief), but if he did not have the requisite rank or experience, or was only temporarily assigned to command, he was officially titled "Kompanieführer". Thus operational commands of various military echelons were typically referred to by their formation title followed by the title , in connection with mission-type tactics used by the German military forces. The term was also used at lower levels, regardless of experience or rank; for example, a was the leader of a squad of infantry (9 or 10 men). Under the Nazis, the title was also used in paramilitary titles (see Freikorps). Almost every Nazi paramilitary organization, in particular the SS and SA, had Nazi party paramilitary ranks incorporating the title of . The SS including the Waffen-SS, like all paramilitary Nazi organizations, called all their members of any degree except the lowest of something; thus confusingly, was also an official rank title for a specific grade of general. The word was also a generic word referring to any commander or leader of troops and could be applied to NCOs or officers at many different levels of command. Modern German usage In Germany, the isolated word "" is usually avoided in political contexts, due to its intimate connection with Nazi institutions and with Hitler personally. However, the term is used in many compound words. Examples include (mountain guide), (tourist guide), (CEO or EO), (driver's license), or (driver's cab), (train driver), (travel guide book), and (team captain — also referred to as ). Since German is a language with grammatical gender, refers to a male leader; the feminine form is The use of alternative terms like "" (a borrowing from the French, as is the English "chief", e.g. ) or (often in compound words like , or ) is usually not the result of replacing of the word "Führer", but rather using terminology that existed before the Nazis. The use of to refer to a political party leader is rare today and (chairman) is the more common term. However, the word ("leader of the (parliamentary) opposition") is more commonly used. See also Terms derived from Deputy Führer Führer Headquarters Führer Directives Other President for life Poglavnik Supreme Leader (disambiguation) Tenno Vozhd List of German expressions in English References External links Adolf Hitler Dictatorship Fascism Heads of government Heads of state Military ranks of Germany Government of Nazi Germany Positions of authority Titles of national or ethnic leadership German words and phrases Nazi terminology	[ 0.11650919914245605, -0.28165778517723083, -0.19995953142642975, -0.26275011897087097, -0.5761572122573853, -0.3124784529209137, 0.5416278839111328, -0.17127655446529388, 0.18528488278388977, -0.15413914620876312, -0.6960781216621399, -0.09420956671237946, -0.0011842944659292698, 0.14816531538963318, -0.11303424090147018, 0.3312869369983673, 0.1898752599954605, 0.13325132429599762, -0.6699389815330505, -0.26244229078292847, -0.05317845568060875, -0.14607736468315125, -0.14142541587352753, -0.016626952216029167, 0.5001968741416931, 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213766	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little%20grebe	Little grebe	The little grebe (Tachybaptus ruficollis), also known as dabchick, is a member of the grebe family of water birds. The genus name is from Ancient Greek takhus "fast" and bapto "to sink under". The specific ruficollis is from Latin rufus "red" and Modern Latin -collis, "-necked", itself derived from Latin collum "neck". At in length it is the smallest European member of its family. It is commonly found in open bodies of water across most of its range. Taxonomy The little grebe was described by the German naturalist Peter Simon Pallas in 1764 and given the binomial name Colymbus ruficollis. The tricolored grebe was considered conspecific, with some taxonomic authorities still considering it so. There are six currently-recognized subspecies, separated principally by size and colouration. T. r. ruficollis – (Pallas, 1764): nominate, found from Europe and western Russia south to North Africa T. r. iraquensis – (Ticehurst, 1923): found in southeastern Iraq and southwestern Iran T. r. capensis – (Salvadori, 1884): found in Sub-Saharan Africa, Madagascar, Sri Lanka, and the Indian subcontinent, extending east to Burma T. r. poggei – (Reichenow, 1902): found from southeastern to northeastern Asia, Hainan, Taiwan, Japan, and south Kuril Islands T. r. philippensis – (Bonnaterre, 1790): found in the northern Philippines T. r. cotabato – (Rand, 1948): found on Mindanao Description The little grebe is a small water bird with a pointed bill. The adult is unmistakable in summer, predominantly dark above with its rich, rufous colour neck, cheeks and flanks, and bright yellow gape. The rufous is replaced by a dirty brownish grey in non-breeding and juvenile birds. Juvenile birds have a yellow bill with a small black tip, and black and white streaks on the cheeks and sides of the neck as seen below. This yellow bill darkens as the juveniles age, eventually turning black in adulthood. In winter, its size, buff plumage, with a darker back and cap, and “powder puff” rear end enable easy identification of this species. The little grebe's breeding call, given singly or in duet, is a trilled repeated weet-weet-weet or wee-wee-wee which sounds like a horse whinnying. Distribution This bird breeds in small colonies in heavily vegetated areas of freshwater lakes across Europe, much of Asia down to New Guinea, and most of Africa. Most birds move to more open or coastal waters in winter, but it is only migratory in those parts of its range where the waters freeze. Outside of breeding season, it moves into more open water, occasionally even appearing on the coast in small bays. Behaviour The little grebe is an excellent swimmer and diver and pursues its fish and aquatic invertebrate prey underwater. It uses the vegetation skilfully as a hiding place. Like all grebes, it nests at the water's edge, since its legs are set very far back and it cannot walk well. Usually four to seven eggs are laid. When the adult bird leaves the nest it usually takes care to cover the eggs with weeds. This makes it less likely to be detected by predators. The young leave the nest and can swim soon after hatching, and chicks are often carried on the backs of the swimming adults. In India, the species breeds during the rainy season. Gallery References External links BTO BirdFacts - Little Grebe Grebes of the World by André Konter Information and Illustration on Little Grebe from A Field Guide to Birds of Armenia little grebe Birds of Africa Birds of Eurasia Birds of Japan little grebe Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas Birds of Nepal	[ -0.31624847650527954, 0.47275593876838684, -0.5653741955757141, 0.01284355204552412, -0.08891692012548447, 0.8278602957725525, 0.6129215955734253, 0.6469514966011047, -0.37302014231681824, -0.41708704829216003, -0.257386714220047, 0.1866854727268219, -0.3927377462387085, 0.2655603885650635, -0.15588153898715973, 0.5964832305908203, 0.49291470646858215, 0.11249551922082901, 0.6302438974380493, -0.4484099745750427, -0.3153661787509918, -0.3185625374317169, 0.11769311130046844, -0.7479783296585083, 0.6144065260887146, 0.4891159236431122, 0.2584741413593292, 0.5355182886123657, -0.446992427110672, -0.0662233904004097, -0.24804829061031342, 0.8713922500610352, 0.6697728037834167, 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213767	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Raritan%20%281843%29	USS Raritan (1843)	The first USS Raritan was a wooden-hulled, three-masted sailing frigate of the United States Navy built at the Philadelphia Navy Yard, laid down in 1820, but not launched until 13 June 1843, sponsored by Commodore Frederick Engle. She was one of the last sailing frigates of the United States Navy. On 20 February 1844 the frigate, commanded by Captain Francis H. Gregory, cleared New York Harbor and sailed for the South Atlantic where she served as Commodore Daniel Turner's flagship until she returned to the United States in November 1845. Based at Pensacola, Florida, Raritan then operated with the Home Squadron as it blockaded the east coast of Mexico and supported Army forces during the war with Mexico. As Commodore David Conner's flagship, she joined USS Potomac in landing 500 men at Point Isabel to reinforce that military depot in May 1846. During 1847, she participated in the landings at Veracruz in March; at Tuxpan in April; and at Tabasco in June. Raritan then retired to Norfolk where she was laid up in ordinary during 1848. Active again in 1849, she served as flagship of the West Indies Squadron, then as flagship for the Home Squadron, and in 1850 was transferred to the Pacific to cruise between Panama and Cape Horn and as far west as the International Date Line. Raritan arrived at Valparaíso in June 1851. On 31 August, the British merchant ship Governor Davis ran aground in the Bogueron Passage. Attempts by Raritan to refloat her were unsuccessful and she was abandoned. Raritan returned to the United States in October 1852. On her arrival home, she was again laid up, in ordinary, at Norfolk. Raritan remained there until she was destroyed, 20 April 1861, by Union forces as they evacuated the navy yard. See also American Civil War Union Navy United States Navy List of United States Navy ships List of sailing frigates of the United States Navy References Bibliography Howard I. Chapelle, The History of the American Sailing Navy: The Ships and their Development (Norton, New York, 1949), p. 457, plan 29. 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213768	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Raritan%20%28LSM-540%29	USS Raritan (LSM-540)	The third USS Raritan (LSM-540) was a in the United States Navy following World War II. She was named for a river in New Jersey. Service history Raritan was laid down on 10 May 1945 at Brown Shipbuilding Company, Houston, Texas, launched in August 1945, commissioned as USS LSM-540 on 6 December 1945, Lieutenant Roy T. Rector, USNR in command. She was decommissioned on 29 May 1946, at Green Cove Springs, Florida and laid up in the Atlantic Reserve Fleet, Florida Group, Green Cove Springs. Recommissioned on 4 November 1957, she was renamed USS Raritan (LSM-540) on 14 October 1959, then decommissioned on 1 December 1959 at Norfolk, Virginia, and struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 January 1960. 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213770	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Done%20by%20the%20Forces%20of%20Nature	Done by the Forces of Nature	Done by the Forces of Nature is the second studio album by American hip hop group Jungle Brothers, released on November 7, 1989, by Warner Bros. Records. Recording sessions for the album took place in 1989 at Calliope Studios in New York City, and production was handled by the Jungle Brothers. It was mixed at Apollo Studios by Kool DJ Red Alert and the Jungle Brothers. The album's title may refer to a line from the Bhagavad Gita, a Hindu scripture, wherein Krishna says, "Those who are deluded by the illusive power (Maya) of Nature become attached to the work done by the forces of nature," 3:28. Done by the Forces of Nature peaked at number 46 on Billboards Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. It also received rave reviews from music critics who praised its Afrocentric themes, clever lyrics, house-influenced production, and eclectic sampling of music genres such as jazz, R&B, funk, and African music. Done by the Forces of Nature has been considered a golden age hip hop classic, as well as one of the greatest and influential hip hop albums of all time. In 1998, The Source magazine selected the album as one of its 100 Best Rap Albums. Recording Recording sessions for the album took place in 1989 at Calliope Studios in New York City, and production was handled by the Jungle Brothers. It was mixed at Apollo Studios by Kool DJ Red Alert and the Jungle Brothers. Reception and legacy In a positive review for Spin magazine, Greg Tate hailed Done by the Forces of Nature as an innovative hip house production and, "a nonstop groove-a-think where sexist spectacle commingles with love paeans to the sistuhs, where safaris into Afro-centricity are made to house you." Robert Tanzilo from the Chicago Tribune called it "one of the brightest records of the year". Los Angeles Times critic Duff Marlowe praised the album's diverse sound and lyrical themes, including social consciousness and individual self-realization. He wrote that the Jungle Brothers "present a vision of urbanized naturalism, a subversive and funky anti-intellectualism". Steve Morse of The Boston Globe called the album "some seriously intense music that makes the commercial raps of Tone-Loc and DJ Jazzy Jeff & Fresh Prince sound like a child's play". Peter Watrous from The New York Times observed lyrical allusions to hip hop and African-American culture that are "enriching an always solid dance beat". In Rolling Stone, Michael Azerrad praised the Jungle Brothers' lyrical substance and said their "positive, spiritual vibe (a direct descendant of Earth, Wind and Fire's) is as hip as their music". Yahoo! Music's Brett Anderson described it as the Jungle Brothers' "stab at edutainment". Steve Huey from AllMusic praised the album's eclectic sound and sampling of music genres such as jazz, R&B, and African music. In comparing the album to the Jungle Brothers' landmark debut album, Straight Out the Jungle (1988), Huey wrote that Done by the Forces of Nature "feels more realized in many respects, and is arguably the more satisfying listen". French newspaper Le Monde called the album "brilliant". Robert Christgau of The Village Voice found its sound "as original as De La Soul's, and the dreams of pleasure are straight out the urban jungle": The album has been considered a classic of hip hop's golden age and one of the most influential albums in hip hop. It has also been described by critics as an "underrated classic". Michael Azerrad, writing in Trouser Press, said that it was "largely overlooked," but is "one of rap's finest hours" with a "highly musical hip-hop" that "radiates upbeat spirituality". The Chicago Tribunes Rick Reger called it a "masterpiece ... one of hip-hop's most imaginative, engaging records". In retrospect, Rolling Stones Nathan Brackett wrote "At their prime in the late '80s, the Jungle Brothers reflected all of hip-hop's potential – their second album, 1989's spiritual, street-wise Done by the Forces of Nature, was as conscious as it was funky and stands out as one of the most overlooked rap albums of that decade." The Rolling Stone Album Guide comments that the "Jungle Brothers were ahead of their time" with the album and cites the track "Doin' Our Own Dang" as "the definitive Native Tongues posse cut". Rolling Stone placed it thirty-seventh on its list of the 50 Coolest Records of All Time. In 1998, Done by the Forces of Nature was selected as one of The Sources 100 Best Rap Albums. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. Track listing All songs composed by the Jungle Brothers, except "Doin' Our Own Dang", which was composed by De La Soul, the Jungle Brothers, Q-Tip, and Monie Love. "Beyond This World" – 4:08 "Feelin' Alright" – 3:35 "Sunshine" – 3:44 "What U Waitin' 4?" – 4:02 "U Make Me Sweat" – 3:59 "Acknowledge Your Own History" (with Vinia Mojica) – 3:38 "Belly Dancin' Dina" – 3:41 "Good Newz Comin'" – 4:37 "Done by the Forces of Nature" (with Jungle DJ Towha Towha) – 3:47 "Beeds on a String" – 3:32 "Tribe Vibes" (with KRS-One) – 3:53 "J. Beez Comin' Through" – 3:32 "Black Woman" (with Caron Wheeler) – 3:54 "In Dayz 2 Come" – 3:54 "Doin' Our Own Dang" (with De La Soul, Queen Latifah, Q-Tip, and Monie Love) – 4:16 "Kool Accordin' "2" a Jungle Brother" – 1:55 (*)The European version has "Doin' Our Own Dang (Do It To The JB's Mix)" as track 1 and "What U Waitin' 4? (Jungle Fever Mix)" as track 5, replacing the versions of those songs on the other release. Charts Personnel Jungle Brothers - design, reproduction DJ Red Alert - executive producer, mixing A Tribe Called Quest - performer De La Soul - performer KRS-One - performer Monie Love - performer Gregg Mann - engineer Greg Curry - engineer Dr. Shane Faber - keyboards, engineer Abdullah Rahman - artwork DJ Towa - design DJ Towa Towa - performer Caron Wheeler - performer See also Album era References Bibliography Further reading External links 1989 albums Warner Records albums Jungle Brothers albums	[ 0.6424747109413147, -0.14066250622272491, -0.27805095911026, 0.11430129408836365, -0.061291832476854324, 0.16847875714302063, 0.798255205154419, -0.3285382390022278, -0.28992846608161926, -0.08439963310956955, 0.4203401505947113, 0.6434236764907837, -0.4950465261936188, -0.13188424706459045, -0.62953120470047, 0.08525386452674866, 0.1824905425310135, -0.18629910051822662, 0.45195528864860535, -0.5095850825309753, 0.03262503445148468, -0.5002452731132507, -0.12930621206760406, 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213772	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dabchick	Dabchick	Dabchick may refer to: The little grebe (Tachybaptus ruficollis), also known as dabchick The New Zealand dabchick or weweia (Poliocephalus rufopectus) The Dabchick sailing dinghy People from Aldbourne, England	[ -0.31939584016799927, 0.491870641708374, -0.6813470721244812, -0.15787166357040405, -0.14766009151935577, 0.444532573223114, 0.41050583124160767, 0.5208978056907654, -0.31609874963760376, -0.2162235677242279, -0.1343478262424469, -0.05199732631444931, -0.41654568910598755, 0.38502824306488037, -0.08955708891153336, 0.618220329284668, -0.1259627640247345, 0.49724075198173523, 0.29249879717826843, -0.4960980713367462, -0.46592938899993896, -0.6654770970344543, -0.4237898290157318, -0.43949466943740845, 0.8845964074134827, 0.6326279640197754, 0.8342750072479248, 0.5250830054283142, -0.6258564591407776, -0.17990058660507202, -0.07719723135232925, 0.875533401966095, 0.6567472219467163, -0.13286787271499634, 0.14366371929645538, 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213774	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just%20a%20Poet%20with%20a%20Soul	Just a Poet with a Soul	Just a Poet with Soul is the debut alternative hip hop album by Def Jef, released by Delicious Vinyl on November 14, 1989 (see 1989 in music). The album was highly praised upon its release, with critics enjoying the sociopolitical lyrics. Many have called the album a lost classic of hip hop. It was in part produced by the Dust Brothers. Track listing "Droppin' Rhymes on Drums" (with Etta James) "Givin' Em Rhythm" "On the Real Tip" "Poet With Soul" "Give It Here" "Do You Wanna Get Housed" "Black to the Future" "Do It Baby" "God Made Me Funky" "Downtown" "Just A Poet" Samples Droppin' Rhymes on Drums "Blow Your Whistle" by The Soul Searchers Givin'em Rhythm "Love Rap" by Spoonie Gee and The Treacherous Three "Rebel Without a Pause" by Public Enemy On the Real Tip "Get Up, Get Into It, Get Involved" by James Brown "Got to Be Real" by Cheryl Lynn "Sing Sing" by Gaz Poet With Soul "Apache" by Incredible Bongo Band Give It Here "I Gotcha" by Joe Tex "Bra" by Cymande "Have Your Ass Home by 11:00" by Richard Pryor "Dance With Me" by Peter Brown "Holy Ghost" by Bar-Kays "Give It to Me Baby" by Rick James Do You Wanna Get Housed "Party" by Van McCoy Black to the Future "The Ballot or the Bullet" by Malcolm X "Synthetic Substitution" by Melvin Bliss "Hot Dawgit" by Ramsey Lewis "Fly Like an Eagle" by Steve Miller Band "UFO" by ESG Do It Baby "Action Speaks Louder Than Words" by Chocolate Milk Just a Poet "Hit or Miss" by Bo Diddley "Mighty Fine" by Peter Jacques Band References 1989 debut albums Def Jef albums Delicious Vinyl albums	[ 0.35250627994537354, -0.03746029734611511, -0.3659544885158539, 0.33984872698783875, -0.44549688696861267, 0.2106206715106964, 0.6021448969841003, 0.006703923922032118, 0.1757631003856659, -0.48743459582328796, 0.38319358229637146, 0.8931375741958618, -0.5369516611099243, -0.006942010950297117, 0.3685535192489624, -0.19591869413852692, 0.5245567560195923, -0.12248194962739944, 0.09523697942495346, -0.7003031969070435, 0.20907923579216003, -0.17009352147579193, 0.0020806207321584225, -0.10440034419298172, -0.010330184362828732, 0.3430480659008026, 0.22940167784690857, 0.3069137632846832, 0.11783906817436218, 0.009489529766142368, 0.39503514766693115, 0.03086668811738491, 0.3014276325702667, -0.744868814945221, -0.32237866520881653, 0.7109247446060181, -0.1437082290649414, 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213777	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All%20Hail%20the%20Queen	All Hail the Queen	All Hail the Queen is the debut album by hip-hop artist Queen Latifah. The album was released on November 28, 1989, through Tommy Boy Records. The feminist anthem, "Ladies First" featuring Monie Love remains one of Latifah's signature songs. All Hail the Queen peaked at no. 6 on the Billboard Top Hip Hop/R&B Albums chart and at no. 124 on the Billboard 200 chart. "Wrath of My Madness" was the first single from All Hail the Queen, and was later sampled in Yo-Yo's "You Can't Play With My Yo-Yo". "Mama Gave Birth to the Soul Children" peaked at no. 14 in the UK. In 1998, the album was selected as one of The Sources 100 Best Rap Albums. It was also featured in Robert Dimery's 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. In 2008, the single "Ladies First" was ranked number 35 on VH1's 100 Greatest Songs Of Hip Hop. Track listing Personnel Daddy O - Producer, Performer, Mixing De La Soul - Performer Dr. Jam - Remixing KRS-One - Producer, Mixing Queen Latifah - Producer, Mixing Monie Love - Performer DJ Mark the 45 King - Producer, Performer, Mixing Paul C. - Engineer, Mixing Prince Paul - Producer, Mixing Soulshock - Remixing Dwayne Sumal - Engineer Rob Sutton - Mixing Ted Jensen - Mastering Mike Teelucksingh - Engineer Little Louie Vega - Producer, Mixing Dr. Shane Faber - Guitar (Bass), Engineer Dan Miller - Engineer, Mixing Bob Coulter - Engineer, Mixing Al Watts - Engineer, Mixing Steven Miglio - Artwork, Design, Layout Design Dante Ross - Production Coordination, Production Consultant Ultimatum - Remixing Dilly d'Mus - Assistant Engineer Louis Vego - Producer, Mixing Howard Zucker - Typography Jane Wexler - Photography Bart Everly - Photography Christopher Shaw - Engineer Dan Miller - Mixing Gawthaman Gobinath - Make-up Artist Dana Mozie - DMV Regional Record Promoter Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Charting singles See also Album era References External links All Hail the Queen (Adobe Flash) at Radio3Net (streamed copy where licensed) Queen Latifah albums 1989 debut albums Tommy Boy Records albums Albums produced by Prince Paul (producer) Albums produced by KRS-One Albums produced by the 45 King	[ 0.05805974826216698, 0.6727231740951538, 0.005038435570895672, -0.34993815422058105, -0.7267489433288574, 0.15557412803173065, 1.0168708562850952, -0.2507188022136688, -0.24227537214756012, -0.0641908347606659, 0.06663761287927628, 0.4883469343185425, -0.44960591197013855, -0.05088350549340248, 0.5661429762840271, -0.04304637387394905, 0.27945974469184875, 0.39023202657699585, -0.13421054184436798, -0.5784628987312317, 0.39809665083885193, -0.12050643563270569, 0.4245578944683075, -0.20261645317077637, 0.04691772535443306, 0.1374543011188507, -0.012404593639075756, 0.1635354459285736, -0.1718807965517044, -0.15104950964450836, 0.014806270599365234, -0.1071925237774849, 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213780	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native%20Tongues	Native Tongues	The Native Tongues were a collective of late 1980s and early 1990s hip-hop artists known for their positive-minded, good-natured Afrocentric lyrics, and for pioneering the use of eclectic sampling and later jazz-influenced beats. Its principal members were the Jungle Brothers, De La Soul, and A Tribe Called Quest. The collective was also closely tied to the Universal Zulu Nation. Rolling Stone cites the track "Doin' Our Own Dang" as "the definitive Native Tongues posse cut". Naming The Native Tongues took their name from a line in the song “African Cry,” by Motown-offshoot funk group New Birth, which features the lyric, “took away our native tongues." History The New York City-based Native Tongues crew was a collective of like-minded hip hop artists who would help bring abstract and open-minded lyricism that addressed a range of topics—from spirituality and modern living to race, sex, and just having fun—to the mainstream. Together with the use of eclectic samples that would take on an increasingly jazzy sound, they would be pioneers of so-called conscious hip hop, alternative hip hop, and jazz rap. De La Soul's Trugoy the Dove recalled: "The Native Tongues came about where, basically, we had a show together in Boston. [De La Soul], Jungle [Brothers] and we linked from there. We had a natural love for the art and a natural love for each other on how we put stuff together. So we invited [the Jungle Brothers] to a session, and when they hooked up with us, we happened to be doing "Buddy." It wasn't business; it wasn't for a check. It was just trading ideas and just seeing what you're doing. Bottom line, it was just having fun." According to Q-Tip of A Tribe Called Quest: "I remember Afrika [Baby Bam] called me that night, like, two in the morning. "Yo these kids, De La Soul, you gotta meet ’em! I swear we're just alike!" I went there, met them, and it was just fuckin' love at first sight. It was disgusting. In hip hop, it praises individualism. I think that's the main achievement of the Native Tongues. It just showed people could come together." Fostered by Kool DJ Red Alert, the success of the Jungle Brothers would pave the way for De La Soul and A Tribe Called Quest; together, these three groups would form the core of the crew and continue the spirit of Afrika Bambaataa and the Zulu Nation. By 1989 they had been joined by Queen Latifah and the United Kingdom's Monie Love, and soon by the Black Sheep & Chi-Ali. Collectively, the members of the Native Tongues had a huge effect on the style and trends of hip hop during its most important period, the golden age of the late 1980s–early 1990s. A Tribe Called Quest and De La Soul's albums of this time are considered among the best and most important in the hip hop genre. The song "Scenario" was the final track on A Tribe Called Quest's album The Low End Theory and featured the fledgling Leaders of the New School—Dinco D, Busta Rhymes, and Charlie Brown. While featuring an extensive discography, the collaborations of the Native Tongues have been fairly limited: the collective never recorded anything under that name, and the number of notable crew cuts can be counted on one hand. The various groups grew distant with time, and, by 1993, De La Soul's Trugoy the Dove proclaimed, "That native shit is dead." The collective would, however, reunite in 1996 for the Jungle Brothers’ "How Ya Want It We Got It (Native Tongues Remix)"; collaborators in this period, such as Common, The Roots, Truth Enola, DJ S.T.R.E.S.S., Da Bush Babees, and Mos Def, could be seen as latter-day additions to the crew. In 1998 on A Tribe Called Quest's album The Love Movement, the last track ("Rock Rock Ya'll") features Jane Doe, Mos Def, Punchline & Wordsworth. Q Tip states near the track's end that "this right here is a family". Legacy The Native Tongues are credited with expanding the hip-hop genre, inspiring and enabling the future success of artists such as Kanye West and Pharrell Williams. In 2019, the 9:30 Club in Washington, D.C. launched an annual Native Tongues Festival to celebrate the musical legacy of the Native Tongues. There are several collectives today—with overlapping membership—that can be seen as the spiritual heirs to the Native Tongues crew: the Spitkicker crew (founded by De La Soul's Trugoy and Posdnuos in 2000), the Okayplayers, and the Soulquarians. Chris Lighty was a member of the Native Tongues-affiliated street crew the Violators and began his career carrying records for Zulu Nation DJs, and later as the Jungle Brothers' roadie. Until his death in 2012 he ran the successful Violator Management company, which represented Busta Rhymes and Q-Tip, among other high-profile clients. Members Core members Jungle Brothers (Mike Gee, Sammy B, Afrika Baby Bam) A Tribe Called Quest (Q-Tip, Phife Dawg, Ali Shaheed Muhammad and Jarobi White) De La Soul (Posdnuos, Trugoy, and Maseo) Lucien Revolucien Monie Love Queen Latifah Black Sheep (Dres and Mista Lawnge) Chi-Ali Fu-Schnickens† (Chip Fu, Moc Fu and Poc Fu) Peripheral members The Beatnuts (Psycho Les, JuJu and Fashion) Brand Nubian (Grand Puba, Sadat X, Lord Jamar, DJ Alamo & DJ Sincere) Shorty No Mas† J Dilla (as a member of The Ummah with Q-Tip and Ali Shaheed Muhammad) Leaders of the New School (Busta Rhymes, Charlie Brown, Dinco D, Milo) Mos Def† Truth Enola† DJ S.T.R.E.S.S. Da Bush Babees (Lord Khaliyl, Lee Majors and Light) Common The Pharcyde†† (Imani, Bootie Brown, Slimkid3 and Fatlip) Vinia Mojica † According to De La Soul interview on MuchMusic's RapCity in 1996. †† According to Q-Tip interview the BBC Radio 1 special The Story Of Q-Tip. Collaborations Collaborations involving the original members, those that could be considered true Native Tongues crew cuts, are in bold. Note that this list is incomplete. 1988 "Black is Black" by Jungle Brothers feat. Q-Tip, from Straight out the Jungle "The Promo" by Jungle Brothers feat. Q-Tip, from Straight out the Jungle 1989 "Buddy" by De La Soul featuring Jungle Brothers and Q-Tip from A Tribe Called Quest, from 3 Feet High and Rising "Description" De La Soul featuring Q-Tip and Prince Paul, from 3 Feet High and Rising "Buddy (Native Tongues Decision)" by De La Soul featuring Jungle Brothers, A Tribe Called Quest, Monie Love, and Queen Latifah, from "Buddy" 12-inch single "The Mack Daddy on the Left" by De La Soul from "Say No Go" 12-inch single "Acknowledge Your Own History" by Jungle Brothers featuring Vinia Mojica, from Done by the Forces of Nature "Done by the Forces of Nature" by Jungle Brothers feat. Jungle DJ Towa Toha, from Done by the Forces of Nature "Doin' Our Own Dang" by Jungle Brothers feat. De La Soul, Queen Latifah, Q-Tip and Monie Love, from Done by the Forces of Nature "Mama Gave Birth to the Soul Children" by Queen Latifah featuring De La Soul, from All Hail the Queen "Ladies First" by Queen Latifah featuring Monie Love, from All Hail The Queen 1990 "Swiney Swiney" by Monie Love featuring De La Soul, from Down to Earth "Pubic Enemy" by A Tribe Called Quest feat. DJ Red Alert, from People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm "Luck of Lucien" by A Tribe Called Quest feat. Lucien Revolucien, from People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm 1991 "Verses From The Abstract" by A Tribe Called Quest featuring Vinia Mojica, from The Low End Theory "Scenario" by A Tribe Called Quest featuring Leaders of the New School, from The Low End Theory (The Original Version of Scenario featured De La Soul and Black Sheep as well as Leaders of the New School) "Show Business" by A Tribe Called Quest featuring Brand Nubian and Diamond D, from The Low End Theory "Come on Down" by Big Daddy Kane feat. Q-Tip and Busta Rhymes, from Prince of Darkness "La Menage" by Black Sheep featuring Q-Tip, from A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing "Pass The 40" by Black Sheep featuring Chi Ali, Jim Jones, Chris Lighty, and Dave Gossett, from A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing "A Roller Skating Jam Named "Saturdays"" by De La Soul featuring Q-Tip and Vinia Mojica, from De La Soul is Dead "Fanatic Of The B Word" by De La Soul featuring Dres and Mike G, from De La Soul is Dead "What Yo Life Can Truly Be" by De La Soul featuring A Tribe Called Quest (Including Jarobi) and Black Sheep, available on the "A Roller Skating Jam Named Saturdays" vinyl single. 1992 "Scenario (Remix)" by A Tribe Called Quest feat. Kid Hood and Leaders Of The New School, from "Scenario" 12" single "Let The Horns Blow" by Chi Ali feat. Dres, Dove, Fashion and Phife Dawg, from The Fabulous Chi-Ali "La Schmoove" by The Fu-Schnickens feat Phife Dawg, from "F.U. "Dont Take It Personal"" "Check It Out" by the Fu-Schnickens feat Dres, from "F.U. "Dont Take It Personal"" 1993 "Award Tour" by A Tribe Called Quest featuring Trugoy, from Midnight Marauders "Oh My God" by A Tribe Called Quest featuring Busta Rhymes, from Midnight Marauders "One-Two Shit" by A Tribe Called Quest featuring Busta Rhymes, from "Oh My God" 12-inch single "Roll wit tha Flava" by The Flavor Unit MCs feat. Treach, Chip-Fu, Freddie Foxxx, Queen Latifah, Heavy D, D-Nice, and Dres, from Roll Wit Tha Flavor "En Focus" by De La Soul featuring Shorty No Mass, and Dres, from Buhloone Mind State "I Am I Be" by De La Soul featuring Busta Rhymes, Chip Fu, Dres, Fred Wesley, Maceo Parker, Melvin Parker, Pee Wee Ellis, and Rodney Jones, from Buhloone Mind State 1994 "We Run Things(It's Like Dat)" da Bush Babees (Ali Shaheed Muhammad production) from Ambushed "Sh. Fe. MC's" by De La Soul featuring A Tribe Called Quest, from Clear Lake Auditorium EP 1996 "Ill Vibe" by Busta Rhymes featuring Q-Tip, from The Coming "3 MC's" by da Bush Babees featuring Q-Tip, from Gravity "S.O.S." by da Bush Babees featuring Mos Def, from Gravity "Love Song" by da Bush Babees featuring Mos Def (prod. by Posdnous), from Gravity "Big-Brother Beat" by De La Soul featuring Mos Def, from Stakes Is High "Pony Ride" by De La Soul featuring Truth Enola from Stakes Is High "Stakes is High (Remix)" De La Soul featuring Truth Enola and Mos Def, from "Itzsoweezee (HOT)" 12-inch single "Love Song remix" Bush Babees featuring De La Soul and Mos Def "Flashlight (Remix)" by George Clinton featuring Q-Tip, Busta Rhymes & Ol' Dirty Bastard, from Greatest Funkin' Hits "Out For The Cash (Remix)" by DJ Honda feat. Fat Joe, the Beatnuts, and Common "How Ya Want It We Got It (Native Tongues Remix)" by Jungle Brothers featuring Q-Tip and De La Soul, from Raw Deluxe 1997 "Wild Hot" by A Tribe Called Quest & Busta Rhymes, from Rhyme & Reason Soundtrack "Rumble in the Jungle" by The Fugees featuring John Forté, A Tribe Called Quest, and Busta Rhymes, from When We Were Kings Soundtrack "Fortified Live" by Reflection Eternal featuring Mos Def & Mr. Man Hear Iz... - a mixtape by DJ S.T.R.E.S.S. featuring Q-Tip, Sadat X, The Beatnuts, Wyclef Jean, and Prince Paul 1998 "Steppin' It Up" by A Tribe Called Quest featuring Busta Rhymes and Redman, from The Love Movement "Rock Rock, Y'all" by A Tribe Called Quest featuring Punch, Jane Doe, Words, and Mos Def, from The Love Movement "K.O.S. (Determination)" by Black Star featuring Vinia Mojica, from Mos Def & Talib Kweli are Black Star "Body Rock" by Mos Def, Tash & Q-Tip, from Lyricist Lounge, Volume One "Respiration" by Black Star featuring Common, from Mos Def & Talib Kweli are Black Star "Twice Inna Lifetime" by Black Star featuring Jane Doe, Wordsworth, and Punchline, from Mos Def & Talib Kweli are Black Star Intercommunal Compositions - a mixtape by DJ S.T.R.E.S.S. featuring Mos Def, A Tribe Called Quest, Consequence, Talib Kweli, and The Roots 1999 "Do it Now" by Mos Def featuring Busta Rhymes, produced by Mr Khaliyl(Mr. Man) from Black On Both Sides "Know That" by Mos Def featuring Talib Kweli, from Black On Both Sides "Climb" by Mos Def featuring Vinia Mojica, from Black On Both Sides "Mr. Nigga" by Mos Def featuring Q-Tip, from Black On Both Sides "Got" by Mos Def produced by Ali Shaheed Muhammad, from Black On Both Sides "The Truth" by Pharoahe Monch featuring Common and Talib Kweli, from Internal Affairs "It's Going Down" by Dres featuring Chi-Ali and Droop Dog, from Sure Shot Redemption "Bang" by Maseo featuring Truth Enola, DCQ, Mike G (of the Jungle Brothers) and Indeed, "Tinseltown to Boogiedown" by Scritt-Polliti featuring Lee Majors(of da Bush Babees) and Mos Def "Slam Pit" by the Beatnuts featuring Common and Cuban Link, from A Musical Massacre "Vivrant Thang (Remix)" by Q-Tip featuring Busta Rhymes & Missy Elliott "N.T." by Q-Tip featuring Busta Rhymes, from Amplified "Voicetress" by Truth Enola featuring De La Soul from Blind Side Recordings presents Wide Angels 2000 "Set the Mood" - De La Soul featuring Indeed, produced by Mr. Khaliyl(of Bush Babees) from Art Official Intelligence: Mosaic Thump "I.C. Y'All" by De La Soul featuring Busta Rhymes, from Art Official Intelligence: Mosaic Thump "What's That? (¿Que Eso?)" by Tony Touch featuring Mos Def and De La Soul, from The Piece Maker "The Questions" by Common featuring Mos Def & Monie Love, from Like Water for Chocolate "One for Love Part 1" by Mos Def, Talib Kweli, Posdnuos, Pharoahe Monch, Kool G Rap, Rah Digga, Sporty Thievz, and Shabaam Sahdeeq, from Hip-Hop for Respect 2001 "Take That" by Da Beatminerz featuring Flipmode Squad & Vinia Mojica, from Brace 4 Impak "Wages of Sin"-Mr. Khaliyl featuring Talib Kweli 2002 "Get By (Remix)" by Talib Kweli featuring Mos Def, Busta Rhymes, Jay-Z, and Kanye West "Stand To The Side" by Talib Kweli featuring Vinia Mojica & Res, from Quality 2003 "Let's Get Loud" by Steven Tyler, Busta Rhymes, Phife Dawg, MC Lyte, and Chuck D, from the 2003 ESPY Awards 2004 "Get 'Em High" by Kanye West featuring Talib Kweli and Common from The College Dropout. "She Wants to Move (Native Tongues Remix)" by NER*D feat. Common, Mos Def, De La Soul, and Q-Tip, from "She Wants To Move Remixes" 12-inch single "Days of Our Lives" by De La Soul featuring Common, from The Grind Date "Lord Can I Have This Mercy" - (featuring Chip-Fu) from Ali Shaheed Muhammad's [i]Shaheedulah & Stereotypes[/i] 2005 "Like That" by The Black Eyed Peas featuring Cee-Lo Green, Talib Kweli, Q-Tip, and John Legend, from Monkey Business "We Can Make it Better" by Kanye West featuring Rhymefest, Q-Tip, Common, and Talib Kweli 2006 "Get You Some" by Busta Rhymes featuring Q-Tip and Marsha Ambrosius, from The Big Bang "You Can't Hold A Torch" by Busta Rhymes featuring Q-Tip and Chauncey Black, from The Big Bang 2007 "Where Are They Now? (Remix)" by Nas featuring Mike G, Dres, Das EFX, Positive K, EST, DoItAll, Chip Fu, Monie Love, Father MC, Spinderella, Rob Base, and Redhead Kingpin 2010 "Birds of a Feather" by Black Sheep featuring Q-Tip from A Tribe Called Quest, Trugoy the Dove of De La Soul, and Mike Gee of the Jungle Brothers. From Black Sheep album "From the Black Pool of Genius" due June 29, 2010. "Scheming" by Slum Village ft. J Dilla, Posdnuos of De La Soul, and Phife Dawg from Villa Manifesto 2011 "P.T.I. (Occupy Wall Street)" by evitaN (Dres of Black Sheep and Jarobi of A Tribe Called Quest) References Further reading "They Made Magic" at Tangents.co.uk "Consequence Q & A at HipHopDX, June 30th 2010" at HipHopDX.com External links Hip hop collectives East Coast hip hop groups	[ 0.3853204548358917, 0.35859161615371704, -0.8237886428833008, -0.07818435877561569, -0.27157774567604065, 0.458070307970047, 0.4387716054916382, 0.16051238775253296, -0.04057380557060242, -0.08978526294231415, 0.07043605297803879, 0.3622623383998871, -0.07135789096355438, 0.02113190107047558, -0.1096169501543045, 0.18382230401039124, 0.007255095988512039, -0.16192133724689484, 0.12359195947647095, 0.4468693733215332, -0.3078516125679016, 0.21235759556293488, 0.44821617007255554, 0.26320257782936096, 0.4779185652732849, 0.30309462547302246, -0.011614557355642319, -0.07552976161241531, -0.4415421485900879, -0.14479584991931915, 0.49871039390563965, 0.7712231874465942, 0.3431672751903534, -0.4852270483970642, 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213782	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin%20Group	Virgin Group	Virgin Group Ltd. is a British multinational venture capital conglomerate founded by Richard Branson and Nik Powell in February 1970. Virgin Group's date of incorporation is listed as 1989 by Companies House, who class it as a holding company; however Virgin's business and trading activities date back to the 1970s. The net worth of Virgin Group was estimated at £5–5.5 billion as of November 2014. History The name "Virgin" arose in 1970 when Richard Branson and Nik Powell formed a record shop, first as mail order and in 1971 with a physical store. They considered themselves virgins in business. Branson has described the "V" in the logo as an expressive tick, representing the Virgin seal of approval. The original logo from 1973 was a completely different design intended to be used for the record company that was founded by Richard Branson and Nik Powell. The logo was designed by British science-fiction artist and designer Roger Dean. According to Richard Branson in interviews and on the Virgin website, the more recent signature logo, introduced in 1978, was based on one that a designer scribbled on a napkin after a design meeting. Corporate affairs Virgin Group has its headquarters at The Battleship Building in the Paddington district of the City of Westminster. Previously it was in The School House, Brook Green, in the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham. The Virgin Group of companies have a complex structure that contains elements of a generic conglomerate and a keiretsu, and sometimes it simply licences its brand. Examples of licensing are Virgin Records and Virgin Media, which are owned by Universal Music Group and Liberty Global respectively. In mid-May 2013, the Virgin Group expressed its intention to seek out opportunities in Australia's healthcare industry to consolidate on the Group's Australian fitness centres. The Group also runs over 100 National Health Service (NHS) services in the United Kingdom and the healthcare division of medical services group Assura after entering the British healthcare industry in 2011. Virgin Group announced the establishment of Virgin Voyages on 4 December 2014 with financial backing from Bain Capital. The cruise line would be led by CEO Tom McAlpin, would have two new large ships built and be based in the Miami/Fort Lauderdale area. Virgin StartUp Virgin StartUp is the Virgin Group's non-profit company, helping entrepreneurs across the UK to start, fund and scale their business. In 2013, Sir Richard visited Boxpark in Shoreditch, London, to launch the new organisation, revealing that he wanted to support anyone that had the same dreams and ambitions that he did as a young boy: “It was £300 from my mum that sparked the Virgin adventure 40 years ago. Today, young people need that same help and I believe Virgin StartUp will provide it – with access to early capital, strong mentorship, advice and promotion.” The organisation became a delivery partner for the UK Government's Start Up Loans Company, providing loan finance of between £500 and £25,000, advice, and mentoring to thousands of start-ups across the country. In 2016, it was awarded European Regional Development Funding and subsequently launched Ready, Steady, Grow with Virgin StartUp, a programme of support aimed at start-ups that were ready to grow. A year later, it launched the UK's first equity-based crowdfunding accelerator programme, Crowdboost. By 2018, the organisation had supported over 11,000 UK-based entrepreneurs, with over £35m in pre-seed funding. Foodpreneur In 2014, Branson and Virgin StartUp launched the "Foodpreneur" food and drink focused start-up competition. Winners received mentorship from Branson, legal support, and brand counseling. The 2014 winners included Proper Beans, Killer Tomato, Sweetpea Pantry, and Sweet Virtues. In 2015, winners were given the opportunity to pitch Target Corporation buyers in the US. The 2015 winners included Pip & Nut, Double Dutch Drinks, Harry Bromptons, Cauli Rice, and Mallow and Marsh. Only one start-up was announced winner of the 2017 Foodpreneur prize, The Snaffling Pig Co., who won a six-week rental space at Intu Lakeside, the retail center with the highest foot traffic in the U.K. Senior leadership Chairman: Peter Norris (since 2009) Chief Executive: Josh Bayliss (since 2014) List of former chairmen Sir Richard Branson (1970–2009) List of former chief executives Sir Richard Branson (1970–2005) Stephen Murphy (2005–2011) David Baxby and Josh Bayliss (2011–2014) Subsidiaries and investments Formerly owned ventures Absolute Radio: formerly Virgin Radio UK, rebranded in 2008 Air Nigeria: Nigerian national airline launched as Virgin Nigeria, shares sold in 2010 Connect Airways (Flybe): 30% stake held through Virgin Atlantic. Entered administration in March 2020. Virgin Airship and Balloon Company: Operating hot air balloons and airships for advertisers Liquid Comics: comic book producer formerly known as Virgin Comics—sold to management in 2008 Vie at Home: cosmetics retailer formerly known as Virgin Vie, sold to management in 2009 Virgin America: North American airline, sold to Alaska Air Group on 14 Dec 2016 Virgin Brides: retailer specialising in bridal wear Virgin Care sold to Twenty20 Capital and rebranded as HCRG Care Group on 1 December 2021 Virgin Cars: online car retailer, ceased trading in 2005 Virgin Charter: online marketplace of private aircraft seat bookings Virgin Cinemas: sold to UGC in 1999 Virgin Digital Help: technical support Virgin Drinks: drink manufacturer Virgin Cola: carbonated cola soft drink Virgin Vodka: alcoholic beverage v-Mix: spirit mixers Virgin Electronics: electronics retailer Virgin Energy: joint venture energy provider, sold to EDF Energy Virgin Express: airline based in Brussels, merged with SN Brussels Airlines in 2006 to form Brussels Airlines V Festival: British music festival sponsored by the Virgin Group V Festival: an Australian version of the V Festival Virgin Festival: a North American version of the V Festival Virgin Films: film production company Virgin Games: sold to Gamesys in 2013 Virgin Green Fund: shut down in 2014 Virgin Health Bank: sold to Qatar Foundation Virgin Interactive: Game Developer and publisher, bought by various companies, and renamed Avalon Interactive in 2003 Virgin Limousines: a former limousine service that operated mostly in the US and Canada. It operated for 14 years, until November 2010. Virgin Media (including Virgin Mobile UK): UK Cable TV, broadband internet and Fixed and Mobile telephony provider—bought by Liberty Global Virgin Mobile Australia: mobile phone service provider in Australia—shares sold to Optus in 2006 Virgin Mobile France: mobile phone service provider in France—shares sold to Numericable-SFR in 2014 Virgin Mobile India: mobile phone service provider in India—shares sold to Tata Teleservices in 2015 Virgin Mobile USA: mobile phone service provider in the USA—shares sold to Sprint Corporation in 2009, brand is still used under license Virgin Money Australia: sold to Bank of Queensland Virgin Money US: sold in 2010 Virgin Nigeria: national flag carrier of Nigeria. ceased operations in 2012 Virgin One account: shareholding sold to co-owner (RBS) in 2003 Virgin Sun Airlines: scheduled and charter airline, closed in 2001 Virgin Play: Spanish game distributor and publisher, filed for liquidation and closed in 2009 Virgin Plus: (formerly Virgin Mobile Canada) mobile phone service provider in Canada—shares sold to joint venture partner Bell Mobility in 2009 Virgin Snow, 1986 joint venture with Bladon Lines Ski Vacations Virgin Trains ExpressCoach: former operator of inter-city bus & coach services Virgin CrossCountry: former operator of the Cross Country railway franchise in the United Kingdom, services transferred to Arriva in 2007 (51%) Virgin EMI Records: soundtrack label—owned by Universal Music Group Virgin Records: American music soundtrack label Virgin Racing: Formula One motor racing team Virginware: clothing retailer Virgin Wines: online wine market, sold to Direct Wines in 2005 Virgin Trains: train operating company for the West Coast Mainline. Renewed franchise bid rejected and replaced by Avanti West Coast in December 2019. Virgin Trains East Coast: train operating company changed ownership and rebranded as London North Eastern Railway in June 2018. Virgin Trains USA: train operating company between Miami and West Palm Beach, Florida. Branding deal launched in late 2018, ended in 2020. Virgin Video (aka Virgin Vision): home video distributor, sold to Management Company Entertainment Group in 1989. Controversies The parent company, Virgin Group Holdings Ltd, is registered in the British Virgin Islands. Richard Branson and his family hold a £2.7 billion stake in this offshore, tax-free, tax haven company. The group's health business received significant media coverage over its legal battle with NHS groups. It sued clinical commissioning groups (CCGs) in Surrey after it lost out on an £82 million contract to provide children's health services across the country. The NHS bodies settled out of court with a £328,000 payout to Virgin Care, resulting in some controversy. More than 100,000 people backed a petition calling on the company to stop "dragging the NHS through the courts". In 2019, it was discovered that cell phones being sold by Virgin subsidiary company Assurance Wireless came with unremovable Chinese malware preinstalled. 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213783	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal%20Zulu%20Nation	Universal Zulu Nation	The Universal Zulu Nation is an international hip hop awareness group formed by and formerly led by hip hop artist Afrika Bambaataa. The Universal Zulu Nation promotes the idea that hip-hop was created to sustain the ideals of “peace, love, unity and having fun” for all pigment colours, races, religions, nations, and civilizations. History Originally known simply as the Organization, it arose in the 1970s from the reformed New York City gang the Black Spades, a street gang from the South Bronx. While the Black Spades were the base of the organization, other reformed gangs contributed additional members, notably the Savage Nomads, Seven Immortals, and Savage Skulls, among others. Members began to organize cultural events for youths, combining local dance and music movements into what would become known as the various elements of hip hop culture. Elements of the culture include Emceeing (MCing), Deejaying (DJing), breaking, and writing. In many interviews, Afrika Bambaataa has spoken of the name "Zulu" as being inspired by the 1964 film of the same name. The imagery of the Zulu Nation has varied at times as well. During the 1970s, and 1980s, Afrika Bambaataa and the Zulu Nation members would often clothe themselves in costumes representing different cultures of the world and different factions of the Nation throughout the world may utilize different cultural symbols and themes to express basic Zulu philosophy. Since the early 1980s, the Zulu Nation has since established (autonomous) branches in Japan, France, the UK, Australia, Canada, South Korea and the Cape Flats in Cape Town South Africa. From the late 1980s, at the height of the Afrocentric movement in hip-hop (when artists such as KRS-One, Public Enemy, A Tribe Called Quest, Native Tongues, and Rakim hit success), the movement seemed to be incorporating many doctrines from the Nation of Islam, the Nation of Gods and Earths, and the Nuwaubians. In the mid 1990s some members began to break off starting their own projects or organizations such as Ill Crew Universal. Afrika Bambaataa stood down as head of the Zulu Nation in May 2016 after allegations of sexually abusing several young men and children in the organization. Ronald Savage was the first of several men to publicly accuse Bambaataa. In 2017, hundreds of Zulus resigned due distrust of the Zulu Nation and founded their own organization, the Zulu Union. Zulu Nation in France The Zulu movement was introduced to France in 1982 by Afrika Bambaataa when the New York City Rap Tour performed in several cities (Paris, Lyon, Metz, Belfort, Mulhouse) with artists PHASE 2, Futura 2000, Dondi, Grandmaster D.ST, the Rock Steady Crew, Rammellzee, the double dutch group Buffalo Girls. The Zulu Nation was centered in suburban Paris since most immigrants lived beyond the city limits. Since 1987, the Zulu Nation's ties to the French hip hop community have waned. Since Afrika Bambaataa's tour of France in 2008 and a Zulu Nation reunion in Paris, new movements of the Universal Zulu Nation have emerged in different cities in France. According to Veronique Henelon, "French rap specifically has been a multi-dimensional expression of ties with Africa." The first hip-hop television show reportedly appeared in France. It was called 'H.I.P. H.O.P.' and was aired by the TF1 channel in 1984. Notable members and affiliates DJ Kool Herc Q-Tip Joeystarr Fab Five Freddy Ryuichi Sakamoto Kurtis Blow Spoonie Gee Rakaa Lord Jamar Kool Moe Dee Ice-T Ice Cube Immortal Technique Big Boi Ad-Rock Freddie Gibbs 9th Wonder Lovebug Starski (deceased) Jam Master Jay (deceased ) Phife Dawg (deceased) Lil Wayne Zulu King Flowrex DJ Fuze (UK) Donnie’s Dad MC Spice Soul Messiah Bronx Style Bob In popular culture In 2004, the thirteenth episode of the second season of Chappelle's Show had the comedian Dave Chappelle do a sketch on an African-American George W. Bush, called Black Bush, where the character said that his coalition of the willing included Afrika Bambataa and the Zulu Nation. The Universal Zulu Nation is featured at length in the 2016 Netflix series The Get Down. In the series, Afrika Bambaataa is played by Nigerian-American actor Okieriete Onaodowan. References External links Universal Zulu Nation Holland Universal Zulu Nation Australia Universal Zulu Nation Malta "Zulu Nation: From Gang To Glory", by Davey D History of hip hop Musical subcultures American hip hop groups Social movements in the United States Hip hop activists Art movements	[ 0.3708697557449341, -0.19775837659835815, -0.302805095911026, -0.39469975233078003, -0.3584156036376953, 0.317677766084671, 0.547732412815094, -0.006481545977294445, -0.9160184264183044, 0.050087351351976395, -0.03480273485183716, 0.12558984756469727, -0.8124333620071411, 0.479021281003952, 0.08541008830070496, 0.3461385667324066, -0.2718692421913147, 0.14631874859333038, -0.28251075744628906, -0.026561547070741653, -0.055993176996707916, 0.30038484930992126, 0.3266218900680542, -0.08754710108041763, -0.1817099004983902, -0.033246204257011414, 0.6755746006965637, 0.1957090198993683, 0.2570186257362366, 0.08683419972658157, 0.773137092590332, 0.2617216110229492, 0.35164177417755127, 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213786	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay%20Garner	Jay Garner	Jay Montgomery Garner (born April 15, 1938) is a retired United States Army lieutenant general who in 2003 was appointed as Director of the Office for Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance for Iraq following the 2003 invasion of Iraq but was soon replaced by Ambassador Paul Bremer and the ambassador's successor organization to ORHA, the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA). Early life and education Born in Arcadia, Florida, Garner served an enlistment in the United States Marine Corps before attending the Florida State University, where he received a Bachelor of Arts degree in History in 1962. He also holds a master's in public administration from Shippensburg State University. Military career Commissioned as an army second lieutenant in 1962, Garner served two tours in Vietnam, and later led two air defense units in Germany. He also served as deputy commanding general at Fort Bliss, Texas. Garner helped to develop the Patriot missile system and commanded missile batteries during the Gulf War. After the war he was put in charge of securing Kurdish areas in Iraq. He was later named commander of the United States Army Space and Strategic Defense Command (working primarily on President Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative missile shield program), and concluded his army career as Assistant Vice Chief of Staff, retiring in 1997 at the rank of lieutenant general. After leaving the army, Garner became president of SYColeman, a defense contractor which designs missile communications and targeting systems used in the Patriot and Arrow missile systems. (He has been on unpaid leave from the company since January 2003). Garner served on a presidential panel, chaired by Donald Rumsfeld, which specializes in space and missile threats. He has also worked closely with the Israel Defense Forces. Involvement in the Iraq War In 2003 Garner was selected to lead the post-war reconstruction efforts in Iraq, along with three deputies, including British Major-General Tim Cross. Garner was regarded as a natural choice by the Bush administration given his earlier similar role in the north. General Garner was to develop and implement plans to assist the Iraqis in developing governance and reconstructing the country once Saddam Hussein was deposed. Following the defeat of the Saddam Hussein regime in Baghdad, there was widespread looting, rampaging, and general chaos throughout Iraq. Some of the most important monuments, such as the national museum, were under attack. Furthermore, the infrastructure of the country was in ruins, ministries were broken into, and government records were destroyed. The situation in Iraq became chaotic and anarchic. The only ministry which was protected by the occupying forces was the oil ministry. In addition, many exiled leaders from Iran and some from the West returned to Iraq. The Bush Administration selected Lieutenant General Jay Garner to lead the Coalition Provisional Authority (an intermediary government) in an attempt to rid Iraq of the chaos and anarchy that consumed the area. Garner's plan was to choose government officials from the former Iraqi regime to help lead the country. Garner began reconstruction efforts in March 2003 with plans aiming for Iraqis to hold elections within 90 days and for the U.S. to quickly pull troops out of the cities to a desert base. Talabani, a member of Jay Garner's staff in Kuwait before the war, was consulted on several occasions to help the U.S. select a liberal Iraqi government; this would be the first liberal government to exist in Iraq. In an interview with Time magazine, Garner stated that "as in any totalitarian regime, there were many people who needed to join the Baath Party in order to get ahead in their careers. We don't have a problem with most of them. But we do have a problem with those who were part of the thug mechanism under Saddam. Once the U.S. identifies those in the second group, we will get rid of them." On April 15, 2003, General Garner called a conference in the city of Nasiriyah, where Garner, along with 100 Iraqis, discussed the future of Iraq. Garner called a follow-up meeting on April 28, 2003. 250 Iraqis attended this meeting, and five of these Iraqis were selected by Garner's administration as the core leaders of the new Iraqi government: Masood Barzani was appointed as head of the Kurdistan Democratic Party, Jalal Talbani as head of the rival Patriotic Union of Kurdistan, Abdul Aziz Al Hakim was appointed as the leader of the Supreme Assembly for Islamic Revolution in Iraq, Ahmad Chalabi was chosen to represent the Iraqi National Congress and Iyad Allawi was appointed as the leader of the Iraqi National Accord. Garner's selection caused quite a stir amongst many Iraqis. Although many Iraqis were open to the change that Garner and the U.S. were bringing to Iraq, others were resentful. Iraqis with a Shi'a background felt underrepresented in Garner's selection for government. Three of the five officials appointed as key members in Iraq's new government were of Sunni background, one official was from a mixed Sunni–Shi'a background, and only one of the officials was of pure Shi'a background. The Shi'a felt left out and underrepresented, considering they comprise over 60% of the Iraqi population. Therefore, this caused a great deal of controversy. Furthermore, many Iraqis felt this new government was not selected in a democratic manner as the U.S. had promised. Once the leaders were selected, a plan to hold elections in Iraq, where members would be selected, began on May 6, 2003 and ended on November 14, 2003, when the plan was abandoned. General Garner would be replaced by a new American Ambassador to Iraq, Paul Bremer, who took his role as head of the Coalition Provisional Authority. Following Garner's dismissal, it was planned that an Iraq government would take power in June 2004. Iyad Allawi was designated to lead the Iraqi interim authority. Allawi was a former Baathist of Shi'a origin. Allawi had many credentials, including previous work experience with the CIA. When Garner was replaced in his role by Paul Bremer on May 11, 2003, there was quite a bit of speculation as to why he was replaced so abruptly. It has been suggested that Garner was moved aside because he did not agree with the White House about who should decide how to reconstruct Iraq. He wanted early elections—90 days after the fall of Baghdad—and the new government to decide how to run the country and what to do with its assets. Garner said "I don't think [Iraqis] need to go by the U.S. plan, I think that what we need to do is set an Iraqi government that represents the freely elected will of the people. It's their country ... their oil." Some experts faulted Garner for prioritizing elections over improving and privatizing the Iraqi economy. Garner was interviewed in No End in Sight, a 2007 documentary movie very critical of the handling of the Iraq occupation. References External links General reverses his role San Francisco Chronicle, February 26, 2003. SYColeman company page PBS Frontline C-SPAN Q&A interview with Garner, December 10, 2006 1938 births Living people United States Army personnel of the Gulf War United States Army personnel of the Vietnam War Coalition Provisional Authority Florida Republicans People from Arcadia, Florida People from Windermere, Florida United States Army generals United States Marines Florida State University alumni Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania alumni	[ -0.2289830595254898, 0.7319732904434204, -0.22716860473155975, -0.34080770611763, 0.10412401705980301, 0.26587072014808655, 0.14316849410533905, 0.051026247441768646, -0.5376827716827393, 0.13940705358982086, -0.7039157152175903, 0.2894544005393982, -0.02056487835943699, 0.2566356956958771, 0.09202279895544052, 0.2651827335357666, 0.35079827904701233, 0.14310511946678162, -0.384864866733551, -0.1442248821258545, -0.08875595778226852, -0.5526618957519531, -0.2774595618247986, 0.17226478457450867, 0.3013520836830139, 0.6779991388320923, 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213788	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral%20subluxation	Vertebral subluxation	In chiropractic, a vertebral subluxation means pressure on nerves, abnormal functions creating a lesion in some portion of the body, either in its action or makeup (defined by D.D. Palmer and B.J. Palmer, founders of chiropractic). Subluxations are not necessarily visible on X-rays. Straight chiropractors continue to follow Palmer's tradition, claiming that vertebral subluxation has considerable health effects and also adding a visceral component to the definition. Mainstream medicine and some mixer chiropractors consider these ideas to be pseudoscientific and dispute these claims, as there is no scientific evidence for the existence of chiropractic subluxations or proof they or their treatment have any effects on health. The use of the word vertebral subluxation should not be confused with the term's precise usage in medicine, which considers only the anatomical relationships." According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a chiropractic subluxation is a "dysfunction in a joint or motion segment in which alignment, movement integrity and/or physiological function are altered, although contact between joint surfaces remains intact". Chiropractic subluxation should not be confused with medical condition subluxation, which is a "significant structural displacement" visible on static imaging studies such as X-rays. Chiropractic is a field of alternative treatment outside scientific mainstream medicine, whose practitioners (chiropractors) are not medical doctors. History In 1910, D.D. Palmer, the founder of chiropractic, wrote: "Nerves carry impulses outward and sensations inward. The activity of these nerves, or rather their fibers, may become excited or allayed by impingement, the result being a modification of functionating — too much or not enough action — which is dis-ease." In 1909, D.D. Palmer's son, B.J. Palmer, incorrectly claimed that chiropractic subluxation caused contagious diseases, writing: "Chiropractors have found in every disease that is supposed to be contagious, a cause in the spine. In the spinal column we will find a subluxation that corresponds to every type of disease. If we had one hundred cases of small-pox, I can prove to you where, in one, you will find a subluxation and you will find the same conditions in the other ninety-nine. I adjust one and return his functions to normal... . There is no contagious disease... . There is no infection... . There is a cause internal to man that makes of his body in a certain spot, more or less a breeding ground [for microbes]. It is a place where they can multiply, propagate, and then because they become so many they are classed as a cause." Clinical practice Definitions Chiropractors use and have used various terms to express this concept: subluxation, vertebral subluxation (VS), vertebral subluxation complex (VSC), "killer subluxations," and the "silent killer." Chiropractors along with some physical therapists and osteopathic physicians, have also used another term, BOOP, meaning "bone out of place." The WHO definition of the chiropractic vertebral subluxation is: "A lesion or dysfunction in a joint or motion segment in which alignment, movement integrity and/or physiological function are altered, although contact between joint surfaces remains intact. It is essentially a functional entity, which may influence biomechanical and neural integrity." The purported displacement is not necessarily visible on static imaging studies, such as X-rays. This is in contrast to the medical definition of spinal subluxation which, according to the WHO, is a "significant structural displacement", and therefore visible on X-rays. As of 2014, the National Board of Chiropractic Examiners states: "The specific focus of chiropractic practice is known as the chiropractic subluxation or joint dysfunction. A subluxation is a health concern that manifests in the skeletal joints, and, through complex anatomical and physiological relationships, affects the nervous system and may lead to reduced function, disability or illness." In 1996 an official consensus definition of subluxation was formed. Cooperstein and Gleberzon have described the situation: "... although many in the chiropractic profession reject the concept of "subluxation" and shun the use of this term as a diagnosis, the presidents of at least a dozen chiropractic colleges of the Association of Chiropractic Colleges (ACC) developed a consensus definition of "subluxation" in 1996. It reads: "Chiropractic is concerned with the preservation and restoration of health, and focuses particular attention on the subluxation. A subluxation is a complex of functional and/or structural and/or pathological articular changes that compromise neural integrity and may influence organ system function and general health. A subluxation is evaluated, diagnosed, and managed through the use of chiropractic procedures based on the best available rational and empirical evidence." In 2001 the World Federation of Chiropractic, representing the national chiropractic associations in 77 countries, adopted this consensus statement which reaffirms belief in the vertebral subluxation. The ACC paradigm has been criticized by chiropractic authors: "All in all, the ambiguities that permeate the ACC's statements on subluxation render it inadequate as a guide to clinical research... Whether the ACC's subluxation claims have succeeded as a political statement is beyond our concern here. These assertions were published as a priori truths (what many chiropractors have traditionally referred to as "principle"), and are exemplary of scientifically unjustified assertions made in many corners of the profession. It matters not whether unsubstantiated assertions are offered for clinical, political, scientific, educational, marketing or other purposes; when offered without acknowledgment of their tentative character, they amount to dogmatism. We contend that attempts to foster unity (among the schools or in the wider profession) at the expense of scientific integrity is ultimately self-defeating. To be sure, the profession's lack of cultural authority is based in part upon our characteristic disunity. However, attempts to generate unity by adoption of a common dogma can only bring scorn and continued alienation from the wider health care community and the public we all serve." In May 2010 the General Chiropractic Council, the statutory regulatory body for chiropractors in the United Kingdom, issued guidance for chiropractors stating that the chiropractic vertebral subluxation complex "is an historical concept" and "is not supported by any clinical research evidence that would allow claims to be made that it is the cause of disease or health concerns." The chiropractic vertebral subluxation complex has been a source of controversy since its inception in 1895 due to the lack of empirical evidence for its existence, its metaphysical origins, and claims of its far reaching effects on health and disease. Although some chiropractic associations and colleges support the concept of subluxation, many in the chiropractic profession reject it and shun the use of this term as a diagnosis. In the United States and in Canada the term nonallopathic lesion may be used in place of subluxation. Other chiropractors consider subluxation as more of an abstract concept rather than a medical condition. Tedd Koren says, International Classification of Diseases coding The differences between a medical subluxation and a chiropractic "vertebral subluxation" create confusion and difficulties when it comes to following official ICD-9 and ICD-10 coding. In a 2014 article in Dynamic Chiropractic by a chiropractor who is a certified professional coder, these difficulties were discussed in detail. He noted that the WHO recognizes the differences between the two types of "subluxations", and also pointed out certain difficulties for chiropractors: "...the official definition of 739 codes is "nonallopathic lesions, not elsewhere classified.... In other words, 739 is a code that does not describe a subluxation. It does not even say what the patient has; it says that there is no code to describe what the patient has.... [T]he elusive "vertebral subluxation complex" I learned about in school has no place in the ICD-9 code set. All we get is 739, which is a code for conditions that do not have a code." "ICD-9 has never provided a code that truly describes this and differentiates between the chiropractic subluxation and the allopathic subluxation. Chiropractors have been compelled to try to fit a square peg into a round hole for many years." At the time of writing (August 2014) it was still uncertain which codes in the newer ICD-10 would be useful for chiropractors and how they would be interpreted. Components Traditionally there have been 5 components that form the chiropractic subluxation. Spinal Kinesiopathology Neuropathophysiology/Neuropathology Myopathology Histopathology Biochemical changes Diagnosis Historically, the detection of spinal misalignment (subluxations) by the chiropractic profession has relied on X-ray findings and physical examination. At least two of the following four physical signs and/or symptoms must be documented to qualify for reimbursement : Pain and tenderness Asymmetry/misalignment Range of motion abnormality Tissue/tone changes Rationale It has been proposed that a vertebral subluxation can negatively affect general health by altering the neurological communication between the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nervous system. Although individuals may not always be symptomatic, straight chiropractors believe that the presence of vertebral subluxation is in itself justification for correction via spinal adjustment. V. Strang, D.C., describes several hypotheses on how a misaligned vertebra may cause interference to the nervous system in his book, Essential Principles of Chiropractic: Nerve compression hypothesis: suggests that when the vertebrae are out of alignment, the nerve roots and/or spinal cord can become pinched or irritated. While the most commonly referenced hypothesis, and easiest for a patient to understand, it may be the least likely to occur. Proprioceptive insult hypothesis: focuses on articular alterations causing hyperactivity of the sensory nerve fibers. Somatosympathetic reflex hypothesis: all the visceral organ functions can be reflexly affected by cutaneous or muscular stimulation. Somatosomatic reflex hypothesis: afferent impulses from one part of the body can result in reflex activity in other parts of the body. Viscerosomatic reflex hypothesis: visceral afferent fibers cause reflex somatic problems. Somatopsychic hypothesis: the effects of a subluxation on the ascending paths of the reticular activating system. Neurodystrophic hypothesis: focuses on lowered tissue resistance that results from abnormal innervation. Dentate ligament-cord distortion hypothesis: upper cervical misalignment can cause the dentate ligaments to put a stress on the spinal cord. Psychogenic hypothesis: emotions, such as stress, causing contraction in skeletal muscles. The vertebral subluxation has been described as a syndrome with signs and symptoms which include: altered alignment; aberrant motion; palpable soft tissue changes; localized/referred pain; muscle contraction or imbalance; altered physiological function; reversible with adjustment/manipulation; focal tenderness. Procedure Chiropractic treatment of vertebral subluxation focuses on delivering a chiropractic adjustment which is a high velocity low amplitude (HVLA) thrust to the dysfunctional spinal segments to help correct the chiropractic subluxation complex. Spinal adjustment is the primary procedure used by chiropractors in the adjustment. Disagreement amongst practitioners The chiropractic subluxation is the heart of the split between "straight" and "mixer" chiropractors. Straight chiropractors continue to follow Palmer's vitalistic tradition, claiming that subluxation has considerable health effects and also adding a visceral component to the definition, while mixers, as exemplified by the United Kingdom's General Chiropractic Council, consider it a historical concept with no evidence identifying it as the cause of disease. Some chiropractors have described the disagreements within the profession about the concept, and have written skeptically about BOOP as an antiquated idea. In 1992 one wrote: "The main problem we often run into is the bone out of place (BOOP) concept. It seems we somehow step on toes when we describe the spine as a functioning entity instead of a stack of bones that can be shifted back and forth into the ideal configuration. The BOOP concept will eventually fade, and we are grateful for its contribution to chiropractic. For many decades, it offered a model to work from. This model has been updated by the rest of the healing profession, but chiropractors have been hesitant to let this antiquated model go. Some within our profession hold onto this model with a religious fervor. The chiropractic profession has moved into a new age. The BOOP concept has been updated and science is ever upon us in the 90s. Let's start asking questions again and drive the chiropractic profession kicking and screaming into the 21st century." One wrote in 1994 about the "brutal civil war": "According to various gossip columnists in chiropractic, our profession appears to be currently enmeshed in a brutal civil war between BOOP (bone-out-of-place) practitioners and low back pain practitioners. It should be known that the BOOPers incorrectly call themselves subluxation-based practitioners. My experience has demonstrated that the BOOPers do not know enough about subluxation to call themselves subluxation-based chiropractors. We would all do well to not be subluxation-based in the BOOP sense. It should also be known that this so-called war is really an over-dramatized skirmish between vocal BOOPers and a theoretical group of anti-chiropractic DCs. I have yet to meet any of these anti-chiropractic DCs. Unfortunately, the BOOPers seem to think that those who do not embrace the totality of BOOP philosophy are merely non-BOOPers who are still very pro-chiropractic and appreciate the philosophy of chiropractic from a contemporary and nondogmatic perspective." Ten years later (in 2004) he openly disparaged the idea still propounded by "modern-day advocates of this concept": "... it is essentially impossible to have nerve interference. To summarize, nerve interference is described, by modern-day advocates of this concept, as a reduction of neural or mental impulses, which occurs in response to a bone-out-of-place (BOOP) subluxation... Clearly, the BOOP subluxation model fails miserably when considered in the light of basic neuroscience facts... BOOP subluxationists become angry and defensive when the BOOP model of subluxation is criticized... The reactionary nature of certain BOOP subluxationists is to accuse those who don't buy into the BOOP model of being anti-chiropractic – an astonishing leap of ignorance, to say the least. Furthermore, anyone who does not buy into the model is trying to "medicalize chiropractic" - another example of low-IQ thinking. And if tears do not well up in your eyes when you hear the phrase, "The power that made the body, heals the body," you are accused of having no passion for chiropractic – still another example of depressed, frontal-lobe activity. Even worse, if you don't buy into every bizarre, New Age, tree-hugging notion that comes down the pike and is circularly attached to subluxation, you will be accused of being an atheist – an excellent example of the need for psychiatrists and the drugs they prescribe." Evidence of condition Believers within the chiropractic tradition assert that spinal health and function are directly related to general health and well-being, including visceral disorders, but the efficacy and validity of spinal manipulation to address visceral disorders systems remains a source of controversy within the chiropractic profession. Although research is ongoing on this topic, conclusions that support the usefulness of spinal manipulation for organic disorders remains to be seen. Additionally, to complicate matters, chiropractic professors and researchers, Nansel and Szlazak, found that:the proper differential diagnosis of somatic (musculoskeletal) vs. visceral (organ) dysfunction represents a challenge for both the medical and chiropractic physician. The afferent convergence mechanisms, which can create signs and symptoms that are virtually indistinguishable with respect to their somatic vs. visceral etiologies, suggest it is not unreasonable that this somatic visceral-disease mimicry could very well account for the "cures" of presumed organ disease that have been observed over the years in response to various somatic therapies (e.g., spinal manipulation, acupuncture, Rolfing, Qi Gong, etc.) and may represent a common phenomenon that has led to "holistic" health care claims on the part of such clinical disciplines. Considering this phenomenon, Seaman suggests that the chiropractic concept of joint complex (somatic) dysfunction should be incorporated into the differential diagnosis of pain and visceral symptoms because these dysfunctions often generate symptoms similar to those produced by true visceral disease and notes that this mimicry leads to unnecessary surgical procedures and medications. Other chiropractic researchers have also questioned some of the claimed effects of vertebral subluxation: The literature supports the existence of somatovisceral and viscerosomatic reflexes, but there is little or no evidence to support the notion that the spinal derangements (often referred to as subluxations by chiropractors) can cause prolonged aberrant discharge of these reflexes. Equally unsupported in the literature is the notion that the prolonged activation of these reflexes will manifest into pathological state of tissues, and most relevantly, that the application of spinal manipulative therapy can alter the prolonged reflex discharge or be associated with a reversal of the pathological degeneration of the affected reflexes or tissues. The evidence that has been amassed is largely anecdotal or case report based and it has attracted much intra disciplinary debate because of its frequent association with certain approaches to management (largely described as being traditional or "philosophical" in nature). Still other chiropractic researchers stated quite directly: ... early chiropractic philosophy ... considered disease the result of spinal nerve dysfunction caused by misplaced (subluxated) vertebrae. Although rejected by medical science, this concept is still [2000] accepted by a minority of chiropractors. ... Indeed, many progressive chiropractors have rejected the historical concept of the chiropractic subluxation in favor of ones that more accurately describe the nature of the complex joint disfunctions they treat." Professor Philip S. Bolton of the School of Biomedical Sciences at University of Newcastle, Australia writes in Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics, "The traditional chiropractic vertebral subluxation hypothesis proposes that vertebral misalignment cause illness, disease, or both. This hypothesis remains controversial." His objective was, "To briefly review and update experimental evidence concerning reflex effects of vertebral subluxations, particularly concerning peripheral nervous system responses to vertebral subluxations. Data source: Information was obtained from chiropractic or, scientific peer-reviewed literature concerning human or animal studies of neural responses to vertebral subluxation, vertebral displacement or movement, or both." He concluded, "Animal models suggest that vertebral displacements and putative vertebral subluxations may modulate activity in group I to IV afferent nerves. However, it is not clear whether these afferent nerves are modulated during normal day-to-day activities of living and, if so, what segmental or whole-body reflex effects they may have." Edzard Ernst has stated that the "core concepts of chiropractic, subluxation and spinal manipulation, are not based on sound science." An area of debate among chiropractors is whether "vertebral subluxation" is a metaphysical concept (as posited in B. J. Palmer's philosophy of chiropractic) or a real phenomenon. In an article on vertebral subluxation, the chiropractic authors wrote: Other chiropractors have declared its unproven status as an area that needs reform: A Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center article describes the mainstream understanding of vertebral subluxation theory: In 2009, four scholarly chiropractors concluded that epidemiologic evidence does not support chiropractic's most fundamental theory. Since its inception, the vast majority of chiropractors have postulated that "subluxations" (misalignments) are the cause or underlying cause of ill health and can be corrected with spinal "adjustments." After searching the scientific literature, the chiropractic authors concluded: In 2005, four leading chiropractic researchers leveled strong critiques of chiropractic dogma: In 2015, internationally accredited chiropractic colleges from Bournemouth University, University of South Wales, University of Southern Denmark, University of Zürich, Institut Franco-Européen de Chiropraxie, and University of Johannesburg made an open statement which included: "The teaching of the vertebral subluxation complex as a vitalistic construct that claims that it is the cause of disease is unsupported by evidence. Its inclusion in a modern chiropractic curriculum in anything other than an historic context is therefore inappropriate and unnecessary." References External links Vertebral Subluxation in Chiropractic Practice – Council on Chiropractic Practice Models of Vertebral Subluxation:A Review – Christopher Kent, DC Chiropractic's Elusive Subluxation – Stephen Barrett, M.D. Subluxation – The Silent Killer – Ronald Carter, DC, MA, Past President, Canadian Chiropractic Association Chiropractic Fringe science Vitalism Alternative medical treatments Alternative diagnoses	[ -0.173651784658432, 0.22009889781475067, 0.06283446401357651, -0.4361262619495392, -0.35893771052360535, 0.5166282057762146, 0.7101130485534668, 0.6048981547355652, -0.3257802128791809, -0.5396873950958252, -0.2984956204891205, -0.10553957521915436, -0.2365395873785019, 0.7254301905632019, 0.26014915108680725, 0.5608927011489868, 0.44648444652557373, 0.2987956702709198, -0.10230662673711777, 0.17425654828548431, -0.12319327145814896, 0.08371105790138245, 0.8358672857284546, -0.3472633957862854, -0.4507349133491516, -0.24471580982208252, -0.2111700177192688, 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213792	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hale%20Boggs	Hale Boggs	Thomas Hale Boggs Sr. (February 15, 1914 – disappeared October 16, 1972) was an American Democratic politician and a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from New Orleans, Louisiana. He was the House majority leader and a member of the Warren Commission. In 1972, while still majority leader, Boggs was on a fundraising drive in Alaska when the twin engine airplane he was travelling in (along with Alaska congressman Nick Begich and two others) disappeared en route from Anchorage to Juneau, Alaska. Early life and education Boggs was born in Long Beach in Harrison County on the Mississippi Gulf Coast, the son of Claire Josephine (Hale) and William Robertson "Will" Boggs. Boggs was educated at Tulane University where he received a bachelor's degree in journalism in 1934 and a law degree in 1937. He first practiced law in New Orleans but soon became a leader in the movement to break the power of the political machine of U.S. Senator Huey Pierce Long Jr., who was assassinated in 1935. Long had previously broken the power of New Orleans politicians in 1929. Career U.S. House A Democrat running as an anti-Long candidate, Boggs was elected to the U.S. House for the Second District and served from 1941 to 1943. At the time he was elected he was, at 27, the youngest member of Congress. His initial election was not without controversy; five of his political allies who served as Orleans Parish election commissioners were convicted of changing 97 votes for Boggs' Democratic primary opponents into votes for Boggs. The case, United States v. Classic, reached the Supreme Court, where it established the federal government's authority to regulate local primary elections, setting a key precedent for later civil rights decisions. After an unsuccessful re-election bid in 1942, Boggs joined the United States Navy as an ensign. He served the remainder of World War II. Gubernatorial bid After the war, Boggs began his political comeback. He was again elected to Congress in 1946 and was then re-elected thirteen times, once just after he disappeared, but before he was presumed dead. In 1951, Boggs launched an ill-fated campaign for governor of Louisiana. Leading in the polls early in the campaign, he was soon put on the defensive when another candidate, Lucille May Grace, at the urging of long-time southeastern Louisiana political boss Leander Perez, questioned Boggs' membership in the American Student Union in the 1930s. By 1951, the ASU was thought to be a Communist front. Boggs avoided the question and attacked both Grace and Perez for conducting a smear campaign against him. In his book, The Big Lie, author Garry Boulard suggests strongly that Boggs was a member of the ASU but tried to cover up that fact in the different political climate of the early 1950s. Boggs finished third in the balloting for governor early in 1952. The Boggs candidate for lieutenant governor, C.E. "Cap" Barham of Ruston, prevailed in a runoff election against future Governor John McKeithen. The Boggs choice for register of state lands, Ellen Bryan Moore of Baton Rouge, won the office vacated by Lucille May Grace. Moore defeated Mary Evelyn Dickerson, future state treasurer in the second McKeithen administration. Two other Boggs candidates were defeated, including State Senator Chester J. Coco of Marksville for attorney general, who lost to Fred S. LeBlanc, the former mayor of Baton Rouge, and Douglas Fowler of Coushatta, defeated by Allison Kolb of Baton Rouge, who later switched to Republican affiliation. Boggs won the gubernatorial endorsement of the Shreveport Times, which hailed the representative for having stopped the Truman administration from "altering oil-depletion allowances in federal taxation, thus blocking... efforts to tie a millstone around the neck of the petroleum industry of Louisiana".The Times, in a dig at Miss Grace, also cited Boggs' fight in Congress as early as 1941 against communism and subversion in government. Other newspapers supporting Boggs were the since defunct Monroe Morning World and the functioning Monroe News-Star. Senator Russell B. Long endorsed Boggs, but many in the Long faction had preferred Judge Carlos Spaht of Baton Rouge, who ultimately lost the runoff election to another judge, Robert F. Kennon of Minden, whom Russell Long had narrowly defeated in the special Senate election in 1948. As a young member of the House of Representatives, Boggs joined 101 fellow congressmen (99 southern "Dixiecrats" and two Republicans) in signing the Declaration of Constitutional Principles, in opposition to racial integration in public places. The drafting of the document was in response to the 1954 Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education. The Boggs Act of 1952, sponsored by Hale Boggs, set mandatory sentences for drug-related offenses. A first-offense conviction for marijuana possession carried a minimum sentence of 2 to 10 years with a fine of up to $20,000. Later House elections In 1960, the Republican Elliot Ross Buckley, a cousin of William F. Buckley Jr., challenged Boggs but got only 22,818 votes (22 percent) to the incumbent's 81,034 ballots (78 percent). The Kennedy-Johnson ticket easily won in Louisiana that year. In 1962, 1964, and 1968, David C. Treen, a Metairie lawyer who became the first Louisiana Republican governor in 1980, challenged Boggs for reelection. Treen built on Buckley's efforts in the first contest, and Goldwater's momentum in Louisiana helped in the second race. It was in the 1968 election, however, that Treen fared the best: 77,633 votes (48.8 percent) to Boggs's 81,537 ballots (51.2 percent). Treen attributed Boggs's victory to the supporters of former Alabama Governor George C. Wallace Jr., who ran for president on the American Independent Party ticket. Treen said that Wallace supporters "became very cool to my candidacy. We couldn't really believe they would support Boggs, but several Democratic organizations did come out for Wallace and Boggs, and he received just enough Wallace votes to give him the election." During his tenure in Congress, Boggs was an influential member. After Brown v. Board of Education, he signed the 1956 Southern Manifesto condemning desegregation. Boggs voted against the Civil Rights Acts of 1957, 1960, and 1964, but voted in favor of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968. He was instrumental in passage of the interstate highway program in 1956. Boggs was the youngest member of the Warren Commission that investigated the assassination of John F. Kennedy from 1963 to 1964. Boggs has been reported to have differing positions regarding the Warren report. Based upon Office of the House Historian and Clerk of the House Office of Art and Archives, Politico reports that "Boggs dissented from the commission's majority report which supported the single bullet thesis — pointing to a lone assassin. Boggs said he "had strong doubts about it". But in a 1966 appearance on Face the Nation, Boggs defended the commission's findings and stated that he did not doubt that Lee Harvey Oswald killed Kennedy. He said that all the evidence indicated that Kennedy was shot from behind and that the argument that one bullet hit both Kennedy and Texas Governor John Connally was "very persuasive". Boggs took issue with the assertions of Warren Commission critics and stated that it was "human nature" that "many people would prefer to believe there was a conspiracy". It is unknown why his position was stated in such opposite terms but conspiracy theorists have pondered that difference as significant. In the 1979 novel "The Matarese Circle", author Robert Ludlum portrayed Boggs as having been killed to stop his probe into the assassination. He served as majority whip from 1962 to 1971 and as majority leader from January 1971 to his disappearance. As the whip, he ushered much of President Johnson's Great Society legislation through Congress. On August 22, 1968, while Secretary of State Dean Rusk was testifying in a hearing concerning the Vietnam War, Boggs interrupted the session to announce the invasion of Czechoslovakia by the troops of the Soviet Union, after hearing of a recent Radio Prague broadcast telling the Czechoslovaks not to take any action against the occupying forces. That caused Secretary Rusk, who was previously unaware of the situation, to excuse himself immediately, mid-testimony, to attend to the issue of the invasion. (Source: Walter Cronkite: The Way It Was: The 1960s) In April 1971, he made a speech on the floor of the House in which he strongly attacked Federal Bureau of Investigation Director J. Edgar Hoover and the whole of the FBI. That led to a conversation on April 6, 1971, between President Richard M. Nixon and the Republican minority leader, Gerald Ford. Nixon said that he could no longer take counsel from Boggs as a senior member of Congress. In the recording of this call, Nixon asked Ford to arrange for the House delegation to include an alternative to Boggs. Ford speculated that Boggs is on pills as well as alcohol. On April 22, 1971, Boggs went even further: "Over the postwar years, we have granted to the elite and secret police within our system vast new powers over the lives and liberties of the people. At the request of the trusted and respected heads of those forces, and their appeal to the necessities of national security, we have exempted those grants of power from due accounting and strict surveillance." Disappearance in Alaska Disappearance and search As majority leader, Boggs often campaigned for others, including Representative Nick Begich of Alaska. On October 16, 1972, Boggs was aboard a twin engine Cessna 310 with Representative Begich, who was facing a possible tight race in the November 1972 general election against the Republican candidate, Don Young, when it disappeared during a flight from Anchorage to Juneau. Also on board were Begich's aide, Russell Brown; and the pilot, Don Jonz; the four were heading to a campaign fundraiser for Begich. The search for the missing aircraft and four men included the US Coast Guard, Navy, Army, Air Force, Civil Air Patrol and civilian fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters. The Cessna was required to carry an emergency locator transmitter per Alaska state law and federal law. No emergency transmission signal determined to be from the plane was heard during the search. In its report on the incident, the National Transportation Safety Board stated that the pilot's portable emergency transmitter, permissible in lieu of a fixed transmitter on the plane, was found in an aircraft at Fairbanks, Alaska. The report also notes that a witness saw an unidentified object in the pilot's briefcase that resembled, except for color, the portable emergency transmitter. The safety board concluded that neither the pilot nor aircraft had an emergency location transmitter. On November 24, 1972, the search was suspended after 39 days. Neither the wreckage of the plane nor the pilot's and passengers' remains were ever found. After a hearing and seven minute jury deliberation, his death certificate was signed by Judge Dorothy Tyner. After Boggs and Begich were re-elected posthumously that November, House Resolution 1 of January 3, 1973, officially recognized Boggs's presumed death and opened the way for a special election. The same was done for Begich. In 2019, Boggs' unexplained disappearance was mentioned in the fictional television series The Blacklist season 7 episode 14 "Twamie Ullulaq", which is set in the Alaska Triangle. In summer 2020, Boggs' disappearance was investigated in a podcast produced by iHeartMedia called Missing in Alaska. Personal life In 1973, Boggs' wife since 1938, Lindy, was elected as a Democrat to the 93rd Congress, by special election, to the second district seat left vacant by her husband's death. She was reelected to the eight succeeding Congresses (March 20, 1973 – January 3, 1991) and retired after the 1990 election. In 1997, President Bill Clinton appointed Lindy Boggs U.S. Ambassador to the Holy See, in which capacity she served until 2001. Hale and Lindy Boggs had four children: Cokie Roberts, who was a U.S. TV and public-radio journalist and the wife of journalist Steven V. Roberts; Thomas Hale Boggs Jr., who was a Washington, D.C.-based lawyer and lobbyist; Barbara Boggs Sigmund, who served as mayor of Princeton, New Jersey; and William Robertson Boggs, who died as an infant on December 28, 1946. In 1982, Sigmund lost a bid for the Democratic nomination for the U.S. Senate to Frank Lautenberg. Boggs was a practicing Catholic. Tributes The Hale Boggs Memorial Bridge, which spans the Mississippi River in St. Charles Parish, is named in memory of the former congressman. The visitor center at Portage Glacier in Southcentral Alaska (located within Chugach National Forest) is named the Begich, Boggs Visitor Center. Boggs Peak which is four miles north of the visitor center is also named for him. The Hale Boggs Federal Complex, at 500 Poydras Street in New Orleans, is also named after him. In 1993, Boggs was among 13 politicians, past and present, inducted into the first class of the new Louisiana Political Museum and Hall of Fame in Winnfield. See also List of people who disappeared List of United States Congress members who died in office List of members of the American Legion Notes References Boulard, Garry (2001), The Big Lie - Hale Boggs, Lucille May Grace and Leander Perez in 1951-52 Maney, Patrick J. "Hale Boggs: The Southerner as National Democrat" in Raymond W Smock and Susan W Hammond, eds. Masters of the House: Congressional Leadership Over Two Centuries (1998) pp 33–62. Strahan, Randall. "Thomas Brackett Reed and the Rise of Party Government" in Raymond W Smock and Susan W Hammond, eds. Masters of the House: Congressional Leadership Over Two Centuries (1998) pp 223–259. External links Hale Boggs Telex — Debunked \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- 1914 births 1972 deaths 1970s missing person cases 20th-century American lawyers 20th-century American politicians Accidental deaths in Alaska Catholics from Louisiana United States Navy personnel of World War II American segregationists Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Louisiana Lawyers from New Orleans Louisiana Democrats Majority leaders of the United States House of Representatives Members of the Warren Commission Members of the United States House of Representatives from Louisiana Missing air passengers Missing person cases in Alaska People declared dead in absentia People from Long Beach, Mississippi Politicians elected posthumously Politicians from New Orleans Tulane University Law School alumni United States Navy officers Catholics from Mississippi Boggs family Claiborne family Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1972 Victims of aviation accidents or 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213795	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pat%20Summitt	Pat Summitt	Patricia Susan Summitt (; June 14, 1952 – June 28, 2016) was an American women's college basketball head coach who accrued 1,098 career wins, the most in college basketball history at the time of her retirement. She served as the head coach of the University of Tennessee Lady Vols basketball team from 1974 to 2012. Summitt won a silver medal at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal as a member of the United States women's national basketball team. She returned to the Olympics in 1984 as a head coach, guiding the U.S. women's basketball team to a gold medal. Summitt won eight NCAA Division I basketball championships. In 38 years as coach of the Tennessee Lady Volunteers, she never missed the NCAA Tournament nor did she ever have a losing season. Summitt retired from coaching at age 59 following a diagnosis of early-onset Alzheimer's disease. Summitt was inducted into the Women's Basketball Hall of Fame in 1999 as a member of its inaugural class. She was named the Naismith Basketball Coach of the Century in 2000. In 2009, the Sporting News placed her at number 11 on its list of the 50 Greatest Coaches of All Time in all sports; she was the only woman on the list. In 2012, Summitt was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama and received the Arthur Ashe Courage Award at the 2012 ESPY Awards. In 2013, she was inducted into the FIBA Hall of Fame. Early life and family Summitt was born Patricia Sue Head on June 14, 1952 in Clarksville, Tennessee, the daughter of Richard and Hazel Albright Head. In her early years, she was known as Trish. She had four siblings: older brothers Tommy, Charles, and Kenneth, and a younger sister, Linda. When Summitt was in high school, her family moved to nearby Henrietta so she could play basketball in Cheatham County, because Clarksville did not have a girls team. From there, Summitt went to University of Tennessee at Martin, where she was a member of Chi Omega Sorority and won All-American honors playing for UT–Martin's first women's basketball coach, Nadine Gearin. In 1970, with the passage of Title IX still two years away, there were no athletic scholarships for women. Each of Summitt's brothers had received athletic scholarships, but her parents paid her way to college. She later co-captained the United States women's national basketball team as a player at the inaugural women's tournament in the 1976 Summer Olympics, winning the silver medal. Eight years later in 1984, she coached the U.S. women's team to an Olympic gold medal, becoming the first U.S. Olympian to win a basketball medal and coach a medal-winning team. Coaching career 1970s Just before the 1974–75 season, with women's college basketball still in its infancy and not yet an NCAA-sanctioned sport, 22-year-old Summitt became a graduate assistant at the University of Tennessee, and was named head coach of the Lady Vols after the previous coach suddenly quit. Summitt earned $250 monthly and washed the players' uniforms – uniforms purchased the previous year with proceeds from a doughnut sale. Summitt recalled that era of women's basketball during a February 2009 interview with Time. "I had to drive the van when I first started coaching," Summitt said. "One time, for a road game, we actually slept in the other team's gym the night before. We had mats, we had our little sleeping bags. When I was a player at the University of Tennessee at Martin, we played at Tennessee Tech for three straight games, and we didn't wash our uniforms. We only had one set. We played because we loved the game. We didn't think anything about it." During Summitt's first year as head coach, four of her players were only a year younger than she was and all were from Tennessee high schools, which until 1980 employed a six-person game where offensive and defensive players never crossed mid-court. She coached her first game for Tennessee on Dec. 7, 1974 against Mercer University in Macon, Georgia; the Lady Vols lost 84–83. Her first win came almost a month later when the Lady Vols defeated Middle Tennessee State, 69–32 on Jan. 10, 1975. The Lady Vols won the Tennessee College Women's Sports Federation (TCWSF) Eastern District Championship for the third straight year. However, the team finished 4th overall in the TCWSF (they had been second the previous two years), and were not invited to the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW) tournament. In her second season, Summitt coached the Lady Vols to a 16–11 record while earning her 1976 master's degree in physical education and training as the co-captain of the 1976 U.S. Women's Olympic basketball team that won a silver medal in Montreal. Starting with the 1976–77 season, Summitt directed two 20-win teams, winning back-to-back AIAW Region II championships. The Lady Vols defeated 3-time AIAW champion Delta State by 20 points in 1978, and earned Tennessee its first number one ranking. 1978 saw the Lady Vols participate in their first AIAW Final Four, where they finished third. Summitt also recorded her 100th win during this season, a 79–66 victory over NC State. Tennessee closed the 1970s by winning the first-ever SEC tournament, and returning to the AIAW Final Four, where they finished runner-up to Old Dominion, 68–53. 1980s During the 1980–81 season, the Lady Vols went 25–6, and avenged their championship game loss to Old Dominion by defeating them three times. The team made it to the AIAW Final Four for the third straight year; finished runner-up for the second consecutive year, losing to Louisiana Tech, 79–59. The 1981–82 season featured the first ever NCAA Women's basketball tournament. The Lady Vols were one of 32 teams invited and named a 2 seed in their region. In the region championship, the Lady Vols upset top-seeded USC 91–90 in overtime to advance to the Final Four. They lost their Final Four match-up with Louisiana Tech, which went on to win the tournament. The next season, the Lady Vols won the regular season SEC title but fell in the SEC tournament to Georgia. Tennessee was invited to the now-36 team NCAA tournament and awarded its first-ever 1 seed. Tennessee made it to the regional championship, but fell to Georgia again, 67–63. Summitt won her 200th game on December 3, a 69–56 victory over St. John's during the Coca-Cola Classic in Detroit. The 1983–84 season saw Tennessee start out 6–4. However, Summitt rallied her team and finished 22–10, for her eighth straight 20-win season, a streak that still continues. Tennessee not only made it to the NCAA Final Four for the second time in the first three tournaments, but also made it to the title game. However, Tennessee lost by 11 to USC, which also had won the title the previous year. Pat Summitt earned Coach of the Year honors. The 1983-84 season was followed up by another 20-win year in which Tennessee earned both the regular season SEC title (despite only going 4–4) and the tournament title. However, the Lady Vols fell in the NCAA Tournament to Ole Miss during the round of 16. The next season was a similar story – the Lady Vols had a good regular season, played a great tournament (reaching the Final Four for the second time in three years), but fell before winning the title. In 1986–87, Tennessee broke through and defeated perennial power Louisiana Tech 67–44 to win the Lady Vols' first national title. Tennessee's Tonya Edwards was named the Most Outstanding Player in the Final Four. During the regular season, Summitt also earned her 300th win, an 87–66 victory over North Carolina. The next year in 1987–88, the Lady Vols were positioned to repeat as Tennessee made it to the Final Four yet again. However, Louisiana Tech avenged the previous year's championship game loss with a 9-point victory and went on to win the title. In 1988–89, the Lady Vols reached the Final Four for the fourth straight year. After eliminating Maryland by 12 points, Tennessee faced SEC rival Auburn for the national title. Auburn had lost by two points to Louisiana Tech in the NCAA title game the previous year and had suffered its only loss in the SEC Championship game by 15 points to Tennessee. The championship game was similar as Tennessee took home its second title in three years with a 76–60 victory. It was Tennessee's best season yet; the Lady Vols won 35 games while losing only two regular season contests to Auburn and Texas. The Lady Vols won every NCAA tournament game by at least 12 points. In 1989–90, the Lady Vols started off the season well, winning the SEC title. However, the team fell by 1 point to Auburn in the SEC Championship Game and lost in overtime to Virginia in the regional finals, one game shy of making a trip to the Final Four, which that year was held in Knoxville. Summitt accomplished another milestone that season with her 400th win, a 70–69 victory over South Carolina on January 25. 1990s Tennessee failed to win the SEC regular season or the tournament championship in 1990–91, but after a close win in the NCAA regional semifinals against Western Kentucky, the Lady Vols eliminated Auburn for the second time in three years. In the national semifinals, the Lady Vols beat Stanford, 68–60, to earn the chance to avenge the previous year's tournament loss against Virginia. Just as the previous year's game had gone into overtime, so did this one. Tennessee escaped with a 70–67 win and its third national title in five years. The next season in 1991–92, the Lady Vols did not make it to the regional championship, falling 75–70 to the same Western Kentucky team they had beaten in that round the previous year. In 1992–93, Tennessee defeated the defending champions Stanford twice and swept the SEC season for the first time. However, the Lady Vols were unable to win the SEC tournament title and fell 72–56 in the NCAA tournament to Iowa in the regional finals. Early in the 1993–94 season, Summitt grabbed her 500th win, an 80–45 win over Ohio State on November 21. Tennessee went on to win the regular season and tournament SEC titles before falling 71–68 to Louisiana Tech in the regional semifinals. The next season marked Tennessee's return to the Final Four. Tennessee went undefeated in the SEC regular season for the third straight year, but failed to win the tournament title. The top-seeded Lady Vols breezed their way to a fifth national title game, with no other tournament game being closer than 21 points. However, in the national championship game, the Lady Vols fell 70–64 to the undefeated UConn Huskies, coached by her rival, Geno Auriemma, in the first of eleven championships for UConn. During the off-season, Pat Summitt recruited high school stand-out Chamique Holdsclaw. In 1995–96, with freshman Holdsclaw and senior Michelle Marciniak, the Lady Vols won the SEC tournament and made a second straight Final Four trip. In the semifinals, the Lady Vols avenged the previous year's tournament loss to UConn by ousting Auriemma and the Huskies with a hard-fought 5-point win in overtime. The championship game was not that close as Tennessee easily won its fourth title with an 83–65 win over Georgia. The 1996–97 Lady Vols posted one of the worst records ever for a Summitt-coached team. In addition to losses to powerhouses such as Louisiana Tech (twice), Stanford, Old Dominion, and Connecticut, Tennessee fell to teams such as Florida, against whom they had been previously undefeated. Summitt earned her 600th win with a 15-point victory over Marquette on November 23, 1996. Summitt and the 1996–97 championship team were the subject of an HBO documentary titled A Cinderella Season: The Lady Vols Fight Back. The Lady Vols posted a 23–10 record heading into the NCAA tournament. However, Tennessee righted itself during the tournament, shocking previously undefeated Connecticut in the regional final before defeating Notre Dame and Old Dominion in the Final Four to win the team's second straight national championship. In many aspects, the 1997–98 team was Summitt's best. With the top-ranked recruiting class as well as Chamique Holdsclaw, the Lady Vols ran the table to a 39–0 season while playing one of the top-ranked schedules in the country. Only three teams came within 10 points of beating the team, and the Lady Vols won a 93–75 victory over Louisiana Tech for their third straight national championship. After the championship game, opposing Louisiana Tech head coach Leon Balmore proclaimed the Tennessee team to be the "best ever", echoing a similar claim made by Old Dominion University Hall of Famer Nancy Lieberman. Holdsclaw (who by then had won national championships every season she was with the Vols) predicted that the 1998–99 team would be the greatest ever. However, Tennessee didn't claim another national title or make it to the Final Four. Injuries to several players decimated the team and the Lady Vols ultimately fell to Duke in the regional finals. A landmark was set during this season however, as Holdsclaw, Tamika Catchings, and Semeka Randall became the first trio from one team to be named Kodak All-Americans. The Lady Vols ended the decade with a third straight 30-win season, third straight SEC title, and third straight SEC Tournament title. Additionally, they defeated UConn in the regular season, 72–71, in UConn's only loss of the year. In the NCAA tournament, Tennessee breezed its way to the title game, winning all five games by at least 10 points. In the championship game the Lady Vols were beaten soundly by UConn, 71–52. This marked the fourth time in six years that either Tennessee or UConn had eliminated the other from the tournament. UConn's two wins in that period came in championship games, adding more intensity to the Summit-Auriemma rivalry. During the season, Summitt earned her 700th win, 85–62 at Wisconsin. At the 2000 ESPY awards, the Lady Vols basketball team was named co-team of the decade, along with the Florida State Seminoles football team. Additionally, Pat Summitt was named the Naismith Coach of the Century and Chamique Holdsclaw earned recognition as Naismith Women's Collegiate Player of the Century. 2000s In the 2000–01 season, the Lady Vols claimed another SEC title, winning all 14 SEC games. Additionally, they split the season series with the UConn Huskies and headed into the SEC tournament with a 28–1 record. However, the Lady Vols were upset by Vanderbilt in the semifinals and then lost in the Sweet Sixteen to Xavier, their worst finish since 1993–94. During the regular season, Summitt earned her 750th win in the second game against UConn, a 92–88 victory. The team also finished with its fourth straight 30-win season. In the 2001–02 season, The Lady Vols won their fifth straight SEC championship, but fell again in the conference tournament, this time to LSU. In the NCAA tournament, Tennessee reached the Final Four again, with a 5-point win over Vanderbilt University. This trip to the Final Four marked Summitt's 13th appearance, which broke Coach John Wooden's record of 12, and earned her 788th win, which tied Summitt with Jody Conradt for the winningest coach in women's basketball history. However, the Lady Vols fell in the national semifinals to Connecticut, which wound up winning the championship and capping an undefeated season. This loss ended the season at 29–5, one win shy of extending Summitt's streak of 30-win seasons. Summitt did achieve more milestones during the season; a 106–66 win over USC marked Summitt's 200th win at home, a victory against Louisiana Tech was her 300th win against a ranked opponent and her 93–65 win over Arkansas was her 1,000th game as a coach, including international contests. During the 2002–03 season, the Lady Vols compiled their 6th perfect SEC season and beat powerhouses Duke and Louisiana Tech, among others, during the regular season, but lost to Texas and UConn. In the NCAA tournament, the Lady Vols made it to the title game only to lose to the Huskies again 73–68. During the season, Summitt earned her 800th win, 76–57 over DePaul and was the fastest coach to reach this milestone. The 2003–04 season was similar to the previous year. The Lady Vols defeated most of their regular season opponents, including Duke and Louisiana Tech, but dropped games to UConn and Texas. The Lady Vols again went 14–0 in the regular season against SEC competition, but again fell in the conference tournament. Tennessee won five games in the NCAA tournament only to lose 70–61 to Connecticut in the championship game for the second year in a row and third time in five years. In 2004–05, Tennessee broke its losing streak against Connecticut with a narrow 68–67 regular season victory. Candace Parker, a highly regarded and nationally known high school player joined the Lady Vols. However, because of injuries, she was redshirted and didn't play that season. Tennessee suffered losses during the regular season to Duke, Rutgers, and LSU, while beating Stanford and Louisiana Tech. LSU's win over Tennessee gave the Tigers the SEC title, breaking Tennessee's streak of seven straight regular season conference championships. However, Tennessee won its first tournament title in four years by avenging its earlier loss to LSU loss with a 67–65 win in the SEC Championship game. In the NCAA tournament, Tennessee advanced to its fourth Final Four in a row by defeating a Rutgers team that had beaten them earlier in the year. In the Final Four, the Lady Vols blew a 16-point lead to fall 68–64 to underdog Michigan State. In the second round of the NCAA Tournament, the Lady Vols defeated Purdue. This victory gave Pat Summitt her 880th win, breaking North Carolina coach Dean Smith's record of 879 wins, and making her the all-time winningest coach in NCAA basketball history. By 2005–06, Candace Parker had recovered from her injuries and became a starter. During the season, the Lady Vols dropped three games to SEC foes, LSU, Florida, and Kentucky, to record their worst SEC season since the 1996–97 season. However, they won their second straight game against Connecticut and rebounded from a sub-par SEC season to win the conference tournament for the second year in a row. In the NCAA tournament, Tennessee received a number two seed instead of the one seed Summitt believed her team deserved, and played North Carolina in the regional finals. Tennessee trailed from the beginning, fell behind by as many as 16, rallied to cut the lead to five, but ultimately fell 75–63. This loss marked the first time in five years Summitt would not appear in the Final Four. In the 2006–07 season, Tennessee defeated four ranked teams in a row: UCLA, Stanford, Arizona State, and Middle Tennessee, lost a regular season rematch with North Carolina and another game against top-ranked Duke, and defeated UConn for the third time in a row. Later, in Baton Rouge, the Lady Vols clinched the SEC title against LSU in a game where Candace Parker scored 27. However, in the SEC tournament semifinals, Tennessee fell to the Tigers. In the NCAA tournament, Summitt's team easily made it to the Final Four, dispatching teams that included SEC foe Mississippi and 13-seeded Cinderella, Marist, winning each game by at least 14. In the Final Four, Tennessee again faced North Carolina. Despite shooting poorly, the Lady Vols came back from a 12-point deficit with 8:18 remaining to win 56–50. In the championship game against Rutgers, Tennessee won its seventh title. During the season, Summitt appeared at a men's basketball game dressed in a cheerleader outfit and led the crowd in a rendition of "Rocky Top" to show her support for the team. A month earlier, her men's counterpart, Bruce Pearl, showed up at a Lady Vols game in orange body paint. The 2007–08 season started off with the top-ranked Lady Vols going 3–0, including wins over 9th-ranked Oklahoma and 22nd-ranked Texas. The win over Texas was Summitt's 950th. After two more wins, top-ranked Tennessee knocked off fourth-ranked North Carolina, 83–79, in a rematch of the previous year's Final Four match-up. Tennessee won their next four games, then headed to California for a match-up with 5th-ranked Stanford. Down by 4 with less than 30 seconds remaining, the Lady Vols managed to tie the game up and send it to overtime, but lost, 73–69. The Lady Vols responded by winning their next seven games, giving them a 17–1 record going into a match-up with Duke. Candace Parker's 17 points and 12 rebounds, including a bucket with 22 seconds remaining, helped the Lady Vols defeat the Blue Devils for the first time in four years, 67–64. Tennessee would win the rest of their regular season games and defeat LSU for the SEC Tournament Championship. The Lady Vols won four straight games in the NCAA Tournament heading toward their third matchup of the year against the LSU Lady Tigers in the Final Four. Alexis Hornbuckle tipped in a Nicky Anosike missed layup with 0.7 seconds left to win the game, 47–46. On April 8, 2008, Tennessee won its second consecutive national championship (and eighth overall) by beating Stanford 64–48. Summitt's first milestone of the 2008–09 season was a 73–43 win over the Georgia Lady Bulldogs on February 5, 2009 at Thompson–Boling Arena in Knoxville. The win was number 1000 for Coach Summitt. The Thompson–Boling Arena's court was named "The Summitt" in her honor. The 2008–09 season ended with a dubious first, as the Lady Vols lost 71–55 in the first round of the NCAA tournament to Ball State in Bowling Green, Kentucky, marking the first time Tennessee would not appear in the Sweet 16 since the NCAA first sanctioned championships in women's basketball for the 1981–82 season. 2010s Summitt was diagnosed with early-onset Alzheimer's disease in 2011. Despite the diagnosis, she completed the 2011–2012 season in a reduced role, with Holly Warlick (an assistant under Summitt since 1985) assuming most of the coaching responsibilities. In an interview with GoVolsXtra.com, Summitt stated, "There's not going to be any pity party and I'll make sure of that." In December 2011, Summitt was honored as the Sports Illustrated sportswoman of the year. As the 2011-12 season progressed, the team and the fans recognized that it was likely to be Summitt's last year coaching, and Ann Killion of Sports Illustrated called it "heart-wrenching to witness" when Warlick broke down in tears at the end of the regular season. In March, John Adams wrote in the Knoxville News Sentinel that it would be "too much to ask” of Summitt and her staff to go through another season, and David Climer wrote in The Tennessean that it was time for Summitt to retire. On April 18, 2012, after the Lady Vols lost to the unbeaten eventual champion Baylor Lady Bears in the Elite Eight in Des Moines, Summitt stepped down as head coach, ending her 38-year coaching career at age 59. Warlick was named Summitt's successor. In a statement accompanying her resignation, Summitt said, "I feel like Holly's been doing the bulk of it. She deserves to be the head coach..." Summitt was given the title Head Coach Emeritus upon her resignation. According to NCAA regulations, as head coach emeritus, she was able to attend practices and assist Warlick in some duties, but was not allowed to sit on the team bench. Summitt was presented the USBWA Most Courageous Award at the 2012 Final Four, and future awards were given in her name. She received the Arthur Ashe Courage Award in 2012, saying in her acceptance speech: "It is time to fight." USA Basketball involvement Player Summitt was named to the U.S. women's basketball team invited to compete at the 1975 Pan American Games. The team was coached by future Hall of Fame coach Cathy Rush. Players included Lusia Harris, Nancy Lieberman, Ann Meyers, and Juliene Simpson. After winning the gold medal in 1963, the USA team lost to Brazil in both 1967 and 1971 and had recently competed in the 1975 World Championship, finishing in eighth place. The opening game was against host-country Mexico which had finished ahead of the USA team at the World Championships. This time, the USA was victorious, beating Mexico 99–65. The USA would go on to win its next five games, all but one by a double-digit margin. That set up the gold medal game against Brazil which the USA team won convincingly, 74–55. Coach Summitt was named the head coach of the USA representative to the William Jones Cup competition in Taipei, Taiwan. The USA team had recently completed the World Championship, so was able to bypass the preliminary rounds. The team won all six contests and the gold medal. Four USA players were named to the 12 player all-tournament team. Summitt was chosen as the head coach of the team representing the USA in 1984 at the William Jones Cup competition in Taipei, Taiwan. The team chosen to represent the USA was the team expected to be selected as the national team for the 1984 Olympic Games. This resulted in a very strong team which was able to dominate the competition. In the opening game against Australia, the USA won 82–20. While other games were closer, Italy's 23-point loss to the USA was the closest of the eight games. The USA won all eight games and the gold medal, and three of the team's players were named to the All-Tournament Team. Books Summitt wrote three books, all with co-author Sally Jenkins: Reach for the Summitt, which is part motivational book and part biography; Raise the Roof, about the Lady Vols' 1997–1998 undefeated and NCAA-championship winning season; and Sum It Up, covering her life and her experience being diagnosed and living with Alzheimer's disease. Coaching style and legacy Summitt was widely recognized as one of the toughest coaches in college basketball history, men's or women's. She was best known for giving her players an icy stare in response to poor play, known simply as "The Summitt Stare." However, she claimed that she mellowed considerably later in her career. In 2007, Summitt told U.S. News and World Report that she didn't yell at her players nearly as much as she had earlier in her career. On at least two occasions, Tennessee asked Summitt to consider coaching the men's team: once before 1997 and again in 2001. Summitt won 16 Southeastern Conference regular season titles with the Lady Vols, as well as 16 tournament titles. Summitt's Lady Vols made an appearance in every NCAA Tournament from 1982 until her retirement, advanced to the Sweet 16 every year except 2009, and appeared 18 times in the Final Four. When Summitt made her 13th trip to the Final Four as a coach in 2002, she surpassed John Wooden as the NCAA coach with the most trips to the Final Four. Summitt was a seven-time SEC Coach of the year and a seven-time NCAA Coach of the year and won three consecutive national titles from 1996 to 1998. Summitt was known for scheduling tough opponents for her team to play in the regular season, in order to prepare them for the postseason. In her years of coaching, her teams played Top 10-ranked teams over 250 times. Summitt finished her coaching career with 1,098 wins in 1,306 games coached in AIAW and NCAA Division I play. Summitt won eight NCAA Division I championships as a coach; as of June 2016, this is the third-highest total in the history of NCAA Division I men's and women's basketball. Summitt received the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Barack Obama in 2012. In 2013, an eight-foot bronze statue was erected in her honor on the University of Tennessee campus. A statue was dedicated to Pat Head Summitt in her hometown of Clarksville, Tennessee in 2018. Personal life Family Pat Summitt married Ross Barnes Summitt II in 1980. The couple had one son, Ross Tyler Summitt, born in 1990. Summitt filed for divorce from her husband in 2007. Tyler Summitt, who played as a walk-on for the Tennessee men's basketball team, graduated from Tennessee in May 2012, was hired as an assistant coach by the Marquette University women's team effective with the 2012–13 season. In what ESPN.com columnist Gene Wojciechowski called "a bittersweet irony", Tyler's hiring by Marquette was announced on the same day his mother announced her retirement. Health In August 2011, Summitt announced that she had been diagnosed three months earlier with early-onset Alzheimer's disease. She retired from coaching in 2012. Summitt created a foundation to raise money for Alzheimer's research and worked to raise awareness of the disease. Death Summitt died on June 28, 2016, two weeks after her 64th birthday, at a senior living facility in Knoxville. She left the entirety of her estate to her son, Tyler. After her death, the Pat Summitt Alzheimer’s Clinic was opened at the University of Tennessee Medical Center, with funds from her Foundation. In 2017, the NCAA established the Pat Summitt Award to recognize individuals who positively influence college athletes. Accomplishments and records 1978—Inducted into Omicron Delta Kappa, the National Leadership Honor Society, as an Honoris Causa faculty/staff initiate 1983—Russell Athletic/WBCA National Coach of the Year 1990—Inducted into the International Women's Sports Hall of Fame as a coach, the first year coaches were honored. 1995—Russell Athletic/WBCA National Coach of the Year 1998—Russell Athletic/WBCA National Coach of the Year 1998—AP College Basketball Coach of the Year 1999—Inducted into the Women's Basketball Hall of Fame as a member of the inaugural class. 2000—Inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame. 2000—Named the Naismith Basketball Coach of the Century. 2009—Named to Sporting News list of the 50 greatest coaches of all time (MLB, NBA, NFL, NHL, college basketball, and college football). She is listed in position 11. 2011—Named Sports Illustrated's Sportswoman of the Year, December 6, 2011 in NYC. (She shared the Sportsman/Sportswoman honor with Duke University men's basketball head coach Mike Krzyzewski.) 2011—Inducted into the Tennessee Women's Hall of Fame. 2012—Awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama. 2012—Arthur Ashe Courage Award Recipient at the ESPY Awards. 2013—Inducted into the FIBA Hall of Fame on June 19. 16-time SEC Champion (1980, 1985, 1990, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2007, 2010, 2011) 16-time SEC Tournament Champion (1980, 1985, 1988, 1989, 1992, 1994, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2005, 2006, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012) 8-time SEC Coach of the Year (1983, 1995, 1998, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2007, 2011) 7-time NCAA Coach of the Year (1983, 1987, 1989, 1994, 1995, 1998, 2004) 8-time NCAA Champion (1987, 1989, 1991, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2007, 2008) Every Lady Vol player who completed her eligibility at Tennessee under Summitt graduated with a degree. Every Lady Vol player who completed her eligibility at Tennessee under Summitt played in at least one Elite Eight. Coaching tree Forty-five of Summitt's former players have become coaches. This is a partial list of those players. Bold''' in Latest position'' column indicates this is a currently-held position. Head coaching record Sources: SEC records; Conference champions References External links Pat Summitt Foundation 1952 births 2016 deaths American Olympic coaches American women's basketball coaches American women's basketball players Basketball coaches from Tennessee Basketball players at the 1975 Pan American Games Basketball players at the 1976 Summer Olympics Basketball players from Knoxville, Tennessee Neurological disease deaths in Tennessee Deaths from Alzheimer's disease FIBA Hall of Fame inductees Medalists at the 1973 Summer Universiade Medalists at the 1976 Summer Olympics Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees Olympic silver medalists for the United States in basketball Pan American Games gold medalists for the United States Pan American Games medalists in basketball People from Clarksville, Tennessee Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients Sportspeople from Knoxville, Tennessee Tennessee Lady Volunteers basketball coaches United States women's national 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213798	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz%20rap	Jazz rap	Jazz rap (or jazz hip hop) is a fusion of jazz and hip hop music, as well as an alternative hip hop subgenre, that developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s. AllMusic writes that the genre "was an attempt to fuse African-American music of the past with a newly dominant form of the present, paying tribute to and reinvigorating the former while expanding the horizons of the latter." The rhythm was rooted in hip hop over which were placed repetitive phrases of jazz instrumentation: trumpet, double bass, etc. Groups involved in the formation of jazz rap included A Tribe Called Quest, Digable Planets, De La Soul, Gang Starr, The Roots, Jungle Brothers, and Dream Warriors. Overview During the 1970s, The Last Poets and Gil Scott-Heron placed spoken word and rhymed poetry over jazzy backing tracks. There are also parallels between jazz and the improvised phrasings of freestyle rap. Despite these disparate threads, jazz rap did not coalesce as a genre until the late 1980s. History In 1989, Gang Starr released the debut single "Words I Manifest", sampling Dizzy Gillespie's 1952 "Night in Tunisia", and Stetsasonic released "Talkin' All That Jazz", sampling Lonnie Liston Smith. Gang Starr's debut LP, No More Mr. Nice Guy (Wild Pitch, 1989), and their track "Jazz Thing" (CBS, 1990) for the soundtrack of Mo' Better Blues, further popularized the jazz rap style. In 1992 Eric B & Rakim used wood bass on "Don't Sweat the Technique". Digable Planets' 1993 release Reachin' (A New Refutation of Time and Space) was a hit jazz rap record sampling the likes of Don Cherry, Sonny Rollins, Art Blakey, Herbie Mann, Herbie Hancock, Grant Green, and Rahsaan Roland Kirk. It spawned the hit single "Rebirth of Slick (Cool Like Dat)". Also in 1993, Us3 released Hand on the Torch on Blue Note Records. All samples were from the Blue Note catalogue. The single "Cantaloop" was Blue Note's first gold record. Post WWII swing and modern jazz had fused with the introduction of Black appeal radio which attracted a younger audience through its reliance on jive idioms, rhyming, and cadence laden rap verses. Dizzy Gillespie had pointed to The jives of Dr. Hepcat and rhyming D.J. Daddy-O Daylie as key to popularizing modern jazz. The rise of Top-40 radio on the strength of the rapping DJs in this period of radio's rebirth among black youth led to the wider use of language and syntax popularizing rap. Muhammad Ali's phrasing to the press in the early part of his career was born of listening to black radio of the 1950s, which was often white radio announcers speaking slang "jive" and imitating black announcers while withholding the fact on air of their backgrounds. Pioneering DJs Al Benson, Nat D., and Jack the Rapper all used rhyming, the dozens and jive talk to pepper their broadcasts and were widely copied by white DJs like John Richbourg, Gene Nobles, and Bill Allen during the 1950s, and whose influence on James Brown and other godfathers of rap was formative, bebop was the backing track that modern jazz credits with being the foundation black appeal radio is based on. Native Tongues Groups making up the collective known as the Native Tongues tended toward jazzy releases: these include the Jungle Brothers' debut Straight Out the Jungle (Warlock, 1988) and A Tribe Called Quest's People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm (Jive, 1990) and The Low End Theory (Jive, 1991). The Low End Theory has become one of hip hop's most acclaimed albums, and also earned praise from jazz bassist Ron Carter, who played double bass on one track. De La Soul's Buhloone Mindstate (Tommy Boy, 1993) featured contributions from Maceo Parker, Fred Wesley, and Pee Wee Ellis, and samples from Eddie Harris, Lou Donaldson, Duke Pearson and Milt Jackson. Also of this period was Toronto-based Dream Warriors' 1991 release And Now the Legacy Begins (Island). It produced the hit singles "My Definition of a Boombastic Jazz Style" and "Wash Your Face in My Sink". The first of these was based on a loop taken from Quincy Jones' "Soul Bossa Nova", while the second sampled Count Basie's 1967 rendition of "Hang On Sloopy". Meanwhile, Los Angeles hip hop group Freestyle Fellowship pursued a different route of jazz influence in recordings with unusual time signatures and scat-influenced vocals. Jazz artists come to hip hop Though jazz rap had achieved little mainstream success, jazz legend Miles Davis' final album (released posthumously in 1992), Doo-Bop, featured hip hop beats and collaborations with producer Easy Mo Bee. Jazz musician Branford Marsalis collaborated with Gang Starr's DJ Premier on his Buckshot LeFonque project that same year. Between 1993 and 2000 fellow Gang Starr member Guru released Jazzmatazz, which featured guest appearances from jazz artists such as Lonnie Liston Smith, Freddie Hubbard and Donald Byrd, amongst others. 1994–present Musical jazz references became less obvious and less sustained, and lyrical references to jazz certainly more rare. However, jazz had been added to the palette of hip hop producers, and its influence continued throughout the 1990s whether behind the gritty street-tales of Nas (Illmatic, Columbia, 1994), or backing the more bohemian sensibilities of acts such as The Roots, The Nonce, and Common. Since 2000 it can be detected in the work of producers such as J. Rawls, Nujabes, Fat Jon, Madlib, Kero One, and the English duo The Herbaliser. A project somewhat similar to Buckshot Le Fonque was Brooklyn Funk Essentials, a New York-based collective who also released their first LP in 1994. Prince himself contributed to the genre on some songs from 1991 to 1992, as well as with his New Power Generation album Gold Nigga, which mixed jazz, funk and hip-hop and was released very confidentially. One hip hop project which continued to maintain a direct connection to jazz was Guru's Jazzmatazz series, which used live jazz musicians in the studio. Spanning from 1993 to 2007, its four volumes assembled jazz luminaries like Freddie Hubbard, Donald Byrd, Courtney Pine, Herbie Hancock, Kenny Garrett and Lonnie Liston Smith, and hip hop performers such as Kool Keith, MC Solaar, Common, and Guru's Gang Starr colleague DJ Premier. Madlib's 2003 release Shades of Blue paid homage to his Blue Note Records roots, where he samples from Blue Note's archives. The album also contains interpretations of Blue Note classics performed by Yesterdays New Quintet. In 2006, Bay Area producer/rapper Kero One independently released a jazz and funk influenced hiphop album named Windmills of the Soul, which stood out for infusing live saxophone, jazz guitar, electric piano, and other instruments with dusty samples and compelling lyrics, eventually selling over 30,000 copies worldwide and playing heavy rotation on college radio stations worldwide. In September 2014, Statik Selektah released his album What Goes Around with a notable jazz rap influence, unique among the actual rap atmosphere. Another recent jazz rap talent producer is Beats by the Pound (also known as The Medicine Men). In February 2015, Canadian jazz band Badbadnotgood released 'Sour Soul' with Wu-Tang Clan rapper Ghostface Killah. A month later, Kendrick Lamar released To Pimp a Butterfly, which incorporates jazz, funk, and spoken word. In 2015, Irish rapper Kojaque released a series of jazz rap instrumentals on SoundCloud. 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213804	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill%20Withers	Bill Withers	William Harrison Withers Jr. (July 4, 1938 – March 30, 2020) was an American singer-songwriter and musician. He had several hits over a career spanning fifteen years, including "Ain't No Sunshine" (1971), "Grandma's Hands" (1971), "Use Me" (1972), "Lean on Me" (1972), "Lovely Day" (1977) and "Just the Two of Us" (1981). Withers won three Grammy Awards and was nominated for six more. His life was the subject of the 2009 documentary film Still Bill. Withers was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2005 and Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2015. Two of his songs were inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. Early life Withers, the youngest of six children, was born in the small coal-mining town of Slab Fork, West Virginia, on July 4, 1938. He was the son of Mattie (Galloway), a maid, and William Withers, a miner. He was born with a stutter and later said he had a hard time fitting in. His parents divorced when he was three, and he was raised by his mother's family in nearby Beckley, West Virginia. He was 13 years old when his father died. Withers enlisted in the United States Navy at the age of 17, and served for nine years, during which time he became interested in singing and writing songs. Career He left the Navy in 1965, relocating to Los Angeles in 1967 to start a music career. His debut release was "Three Nights and a Morning" in 1967. Arranged by Mort Garson, the song went unnoticed at the time but was later reworked by Withers as the track "Harlem". Withers worked as an assembler for several different companies, including Douglas Aircraft Corporation, IBM and Ford, while recording demo tapes with his own money, shopping them around and performing in clubs at night. When he returned with the song "Ain't No Sunshine" in 1971, he refused to resign from his job because he believed the music business was a fickle industry. Music career Withers continued to work on his musicianship, learning guitar. Sussex Records In early 1970, Withers's demonstration tape was auditioned favorably by Clarence Avant, owner of Sussex Records. Avant signed Withers to a record deal and assigned former Stax Records stalwart Booker T. Jones to produce Withers's first album. Four three-hour recording sessions were planned for the album, but funding caused the album to be recorded in three sessions with a six-month break between the second and final sessions. Just as I Am was released in 1971 with the tracks, "Ain't No Sunshine" and "Grandma's Hands" as singles. The album features Stephen Stills playing lead guitar. On the cover of the album, Withers is pictured at his job at Weber Aircraft in Burbank, California, holding his lunch box. The album was a success, and Withers began touring with a band assembled from members of the Watts 103rd Street Rhythm Band. Withers won a Grammy Award for Best R&B Song for "Ain't No Sunshine" at the 14th Annual Grammy Awards in 1972. The track had already sold over one million copies and was awarded a gold disc by the RIAA in September 1971. During a hiatus from touring, Withers recorded his second album, Still Bill. The single, "Lean on Me" went to number one the week of July 8, 1972. It was Withers's second gold single with confirmed sales in excess of three million. His follow-up, "Use Me" released in August 1972, became his third million seller, with the R.I.A.A. gold disc award taking place on October 12, 1972. His performance at Carnegie Hall on October 6, 1972, was recorded, and released as the live album Bill Withers, Live at Carnegie Hall on November 30, 1972. In 1974, Withers recorded the album +'Justments. Due to a legal dispute with the Sussex company, Withers was unable to record for some time thereafter. During this time, he wrote and produced two songs on the Gladys Knight & the Pips album I Feel a Song, and in October 1974 performed in concert together with James Brown, Etta James, and B.B. King in Zaire four weeks prior to the historic Rumble in the Jungle fight between George Foreman and Muhammad Ali. Footage of his performance was included in the 1996 documentary film When We Were Kings, and he is heard on the accompanying soundtrack. Other footage of his performance is included in the 2008 documentary film Soul Power. Columbia Records After Sussex Records folded, Withers signed with Columbia Records in 1975. His first album release with the label, Making Music, included the single "She's Lonely", which was featured in the film Looking for Mr. Goodbar along with "She Wants to (Get on Down)". During the next three years he released an album each year with Naked & Warm (1976), Menagerie (1977; containing the successful "Lovely Day"), and 'Bout Love (1978). Due to problems with Columbia and being unable to get songs approved for his album, he decided to focus on joint projects from 1977 to 1985, including "Just the Two of Us", with jazz saxophonist Grover Washington Jr., which was released during June 1980. The song won the Grammy Award for Best R&B Song. Withers next released "Soul Shadows" with the Crusaders, and "In the Name of Love" with Ralph MacDonald, the latter being nominated for a Grammy for vocal performance. In 1982, Withers was a featured vocalist on the album Dreams in Stone by French singer Michel Berger. This record included one composition co-written and sung by Withers, an upbeat disco song about New York City entitled "Apple Pie". In 1985 came Watching You, Watching Me, which featured the Top 40-rated R&B single "Oh Yeah!", and ended Withers's business association with Columbia Records. Withers stated in interviews that a lot of the songs approved for the album, in particular, two of the first three singles released, were the same songs which had been rejected in 1982, hence contributing significantly to the eight-year hiatus between albums. Withers also stated it was frustrating seeing his record label release an album for Mr. T, an actor, when they were preventing him, an actual singer, from releasing his own. He toured with Jennifer Holliday in 1985 to promote what would be his final studio album. His disdain for Columbia's A&R executives or "blaxperts", as he termed them, trying to exert control over how he should sound if he wanted to sell more albums, played a part in his decision to not record or re-sign to a record label after 1985, effectively ending his performing career, even though remixes of his previously recorded music were released well after his 'retirement'. Finding musical success later in life than most, at 32, he said he was socialized as a 'regular guy' who had a life before the music, so he did not feel an inherent need to keep recording once he fell out of love with the industry. After he left the music industry he said that he did not miss touring and performing live and did not regret leaving music behind. Post-Columbia career In 1988, a new version of "Lovely Day" from the 1977 Menagerie album, entitled "Lovely Day (Sunshine Mix)" and remixed by Ben Liebrand was released. The original release had reached number 7 in the UK in early 1978, and the re-release climbed higher to number 4. At the 30th Annual Grammy Awards in 1988, Withers won the Grammy for Best Rhythm and Blues Song as songwriter for the re-recording of "Lean on Me" by Club Nouveau. This was Withers's ninth Grammy nomination and third win. Withers contributed two songs to Jimmy Buffett's 2004 release License to Chill. Following the reissues of Still Bill on January 28, 2003, and Just As I Am on March 8, 2005, there was speculation of previously unreleased material being issued as a new album. In 2006, Sony gave back to Withers his previously unreleased tapes. In 2007, "Lean on Me" was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. At the 56th Annual Grammy Awards in 2014, Bill Withers: The Complete Sussex & Columbia Albums Collection, a nine-disc set featuring Withers's eight studio albums, as well as his live album Live at Carnegie Hall, received the Grammy Award for Best Historical Album (sharing the award with the Rolling Stones' Charlie Is My Darling – Ireland 1965). The award was presented to Leo Sacks, who produced the collection, and the mastering engineers, Mark Wilder, Joseph M. Palmaccio, and Tom Ruff. In 2005, Withers was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame. In April 2015, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame by Stevie Wonder. He described the honor as "an award of attrition" and said: "What few songs I wrote during my brief career, there ain't a genre that somebody didn't record them in. I'm not a virtuoso, but I was able to write songs that people could identify with. I don't think I've done bad for a guy from Slab Fork, West Virginia." Later that year, a tribute concert in his honor was held at Carnegie Hall featuring Aloe Blacc, Ed Sheeran, Dr. John, Michael McDonald, and Anthony Hamilton. The concert recreated Withers's 1973 concert album, Live at Carnegie Hall, along with some of his other material. Withers was in attendance and spoke briefly onstage. In February 2017, he made an appearance on Joy Reid's MSNBC show to talk about the refugee crisis as well as the political climate in America. After full-time music career Withers largely retired from his career in music in 1985. He pursued other work but occasionally performed guest vocals, tribute concert appearances, and similar activities. Legacy Withers was known for his "smooth" baritone vocals and "sumptuous" soul arrangements. He wrote some of the most covered songs of the 1970s, including "Lean on Me" and "Ain't No Sunshine". The former entered the Hot 100 chart through multiple versions, including Club Nouveau's 1987 cover, which made the composition one of nine songs to have led the chart via different acts. With "Lovely Day", he set the record for the longest sustained note on a chart hit on American charts, holding a high E for 18 seconds. Editors from The Guardian considered that Withers's songs are "some of the most beloved in the American songbook," citing, "'Ain't No Sunshine' is regarded as one of the all-time great breakup tracks, while 'Lean on Me', an ode to the supportive power of friendship..." For the same newspaper, Alex Petridis noticed "[he] laid pain and paranoia under his deceptively gentle songs, and retired early having conquered gospel, funk, blues, disco and more." In Rolling Stone, writer Andy Greene noted that several of his songs "are embedded in the culture and have been covered countless times." Writing for The New York Times, Giovanni Russonello considered Withers "[a] soulful singer with a gift for writing understated classics", adding, "the ultimate homespun hitmaker, he had an innate sense of what might make a song memorable, and little interest in excess attitude or accoutrements. Ultimately Withers reminded us that it’s the everyday that is the most meaningful: work, family, love, loss." A Billboard article considered that Withers "stands as one of R&B/soul music's most revered singer-songwriters." In the same magazine, writer Gail Mitchell acknowledged "Withers' legacy has flourished in the decades since, thanks to a cross-section of artists who have covered/sampled his songs or cited him as a major influence." Musician and music journalist Questlove referred to Withers's post-breakup 1974 album +'Justments as "a diary [...] [it] was a pre-reality-show look at his life. Keep in mind this was years before Marvin Gaye did it with Here, My Dear." The Beach Boys' Brian Wilson deemed him "a songwriter's songwriter". Musicians Sade, D'Angelo, Justin Timberlake, John Legend and Ed Sheeran have credited Withers as a music inspiration. Personal life and death Withers married actress Denise Nicholas in 1973 during her stint on the sitcom Room 222. They divorced in 1974. In 1976, Withers married Marcia Johnson. They had two children, Todd and Kori. Marcia eventually assumed the direct management of his publishing companies, in which his children also became involved as they became adults. Withers died from heart complications in a Los Angeles hospital on March 30, 2020, at age 81; his family announced his death four days later. He is interred in the Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills). Discography Studio albums Just as I Am (1971) Still Bill (1972) +'Justments (1974) Making Music (1975) Naked & Warm (1976) Menagerie (1977) 'Bout Love (1978) Watching You, Watching Me (1985) Live albums Live at Carnegie Hall (1973) Compilation albums The Best of Bill Withers (1975) The Best of Bill Withers (1980) Bill Withers' Greatest Hits (1981) Lean on Me: The Best of Bill Withers (1994) The Best of Bill Withers: Lean on Me (2000) The Ultimate Bill Withers Collection (2000) Lovely Day: The Very Best of Bill Withers (2005) Ain't No Sunshine: The Best of Bill Withers (2008) Playlist: The Very Best of Bill Withers (2009) The Essential Bill Withers (2013) Accolades Grammy Awards The Grammy Awards are bestowed by The Recording Academy. Withers has won three Grammys from nine nominations. \|- \| rowspan="3"\| 1971 \| Bill Withers \| Best New Artist \| \|- \| rowspan="2"\| "Ain't No Sunshine" \| Best Pop Vocal Performance Male \| \|- \| Best Rhythm & Blues Song \| \|- \| rowspan="4"\| 1981 \| rowspan="4"\| "Just the Two of Us" \| Record of the Year \| \|- \| Song of the Year \| \|- \| Best Pop Vocal Performance Male \| \|- \| Best Rhythm & Blues Song \| \|- \| 1984 \| "In the Name of Love" (featuring Ralph MacDonald) \| Best Male R&B Vocal Performance \| \|- \| 1987 \| "Lean on Me" \| Best Rhythm & Blues Song \| \|- Honors 2005: Inducted into Songwriters Hall of Fame 2006: ASCAP Rhythm & Soul Heritage award 2007: Inducted into West Virginia Music Hall of Fame 2015: Inducted into Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 2017: Honorary degree from West Virginia University References External links Biography at Soultracks.com 1938 births 2020 deaths 20th-century American guitarists 20th-century American keyboardists 20th-century 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